Full text of "The Encyclopaedia Britannica : a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information"

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THE 



ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA 



ELEVENTH EDITION 



FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 17681771. 

SECOND ten 17771784. 

THIRD eighteen 17881797. 

FOURTH twenty 1801 1810. 

FIFTH twenty 18151817. 

SIXTH twenty 18231824. 

SEVENTH twenty-one 18301842. 

EIGHTH twenty-two 18531860. 

NINTH , twenty-five 18751889. 

TENTH ninth edition and eleven 

supplementary volumes, 1902 1903. 

ELEVENTH published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911. 



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THE 



ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA 



DICTIONARY 

OF 

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL 

INFORMATION 



ELEVENTH EDITION 



VOLUME XII 

GICHTEL to HARMONIUM 




Cambridge, England: 

at the University Press 

New York, 35 West 32nd Street 
1910 



AEL5- 



Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, 

by 
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company 



INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL 

CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE 

ARTICLES IN THE VOLUME SO SIGNED. 



A. A. R.* ARTHUR ALCOCK RAMBAUT, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. f 

Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin < Grant, Robert. 
and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1892-1897. 

A. C. Se. ALBERT CHARLES SEWARD, M.A., F.R.S. 

Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel -( Gymnosperms. 
College, Cambridge. President of the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union, 1910. I 

A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.Hisi.S. f 

Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the University I 
of London. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901. ] 
Author of England under the Protector Somerset Life of Thomas Cranmer ; &c. 

A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. jGrynaeus, Simon; 

Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. Haetzer. 

A. G. B.* HON. ARCHIBALD GRAEME BELL, M.lNST.C.E. f 

Director of Public Works and Inspector of Mines, Trinidad. Member of Executive -j Guiana. 
and Legislative Councils, Inst.C.E. 

A. H.-S. SIR A. HouTUM-ScmNDLER, C.I.E. J Gilan; Ramadan. 

General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. I 

A. He. ARTHUR HERVEY. [ 

Formerly Musical Critic to Morning Post and Vanity Fair. Author of Masters -I Gounod. 
of French Music ; French Music in the XIX. Century. l_ 

A. H. S. REV. A. H. SAYCE, D.D. f Grammar- Gvees 

See the biographical article, SAYCE, A. H. \ *"" 

A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. f 

Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent College, J riaggnt ({ j,,, r f\ 
Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of Mysore ] 
Educational Service. I 

A. J. H. ALFRED JAMES HIPKINS. 

Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of Royal College of Music. Member .. 

of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition, 1885; of the Vienna H Harmonium (in part). 

Exhibition, 1892 ; and of the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Author of Musical Instruments ; 

A Description and History of the Pianoforte ; &c. L 

A. L. ANDREW LANG. /Gurney, Edmund. 

See the biographical article, LANG, ANDREW. ^ 

ES MARY CLERKE. 

See the biographical article, CLERKE, A. M. 



A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. J" Wal i ... 

\ n 



A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. 



See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFRED. 



A. Ne. ALEXANDER NESBITT, F.S.A. 



Goatsucker; Godwit; 
Golden-eye; 
Goldfinch; Goose; 
Gos-Hawk; Crackle; 
Grebe; Greenfinch; 
Greenshank; Grosbeak; 
Grouse; Guacharo; Guan; 
Guillemot; Guinea-Fowl; 
Gull, Hammer-Kop. 



XANDER NESBITT, F.S.A. f rl . , 

Author of the Introduction to A Descriptive Catalogue of the Glass Vessels in South { ula A s> Mtstory o 
Kensington Museum. [ Manufacture (in part). 

A. S. C. ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B. f 

Assistant Secretary for Art, Board of Education, 1900-1908. Author of Ancient J. Gold and Silver Thread. 
Needle Point and Pillow Lace ; Embroidery and Lace ; Ornament in European Silks ; &c. [ 

A. Sy. ARTHUR SYMONS. f Goncourt, De; 

See the biographical article, SYMONS, A. \ Hardy, Thomas. 

1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. 

V 

1931 



vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f Godfrey of Viterbo; 

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \ Golden Bull; Habsburg. 

A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M. A., LL.B. f Ground R en *. 

Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the -I , ' 

Laws of England. { Handwriting. 

A. W. W. ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LL.D., Lrrr.D. J -,, , ,, 

See the biographical article, WARD, A. W. ne> ' 3rt> 

C. P. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Grand Alliance, War of the; 

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal < Grant, Ulysses S. (in part); 
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. j Great Rebellion. 

C. Gr. CHARLES GROSS, A.M., PH.D., LL.D. (1857-1909). I" 

Professor of History at Harvard University, 1888-1909. Author of The GUd-( Gilds. 
Merchant; Sources and Literature of English History; &c. L 

C. H.* SIR C. HOLROYD. J ,.,.._ .,, v - 

See the biographical article, HOLROYD, SIR C. \ tt en> s r - u 

C. H. C. CHARLES H. COOTE. f n .. . ,. ,. 

Formerly of Map Department, British Museum. ^HaKluyt (.in part). 

C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. f Gregory Pokes VIII. to 

Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member < J?.. "_ ., " 
of the American Historical Association. L ' uulDerl - 

C. J. L. SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D (Edin.) f 

Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of King's College, . 
London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, 1889-1894. -i ' 
Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of Translations 
of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c. 

C. L.* CHARLES LAPWORTH, M.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. f 

Professor of Geology and Physiography in the University of Birmingham. Editor -j Graptolites. 
of Monograph on British Graptolites, Palaeontographical Society, 1900-1908. 

TGlendower, Owen; 
C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE K.INGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S., F.S.A. Gloucester, Humphrey, 

Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. J Duke Of; 
Editor of Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London. | ij a ii am RjchoD' 

Hardy ng, John. 

C. M. CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.Tn. r 

Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik < Gregory VII. 
im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstthums ; &c. 

C. Mi. CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. f 

Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- J Gundulich 

potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James', 1895-1900 and 1902- 1 

1903. 

C. M. W. SIR CHARLES MOORE WATSON, K.C.M.G., C.B. r 

Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy-Inspector-General of Fortifications, 1896-1902. -< Gordon, General. 
Served under General Gordon in the Soudan, 1874-1875. 

C. Pf. CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES-L. r Greeorv st O f T 0urs . 

. Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author -\ t * c . 

of Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux. [ Gunther of Schwarzburg. 

C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HisT.S. f" 

Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow Gomez; Hakluyt 
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. -< / j, ar i\ 
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of part). 

Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. 

C. We. CECIL WEATHERLY. f rrftfmn 

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. 1 ura 

C. W. E. CHARLES WILLIAM ELIOT. Jr. & 

See the biographical article, ELIOT, C. W. \ uray ' Asa> 

D. C. To. REV. DUNCAN CROOKES TOVEY, M. A. / fipav Thnma<! 

Editor of The Letters of Thomas Gray ; &c. \ W 

*ALD FRANCIS TOVEY. f" 

Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, Thel ( 
Goldberg Variations, and analysis of many other classical works. 

D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. 

Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. .. 
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and H Haucarnassus. 
1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens, 
1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. [ 

f Gondomar, Count; 

D. H. DAVID HANNAY. r . A i lian ,,p ^ar of 

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Navy, 1 u , ' w ar . OI 

1217-1688; Life of Emilia Castelar;&c. the: Naval Operations; 

I Guichen; Hamilton, Emma. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vii 

D. LI. T. DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS. J 

Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and > Glamorganshire; Gower. 
Rhondda. I 

i. DUGALD 

Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of Constructive i 



D. Mn. REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. J cias, j onn; 

Minister of South Grove C ~ 

Congregational Ideals ; &c. 



D. M. W. SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. 

Extra Groom-in- Waiting to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign Depart- 
ment of The Times, 1891-1899. Member of Institut de Droit International and ! Giers; Gorchakov 
Officier de 1'Instruction Publique of France. Joint-editor of new volumes (loth 
edition) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia ; Egypt and the Egyptian 
Question; The Web of Empire; &c. 

E. A. F. EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D. J Goths (in 

See the biographical article, FREEMAN, E. A. \ 

E. A. J. E. ALFRED JONES. 

Author of Old English Gold Plate; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man; Old Silver 

Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England; Illustrated Catalogue ~\ Golden Rose (in part). 

of Leopold de Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate ; A Private Catalogue of The Royal 

Plate at Windsor Castle; &c. 

E. B.* ERNEST CHARLES FRANCOIS BABELON. f 

Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the department of Medals and 
Antiquities at the Bibhotheque Nationale. Member of the Academic des Inscrip- J JJadrumetum 
tions et Belles Lettres, Pans. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of | 
Descriptions historiques des monnaies de la republique romaine ; Traites des monnaies 
grecques et romaines ; Catalogue des camees de la bibliotheque nationale. [ 

E. Br. ERNEST BARKER, M.A. f 

Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History at St John's College, Oxford. Formerly J. Godfrey of Bouillon. 
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895. 

E. C. B. RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.Lrrr. (Dublin). [Gilbert of Sempringham, 

Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausaic History of Palladius "1 St; 

in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi. [ Grandmontines; Groot. 

E. C. Sp. REV. EDWARD CLARKE SPICER, M.A. J 

New College, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1900. \_ Glacier. 

E. F. G. EDWIN FRANCIS GAY, PH.D. |~ 

Professor of Economics and Dean of the Graduate School of Business Administration, < Hanseatic League. 
Harvard University. {_ 

E. F. S. D. LADY DILKE. / 

See the biographical article, DILKE, SIR C. W., Bart. L 

E.G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. J 

See the biographical article, GOSSE, E. \ "Dome. 

E. H. P. EDWARD HENRY PALMER, M.A. / 

See the biographical article, PALMER, E. H. 1 Haflz. 

E. J. P. EDWARD JOHN PAYNE, M.A. (1844-1904). r 

Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Editor of the Select Works of \ _ . 

Burke. Author of History of European Colonies; History of the New World called] Grey, 2nd 
America; The Colonies, in the " British Citizen " Series; &c. 

Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.Lirr. (Oxon), LL.D. (Chicago). [ 

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte < Gotarzes. 
des Alterthums ; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens ; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme. [ 

E. M. W. REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A. . /Greece: History, Ancient, 

Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. 1 i o j^fi B c 

E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. f 

Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, 

Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late J Goitre* Haemorrhoids 

Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author I 

of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. 

E. Pr. EDGAR PRESTAGE. r 

Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. _ ^, __ 

Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Commen- J Goes, Damiao De; 
dador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal 1 Gonzaga. 
Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Editor of Letters of a 
Portuguese Nun; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea; &c. 

E. R. LORD LOCHEE OF GOWRIE (Edmund Robertson), P.C., LL.D., K.C. f 

Civil Lord of the Admiralty, 1892-1895. Secretary to the Admiralty, 1905-1908. -s Hallam, Henry. 
M.P. for Dundee, 1885-1908. Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. 

E. S. G. EDWIN STEPHEN GOODRICH, M.A., F.R.S. r 

Fellow and Librarian of Merton College, Oxford. Aldrichian Demonstrator of -{ Haplodrili. 
Comparative Anatomy, University Museum, Oxford. 

F. C. C. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. (Giessen). r 

Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. \ Gregory the Illuminator. 
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c. |_ 

F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. f Goths (in part) 

Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. \ 



viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

F. G. S. F. G. STEPHENS. f 

Formerly Art Critic of the Athenaeum. Author of Artists at Home; George Cruik- J riifco^ c:. TI.- 
shank; Memorials of W. Mulready; French and Flemish Pictures, Sir E. Landseer;} uucert > bir Jol ". 
T. C. Hook,RA.;&c. I 

F. H. D. REV. FREDERICK HOMES DUDDEN, D.D. f 

Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer in Theology, Lincoln College, Oxford. Author of "| Gregory I. 
Gregory the Great, his Place in History and Thought; &c. L 

F. H. H. FRANKLIN HENRY HOOPER. f T , 

Assistant Editor of the Century Dictionary. \ Hancock, Winfleld Scott. 

F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. f 

Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of J Graham's Dyke 
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Monographs on ] 
Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c. 

F. H. FRIDTJOF NANSEN. / Greenland 

See the biographical article, NANSEN, FRIDTJOF. \ * 

F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. f 

Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ GoW Coast. 

F. S. P. FRANCIS SAMUEL PHILBRICK, A.M., PH.D. r 

Formerly Scholar and Resident Fellow of Harvard University. Member of 4 nomiitnti AI ,J.. 
American Historical Association. \ Hamilton Alexander. 

F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f 

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. -s Gypsum; Haematite. 
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. (. 

G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. (Dublin). 

Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of 

India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice- President -s Gujarat! and Rajasthani. 

of the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author 

of The Languages of India ; &c. 

G. C. M. GEORGE CAMPBELL MACAULAY, M.A. [" 

Lecturer in English in the University of Cambridge. Formerly Professor of English J rnwnr Jnhn 
Language and Literature in the University of Wales. Editor of the Works of John ] 
Gower; &c. L 

G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, Lrrr.D. [" 

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard J GreCO, EL 
Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of new edition of 1 
Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. L 

G. F. Z. GEORGE FREDERICK ZIMMER, A.M.lNST.C.E. /_ 

Author of Mechanical Handling of Material. \ Canaries. 

G. G. SIR ALFRED GEORGE GREENHILL, M.A., F.R.S. 

Formerly Professor of Mathematics in the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Examiner 

in the University of Wales. Member of the Aeronautical Committee. Authors Gyroscope and Gyrostat, 
of Notes on Dynamics; Hydrostatics; Differential and Integral Calculus, with Applica- 
tions; &c. 

G. Sn. GRANT SHOWERMAN, A.M., PH.D. r 

Professor of Latin in the University of Wisconsin. Member of the Archaeological J front Mnthar nf 
Institute of America. Member of American Philological Association. Author of 1 * " 

With the Professor; The Great Mother of the Gods; &c. I 

G. S. C. SIR GEORGE SYDENHAM CLARKE, G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., F.R.S. ( 

Governor of Bombay. Author of Imperial Defence; Russia's Great Sea Power -A Greco-Turkish War, 1897. 
The Last Great Naval War; &c. L 

G. W. E. R. RT. HON. GEORGE WILLIAM ERSKINE RUSSELL, P.C., M.A., LL.D. f 

Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department, 1894-1895; for India, 1892- J Gladstone W E 
1894. M.P. for Aylesbury, 1880-1885; for North Beds., 1892-1895. Author of] 
Life of W. E. Gladstone ; Collections and Recollections ; &c. 

G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. f H5 H' Khalifa; HamadhaHi; 

Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old ~] HandanT; Hammad 
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. [ ar-Rawiya; Hariri. 

H. A. de C. HENRY ANSELM DE COLYAR, K.C. J _ 

Author of The Law of Guarantees and of Principal and Surety; &c. \ "Uarantee. 

H. B. Wo. HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. f 

Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales. Presi- 4 Haidinger, W. K. 
dent, Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908. [ 

f Goschen, 1st Viscount; 

H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. Granville, 2nd Earl; 

Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the Ilth edition of J Hamilton, Alexander 
the Encyclopaedia Britannica; co-editor of the loth edition. /j n j, ar f\. 

( Harcourt, Sir William. 
H. De. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S. J. r 

Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecta, Bollandiana J Giles St' Haeiologv 
and Acla sanctorum. 

H. G. H. HORATIO GORDON HUTCHINSON. 

Amateur Golf Champion, 1886-1887. Author of Hints on Golf; Golf (Badminton J Golf. 
Library) ; Book of Golf and Golfers; &c. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

H. J. P. HARRY TAMES POWELL, F.C.S. 

Of Messrs James Powell & Sons, Whitefriars Glass Works, London. Member of J 
Committee of six appointed by Board of Education to prepare the scheme for the re- "j Glass. 
arrangement of the Art Collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum. Author 
of Glass Making ; &c. I 

H. Lb. HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 

Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly Fellow and 

Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council of Royal "j Harmonic Analysis. 

Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President ot London Mathematical 

Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics; &c. 

H. L. H. HARRIET L. HENNESSV, L.R.C.S.I., L.R.C.P.I., M.D. (Brux.) Gynaecology. 

H. M. C. HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. J _ , .. . , 

Librarian and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge. Author of Studies on Anglo- 1 Golns. Gothic Language. 
Saxon Institutions. 

H. M. Wo. HAROLD MELLOR WOODCOCK, D.Sc. 



Assistant to the Professor of Proto-Zoology, London University. Fellow of J n rfi o. ar ina<:- 
University College, London Author of Haemoflagellates in Sir E. Ray Lankes- 1 ure S am 
ter's Treatise of Zoology, and of various scientific papers 

H. R. HENRY REEVE, D.C.L. f Guizot i in *.,,, 

See the biographical article, REEVE, HENRY. \ t " ul ' " f art >' 

H. Sw. HENRY SWEET, M.A., PH.D., LL.D. f 

University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford. Member of the Academies of Munich, J Grimm, J. L. C.; 
Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author of A History of English Sounds since 1 Grimm, Wilhelm Carl. 
the Earliest Period ; A Handbook of Phonetics ; &c. I 

H. S.-K. SIR HENRY SETON-KARR, C.M.G., M.A. /Gun 

M.P. for St. Helen's, 1885-1906. Author of My Sporting Holidays; &c. \ 

H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f Gilbert, Foliot; 

Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, \ Gloucester, Robert, Earl of; 
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. [ Grosseteste. 

H. W. R.* REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. f 

Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, J 
Oxford University, 1901. Author of Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline \ 
Anthropology (in Mansfield College Essays); &c. I 

LA. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. fGraetz; Habdala; 

Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, J Halakha' Halevi' 

Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera- \ 

lure; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. I Haptara; Harizi. 

J. A. P. M. JOHN ALEXANDER FULLER MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A. f 

Musical Critic of The Times. Author of Life of Schumann ; The Musician's Pilgrim- J - _. 

age; Masters of German Music; English Music in the Nineteenth Century; The Age] rove > &ir 
of Bach and Handel. Editor of new edition of Grove's Dictionary of Music; &c. L 

J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. f Glacial Period- 

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of -! , 
The Geology cf Building Stones. [ Greensand. 

J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D. f 

See the biographical article, SYMONDS, J. A. ]_ Guanni. 

J. Bl. JAMES BLYTH, M.A., LL.D. f 

Formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy, Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical 1 Graduation. 
College. Editor of Ferguson's Electricity. {_ 

J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. f 

Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., King's College, J Glazing. 
London. Member of Society of Architects, Institute of Junior Engineers, Quantity 1 
Surveyors' Association. Author of Quantities. I 

J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f Greece: Geography and 

King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J History: Modern; 
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1 Greek Literature: HI. 
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. [_ Modern 

J. E. S.* JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A., Lnr.D., LL.D. r 

Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's College, Cam- J Greek Law 
bridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of History of Classical Scholar- \ 
ship; &c. (_ 

J. Fi. JOHN FISKE. / r c 

See the biographical article, FISKE, J. \ Urant ' UIySS 

J. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. C 

Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College. -| Gordium, 
Craven Fellow (Oxford), 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. 

J. G. R. JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. f 

Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. Author of J r/wfc. r-;n n o 
History of German Literature; Schiller after a Century; &c. Editor of the Modern \ ' urm P arzer - 

Language Journal. [ 

J. H. F. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. /Gracchus; Gratian; 



Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. \ Hadrian (in part). 



I! 



J. H. H. 



Joint author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical -| Gobi. 
Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. {. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

JOHN HENRY HESSELS, M.A. f _ IM . -,_.. 

Author of Gutenberg: an Historical Investigation. \ Gloss ' Gutenberg. 

J. H. P. JOHN HENRY POYNTING, D.Sc., F.R.S. f 

Professor of Physics and Dean of the Faculty of Science in the University of Bir- J Gravitation (in part) 
mingham. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Joint-author of Text- I 
Book of Physics. 

J. HI. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lrrr.D. 

Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. J p ni , r p- a i]H Ra-nn 
Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic Studies; The Development of the European } 
Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c. 

J. L. W. Miss JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON. J Grail, The Holy; 

Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory. \ Guenevere. 

J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. f Grote; 

Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London ( Hamilton, Sir William, 
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. [ Bart, (in part) ; Harem. 

J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. fciauconite; Gneiss; 

Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J /;,,,!* Granulite* 
burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby I " , ' 
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. L Gravel; Greisen; Greywacke 

J. T. Be. JOHN T. BEALBY. 

Joint author of 
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through 

{ Golden Rose (in part) ; 
3. T. S.* JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. J Qoliad; 

Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Guizot (in part) 

K. G. J. KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE. f 

Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. -J Goa. 
Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors. I 

K. Kr. KARL KRUMBACHER. f Greek Literature: 

See the biographical article, KRUMBACHER, CARL. \_ II. Byzantine. 

f Glockenspiel; Gong; 

K. S. Miss KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. Guitar; Guitar Fiddle; 

Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the < Gusla* Harmonica* 
Orchestra; &c. Harm'onichord; 

I Harmonium (in part). 

L. D.* Louis DUCHESNE. r 

See the biographical article, DUCHESNE, L. M. O. | Gregory: Popes, II.-VI. 

L. F. D. LEWIS FOREMAN DAY, F.S.A. (1845-1909). r 

Formerly Vice-President of the Society of Arts. Past Master of the Art Workers' -> Glass, Stained. 
Gild. Author of Windows, a book about Stained Glass ; &c. 

L. F. V.-H. LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.lNST.C.E. (1839-1907). f" 

Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London. Author J Harbour, 
of Rivers and Canals; Harbours and Docks; Civil Engineering as applied in Con- | 
struclion; &c. 

L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f Goniometer; Gothite; 

Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar J Graphite (in part) 1 
of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the ] . ,,* 
Mineralogical Magazine. L WeenocKiie. 

L. R. P. LEWIS RICHARD FARNELL, M.A., Lnr.D. [" 

Fellow and Senior Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford ; University Lecturer in Classical j Greek Religion. 
Archaeology; Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion. Author of Cults of the\ 
Greek States ; Evolution of Religion. I 

M. LORD MACAULAY. /Goldsmith Oliver 

See the biographical article, MACAULAY, T. B. M., Baron. \ u 

M. G. MOSES CASTER, PH.D. f 

Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist 
Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantines Gipsies. 
Literature, l886and 1891. President, Folk-lore Society of England. Vice-President, 
Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature ; &c. [ 

M. H. S. MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A. 

Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter- 
national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco- J Gilbert, Alfred; 
British Exhibition, London. Author of History of "Punch"; British Portrait] Greenaway Kate 
Painting to the opening of 'the Nineteenth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; 
British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day ; Henriette Ronner ; &c. 

M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, JUN., PH.D. Cnn.. .<h WT>-<. nf- 

Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Author of J **"* sn ' * 
Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. [ Gula. 

M. H. MAX ARTHUR MACAULIFFE. r 

Formerly Divisional Judge in the Punjab. Author of The Sikl: Religion, its Gurus, J Q ran t)j 
Sacred Writings and Authors; &c. Editor of Life of Guru Nanak, in the Punjabi 1 
language. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi 

M. N. T. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. J 

Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. ~\ Gythium. 

Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. 

rGreece: History: 
M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. 146 B.C. 1800 AJ>.; 

Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming- 1 Hamilcar Barca; 

ham University, 1905-1908. [ Hannibal. 

M. P. MARK PATTISON. _f Grotius 

See the biographical article, PATTISON, MARK. \ 

M. P.* LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. f _ _, _. 

Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of the Institute -j GOUmer; Harcourt. 
of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). 

0. Ba. OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f 

Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the "i Girdle. 
Honourable Society of the Baronetage. 

P. A. PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. 

Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, -j GonzalO 00 Bereeo. 
Paris. Author of Les Idees morales chez les helerodoxes latines au debut du XIHe siecle. I 

P. A. A. PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., Doc. JURIS. 

New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von Gneist's History -j Gneist. 
of the English Constitution. I 



P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. J 

Magdalen College, Oxford. Halifax, 1st Marquess of; 

I Hamilton, 1st Duke of. 

P. G. PERCY GARDNER, M.A. f (j ree ]j Art 

See the biographical article, GARDNER, PERCY. \ 

P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. f 

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J Greek Language; 
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- ] H. 
logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology. I 

P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. f 

Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. { Hals, Frans. 
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. I 

P. G.T. PETER GUTHRIE TAIT, LL.D. f Hamilton, Sir William 

See the biographical article, TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE. "^ Rowan. 

P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. r 

Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J 



. 

of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. \_ 

P. McC. PRIMROSE McCoNNELL, F.G.S. f r . *,_!,,_, 

Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Author of Diary of a Working Farmer; &c. j brass ana Urassl 

R. A. W. COLONEL ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E. r 

Formerly H. M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimitation. Served with Tirah J 
Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898, and on the Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, 1 
Pamirs, 1895. L 

R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. f f;n ea j. 

St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- 4 _ 
tion Fund. 1 Goshen. 

R. C. J. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, L.L.D., D.C.L. J Greek Literature: 

See the biographical article, JEBB, SIR R. C. "i I Ancient 

Cowrie, 3rd Earl of; 
R. J. M. RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. Gratton, Henry; 



Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's . 
Gazette, London. 



Green Ribbon Club; 
Gymnastics; 



Harcourt, 1st Viscount; 

Hardwicke, 1st Earl of. 

R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. r Giraffe- Glutton- 

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1871-1882. Author of ' 
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer of\ X , , 
all Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. [Gorilla; Hamster; Hare. 

Golitsuin, Boris, Dmitry, 

and Vasily; 
Golovin, Count; 
Golovkin, Count; 
Gortz, Baron von; 
Griflenfeldt, Count; 
Gustavus I., and IV. 
Gyllenstjerna; 
. Hall, C. C. 

R. S. T. RALPH STOCKMAN TARR. f QJ^^ Canyon. 

Professor of Physical Geography. Cornell University. \ 



R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). 



Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia, the 
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, 
1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

R. We. RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M. (Princeton). 

Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of The Elegies of~\ Great Awakening. 
Maximianus; &c. 

S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. 

Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and 
formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and J jjjj pon 
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscrip- | ulaeon< 
lions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament 
History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. I 

S.BI. SIGFUS .BLONDAL ( Hallgrimsson. 

Librarian of the University of Copenhagen. [ 

S. C. SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D. -fciorgione; Giotto. 

See the biographical article, COLVIN, SIDNEY. 

St. C. VISCOUNT ST. CYRES. f Guyon, Madame. 

See the biographical article, IDDESLEIGH, IST EARL OF. \ 

S. N. SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.Sc. /Gravitation (in part). 

See the biographical article, NEWCOMB, SIMON. \ 

T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A. f Girgenti; Gnatia; 

Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Corresponding Member I Grottaf errata; 
of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ ~\ rr imontnm- 'rnhhin. 
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of The Classical Topo- " . 
graphy of the Roman Campagna ; &c. [ Hadria; Halaesa. 

T. A. J. THOMAS ATHOL JOYCE, M.A. f 

Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec., Royal -j Hamitic Races (I.). 
Anthropological Institute. I 

T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. f 

Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council, 
of the Congo Free State. Officer of the. Legion of Honour. Author of Problems 
of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. I 

T. E. H. THOMAS ERSKINE HOLLAND, K.C., D.C.L., LL.D. 

Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor 

of International Law in the University of Oxford, 1874-1910. Bencher of Lincoln's J gaJJ William E. 

Inn. Author of Studies in International Law; The Elements of Jurisprudence; 1 

Alberici Gentilis dejure belli; The Laws of War on Land; Neutral Duties in a Maritime 

War; &c. I 

T. P. C. THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. / Gregory: Popes, 

Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A. \ XIII. XV. 

T. H. H.* SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.G.S. f 

Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-] Gilgit; 
1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the Persa- | Hari-Rud. 
Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gates of India; &c. I 

T. K. THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D. Juj- i- ,\ 

Author of A n Inquiry into Socialism; Primer of Socialism; &c. \ Haanan IM part). 

T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. 

Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University of London. 

Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Formerly Assistant Editor of Dictionary of 4 Gilbert, Sir W. S. 

National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. ; Joint-author | 

of The Bookman History of English Literature. |_ 

V. H. S. REV. VINCENT HENRY STANTON, M.A., D.D. ( 

Ely Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Canon of Ely and Fellow J 
of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of The Gospels as Historical Documents ; 1 
The Jewish and the Christian Messiahs ; &c. \, 

W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. (Bern). 
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's 
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of 
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in 



Glarus; Goldast Ab 

Haiminsfeld; 
Grasse; Grenoble; 
Grindelwald; Grisons; 



History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c. Gruner. G. S.; Gruyere. 

W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. f Girondists; Goethe: 

Formerly TLxhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, -! Descendants of; 

Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. [ Greek Independence, War. ol. 

W. BO. WlLHELM BOUSSET, D.TH. f 

Professor of New Testament Exegesis' in the University of Gottingen. Author of -{ Gnosticism. 
Das Wesen der Religion; The Antichrist Legend; &c. 

W. Bu. WILLIAM BURNSIDE, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. 

Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Hon. Fellow of-j Groups, Theory ol. 
Pembroke College, Cambridge. Author of The Theory of Groups of Finite Order. 

W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. 

Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, J Habeas Corpus; 
London. Auth ' 

(2 3 rd edition). 



London. Author of Craies on Statute Law. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading ] 

[ 



W. G. M. WALTER GEORGE MCMILLAN, F.C.S., M.I.M.E. (d. 1904). f 

Formerly Secretary of the Institute of Electrical Engineers and Lecturer on Metal- < Graphite (in part). 
lurgy, Mason College, Birmingham. Author of A Treatise on Electro- Metallurgy. [_ 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



Xlli 



W. Hu. 
W. H. Be. 

W. H. P.* 
W. J. F. 
W. McD. 
W. M. M. 

W. M. R. 
W. P. A 

W. P. R. 

W. R. 
W. Hi. 

W. Rn. 
W. R. D. 

W. R. E. H. 

W. R. S. 
W. R. S. R. 

W. W. R.* 



REV. WILLIAM HUNT, M.A., Lnr.D. 

President of Royal Historical Society, 1905-1909. Author of History of English J rroon I R 
Church, 597-1906; The Church of England in the Middle Ages; Political History of] ureen J - * 
England 1760-1801. 

WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (CANTAB.). f 

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London. J Corner; Ham. 
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth | 
College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; &c. I 

WILLIAM HENRY FAIRBROTHER, M.A., 

Formerly Fellow and Lecturer, Lincoln College, Oxford. Author of Philosophy^ Green, Thomas Hill. 



of Thomas Hitt Green. 

WILLIAM JUSTICE FORD (d. 1904). 

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Cambridge. 
College. 

WILLIAM MCDOUGALL, M.A. 



I 



Headmaster of Leamington -I Grace, W. G. 



.LI AM MCDOUGALL, M.A. 

Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Author of A Primer J. Hallucination. 
of Physiological Psychology; An Introduction to Social Psychology; &c. 



Author of Asien und 



Hamitic Races: 
II. Languages. 



W. MAX MULLER, PH.D. 

Professor of Exegesis in the R.E. Seminary, Philadelphia. 
Europa nach den Aegptischen Denkmdlern; &c. 

WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. /Giulio Romano; Gozzoli; 

See the biographical article, ROSSETTI, DANTE G. \ Guido Reni. 

LlEUT.-COLONEL WlLLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.lNST.C.E., F.R.G.S. I" 

Chief Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the ^ Great Lakes. 
Geographic Board of Canada. Past President of Canadian Society of Civil Engineers. I 

HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES. 

Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner _ . _ 

for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour and Justice, New! urev > " "Gorge. 

Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of The Long White Cloud: a History of New Zealand; 

&c. 



WHITELAW REID, LL.D. 

See the biographical article, REID, WHITELAW. 



: Greeley, Horace. 



WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.Sc. 

Professor of Archaeology, Cambridge University, and Brereton Reader in Classics. 

Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. -| Hallstatt. 

President of Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908. President of Anthropological 

Section, British Association, 1908. Author of The Early Age of Greece; &c. 

W. ROSENHAIN, D.SC. Jria ( ' * /I 

Superintendent of the Metallurgical Department, National Physical Laboratory. \ ura ' n f an >" 

WYNDHAM ROWLAND DUNSTAN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. f 

Director of the Imperial Institute. President of the International Association of Tropical -j Gutta-Percha. 
Agriculture. Member of the Advisory Committee for Tropical Agriculture, Colonial Office. l_ 

WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S. (EDIN.), F.C.S. f 

Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly.] C un Cotton 
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part-author of Valentin- ] Gunpowder. 
Hodgkinson's Practical Chemistry; &c. I 

WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. f Haggai (in part). 

See the biographical article, SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. \ 

WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN-RALSTON, M.A. f 

Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. Author of Russian \ Gogol. 
Folk Tales; &c. [ 

WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL. /Gregory XVI. 

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. \ 



PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES 



Gilding. 

Ginger. 

Gironde. 

Gladiators. 

Glasgow. 

Glastonbury. 

Gloucestershire. 

Glove. 

Glucose. 

Glue. 

Glycerin. 



Goat. 

Gold. 

Goldbeating. 

Gotland. 

Gourd. 

Government. 

Grain Trade, 

Granada. 

Grasses. 

Great Salt Lake. 



Griqualand East and 

West. 
Guanches. 
Guards. 
Guatemala. 

Guelphs and Ghibellines. 
Guiacum. 
Guillotine. 
Guise, House of 
Gum. 



Gwalior. 

Haddir.gtonshire. 

Hair. 

Haiti. 

Halo. 

Hamburg. 

Hamlet. 

Hampshire. 

Hampton Roads. 

Hanover. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA 



ELEVENTH EDITION 



VOLUME XII 



GICHTEL, JOHANN GEORG (1638-1710), German mystic, 
was born at Regensburg, where his father was a member of 
senate, on the I4th of March 1638. Having acquired at school 
an acquaintance with Greek, Hebrew, Syriac and even Arabic, 
he proceeded to Strassburg to study theology; but finding 
the theological prelections of J. S. Schmidt and P. J. Spener 
distasteful, he entered the faculty of law. He was admitted 
an advocate, first at Spires, and then at Regensburg; but 
having become acquainted with the baron Justinianus von 
Weltz (1621-1668), a Hungarian nobleman who cherished 
schemes for the reunion of Christendom and the conversion 
of the world, and having himself become acquainted with 
another world in dreams and visions, he abandoned all interest 
in his profession, and became an energetic promoter of the 
" Christerbauliche Jesusgesellschaft," or Christian Edification 
Society of Jesus. The movement in its beginnings provoked at 
least no active hostility; but when Gichtel began to attack the 
teaching of the Lutheran clergy and church, especially upon the 
fundamental doctrine of justification by faith, he exposed him- 
self to a prosecution which resulted in sentence of banishment 
and confiscation (1665). After many months of wandering and 
occasionally romantic adventure, he reached Holland in January 
1667, and settled at Zwolle, where he co-operated with Friedrich 
Breckling (1629-1711), who shared his views and aspirations. 
Having become involved in the troubles of this friend, Gichtel, 
after a period of imprisonment, was banished for a term of years 
from Zwolle, but finally in 1668 found a home in Amsterdam, 
where he made the acquaintance of Antoinette Bourignon 
(1616-1680), and in a state of poverty (which, however, never 
became destitution) lived out his strange life of visions and 
day-dreams, of prophecy and prayer. He became an ardent 
disciple of Jakob Boehme, whose works he published in 1682 
(Amsterdam, 2 vols.); but before the time of his death, on the 
2ist of January 1710, he had attracted to himself a small band 
of followers known as Gichtelians or Brethren of the Angels, who 
propagated certain views at which he had arrived independently 
of Boehme. Seeking ever to hear the authoritative voice of 
God within them, and endeavouring to attain to a life altogether 
free from carnal desires, like that of " the angels in heaven, who 
neither marry nor are given in marriage," they claimed to 
exercise a priesthood " after the order of Melchizedek," appeasing 
the wrath of God, and ransoming the souls of the lost by sufferings 
endured vicariously after the example of Christ. While, however, 
Boehme " desired to remain a faithful son of the Church," the 

xn. r 



Gichtelians became Separatists (cf. J. A. Dorner, History of 
Protestant Theology, ii. p. 185). 

Gichtel 's correspondence was published without his knowledge 
by Gottfried Arnold, a disciple, in 1701 (2 vols.), and again in 1708 
(3 vols.). It has been frequently reprinted under the title Theosophia 
practica. The seventh volume of the Berlin edition (1768) contains 
a notice of Gichtel's life. See also G. C. A. von Harless, Jakob 
Bohme und die Alchimisten (1870, 2nd ed. 1882); article in All- 
gemeine deutsche Biographic. 

GIDDINGS, JOSHUA REED (1795-1864), American statesman, 
prominent in the anti-slavery conflict, was born at Tioga Point, 
now Athens, Bradford county, Pennsylvania, on the 6th of 
October 1795. In 1806 his parents removed to Ashtabula 
county, Ohio, then sparsely settled and almost a wilderness. 
The son worked on his father's farm, and, though he received 
no systematic education, devoted much time to study and 
reading. For several years after 1814 he was a school teacher, 
but in February 1821 he was admitted to the Ohio bar and soon 
obtained a large practice, particularly in criminal cases. From 
1831 to 1837 he was in partnership with Benjamin F. Wade. 
He served in the lower house of the state legislature in 1826-1828, 
and from December 1838 until March 1859 was a member of 
the national House of Representatives, first as a Whig, then 
as a Free-soiler, and finally as a Republican. Recognizing that 
slavery was a state institution, with which the Federal govern- 
ment had no authority to interfere, he contended that slavery 
could only exist by a specific state enactment, that therefore 
slavery in the District of Columbia and in the Territories was un- 
lawful and should be abolished, that the coastwise slave-trade in 
vessels flying the national flag, like the international slave-trade, 
should be rigidly suppressed, and that Congress had no power to 
pass any act which in any way could be construed as a recognition 
of slavery as a national institution. His attitude in the so-called 
" Creole Case " attracted particular attention. In 1841 some 
slaves who were being carried in the brig " Creole " from 
Hampton Roads, Virginia, to New Orleans, revolted, killed the 
captain, gained possession of the vessel, and soon afterwards 
entered the British port of Nassau. Thereupon, according to 
British law, they became free. The minority who had taken an 
active part in the revolt were arrested on a charge of murder, 
and the others were liberated. Efforts were made by the United 
States government to recover the slaves, Daniel Webster, then 
secretary of state, asserting that on an American ship they were 
under the jurisdiction of the United States and that they were 
legally property. On the 2ist of March 1842, before the case 



GIDEON GIERS 



was settled, Giddings introduced in the House of Representatives 
a series of resolutions, in which he asserted that " in resuming 
their natural rights of personal liberty "the slaves " violated no law 
of the United States." For offering these resolutions Giddings 
was attacked with rancour, and was formally censured by the 
House. Thereupon he resigned, appealed to his constituents, 
and was immediately re-elected by a large majority. In 
1859 he was not renominated, and retired from Congress after 
a continuous service of more than twenty years. From 1861 
until his death, at Montreal, on the 27th of May 1864, he 
was U.S. consul-general in Canada. Giddings published a series 
of political essays signed " Pacificus " (1843); Speeches in 
Congress (1853); The Exiles of Florida (1858); and a History 
of the Rebellion: Its Authors and Causes (1864). 

See The Life of Joshua R. Giddfngs (Chicago, 1892), by his son-in- 
law, George Washington Julian (1817-1899), a Free-soil leader and a 
representative in Congress in 1 849-1 85 1 , a Republican representative 
in Congress in 1861-1871, a Liberal Republican in the campaign of 
1872, and afterwards a Democrat. 

GIDEON (in Hebrew, perhaps " hewer " or " warrior "), 
liberator, reformer and " judge " of Israel, was the son of Joash, 
of the Manassite clan of Abiezer, and had his home at Ophrah 
near Shechem. His name occurs in Heb. xi. 32, in a list of those 
who became heroes by faith; but, except in Judges vi.-viii., 
is not to be met with elsewhere in the Old Testament. He lived 
at a time when the nomad tribes of the south and east made 
inroads upon Israel, destroying all that they could not carry 
away. Two accounts of his deeds are preserved (see JUDGES). 
According to one (Judges vi. 11-24) Yahweh appeared under 
the holy tree which was in the possession of Joash and summoned 
Gideon to undertake, in dependence on supernatural direction 
and help, the work of liberating his country from its long oppres- 
sion, and, in token that he accepted the mission, he erected in 
Ophrah an altar which he called " Yahweh-Shalom " (Yahweh 
is peace). According to another account (vi. 25-32) Gideon was 
a great reformer who was commanded by Yahweh to destroy 
the altar of Baal belonging to his father and the asherah or 
sacred post by its side. The townsmen discovered the sacrilege 
and demanded his death. His father, who, as guardian of the 
sacred place, was priest of Baal, enjoined the men not to take 
up Baal's quarrel, for " if Baal be a god, let him contend (rib) for 
himself." Hence Gideon received the name Jerubbaal. 1 From 
this latter name appearing regularly in the older narrative 
(cf. ix.), and from the varying usage in vi.-viii., it has been held 
that stories of two distinct heroes (Gideon and Jerubbaal) have 
been fused in the complicated account which follows. 2 

The great gathering of the Midianites and their allies on the 
north side of the plain of Jezreel; the general muster first of 
Abiezer, then of all Manasseh, and lastly of the neighbouring 
tribes of Asher, Zebulun and Naphtali; the signs by which the 
wavering faith of Gideon was steadied; the methods by which 
an unwieldy mob was reduced to a small but trusty band of 
energetic and determined men; and the stratagem by which 
the vast army of Midian was surprised and routed by the handful 
of Israelites descending from " above Endor," are indicated 
fully in the narratives, and need not be detailed here. The 
difficulties in the account of the subsequent flight of the Midian- 
ites appear to have arisen from the composite character of 
the narratives, and there are signs that in one of them Gideon 
was accompanied only by his own clansmen (vi. 34). So, when 
the Midianites are put to flight, according to one representation, 
the Ephraimites are called out to intercept them, and the two 
chiefs, Oreb (" raven ") and Zeeb (" wolf "), in making for the 
fords of the Jordan, are slain at " the raven's rock" and " the 
wolf's press " respectively. As the sequel of this we are told 
that the Ephraimites quarrelled with Gideon because their 
assistance had not been invoked earlier, and their anger was 

1 " Baal contends " (or Jeru-baal, " Baal founds," cf. Jeru-el), 
but artificially explained in the narrative to mean " let Baal contend 
against him, ' or " let Baal contend for himself," . 31. In 2 Sam. 
xi. 21 he is called Jerubbesheth, in accordance with the custom 
explained in the article BAAL. 

2 See, on this, Cheyne, Ency. Bib. col. 1719 seq.; Ed. Meyer, Die 
Israeliten, pp. 482 seq. 



only appeased by his tactful reply (viii. 1-3; contrast xii. 1-6). 
The other narrative speaks of the pursuit of the Midianite chiefs 
Zebah and Zalmunna 3 across the northern end of Jordan, past 
Succoth and Penuel to the unidentified place Karkor. Having 
taken relentless vengeance on the men of Penuel and Succoth, 
who had shown a timid neutrality when the patriotic struggle 
was at its crisis, Gideon puts the two chiefs to death to avenge 
his brothers whom they had killed at Tabor. 4 The overthrow 
of Midian (cf. Is. ix. 4, x. 26; Ps. Ixxxiii. 9-12) induced " Israel" 
to offer Gideon the kingdom. It was refused out of religious 
scruples (viii. 22 seq.; cf. i Sam. viii. 7, x. 19, xii. 12, 17, 19), and 
the ephod idol which he set up at Ophrah in commemoration 
of the victory was regarded by a later editor (v. 27) as a cause 
of apostasy to the people and a snare to Gideon and his house; 
see, however, EPHOD. Gideon's achievements would naturally 
give him a more than merely local authority, and after his death 
the attempt was made by one of his sons to set himself up as 
chief (see ABIMELECH). 

See further JEWS, section I; and the literature to the book of 
Judges. (S. A. C.) 

GIEBEL, CHRISTOPH GOTTFRIED ANDREAS (1820-1881), 
German zoologist and palaeontologist, was born on the I3th of 
September 1820 at Quedlinburg in Saxony, and educated at 
the university of Halle, where he graduated Ph. D. in 1845. In 
1858 he became professor of zoology and director of the museum 
in the university of Halle. He died at Halle on the i4th of 
November 1881. His chief publications were Palaozoologie 
(1846); Fauna der Vonvelt (1847-1856); Deutschlands Petre- 
faclen (1852); Odontographie (1855); Lehrbuch der Zoologie 
(1857); Thesaurus ornithologiae (1872-1877). 

GIEN, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement 
in the department of Loiret, situated on the right bank of the 
Loire, 39 m. E.S.E. of Orleans by rail. Pop. (1906) 6325. Gien 
is a picturesque and interesting town and has many curious old 
houses. The Loire is here crossed by a stone bridge of twelve 
arches, built by Anne de Beaujeu, daughter of Louis XL, about 
the end of the isth century. Near it stands a statue of Ver- 
cingetorix. The principal building is the old castle used as a 
law-court, constructed of brick and stone arranged in geometrical 
patterns, and built in 1494 by Anne de Beaujeu. The church 
of St Pierre possesses a square tower dating from the end of the 
15th century. Porcelain is manufactured. 

GIERS, NICHOLAS KARLOVICH DE (1820-1895), Russian 
statesman, was born on the 2ist of May 1820. Like his pre- 
decessor, Prince Gorchakov, he was educated at the lyceum of 
Tsarskoye Selo, near St Petersburg, but his career was much less 
rapid, because he had no influential protectors, and was handi- 
capped by being a Protestant of Teutonic origin. At the age 
of eighteen he entered the service of the Eastern department 
of the ministry of foreign affairs, and spent more than twenty 
years in subordinate posts, chiefly in south-eastern Europe, 
until he was promoted in 1863 to the post of minister pleni- 
potentiary in Persia. Here he remained for six years, and, 
after serving as a minister in Switzerland and Sweden, he was 
appointed in 1875 director of the Eastern department and 
assistant minister for foreign affairs under Prince Gorchakov, 
whose niece he had married. No sooner had he entered on his 
new duties than .his great capacity for arduous work was put 
to a severe test. Besides events in central Asia, to which he 
had to devote much attention, the Herzegovinian insurrection 
had broken out, and he could perceive from secret official papers 
that the incident had far-reaching ramifications unknown to 
the general public. Soon this became apparent to all the world. 
While the Austrian officials in Dalmatia, with hardly a pretence 
of concealment, were assisting the insurgents, Russian volunteers 
were flocking to Servia with the connivance of the Russian and 
Austrian governments, and General Ignatiev, as ambassador in 

8 The names are vocalized to suggest the fanciful interpretations 
" victim " and " protection withheld." 

4 As the account of this has been lost and the narrative is concerned 
not with the plain of Jezreel but rather with Shechem, it has been 
inferred that the episode implies the existence of a distinct story 
wherein Gideon's pursuit is such an act of vengeance. 



GIESEBRECHT GIESELER 



Constantinople, was urging his government to take advantage 
of the palpable weakness of Turkey for bringing about a radical 
solution of the Eastern question. Prince Gorchakov did not want 
a radical solution involving a great European war, but he was too 
fond of ephemeral popularity to stem the current of popular 
excitement. Alexander II., personally averse from war, was 
not insensible to the patriotic enthusiasm, and halted between 
two opinions. M. de Giers was one of the few who gauged the 
situation accurately. As an official and a man of non-Russian 
extraction he had to be extremely reticent, but to his intimate 
friends he condemned severely the ignorance and light-hearted 
recklessness of those around him. The event justified his sombre 
previsions, but did not cure the recklessness of the so-called 
patriots. They wished to defy Europe in order to maintain 
intact the treaty of San Stefano, and again M. de Giers found 
himself in an unpopular minority. He had to remain in the back- 
ground, but all the influence he possessed was thrown into the 
scale of peace. His views, energetically supported by Count 
Shuvalov, finally prevailed, and the European congress assembled 
at Berlin. He was not present at the congress, and consequently 
escaped the popular odium for the concessions which Russia 
had to make to Great Britain and Austria. From that time he 
was practically minister of foreign affairs, for Prince Gorchakov 
was no longer capable of continued intellectual exertion, and 
lived mostly abroad. On the death of Alexander II. in 1881 it 
was generally expected that M. de Giers would be dismissed 
as deficient in Russian nationalist feeling, for Alexander III. 
was credited with strong anti-German Slavophil tendencies. 
In reality the young tsar had no intention of embarking on wild 
political adventures, and was fully determined not to let his hand 
be forced by men less cautious than himself. What he wanted 
was a minister of foreign affairs who would be at once vigilant 
and prudent, active and obedient, and who would relieve him 
from the trouble and worry of routine work while allowing him 
to control the main lines, and occasionally the details, of the 
national policy. M. de Giers was exactly what he wanted, 
and accordingly the tsar not only appointed him minister of 
foreign affairs on the retirement of Prince Gorchakov in 1882, 
but retained him to the end of his reign in 1894. In accordance 
with the desire of his august master, M. de Giers followed system- 
atically a pacific policy. Accepting as a. fait accompli the existence 
of the triple alliance, created by Bismarck for the purpose of 
resisting any aggressive action on the part of Russia and France, 
he sought to establish more friendly relations with the cabinets 
of Berlin, Vienna and Rome. To the advances of the French 
government he at first turned a deaf ear, but when the rapproche- 
ment between the two countries was effected with little or no 
co-operation on his part, he utilized it for restraining France and 
promoting Russian interests. He died on the 26th of January 
1895, soon after the accession of Nicholas II. (D. M. W.) 

GIESEBRECHT, WILHELM VON (1814-1889), German 
historian, was a son of Karl Giesebrecht (d. 1832), and a nephew 
of the poet Ludwig Giesebrecht (1792-1873). Born in Berlin 
on the sth of March 1814, he studied under Leopold von Ranke, 
and his first important work, Geschichte Ottos II., was contributed 
to Ranke's Jahrbilcher des deutschen Reichs unter dem siichsischen 
Hause (Berlin, 1837-1840). In 1841 he published his Jahrbucher 
des Kloslers Altaich, a reconstruction of the lost Annales Alta- 
henses, a medieval source of which fragments only were known 
to be extant, and these were obscured in other chronicles. The 
brilliance of this performance was shown in 1867, when a copy 
of the original chronicle was found, and it was seen that Giese- 
brecht's text was substantially correct. In the meantime he had 
been appointed Oberlehrer in the Joachimsthaler Gymnasium 
in Berlin; had paid a visit to Italy, and as a result of his re- 
searches there had published De litterarum sludiis apud Italos 
primis medii aevi secuUs (Berlin, 1845), a study upon the survival 
of culture in Italian cities during the middle ages, and also 
several critical essays upon the sources for the early history of 
the popes. In 1851 appeared his translation of the Historiae 
of Gregory of Tours, which is the standard German translation. 
Four years later appeared the first volume of his great work, 



Geschichte der deutschen Kaiseneit, the fifth volume of which 
was published in 1888. This work was the first in which the 
results of the scientific methods of research were thrown open to 
the world at large. Largeness of style and brilliance of portrayal 
were joined to an absolute mastery of the. sources in a way 
hitherto unachieved by any German historian. Yet later 
German historians have severely criticized his glorification of 
the imperial era with its Italian entanglements, in which the 
interests of Germany were sacrificed for idle glory. Giesebrech t's 
history, however, appeared when the new German empire was 
in the making, and became popular owing both to its patriotic 
tone and its intrinsic merits. In 1857 he went to Kdnigsberg as 
professor ordinarius, and in 1862 succeeded H. von Sybel as 
professor of history in the university of Munich. The Bavarian 
government honoured him in various ways, and he died at Munich 
on the 1 7th of December 1889. In addition to the works already 
mentioned, Giesebrecht published a good monograph on Arnold 
of Brescia (Munich, 1873), a collection of essays under the title 
Deutsche Reden (Munich, 1871), and was an active member 
of the group of scholars who took over the direction of the 
Monumenta Germaniae historica in 1875. In 1895 B. von 
Simson added a sixth volume to the Geschichte der deutschen 
Kaiserzeit, thus bringing the work down to the death of the 
emperor Frederick I. in 1190. 

See S. Riezler, Geddchtnisrede auf Wilhelm von Giesebrecht (Munich, 
1891); and Lord Acton in the English Historical Review, vol. v. 
(London, 1890). 

GIESELER, JOHANN KARL LUDWIG (1792-1854), German 
writer on church history, was born on the 3rd of March 1792 at 
Petershagen, near Minden, where his father, Georg Christof 
Friedrich, was preacher. In his tenth year he entered the 
orphanage at Halle, whence he duly passed to the university, 
his studies being interrupted, however, from October 1813 till 
the peace of 1815 by a period of military service, during which 
he was enrolled as a volunteer in a regiment of chasseurs. On 
the conclusion of peace (1815) he returned to Halle, and, having 
in 1817 taken his degree in philosophy, he in the same year 
became assistant head master (Conrector) in the Minden gym- 
nasium, and in 1818 was appointed director of the gymnasium 
at Cleves. Here he published his earliest work (Historisch- 
kritischer Versuch iiber die Entstehung u. die fruheslen Schicksale 
der schriftlichen Evangelien), a treatise which had considerable 
influence on subsequent investigations as to the origin of the 
gospels. In 1819 Gieseler was appointed a professor ordinarius 
in theology in the newly founded university of Bonn, where, 
besides lecturing on church history, he made important con- 
tributions to the literature of that subject in Ernst Rosenmiiller's 
Repertorium, K. F. Staudlin and H. G. Tschirner's Archiv, 
and in various university " programs." The first part of the 
first volume of his well-known Church History appeared in 1824. 
In 1831 he accepted a call to Gottingen as successor to J. G. 
Planck. He lectured on church history, the history of dogma, and 
dogmatic theology. In 1837 he was appointed a Consistorial- 
rath, and shortly afterwards was created a knight of the Guelphic 
order. He died on the 8th of July 1854. The fourth and fifth 
volumes of the Kirchengeschichte, embracing the period sub- 
sequent to 1814, were published posthumously in 1855 by E. R. 
Redepenning (1810-1883); and they were followed in 1856 by 
a Dogmengeschichte, which is sometimes reckoned as the sixth 
volume of the Church History. Among church historians 
Gieseler continues to hold a high place. Less vivid and pictur- 
esque in style than Karl Hase, conspicuously deficient in 
Neander's deep and sympathetic insight into the more spiritual 
forces by which church life is pervaded, he excels these and all 
other contemporaries in the fulness and accuracy of his informa- 
tion. His Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, with its copious 
references to original authorities, is of great value to the student : 
" Gieseler wished that each age should speak for itself, since 
only by this means can the peculiarity of its ideas be fully 
appreciated " (Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology, p. 284). 
The work, which has passed through several editions in Germany, 
has partially appeared also in two English translations. That 



GIESSEN GIFFORD, R. S. 



published in New York (Text Book of Ecclesiastical History, 
5 vols.) brings the work down to the peace of Westphalia, while 
that published in " Clark's Theological Library " (Compendium 
of Ecclesiastical History, Edinburgh, 5 vols.) closes with the 
beginning of the Reformation. Gieseler was not only a devoted 
student but also an energetic man of business. He frequently 
held the office of pro-rector of the university, and did much 
useful work as a member of several of its committees. 

GIESSEN, a town of Germany, capital of the province, of 
Upper Hesse, in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, is situated 
in a beautiful and fruitful valley at the confluence of the Wieseck 
with the Lahn, 41 m. N.N.W. of Frankfort-on-Main on the 
railway to Cassel, and at the junction of important lines to 
Cologne and Coblenz. Pop. (1885) 18,836; (1905) 29,149. In 
the old part of the town the streets are narrow and irregular. 
Besides the university, the principal buildings are the Stadt- 
kirche, the provincial government offices, comprising a portion 
of the old castle dating from the 1 2th century, the arsenal (now 
barracks) and the town-hall (containing an historical collection). 
The university, founded in 1607 by Louis V., landgrave of Hesse, 
has a large and valuable library, a botanic garden, an observatory, 
medical schools, a museum of natural history, a chemical 
laboratory which was directed by Justus von Liebig, professor 
here from 1824 to 1852, and an agricultural college. The 
industries include the manufacture of woollen and cotton cloth 
of various kinds, machines, leather, candles, tobacco and beer. 

Giessen, the name of which is probably derived from the streams 
which pour (giessen) their waters here into the Lahn, was formed 
in the I2th century out of the villages Sellers, Aster and 
Kroppach, for whose protection Count William-of Gleiberg built 
the castle of Giessen. Through marriage the town came, in 1 203, 
into the possession of the count palatine, Rudolph of Tubingen, 
who sold it in 1265 to the landgrave Henry of Hesse. It was 
surrounded with fortifications in 1530, which were demolished 
in 1547, but rebuilt in 1560. In 1805 they were finally pulled 
down, and their site converted into promenades. 

See O. Buchner, Fuhrer fur Giessen und das Lahntal (1891); and 
A us Giessens Vergangenhcit (1885). 

GIFFARD, GODFREY (c. 1235-1302), chancellor of England 
and bishop of Worcester, was a son of Hugh Giffard of Boyton, 
Wiltshire. Having entered the church he speedily obtained 
valuable preferments owing to the influence of his brother 
Walter, who became chancellor of England in 1265. In 1266 
Godfrey became chancellor of the exchequer, succeeding Walter 
as chancellor of England when, in the same year, the latter was 
made archbishop of York. In 1268 he was chosen bishop of 
Worcester, resigning the chancellorship shortly afterwards; 
and both before and after 1279, when he inherited the valuable 
property of his brother the archbishop, he was employed on 
public business by Edward I. His main energies, however, 
were devoted to the affairs of his see. He had one long dispute 
with the monks of Worcester, another with the abbot of West- 
minster, and was vigilant in guarding his material interests. 
The bishop died on the 26th of January 1302, and was buried 
in his cathedral. Giffard, although inclined to nepotism, was 
a benefactor to his cathedral, and completed and fortified the 
episcopal castle at Hartlebury. 

See W. Thomas, Survey of Worcester Cathedral; Episcopal Registers ; 
Register of Bishop Godfrey Giffard, edited by J. W. Willis-Bund 
(Oxford, 1898-1899); and the Annals of Worcester in the Annales 
monastics, vol. iv., edited by H. R. Luard (London, 1869). 

GIFFARD, WALTER (d. 1279), chancellor of England and 
archbishop of York, was a son of Hugh Giffard of Boyton, 
Wiltshire, and after serving as canon and archdeacon of Wells, 
was chosen bishop of Bath and Wells in May 1264. In August 
1265 Henry III. appointed him chancellor of England, and he 
was one of the arbitrators who drew up the dictum de Kenilworth 
in 1 266. Later in this year Pope Clement IV. named him arch- 
bishop of York, and having resigned the chancellorship he was 
an able and diligent ruler of his see, although in spite of his 
great wealth he was frequently in pecuniary difficulties. When 



Henry III. died in November 1272 the archbishopric of Canter- 
bury was vacant, and consequently the great seal was delivered 
to the archbishop of York, who was the chief of the three regents 
who successfully governed the kingdom until the return of 
Edward I. in August 1274. Having again acted in this capacity 
during the king's absence in 1275, Giffard died in April 1279, 
and was buried in his cathedral. 

See Fasti Eboracenses, edited by J. Raine (London, 1863). Giffard's 
Register from 1266 to 1279 has been edited for the Surtees Society by 
W. Brown. 

GIFFARD, WILLIAM (d. 1129), bishop of Winchester, was 
chancellor of William II. and received his see, in succession to 
Bishop Walkelin, from Henry I. (noo). He was one of the bishops 
elect whom Anselm refused to consecrate (noi) as having been 
nominated and invested by the lay power. During the investi- 
tures dispute Giffard was on friendly terms with Anselm, and 
drew upon himself a sentence of banishment through declining 
to accept consecration from the archbishop of York (1103). He 
was, however, one of the bishops who pressed Anselm, in 1 106, 
to give way to the king. He was consecrated after the settle- 
ment of 1107. He became a close friend of Anselm, aided the 
first Cistercians to settle in England, and restored Winchester 
cathedral with great magnificence. 

See Eadmer, Historia novorum, edited by M. Rule (London, 
1884); and S. H. Cass, Bishops of Winchester (London, 1827). 

GIFFEN, SIR ROBERT (1837-1910), British statistician and 
economist, was born at Strathaven, Lanarkshire. He entered 
a solicitor's office in Glasgow, and while in that city attended 
courses at the university. He drifted into journalism, and after 
working for the Stirling Journal he went to London in 1862 and 
joined the staff of the Globe. He also assisted Mr John (afterwards 
Lord) Morley, when the latter edited the Fortnightly Review. 
In 1868 he became Walter Bagehot's assistant-editor on the 
Economist;, and his services were also secured in 1873 as city- 
editor of the Daily News, and later of The Times. His high 
reputation as a financial journalist and statistician, gained in 
these years, led to his appointment in 1876 as head of the 
statistical department in the Board of Trade, and subsequently 
he became assistant secretary (1882) and finally controller- 
general (1892), retiring in 1897. In connexion with his position 
as chief statistical adviser to the government, he was constantly 
employed in drawing up reports, giving evidence before commis- 
sions of inquiry, and acting as a government auditor, besides 
publishing a number of important essays on financial subjects. 
His principal publications were Essays on Finance (1879 and 
1884), The Progress of the Working Classes (1884), The Growth 
of Capital (1890), The Case against Bimetallism (1892), and 
Economic Inquiries and Studies (1904). He was president of the 
Statistical Society (1882-1884); and after being made a C.B. 
in 1891 was created K.C.B. in 1895. In 1892 he was elected a 
Fellow of the Royal Society. Sir Robert Giffen continued in 
later years to take a leading part in all public controversies 
connected with finance and taxation, and his high authority 
and practical experience were universally recognized. He died 
somewhat suddenly in Scotland on the I2th of April 1910. 

GIFFORD, ROBERT SWAIN (1840-1905), American marine 
and landscape painter, was born on Naushon Island, Massa- 
chusetts, on the 23rd of December 1840. He studied art with 
the Dutch marine painter Albert van Beest, who had a studio 
in New Bedford, and in 1864 he opened a studio for himself in 
Boston, subsequently settling in New York, where he was elected 
an associate of the National Academy of Design in 1867 and an 
academician in 1878. He was also a charter member of the 
American Water Color Society and the Society of American 
Artists. From 1878 until 1896 he was teacher of painting 
and chief master of the Woman's Art School of Cooper 
Union, New York, and from 1896 until his death he was director. 
Gifford painted longshore views, sand dunes and landscapes 
generally, with charm and poetry. He was an etcher of consider- 
able reputation, a member of the Society of American Etchers, 
and an honorary member of the Society of Painter-Etchers of 
London. He died in New York on the I3th of January 1905. 



GIFFORD, S. R. GIGLIO 



GIFFORD, SANDFORD ROBINSON (1823-1880), American 
landscape painter, was born at Greenfield, New York, on the xoth 
of July 1823. He studied (1842-1845) at Brown University, then 
went to New York, and entered the art schools of the National 
Academy of Design, of which organization he was elected an 
associate in 1851, and an academician in 1854. Subsequently 
he studied in Paris and Rome. He was one of the best known 
of the Hudson River school group, though it was at Lake George 
that he found most of his themes. In his day he enjoyed an 
enormous popularity, and his canvases are in many well-known 
American collections. He died in New York City on the 29th of 
August 1880. 

GIFFORD, WILLIAM (1756-1826), English publicist and man 
of letters, was born at Ashburton, Devon, in April 1756. His 
father was a glazier of indifferent character, and before he 
was thirteen William had lost both parents. The business was 
seized by his godfather, on whom William and his brother, a 
child of two, became entirely dependent. For about three 
months William was allowed to remain at the free school of the 
town. He was then put to follow the plough, but after a day's 
trial he proved unequal to the task, and was sent to sea with the 
Brixham fishermen. After a year at sea his godfather, driven 
by the opinion of the townsfolk, put the boy to school once more. 
He made rapid progress, especially in mathematics, and began 
to assist the master. In 1772 he was apprenticed to a shoemaker, 
and when he wished to pursue his mathematical studies, he was 
obliged to work his problems with an awl on beaten leather. 
By the kindness of an Ashburton surgeon, William Cooksley, 
a subscription was raised to enable him to return to school. 
Ultimately he proceeded in his twenty-third year to Oxford, 
where he was appointed a Bible clerk in Exeter College. Leaving 
the university shortly after graduation in 1 782 , he found a generous 
patron in the first Earl Grosvenor, who undertook to provide 
for him, and sent him on two prolonged continental tours in the 
capacity of tutor to his son, Lord Belgrave. Settling in London, 
Gifford published in 1794 his first work, a clever satirical piece, 
after Persius, entitled the Baviad, aimed at a coterie of second- 
rate writers at Florence, then popularly known as the Delia 
Cruscans, of which Mrs Piozzi was the leader. A second satire 
of a similar description, the Maeviad, directed against the corrup- 
tions of the drama, appeared in 1795. About this time Gifford 
became acquainted with Canning, with whose help he in August 
1797 originated a weekly newspaper of Conservative politics 
entitled the Anti-Jacobin, which, however, in the following 
year ceased to be published. An English version of Juvenal, 
on which he had been for many years engaged, appeared in 1802; 
to this an autobiographical notice of the translator, reproduced 
in Nichol's Illustrations of Literature, was prefixed. Two years 
afterwards Gifford published an annotated edition of the plays 
of Massinger; and in 1809, when the Quarterly Review was 
projected, he was made editor. The success which attended the 
Quarterly from the outset was due in no small degree to the 
ability and tact with which Gifford discharged his editorial 
duties. He took, however, considerable liberties with the 
articles he inserted, and Southey, who was one of his regular 
contributors, said that Gifford looked on authors as Izaak 
Walton did on worms. His bitter opposition to Radicals and 
his onslaughts on new writers, conspicuous among which was 
the article on Keats's Endymion, called forth Hazlitt's Letter 
to W. Gifford in 1819. His connexion with the Review continued 
until within about two years of his death, which took place in 
London on the 3ist of December 1826. Besides numerous 
contributions to the Quarterly during the last fifteen years of his 
life, he wrote a metrical translation of Persius, which appeared 
in 1821. Gifford also edited the dramas of Ben Jonson in 1816, 
and his edition of F8rd appeared posthumously in 1827. His 
notes on Shirley were incorporated in Dyce's edition in 1833. 
His political services were acknowledged by the appointments 
of commissioner of the lottery and paymaster of the gentle- 
man pensioners. He left a considerable fortune, the bulk 
of which went to the son of his first benefactor, William 
Cooksley. 



GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das 
Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch 
geven, Ger. geben', in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, 
the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence), a 
general English term for a present or thing bestowed, i.e. an 
alienation of property otherwise than for a legal consideration, 
although in law it is often used to signify alienation with or 
without consideration. By analogy the terms " gift " and 
" gifted " are also used to signify the natural endowment of 
some special ability, or a miraculous power, in a person, as being 
not acquired in the ordinary way. The legal effect of a gratuit- 
ous gift only need be considered here. Formerly in English 
law property in land could be conveyed by one person to another 
by a verbal gift of the estate accompanied by delivery of posses- 
sion. The Statute of Frauds required all such conveyances to 
be in writing, and a later statute (8 & 9 Viet. c. 106) requires 
them to be by deed. Personal property may be effectually 
transferred from one person to another by a simple verbal gift 
accompanied by delivery. If A delivers a chattel to B, saying 
or signifying that he does so by way of gift, the property passes, 
and the chattel belongs to B. But unless the actual thing is 
bodily handed over to the donee, the mere verbal expression of 
the donor's desire or intention has no legal effect whatever. 
The persons are in the position of parties to an agreement which 
is void as being without consideration. When the nature of 
the thing is such that it cannot be bodily handed over, it will 
be sufficient to put the donee in such a position as to enable him 
to deal with it as the owner. For example, when goods are in a 
warehouse, the delivery of the key will make a verbal gift of 
them effectual; but it seems that part delivery of goods which 
are capable of actual delivery will not validate a verbal gift of 
the part undelivered. So when goods are in the possession of a 
warehouseman, the handing over of a delivery order might, by 
special custom (but not otherwise, it appears), be sufficient to 
pass the property in the goods, although delivery of a bill of 
lading for goods at sea is equivalent to an actual delivery of the 
goods themselves. 

GIFU (IMAIZUMI), a city of Japan, capital of the ken (govern- 
ment) of Central Nippon, which comprises the two provinces 
of Mine and Hida. Pop. about 41, ooo. It lies E. by N. of Lake 
Biwa, on the Central railway, on a tributary of the river Kiso,' 
which flows to the Bay of Miya Uro. Manufactures of silk and 
paper goods are carried on. The ken has an area of about 
4000 sq. m. and is thickly peopled, the population exceeding 
i ,000,000. The whole district is subject to frequent earthquakes. 

GIG, apparently an onomatopoeic word for any light whirling 
object, and so used of a top, as in Shakespeare's Love's Labour's 
Lost, v. i. 70 (" Goe whip thy gigge "), or of a revolving lure 
made of feathers for snaring birds. The word is now chiefly 
used of a light two-wheeled cart or carriage for one horse, and 
of a narrow, light, ship's boat for oars or sails, and also of a 
clinker-built rowing-boat used for rowing on the Thames. 
" Gig " is further applied, in mining, to a wooden chamber or 
box divided in the centre and used to draw miners up and down 
a pit or shaft, and to a textile machine, the " gig-mill " or 
" gigging machine," which raises the nap on cloth by means 
of teazels. A " gig " or " fish-gig " (properly " fiz-gig," possibly 
an adaptation of Span, fisga, harpoon) is an instrument 
used for spearing fish. 

GIGLIO (anc. Igilium), an island of Italy, off the S.W. coast 
of Italy, in the province of Grosseto, n m. to the W. of Monte 
Argentario, the nearest point on the coast. It measures about 
5 m. by 3 and its highest point is 1634 ft. above sea-level. Pop. 
(1901) 2062. It is partly composed of granite, which was 
quarried here by the Romans, and is still used; the island is 
fertile, and produces wine and fruit, the cultivation of which has 
taken the place of the forests of which Rutilius spoke (Itin. i. 
325, " eminus Igilii silvosa cacumina miror "). Julius Caesar 
mentions its sailors in the fleet of Domitius Ahenobarbus. In 
Rutilius's time it served as a place of refuge from the barbarian 
invaders. Charlemagne gave it to the abbey of Tre Fontane at 
Rome. In the i4th century it belonged to Pisa, then to Florence, 



GIJON GILBART 



then, after being seized by the Spanish fleet, it was ceded to 
Antonio Piccolomini, nephew of Pius II. In 1558 it was 
sold to the wife of Cosimo I. of Florence. 

See Archduke Ludwig Salvator, Die Insel Giglio (Prague, 1900). 

GIJON, a seaport of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; 
on the Bay of Biscay, and at the terminus of railways from 
Aviles, Oviedo and Langreo. Pop. (1900) 47,544. The older 
parts of Gijon, which are partly enclosed by ancient walls, 
occupy the upper slopes of a peninsular headland, Santa Catalina 
Point; while its more modern suburbs extend along the shore 
to Cape Torres, on the west, and Cape San Lorenzo, on the east. 
These suburbs contain the town-hall, theatre, markets, and a 
bull-ring with seats for 12,000 spectators. Few of the buildings 
of Gijon are noteworthy for any architectural merit, except 
perhaps the 15th-century parish church of San Pedro, which 
has a triple row of aisles on each side, the palace of the mar- 
quesses of Revillajigedo (or Revilla Gigedo), and the Asturian 
Institute or Jovellanos Institute. The last named has a very 
fine collection of drawings by Spanish and other artists, a good 
library and classes for instruction in seamanship, mathematics 
and languages. It was founded in 1797 by the poet and states- 
man Caspar Melchor dt Jovellanos (1744-1811). Jovellanos, 
a native of Gijon, is buried in San Pedro. 

The Bay of Gijon is the most important roadstead on the 
Spanish coast between Ferrol and Santander. Its first quay 
was constructed by means of a grant from Charles V. in 1552- 
1554; and its arsenal, added in the reign of Philip II. (1556- 
1598), was used in 1588 as a repairing station for the surviving 
ships of the Invincible Armada. A new quay was built in 
1766-1768, and extended in 1859; the harbour was further 
improved in 1864, and after 1892, when the Musel harbour of 
refuge was created at the extremity of the bay. It was, how- 
ever, the establishment of railway communication in 1884 which 
brought the town its modern prosperity, by rendering it the chief 
port of shipment for the products of Langreo and other mining 
centres in Oviedo. A rapid commercial development followed. 
Besides large tobacco, glass and porcelain factories, Gijon 
possesses iron foundries and petroleum refineries; while its 
minor industries include fisheries, and the manufacture of pre- 
served foods, soap, chocolate, candles and liqueurs. In 1903 
the harbour accommodated 2189 vessels of 358,375 tons. In 
the same year the imports, consisting chiefly of machinery, iron, 
wood and food-stuffs, were valued at 660,889; while the 
exports, comprising zinc, copper, iron and other minerals, with 
fish, nuts and farm produce, were valued at 100,941. 

Gijon is usually identified with the Gigia of the Romans, which, 
however, occupied the site of the adjoining suburb of Cima 
de Villa. Early in the 8th century Gijon was captured and 
strengthened by the Moors, who used the stones of the Roman 
city for their fortifications, but were expelled by King Pelayo 
(720-737). In 844 Gijon successfully resisted a Norman raid; in 
1395 it was burned down; but thenceforward it gradually rose 
to commercial importance. 

GiLAN (GHILAN, GUILAN), one of the three small but important 
Caspian provinces of Persia, lying along the south-western shore 
of the Caspian Sea between 48 50' and 50 30' E. with a breadth 
varying from 15 to 50 m. It has an area of about 5000 
sq. m. and a population of about 250,000. It is separated from 
Russia by the little river Astara, which flows into the Caspian, 
and bounded W. by Azerbaijan, S. by Kazvin and E. by Mazan- 
daran. The greater portion of the province is a lowland region 
extending inland from the sea to the base of the mountains of the 
Elburz range and, though the Sefld Rud (White river), which is 
called Kizil Uzain in its upper course and has its principal 
sources in the hills of Persian Kurdistan, is the only river of any 
size, the province is abundantly watered by many streams 
and an exceptionally great rainfall (in some years 50 in.). 

The vegetation is very much like that of southern Europe, 
but in consequence of the great humidity and the mild climate 
almost tropically luxuriant, and the forests from the shore of 
the sea up to an altitude of nearly 5000 ft. on the mountain 
slopes facing the sea are as dense as an Indian jungle. The 



prevailing types of trees are the oak, maple, hornbeam, beech, 
ash and elm. The box tree comes to rare perfection, but in 
consequence of indiscriminate cutting for export during many 
years, is now becoming scarce. Of fruit trees the apple, pear, 
plum, cherry, medlar, pomegranate, fig, quince, as well as two 
kinds of vine, grow wild; oranges, sweet and bitter, and other 
Aurantiaceae thrive well in gardens and plantations. The fauna 
also is well represented, but tigers which once were frequently 
seen are now very scarce; panther, hyena, jackal, wild boar, 
deer (Genius moral) are common; pheasant, woodcock, ducks, 
teal, geese and various waterfowl abound; the fisheries are very 
productive and are leased to a Russian firm. The ordinary 
cattle of the province is the small humped kind, Bos indicus, 
and forms an article of export to Russia, the humps, smoked, 
being much in demand as a delicacy. Rice of a kind not much 
appreciated in Persia, but much esteemed in Gilan and Russia, 
is largely cultivated and a quantity valued at about 120,000 
was exported to Russia during 1904-1905. Tea plantations, 
with seeds and plants from Assam, Ceylon and the Himalayas, 
were started in the early part of 1900 on the slopes of the hills 
south of Resht at an altitude of about 1000 ft. The results were 
excellent and very good tea was produced in 1904 and 1905, 
but the Persian government gave no support and the enterprise 
was neglected. The olive thrives well at Rudbar and Manjil 
in the Sefid Rfid valley and the oil extracted from it by a Pro- 
vencal for some years until 1896, when he was murdered, was of 
very good quality and found a ready market at Baku. Since 
then the oil has been, as before, only used for the manufacture of 
soap. Tobacco from Turkish seed, cultivated since 1875, grows 
well, and a considerable quantity of it is exported. The most 
valuable produce of the province is silk. In 1866 it was valued 
at 743,000 and about two-thirds of it was exported. The silk- 
worm disease appeared in 1864 and the crops decreased in con- 
sequence until 1893 when the value of the silk exported was no 
more than 6500. Since then there has been a steady improve- 
ment, and in 1905-1906 the value of the produce was estimated 
at 300,000 and that of the quantity exported at 200,000. 
The eggs of the silk-worms, formerly obtained from Japan, are 
now imported principally from Brusa by Greeks under French 
protection and from France. 

There is only one good road in the province, that from Enzeli 
to Kazvin by way of Resht; in other parts communication is 
by narrow and frequently impassable lanes through the thick 
forest, or by intricate pathways through the dense undergrowth. 

The province is divided into the following administrative 
districts: Resht (with the capital and its immediate neighbour- 
hood), Fumen (with Tulam and Mesula, where are iron mines), 
Gesker, Talish (with Shandarman, Kerganrud, Asalim, Gil- 
Dulab, Talish-Dulab), Enzeli (the port of Resht), Sheft, Manjil 
(with Rahmetabad and Amarlu), Lahijan (with Langarud, 
Rudsar and Ranehkuh), Dilman and Lashtnisha. The revenue 
derived from taxes and customs is about 80,000. The crown 
lands have been much neglected and the revenue from them 
amounts to hardly 3000 per annum. The value of the exports 
and imports from and into Gilan, much of them in transit, is 
close upon 2,000,000. 

Gilan was an independent khanate until 1567 when Khan 
Ahmed, the last of the Kargia dynasty, which had reigned 
205 years, was deposed by Tahmasp I., the second Safawid shah 
of Persia (1524-1576). It was occupied by a Russian force in 
the early part of 1723; and Tahmasp III., the tenth Safawid shah 
(1722-1731), then without a throne and his country occupied 
by the Afghans, ceded it, together with Mazandaran and Astara- 
bad, to Peter the Great by a treaty of the 1 2th of September of 
the same year. Russian troops remained in Gilan until 1734, 
when they were compelled to evacuate it. 

The derivation of the name Gilan from the modern Persian 
word gU meaning mud (hence " land of mud ") is incorrect. 
It probably means " land of the Gil," an ancient tribe which 
classical writers mention as the Gelae. (A. H.-S.) 

GILBART, JAMES WILLIAM (1794-1863), English writer on 
banking, was born in London on the 2ist of March 1794. From 



GILBERT, ALFRED GILBERT, SIR H. 



1813 to 1825 he was clerk in a London bank. After a two years' 
residence in Birmingham, he was appointed manager of the 
Kilkenny branch of the Provincial Bank of Ireland, and in 1829 
he was promoted to the Waterford branch. In 1834 he became 
manager of the London and Westminster Bank; and he did much 
to develop the system of joint-stock banking. On more than 
one occasion he rendered valuable services to the joint-stock 
banks by his evidence before committees of the House of 
Commons; and, on the renewal of the bank charter in 1844, 
he procured the insertion of a clause granting to joint-stock 
banks the power of suing by their public officer, and also the 
right of accepting bills at less than six months' date. In 1846 he 
was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He died in London on 
the 8th of August 1863. The Gilbart lectures on banking at 
King's College are called after him. 

The following are his principal works on banking, most of which 
have passed through more than one edition: Practical Treatise on 
Banking (1827); The History and Principles of Banking (1834); 
The History of Banking in America (1837); Lectures on the History 
and Principles of Ancient Commerce (1847); Logic for the Million 
(1851); and Logic of Banking (1857). 

GILBERT, ALFRED (1854- ), British sculptor and 
goldsmith, born in London, was the son of Alfred Gilbert, 
musician. He received his education mainly in Paris (ficole 
des Beaux- Arts, under Cavelier), and studied in Rome and 
Florence where the significance of the Renaissance made a 
lasting impression upon him and his art. He also worked in 
the studio of Sir J. Edgar Boehm, R.A. His first work of 
importance was the charming group of the " Mother and Child," 
then " The Kiss of Victory," followed by " Perseus Arming " 
(1883), produced directly under the influence of the Florentine 
masterpieces he had studied. Its success was great, and Lord 
Leighton forthwith commissioned " Icarus," which was ex- 
hibited at the Royal Academy in 1884, along with a remarkable 
" Study of a Head," and was received with general applause. 
Then followed " The Enchanted Chair," which, along with many 
other works deemed by the artist incomplete or unworthy of 
his powers, was ultimately broken by the sculptor's own hand. 
The next year Mr Gilbert was occupied with the Shaftesbury 
Memorial Fountain, in Piccadilly, London, a work of great 
originality and beauty, yet shorn of some of the intended effect 
through restrictions put upon the artist. In 1888 was produced 
the statue of H.M. Queen Victoria, set up at Winchester, in its 
main design and in the details of its ornamentation the most 
remarkable work of its kind produced in Great Britain, and 
perhaps, it may be added, in any other country in modern times. 
Other statues of great beauty, at once novel in treatment and 
fine in design, are those set up to Lord Reay in Bombay, and 
John Howard at Bedford (1898), the highly original pedestal 
of which did much to direct into a better channel what are 
apt to be the eccentricities of what is called the "New Art" 
School. The sculptor rose to the full height of his powers in his 
" Memorial to the Duke of Clarence," and his fast developing 
fancy and imagination, which are the main characteristics of all 
his work, are seen in his "Memorial Candelabrum to Lord Arthur 
Russell " and " Memorial Font to the son of the 4th Marquess of 
Bath." Gilbert's sense of decoration is paramount in all he does, 
and although in addition to the work already cited he pro- 
duced busts of extraordinary excellence of Cyril Flower, John 
R. Clayton (since broken up by the artist the fate of much of 
his admirable work), G. F. Watts, Sir Henry Tate, Sir George 
Birdwood, Sir Richard Owen, Sir George Grove and various 
others, it is on his goldsmithery that the artist would rest his 
reputation; on his mayoral chain for Preston, the epergne for 
Queen Victoria, the figurines of " Victory " (a statuette designed 
for the orb in the hand of the Winchester statue), " St Michael " 
and "St George," as well as smaller objects such as seals, keys 
and the like. Mr Gilbert was chosen associate of the Royal 
. Academy in 1887, full member in 1892 (resigned 1909), and 
professor of sculpture (afterwards resigned) in 1900. In 1889 he 
won the Grand Prix at the Paris International Exhibition. He 
was created a member of the Victorian Order in 1897. (See 
SCULPTURE.) 



See The Life and Work of Alfred Gilbert, R.A., M. V.O., D.C.L., by 
Joseph Hatton (Art Journal Office, 1903). (M. H. S.) 

GILBERT, ANN (1821-1904), American actress, was born at 
Rochdale, Lancashire, on the 2ist of October 1821, her maiden 
name being Hartley. At fifteen she was a pupil at the 
ballet school connected with the Haymarket theatre, conducted 
by Paul Taglioni, and became a dancer on the stage. In 1846 
she married George H. Gilbert (d. 1866), a performer in the 
company of which she was a member. Together they filled 
many engagements in English theatres, moving to America in 
1849. Mrs Gilbert's first success in a speaking part was in 1857 
as Wichavenda in Brougham's Pocahontas. In 1869 she joined 
Daly's company, playing for many years wives to James Lewis's 
husbands, and old women's parts, in which she had no equal. 
Mrs. Gilbert held a unique position on the American s'tage, on 
account of the admiration, esteem and affection which she 
enjoyed both in front and behind the footlights. She died at 
Chicago on the 2nd of December 1904. 

See Mrs Gilbert's Stage Reminiscences (1901). 

GILBERT, GROVE KARL (1843- ), American geologist, 
was born at Rochester, N.Y., on the 6th of May 1843. In 1869 
he was attached to the Geological Survey of Ohio and in 
1879 he became a member of the United States Geological 
Survey, being engaged on parts of the Rocky Mountains, in 
Nevada, Utah, California and Arizona. He is distinguished 
for his researches on mountain-structure and on the Great Lakes, 
as well as on glacial phenomena, recent earth movements, and 
on topographic features generally. His report on the Geology 
of the Henry Mountains (1877), in which the volcanic structure 
known as a laccolite was first described; his History of the 
Niagara River (1890) and Lake BonnevUle (1891 the first of 
the Monographs issued by the United States Geological Survey) 
are specially important. He was awarded the Wollaston medal 
by the Geological Society of London in 1900. 

GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (c. 1539-1583), English soldier, 
navigator and pioneer colonist in America, was the second son of 
Otho Gilbert, of Compton, near Dartmouth, Devon, and step- 
brother of Sir Walter Raleigh. He was educated at Eton and 
Oxford; intended for the law; introduced at court by Raleigh's 
aunt, Catherine Ashley, and appointed (July 1566) captain in 
the army of Ireland under Sir Henry Sidney. In April 1566 
he had already joined with Antony Jenkinson in a petition 
to Elizabeth for the discovery of the North-East Passage; in 
November following he presented an independent petition for 
the " discovering of a passage by the north to goto Cataia." In 
October 1569 he became governor of Munster; on the ist of 
January 1570 he was knighted; in 1571 he was returned M.P. 
for Plymouth; in 1572 he campaigned in the Netherlands 
against Spain without much success; from 1573 to 1578 he 
lived in retirement at Limehouse, devoting himself especially 
to the advocacy of a North- West Passage (his famous Discourse 
on this subject was published in 1576). Gilbert's arguments, 
widely circulated even before 1575, were apparently of weight 
in promoting the Frobisher enterprises of 1576-1578. On the 
nth of June 1578, Sir Humphrey obtained his long-coveted 
charter for North- Western discovery and colonization, authoriz- 
ing him, his heirs and assigns, to discover, occupy and possess 
such remote " heathen lands not actually possessed of any 
Christian prince or people, as should seem good to him or them." 
Disposing not only of his patrimony but also of the estates in 
Kent which he had through his wife, daughter of John Aucher 
of Ollerden, he fitted out an expedition which left Dartmouth 
on the 23rd of September 1578, and returned in May 1579, 
having accomplished nothing. In 1579 Gilbert aided the 
government in Ireland; and in 1583, after many struggles 
illustrated by his appeal to Walsingham on the nth of July 
1582, for the payment of moneys due to him from government, 
and by his agreement with the Southampton venturers he 
succeeded in equipping another fleet for " Western Planting." 
On the nth of June 1583, he sailed from Plymouth with five 
ships and the queen's blessing; on the I3th of July the " Ark 
Raleigh," built and manned at his brother's expense, deserted 



8 



GILBERT, J. GILBERT, MARIE 



the fleet; on the 3oth of July he was off the north coast of 
Newfoundland; on the 3rd of August he arrived off the present 
St John's, and selected this site as the centre of his operations; 
on the sth of August he began the plantation of the first English 
colony in North America. Proceeding southwards with three 
vessels, exploring and prospecting, he lost the largest near Cape 
Breton (zgth of August); immediately after (3151 of August) 
he started to return to England with the " Golden Hind " and 
the " Squirrel," of forty and ten tons respectively. Obstinately 
refusing to leave the " frigate " and sail in his " great ship," 
he shared the former's fate in a tempest off the Azores. " Monday 
the 9th of September," reports Hayes, the captain of the " Hind," 
"the frigate was near cast away, . . . .yet at that time recovered; 
and, giving forth signs of joy, the general, sitting abaft with a 
book in*his hand, cried out unto us in the ' Hind,' ' We are as near 
to heaven by sea as by land.'. . . . The same Monday night, about 
twelve, the frigate being ahead of us in the ' Golden Hind,' 
suddenly her lights were out, .... in that moment the frigate 
was devoured and swallowed up of the sea." 

See Hakluyt, Principal Navigations (1599), vol. iii. pp. 135-181; 
Gilbert's Discourse of a Discovery for a Neiv Passage to Cataia, pub- 
lished by George Gascoigne in 1576, with additions, probably 
without Gilbert's authority; Hooker's Supplement to Holinshed's 
Irish Chronicle; Roger Williams, The Actions of the Low Countries 
(1618); State Papers, Domestic (1577-1583); Wood's Athenae 
Oxonienses; North British Review, No. 45; Fox Bourne's English 
Seamen under the Tudor s ; Carlos Slafter, Sir H. Gylberte and his 
Enterprise (Boston, 1903), with all important documents. Gilbert's 
interesting writings on the need of a university for London, anticipat- 
ing in many ways not only the modern London University but also 
the British Museum library and its compulsory sustenance through 
the provisions of the Copyright Act, have been printed by Furniyall 
(Queen Elizabeth's Achademy) in the Early English Text Society 
Publications, extra series, No. viii. 

GILBERT, JOHN (1810-1889), American actor, whose real 
name was Gibbs, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 
27th of February 1810, and made his first appearance there 
as Jaffier in Venice Preserved. He soon found that his true vein 
was in comedy, particularly in old-men parts. When in London 
in 1847 he was well received both by press and public, and played 
with Macready. He was the leading actor at Wallack's from 
1861-1888. He died on the i7th of June 1889. 

See William Winter's Life of John Gilbert (New York, 1890). 

GILBERT, SIR JOHN (1817-1897), English painter and 
illustrator, one of the eight children of George Felix Gilbert, 
a member of a Derbyshire family, was born at Blackheath on 
the 2ist of July 1817. He went to school there, and even in 
childhood displayed an extraordinary fondness for drawing and 
painting. Nevertheless, his father's lack of means compelled 
him to accept employment for the boy in the office of Messrs 
Dickson & Bell, estate agents, in Charlotte Row, London. 
Yielding, however, to his natural bent, his parents agreed that 
he should take up art in his own way, which included but little 
advice from others, his only teacher being Haydon's pupil, George 
Lance, the fruit painter. This artist gave him brief instructions 
in the use of colour. In 1836 Gilbert appeared in public for 
the first time. This was at the gallery of the Society of British 
Artists, where he sent drawings, the subjects of which were 
characteristic, being " The Arrest of Lord Hastings," from 
Shakespeare, and "Abbot Boniface," from The Monastery of 
Scott. "Inez de Castro" was in the same gallery in the next 
year; it was the first of a long series of works in the same 
medium, representing similar themes, and was accompanied, 
from 1837, by a still greater number of works in oil which were 
exhibited at the British Institution. These included " Don 
Quixote giving advice to Sancho Panza," 1841 ; " Brunette 
and Phillis," from The Spectator, 1844; "The King's Artillery 
at Marston Moor," 1860; and " Don Quixote comes back for 
the last time to his Home and Family," 1867. In that year the 
Institution was finally closed. Gilbert exhibited at the Royal 
Academy from 1838, beginning with the " Portrait of a Gentle- 
man," and continuing, except between 1851 and 1867, till his 
death to exhibit there many of his best and more ambitious 
works. These included such capital instances as " Holbein 



painting the Portrait of Anne Boleyn," " Don Quixote's first 
Interview with the Duke and Duchess," 1842, "Charlemagne 
visiting the Schools," 1846. "Touchstone and the Shepherd," 
and " Rembrandt," a very fine piece, were both there in 1867; 
and in 1873 " Naseby," one of his finest and most picturesque 
designs, was also at the Royal Academy. Gilbert was elected 
A.R.A. 29th January 1872, and R.A. 29th June 1876. Besides 
these mostly large and powerful works, the artist's true arena 
of display was undoubtedly the gallery of the Old Water Colour 
Society, to which from 1852, when he was elected an Associate 
exhibitor, till he died forty-five years later, he contributed not 
fewer than 270 drawings, most of them admirable because of the 
largeness of their style, massive coloration, broad chiaroscuro, 
and the surpassing vigour of their designs. These qualities 
induced the leading critics to claim for him opportunities for 
painting mural pictures of great historic themes as decorations of 
national buildings. " The Trumpeter," " The Standard-Bearer," 
" Richard II. resigning his Crown " (now at Liverpool), " The 
Drug Bazaar at Constantinople," " The Merchant of Venice " 
and " The Turkish Water-Carrier " are but examples of that 
wealth of art which added to the attractions of the gallery in 
Pall Mall. There Gilbert was elected a full Member in 1855, 
and president of the Society in 1871, shortly after which he was 
knighted. As an illustrator of books, magazines and periodicals 
of every kind he was most prolific. To the success of the 
Jllustraled London News his designs lent powerful aid, and he 
was eminently serviceable in illustrating the Shakespeare of Mr 
Howard Staunton. He died on the 6th of October 1897. 

(F.G.S.) 

GILBERT, SIR JOSEPH HENRY (1817-1001), English 
chemist, was born at Hull on the ist of August 1817. He 
studied chemistry first at Glasgow under Thomas Thomson; 
then at University College, London, in the laboratory of A. T. 
Thomson (1778-1849), the professor of medical jurisprudence, 
also attending Thomas Graham's lectures; and finally at Giessen 
under Liebig. On his return to England from Germany he 
acted for a year or so as assistant to his old master A. T. Thomson 
at University College, and in 1843, after spending a short time in 
the study of calico dyeing and printing near Manchester, accepted 
the directorship of the chemical laboratory at the famous 
experimental station established by Sir J. B. Lawes at 
Rothamsted, near St Albans, for the systematic and scientific 
study of agriculture. This position he held for fifty-eight years, 
until his death on the 23rd of December 1901. The work which 
he carried out during that long period in collaboration with 
Lawes was of a most comprehensive character, involving the 
application of many branches of science, such as chemistry, 
meteorology, botany, animal and vegetable physiology, and 
geology; and its influence in improving the methods of practical 
agriculture extended all over the civilized world. Gilbert was 
chosen a fellow of the Royal Society in 1860, and in 1867 was 
awarded a royal medal jointly with Lawes. In 1880 he presided 
over the Chemical Section of the British Association at its 
meeting at Swansea, and in i882*he was president of the London 
Chemical Society, of which he had been a member almost from 
its foundation in 1841. For six years from 1884 he filled the 
Sibthorpian chair of rural economy at Oxford, and he was also 
an honorary professor at the Royal Agricultural College, Ciren- 
cester. He was knighted in 1893, the year in which the jubilee 
of the Rothamsted experiments was celebrated. 

GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES ELIZA ROSANNA [" LOLA 
MONTEZ "] (1818-1861), dancer and adventuress, the daughter 
of a British army officer, was born at Limerick, Ireland, in 1818. 
Her father dying in India when she was seven years old, and her 
mother marrying again, the child was sent to Europe to be 
educated, subsequently joining her mother at Bath. In 1837 
she made a runaway match with a Captain James of the Indian 
army, and accompanied him to India. In 1842 she returned 
to England, and shortly afterwards her husband obtained a 
decree nisi for divorce. She then studied dancing, making an 
unsuccessful first appearance at Her Majesty's theatre, London, 
in 1843, billed as " Lola Montez, Spanish dancer." Subsequently 



GILBERT, N. J. L. GILBERT, SIR W. S. 



she appeared with considerable success in Germany, Poland and 
Russia. Thence she went* to Paris, and in 1847 appeared at 
Munich, where she became the mistress of the old king of Bavaria, 
Ludwig I.; she was naturalized, created comtesse de Landsfeld, 
and given an income of 2000 a year. She soon proved herself 
the real ruler of Bavaria, adopting a liberal and anti-Jesuit 
policy. Her political opponents proved, however, too strong 
for her, and in 1848 she was banished. In 1849 she came to 
England, and in the same year was married -to George Heald, a 
young officer in the Guards. Her husband's guardian instituted 
a prosecution for bigamy against her on the ground that her 
divorce from Captain James had not been made absolute, and 
she fled with Heald to Spain. In 1851 she appeared at the 
Broadway theatre, New York, and in the following year at 
the Walnut Street theatre, Philadelphia. In 1853 Heald was 
drowned at Lisbon, and in the same year she married the 
proprietor of a San Francisco newspaper, but did not live long 
with him. Subsequently she appeared in Australia, but returned, 
in 1857, to act in America, and to lecture on gallantry. Her 
health having broken down, she devoted the rest of her life to 
visiting the outcasts of her own sex in New York, where, 
stricken with paralysis, she died on the I7th of January 1861. 

See E. B. D'Auvergne, Lola Montez (New York, 1909). 

GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT (1751-1780), French 
poet, was born at Fontenay-le-Chateau in Lorraine in 1751. 
Having completed his education at the college of Dole, he 
devoted himself for a time to a half-scholastic, half-literary life 
at Nancy, but in 1774 he found his way to the capital. As an 
opponent of the Encyclopaedists and a panegyrist of Louis 
XV., he received considerable pensions. He died in Paris on 
the 1 2th of November 1780 from the results of a fall from his 
horse. The satiric force of one or two of his pieces, as Man 
Apologie (1778) and Le Dix-huitieme Sttcle (1775), would alone 
be sufficient to preserve his reputation, which has been further 
increased by modern writers, who, like Alfred de Vigny in his 
Stella (chaps. 7-13), considered him a victim to the spite of his 
philosophic opponents. His best-known verses are the Ode 
imitie de plusieurs psaumes, usually entitled Adieux a la vie. 

Among his other works may be mentioned Les Families de Darius 
el d'ridame, histoire persane (1770), Le Carnaval des auteurs 
(!773)> Odes nouvelles et patriotigues (1775). Gilbert's CEuvres 
completes were first published in 1788, and they have since been 
edited by Mastrella (Paris, 1823), by Charles Nodier (1817 or 1825), 
and by M. de Lescure (1882). 

GILBERT (or GYLBERDE), WILLIAM (1544-1603), the most 
distinguished man of science in England during the reign of 
Queen Elizabeth, and the father of electric and magnetic science, 
was a member of an ancient Suffolk family, long resident in 
Clare, and was born on the 24th of May 1544 at Colchester, 
where his father, Hierome Gilbert, became recorder. Educated 
at Colchester school, he entered St John's College, Cambridge, 
in 1558, and after taking the degrees of B.A. and M.A. in due 
course, graduated M.D. in 1569, in which year he was elected 
a senior fellow of his college. Soon afterwards he left Cambridge, 
and after spending three years in Italy and other parts of Europe, 
settled in 1573 in London, where he practised as a physician with 
" great success and applause." He was admitted to the College 
of Physicians probably about 1576, and from 1581 to 1590 was 
one of the censors. In 1587 he became treasurer, holding the 
office till 1 592, and in 1 589 he was one of the committee appointed 
to superintend the preparation of the Pharmacopoeia Londinensis 
which the college in that year decided to issue, but which did not 
actually appear till 1618. In 1597 he was again chosen treasurer, 
becoming at the same time consiliarius, and in 1 599 he succeeded 
to the presidency. Two years later he was appointed physician 
to Queen Elizabeth, with the usual emolument of 100 a year. 
After this time he seems to have removed to the court, vacating 
his residence, Wingfield House, which was on Peter's Hill, 
between Upper Thames Street and Little Knightrider Street, 
and close to the house of the College of Physicians. On the death 
of the queen in 1603 he was reappointed by her successor; but 
he did not long enjoy the honour, for he died, probably of the 
plague, on the 3oth of November (loth of December, N.S.) 



1603, either in London or in Colchester. He was buried in the 
latter town, in the chancel of Holy Trinity church, where a 
monument was erected to his memory. To the College of 
Physicians he left his books, globes, instruments and minerals, 
but they were destroyed in the great fire of London. 

Gilbert's principal work is his treatise on magnetism, entitled 
De magnete, magneticisque corporibus, et de magno magnete 
tellure (London, 1600; later editions Stettin, 1628, 1633; 
Frankfort, 1629, 1638). This work, which embodied the results 
of many years' research, was distinguished by its strict adherence 
to the scientific method of investigation by experiment, and by 
the originality of its matter, containing, as it does, an account 
of the author's experiments on magnets and magnetical bodies 
and on electrical attractions, and also his great conception that 
the earth is nothing but a large magnet, and that it is this which 
explains, not only the direction of the magnetic needle north and 
south, but also the variation and dipping or inclination of the 
needle. Gilbert's is therefore not merely the first, but the most 
important, systematic contribution to the sciences of electricity 
and magnetism. A posthumous work of Gilbert's was edited 
by his brother, also called William, from two MSS. in the posses- 
sion of Sir William Boswell ; its title is De mundo noslro 
sublunari philosophia nova (Amsterdam, 1651). He is the 
reputed inventor besides of two instruments to enable sailors 
" to find out the latitude without seeing of sun, moon or stars," 
an account of which is given in Thomas Blondeville's Theoriques 
of the Planets (London, 1602). He was also the first advocate 
of Copernican views in England, and he concluded that the fixed 
stars are not all at the same distance from the earth. 

It is a matter of great regret for the historian of chemistry 
that Gilbert left nothing on that branch of science, to which he 
was deeply devoted," attaining to great exactness therein." So 
at least says Thomas Fuller, who in his Worthies of England pro- 
phesied truly how he would be afterwards known: " Mahomet's 
tomb at Mecca," he says, "is said strangely to hang up, 
attracted by some invisible loadstone; but the memory of this 
doctor will never fall to the ground, which his incomparable 
book De magnete will support to eternity." 

An English translation of the De magnete was published by P. F. 
Mottelay in 1893, and another, with notes by S. P. Thompson, was 
issued by the Gilbert Club of London in 1900. 

GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM SCHWENK (1836- ), English 
playwright and humorist, son of William Gilbert (a descendant 
of Sir Humphrey Gilbert), was born in London on the i8th of 
November 1836. His father was the author of a number of novels, 
the best-known of which were Shirley Hall Asylum (1863) and 
Dr Austin's Guests (1866). Several of these novels which were 
characterized by a singular acuteness and lucidity of style, by 
a dry, subacid humour, by a fund of humanitarian feeling and by 
a considerable medical knowledge, especially in regard to the 
psychology of lunatics and monomaniacs were illustrated by 
his son, who developed a talent for whimsical draughtsmanship. 
W. S. Gilbert was educated at Boulogne, at Baling and at King's 
College, graduating B.A. from the university of London in 1856. 
The termination of the Crimean War was fatal to his project of 
competing for a commission in the Royal Artillery, but he 
obtained a post in the education department of the privy council 
office (1857-1861). Disliking the routine work, he left the Civil 
Service, entered the Inner Temple, was called to the bar in 
November 1864, and joined the northern circuit. His practice 
was inconsiderable, and his military and legal ambitions were 
eventually satisfied by a captaincy in the volunteers and appoint- 
ment as a magistrate for Middlesex (June 1891). In 1861 the 
comic journal Fun was started by H. J. Byron, and Gilbert 
became from the first a valued contributor. Failing to obtain an 
entrte to Punch, he continued sending excellent comic verse 
to Fun, with humorous illustrations, the work of his own pen, 
over the signature of " Bab." A collection of these lyrics, in 
which deft craftsmanship unites a titillating satire on the 
deceptiveness of appearances with the irrepressible nonsense 
of a Lewis Carroll, was issued separately in 1869 under the title 
of Bab Ballads, and was followed by More Bab Ballads. The 



10 



GILBERT DE LA PORREE 



two collections and Songs of a Savoyard were united in a volume 
issued in 1898, with many new illustrations. The best of the 
old cuts, such as those depicting the " Bishop of Rum-ti-Foo " 
and the " Discontented Sugar Broker," were preserved intact. 

While remaining a staunch supporter of Fun, Gilbert was soon 
immersed in other journalistic work, and his position as dramatic 
critic to the Illustrated Times turned his attention to the stage. 
He had not to wait long for an opportunity. Early in December 
1866 T. W. Robertson was asked by Miss Herbert, lessee of the St 
James's theatre, to find some one who could turn out a bright 
Christmas piece in a fortnight, and suggested Gilbert; the latter 
promptly produced Dulcamara, a burlesque of L'Elisire d'amore, 
written in ten days, rehearsed in a week, and duly performed at 
Christmas. He sold the piece outright for 30, a piece of rashness 
which he had cause to regret, for it turned out a commercial 
success. In 1870 he was commissioned by Buckstone to write a 
blank verse fairy comedy, based upon Le Palais de la verite, 
the novel by Madame de Genlis. The result was The Palace 
of Truth, a fairy drama, poor in structure but clever in workman- 
ship, which served the purpose of Mr and Mrs Kendal in 1870 
at the Haymarket. This was followed in 1871 by Pygmalion 
and Galatea, another three-act "mythological comedy," a clever 
and effective but artificial piece. Another fairy comedy, The 
Wicked World, written for Buckstone and the Kendals, was 
followed in March 1873 by a burlesque version, in collaboration 
with Gilbert a Beckett, entitled The Happy Land. Gilbert's 
next dramatic ventures inclined more to the conventional 
pattern, combining sentiment and a cynical humour in a manner 
strongly reminiscent of his father's style. Of these pieces, 
Sweethearts was given at the Prince of Wales's theatre, 7th 
November 1874; Tom Cobb at the St James's, 24th April 
1875; Broken Hearts at the Court, gth December 1875; Dan'l 
Druce (a drama in darker vein, suggested to some extent by 
Silas Marner) at the Haymarket, nth September 1876; and 
Engaged at the Haymarket, 3rd October 1877. The first and 
last of these proved decidedly popular. Gretchen, a verse drama 
in four acts, appeared in 1879. A one-act piece, called Comedy 
and Tragedy, was produced at the Lyceum, 26th January, 1884. 
Two dramatic trifles of later date were Foggerty's Fairy and 
Rozenkrantz and Guildenstern, a travesty of Hamlet, performed 
at the Vaudeville in June 1891. Several of these dramas were 
based upon short stories by Gilbert, a number of which had 
appeared from time to time in the Christmas numbers of various 
periodicals. The best of them have been collected in the volume 
entitled Foggerty's Fairy, and other Stories. In the autumn of 
1871 Gilbert commenced his memorable collaboration (which 
lasted over twenty years) with Sir Arthur Sullivan. The first 
two comic operas, Thespis; or The Gods grown Old (26th 
September 1871) and Trial by Jury (Royalty, zsth March 1875) 
were merely essays. Like one or two of their successors, they 
were, as regards plot, little more than extended " Bab Ballads." 
Later (especially in the Yeomen of the Guard), much more elabora- 
tion was attempted. The next piece was produced at the Opera 
Comique (i7th November 1877) as The Sorcerer. At the same 
theatre were successfully given H.M.S. Pinafore (25th May 
1878), The Pirates of Penzance; or The Slave.of Duty (3rd April 
1880), and Patience; or Bunthorne's Bride (23rd April 1881). In 
October 1881 the successful Patience was removed to a new 
theatre, the Savoy, specially built for the Gilbert and Sullivan 
operas by Richard D'Oyly Carte. Patience was followed, on 
25th November 1882, by lolanthe; or The Peer and the Peri; 
and then came, on sth January 1884, Princess Ida; or 
Castle Adamant, a re-cast of a charming and witty fantasia 
which Gilbert had written some years previously, and had then 
described as a " respectful perversion of Mr. Tennyson's exquisite 
poem." The impulse reached its fullest development in the 
operas that followed next in order The Mikado; or The Town 
of Titipu (i4th March 1885); Ruddigore (22nd January 1887); 
The Yeomen of the Guard (3rd October 1888) ; and The Gondoliers 
(7th December 1889). After the appearance of The Gondoliers 
a coolness occurred between the composer and librettist, owing 
to Gilbert's considering that Sullivan had not supported him in 



a business disagreement with D'Oyly Carte. But the estrange- 
ment was only temporary. Gilbert wrote several more librettos, 
and of these Utopia Limited (1893) and the exceptionally witty 
Grand Duke (1896) were written in conjunction with Sullivan. 
As a master of metre Gilbert had shown himself consummate, 
as a dealer in quips and paradoxes and ludicrous dilemmas, 
unrivalled. Even for the music of the operas he deserves some 
credit, for the rhythms were frequently his own (as in " I have a 
Song to Sing, O "),.and the metres were in many cases invented 
by himself. One or two of his librettos, such as that of Patience, 
are virtually flawless. Enthusiasts are divided only as to the 
comparative merit of the operas. Printess Ida and Patience 
are in some respects the daintiest. There is a genuine vein of 
poetry in The Yeomen of the Guard. Some of the drollest songs 
are in Pinafore and Ruddigore. The Gondoliers shows the most 
charming lightness of touch, while with the general public The 
Mikado proved the favourite. The enduring popularity of the 
Gilbert and Sullivan operas was abundantly proved by later 
revivals. Among the birthday honours in June 1907 Gilbert was 
given a knighthood. In 1909 his Fallen Fairies (music by 
Edward German) was produced at the Savoy. (T. SE.) 

GILBERT DE LA PORREE, frequently known as Gilbertus 
Porretanus or Pictaviensis (1070-1154), scholastic logician and 
theologian, was born at Poitiers. He was educated under 
Bernard of Chartres and Anselm of Laon. After teaching for 
about twenty years in Chartres, he lectured on dialectics and 
theology in Paris (from 1137), and in 1141 returned to Poitiers, 
being elected bishop in the following year. His heterodox 
opinions regarding the doctrine of the Trinity drew upon his 
works the condemnation of the church. The synod of Reims 
in 1148 procured papal sanction for four propositions opposed 
to certain of Gilbert's tenets, and his works were condemned 
until they should be corrected in accordance with the principles 
of the church. Gilbert seems to have submitted quietly to this 
judgment; he yielded assent to the four propositions, and 
remained on friendly terms with his antagonists till his death 
on the 4th of September 1154. Gilbert is almost the only 
logician of the i2th century who is quoted by the greater 
scholastics of the succeeding age. His chief logical work, the 
treatise De sex principiis, was regarded with a reverence almost 
equal to that paid to Aristotle, and furnished matter for numerous 
commentators, amongst them Albertus Magnus. Owing to the 
fame of this work, he is mentioned by Dante as the Magister 
sex principiorum. The treatise itself is a discussion of the 
Aristotelian categories, specially of the six subordinate modes. 
Gilbert distinguishes in the ten categories two classes, one 
essential, the other derivative. Essential or inhering (Jormae 
inhaerentes) in the objects themselves are only substance, quantity, 
quality and relation in the stricter sense of that term. The 
remaining six, when, where, action, passion, position and habit, 
are relative and subordinate (formae assistentes) . This suggestion 
has some interest, but is of no great value, either in logic or in 
the theory of knowledge. More important in the history of 
scholasticism are the theological consequences to which Gilbert's 
realism led him. In the commentary on the treatise De Trinitate 
(erroneously attributed to Boetius) he proceeds from the 
metaphysical notion that pure or abstract being is prior in nature 
to that which is. This pure being is God, and must be distin- 
guished from the triune God as known to us. God is incompre- 
hensible, and the categories cannot be applied to determine his 
existence. In God there is no distinction or difference, whereas 
in all substances or things there is duality, arising from the 
element of matter. Between pure being and substances stand 
the ideas or forms, which subsist, though they are not substances. 
These forms, when materialized, are called formae substantiates 
or formae nativae; they are the essences of things, and in them- 
selves have no relation to the accidents of things. Things are 
temporal, the ideas perpetual, God eternal. The pure form 
of existence, that by which God is God, must be distin- 
guished from the three persons who are God by participation 
in this form. The form or essence is one, the persons or 
substances three. It was this distinction between Deitas or 



GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM GILBEY 



ii 



Divinitas and Deus that led to the condemnation of Gilbert's 
doctrine. 

De sex principiis and commentary on the De Trinitate in Migne, 
Patrologia Latino. Ixiv. 1255 and clxxxviii. 1257; see also Abbe 1 
Berthaud, Gilbert de la Porrte (Poitiers, 1892); B. Haur6au, 
De la philosophie scolastique, pp. 204-318; R. Schmid's article 
'"Gilbert Porretanus" in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk. f. protest. 
Theol. (vol. 6, 1899); Prantl, Geschichte d. Logik, ii. 215; Bach, 
Dogmengeschichte, ii. 133 ; article SCHOLASTICISM. 

GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM, ST, founder of the Gilbertines, 
the only religious order of English origin, was born at Sempring- 
ham in Lincolnshire, c. 1083-1089. He was educated in France, 
and ordained in 1123, being presented by his father to the living 
of Sempringham. About 1 135 he established there a convent for 
nuns; and to perform the heavy work and cultivate the fields 
he formed a number of labourers into a society of lay brothers 
attached to the convent. Similar establishments were founded 
elsewhere, and in 1147 Gilbert tried to get them incorporated in 
the Cistercian order. Failing in this, he proceeded to form 
communities of priests and clerics to perform the spiritual 
ministrations needed by the nuns. The women lived according 
to the Benedictine rule as interpreted by the Cistercians; the 
men according to the rule of St Augustine, and were canons 
regular. The special constitutions of the order were largely 
taken from those of the Premonstratensian canons and of the 
Cistercians. Like Fontevrault (q.v.) it was a double order, the 
communities of men and women living side by side; but, though 
the property all belonged to the nuns, the superior of the canons 
was the head of the whole establishment, and the general superior 
was a canon, called " Master of Sempringham." The general 
chapter was a mixed assembly composed of two canons and two 
nuns from each house; the nuns had to travel to the chapter 
in closed carts. The office was celebrated together in the church, 
a high stone screen separating the two choirs of canons and nuns. 
The order received papal approbation in 1148. By Gilbert's 
death (1189) there were nine double monasteries and four of 
canons only, containing about 700 canons and 1000 nuns in all. 
At the dissolution there were some 25 monasteries, whereof 4 
ranked among the greater monasteries (see list in F. A. Gasquet's 
English Monastic Life) . The order never spread beyond England. 
The habit of the Gilbertines was black, with a white cloak. 

See Bollandists' Acta Sanctorum (4th of Feb.) ; William Dugdale, 
Monasticon (1846); Helyot, Hist, des ordres religieux (1714), 
ii. c. 29. The best modern account is St Gilbert of Sempringham, 
and the Gilbertines, by Rose Graham (1901). The art. in Dictionary 
of National Biography gives abundant information on St Gilbert, 
but is unsatisfactory on the order, as it might easily convey the 
impression that the canons and nuns lived together, whereas they 
were most carefully separated ; and altogether undue prominence is 
given to a single scandal. Miss Graham declares that the reputation 
of the order was good until the end. (E. C. B.) 

GILBERT FOLIOT (d. 1187), bishop of Hereford, and of 
London, is first mentioned as a monk of Cluny, whence he was 
called in 1136 to plead the cause of the empress Matilda against 
Stephen at the Roman court. Shortly afterwards he became 
prior of Cluny; then prior of Abbeville, a house dependent upon 
Cluny. In 1139 he was elected abbot of Gloucester. The 
appointment was confirmed by Stephen, and from the ecclesi- 
astical point of view was unexceptionable. But the new abbot 
proved himself a valuable ally of the empress, and her ablest 
controversialist. Gilbert's reputation grew rapidly. He was 
respected at Rome; and he acted as the representative of the 
primate, Theobald, in the supervision of the Welsh church. In 
1148, on being nominated by the pope to the see of Hereford, 
Gilbert with characteristic wariness sought confirmation both 
from Henry of Anjou and from Stephen. But he was an 
Angevin at heart, and after 1154 was treated by Henry II. with 
every mark of consideration. He was Becket's rival for the 
primacy, and the only bishop who protested against the king's 
choice. Becket, with rare forbearance, endeavoured to win his 
friendship by procuring for him the see of London (1163). But 
Gilbert evaded the customary profession of obedience to the 
primate, and apparently aspired to make his see independent 
of Canterbury. On the questions raised by the Constitutions 
of Clarendon he sided with the king, whose confessor he had now 



become. He urged Becket to yield, and, when this advice was 
rejected, encouraged his fellow-bishops to repudiate the authority 
of the archbishop. In the years of controversy which followed 
Becket's flight the king depended much upon the bishop's 
skill as a disputant and diplomatist. Gilbert was twice ex- 
communicated by Becket, but both on these and on other occasions 
he showed great dexterity in detaching the pope from the cause 
of the exile. To him it was chiefly due that Henry avoided an 
open conflict with Rome of the kind which John afterwards 
provoked. Gilbert was one of the bishops whose excommunica- 
tion in 1170 provoked the king's knights to murder Becket; 
but he cannot be reproached with any share in the crime. His 
later years were uneventful, though he enjoyed great influence 
with the king and among his fellow-bishops. Scholarly, dignified, 
ascetic in his private life, devoted to the service of the Church, 
he was nevertheless more respected than loved. His nature was 
cold; he made few friends; and the taint of a calculating 
ambition runs through his whole career. He died in the spring 
of 1187. 

See Gilbert's Letters, ed. J. A. Giles (Oxford, 1845); Materials 
for the History of Thomas Becket, ed. J. C. Robertson (Rolls series. 
1875-1885); and Miss K. Norgate's England under the Angevin 
Kings (1887). . (H.W.C.D.). 

GILBERT (KINGSMILL) ISLANDS, an extensive archipelago 
belonging to Great Britain in the mid-western Pacific Ocean, 
lying N. and S. of the equator, and between 170 and 180 E. 
There are sixteen islands, all coral reefs or atolls, extending in 
crescent form over about five degrees of latitude. The principal 
is Taputenea or Drummond Island. The soil, mostly of coral 
sand, is productive of little else than the coco-nut palm, and the 
chief source of food supply is the sea. The population of these 
islands presents a remarkable phenomenon; in spite of adverse 
conditions of environment and complete barbarism it is exceed- 
ingly dense, in strong contradistinction to that of many other 
more favoured islands. The land area of the group is only 166 m., 
yet the population is about 30,000. The Gilbert islanders are 
a dark and coarse type of the Polynesian race, and, show signs 
of much crossing. They are tall and stout, with an average height 
of 5 ft. 8 in., and are of a vigorous, energetic temperament. 
They are nearly always naked, but wear a conical hat of pandanus 
leaf. In war they have an armour of plaited coco-nut fibres. 
They are fierce fighters, their chief weapon being a sword armed 
with sharks' teeth. Their canoes are well made of coco-nut wood 
boards sewn neatly together and fastened on frames. British 
and American missionary work has been prosecuted with some 
success. The large population led to the introduction of natives 
from these islands into Hawaii as labourers in 1878-1884, but 
they were not found satisfactory. The islands were discovered 
by John Byron in 1765 (one of them bearing his name); Captains 
Gilbert and Marshall visited them in 1788; and they were 
annexed by Great Britain in 1892. 

GILBEY, SIR WALTER, IST BART. (1831- ), English 
wine-merchant, was born at Bishop Stortford, Hertfordshire, 
in 1831. His father, the owner and frequently the driver of the 
daily coach between Bishop Stortford and London, died when 
he was eleven years old, and young Gilbey was shortly afterwards 
placed in the office of an estate agent at Tring, subsequently 
obtaining a clerkship in a firm of parliamentary agents in London. 
On the outbreak of the Crimean War, Walter Gilbey and his 
younger brother, Alfred, volunteered for civilian service at the 
front, and were employed at a convalescent hospital on the 
Dardanelles. Returning to London on the declaration of peace, 
Walter and Alfred Gilbey, on the advice of their eldesjt brother, 
Henry Gilbey, a wholesale wine-merchant, started in the retail 
wine and spirit trade. The heavy duty then levied by the 
British government on French, Portuguese and Spanish wines 
was prohibitive of a sale among the English middle classes, and 
especially lower middle classes, whose usual alcoholic beverage 
was accordingly beer. Henry Gilbey was of opinion that these 
classes would gladly drink wine if they could get it at a moderate 
price, and by his advice Walter and Alfred determined to push 
the sales of colonial, and particularly of Cape, wines, on which 



12 



GILDAS GILDERSLEEVE 



the duty was comparatively light. Backed by capital obtained 
through Henry Gilbey, they accordingly opened in 1857 a small 
retail business in a basement in Oxford Street, London. The 
Cape wines proved popular, and within three years the brothers 
had 20,000 customers on their books. The creation of the 
off-licence system by Mr Gladstone, then chancellor of the 
exchequer, in 1860, followed by the large reduction in the duty 
on French wines effected by the commercial treaty between 
England and France in 1861, revolutionized their trade and 
laid the foundation of their fortunes. Three provincial grocers, 
who had been granted the new off-licence, applied to be appointed 
the Gilbeys' agents in their respective districts, and many 
similar applications followed. These were granted, and before 
very long a leading local grocer was acting as the firm's agents 
in every district in England. The grocer who dealt in the 
Gilbeys' wines and spirits was not allowed to sell those of any 
other firm, and the Gilbeys in return handed over to him all 
their existing customers in his district. This arrangement was 
of mutual advantage, and the Gilbeys' business increased so 
rapidly that in 1864 Henry Gilbey abandoned his own under- 
taking to join his brothers. In 1867 the three brothers secured 
the old Pantheon theatre and concert hall in Oxford Street for 
their headquarters. In 1875 the firm purchased a large claret- 
producing estate in Medoc, on the banks of the Gironde, and 
became also the proprietors of two large whisky-distilleries in 
Scotland. In 1893 the business was converted, for family 
reasons, into a private limited liability company, of which Walter 
Gilbey, who in the same year was created a baronet, was chair- 
man. Sir Walter Gilbey also became well known as a breeder 
of shire horses, and he did much to improve the breed of English 
horses (other than race-horses) generally, and wrote extensively 
on the subject. He became president of the Shire Horse Society, 
of the Hackney Horse Society, and of the Hunters' Improve- 
ment Society, and he was the founder and chairman of the 
London Cart Horse Parade Society. He was also a practical 
agriculturist, and president of the Royal Agricultural Society. 

GILDAS, or GILDUS (c. 516-570), the earliest of British 
historians (see CELT: Literature, " Welsh"), surnamed by some 
Sapiens, and by others Badonicus, seems to have been born in 
the year 516. Regarding him little certain is known, beyond 
some isolated particulars that may be gathered from hints 
dropped in the course of his work. Two short treatises exist, 
purporting to be lives of Gildas, and ascribed respectively to the 
nth and i2th centuries; but the writers of both are believed to 
have confounded two, if not more, persons that had borne the 
name. It is from an incidental remark of his own, namely, that 
the year of the siege of Mount Badon one of the battles fought 
between the Saxons and the Britons was also the year of his 
own nativity, that the date of his birth has been derived; the 
place, however, is not mentioned. His assertion that he was 
moved to undertake his task mainly by "zeal for God's house and 
for His holy law," and the very free use he has made of quotations 
from the Bible, leave scarcely a doubt that he was an ecclesiastic 
of some order or other. In addition, we learn that he went 
abroad, probably to France, in his thirty-fourth year, where, 
after 10 years of hesitation and preparation, he composed, about 
560, the work bearing his name. His materials, he tells us, 
were collected from foreign rather than native sources, the 
latter of which had been put beyond his reach by circumstances. 
The Cambrian Annals give 570 as the year of his death. 

The writings of Gildas have come down to us under the title 
of Gildae Sapienlis de excidio Britanniae liber querulus. Though 
at first written consecutively, the work is now usually divided 
into three portions, a preface, the history proper, and an 
epistle, the last, which is largely made up of passages and 
texts of Scripture brought together for the purpose of condemning 
the vices of his countrymen and their rulers, being the least 
important, though by far the longest of the three. In the second 
he passes in brief review the history of Britain from its invasion 
by the Romans till his own times. Among other matters refer- 
ence is made to the introduction of Christianity in the reign of 
Tiberius; the persecution under Diocletian; the spread of the 



Arian heresy; the election of Maximus as emperor by the legions 
in Britain, and his subsequent death at Aquileia; the incursions 
of the Picts and Scots into the southern part of the island; the 
temporary assistance rendered to the harassed Britons by the 
Romans; the final abandonment of the island by the latter; 
the coming of the Saxons and their reception by Guortigern' 
(Vortigern) ; and, finally, the conflicts between the Britons, led 
by a noble Roman, Ambrosius Aurelianus, and the new invaders. 
Unfortunately, on almost every point on which he touches, the 
statements of Gildas are vague and obscure. With one excep- 
tion already alluded to, no dates are given, and events are not 
always taken up in the order of their occurrence. These faults 
are of less importance during the period when Greek and Roman 
writers notice the affairs of Britain; but they become more 
serious when, as is the case from nearly the beginning of the sth 
century to the date of his death, Gildas's brief narrative is our 
only authority for most of what passes current as the history of 
our island during those years. Thus it is on his sole, though in 
this instance perhaps trustworthy, testimony that the famous 
letter rests, said to have been sent to Rome in 446 by the despair- 
ing Britons, commencing: " To Agitius (Aetius), consul for 
the third time, the groans of the Britons." 

Gildas's treatise was first published in 1525 by Polydore Vergil, 
but with many avowed alterations and omissions. In 1568 John 
Josseline, secretary to Archbishop Parker, issued a new edition of it 
more in conformity with manuscript authority; and in 1691 a 
still more carefully revised edition appeared at Oxford by Thomas 
Gale. It was frequently reprinted on the Continent during the 
1 6th century, and once or twice since. The next English edition, 
described by Potthast as editio pessima, was that published by the 
English Historical Society in 1838, and edited by the Rev. J. Steven- 
son. The text of Gildas founded on Gale's edition collated with 
two other MSS., with elaborate introductions, is included in the 
Monumenta historica Britannica, edited by Petrie and Sharpe 
(London, 1848). Another edition is in A. W. Haddan and W. 
Stubbs, Councils and Eccles. Documents relating to Great Britain 
(Oxford, 1869); the latest edition is that by Theodor Mommsen in 
Monum. Germ. hist. auct. antiq. xiii. (Chronica min. iii.), 1894. 

GILDER, RICHARD WATSON (1844-1909), American editor 
and poet, was born in Bordentown, New Jersey, on the Sth of 
February 1844, a brother of William Henry Gilder (1838-1900), 
the Arctic explorer. He was educated at Bellevue Seminary, 
an institution conducted by his father, the Rev. William Henry 
Gilder (1812-1864), in Flushing, Long Island. After three years 
(1865-1868) on the Newark, New Jersey, Daily Advertiser, he 
founded, with Newton Crane, the Newark Morning Register. In 
1869 he became editor of Hours at Home, and in 1870 assistant 
editor of Scribner's Monthly (eleven years later re-named The 
Century Magazine), of which he became editor in 1881. He was 
one of the founders of the Free Art League, of the International 
Copyright League, and of the Authors' Club; was chairman of 
the New York Tenement House Commission in 1894; and was a 
prominent member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters, 
of the Council of the National Civil Service Reform League, and 
of the executive committee of the Citizens' Union of New York 
City. His poems, which are essentially lyrical, have been collected 
in various volumes, including Fivf Books of Song (1894), In 
Palestine and other Poems (1898), Poems and Inscriptions(ic)oi), 
and In the Heights (1905). A complete edition of his poems was 
published in 1908. He also edited " Sonnets from the Portuguese " 
and other Poems by Elizabeth Barrett Browning; "One Word 
More" and other Poems by Robert Browning (1905). He died in 
New York on the i8th of November 1909. His wife, Helena 
de Kay, a grand-daughter of Joseph Rodman Drake, assisted, 
with Saint Gaudens and others, in founding the Society of 
American Artists, now merged in the National Academy, 
and the Art Students' League of New York. She translated 
Sensier's biography of Millet, and painted, before her marriage 
in 1874, studies in flowers and ideal heads, much admired for 
their feeling and delicate colouring. 

GILDERSLEEVE, BASIL LANNEAU (1831- ), American 
classical scholar, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 
23rd of October 1831, son of Benjamin Gildersleeve (1791-1875,) 
a Presbyterian evangelist, and editor of the Charleston Christian 
Observer in 1826-1845, of the Richmond (Va.) Watchman and 



GILDING 



Observer in 1845-1856, and of The Central Presbyterian in 1856- 
1860. The son graduated at Princeton in 1849, studied under 
Franz in Berlin, under Friedrich Ritschl at Bonn and under 
Schneidewin at Gottingen, where he received his doctor's degree 
in 1853. From 1856 to 1876 he was professor of Greek in the 
University of Virginia, holding the chair of Latin also in 1861- 
1866; and in 1876 he became professor of Greek in the newly 
founded Johns Hopkins University. In 1880 The American 
Journal of Philology, a quarterly published by the Johns Hopkins 
University, was established under his editorial charge, and his 
strong personality was expressed in the department of the Journal 
headed " Brief Report " or " Lanx Satura," and in the earliest 
years of its publication every petty detail was in his hands. 
His style in it, as elsewhere, is in striking contrast to that of the 
typical classical scholar, and accords with his conviction that the 
true aim of scholarship is " that which is." He published a 
Latin Grammar (1867; revised with the co-operation of Gonzalez 
B. Lodge, 1894 and 1899) and a Latin Series for use in secondary 
schools (1875), both marked by lucidity of order and mastery of 
grammatical theory and methods. His edition of Persius (1875) 
is of great value. But his bent was rather toward Greek than 
Latin. His special interest in Christian Greek was partly the 
cause of his editing in 1877 The Apologies of Justin Martyr, 
" which " (to use his own words) " I used unblushingly as a 
repository for my syntactical formulae." Gildersleeve's studies 
under Franz had no doubt quickened his interest in Greek 
syntax, and his logic, untrammelled by previous categories, and 
his marvellous sympathy with the language were displayed in 
this most unlikely of places. His Syntax of Classic Greek (Part I., 
1900, with C. W. E. Miller)collects these formulae. Gildersleeve 
edited in 1885 The Olympian and Pythian Odes of Pindar, with 
a brilliant and valuable introduction. His views on the function 
of grammar were summarized in a paper on The Spiritual Rights 
of Minute Research delivered at Bryn Mawr on the i6th of June 
1895. His collected contributions to literary periodicals appeared 
in 1890 under the title Essays and Studies Educational and 
Literary. 

GILDING, the art of spreading gold, either by mechanical 
or by chemical means, over the surface of a body for the purpose 
of ornament. The art of gilding was known to the ancients. 
According to Herodotus, the Egyptians were accustomed to gild 
wood and metals ; and gilding by means of gold plates is frequently 
mentioned in the Old Testament. Pliny informs us that the first 
gilding seen at Rome was after the destruction of Carthage, under 
the censorship of Lucius Mummius, when the Romans began to 
gild the ceilings of their temples and palaces, the Capitol being the 
first place on which this enrichment was bestowed. But he adds 
that luxury advanced on them so rapidly that in a little time you 
might see all, even private and poor persons, gild the walls, vaults, 
and other parts of their dwellings. Owing to the comparative 
thickness of the gold-leaf used in ancient gilding, the traces of it 
which yet remain are remarkably brilliant and solid. Gilding 
has in all times occupied an important place in the ornamental 
arts of Oriental countries; and the native processes pursued in 
India at the present day may be taken as typical of the arts as 
practised from the earliest periods. For the gilding of copper, 
employed in the decoration of temple domes and other large 
works, the following is an outline of the processes employed. 
The metal surface is thoroughly scraped, cleaned and polished, and 
next heated in a fire sufficiently to remove any traces of grease or 
other impurity which may remain from the operation of polishing. 
It is then dipped in an acid solution prepared from dried unripe 
apricots, and rubbed with pumice or brick powder. Next, the 
surface is rubbed over with mercury which forms a superficial 
amalgam with the copper, after which it is left some hours in clean 
water, again washed with the acid solution, and dried. It is 
now ready for receiving the gold, which is laid on in leaf, and, on 
adhering, assumes a grey appearance from combining with the 
mercury, but on the application of heat the latter metal volatilizes, 
leaving the gold a dull greyish hue. The colour is brought up 
by means of rubbing with agate burnishers. The weight of 
mercury used in this process is double that of the gold laid on, 



and the thickness of the gilding is regulated by the circumstances 
or necessities of the case. For the gilding of iron or steel, the 
surface is first scratched over with chequered lines, then washed 
in a hot solution of green apricots, dried and heated just short 
of red-heat. The gold-leaf is then laid on, and rubbed in with 
agate burnishers, when it adheres by catching into the prepared 
scratched surface. 

Modern gilding is applied to numerous and diverse surfaces 
and by various distinct processes, so that the art is prosecuted 
in many ways, and is part of widely different ornamental and 
useful arts. It forms an important and essential part of frame- 
making (see CARVING AND GILDING); it is largely employed 
in connexion with cabinet-work, decorative painting and house 
ornamentation; and it also bulks largely in bookbinding and 
ornamental leather work. Further, gilding is much employed 
for coating baser metals, as in button-making, in the gilt toy trade, 
in electro-gilt reproductions and in electro-plating; and it is 
also a characteristic feature in the decoration of pottery, porcelain 
and glass. The various processes fall under one or other of two 
heads mechanical gilding and gilding by chemical agency. 

Mechanical Gilding embraces all the operations by which gold- 
leaf is prepared (see GOLDBEATING), and the severaj processes 
by which it is mechanically attached to the surfaces it_ is intended 
to cover. It thus embraces the burnish or water-gilding and the 
oil-gilding of the carver and gilder, and the gilding operations of 
the house decorator, the sign-painter, the bookbinder, the paper- 
stainer and several others. Polished iron, steel and other metals 
are gilt mechanically by applying gold-leaf to the metallic surface 
at a temperature just under red-heat, pressing the leaf on with a 
burnisher and reheating, when additional leaf may be laid on. 
The process is completed by cold burnishing. 

Chemical Gilding embraces those processes in which the gold 
used is at some stage in a state of chemical combination. Of these 
the following are the principal : 

Cold Gilding. In this process the gold is obtained in a state of 
extremely fine division, and applied by mechanical means. Cold 
gilding on silver is performed by a solution of gold in aqua-regia, 
applied by dipping a linen rag into the solution, burning it, and 
rubbing the black and heavy ashes on the silver with the finger 
or a piece of leather or cork. Wet gilding is effected by means of 
a dilute solution of chloride of gold with twice its quantity of ether. 
The liquids are agitated and allowed to rest, when the ether separates 
and floats on the surface of the acid. The whole mixture is then 
poured into a funnel with a small aperture, and allowed to rest 
for some time, when the acid is run off and the ether separated. 
The ether will be found to have taken up all the gold from the acid, 
and may be used for gilding iron or steel, for which purpose the 
metal is polished with the finest emery and spirits of wine. The 
ether is then applied with a small brush, and as it evaporates it 
deposits the gold, which can now be heated and polished. For 
small delicate figures a pen or a fine brush may be used for laying 
on the ether solution. Fire-gilding or Wash-gilding is a process by 
which an amalgam of gold is applied to metallic surfaces, the mercury 
being subsequently volatilized, leaving a film of gold or an amalgam 
containing from 13 to 16% of mercury. In the preparation of the 
amalgam the gold must first be reduced to thin plates or grains, 
which are heated red hot, and thrown into mercury previously heated, 
till it begins to smoke, Upon stirring the mercury with an iron 
rod, the gold totally disappears. The proportion of mercury to 
gold is generally as six or eight to one. When the amalgam is 
cold it is squeezed through chamois leather for the purpose of 
separating the superfluous mercury; the gold, with about _twice 
its weight of mercury, remains behind, forming a yellowish silvery 
mass of the consistence of butter. When the metal to be gilt is 
wrought or chased, it ought to be covered with mercury before 
the amalgam is applied, that this may be more easily spread; but 
when the surface of the metal is plain, the amalgam may be applied 
to it direct. When no such preparation is applied, the surface to be 
gilded is simply bitten and cleaned with nitric acid. A deposit of 
mercury is obtained on a metallic surface by means of " quicksilver 
water, a solution of nitrate of mercury, the nitric acid attacking 
the metal to which it is applied, and thus leaving a film of free 
metallic mercury. The amalgam being equally spread over the 
prepared surface of the metal, the mercury is then sublimed by a 
heat just sufficient for that purpose; for, if it is too great, part of 
the gold may be driven off, or it may run together and leave some 
of the surface of the metal bare. When the mercury has evaporated, 
which is known by the surface having entirely become of a dull 
yellow colour, the metal must undergo other operations, by which the 
fine gold colour is given to it. First, the gilded surface is rubbed 
with a scratch brush of brass wire, until its surface be smooth ; then 
it is covered over with a composition called " gilding wax," and 
again exposed to the fire until the wax is burnt off. This wax is 
composed of beeswax mixed with some of the following substances, 



GILDS 



viz. red ochre, verdigris, copper scales, alum, vitriol, borax. By 
this operation the colour of the gilding is heightened; and the 
effect seems to be produced by a perfect dissipation of some mercury 
remaining after the former operation. The dissipation is well 
effected by this equable application of heat. The gilt surface is then 
covered over with nitre, alum or other salts, ground together, and 
mixed up into a paste with water or weak ammonia. The piece of 
metal thus covered is exposed to a certain degree of heat, and then 
quenched in water. By this method its colour is further improved 
and brought nearer to that of gold, probably by removing any 
particles of copper that may have been on the gilt surface. This 
process, when skilfully carried out, produces gilding of great solidity 
and beauty ; but owing to the exposure of the workmen to mercurial 
fumes, it is very unhealthy, and further there is milch loss of mercury. 
Numerous contrivances have been introduced to obviate these serious 
evils. Gilt brass buttons used for uniforms are gilt by this process, 
and there is an act of parliament (1796) yet unrepealed which pre- 
scribes 5 grains of gold as the smallest quantity that may be used 
for the gilding of 12 dozen of buttons I in. in diameter. 

Gilding of Pottery and Porcelain. The quantity of gold consumed 
for these purposes is very large. The gold used is dissolved in aqua- 
regia, and the acid is driven off by heat, or the gold may be precipi- 
tated by means of sulphate of iron. In this pulverulent state the 
gold is mixed with ^th of its weight of oxide of bismuth, together 
with a small quantity of borax and gum water. The mixture is 
applied to the articles with a camel's hair pencil, and after passing 
through the fire the gold is of a dingy colour, but the lustre is brought 
out by burnishing with agate and bloodstone, and afterwards 
cleaning with vinegar or white-lead. 

GILDS, or GUILDS. Medieval gilds were voluntary associations 
formed for the mutual aid and protection of their members. 
Among the gildsmen there was a strong spirit of fraternal co- 
operation or Christian brotherhood, with a mixture of worldly 
and religious ideals the support of the body and the salvation of 
the soul. Early meanings of the root gild or geld were expiation, 
penalty, sacrifice or worship, feast or banquet, and contribution 
or payment; it is difficult to determine which is the earliest 
meaning, and we are not certain whether the gildsmen were 
originally those who contributed to a common fund or those who 
worshipped or feasted together. Their fraternities or societies 
may be divided into three classes: religious or benevolent, 
merchant and craft gilds. The last two categories, which do not 
become prominent anywhere in Europe until the izth century, 
had, like all gilds, a religious tinge, but their aims were primarily 
worldly, and their functions were mainly of an economic character. 

i. Origin. Various theories have been advanced concerning 
the origin of gilds. Some writers regard them as a continuation of 
the Roman collegia and sodalitates, but there is little evidence to 
prove the unbroken continuity of existence of the Roman and 
Germanic fraternities. A more widely accepted theory derives 
gilds wholly or in part from the early Germanic or Scandinavian 
sacrificial banquets. Much influence is ascribed to this heathen 
element by Lujo Brentano, Karl Hegel, W. E. Wilda and other 
writers. This view does not seem to be tenable, for the old 
sacrificial carousals lack two of the essential elements of the gilds, 
namely corporative solidarity or permanent association and the 
spirit of Christian brotherhood. Dr Max Pappenheim has 
ascribed the origin of Germanic gilds to the northern " foster- 
brotherhood " or " sworn-brotherhood," which was an artificial 
bond of union between two or more persons. After intermingling 
their blood in the earth and performing other peculiar ceremonies, 
the two contracting parties with grasped hands swore to avenge 
any injury done to either of them. The objections to this 
theory are fully stated by Hegel (Stadte und Cilden, i. 250-253). 
The foster-brotherhood seems to have been unknown to the 
Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, the nations in which medieval 
gilds first appear; and hence Dr Pappenheim's conclusions, 
if tenable at all, apply only to Denmark or Scandinavia. 

No theory on this subject can be satisfactory which wholly 
ignores the influence of the Christian church. Imbued with the 
idea of the brotherhood of man, the church naturally fostered 
the early growth of gilds and tried to make them displace the 
old heathen banquets. The work of the church was, however, 
directive rather than creative. Gilds were a natural manifesta- 
tion of the associative spirit which is inherent in mankind. The 
same needs produce in different ages associations which have 
striking resemblances, but those of each age have peculiarities 



which indicate a spontaneous growth. It is not necessary to 
seek the germ of gilds in any antecedent age or institution. 
When the old kin-bond or maegth was beginning to weaken or 
dissolve, and the state did not yet afford adequate protection to 
its citizens, individuals naturally united for mutual help. 

Gilds are first mentioned in the Carolingian capitularies of 
779 and 789, and in the enactments made by the synod of Nantes 
early in the gth century, the text of which has been preserved 
in the ecclesiastical ordinances of Hincmar of Rheims (A. 0.852). 
The capitularies of 805 and 821 also contain vague references 
to sworn unions of some sort, and a capitulary of 884 prohibits 
villeins from forming associations " vulgarly called gilds " 
against those who have despoiled them. The Carolingians 
evidently regarded such " conjurations " as " conspirations " 
dangerous to the state. The gilds of Norway, Denmark and 
Sweden are first mentioned in the nth, I2th and i4th centuries 
respectively; those of France and the Netherlands in the 
nth. 

Many writers believe that the earliest references to gilds come 
from England. The laws of Ine speak of gegildan who help each 
other pay the wergeld, but it is not entirely certain that they 
were members of gild fraternities in the later sense. These are 
more clearly referred to in England in the second half of the 
9th century, though we have little information concerning 
them before the nth century. To the first half of that century 
belong the statutes of the fraternities of Cambridge, Abbotsbury 
and Exeter. They are important because they form the oldest 
body of gild ordinances extant in Europe. The thanes' gild at 
Cambridge afforded help in blood-feuds, and provided for the 
payment of the wergeld in case a member killed any one. The 
religious element was more prominent in Orcy's gild at Abbots- 
bury and in the fraternity at Exeter; their ordinances exhibit 
much solicitude for the salvation of the brethren's souls. The 
Exeter gild also gave assistance when property was destroyed 
by fire. Prayers for the dead, attendance at funerals of gildsmen, 
periodical banquets, the solemn entrance oath, fines for neglect 
of duty and for improper conduct, contributions to a common 
purse, mutual assistance in distress, periodical meetings in the 
gildhall, in short, all the characteristic features of the later 
gilds already appear in the statutes of these Anglo-Saxon 
fraternities. Some continental writers, in dealing with the 
origin of municipal government throughout western Europe, 
have, however, ascribed too much importance to the Anglo-Saxon 
gilds, exaggerating their prevalence and contending that they 
form the germ of medieval municipal government. This view 
rests almost entirely on conjecture; there is no good evidence 
to show that there was any organic connexion between gilds 
and municipal government in England before the coming of the 
Normans. It should also be noted that there is no trace of the 
existence of either craft or merchant gilds in England before 
the Norman Conquest. Commerce and industry were not yet 
sufficiently developed to call for the creation of such associations. 

2. Religious Gilds after the Norman Conquest. Though we - 
have not much information concerning the religious gilds in 
the 1 2th century, they doubtless flourished under the Anglo- 
Norman kings, and we know that they were numerous, especially 
in the boroughs, from, the I3th century onward. In 1388 
parliament ordered that every sheriff in England should call 
upon the masters and wardens of all gilds and brotherhoods 
to send to the king's council in Chancery, before the 2nd of 
February 1389, full returns regarding their foundation, ordin- 
ances and property. Many of these returns were edited by 
J. Toulmin Smith (1816-1869), and they throw much light on the 
functions of the gilds. Their ordinances are similar to those of 
the above-mentioned Anglo-Saxon fraternities. Each member 
took an oath of admission, paid an entrance-fee, and made a 
small annual contribution to the common fund. The brethren 
were aided in old age, sickness and poverty, often also in cases 
of loss by robbery, shipwreck and conflagration; for example, 
any member of the gild of St Catherine, Aldersgate, was to be 
assisted if he " fall into poverty or be injured through age, or 
through fire or water, thieves or sickness." Alms were often 



GILDS 



given even to non-gildsmen; lights were supported at certain 
altars; feasts and processions were held periodically; the 
funerals of brethren were attended; and masses for the dead 
were provided from the common purse or from special contribu- 
tions made by the gildsmen. Some of the religious gilds 
supported schools, or helped to maintain roads, bridges and 
town-walls, or even came, in course of time, to be closely con- 
nected with the government of the borough; but, as a rule, 
they were simply private societies with a limited sphere of 
activity. They are important because they played a prominent 
role in the social life of England, especially as eleemosynary 
institutions, down to the time of their suppression in 1547. 
Religious gilds, closely resembling those of England, also 
flourished on the continent during the middle ages. 

3. The Gild Merchant. The merchant and craft fraternities 
are particularly interesting to students of economic and municipal 
history. The gild merchant came into existence in England 
soon after the Norman Conquest, as a result of the increasing 
importance of trade, and it may have been transplanted from 
Normandy. Until clearer evidence of foreign influence is found, 
it may, however, be safer to regard it simply as a new application 
of the old gild principle, though this new application may have 
been stimulated by continental example. The evidence seems 
to indicate the pre-existence of the gild merchant in Normandy, 
but it is not mentioned anywhere on the continent before the 
nth century. It spread rapidly in England, and from the 
reign of John onward we have evidence of its existence in many 
English boroughs. But in some prominent towns, notably 
London, Colchester, Norwich and the Cinque Ports, it seems 
never to have been adopted. In fact it played a more conspicuous 
role in the small boroughs than in the large ones. It was regarded 
by the townsmen as one of their most important privileges. 
Its chief function was to regulate the trade monopoly conveyed 
to the borough by the royal grant of gilda mercatoria. A grant 
of this sort implied that the gildsmen had the right to trade 
freely in the town, and to impose payments and restrictions 
upon others who desired to exercise that privilege. The ordin- 
ances of a gild merchant thus aim to protect the brethren from 
the commercial competition of strangers or non-gildsmen. 
More freedom of trade was allowed at all times in the selling of 
wares by wholesale, and also in retail dealings during the time 
of markets and fairs. The ordinances were enforced by an 
alderman with the assistance of two or more deputies, or by one 
or two masters, wardens or keepers. The Morwenspeches were 
periodical meetings at which the brethren feasted, revised their 
ordinances, admitted new members, elected officers and trans- 
acted other business. 

It has often been asserted that the gild merchant and the 
borough were identical, and that the former was the basis of the 
whole municipal constitution. But recent research has dis- 
credited this theory both in England and on the continent. 
Much evidence has been produced to show that gild and borough, 
gildsmen and burgesses, were originally distinct conceptions, 
and that they continued to be discriminated in most towns 
throughout the middle ages. Admission to the gild was not 
restricted to burgesses; nor did the brethren form an aristocratic 
body having control over the whole municipal polity. No good 
evidence has, moreover, been advanced to prove that this or 
any other kind of gild was the germ of the municipal constitution. 
On the other hand, the gild merchant was certainly an official 
organ or department of the borough administration, and it 
exerted considerable influence upon the economic and corporative 
growth of the English municipalities. 

Historians have expressed divergent views regarding the 
early relations of the craftsmen and their fraternities to the gild 
merchant. One of the main questions in dispute is whether 
artisans were excluded from the gild merchant. Many of them 
seem to have been admitted to membership. They were regarded 
as merchants, for they bought raw material and sold the manu- 
factured commodity; no sharp line of_demarcation was drawn 
between the two classes in the 1 2th and ijth centuries. Separate 
societies of craftsmen were formed in England soon after the 



gild merchant came into existence; but at first they were few 
in number. The gild merchant did not give birth to craft 
fraternities or have anything to do with their origin; nor did 
it delegate its authority to them. In fact, there seems to have 
been little or no organic connexion between the two classes of 
gilds. As has already been intimated, however, many artisans 
probably belonged both to their own craft fraternity and to the gild 
merchant, and the latter, owing to its great power in the town, 
may have exercised some sort of supervision over the craftsmen 
and their societies. When the king bestowed upon the tanners 
or weavers or any other body of artisans the right to have a 
gild, they secured the monopoly of working and trading in their 
branch of industry. Thus with every creation of a craft fraternity 
the gild merchant was weakened and its sphere of activity was 
diminished, though the new bodies were subsidiary to the older 
and larger fraternity. The greater the commercial and industrial 
prosperity of a town, the more rapid was the multiplication of 
craft gilds, which was a natural result of the ever-increasing 
division of labour. The old gild merchant remained longest 
intact and powerful in the smaller boroughs, in which, owing 
to the predominance of agriculture, few or no craft gilds were 
formed. In some of the larger towns the crafts were prominent 
already in the I3th century, but they became much more pro- 
minent in the first half of the I4th century. Their increase in 
number and power was particularly rapid in the time of Edward 
III., whose reign marks an era of industrial progress. Many 
master craftsmen now became wealthy employers of labour, 
dealing extensively in the wares which they produced. The class 
of dealers or merchants, as distinguished from trading artisans, 
also greatly increased and established separate fraternities. 
When these various unions of dealers and of craftsmen embraced 
all the trades and branches of production in the town, little or 
no vitality remained in the old gild merchant; it ceased to have 
an independent sphere of activity. The tendency was for the 
single organization, with a general monopoly of trade, to be 
replaced by a number of separate organizations representing 
the various trades and handicrafts. In short, the function of 
guarding and supervising the trade monopoly split up into 
various fragments, the aggregate of the crafts superseding the 
old general gild merchant. This transference of the authority 
of the latter to a number of distinct bodies and the consequent 
disintegration of the old organization was a gradual spontaneous 
movement, a process of slow displacement, or natural growth 
and decay, due to the play, of economic forces, which, generally 
speaking, may be assigned to the i4th and isth centuries, the 
very period in which the craft gilds attained the zenith of their 
power. While in most towns the name and the old organization 
of the gild merchant thus disappeared and the institution was 
displaced by the aggregate of the crafts towards the close of the 
middle ages, in some places it survived long after the isth 
century either as a religious fraternity, shorn of its old functions, 
or as a periodical feast, or as a vague term applied to the whole 
municipal corporation. 

On the continent of Europe the medieval gild merchant played 
a less important r61e than in England. In Germany, France 
and the Netherlands it occupies a less prominent place in the 
town charters and in the municipal polity, and often corresponds 
to the later fraternities of English dealers established either to 
carry on foreign commerce or to regulate a particular part of the 
local trade monopoly. 

4. Craft Gilds. A craft gild usually comprised all the artisans 
in a single branch of industry in a particular town. Such a 
fraternity was commonly called a " mistery " or " company " 
in the isth and i6th centuries, though the old term "gild" 
was not yet obsolete. " Gild " was also a common designation 
in north Germany, while the corresponding term in south 
Germany was Zunft, and in France metier. These societies are 
not clearly visible in England or on the continent before the early 
part of the iath century. With the expansion of trade and 
industry the number of artisans increased, and they banded 
together for mutual protection. Some German writers have 
maintained that these craft organizations emanated from 



i6 



GILDS 



manorial groups of workmen, but strong arguments have been 
advanced against the validity of this theory (notably by F. 
Keutgen). It is unnecessary to elaborate any profound theory 
regarding the origin of the craft gilds. The union of men of the 
same occupation was a natural tendency of the age. In the 
I3th century the trade of England continued to expand and 
the number of craft gilds increased. In the I4th century they 
were fully developed and in a flourishing condition; by that time 
each branch of industry in every large town had its gild. The 
development of these societies was even more rapid on the con- 
tinent than in England. 

Their organization and aims were in general the same through- 
out western Europe. Officers, commonly called wardens in 
England, were elected by the members, and their chief function 
was to supervise the quality of the wares produced, so as to 
secure good and honest workmanship. Therefore, ordinances 
were made regulating the hours of ^labour and the terms of 
admission to the gild, including apprenticeship. Other ordin- 
ances required members to make periodical payments to a 
common fund, and to participate in certain common religious 
observances, festivities and pageants. But the regulation of 
industry was always paramount to social and religious aims; 
the chief object of the craft gild was to supervise the processes 
of manufacture and to control the monopoly of working and 
dealing in a particular branch of industry. 

We have already called attention to the gradual displacement 
of the gild merchant by the craft organizations. The relations 
of the former to the latter must now be considered more in 
detail. There was at no time a general struggle in England 
between the gild merchant and the craft gilds, though in a few 
towns there seems to have been some friction between merchants 
and artisans. There is no exact parallel in England to the conflict 
between these two classes in Scotland in the i6th century, or to 
the great continental revolution of the I3th and I4th centuries, 
by which the crafts threw off the yoke of patrician government 
and secured more independence in the management of their own 
affairs and more participation in the civic administration. The 
main causes of these conflicts on the continent were the monopoly 
of power by the patricians, acts of violence committed by them, 
their bad management of .the finances and their partisan admini- 
stration of justice. In some towns the victory of the artisans 
in the I4th century was so complete that the whole civic con- 
stitution was remodelled with the craft fraternities as a basis. 
A widespread movement of this sort would scarcely be found in 
England, where trade and industry were less developed than on 
the continent, and where the motives of a class conflict between 
merchants and craftsmen were less potent. Moreover, borough 
government in England seems to have been mainly democratic 
until the I4th or isth century; there was no oligarchy to be 
depressed or suppressed. Even if there had been motives for 
uprisings of artisans such as took place in Germany and the 
Netherlands, the English kings would probably have intervened. 
True, there were popular uprisings in England, but they were 
usually conflicts between the poor and the rich; the crafts as 
such seldom took part in these tumults. While many continental 
municipalities were becoming more democratic in the i4th 
century, those of England were drifting towards oligarchy, 
towards government by a close " select body." As a rule the 
craft gilds secured no dominant influence in the boroughs of 
England, but remained subordinate to the town government. 
Whatever power they did secure, whether as potent subsidiary 
organs of the municipal polity for the regulation of trade, or as 
the chief or sole medium for the acquisition of citizenship, or as 
integral parts of the common council, was, generally speaking, 
the logical sequence of a gradual economic development, and 
not the outgrowth of a revolutionary movement by which 
oppressed craftsmen endeavoured to throw off the yoke of an 
arrogant patrician gild merchant. 

Two new kinds of craft fraternities appear in the I4th century 
and become more prominent in the isth, namely, the merchants' 
and the journeymen's companies. The misteries or companies 
of merchants traded in one or more kinds of wares. They were 



pre-eminently dealers, who sold what others produced. Hence 
they should not be confused with the old gild merchant, which 
originally comprised both merchants and artisans, and had the 
whole monopoly of the trade of the town. In most cases, the 
company of merchants was merely one of the craft organizations 
which superseded the gild merchant. 

In the 1 4th century the journeymen or yeomen began to set 
up fraternities in defence of their rights. The formation of these 
societies marks a cleft within the ranks of some particular class 
of artisans a conflict between employers, or master artisans, 
and workmen. The journeymen combined to protect their 
special interests, notably as regards hours of work and rates of 
wages, and they fought with the masters over the labour question 
in all its aspects. The resulting struggle of organized bodies 
of masters and journeymen was widespread throughout western 
Europe, but it was more prominent in Germany than in France or 
England. This conflict was indeed one of the main features of 
German industrial life in the isth century. In England the 
fraternities of journeymen, after struggling a while for complete 
independence, seem to have fallen under the supervision and 
control of the masters' gilds; in other words, they became 
subsidiary or affiliated organs of the older craft fraternities. 

An interesting phenomenon in connexion with the organiza- 
tion of crafts is their tendency to amalgamate, which is occasion- 
ally visible in England in the 15th century, and more frequently 
in ,the i6th and I7th. A similar tendency is visible in the 
Netherlands and in some other parts of the continent already 
in the I4th century. Several fraternities old gilds or new 
companies, with their respective cognate or heterogeneous 
branches of industry and trade were fused into one body. In 
some towns all the crafts were thus consolidated into a single 
fraternity; in this case a body was reproduced which regulated 
the whole trade monopoly of the borough, and hence bore some 
resemblance to the old gild merchant. 

In dealing briefly with the modern history of craft gilds, we may 
confine our attention to England. In the Tudor period the 
policy of the crown was to bring them under public or national 
control. Laws were passed, for example in 1503, requiring that 
new ordinances of " fellowships of crafts or misteries " should be 
approved by the royal justices or by other crown officers; and 
the authority of the companies to fix the price of wares was thus 
restricted. The statute of 5 Elizabeth, c. 4, also curtailed their 
jurisdiction over journeymen and apprentices (see APPRENTICE- 
SHIP). 

The craft fraternities were not suppressed by the statute of 
1547 (i Edward VI.). They were indeed expressly exempted 
from its general operation. Such portions of their revenues as 
were devoted to definite religious observances were, however, 
appropriated by the crown. The revenues confiscated were those 
used for " the finding, maintaining or sustentation of any priest 
or of any anniversary, or obit, lamp, light or other such things." 
This has been aptly called " the disendowment of the religion 
of the misteries." Edward VI. 's statute marks no break of 
continuity in the life of the craft organizations. Even before the 
Reformation, however, signs of decay had already begun to 
appear, and these multiplied in the i6th and I7th centuries. The 
old gild system was breaking down under the action of new 
economic forces. Its dissolution was due especially to the 
introduction of new industries, organized on a more modern 
basis, and to the extension of the domestic system of manufacture. 
Thus the companies gradually lost control over the regulation of 
industry, though they still retained their old monopoly in the 
1 7th century, and in many cases even in the i8th. In fact, many 
craft fraternities still survived in the second half of the i8th 
century, but their usefulness had disappeared. The medieval 
form of association was incompatible with the new ideas of in- 
dividual liberty and free competition, with the greater separation 
of capital and industry, employers and workmen, and with the 
introduction of the factory system. Intent only on promoting 
their own interests and disregarding the welfare of the community, 
the old companies had become an unmitigated evil. Attempts 
have been made to find in them the progenitors of the trades 



GILEAD GILES, ST 



I 7 



unions, but there seems to be no immediate connexion between 
the latter and the craft gilds. The privileges of the old frater- 
nities were not formally abolished until 1835; and the sub- 
stantial remains or spectral forms of some are still visible in other 
towns besides London. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. W. E. Wilda, Das Gildenwesen im MUtelaller 
(Halle, 1831); E. Levasseur, Histoire des classes ouvrieres en France 
(2 vols., Paris, 1859, new ed. 1900); Gustav von Schonberg, " Zur 
wirthschaftlichen Bedeutung des deutschen Zunftwesens im Mittel- 
alter," in Jahrbilcher fur Nationalokonomie und Statistik, ed. B. 
Hildebrand, vol. ix. pp. 1-72, 97-169 (Jena, 1867); Joshua Toulmin 
Smith, English Gilds, with Lujo Brentano's introductory essay on 
the History and Development of Gilds (London, 1870); Max Pappen- 
heim, Die altddnischen Schutzgilden (Breslau, 1885); W. J. Ashley, 
Introduction to English Economic History (2 vols., London, 1888- 
1893; 3rd ed. of vol. i., 1894) ; C. Gross, The Gild Merchant (2 vols., 
Oxford, 1890); Karl Hegel, Stadte und Gilden der germanischen 
Volker (2 vols., Leipzig, 1891); J. Malet Lambert, Two Thousand 
Years of Gild Life (Hull, 1891); Alfred Doren, Untersuchungen zur 
Geschichte der Kaufmarinsgilden (Leipzig, 1893); H. Vander Linden, 
Les Gildes marchandes dani", i 'f^t ^ays-Bas au moyen age (Ghent, 
1896); E. Martin Saint-Lfoa, Histoire des corporations de metiers 
(Paris, 1897); C. Nyrop, Danmarks Gilde- og Lavsskraaer fra middel- 
alderen (2 vols., Copenhagen, 1899-1904) ; F. Keutgen, Amter und 
Zunfte (Jena, 1903) ; George Unwin, Industrial Organization in the 
Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Oxford, 1904). For biblio- 
graphies of gilds, see H. Blanc, Bibliographie des corporations 
ouvrieres (Paris, 1885); G. Gonetta, Bibliografia delle corporazioni 
d' arti e mestieri (Rome, 1891); C. Gross. Bibliography of British 
Municipal History, including Gilds (New York, 1897); W. Stieda, 
in Handworterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, ed. J. Conrad (2nd ed., 
Jena, 1901, under " Zunftwesen "). (C. GR.) 

GILEAD (i.e. " hard " or " rugged," a name sometimes used, 
both in earlier and in later writers, to denote the whole of the 
territory occupied by the Israelites eastward of Jordan, extending 
from the Arnon to the southern base of Hermon (Deut. xxxiv. i ; 
Judg. xx. i; Jos. Ant. xii. 8. 3, 4). More precisely, however, 
it was the usual name of that picturesque hill country which is 
bounded on the N by the Hieromax (Yarmuk), on the W. by 
the Jordan, on the S. by the Arnon, and on the E. by a line which 
may be said to follow the meridian of Amman (Philadelphia or 
Rabbath-Ammon). It thus lies wholly within 31 25' and 32 
42' N. lat. and 35 34' and 36 E. long., and is cut in two by the 
Jabbok. Excluding the narrow strip of low-lying plain along 
the Jordan, it has an average elevation of 2500 ft. above the 
Mediterranean; but, as seen from the west, the relative height 
is very much increased by the depression of the Jordan valley. 
The range from the same point of view presents a singularly uni- 
form outline, having the appearance of an unbroken wall; in 
reality, however, it is traversed by a number of deep ravines 
(wadis), of which the most important are the Yabis, the Ajlun, 
the Rajib, the Zerka (Jabbok), the Hesban, and the Zerka Ma'In. 
The great mass of the Gilead range is formed of Jura limestone, 
the base slopes being sandstone partly covered by white marls. 
The eastern slopes are comparatively bare of trees; but the 
western are well supplied with oak, terebinth and pine. The 
pastures are everywhere luxuriant, and the wooded heights and 
winding glens, in which the tangled shrubbery is here and there 
broken up by open glades and flat meadows of green turf, exhibit 
a beauty of vegetation such as is hardly to be seen in any other 
district of Palestine. 

The first biblical mention of " Mount Gilead " occurs in 
connexion with the reconcilement of Jacob and Laban (Genesis 
xxxi.). The composite nature of the story makes an identifica- 
tion of the exact site difficult, but one of the narrators (E) seems 
to have in mind the ridge of what is now known as Jebel Ajlun, 
probably not far from Mahneh (Mahanaim), near the head of the 
wadi Yabis. Some investigators incline to Suf, or to the Jebel 
Kafkafa. At the period of the Israelite conquest the portion of 
Gilead northward of the Jabbok (Zerka) belonged to the dominions 
of Og, king of Bashan, while the southern half was ruled by Sihon, 
king of the Amorites, having been at an earlier date wrested from 
Moab (Numb. xxi. 24; Deut. iii. 12-16). These two sections 
were allotted respectively to Manasseh and to Reuben and Gad, 
both districts being peculiarly suited to the pastoral and nomadic 
character of these tribes. A somewhat wild Bedouin disposition, 
fostered by their surroundings, was retained by the Israelite in- 



habitants of Gilead to a late period of their history, and seems 
to be to some extent discernible in what we read alike of Jephthah, 
of David's Gadites, and of the prophet Elijah. As the eastern 
frontier of Palestine, Gilead bore the first brunt of Syrian and 
Assyrian attacks. 

After the close of the Old Testament history the word Gilead 
seldom occurs. It seems to have soon passed out of use as a 
precise geographical designation; for though occasionally 
mentioned by Apocryphal writers, by Josephus, and by Eusebius, 
the allusions are all vague, and show that those who made them 
had no definite knowledge of Gilead proper. In Josephus and 
the New Testament the name Peraea or irtpav TOV 'lopdavov is 
most frequently used; and the country is sometimes spoken 
of by Josephus as divided into small provinces called after the 
capitals in which Greek colonists had established themselves 
during the reign of the Seleucidae. At present Gilead south of 
the Jabbok alone is known by the name of Jebel Jilad (Mount 
Gilead), the northern portion between the Jabbok and the 
Yarmuk being called Jebel Ajlun. Jebel Jilad includes Jebel 
Osha, and has for its capital the town of Es-Salt. The 
cities of Gilead expressly mentioned in the Old Testament are 
Ramoth, Jabesh and Jazer. The first of these has been variously 
identified with Es-Salt, with Reimun, with Jerash or Gerasa, 
with er-Remtha, and with Salhad. Opinions are also divided 
on the question of its identity with Mizpeh-Gilead (see Encyc. 
Biblica, art. " Ramoth-Gilead "). Jabesh is perhaps to be 
found at Meriamin, less probably at ed-Deir; Jazer, at Yajuz 
near Jogbehah, rather than at Sar. The city named Gilead (Judg. 
x. 17, xii. 7; Hos. vi. 8, xii. n) has hardly been satisfactorily 
explained; perhaps the text has suffered. 

The " balm " (Heb. fori) for which Gilead was so noted 
(Gen. xlvii. n; Jer. viii. 22, xlvi. n; Ezek. xxvii. 17), is probably 
to be identified with mastic (Gen. xxxvii. 25, R.V. marg.) i.e. 
the resin yielded by the Pistachio Lentiscus. The modern 
" balm of Gilead " or " Mecca balsam," an aromatic gum 
produced by the Balsamodendron opobalsamum, is more likely 
the Hebrew mor, which the English Bible wrongly renders 
" myrrh." 

See G. A. Smith, Hist. Geog. xxiv. foil. (R. A. S. M.) 

GILES (GiL, GILLES), ST, the name given to an abbot whose 
festival is celebrated on the ist of September. According to 
the legend, he was an Athenian (Aiyi&ios, Aegidius) of royal 
descent. After the death of his parents he distributed his 
possessions among the poor, took ship, and landed at Marseilles. 
Thence he went to Aries, where he remained for two years with 
St Caesarius. He then retired into a neighbouring desert, 
where he lived upon herbs and upon the milk of a hind which 
came to him at stated hours. He was discovered there one day 
by Flavius, the king of the Goths, who built a monastery on the 
place, of which he was the first abbot. Scholars are very much 
divided as to the date of his life, some holding that he lived in 
the 6th century, others in the 7th or 8th. It may be regarded 
as certain that St Giles was buried in the hermitage which he 
had founded in a spot which was afterwards the town of St- 
Gilles (diocese of Nimes, department of Gard). His reputation 
for sanctity attracted many pilgrims. Important gifts were 
made to the church which contained his body, and a monastery 
grew up hard by. It is probable that the Visigothic princes who 
were in possession of the country protected and enriched this 
monastery, and that it was destroyed by the Saracens at the 
time of their invasion in 721. But there are no authentic data 
before the pth century concerning his history. In 808 Charle- 
magne took the abbey of St-Gilles under his protection, and 
it is mentioned among the monasteries from which only prayers 
for the prince and the state were due. In the i2th century the 
pilgrimages to St-Gilles are cited as among the most celebrated 
of the time. The cult of the saint, who came to be regarded as 
the special patron of lepers, beggars and cripples, spread very 
extensively over Europe, especially in England, Scotland, 
France, Belgium and Germany. The church of St Giles, 
Cripplegate, London, was built about 1090, while the hospital for 
lepers at St Giles-in-the-Fields (near New Oxford Street) was 



i8 



GILFILLAN GILGAMESH 



founded by Queen Matilda in 1117. In England alone there 
are about 150 churches dedicated to this saint. In Edinburgh 
the church of St Giles could boast the possession of an arm-bone 
of its patron. Representations of St Giles are very frequently 
met with in early French and German art, but are much less 
common in Italy and Spain. 

See Ada Sanctorum (September), i. 284-299; Devic and Vaissete, 
Histoire generale de Languedoc, pp. 514-522 (Toulouse, 1876); 
E. Rembry, Saint Gtiles, so, vie, ses reliques, son culte en Belgique et 
dans le nord de la France (Bruges, 1881) ; F. Arnold-Forster, Studies 
in Church Dedications, or England's Patron Saints, ii. 46-51, iii. 15, 
363-365 (1899); A. Jameson, Sacred and Legendary Art, 768-770 
(1896) ; A. Bell, Lives and Legends of the English Bishops and Kings, 
Medieval Monks, and other later Saints, pp. 61, 70, 74-78, 84, 197 
(1904). (H. DE.) 

GILFILLAN, GEORGE (1813-1878), Scottish author, was 
born on the 3Oth of January 1813, at Comrie, Perthshire, where 
his father, the Rev. Samuel Gilfillan, the author of some theo- 
logical works, was for many years minister of a Secession con- 
gregation. After an education at Glasgow University, in March 
1836 he was ordained pastor of a Secession congregation in 
Dundee. He published a volume of his discourses in 1839, 
and shortly afterwards another sermon on " Hades," which 
brought him under the scrutiny of his co-presbyters, and was 
ultimately withdrawn from circulation. Gilfillan next contri- 
buted a series of sketches of celebrated contemporary authors 
to the Dumfries Herald, then edited by Thomas Aird; and these, 
withseveral new ones, formed his first Gallery of Literary Portraits, 
which appeared in 1846, and had a wide circulation. It was 
quickly followed by a Second and a Third Gallery. In 1851 his 
most successful work, the Bards of the Bible, appeared. His 
aim was that it should be " a poem on the Bible "; and it was 
far more rhapsodical than critical. His Martyrs and Heroes of 
the Scottish Covenant appeared in 1832, and in 1856 he produced 
a partly autobiographical, partly fabulous, History of a Man. 
For thirty years he was engaged upon a long poem, on Night, 
which was published in 1867, but its theme was too vast, vague 
and unmanageable, and the result was a failure. He also 
edited an edition of the British Poets. As a lecturer and as a 
preacher he drew large crowds, but his literary reputation has 
not proved permanent. He died on the I3th of August 1878. 
He had just finished a new life of Burns designed to accompany 
a new edition of the works of that poet. 

GILGAL (Heb. for " circle" of sacred stones), the name of 
several places in Palestine, mentioned in the Old Testament. 
The name is not found east of the Jordan. 

1. The first and most important was situated " in the east 
border of Jericho " (Josh. iv. 19), on the border between 
Judah and Benjamin (Josh. xv. 7). Josephus (Ant. v. i. 4) 
places it 50 stadia from Jordan and 10 from Jericho (the 
New Testament site). Jerome (Onomaslicon, s.v. " Galgal ") 
places Gilgal 2 Roman miles from Jericho, and speaks of it 
as a deserted place held in wonderful veneration (" miro cultu " ) 
by the natives. This site, which in the middle ages appears to 
have been lost Gilgal being shown farther north was in 
1865 recovered by a German traveller (Hermann Zschokke), 
and fixed by the English survey party, though not beyond 
dispute. It is about 2 m. east of the site of Byzantine 
Jericho, and i m. from modern er-Riha. A fine tamarisk 
traces of a church (which is mentioned in the 8th century), and 
a large reservoir, now filled up with mud, remain. The place is 
called Jiljulieh, and its position north of the valley of Achor 
(Wadi Kelt) and east of Jericho agrees well with the biblical 
indications above mentioned. A tradition connected with the 
fall of Jericho is attached to the site (see C. R. Conder, Tent 
Work, 203 ff.). This sanctuary and camp of Israel held a high 
place in the national regard, and is often mentioned in Judges 
and Samuel. But whether this is the Gilgal spoken of by Amos 
and Hosea ia connexion with Bethel is by no means certain 
[see (3) below]. 

2. Gilgal, mentioned in Josh. xii. 23 in connexion with Dor, 
appears to have been situated in the maritime plain. Jerome 
(Onomasticon, s.v. " Gelgel ") speaks of a town of the name 



6 Roman miles north of Antipatris (Ras el 'Ain). This is 
apparently the modern Kalkilia, but about 4 m. north of Anti- 
patris is a large village called Jiljulieh, which is more probably 
the biblical town. 

3. The third Gilgal (2 Kings iv. 38) was in the mountains 
(compare i Sam. vii. 16, 2 Kings ii. 1-3) near Bethel. Jerome 
mentions this place also (Onomaslicon, s.v. " Galgala "). It 
appears to be the present village of Jiljilia, about 7 English 
miles north of Beitin (Bethel). It may have absorbed the old 
shrine of Shiloh and been the sanctuary famous in the days of 
Amos and Hosea. 

4. Deut. xi. 30 seems to imply a Gilgal near Gerizim, and there 
is still a place called Juleijil on the plain of Makhna, 24 m. S. E. 
of Shechem. This may have been Amos's Gilgal and was 
almost certainly that of i Mace. ix. 2. 

5. The Gilgal described in Josh. xv. 7 is the same as the 
Bcth-Gilgal of Neh. xii. 29; its site is not known. (R. A. S. M.) 

GILGAMESH, EPIC OF, the.Hf\ e _ given to one of the most 
important literary products of Bab^ionia, from the name of the 
chief personage in the series of tales of which it is composed. 

Though the Gilgamesh Epic is known to us chiefly from the 
fragments found in the royal collection of tablets made by 
Assur-bani-pal, the king of Assyria (668-626 B.C.) for his palace 
at Nineveh, internal evidence points to the high antiquity of at 
least some portions of it, and the discovery of a fragment of the 
epic in the older form of the Babylonian script, which can be 
dated as 2000 B.C., confirms this view. Equally certain is a 
second observation of a general character that the epic originating 
as the greater portion of the literature in Assur-bani-pal's collec- 
tion in Babylonia is a composite product, that is to say, it consists 
of a number of independent stories or myths originating at 
different times, and united to form a continuous narrative with 
Gilgamesh as the central figure. This view naturally raises the 
question whether the independent stories were all told of 
Gilgamesh or, as almost always happens in the case of ancient 
tales, were transferred to Gilgamesh as a favourite popular 
hero. Internal evidence again comes to our aid to lend its 
weight to the latter theory. 

While the existence of such a personage as Gilgamesh may 
be admitted, he belongs to an age that could only have preserved 
a dim recollection of his achievements and adventures through 
oral traditions. The name 1 is not Babylonian, and what 
evidence as to his origin there is points to his having corne from 
Elam, to the east of Babylonia. He may have belonged to the 
people known as the Kassites who at the beginning of the i8th 
century B.C. entered Babylonia from Elam, and obtained control 
of the Euphrates valley. Why and how he came to be a popular 
hero in Babylonia cannot with our present material be deter- 
mined, but the epic indicates that he came as a conqueror and 
established himself at 'Erech. In so far we have embodied in 
the first part of the epic dim recollections of actual events, but 
we soon leave the solid ground of fact and find ourselves soaring 
to the heights of genuine myth. Gilgamesh becomes a god, and 
in certain portions of the epic clearly plays the part of the sun- 
god of the spring-time, taking the place apparently of Tammuz 
or Adonis, the youthful sun-god, though the story shows traits 
that differentiate it from the ordinary Tammuz myths. A 
separate stratum in the Gilgamesh epic is formed by the story of 
Eabani introduced as the friend of Gilgamesh, who joins him 
in his adventures. There can be no doubt that Eabani, who 
symbolizes primeval man, was a figure originally entirely inde- 
pendent of Gilgamesh, but his story was incorporated into the 
epic by that natural process to be observed in the national epics 
of other peoples, which tends to connect the favourite hero with 
all kinds of tales that for one reason or the other become em- 
bedded in the popular mind. Another stratum is represented 
by the story of a favourite of the gods known as Ut-Napishtim, 
who is saved from a destructive storm and flood that destroys 

1 The name of the hero, written always ideographically, was for a 
long time provisionally read Izdubar; but a tablet discovered by 
T. G. Pinches gave the equivalent Gilgamesh (see Jastrow, Religion of 
Babylonia and Assyria, p. 468). 



GILGIT 



his fellow-citizens of Shurippak. Gilgamesh is artificially 
brought into contact with Ut-Napishtim, to whom he pays a 
visit for the purpose of learning the secret of immortal life and 
perpetual youth which he enjoys. During the visit Ut-Napishtim 
tells Gilgamesh the story of the flood and of his miraculous 
escape. Nature myths have been entwined with other episodes 
in the epic and finally the theologians took up the combined 
stories and made them the medium for illustrating the truth 
and force of certain doctrines of the Babylonian religion. In 
its final form, the outcome of an extended and complicated 
literary process, the Gilgamesh Epic covered twelve tablets, 
each tablet devoted to one adventure in which the hero plays 
a direct or indirect part, and the whole covering according to the 
most plausible estimate about 3000 lines. Of all twelve tablets 
portions have been found among the remains of Assur-bani-pal's 
library, but some of the tablets are so incomplete as to leave 
even their general contents in some doubt. The fragments do 
not all belong to one copy. Of some tablets portions of two, 
and of some tablets portions of as many as four, copies have 
turned up, pointing therefore to the great popularity of the 
production. The best preserved are Tablets VI. and XI., and 
of the total about 1500 lines are now known, wholly or in part, 
while of those partially preserved quite a number can be restored. 
A brief summary of the contents of the twelve may be indicated 
as follows: 

In the ist tablet, after a general survey of the adventures of 
Gilgamesh, his rule at Erech is described, where he enlists the 
services of all the young able-bodied men in the building of the 
great wall of the city. The people sigh under the burden im- 
posed, and call upon the goddess Aruru to create a being who 
might act as a rival to Gilgamesh, curb his strength, and dispute 
his tyrannous control. The goddess consents, and creates 
Eabani, who is described as a wild man, living with the gazelles 
and the beasts of the field. Eabani, whose name, signifying 
" Ea creates," points to the tradition which made Ea (q.v.) the 
creator of humanity, symbolizes primeval man. Through a 
hunter, Eabani and Gilgamesh are brought together, but 
instead of becoming rivals, they are joined in friendship. Eabani 
is induced by the snares of a maiden to abandon his life with the 
animals and to proceed to Erech, where Gilgamesh, who has 
been told in several dreams of the coming of Eabani, awaits him. 
Together they proceed upon several adventures, which are 
related in the following four tablets. At first, indeed, Eabani 
curses the fate which led him away from his former life, and 
Gilgamesh is represented as bewailing Eabani's dissatisfaction. 
The sun-god Shamash calls upon Eabani to remain with Gilga- 
mesh, who pays him all honours in his palace at Erech. With 
the decision of the two friends to proceed to the forest of cedars 
in which the goddess Irnina a form of Ishtar dwells, and 
which is guarded by Khumbaba, the 2nd tablet ends. In the 
3rd tablet, very imperfectly preserved, Gilgamesh appeals 
through a Shamash priestess Rimat-Belit to the sun-god Shamash 
for his aid in the proposed undertaking. The 4th tablet contains 
a description of the formidable Khumbaba, the guardian of 
the cedar forest. In the 5th tablet Gilgamesh and Eabani reach 
the forest. Encouraged by dreams, they proceed against 
Khumbaba, and despatch him near a specially high cedar over 
which he held guard. This adventure against Khumbaba belongs 
to the Eabani stratum of the epic, into which Gilgamesh is 
artificially introduced. The basis of the 6th tablet is the familiar 
nature-myth of the change of seasons, in which Gilgamesh 
plays the part of the youthful solar god of the springtime, who 
is wooed by the goddess of fertility, Ishtar. Gilgamesh, recalling 
to the goddess the sad fate of those who fall a victim to her 
charms, rejects the offer. In the course of his recital snatches 
of other myths are referred to, including the famous Tammuz- 
Adonis tale, in which Tammuz, the youthful bridegroom, is 
slain by his consort Ishtar. The goddess, enraged at the insult, 
asks her father Anu to avenge her. A divine bull is sent to wage 
a contest against Gilgamesh, who is assisted by his friend Eabani. 
This scene of the fight with the bull is often depicted on seal 
cylinders. The two friends by their united force succeed in 



killing the bull, and then after performing certain votive and 
purification rites return to Erech, where they are hailed with joy 
In this adventure it is clearly Eabani who is artificially intro- 
duced in order to maintain the association with Gilgamesh. 
The 7th tablet continues the Eabani stratum. The hero is 
smitten with sore disease, but the fragmentary condition of 
this and the succeeding tablet is such as to envelop in doubt the 
accompanying circumstances, including the cause and nature 
of his disease. The 8th tablet records the death of Eabani. 
The gth and zoth tablets, exclusively devoted to Gilgamesh, 
describe his wanderings in quest of Ut-Napishtim, from whom * 
he hopes to learn how he may escape the fate that has overtaken 
his friend Eabani. He goes through mountain passes and 
encounters lions. At the entrance to the mountain Mashu, 
scorpion-men stand guard, from one of whom he receives advice 
as to how to pass through the Mashu district. He succeeds in 
doing so, and finds himself in a wonderful park, which lies along 
the sea coast. In the loth tablet the goddess Sabitu, who, as 
guardian of the sea, first bolts her gate against Gilgamesh, after 
learning of his quest, helps him to pass in a ship across the sea 
to the " waters of death." The ferry-man of Ut-Napishtim 
brings him safely through these waters, despite the difficulties 
and dangers of the voyage, and at last the hero finds himself 
face to face with Ut-Napishtim. In the nth tablet, Ut-Napish- 
tim tells the famous story of the Babylonian flood, which is 
so patently attached to Gilgamesh in a most artificial manner. 
Ut-Napishtim and his wife are anxious to help Gilgamesh to new 
life. He is sent to a place where he washes himself clean from 
impurity. He is told of a weed which restores youth to the one 
grown old. Scarcely has he obtained the weed when it is snatched 
away from him, and the tablet closes somewhat obscurely with 
the prediction of the destruction of Erech. In the I2th tablet 
Gilgamesh succeeds in obtaining a view of Eabani's shade, and 
learns through him of the sad fate endured by the dead. With 
this description, in which care of the dead is inculcated as the 
only means of making their existence in Aralu, where the dead 
are gathered, bearable, the epic, so far as we have it, closes. 

The reason why the flood episode and the interview with the 
dead Eabani are introduced is quite clear. Both are intended 
as illustrations of doctrines taught in the schools of Babylonia; 
the former to explain that only the favourites of the gods can j 
hope under exceptional circumstances to enjoy life everlasting; 
the latter to emphasize the impossibility for ordinary mortalsN. 
to escape from the inactive shadowy existence led by the dead, \ 
and to inculcate the duty of proper care for the dead. That the y' 
astro-theological system is also introduced into the epic is cleaf 
from the division into twelve tablets, which correspond to the 
yearly course of the sun, while throughout there are indications 
that all the adventures of Gilgamesh and Eabani, including 
those which have an historical background, have been submitted 
to the influence of this system and projected on to the heavens. 
This interpretation of the popular tales, according to which the 
career of the hero can be followed in its entirety and in detail 
in the movements in the heavens, in time, with the growing 
predominance of the astral-mythological system, overshadowed 
the other factors involved, and it is in this form, as an astral 
myth, that it passes through the ancient world and leaves its 
traces in the folk-tales and myths of Hebrews, Phoenicians, 
Syrians, Greeks and Romans throughout Asia Minor and even 
in India. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The complete edition of the Gilgamesh Epic by 
Paul Haupt under the title Das babylonische Nimrodepos (Leipzig, 
1884-1891), with the I2th tablet in the Beitrage zur Assyriologie, 
i. 48-79; German translation by Peter Jensen in vol. vi. of 
Schrader's Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek (Berlin, 1900), pp. 116-273. 
See also the same author's comprehensive work, Das Gtigamescn- 
Epos in der Weltliteratur (vol. i. 1906, vol. ii. to follow). An 
English translation of the chief portions in Jastrow, Religion of 
Babylonia and Assyria (Boston, 1898), ch. xxiii. (M. JA.) 

GILGIT, an outlying province in the extreme north-west of 
India, over which Kashmir has reasserted her sovereignty. 
Only a part of the basin of the river Gilgit is included within 
its political boundaries. There is an intervening width of 



20 



GILGIT 



mountainous country, represented chiefly by glaciers and ice-fields, 
and intersected by narrow sterile valleys, measuring some too to 
150 m. in width, to the north and north-east, which separates 
the province of Gilgit from the Chinese frontier beyond the 
Muztagh and Karakoram. This part of the Kashmir borderland 
includes Kanjut (or Hunza) and Ladakh. To the north-west, 
beyond the sources of the Yasin and Ghazar in the Shandur 
range (the two most westerly tributaries of the Gilgit river) 
is the deep valley of the Yarkhun or Chitral. Since the formation 
. of the North- West Frontier Province in 1901, the political charge 
* of Chitral, Dir and Swat, which was formerly included within 
the Gilgit agency, has been transferred to the chief commissioner 
of the new province, with his capital at Peshawar. Gilgit proper 
now forms a wazarat of the Kashmir state, administered by a 
wazir. Gilgit is also the headquarters of a British political 
agent, who exercises some supervision over the wazir, and is 
directly responsible to the government of India for the adminis- 
tration of the outlying districts or petty states of Hunza, Nagar, 
Ashkuman, Yasin and Ghizar, the little republic of Chilas, &c. 
These states acknowledge the suzerainty of Kashmir, paying an 
annual tribute in gold or grain, but they form no part of its 
territory. 

Within the wider limits of the former Gilgit agency are many 
mixed races, speaking different languages, which have all been 
usually classed together under the name Dard. The Dard, 
however, is unknown beyond the limits of the Kohistan district 
of the Indus valley to the south of the Hindu Koh, the rest of 
the inhabitants of the Indus valley belonging to Shin republics, 
or Chilas. The great mass of the Chitral population are Kho 
(speaking Khowar), and they may be accepted as representing 
the aboriginal population of the Chitral valley. (See HINDU 
KUSH.) Between Chitral and the Indus the " Dards " of 
Dardistan are chiefly Yeshkuns and Shins, and it would appear 
from the proportions in which these people occupy the country 
that they must have primarily moved up from the valley of the 
Indus in successive waves of conquest, first the Yeshkuns, and 
then the Shins. No one can put a date to these invasions, but 
Biddulph is inclined to class the Yeshkuns with the Yuechi 
who conquered the Bactrian kingdom about 120 B.C. The 
Shins are obviously a Hindu race (as is testified by their 
veneration for the cow), who spread themselves northwards 
and eastwards as far as Baltistan, where they collided with the 
aboriginal Tatar of the Asiatic highlands. But the ethnography 
of " Dardistan," or the Gilgit agency (for the two are, roughly 
speaking, synonymous), requires further investigation, and it 
would be premature to attempt to frame anything like an ethno- 
graphical history of these regions until the neighbouring pro- 
vinces of Tangir and Darel have been more fully examined. The 
wazarat of Gilgit contains a population (1901) of 60,885, all 
Mahommedans, mostly of the Shiah sect, but not fanatical. 
The dominant race is that of the Shins, whose language is uni- 
versally spoken. This is one of the so-called Pisacha languages, 
an archaic Aryan group intermediate between the Iranian and 
the Sanskritic. 

In general appearance and dress all the mountain-bred peoples 
extending through these northern districts are very similar. 
Thick felt coats reaching below the knee, loose " pyjamas " 
with cloth " putties " and boots (often of English make) are 
almost universal, the distinguishing feature in their costume 
being the felt cap worn close to the head and rolled up round the 
edges. They are on the whole a light-hearted, cheerful race of 
people, but it has been observed that their temperament varies 
much with their habitat those who live on the shadowed sides 
of mountains being distinctly more morose and more serious in 
disposition than the dwellers in valleys which catch the winter 
sunlight. They are, at the same time, bloodthirsty and treacher- 
ous to a degree which would appear incredible to a casual 
observer of ^heir happy and genial manners, exhibiting a strange 
combination (as has been observed by a careful student of their 
ways) of " the monkey and the tiger." Addicted to sport of 
every kind, they pursue no manufacturing industries whatsoever, 
but they are excellent agriculturists, and show great ingenuity 



in their local irrigation works and in their efforts to bring every 
available acre of cultivable soil within the irrigated area. Gold 
washing is more or less carried on in most of the valleys north of 
the river Gilgit, and gold dust (contained in small packets 
formed with the petals of a cup-shaped flower) is an invariable 
item in their official presents and offerings. Gold dust still 
constitutes part of the annual tribute which, strangely enough, 
is paid by Hunza to China, as well as to Kashmir. 

Routes in the Gilgit Agency. pne of the oldest recorded routes 
through this country is that which connects Mastuj in the Chitral 
valley with Gilgit, passing across the Shandur range (12,250). It now 
forms the high-road between Gilgit and Chitral, and has been 
engineered into a passable route. From the north three great glacier- 
bred affluents make their way to the river of Gilgit, joining it at 
almost equal intervals, and each of them affords opportunity for a 
rough passage northwards, (i) The Yasin river, which follows a 
fairly straight course from north to south for about 40 m. from the 
foot of the Dark6t pass across the Shandur range (15,000) to its 
junction with the river Gilgit, close to the little fort of Gupis, on the 
Gilgit-Mastuj road. Much of this valley is cultivated and extremely 
picturesque. At the head of it is a grand group of glaciers, one 
of which leads up to the well-known pass of Dark6t. (2) 25 
m. (by map measurement) below Gupis the Gilgit receives the 
Ashkuman affluent from the north. The little Lake of Karumbar 
is held to be its source, as it lies at the head of the river. The same 
lake is sometimes called the source of the river Yarkhun or Chitral; 
and it seems possible that a part of its waters may be deflected in 
each direction. The Karumbar, or Ashkuman, is nearly twice the 
length of the Yasin, and the upper half of the valley is encompassed 
by glaciers, rendering the route along it uncertain and difficult. 
(3) 40 m. or so below the Ashkuman junction, and nearly 
opposite the little station of Gilgit, the river receives certain further 
contributions from the north which are collected in the Hunza and 
Nagar basins. These basins include a system of glaciers of such 
gigantic proportions that they are probably unrivalled in any pact 
of the world. The glacial head of the Hunza is not far from that of 
the Karumbar, and, like the Karumbar, the river commences with a 
wide sweep eastwards, following a course roughly parallel to the crest 
of the Hindu Kush (under whose southern slopes it lies close) for 
about 40 m. Then striking south for another 40 m., it twists 
amidst the barren feet of gigantic rock-bound spurs which reach up- 
wards to the Muztagh peaks on the east and to a mass of glaciers 
and snow-fields on the west, hidden amidst the upper folds of moun- 
tains towering to an average of 25,000 ft. The next great bend is 
again to the west for 30 m., before a final change of direction to the 
south at the historical position of Chalt and a comparatively straight 
run of 25 m. to a junction with the Gilgit. The valley of Hunza lies 
some 10 m. from the point of this westerly bend, and 20 (as the crow 
flies) from Chalt. Much has been written of the magnificence of 
Hunza valley scenery, surrounded as it is by a stupendous ring of 
snow-capped peaks and brightened with all the radiant beauty that 
cultivation adds to these mountain valleys; but such scenery must 
be regarded as exceptional in these northern regions. 

Glaciers and Mountains. Conway and Godwin Austen have 
described the glaciers of Nagar which, enclosed between the Muztagh 
spurs on the north-east and the frontier peaks of Kashmir (terminat- 
ing with Rakapushi) on the south-west, and massing themselves in 
an almost uninterrupted series from the Hunza valley to the base of 
those gigantic peaks which stand about Mount Godwin Austen, 
seem to be set like an ice-sea to define the farthest bounds of the 
Himalaya. From its uttermost head to the foot of the Hispar, 
overhanging the valley above Nagar, the length of the glacial ice- 
bed known under the name of Biafo is said to measure about 90 m. 
Throughout the mountain region of Kanjut (or Hunza) and Nagar 
the valleys are deeply sunk between mountain ranges, which are 
nowhere less than 15,000 ft. in altitude, and which must average 
above 20,000 ft. As a rule, these valleys are bare of vegetation. 
Where the summits of the loftier ranges are not buried beneath snow 
and ice they are bare, bleak and splintered, and the nakedness of the 
rock scenery extends down their rugged spurs to the very base of 
them. On the Blower slopes of tumbled debris the sun in summer 
beats with an intensity which is unmitigated by the cloud drifts 
which form in the moister atmosphere of the monsoon-swept sum- 
mits of the Himalaya. Sun-baked in summer and frost-riven in 
winter, the mountain sides are but immense ramps of loose rock 
de'bris, only awaiting the yearly melting of the upper snow-fields, or 
the advent of a casual rainstorm, to be swept downwards in an 
avalanche of mud and stones into the gorges below. Here it becomes 
piled and massed together, till the pressure of accumulation forces 
it out into the main valleys, where it spreads in alluvial fans and 
silts up the plains. This formation is especially marked throughout 
the high level valleys of the Gilgit basin. 

Passes. Each of these northern affluents of the main stream is 
headed by a pass, or a group of passes, leading either to the Pamir 
region direct, or into the upper Yarkhun valley from which a Pamir 
route diverges. The Yasin valley is headed by the Dark6t pass 
(15,000 ft.), which drops into the Yarkhun not far from the foot of 



GILL, J. GILL 



21 



the Baroghil group over the main Hindu Kush watershed. The 
Ashkuman is headed by the Gazar and Kora Bohrt passes, leading 
to the valley of the Ab-i-Punja; and the Hunza by the Kilik and 
Mintaka, the connecting links between the Taghdumbash Pamir 
and the Gilgit basin. They are all about the same height 15,000 ft. 
All are passable at certain times of the year to small parties, and all 
are uncertain. In no case do they present insuperable difficulties 
in themselves, glaciers and snow-fields and mountain staircases 
being common to all; but the gorges and precipices which distin- 
guish the approaches to them from the south, the slippery sides of 
shelving spurs whose feet are washed by raging torrents, the perpetual 
weary monotony of ascent and descent over successive ridges 
multiplying the gradient indefinitely these form the real obstacles 
blocking the way to these northern passes. 

Gilgit Station. The pretty little station of Gilgit (4890 ft. above sea) 
spreads itself in terraces above the right bank of the river nearly 
opposite the opening leading to Hunza, almost nestling under the 
cliffs of the Hindu Koh, which separates it on the south from the 
savage mountain wilderness of Darel and Kohistan. It includes 
a residency for the British political officer, with about half a dozen 
homes for the accommodation of officials, barracks suitable for a 
battalion of Kashmir troops, and a hospital. Evidences of Buddhist 
occupation are not wanting in Gilgit, though they are few and un- 
important. Such as they are, they appear to prove that Gilgit 
was once a Buddhist centre, and that the old Buddhist route between 
Gilgit and the Peshawar plain passed through the gorges and clefts 
of the unexplored Darel Valley to Thakot under the northern spurs 
of the Black Mountain. 

Connexion with India. The Gilgit river joins the Indus a few 
miles above the little post of Bunji, where an excellent suspension 
bridge spans the river. The valley is low and hot, and the scenery 
between Gilgit and Bunji is monotonous; but the road is now 
maintained in excellent condition. A little below Bunji the Astor 
river joins the Indus from the south-east, and this deep pine-clad 
valley indicates the continuation of the highroad from Gilgit to 
Kashmir via the Tragbal and Burzil passes. Another well-known 
route connecting Gilgit with the Abbottabad frontier of the Punjab 
lies across the Babusar pass (13,000 ft.), linking the lovely Hazara 
valley of Kaghan to Chilas; Chilas (4150 ft.) being on the Indus, 
some 50 m. below Bunji. This is a more direct connexion between 
Gilgit and the plains of the Punjab than that afforded by the Kashmir 
route via Gurais and Astor, which latter route involves two con- 
siderable passes the Tragbal (11,400) and the Burzil (13,500); 
but the intervening strip of absolutely independent territory (in- 
dependent alike of Kashmir and the Punjab), which includes the 
hills bordering the road from the Babusar pass to Chilas, renders 
it a risky route for travellers unprotected by a military escort. 
Like the Kashmir route, it is now defined by a good military road. 

History. The Dards are located by Ptolemy with surprising 
accuracy (Daradae) on the west of the Upper Indus, beyond the 
head- waters of the Swat river (Soastus) , and north of the Gandarae, 
i.e. the Gandharis, who occupied Peshawar and the country north 
of it. The Dardas and Chinas also appear in many of the old 
Pauranic lists of peoples, the latter probably representing the 
Shin branch of the Dards. This region was traversed by two 
of the Chinese pilgrims of the early centuries of our era, who have 
left records of their journeys, viz. Fahien, coming from the north, 
c. 400, and Hsuan Tsang, ascending from Swat, c. 631. The 
latter says: " Perilous were the roads, and dark the gorges. 
Sometimes the pilgrim had to pass by loose cords, sometimes by 
light stretched iron chains. Here there were ledges hanging in 
mid-air; there flying bridges across abysses; elsewhere paths 
cut with the chisel, or footings to climb by." Yet even in 
these inaccessible regions were found great convents, and 
miraculous images of Buddha. How old the name of Gilgit 
is we do not know, but it occurs in the writings of the great 
Mahommedan savant al-Biruni, in his notices of Indian 
geography. Speaking of Kashmir, he says: " Leaving the 
ravine by which you enter Kashmir and entering the plateau, 
then you have for a march of two more days on your left the 
mountains of Bolor and Shamilan, Turkish tribes who are 
called Bhattavaryan. Their king has the title Bhatta-Shah. 
Their towns are Gilgit, Aswira and Shiltash, and their language 
is the Turkish. Kashmir suffers much from their inroads " 
(Trs. Sachau, i. 207). There are difficult matters for discussion 
here. It is impossible to say what ground the writer had for 
calling the people Turks. But it is curious that the Shins say 
they are all of the same race as the Moguls of India, whatever 
they may mean by that. Gilgit, as far back as tradition goes, 
was ruled by rajas of a family called Trakane. When this family 
became extinct the valley was desolated by successive invasions 



of neighbouring rajas, and in the 20 or 30 years ending with 1842 
there had been five dynastic revolutions. The most prominent 
character in the history was a certain Gaur Rahman or Gauhar 
Aman, chief of Yasin, a cruel savage and man-seller, of whom 
many evil deeds are told. Being remonstrated with for selling 
a mullah, he said, " Why not ? The Koran, the word of God, is 
sold; why not sell the expounder thereof ?" The Sikhs entered 
Gilgit about 1842, and kept a garrison there. When Kashmir 
was made over to Maharaja Gulab Singh of Jammu in 1846, 
by Lord Hardinge, the Gilgit claims were transferred with it. 
And when a commission was sent to lay down boundaries of the 
tracts made over, Mr Vans Agnew (afterwards murdered at 
Multan) and Lieut. Ralph Young of the Engineers visited Gilgit, 
the first Englishmen who did so. The Dogras (Gulab Singh's 
race) had much ado to hold their ground, and in 1852 a cata- 
strophe occurred, parallel on a smaller scale to that of the English 
troops at Kabul. Nearly 2000 men of theirs were exterminated 
by Gaur Rahman and a combination of the Dards; only one 
person, a soldier's wife, escaped, and the Dogras were driven 
away for eight years. Gulab Singh would not again crosB the 
Indus, but after his death (in 1857) Maharaja Ranbir Singh 
longed to recover lost prestige. In 1860 he sent a force into 
Gilgit. Gaur Rahman just then died, and there was little re- 
sistance. The Dogras after that took Yasin twice, but did not 
hold it. They also, in 1866, invaded Darel, one of the most 
secluded Dard states, to the south of the Gilgit basin, but with- 
drew again. In 1889, in order to guard against the advance of 
Russia, the British government, acting as the suzerain power of 
Kashmir, established the Gilgit agency; in 1901, on the forma- 
tion of the North-West Frontier province, the rearrangement 
was made as stated above. 

AUTHORITIES. Biddulph, The Tribes of the Hindu Rush, (Calcutta, 
1880); W. Lawrence, The Kashmir Valley (London, I8<J5); Tanner, 
" Our Present Knowledge of the Himalaya," Proc. R.G.S. vol. xiii., 




Pamirs and Adjacent Countries," Proc. R.G.S. vol. xiv., 1892; 
Curzon, " Pamirs," Jour. R.G.S. vol. viii., 1896; LeitneV, Dardistan 
(1877)- (T. H. H.*J 

GILL, JOHN (1697-1771), English Nonconformist divine, 
was born at Kettering, Northamptonshire. His parents were 
poor and he owed his education chiefly to his own perseverance. 
In November 1716 he was baptized and began to preach at 
Higham Ferrers and Kettering, until the beginning of 1719, 
when he became pastor of the Baptist congregation at Horsley- 
down in South wark. There he continued till 1757, when he 
removed to a chapel near London Bridge. From 1729 to 1756 
he was Wednesday evening lecturer in Great Eastcheap. In 1 748 
he received the degree of D.D. from the university of Aberdeen. 
He died at Camberwell on the I4th of October 1771. Gill was 
a great Hebrew scholar, and in his theology a sturdy Calvinist. 

His principal works are Exposition of the Song of Solomon (1728) ; 
The Prophecies of the Old Testament respecting the Messiah (1728); 
The Doctrine of the Trinity (1731); The Cause of God and Truth 
(4 vols., 1731); Exposition of the Bible, in 10 vols. (1746-1766), in 
preparing which he formed a large collection of Hebrew and Rab- 
binical books and MSS. ; The Antiquity of the Hebrew Language 
Letters, Vowel Points, and Accents (1767); A Body of Doctrinal 
Divinity (1767); A Body of Practical Divinity (1770); and Sermons 
and Tracts, with a memoir of his life (1773). An edition of his 
Exposition of the Bible appeared in 1816 with a memoir by John 
Rippon, which has also appeared separately. 

GILL, (i) One of the branchiae which form the breathing 
apparatus of fishes and other animals that live in the water. 
The word is also applied to the branchiae of some kinds of worm 
and arachnids, and by transference to objects resembling the 
branchiae of fishes, such as the wattles of a fowl, or the radiating 
films on the under side of fungi. The word is of obscure origin. 
Danish has giaette, and Swedish gal with the same meaning. 
The root which appears in " yawn," " chasm," has, been suggested. 
If this be correct, the word will be in origin the same as " gill," 
often spelled " ghyll," meaning a glen or ravine, common in 
northern English dialects and also in Kent and Surrey. The g 
in both these words is hard. (2) A liquid measure usually holding 



22 



GILLES DE ROYE GILLIE 



one-fourth of a pint. The word comes through the O. Fr. gette, 
from Low Lat. gello or gillo, a measure for wine. It is thus con- 
nected with " gallon." The g is soft. (3) An abbreviation of the 
feminine name Gillian, also often spelled Jill, as it is pronounced. 
Like Jack for a boy, with which it is often coupled, as in the 
nursery rhyme, it is used as a homely generic name for a girl. 

GILLES DE ROYE, or EGIDIUS DE ROYA (d. 1478), Flemish 
chronicler, was born probably at Montdidier, and became a 
Cistercian monk. He was afterwards professor of theology in 
Paris and abbot of the monastery of Royaumont at Asnieres- 
sur-Oise, retiring about 1458 to the convent of Notre Dame des 
Dunes, near Fumes, and devoting his time to study. Gilles 
wrote the Chronicon Dunense or Annales Belgici, a resume and 
continuation of the work of another monk, Jean Brandon (d. 
1428), which deals with the history of Flanders, and also with 
events in Germany, Italy and England from 792 to 1478. 

The Chronicle was published by F. R. Sweert in the Rerum Belgi- 
carum annales (Frankfort, 1620) ; and the earlier part of it by C. B. 
Kervyn de Lettenhove in the Chroniques relatives & I'histoire de la 
Belgique (Brussels, 1870). 

GILLES LI MUISIS, or LE MUISET (c. 1272-1352), French 
chronicler, was born probably at Tournai, and in 1289 entered 
the Benedictine abbey of St Martin in his native city, becoming 
prior of this house in 1327, and abbot four years later. He only 
secured the latter position after a contest with a competitor, 
but he appears to have been a wise ruler of the abbey. Gilles 
wrote two Latin chronicles, Chronicon majus and Chronicon 
minus, dealing with the history of the world from the creation 
until 1349. This work, which was continued by another writer 
to 1352, is valuable for the history of northern France, and 
Flanders during the first half of the i4th century. It is published 
by J. J. de Senet in the Corpus chronicorum Flandriae, tome ii. 
(Brussels, 1841). Gilles also wrote some French poems, and 
these Poesies de Gilles li Muisis have been published by Baron 
Kervyn de Lettenhove (Louvain, 1882). 

See A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tomeiii. (Paris, 
1903)- 

G1LLESPIE, GEORGE (1613-1648), Scottish divine, was bom 
at Kirkcaldy, where his father, John Gillespie, was parish 
minister, on the 2ist of January 1613, and entered the university 
of St Andrews as a " presbytery bursar " in 1629. On the 
completion of a brilliant student career, he became domestic 
chaplain to John Gordon, ist Viscount Kenmure (d. 1634), 
and afterwards to John Kennedy, earl of Cassillis, his conscience 
not permitting him to accept the episcopal ordination which 
was at that time in Scotland an indispensable condition of 
induction to a parish. While with the earl of Cassillis he wrote 
his first work, A Dispute against the English Popish Ceremonies 
obtruded upon the Church of Scotland, which, opportunely pub- 
lished shortly after the " Jenny Geddes " incident (but without 
the author's name) in the summer of 1637, attracted considerable 
attention, and within a few months had been found by the 
privy council to be so damaging that by their orders all available 
copies were called in and burnt. In April 1638, soon after the 
authority of the bishops had been set aside by the nation, 
Gillespie was ordained minister of Wemyss (Fife) by the 
presbytery of Kirkcaldy, and in the same year was a member 
of the famous Glasgow Assembly, before which he preached 
(November 2ist) a sermon against royal interference in matters 
ecclesiastical so pronounced, as to call for some remonstrance 
on the part of Argyll, the lord high commissioner. In 1642 
Gillespie was translated to Edinburgh; but the brief remainder 
of his life was chiefly spent in the conduct of public business 
in London. Already, in 1640, he had accompanied the commis- 
sioners of the peace to England as one of their chaplains; and 
in 1643 he was appointed by the Scottish Church one of the four 
commissioners to the Westmins er Assembly. Here, though 
the youngest member of the Assembly, he took a prominent 
part in almost all the protracted discussions on church govern- 
ment, discipline and worship, supporting Presbyterianism by 
numerous controversial writings, as well as by an unusual 
fluency and readiness in debate. Tradition long preserved and 
probably enhanced the record of his victories in debate, and 



especially of his encounter, with John Selden on Matt, xviii. 
15-17. In 1645 he returned to Scotland, and is said to have 
drawn the act of assembly sanctioning the directory of public 
worship. On his return to London he had a hand in drafting 
the Westminster confession of faith, especially chap. i. Gillespie 
was elected moderator of the Assembly in 1648, but the laborious 
duties of that office (the court continued to sit from the i2th 
of July to the I2th of August) told fatally on an overtaxed 
constitution; he fell into consumption, and, after many weeks 
of great weakness, he died at Kirkcaldy on the I7th of December 
1648. In acknowledgment of his great public services, a sum 
of 1000 Scots was voted, though destined never to be paid, to 
his widow and children by the committee of estates. A simple 
tombstone, which had been erected to his memory in Kirkcaldy 
parish church, was in 1661 publicly broken at the cross by the 
hand of the common hangman, but was restored in 1 746. 

His principal publications were controversial and chiefly against 
Erastianism : Three sermons against Thomas Coleman ; A Sermon 
before the House of Lords (August 27th), on Matt. iii. 2, Nihil Re- 
spondent and Male Audis; Aaron's Rod Blossoming, or the Divine 
Ordinance of Church-government vindicated (1646), which is de- 
servedly regarded as a really able statement of the case for an 
exclusive spiritual jurisdiction in the church; One Hundred and 
Eleven Propositions concerning the Ministry and Government of the 
Church (Edinburgh, 1647). The following were posthumously 
published by his brother: A Treatise of Miscellany Questions (1649) ; 
The Ark of the New Testament (2 vols., 1661-1667); Notes of Debates 
and Proceedings of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster, from 
February 1644 to January 1645. See Works, with memoir, published 
by Hetherington (Edinburgh, 1843-1846). 

GILLESPIE, THOMAS (1708-1774), Scottish divine, was born 
at Clearburn, in the parish of Duddingston, Midlothian, in 
1708. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh, and 
studied divinity first at a small theological seminary at Perth, 
and afterwards for a brief period under Philip Doddridge at 
Northampton, where he received ordination in January 1741. 
In September of the same year he was admitted minister of the 
parish of Carnock, Fife, the presbytery of Dunfermline agreeing 
not only to sustain as valid the ordination he had received in 
England, but also to allow a qualification of his subscription 
to the church's doctrinal symbol, so far as it had reference to the 
sphere of the civil magistrate in matters of religion. Having 
on conscientious grounds persistently absented himself from the 
meetings of presbytery held for the purpose of ordaining one 
Andrew Richardson, an unacceptable presentee, as minister of 
Inverkeithing, he was, after an unobtrusive but useful ministry 
of ten years, deposed by the Assembly of 1752 for maintaining 
that the refusal of the local presbytery to act in this case was 
justified. He continued, however, to preach, first at Carnock, 
and afterwards in Dunfermline, where a large congregation 
gathered round him. His conduct under the sentence of deposi- 
tion produced a reaction in his favour, and an effort was made 
to have him reinstated; this he declined unless the policy of the 
church were reversed. In 1761, in conjunction with Thomas 
Boston of Jedburgh and Collier of Colinsburgh, he formed a dis- 
tinct communion under the name of " The Presbytery of Relief," 
relief, that is to say, " from the yoke of patronage and the 
tyranny of the church courts." The Relief Church eventually 
became one of the communions combining to form the United 
Presbyterian Church. He died on the igth of January -1774, 
His only literary efforts were an Essay on the Continuation of 
Immediate Revelations in the Church, and a Practical Treatise on 
Temptation. Both works appeared posthumously (1774). In 
the former he argues that immediate revelations are no longer 
vouchsafed to the church, in the latter he traces temptation to 
the work of a personal devil. 

See Lindsay's Life and Times of the Rev. Thomas Gillespie; 
Smithers's History of the Relief Church ; for the Relief Church see 
UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. 

GILLIE (from the Gael, gitte, Irish gille or giolla, a servant 
or boy), an attendant on a Gaelic chieftain; in this sense its use, 
save historically, is rare. The name is now applied in the 
Highlands of Scotland to the man-servant who attends a sports- 
man in shooting or fishing. A gittie-wetfoot, a term now obsolete 
(a translation of gillie-casfliuch, from the Gaelic cas, foot, and 



GILLIES GILLRAY 



fliuch, wet), was the gillie whose duty it was to carry his master 
over streams. It became a term of contempt among the Low- 
landers for the " tail " (as his attendants were called) of a 
Highland chief. 

GILLIES, JOHN (1747-1836), Scottish historian and classical 
scholar, was born at Brechin, in Forfarshire, on the i8th of 
January 1747. He was educated at Glasgow University, where, 
at the age of twenty, he acted for a short time as substitute for 
the professor of Greek. In 1784 he completed his History of 
Ancient Greece, its Colonies and Conquests (published 1786). 
This work, valuable at a time when the study of Greek history 
was in its infancy, and translated into French and German, 
was written from a strong Whig bias, and is now entirely super- 
seded (see GREECE: Ancient History, " Authorities ") On the 
death of William Robertson (1721-1793), Gillies was appointed 
historiographer-royal for Scotland. In his old age he retired to 
Clapham, where he died on the isth of February 1836. 

Of his other works, none of which are much read, the principal 
are : View of the Reign of Frederic II. of Prussia, with a Parallel 
between that Prince and Philip II. of Macedon (1789), rather a pane- 
gyric than a critical history; translations of Aristotle's Rhetoric 
(1823) and Ethics and Politics (1786-1797); of the Orations of 
Lysias and Isocrates (1778) ; and History of the World from Alexander 
to Augustus (1807), which, although deficient in style, was com- 
mended for its learning and research. 

GILLINGHAM, a market town in the northern parliamentary 
division of Dorsetshire, England, 105 m. W.S.W. from London 
by the London & South- Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3380. 
The church of St Mary the Virgin has a Decorated chancel. 
There is a large agricultural trade, and manufactures of bricks 
and tiles, cord, sacking and silk, brewing and bacon-curing are 
carried on. The rich undulating district in which Gillingham 
is situated was a forest preserved by King John and his successors, 
and the site of their lodge is traceable near the town 

GILLINGHAM, a municipal borough of Kent, England, in 
the parliamentary borough of Chatham and the mid-division 
of the county, on the Medway immediately east of Chatham, 
on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1891) 27,809; 
(1901) 42,530. Its population is largely industrial, employed 
in the Chatham dockyards, and in cement and brick works in the 
neighbourhood. The church of St Mary Magdalene ranges in date 
from Early English to Perpendicular, retaining also traces of 
Norman work and some early brasses. A great battle between 
Edmund Ironside and Canute, c. 1016, is placed here; and there 
was formerly a palace of the archbishops of Canterbury. Gilling- 
ham was incorporated in 1903, and is governed by a mayor, 6 
aldermen and 18 councillors. The borough includes the populous 
districts of Brompton and New Brompton. Area, 4355 acres. 

GILLOT, CLAUDE (1673-1722), French painter, best known 
as the master of Watteau and Lancret, was born at Langres. 
His sportive mythological landscape pieces, with such titles 
as " Feast of Pan " and "Feast of Bacchus," opened the Academy 
of Painting at Paris to him in 1715; and he then adapted his 
art to the fashionable tastes of the day, and introduced the 
decorative fetes champelres, in which he was afterwards surpassed 
by his pupils. He was also closely connected with the opera 
and theatre as a designer of scenery and costumes. 

GILLOTT, JOSEPH (1799-1873), English pen-maker, was born 
at Sheffield on the nth of October 1799. For some time he was 
a working cutler there, but in 1821 removed to Birmingham, 
where he found employment in the " steel toy " trade, the 
technical name for the manufacture of steel buckles, chains and 
light ornamental steel-work generally. About 1830 he turned 
his attention to the manufacture of steel pens by machinery, 
and in 1831 patented a process for placing elongated points on 
the nibs of pens. Subsequently he invented other improvements, 
getting rid of the hardness and lack of flexibility, which had been 
a serious defect in nibs, by cutting, in addition to the centre slit, 
side slits, and cross grinding the points. By 1859 he had built up 
a very large business. Gillott was a liberal art-patron, and 
one of the first to recognize the merits of J. M. W. Turner. He 
died at Birmingham on the sth of January 1873. His collection 
of pictures, sold after his death, realized 1 70,000. 



GILLOW, ROBERT (d. 1773), the founder at Lancaster 
of a distinguished firm of English cabinet-makers and furniture 
designers whose books begin in 1731. He was succeeded by his 
eldest son Richard (1734-1811), who after being educated at the 
Roman Catholic seminary at Douai was taken into partnership 
about 1757, when the firm became Gillow & Barton, and his 
younger sons Robert and Thomas, and the business was continued 
by his grandson Richard (1778-1866). In its early days the firm 
of Gillow were architects as well as cabinet-makers, and the first 
Richard Gillow designed the classical Custom House at Lancaster. 
In the middle of the i8th century the business was extended to 
London, and about 1761 premises were opened in Oxford Street 
on a site which was continuously occupied until 1906. For a 
long period the Gillows were the best-known makers of English 
furniture Sheraton and Heppelwhite both designed for them, 
and replicas are still made of pieces from the drawings of Robert 
Adam. Between 1760 and 1770 they invented the original 
form of the billiard-table; they were the patentees (about 
1800) of the telescopic dining-table which has long been universal 
in English houses; for a Captain Davenport they made, if they 
did not invent, the first writing-table of that name. Their vogue 
is indicated by references to them in the works of Jane Austen, 
Thackeray and the first Lord Lytton, and more recently in one 
of Gilbert and Sullivan's comic operas. 

GILLRAY, JAMES (1757-1815), English caricaturist, was born 
at Chelsea in 1757. His father, a native of Lanark, had served 
as a soldier, losing an arm at Fontenoy, and was admitted first 
as an inmate, and afterwards as an outdoor pensioner, at Chelsea 
hospital. Gillray commenced life by learning letter-engraving, 
in which he soon became an adept. This employment, however, 
proving irksome, he wandered about for a time with a company 
of strolling players. After a very checkered experience he 
returned to London, and was admitted a student in the Royal 
Academy, supporting himself by engraving, and probably issuing 
a considerable number of caricatures under fictitious names. 
Hogarth's works were the delight and study of his early years. 
" Paddy on Horseback," which appeared in 1779, is the first 
caricature which is certainly his. Two caricatures on Rodney's 
naval victory, issued in 1782, were among the first of the memor- 
able series of his political sketches. The name of Gillray's 
publisher and printseller, Miss Humphrey whose shop was first 
at 227 Strand, then in New Bond Street, then in Old Bond Street, 
and finally in St James's Street is inextricably associated with 
that of the caricaturist. Ciliary lived with Miss (often called 
Mrs) Humphrey during all the period of his fame. It is believed 
that he several times thought of marrying her, and that on one 
occasion the pair were on their way to the church, when Gillray 
said: "This is a foolish affair, methinks, Miss Humphrey. 
We live very comfortably together; we had better let well 
alone." There is no evidence, however, to support the stories 
which scandalmongers invented about their relations. Gillray's 
plates were exposed in Humphrey's shop window, where eager 
crowds examined them. A number of his most trenchant satires 
are directed against George III., who, after examining some of 
Gillray's sketches, said, with characteristic ignorance and blind- 
ness to merit, " I don't understand these caricatures." Gillray 
revenged himself for this utterance by his splendid caricature 
entitled, " A Connoisseur Examining a Cooper," which he is 
doing by means of a candle on a " save-all "; so that the sketch 
satirizes at once the king's pretensions to knowledge of art and 
his miserly habits. 

The excesses of the French Revolution made Gillray conserva- 
tive; and he issued caricature after caricature, ridiculing the 
French and Napoleon, and glorifying John Bull. He is not, 
however, to be thought of as a keen political adherent of either 
the Whig or the Tory party; he dealt his blows pretty freely 
all round. His last work, from a design by Bunbury, is 
entitled " Interior of a Barber's Shop in Assize Time," and 
is dated 1811. While he was engaged on it he became 
mad, although he had occasional intervals of sanity, which he 
employed on his last work. The approach of madness must 
have been hastened by his intemperate habits. Gillray died on 



GILLYFLOWER OILMAN 



the ist of June 1815, and was buried in St James's churchyard, 
Piccadilly. 

The times in which Gillray lived were peculiarly favourable 
to the growth of a great school of caricature. Party warfare was 
carried on with great vigour and not a little bitterness; and 
personalities were freely indulged in on both sides. Gillray's 
incomparable wit and humour, knowledge of life, fertility of 
resource, keen sense of the ludicrous, and beauty of execution, 
at once gave him the first place among caricaturists. He is 
honourably distinguished in the history of caricature by the fact 
that his sketches are real works of art. The ideas embodied in 
some of them are sublime and poetically magnificent in their 
intensity of meaning; while the coarseness by which others are 
disfigured is to be explained by the general freedom of treatment 
common in all intellectual departments in the i8th century. 
The historical value of Gillray's work has been recognized by 
accurate students of history. As has been well remarked: 
" Lord Stanhope has turned Gillray to account as a veracious 
reporter of speeches, as well as a suggestive illustrator of events." 
His contemporary political influence is borne witness to in a letter 
from Lord Bateman, dated November 3, 1798. " The Opposi- 
tion," he writes to Gillray, " are as low as we can wish them. 
You have been of infinite service in lowering them, and making 
them ridiculous." Gillray's extraordinary industry may be 
inferred from the fact that nearly 1000 caricatures have been 
attributed to him; while some consider him the author of 1600 
or 1700. He is invaluable to the student of English manners 
as well as to the political student. He attacks the social follies 
of the tSme with scathing satire; and nothing escapes his notice, 
not even a trifling change of fashion in dress. The great tact 
Gillray displays in hitting on the ludicrous side of any subject 
is only equalled by the exquisite finish of his sketches the finest 
of which reach an epic grandeur and Miltonic sublimity of con- 
ception. 

Gillray's caricatures are divided into two classes, the political 
series and the social. The political caricatures form really the best 
history extant of the latter part of the reign of George III. They 
were circulated not only over Britain but throughout Europe, 
and exerted a powerful influence. In this series, George III., the 
queen, the prince of Wales, Fox, Pitt, Burke and Napoleon are the 
most prominent figures. In 1788 appeared two fine caricatures by 
Gillray. " Blood on Thunder fording the Red Sea " represents 
Lord Thurlow carrying Warren Hastings through a sea of gore: 
Hastings looks very comfortable, and is carrying two large bags of 
money. " Market-Day " pictures the ministerialists of the time as 
horned cattle for sale. Among Gillray's best satires on the king 
are: " Farmer George and his Wife," two companion plates, in one of 
which the king is toasting muffins for breakfast, and in the other 
the queen is frying sprats; " The Anti-Saccharites," where the royal 
pair propose to dispense with sugar, to the great horror of the 
family; "A Connoisseur Examining a Cooper"; "Temperance 
enjoying a Frugal Meal"; "Royal Affability"; "A Lesson in 
Apple Dumplings "; and " The Pigs Possessed." Among his other 
political caricatures may be mentioned: " Britannia between Scylla 
and Charybdis," a picture in which Pitt, so often Gillray's butt, 
figures in a favourable light; " The Bridal Night"; " The Apothe- 
osis of Hoche," which concentrates the excesses of the French 
Revolution in one view; " The Nursery with Britannia reposing in 
Peace "; " The First Kiss these Ten Years " (1803), another satire 
on the peace, which is said to have greatly amused Napoleon; " The 
Handwriting upon the Wall"; "The Confederated Coalition," a 
fling at the coalition which superseded the Addington ministry; 
" Uncorking Old Sherry"; "The Plum-Pudding in Danger ; 
" Making Decent," i.e. Broad-bottomites getting into the Grand 
Costume " ; " Comforts of a Bed of Roses " ; View of the Hustings 
in Covent Garden"; " Phaethon Alarmed"; and "Pandora 
opening her Box." The miscellaneous series of caricatures, although 
they have scarcely the historical importance of the political series, 
are more readily intelligible, and are even more amusing. Amone 
the finest are: " Shakespeare Sacrificed "; " Flemish Characters 
(two plates); "Twopenny Whist"; "Oh! that this too solid 
flesh would melt " ; " Sandwich Carrots " ; " The Gout " ; " Comfort 
to the Corns "; " Begone Dull Care "; " The Cow-Pock," which 
gives humorous expression to the popular dread of vaccination; 
" Dilletanti Theatricals"; and "Harmony before Matrimony" 
and " Matrimonial Harmonics " two exceedingly good sketches in 
violent contrast to each other. 

A selection of Gillray's works appeared in parts in 1818; but 
the first good edition was Thomas M'Lean's, which was published, 
with a key, in 1830. A somewhat bitter attack, not only on Gillray's 
character, but even on his genius, appeared in the Athenaeum for 



October I, 1831, which was successfully refuted by J. Landseer 
in the Athenaeum a fortnight later. In 1851 Henry G. Bohn put 
out an edition, from the original plates, in a handsome folio, the 
coarser sketches being published in a separate volume. For this 
edition Thomas Wright and R. H. Evans wrote a valuable com- 
mentary, which is a good history of the times embraced by the 
caricatures. The next edition, entitled The Works of James Gillray, 
the Caricaturist: with the Story of his Life and Times (Chatto & 
Windus, 1874), was the work of Thomas Wright, and, by its popular 
exposition and narrative, introduced Gillray to a very large circle 
formerly ignorant of him. This edition, which is complete in one 
yolume,_ contains two portraits of Gillray, and upwards of 400 
illustrations. Mr J. J. Cartwright, in a letter to the Academy (Feb. 
28, 1874), drew attention to the existence of a MS. volume, in the 
British Museum, containing letters to and from Gillray, and other 
illustrative documents. The extracts he gave were used in a valuable 
article in the Quarterly Review for April 1874. See also the Academy 
for Feb. 21 and May 16, 1874. 

There is a good account of Gillray in Wright's History of Cari- 
cature and Grotesque in Literature and Art (1865). See also the 
article CARICATURE. 

GILLYFLOWER, a popular name applied to various flowers, 
but principally to the clove, Dianthus Caryophyllus, of which 
the carnation is a cultivated variety, and to the stock, Matthiola 
incana, a well-known garden favourite. The word is sometimes 
written gilliflower or gilloflower, and is reputedly a corruption 
of July-flower, " so called from the month they blow in." Henry 
Phillips (1775-1838), in his Flora historica, remarks that Turner 
(1568) " calls it gelouer, to which he adds the word stock, as 
we would say gelouers that grow on a stem or stock, to distin- 
guish them from the clove-gelouers and the wall-gelouers. Gerard, 
who succeeded Turner, and after him Parkinson, calls it gillo- 
flower, and thus it travelled from its original orthography until 
it was called July-flower by those who knew not whence it was 
derived." Dr Prior, in his useful volume on the Popular Names 
of British Plants, very distinctly shows the origin of the name. 
He remarks that it was " formerly spelt gyllofer and gilofre 
with the o long, from the French giroflee, Italian garofalo (M. Lat. 
gar iofilum), corrupted from the Latin Caryophyllum, and referring 
to the spicy odour of the flower, which seems to have been used 
in flavouring wine and other liquors to replace the more costly 
clove of India. The name was originally given in Italy to plants 
of the pink tribe, especially the carnation, but has in England 
been transferred of late years to several cruciferous plants." 
The gillyflower of Chaucer and Spenser and Shakespeare was, 
as in Italy, Dianthus Caryophyllus; that of later writers and of 
gardeners, Matthiola. Much of the confusion in the names of 
plants has doubtless arisen from the vague use of the French 
terms giroflee, (Billet and violetle, which were all applied to 
flowers of the pink tribe, but in England were subsequently 
extended and finally restricted to very different plants. The 
use made of the flowers to impart a spicy flavour to ale and wine 
is alluded to by Chaucer, who writes: 

" And many a clove gilofre 
To put in ale "; 

also by Spenser, who refers to them by the name of sops in wine, 
which was applied in consequence of their being steeped in the 
liquor. In both these cases, however, it is the clove-gillyflower 
which is intended, as it is also in the passage from Gerard, in 
which he states that the conserve made of the flowers with sugar 
" is exceeding cordiall, and wonderfully above measure doth 
comfort the heart, being eaten now and then." The principal 
other plants which bear the name are the wallflower, Cheiranthus 
Cheiri, called wall-gillyflower in old books; the dame's violet, 
Hesperis matronalis, called variously the queen's, the rogue's 
and the winter gillyflower; the ragged-robin, Lychnis Flos-cuculi, 
called marsh-gillyflower and cuckoo-gillyflower; the water- 
violet, Hottonia palustris, called water-gillyflower; and the 
thrift, Armeria vulgaris, called sea-gillyflower. As a separate 
designation it is nowadays usually applied to the wallflower. 

OILMAN, DANIEL COIT (1831-1908), American education- 
ist, was born in Norwich, Connecticut, on the 6th of July 1831. 
He graduated at Yale in 1852, studied in Berlin, was assistant 
librarian of Yale in 1856-1858 and librarian in 1858-1865, and 
was professor of physical and political geography in the Sheffield 
Scientific School of Yale University and a member of the 



GILMORE GILPIN 



Governing Board of this School in 1863-1872. From 1856 to 
1860 he was a member of the school board of New Haven, and 
from August 1865 to January 1867 secretary of the Connecticut 
Board of Education. In 1872 he became president of the 
University of California at Berkeley. On the soth of December 
1874 he was elected first president of Johns Hopkins University 
(q.v.) at Baltimore. He entered upon his duties on the ist of 
May 1875, and was formally inaugurated on the 2 2nd of February 
1876. This post he filled until 1901. From 1901 to 1904 he 
was the first president of the Carnegie Institution at Washington, 
D.C. He died at Norwich, Conn., on the I3th of October 1908. 
He received the honorary degree of LL.D. from Harvard, St 
John's, Columbia, Yale, North Carolina, Princeton, Toronto, 
Wisconsin and Clark Universities, and William and Mary College. 
His influence upon higher education in America was great, 
especially at Johns Hopkins, where many wise details of ad- 
ministration, the plan of bringing to the university as lecturers 
for a part of the year scholars from other colleges, the choice of 
a singularly brilliant and able faculty, and the marked willing- 
ness to recognize workers in new branches of science were all 
largely due to him. To the organization of the Johns Hopkins 
hospital, of which he was made director in 1889, he contributed 
greatly. He was a singularly good judge of men and an able 
administrator, and under him Johns Hopkins had an immense 
influence, especially in the promotion of original and productive 
research. He was always deeply interested in the researches 
of the professors at Johns Hopkins, and it has been said of him 
that his attention as president was turned inside and not outside 
the university. He was instrumental in determining the policy 
of the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University while he 
was a member of its governing board; on the 28th of October 
1897 he delivered at New Haven a semi-centennial discourse 
on the school, which appears in his University Problems. He was 
a prominent member of the American Archaeological Society 
and of the American Oriental Society; was one of the original 
trustees of the John F. Slater Fund (for a time he was secretary, 
and from 1893 until his death was president of the board); 
from 1891 until his death was a trustee of the Peabody Educa- 
tional Fund (being the vice-president of the board); and was 
an original member of the General Education Board (1902) 
and a trustee of the Russell Sage Foundation for Social Better- 
ment (1907). In 1896-1897 he served on the Venezuela Boundary 
Commission appointed by President Cleveland. In 1901 he 
succeeded Carl Schurz as president of the National Civil Service 
Reform League and served until 1907. Some of his papers 
and addresses are collected in a volume entitled University 
Problems in the United States (1888). He wrote, besides, James 
Monroe (1883), in the American Statesmen Series; a Life of 
James D. Dana, the geologist (1899); Science and Letters at 
Yale (1901), and The Launching of a University (1906), an 
account of the early years of Johns Hopkins. 

GILMORE, PATRICK SARSFIELD (1829-1892), American 
bandmaster, was born in Ireland, and settled in America about 
1850. He had been in the band of an Irish regiment, and he had 
great success as leader of a military band at Salem, Massachu- 
setts, and subsequently (1859) in Boston. He increased his 
reputation during the Civil War, particularly by organizing a 
monster orchestra of massed bands for a festival at New Orleans 
in 1864; and at Boston in 1869 and 1872 he gave similar per- 
formances. He was enormously popular as a bandmaster, and 
composed or arranged a large variety of pieces for orchestra. 
He died at St Louis on the 24th of September 1892 

GILPIN, BERNARD (1517-1583), the " Apostle of the North," 
was descended from a Westmorland family, and was born at 
Kentmere in 1517. He was educated at Queen's College, 
Oxford, graduating B.A. in 1540, M.A. in 1542 and B.D. in 1549. 
He was elected fellow of Queen's and ordained in 1542; subse- 
quently he was elected student of Christ Church. At Oxford he 
first adhered to the conservative side, and defended the doctrines 
of the church against Hooper; but his confidence was somewhat 
shaken by another public disputation which he had with Peter 
Martyr. In 1552 he preached before King Edward VI. a sermon 



on sacrilege, which was duly published, and displays the high 
ideal which even then he had formed of the clerical office; and 
about the same time he was presented to the vicarage of Norton, 
in the diocese of Durham, and obtained a licence, through 
William Cecil, as a general preacher throughout the kingdom 
as long as the king lived. On Mary's accession he went abroad 
to pursue his theological investigations at Louvain, Antwerp 
and Paris; and from a letter of his own, dated Louvain, 1554, 
we get a glimpse of the quiet student rejoicing in an " excellent 
library belonging to a monastery of Minorites." Returning to 
England towards the close of Queen Mary's reign, he was invested 
by his mother's uncle, Tunstall, bishop of Durham, with the 
archdeaconry of Durham, to which the rectory of Easington 
was annexed. The freedom of his attacks on the vices, and 
especially the clerical vices, of his times excited hostility against 
him, and he was formally brought before the bishop on a charge 
consisting of thirteen articles. Tunstall, however, not only 
dismissed the case, but presented the offender with the rich 
living of Hough ton-le-Spring; and when the accusation was 
again brought forward, he again protected him. Enraged at 
this defeat, Gilpin's enemies laid their complaint before Bonner, 
bishop of London, who secured a royal warrant for his apprehen- 
sion. Upon this Gilpin prepared for martyrdom; and, having 
ordered his house-steward to provide him with a long garment, 
that he might " goe the more comely to the stake," he set out 
for London. Fortunately, however, for him, he broke his leg 
on the journey, and his arrival was thus delayed till the news 
of Queen Mary's death freed him from further danger. He at 
once returned to Houghton, and there he continued to labour 
till his 'death on the 4th of March 1583. When the Roman 
Catholic bishops were deprived he was offered the see of Carlisle; 
but he declined this honour and also the provostship of Queen's, 
which was offered him in 1560. At Houghton his course of life 
was a ceaseless round of benevolent activity. In June 1560 he 
entertained Cecil and Dr Nicholas Wotton on their way to 
Edinburgh. His hospitable manner of living was the admiration 
of all. His living was a comparatively rich one, his house was 
better than many bishops' palaces, and his position was that 
of a clerical magnate. In his household he spent " every 
fortnight 40 bushels of corn, 20 bushels of malt and an ox, 
besides a proportional quantity of other kinds of provisions." 
Strangers and travellers found a ready reception; and even 
their horses were treated with so much care that it was humor- 
ously said that, if one were turned loose in any part of the country, 
it would immediately make its way to the rector of Houghton. 
Every Sunday from Michaelmas till Easter was a public day 
with Gilpin. For the reception of his parishioners he had three 
tables well covered one for gentlemen, the second for husband- 
men, the third for day-labourers; and this piece of hospitality 
he never omitted, even when losses or scarcity made its continu- 
ance difficult. He built and endowed a grammar-school at a 
cost of upwards of 500, educated and maintained a large number 
of poor children at his own charge, and provided the more 
promising pupils with means of studying at the universities. 
So many young people, indeed, flocked to his school that there 
was not accommodation for them in Houghton, and he had to fit 
up part of his house as a boarding establishment. Grieved at 
the ignorance and superstition which the remissness of the clergy 
permitted to flourish in the neighbouring parishes, he used 
every year to visit the most neglected parts of Northumberland, 
Yorkshire, Cheshire, Westmorland and Cumberland; and that 
his own flock might not suffer, he was at the expense of a constant 
assistant. Among his parishioners he was looked up to as a 
judge, and did great service in preventing law-suits amongst 
them. If an industrious man suffered a loss, he delighted to 
make it good; if the harvest was bad, he was liberal in the 
remission of tithes. The boldness which he could display at 
need is well illustrated by his action in regard to duelling. Find- 
ing one day a challenge-glove stuck up on the door of a church 
where he was to preach, he took it down with his own hand, and 
proceeded to the pulpit to inveigh against the unchristian 
custom. His theological position was not in accord with any of 



26 



GILSONITE GIN 



the religious parties of his age, and Gladstone thought that 
the catholicity of the Anglican Church was better exemplified 
in his career than in those of more prominent ecclesiastics 
(pref. to A. W. Hutton's edition of S. R. Maitland's Essays 
on the Reformation). He was not satisfied with the Elizabethan 
settlement, had great respect for the Fathers, and was with 
difficulty induced to subscribe. Archbishop Sandys' views on 
the Eucharist horrified him; but on the other hand he main- 
tained friendly relations with Bishop Pilkington and Thomas 
Lever, and the Puritans had some hope of his support. 

A life of Bernard Gilpin, written by George Carleton, bishop of 
Chichester, who had been a pupil of Gilpin's at Houghton, will be 
found in Bates's Viiae selectorum aliquot virorum, &c. (London, 
1681). A translation of this sketch by William Freake, minister, 
was published at London, 1629; and in 1852 it was reprinted in 
Glasgow, with an introductory essay by Edward Irving. It forms 
one of the lives in Christopher Wordsworth's Ecclesiastical Biography 
(vol. iii., 4th ed.), having been compared with Carleton's Latin 
text. Another biography of Gilpin, which, however, adds little to 
Bishop Carleton's, was written by William Gilpin, M.A., prebendary 
of Ailsbury (London, 1753 and 1854). See also Diet. Nat. Biog. 

GILSONITE (so named after S. H. Gilson of Salt Lake City), 
or UINTAHITE, or UINTAITE, a description of asphalt occurring in 
masses several inches in diameter in the Uinta (or Uintah) 
valley, near Fort Duchesne, Utah. It is of black colour; its 
fracture is conchoidal, and it has a lustrous surface. When 
warmed it becomes plastic, and on further beating fuses perfectly. 
It has a specific gravity of 1-065 to 1-070. It dissolves freely 
in hot oil of turpentine. The output amounted to 10,916 short 
tons for the year 1905, and the value was $4-31 per ton. 

GILYAKS, a hybrid people, originally widespread throughout 
the Lower Amur district, but now confined to the Amur delta 
and the north of Sakhalin. They have been affiliated by some 
authorities to the Ainu of Sakhalin and Yezo; but they are more 
probably a mongrel people, and Dr A. Anuchin states that 
there are two types, a Mongoloid with sparse beard, high cheek- 
bones and flat face, and a Caucasic with bushy beard and more 
regular features. The Chinese call them Yupitatse, " Fish-skin- 
clad people," from their wearing a peculiar dress made from 

salmon skin. 

See E. G. Ravenstein, The Russians on the Amur (1861); Dr A. 
Anuchin, Mem. Imp. Soc. Nat. Sc. xx., Supplement (Moscow, 1877) ; 
H. von Siebold, Ober die Aino (Berlin, 1881); J. Deniker in Revue 
d' ethnographic (Paris, 1884); L. Schrenck, Dte Volker des Amur- 
landes (St Petersburg, 1891). 

GIMBAL, a mechanical device for hanging some object so 
that it should keep a horizontal and constant position, while 
the body from which it is suspended is in free motion, so that 
the motion of the supporting body is not communicated to it. 
It is thus used particularly for the suspension of compasses or 
chronometers and lamps at sea, and usually consists of a ring 
freely moving on an axis, within which the object swings on an 
axis at right angles to the ring. 

The word is derived from the 0. Fr. gemel, from Lat. gemellus, 
diminutive of geminus, a twin, and appears also in gimmel or 
jimbel and as gemel, especially as a term for a ring formed of two 
hoops linked together and capable of separation, used in the 
1 6th and tyth centuries as betrothal and keepsake rings. They 
sometimes were made of three or more hoops linked together. 

GIMLET (from the O. Fr. guimbelet, probably a diminutive 
of the O.E. wimble, and the Scandinavian wammle, to bore or 
twist; the modern French is gibelet), a tool used for boring small 
holes. It is made of steel, with a shaft having a hollow side, 
and a screw at the end for boring the wood; the handle of wood 
is fixed transversely to the shaft. A gimlet is always a small 
tool. A similar tool of large size is called an " auger " (see 
TOOL). 

GIMLI, in Scandinavian mythology, the great hall of heaven 
whither the righteous will go to spend eternity. 

GIMP, or GYMP. (i) (Of somewhat doubtful origin, but prob- 
ably a nasal form of the Fr. guipure, from guiper, to cover or 
" whip " a cord over with silk), a stiff trimming made of silk 
or cotton woven around a firm cord, often further ornamented 
by a metal cord running through it. It is also sometimes 
covered with bugles, beads or other glistening ornaments. The 



trimming employed by upholsterers to edge curtains, draperies, 
the seats of chairs, &c., is also called gimp; and in lace work 
it is the firmer or coarser thread which outlines the pattern and 
strengthens the material. (2) A shortened form of gimple (the 
O.E. wimple), the kerchief worn by a nun around her throat, 
sometimes also applied to a nun's stomacher. 

GIN, an aromatized or compounded potable spirit, the char- 
acteristic flavour of which is derived from the juniper berry. 
The word " gin " is an abbreviation of Geneva, both being 
primarily derived from the Fr. geniewe (juniper). The use of 
the juniper for flavouring alcoholic beverages may be traced to 
the invention, or perfecting, by Count de Morret, son of Henry 
IV. of France, of juniper wine. It was the custom in the early 
days of the spirit industry, in distilling spirit from fermented 
liquors, to add in the working some aromatic ingredients, such 
as ginger, grains of paradise, &c., to take off the nauseous 
flavour of the crude spirits then made. The invention of juniper 
wine, no doubt, led some one to try the juniper berry for this 
purpose, and as this flavouring agent was found not only to 
yield an agreeable beverage, but also to impart a valuable 
medicinal quality to the spirit, it was generally made use of by 
makers of aromatized spirits thereafter. It is probable that the 
use of grains of paradise, pepper and so on, in the early days of 
spirit manufacture, for the object mentioned above, indirectly 
gave rise to the statements which are still found in current text- 
bocks and works of reference as" to the use of Cayenne pepper, 
cocculus indicus, sulphuric acid and so on, for the purpose of 
adulterating spirits. It is quite certain that such materials are 
not used nowadays, and it would indeed, in view of modern 
conditions of manufacture and of public taste, be hard to find a 
reason for their use. The same applies to the suggestions that 
such substances as acetate of lead, alum or sulphate of zinc are 
employed for the fining of gin. 

There are two distinct types of gin, namely, the Dutch geneva 
or hollands and the British gin. Each of these types exists in 
the shape of numerous sub-varieties. Broadly speaking, British 
gin is prepared with a highly rectified spirit, whereas in the 
manufacture of Dutch gin a preliminary rectification is not an 
integral part of the process. The old-fashioned Hollands is 
prepared much after the following fashion. A mash consisting 
of about one-third of malted barley or bere and two-thirds rye- 
meal is prepared, and infused at a somewhat high temperature. 
After cooling, the whole is set to ferment with a small quantity 
of yeast. After two to three days the attenuation is complete, 
and the wash so obtained is distilled, and the resulting distillate 
(the low wines) is redistilled, with the addition of the flavouring 
matter (juniper berries, &c.) and a little salt. Originally the 
juniper berries were ground with the malt, but this practice no 
longer obtains, but some distillers, it is believed, still mix the 
juniper berries with the wort and subject the whole to fermenta- 
tion. When the redistillation over juniper is repeated, the 
product is termed double (geneva, &c.). There are numerous 
variations in the process described, wheat being frequently 
employed in lieu of rye. In the manufacture of British gin, 1 
a highly rectified spirit (see SPIRITS) is redistilled in the presence 
of the flavouring matter (principally juniper and coriander), 
and frequently this operation is repeated several times. The 
product so obtained constitutes the " dry " gin of commerce. 
Sweetened or cordialized gin is obtained by adding sugar and 

1 The precise origin of the term " Old Tom," as applied to un- 
sweetened gin, appears to be somewhat obscure. In the English 
case of Board & Son v. Huddart (1903), in which the plaintiffs estab- 
lished their right to the " Cat Brand " trade-mark, it was proved 
before Mr Justice Swinfen Eady that this firm had first adopted 
about 1849 the punning association of the picture of a Tom cat 
on a barrel with the name of " Old Tom "; and it was at one time 
supposed that this was due to a tradition that a cat had fallen into 
one of the vVits, the gin from which was highly esteemed. But the 
term " Old Tom " had been known before that, and Messrs Boord & 
Son inform us that previously " Old Tom " had been a man, namely 
" old Thomas Chamberlain of Hodge's distillery " ; an old label 
book in their possession (1909) shows a label and bill-head with a 
picture of " Old Tom " the man on it, and another label shows a 
picture of a sailor lad on shipboard described as " Young Tom." 



GINDELY GINGER 



27 



flavouring matter (juniper, coriander, angelica, &c.) to the dry 
variety. Inferior qualities of gin are made by simply adding 
essential oils to plain spirit, the distillation process being omitted. 
The essential oil of juniper is a powerful diuretic, and gin is 
frequently prescribed in affections of the urinary organs. 

GINDELY, ANTON (1829-1892), German historian, was the 
son of a German father and a Slavonic mother, and was born at 
Prague on the 3rd of September 1829. He studied at Prague 
and at Olmiitz, and, after travelling extensively in search of 
historical material, became professor of history at the university 
of Prague and archivist for Bohemia in 1862. He died at 
Prague on the 24th of October 1892. Gindely's chief work is 
his Geschichle des dreissigjdhrigen Kriegis (Prague, 1869-1880), 
which has been translated into English (New York, 1884); 
and his historical work is mainly concerned with the period of the 
Thirty Years' War. Perhaps the most important of his numerous 
other works are: Geschichte der bohmischen Briider (Prague, 
1857-1858); Rudolf II. und seine Zeit (1862-1868), and a criti- 
cism of Wallenstein, Waldstein wahrend seines ersten Generalats 
(1886). He wrote a history of Bethlen Gabor in Hungarian, 
and edited the Monumenta historiae Bohemica. Gindely's 
posthumous work, Geschichle der Gegenreformation in Bdhmen, 
was edited by T. Tupetz (1894). 

See the Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, Band 49 (Leipzig, 1904). 

GINGALL, or JINGAL (Hindostani janjal) , a gun used by the 
natives throughout the East, usually a light piece mounted on 
a swivel; it sometimes takes the form of a heavy musket fired 
from a rest. . 

GINGER (Fr. gingembre, Ger. Ingwer), the rhizome or under- 
ground stem of Zingiber officinale (nat. ord. Zingiberaceae) , a 
perennial reed-like plant growing from 3 to 4 ft. high. The 
flowers and leaves are borne on separate stems, those of the 
former being shorter than those of the latter, and averaging from 
6 to 1 2 in. The flowers themselves are borne at the apex of the 
stems in dense ovate-oblong cone-like spikes from 2 to 3 in. long, 
composed of obtuse strongly-imbricated bracts with membranous 
margins, each bract enclosing a single small sessile flower. The 
leaves are alternate and arranged in two rows, bright green, 
smooth, tapering at both ends, with very short stalks and long 
sheaths which stand away from the stem and end in two small 
rounded auricles. The plant rarely flowers and the fruit is 
unknown. Though not found in a wild state, it is considered 
with very good reason to be a native of the warmer parts of Asia, 
over which it has been cultivated from an early period and the 
rhizome imported into England. From Asia the plant has spread 
into the West Indies, South America, western tropical Airica, 
and Australia. It is commonly grown in botanic gardens in 
Britain. 

The use of ginger as a spice has been known from very early 
times; it was supposed by the Greeks and Romans to be a 
product of southern Arabia, and was received by them by way 
of the Red Sea; in India it has also been known from a very 
remote period, the Greek and Latin names being derived from 
the Sanskrit. Fliickiger and Hanbury, in their Pharmacographia, 
give the following notes on the history of ginger. On the 
authority of Vincent's Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients, 
it is stated that in the list of imports from the Red Sea into 
Alexandria, which in the second century of our era were there 
liable to the Roman fiscal duty, ginger occurs among other 
Indian spices. So frequent is the mention of ginger in similar 
lists during the middle ages, that it evidently constituted an 
important item in the commerce between Europe and the East. 
It thus appears in the tariff of duties levied at Acre in Palestine 
about 1173, in that of Barcelona in 1221, Marseilles in 1228 
and Paris in 1296. Ginger seems to have been well known in 
England even before the Norman Conquest, being often referred 
to in the Anglo-Saxon leech-books of the nth century. It was 
very common in the I3th and I4th centuries, ranking next in 
value to pepper, which was then the commonest of all spices, 
and costing on an average about is. yd. per Ib. Three kinds of 
ginger were known among the merchants of Italy about the 
middle of the I4th century: (i) Belledi or Baladi, an Arabic 



name, which, as applied to ginger, would signify country or 
wild, and denotes common ginger; (2) Colombino, which refers 
to Columbum, Kolam or Quilon, a port in Travancore, fre- 
quently mentioned in the middle ages; and (3) Micchino, a 
name which denoted that the spice had been brought from or 
by way of Mecca. Marco Polo seems to have seen the ginger 
plant both in India and China between 1280 and 1290. John of 
Montecorvino, a missionary friar who visited India about 1292, 
gives a description of the plant, and refers to the fact of the root 
being dug up and transported. Nicolo di Conto, a Venetian 
merchant in the early part of the isth century, also describes 
the plant and the collection of the root, as seen by him in India. 
Though the Venetians received ginger by way of Egypt, some of 
the superior kinds were taken from India overland by the Black 
Sea. The spice is said to have been introduced into America 




From Bentley & Trimen's Medicinal Plants, by permission of J & A. Churchill. 

Ginger (Zingiber officinale), half nat. size, with leafy and flowering 

stem ; the former cut off short. 

1. Flower. /, Labellum, representing two 

2. Flower in vertical section. barren stamens. 

3. Fertile stamen.enveloping the st, Fertile stamen, 
style which projects above it. y, Staminode. 

4. Piece of leafy stem. 1-3 x, Tip of style bearing the 

enlarged. stigma. 

s, Sepals. 2, Style. 

p, Petals. gl, Honey-secreting glands. 

by Francisco de Mendofa, who took it from the East Indies to 
New Spain. It seems to have been shipped for commercial pur- 
poses from San Domingo as early as 1585, and from Barbados 
in 1654; so early as 1547 considerable quantities were sent from 
the West Indies to Spain. 

Ginger is known in commerce in two distinct forms, termed 
respectively coated and uncoated ginger, as having or wanting 
the epidermis. For the first, the pieces, which are called " races " 
or " hands," from their irregular palmate form, are washed and 
simply dried in the sun. In this form ginger presents a brown, 
more or less irregularly wrinkled or striated surface, and when 
broken shows a dark brownish fracture, hard, and sometimes 
horny and resinous. To produce uncoated ginger the rhizomes 
are washed, scraped and sun-dried, and are often subjected 
to a system of bleaching, either from the fumes of burning 
sulphur or by immersion for a short time in a solution of chlorin- 
ated lime. The whitewashed appearance that much of the 
ginger has, as seen in the shops, is due to the fact of its being 
washed in whiting and water, or even coated with sulphate of 



28 



GINGHAM GINKEL 



lime. This artificial coating is supposed by some to give the 
ginger a better appearance; it often, however, covers an inferior 
quality, and can readily be detected by the ease with which it 
rubs off, or by its leaving a white powdery substance at the bottom 
of the jar in which it is contained. Uncoated ginger, as seen 
in trade, varies from single joints an inch or less in length to 
flattish irregularly branched pieces of several joints, the '' races " 
or " hands," and from 3 to 4 in. long; each branch has a depres- 
sion at its summit showing the former attachment of a leafy 
stem. The colour, when not whitewashed, is a pale buff; it is 
somewhat rough or fibrous, breaking with a short mealy fracture, 
and presenting on the surfaces of the broken parts numerous short 
bristly fibres. 

The principal constituents of ginger are starch, volatile oil (to 
which the characteristic odour of the spice is due) and resin (to 
which is attributed its pungency). Its chief use is as a condiment 
or spice, but as an aromatic and stomachic medicine it is also used 
internally. " The stimulant, aromatic and carminative properties 
render it of much value in atonic dyspepsia, especially if accom- 
panied with much flatulence, and as an adjunct to purgative medi- 
cines to correct griping." Externally applied as a rubefacient, it 
has been found to relieve headache and toothache. The rhizomes, 
collected in a young green state, washed, scraped and preserved in 
syrup, form a delicious preserve, which is largely exported both 
from the West Indies and from China. Cut up into pieces like 
lozenges and preserved in sugar, ginger also forms a very agreeable 
sweetmeat. 

GINGHAM, a cotton or linen cloth, for the name of which 
several origins are suggested. It is said to have been made at 
Guingamp, a town in Brittany; the New English Dictionary 
derives the word from Malay ging-gang, meaning " striped." 
The cloth is now of a light or medium weight, and woven of dyed 
or white yarns either in a single colour or different colours, and 
in stripes, checks or plaids. It is made in Lancashire and 
in Glasgow, and also to a large extent in the United States. 
Imitations of it are obtained by calico-printing. It is used for 
dresses, &c. 

GINGI, or GINGEE, a rock fortress of southern India, in the 
South Arcot district of Madras. It consists of three hills, con- 
nected by walls enclosing an area of 7 sq. m., and practically 
impregnable to assault. The origin of the fortress is shrouded 
in legend. When occupied by the Mahrattas at the end of the 
17th century, it withstood a siege of eight years against the armies 
of Aurangzeb. In 1750 it was captured by the French, who held 
it with a strong force for eleven years. It surrendered to the 
English in 1761, in the words of Orme, " terminated the long 
hostilities between the two rival European powers in Coromandel, 
and left not a single ensign of the French nation avowed by the 
authority of its government in any part of India." 

GINGUENfi, PIERRE LOUIS (1748-1815), French author, 
was born on the 27th of April 1748 at Rennes, in Brittany. He 
was educated at a Jesuit college in his native town, and came 
to Paris in 1772. He wrote criticisms for the Mercure de France, 
and composed a comic opera, Pomponin (1777). The Satire des 
satires (1778) and the Confession de Zidme (1779) followed. 
The Confession was claimed by six or seven different authors, and 
though the value of the piece is not very great, it obtained great 
success. His defence of Piccini against the partisans of Gluck 
made him still more widely known. He hailed the first symptoms 
of the Revolution, joined Giuseppe Cerutti, the author of the 
Memoire pour le peuple franc, a is (1788), and others in producing 
the Feuille villageoise, a weekly paper addressed to the villages 
of France. He also celebrated in an indifferent ode the opening 
of the states-general. In his Lettres sur les confessions de J.-J. 
Rousseau (1791) he defended the life and principles of his author. 
He was imprisoned during the Terror, and only escaped with 
life by the downfall of Robespierre. Some time after his release 
he assisted, as director-general of the " commission executive 
de 1'instruction publique," in reorganizing the system of public 
instruction, and he was an original member of the Institute of 
France. In 1797 the directory appointed him minister pleni- 
potentiary to the king of Sardinia. After fulfilling his duties 
for seven months, very little to the satisfaction of his employers, 
Ginguen6 retired for a time to his country house of St Prix, in 



the valley of Montmorency. He was appointed a member of 
the tribunate, but Napoleon, finding that he was not sufficiently 
tractable, had him expelled at the first " purge," and Ginguene 
returned to his literary pursuits. He was one of the commission 
charged to continue the Histoire litteraire de la France, and he 
contributed to the volumes of this series which appeared in 1814, 
1817 and 1820. Ginguene's most important work is the Histoire 
litteraire d'ltalie (14 vols., 1811-1835). He was putting the 
finishing touches to the eighth and ninth volumes when he died 
on the nth of November 1815. The last five volumes were 
written by Francesco Salfi and revised by Pierre Daunou. 

In the composition of his history of Italian literature he was 
guided for the most part by the great work of Girolamo Tiraboschi, 
but he avoids the prejudices and party views of his model. 

Ginguene' edited the Decade philosophique, politique et litteraire 
till it was suppressed by Napoleon in 1807. fie contributed largely 
to the Biographie universelle, the Mercure de France and the, En- 
cyclopedie methodique; and he edited the works of Chamfort and of 
Lebrun. Among his minor productions are an opera, Pomponin 
ou le tuteur mystifie (1777) ; La Satire des satires (1778); De 
I'autorite de Rabelais dans la revolution presente (1791); De M. 
Neckar (1795); Fables nouvelles (1810); Fables inedites (1814). See 
" Eloge de Ginguen6 " by Dacier, in the Memoires de I'institut, torn, 
vii. ; " Discours " by M. Daunou, prefixed to the 2nd ed. of the 
Hist. lilt, d'ltalie; |D. J. Garat, Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de 
P. L. Guingene, prefixed to a catalogue of his library (Paris, 1817). 

GINKEL, GODART VAN (1630-1703), ist earl of Athlone, 
Dutch general in the service of England, was born at Utrecht 
in 1630. He came of a noble family, and bore the title of Baron 
van Reede, being the eldest son of Godart Adrian van Reede, 
Baron Ginkel. In his youth he entered the Dutch army, and in 
1688 he followed William, prince of Orange, in his expedition to 
England. In the following year he distinguished himself by 
a memorable exploit the pursuit, defeat and capture of a Scottish 
regiment which had mutinied at Ipswich, and was marching 
northward across the fens. It was the alarm excited by this 
mutiny that facilitated the passing of the first Mutiny Act. In 
1690 Ginkel accompanied William III. to Ireland, and com- 
manded a body of Dutch cavalry at the battle of the Boyne. 
On the king's return to England General Ginkel was entrusted 
with the conduct of the war. He took the field in the spring of 
1691, and established his headquarters at Mullingar. Among 
those who held a command under him was the marquis of 
Ruvigny, the recognized chief of the Huguenot refugees. Early in 
June Ginkel took the fortress of Ballymore, capturing the whole 
garrison of 1000 men. The English lost only 8 men. After 
reconstructing the fortifications of Ballymore the army marched 
to Athlone, then one of the most important of the fortified towns 
of Ireland. The Irish defenders of the place were commanded 
by a distinguished French general, Saint-Ruth. The firing 
began on June igth, and on the 3oth the town was stormed, 
the Irish army retreating towards Galway, and taking up their 
position at Aughrim. Having strengthened the fortifications 
of Athlone and left a garrison there, Ginkel led the English, 
on July 1 2th, to Aughrim. An immediate attack was resolved 
on, and, after a severe and at one time doubtful contest, the 
crisis was precipitated by the fall of Saint-Ruth, and the 
disorganized Irish were defeated and fled. A horrible slaughter 
of the Irish followed the struggle, and 4000 corpses were left 
unburied on the field, besides a multitude of others that lay 
along the line of the retreat. Galway next capitulated, its 
garrison being permitted to retire to Limerick. There the viceroy 
Tyrconnel was in command of a large force, but his sudden death 
early in August left the command in the hands of General Sars- 
field and the Frenchman D'Usson. The English came in sight of 
the town on the day of Tyrconnel's death, and the bombardment 
was immediately begun. Ginkel, by a bold device, crossed the 
Shannon and captured the camp of the Irish cavalry. A few days 
later he stormed the fort on Thomond Bridge, and after difficult 
negotiations a capitulation was signed, the terms of which were 
divided into a civil and a military treaty. Thus was completed 
the conquest or pacification of Ireland, and the services of the 
Dutch general were amply recognized and rewarded. He re- 
ceived the formal thanks of the House of Commons, and was. 



GINSBURG GIOBERTI 



29 



created by the king ist earl of Athlone and baron of Aughrim. 
The immense forfeited estates of the earl of Limerick were given 
to him, but the grant was a few years later revoked by the English 
parliament. The earl continued to serve in the English army, 
and accompanied the king to the continent in 1693. He fought 
at the sieges of Namur and the battle of Neerwinden, and 
assisted in destroying the French magazine at Givet. In 1702, 
waiving his own claims to the position of commander-in-chief, 
he commanded the Dutch serving under the duke of Marlborough. 
He died at Utrecht on the nth of February 1703, and was 
succeeded by his son the 2nd earl (1668-1719), a distinguished 
soldier in the reigns of William III. and Anne. On the death 
of the gth earl without issue in 1844, the title became extinct. 

GINSBURG, CHRISTIAN DAVID (1831- ), Hebrew scholar, 
was born at Warsaw on the 25th of December 1831. Coming to 
England shortly after the completion of his education in the 
Rabbinic College at Warsaw, Dr Ginsburg continued his study 
of the Hebrew Scriptures, with special attention to the Megilloth. 
The first result of these studies was a translation of the Song 
of Songs, with a commentary historical and critical, published 
in 1857. A similar translation of Ecclesiastes, followed by 
treatises on the Karaites, on the Essenes and on the Kabbala, 
kept the author prominently before biblical students while he 
was preparing the first sections of his magnum opus, the critical 
study of the Massorah. Beginning in 1867 with the publication 
of Jacob ben Chajim's Introduction to the Rabbinic Bible, 
Hebrew and English, with notices, and the Massoreth Ha- 
Massoreth of Elias Levita, in Hebrew, with translation and 
commentary, Dr Ginsburg took rank as an eminent Hebrew 
scholar. In 1870 he was appointed one of the first members 
of the committee for the revision of the English version of the 
Old Testament. His life-work culminated in the publication 
of the Massorah, in three volumes folio (1880-1886), followed 
by the Masoretico-critical edition of the Hebrew Bible (1894), 
and the elaborate introduction to it (1897). Dr Ginsburg had 
one predecessor in the field, the learned Jacob ben Chajim, who 
in 1524-1525 published the second Rabbinic Bible, containing 
what has -ever since been known as the Massorah; but neither 
were the materials available nor was criticism sufficiently 
advanced for a complete edition. Dr Ginsburg took up the 
subject almost where it was left by those early pioneers, and 
collected portions of the Massorah from the countless MSS. 
scattered throughout Europe and the East. More recently 
Dr Ginsburg has published Facsimiles of Manuscripts of the 
Hebrew Bible (1897 and 1898), and The Text of the Hebrew Bible 
in Abbreviations (1903), in addition to a critical treatise " on the 
relationship of the so-called Codex Babylonicus of A.D. 916 to 
the Eastern Recension of the Hebrew Text " (1899, for private 
circulation). In the last-mentioned work he seeks to prove that 
the St Petersburg Codex, for so many years accepted as the 
genuine text of the Babylonian school, is in reality a Palestinian 
text carefully altered so as to render it conformable to the 
Babylonian recension. He subsequently undertook the prepara- 
tion of a new edition of the Hebrew Bible for the British and 
Foreign Bible Society. He also contributed many articles to 
J. Kitto's Encyclopaedia, W. Smith's Dictionary of Christian 
Biography and the Encyclopaedia Britannica. 

GINSENG, the root of a species of Panax (P. Ginseng) , native of 
Manchuria and Korea, belonging to the natural order Araliaceae, 
used in China as a medicine. Other roots are substituted for it, 
notably that of Panax quinquefolium, distinguished as American 
ginseng, and imported from the United States. At one time 
the ginseng obtained from Manchuria was considered to be the 
finest quality, and in consequence became so scarce that an 
imperial edict was issued prohibiting its collection. That 
prepared in Korea is now the most esteemed variety. The root of 
the wild plant is preferred to that of cultivated ginseng, and the 
older the plant the better is the quality of the root considered to 
be. Great care is taken in the preparation of the drug. The 
account given by Koempfer of the preparation of nindsin, the 
root of Sium ninsi, in Korea, will give a good idea of the prepara- 
tion of ginseng, ninsi being a similar drug of supposed weaker 



virtue, obtained from a different plant, and often confounded 
with ginseng. " In the beginning of winter nearly all the 
population of Sjansai turn out to collect the root, and make 
preparations for sleeping in the fields. The root, when collected, 
is macerated for three days in fresh water, or water in which 
rice has been boiled twice; it is then suspended in a closed 
vessel over the fire, and afterwards dried, until from the base to 
the middle it assumes a hard, resinous and translucent appear- 
ance, which is considered a proof of its good quality." 

Ginseng of good quality generally occurs in hard, rather 
brittle, translucent pieces, about the size of the little finger, 
and varying in length from 2 to 4 in. The taste is mucilaginous, 
sweetish and slightly bitter and aromatic. The root is frequently 
forked, and it is probably owing to this circumstance that 
medicinal properties were in the first place attributed to it, 
its resemblance to the body of a man being supposed to indicate 
that it could restore virile power to the aged and impotent. 
In price it varies from 6 or 12 dollars to the enormous sum of 
300 or 400 dollars an ounce. 

Lockhart gives a graphic description of a visit to a ginseng mer- 
chant. Opening the outer box, the merchant removed several paper 
parcels which appeared to fill the box, but under them was a second 
box, or perhaps two small boxes, which, when taken out, showed 
the bottom of the large box and all the intervening space filled with 
more paper parcels. These parcels, he said, " contained quicklime, 
for the purpose of absorbing any moisture and keeping the boxes 
quite dry, the lime being packed in paper for the sake of cleanliness. 
The smaller box, which held the ginseng, was lined with sheet-lead ; 
the ginseng further enclosed in silk wrappers was kept in little silken- 
covered boxes. Taking up a piece, he would request his visitor not 
to breathe upon it, nor handle it; he would dilate upon the many 
merits of the drug and the cures it had effected. The cover of the 
root, according to its quality, was silk, either embroidered or plain, 
cotton cloth or paper." In China the ginseng is often sent to 
friends as a valuable present; in such cases, "accompanying the 
medicine is usually given a small, beautifully-finished double kettle, 
in which the ginseng is prepared as follows. The inner kettle is 
made of silver, and between this and the outside vessel, which is a 
copper jacket, is a small space for holding water. The silver kettle, 
which fits on a ring near the top of the outer covering, has a cup-like 
cover in which rice is placed with a little water; the ginseng is put 
in the inner vessel with water, a cover is placed over the whole, and 
the apparatus is put on the fire. When the rice in the cover is suffi- 
ciently cooked, the medicine is ready, and is then eaten by the 
patient, who drinks the ginseng tea at the same time." The dose 
of _the root is from 60 to 90 grains. During the use of the drug tea- 
drinking is forbidden for at least a month, but no other change is 
made in the diet. It is taken in the morning before breakfast, From 
three to eight days together, and sometimes it is taken in the evening 
before going to bed. 

The action of the drug appears to be entirely psychic, and com- 
parable to that of the mandrake of the Hebrews. There is no 
evidence that it possesses any pharmacological or therapeutic 
properties. 

See Porter Smith, Chinese Materia Medica, p. 103; Reports on 
Trade at the Treaty Ports of China (1868), p. 63; Lockhart, Med. 
Missionary in China (2nd ed.), p. 107; Bull, de la Societe Imperiale 
de Nat. de Moscou (1865), No. i, pp. 70-76; Pharmaceutical Journal 
(2), vol. iii. pp. 197, 333, (2), vol. ix. p. 77; Lewis, Materia Medica, 
p. 324; Geoffroy, Tract, de matiere medicate, t. ii. p. 112; Kaempfer, 
Amoenitates exoticae, p. 824., 

GIOBERTI, VINCENZO (1801-1852), Italian philosopher, 
publicist and politician, was born in Turin on the sth of April 
1801. He was educated by the fathers of the Oratory with a 
view to the priesthood and ordained in 1825. At first he led a 
very retired life; but gradually took more and more interest 
in the affairs of his country and the new political ideas as well 
as in the literature of the day. Partly under the influence of 
Mazzini, the freedom of Italy became his ruling motive in life, 
its emancipation, not only from foreign masters, but from modes 
of thought alien to its genius, and detrimental to its European 
authority. This authority was in his mind connected with 
papal supremacy, though in a way quite novel intellectual 
rather than political. This must be remembered in considering 
nearly all his writings, and also in estimating his position, both 
in relation to the ruling clerical party the Jesuits and also 
to the politics of the court of Piedmont after the accession of 
Charles Albert in 1831. He was now noticed by the king and 
made one of his chaplains. His popularity and private influence, 
however, were reasons enough for the court party to mark him 



GIOIOSA-IONICA GIOJA 



for exile; he was not one of them, and could not be depended on. 
Knowing this, he resigned his office in 1833, but was suddenly 
arrested on a charge of conspiracy, and, after an imprisonment of 
four months, was banished without a trial. Gioberti first went 
to Paris, and, a year later, to Brussels, where he remained till 
1845, teaching philosophy, and assisting a friend in the work 
of a private school. He nevertheless found time to write many 
works of philosophical importance, with special reference to his 
country and its position. An amnesty having been declared 
by Charles Albert in 1846, Gioberti (who was again in Paris) 
was at liberty to return to Italy, but refused to do so till the end 
of 1847. On his entrance into Turin on the 2gth of April 1848 
he was received with the greatest enthusiasm. He refused the 
dignity of senator offered him by Charles Albert, preferring to 
represent his native town in the Chamber of Deputies, of which 
he was soon elected president. At the close of the same year, 
a new ministry was formed, headed by Gioberti; but with the 
accession of Victor Emmanuel in March 1849, his active life 
came to an end. For a short time indeed he held a seat in the 
cabinet, though without a portfolio; but an irreconcilable 
disagreement soon followed, and his removal from Turin was 
accomplished by his appointment on a mission to Paris, whence 
he never returned. There, refusing the pension which had been 
offered him and all ecclesiastical preferment, he lived frugally, 
and spent his days and nights as at Brussels in literary labour. 
He died suddenly, of apoplexy, on the 26th of October 1852. 

Gioberti's writings are more important than his political career. 
In the general history of European philosophy they stand apart. As 
the speculations of Rosmini-Serbati, against which he wrote, have 
been called the last link added to medieval thought, so the system of 
Gioberti, known as " Ontologism," more especially in his greater 
and earlier works, is unrelated to other modern schools of thought. 
It shows a harmony with the Roman Catholic faith which caused 
Cousin to declare that "Italian philosophy was still in the bonds of 
theology," and that Gioberti was no philosopher. Method is with 
him a synthetic, subjective and psychological instrument. He re- 
constructs, as he declares, ontology, and begins with the " ideal 
formula," " the Ens creates ex nihilo the existent." God is the only 
being (Ens) ; all other things are merely existences. God is the 
origin of all human knowledge (called I' idea, thought), which is one 
and so to say identical with God himself. It is directly beheld 
(intuited) by reason, but in order to be of use it has to be reflected 
on, and this by means of language. A knowledge of being and 
existences (concrete, not abstract) and their mutual relations, is 
necessary as the beginning of philosophy. Gioberti is in some 
respects a Platonist. He identifies religion with civilization, and in 
his treatise Del primato morale e civile degli Italiani arrives at the 
conclusion that the church is the axis on which the well-being of 
human life revolves. In it he affirms the idea of the supremacy of 
Italy, brought about by the restoration of the papacy as a moral 
dominion, founded on religion and public opinion. In his later works, 
the Rinnovamento and the Protoloeia, he is thought by some to have 
shifted his ground under the influence of events. His first work, 
written when he was thirty-seven, had a personal reason for its 
existence. A young fellow-exile and friend, Paolo Pallia, having 
many doubts and misgivings as to the reality of revelation and a 
future life, Gioberti at once set to work with La Teorica del sovran- 
naturale, which was his first publication (1838). After this, philo- 
sophical treatises followed in rapid succession. The Teorica was 
followed by Introduzione allo studio della filosofia in three volumes 
(1839-1840). In this work he states his reasons for requiring a new 
method and new terminology. Here he brings out the doctrine 
that religion is the direct expression of the idea in this life, and is 
one with true civilization in history. Civilization is a conditioned 
mediate tendency to perfection, to which religion is the final com- 
pletion if carried out ; it is the end of the second cycle expressed by 
the second formula, the Ens redeems existences. Essays (not pub- 
lished till 1846) on the lighter and more popular subjects, Del hello 
and Del buono, followed the Introduzione. Del primato morale e 
civile degli Italiani and the Prolegomeni to the same, and soon after- 
wards his triumphant exposure of the Jesuits, // Gesuita moderno, 
no doubt hastened the transfer of rule from clerical to civil hands. 
It was the popularity of these semi-political works, increased by 
other occasional political articles, and his Rinnovamento civile d' Italia, 
that caused Gioberti to be welcomed with such enthusiasm on his 
return to his native country. All these works were perfectly or- 
thodox, and aided in drawing the liberal clergy into the movement 
which has resulted since his time in the unification of Italy. The 
Jesuits, however, closed round the pope more firmly after his return 
to Rome, and in the end Gioberti's writings were placed on the 
Index (see J. Kleutgen, Uber die Verurtheilung des Ontologismus 
durch den heiligen Stuhl, 1867). The remainder of his works, especi- 
ally La Filosofia della Rivelazione and the Protologia, give his mature 



views on many points. The entire writings of Gioberti, including 
those left in manuscript, have been edited by Giuseppe Massari 
(Turin, 1856-1861). 

See Massari, Vita de V. Gioberti (Florence, 1848); A. Rosmini- 
Serbati, V. Gioberti e il panteismo (Milan, 1848); C. B. Smyth, 
Christian Metaphysics (1851); B. Spaventa, La Filosofia di Gioberti 
(Naples, 1854); A. Maun, Delia vita e delle opere di V. Gioberti 
(Genoa, 1853); G. Frisco, Gioberti e I' ontologismo (Naples, 1867) ; 
P. Luciani, Gioberti e la filosofia nuova italiana (Naples, 1866-1872); 
D. Berti, Di V. Gioberti (Florence, 1881) ; see also L. Ferri, L'Histoire 
de la philosophie en Italie au XIX' siecle (Paris, 1869); C. Werner, 
Die italienische Philosophie des 19. Jahrhunderts, ij. (1885) ; appendix 
to Ueberweg's Hist, of Philosophy (Eng. tr.) ; art. in Brownson's 
Quarterly Review (Boston, Mass.), xxi.; R. Mariano, La Philosophie 
contemporaine en Italie (1866); R. Seydel's exhaustive article in 
Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopadie. The centenary of 
Gioberti called forth several monographs in Italy. 

GIOIOSA-IONICA, a town of Calabria, Italy, in the province 
of Reggio Calabria, from which it is 65 m. N.E. by rail, and 38 m. 
direct, 492 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 9072; commune, 
11,200. Near the station, which is on the E. coast of Calabria 
3 m. below the town to the S.E., the remains of a theatre 
belonging to the Roman period were discovered in 1883; the 
orchestra was 46 ft. in diameter (Notizie degli scavi, 1883, p. 423). 
The ruins of an ancient building called the Naviglio, the nature 
of which does not seem clear, are described (ib. 1884, p. 252). 

GIOJA, MELCHIORRE (1767-1829), Italian writer on philo- 
sophy and political economy, was born at Piacenza, on the 2oth 
of September 1767. Originally intended for the church, he took 
orders, but renounced them in 1796 and went to Milan, where he 
devoted himself to the study of political economy. Having 
obtained the prize for an essay on " the kind of free government 
best adapted to Italy " he decided upon the career of a publicist. 
The arrival of Napoleon in Italy drew him into public life. 
He advocated a republic under the dominion of the French in 
a pamphlet I Tedeschi, i Francesi, ed i Russi in Lombardia, and 
under the Cisalpine Republic he was named historiographer 
and director of statistics. He was several times imprisoned, 
once for eight months in 1820 on a charge of being implicated 
in a conspiracy with the Carbonari. After the fall of Napoleon 
he retired into private life, and does not appear to .have held 
office again. He died on the 2nd of January 1829. Gioja's 
fundamental idea is the value of statistics or the collection of 
facts. Philosophy itself is with him classification and consideration 
of ideas. Logic he regarded as a practical art, and his Esercizioni 
logici has the further title, Art of deriving benefit from ill-con- 
structed books. In ethics Gioja follows Bentham generally, and 
his large treatise Del merilo e delle recompense (1818) is a clear 
and systematic view of social ethics from the utilitarian principle. 
In political economy this avidity for facts produced better fruits. 
The Nuovo Prospetto delle scienze economiche (1815-1817), 
although long to excess, and overburdened with classifications 
and tables, contains much valuable material. The author 
prefers large properties and large commercial undertakings to 
small ones, and strongly favours association as a means of pro- 
duction. He defends a restrictive policy and insists on the 
necessity of the action of the state as a regulating power in the 
industrial world. He was an opponent of ecclesiastical domina- 
tion. He must be credited with the finest and most original 
treatment of division of labour since the Wealth of Nations. 
Much of what Babbage taught later on the subject of combined 
work is anticipated by Gioja. His theory of production is also 
deserving of attention from the fact that it takes into account 
and gives due prominence to immaterial goods. Throughout 
the work there is continuous opposition to Adam Smith. Gioja's 
latest work Filosofia della statistica (2 vols., 1826; 4 vols., 1829- 
1830) contains in brief compass the essence of his ideas on human 
life, and affords the clearest insight into his aim and method in 
philosophy both theoretical and practical. 

See monographs by G. D. Romagnosi (1829), F. Falco (1866); 
G. Pecchio, Storia dell' economia pubblica in Italia (1829), and article 
in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopadie; for Gioja's philo- 
sophy, L. Ferri, Essai sur I'histoire de la philosophie en Italie au 
XIX' siecle (1869); Ueberweg's Hist, of Philosophy (Eng. tr., 
appendix ii.); A. Rosmini-Serbati, Opuscoli filosofici, iii. (1844) 
(containing an attack on Gioja's "sensualism"); for his political 



GIOLITTI GIORGIONE 



economy, list of works in J. Conrad's Handworterbuch der Staa'.s- 
wissenschaflen (1892); L. Cossa, Introd. to Pol. Econ. (Eng. trans., 
p. 488). Gioja's complete works were published at Lugano (1832- 
1849). He was one of the founders of the Annali universali di 
statistica. 

GIOLITTI, GIOVANNI (1842- ), Italian statesman, was 
born at Mondovi on the 27th of October 1842. After a rapid 
career in the financial administration he was, in 1882, appointed 
councillor of state and elected to parliament. As deputy he 
chiefly acquired prominence by attacks on Magliani, treasury 
minister in the Depretis cabinet, and on the Qth of March 1889 
was himself selected as treasury minister by Crispi. On the fall 
of the Rudini cabinet in May 1892, Giolitti, with the help of a 
court clique, succeeded to the premiership. His term of office 
was marked by misfortune and misgovernment. The building 
crisis and the commercial rupture with France had impaired the 
situation of the state banks, of which one, the Banca Romana, 
had been further undermined by maladministration. A bank 
law, passed by Giolitti failed to effect an improvement. More- 
over, he irritated public opinion by raising to senatorial rank the 
director-general of the Banca Romana, Signer Tanlongo, whose 
irregular practices had become a byword. The senate declined 
to admit Tanlongo, whom Giolitti, in consequence of an inter- 
pellation in parliament upon the condition of the Banca Romana, 
was obliged to arrest and prosecute. During the prosecution 
Giolitti abused his position as premier to abstract documents 
bearing on the case. Simultaneously a parliamentary commission 
of inquiry investigated the condition of the state banks. Its 
report, though acquitting Giolitti of personal dishonesty, proved 
disastrous to his political position, and obliged him to resign. 
His fall left the finances of the state disorganized, the pensions 
fund depleted, diplomatic relations with France strained in 
consequence of the massacre of Italian workmen at Aigues- 
Mortes, and Sicily and the Lunigiana in a state of revolt, which 
he had proved impotent to suppress. After his resignation he 
was impeached for abuse of power as minister, but the supreme 
court quashed the impeachment by denying the competence of 
the ordinary tribunals to judge ministerial acts. For several 
years he was compelled to play a passive part, having lost all 
credit. But by keeping in the background and giving public 
opinion time to forget his past, as well as by parliamentary 
intrigue, he gradually regained much of his former influence. 
He made capital of the Socialist agitation and of the repression 
to which other statesmen resorted, and gave the agitators to 
understand that were he premier they would be allowed a free 
hand. Thus he gained their favour, and on the fall of the 
Pelloux cabinet he became minister of the Interior in Zanardelli's 
administration, of which he was the real head. His policy of 
never interfering in strikes and leaving even violent demonstra- 
tions undisturbed at first proved successful, but indiscipline 
and disorder grew to such a pitch that Zanardelli, already in 
bad health, resigned, and Giolitti succeeded him as prime minister 
(November 1903). But during his tenure of office he, too, had to 
resort to strong measures in repressing some serious disorders in 
various parts of Italy, and thus he lost the favour of the Socialists. 
In March 1905, feeling himself no longer secure, he resigned, 
indicating Fortis as his successor. When Sonnino became 
premier in February 1906, Giolitti did not openly oppose him, 
but his followers did, and Sonnino was defeated in May, Giolitti 
becoming prime minister once more. 

GIORDANO, LUCA (1632-1705), Italian painter, was born in 
Naples, son of a very indifferent painter, Antonio, who imparted 
to him the first rudiments of drawing. Nature predestined him 
for the art, and at the age of eight he painted a cherub into one 
of his father's pictures, a feat which was at once noised abroad, 
and induced the viceroy of Naples to recommend the child to 
Ribera. His father afterwards took him to Rome, to study under 
Pietro da Cortona. He acquired the nickname of Luca Fa-presto 
(Luke Work-fast). One might suppose this nickname to be 
derived merely from the almost miraculous celerity with which 
from an early age and throughout his life he handled the brush; 
but it is said to have had a more express origin. The father, 
we are told, poverty-stricken and greedy of gain, was perpetually 



urging his boy to exertion with the phrase, " Luca, fa presto." 
The youth obeyed his parent to the letter, and would actually 
not so much as pause to snatch a hasty meal, but received into 
his mouth, while he still worked on, the food which his father's 
hand supplied. He copied nearly twenty times the " Battle of 
Constantine" by Julio Romano, and with proportionate frequency 
several of the great works of Raphael and Michelangelo. His 
rapidity, which belonged as much to invention as to mere handi- 
work, and his versatility, which enabled him to imitate other 
painters deceptively, earned for him two other epithets, " The 
Thunderbolt " (Fulmine), and " The Proteus," of Painting. He 
shortly visited all the main seats of the Italian school of art, 
and formed for himself a style combining in a certain measure 
the ornamental pomp of Paul Veronese and the contrasting com- 
positions and large schemes of chiaroscuro of Pietro da Cortona. 
He was noted also for lively and showy colour. Returning to 
Naples, and accepting every sort of commission by which money 
was to be made, he practised his art with so much applause that 
Charles II. of Spain towards 1687 invited him over to Madrid, 
where he remained thirteen years. Giordano was very popular 
at the Spanish court, being a sprightly talker along with his other 
marvellously facile gifts, and the king created him a cavaliere. 
One anecdote of his rapidity of work is that the queen of Spain 
having one day made some inquiry about his wife, he at once 
showed Her Majesty what the lady was like by painting her 
portrait into the picture on which he was engaged. Soon after 
the death of Charles in 1700 Giordano, gorged with wealth, 
returned to Naples. He spent large sums in acts of munificence, 
and was particularly liberal to his poorer brethren of the art. He 
again visited various parts of Italy, and died in Naples on the 
1 2th of January 1705, his last words being " O Napoli, sospiro 
mio " (O Naples, my heart's love!). One of his maxims was that 
the good painter is the one whom the public like, and that the 
public are attracted more by colour than by design. 

Giordano had an astonishing readiness and facility, in spite 
of the general commonness and superficiality of his performances. 
He left many works in Rome, and far more in Naples. Of the 
latter one of the most renowned is " Christ expelling the Traders 
from the Temple," in the church of the Padri Girolamini, a 
colossal work, full of expressive lazzaroni; also the frescoes 
of S. Martino, and those in the Tesoro della Certosa, including 
the subject of " Moses and the Brazen Serpent "; and the cupola- 
paintings in the Church of S. Brigida, which contains the artist's 
own tomb. In Spain he executed a surprising number of works, 
continuing in the Escorial the series commenced by Cambiasi, 
and painting frescoes of the " Triumphs of the Church," the 
" Genealogy and Life of the Madonna," the stories of Moses, 
Gideon, David and Solomon, and the " Celebrated Women of 
Scripture," all works of large dimensions. His pupils, Aniello 
Rossi and Matteo Pacelli, assisted him in Spain. In Madrid he 
worked more in oil-colour, a Nativity there being one of his best 
productions. Other superior examples are the " Judgment of 
Paris " in the Berlin Museum, and " Christ with the Doctors in 
the Temple," in the Corsini Gallery of Rome. In Florence, in 
his closing days, he painted the Cappella Corsini, the Galleria 
Riccardi and other works. In youth he etched with considerable 
skill some of his own paintings, such as the " Slaughter of the 
Priests of Baal." He also painted much on the crystal borderings 
of looking-glasses, cabinets, &c., seen in many Italian palaces, and 
was, in this form of art, the master of Pietro Garofolo. His best 
pupil, in painting of the ordinary kind, was Paolo de Matteis. 

Bellori, in his Vile de' pittori moderni, is a leading authority 
regarding Luca Giordano. P. Benvenuto (1882) has written a work 
on the Riccardi paintings. 

GIORGIONE (1477-1510), Italian painter, was born at Castel- 
franco in 1477. In contemporary documents he is always called 
(according to the Venetian manner of pronunciation and spelling) 
Zorzi, Zorzo or Zorzon of Castelfranco. A tradition, having 
its origin in the I7th century, represented him as the natural 
son of some member of the great local family of the Barbarelli, 
by a peasant girl of the neighbouring village of Vedelago; 
consequently he is commonly referred to in histories and 



GIORGIONE 



catalogues under the name of Giorgio Barbarelli or Barbarella. 
This tradition has, however, on close examination been proved 
baseless. On the other hand mention has been found in a 
contemporary document of an earlier Zorzon, a native of 
Vedelago, living in Castelfranco in 1460. Vasari, who wrote 
before the Barbarella legend had sprung up, says that Giorgione 
was of very humble origin. It seems probable that he was 
simply the son or grandson of the afore-mentioned Zorzon the 
elder; that the after-claim of the Barbarelli to kindred with him 
was a mere piece of family vanity, very likely suggested by the 
analogous case of Leonardo da Vinci; and that, this claim once 
put abroad, the peasant-mother of Vedelago was invented on 
the ground of some dim knowledge that his real progenitors 
came from that village. 

Of the facts of his life we are almost as meagrely informed as 
of the circumstances of his birth. The little city, or large 
fortified village, for it is scarcely more, of Castelfranco in the 
Trevisan stands in the midst of a rich and broken plain at some 
distance from the last spurs of the Venetian Alps. From the 
natural surroundings of Giorgione's childhood was no doubt 
derived his ideal of pastoral scenery, the country of pleasant 
copses, glades, brooks and hills amid which his personages love 
to wander or recline with lute and pipe. How early in boyhood 
he went to Venice we do not know, but internal evidence 
supports the statement of Ridolfi that he served his apprentice- 
ship there under Giovanni Bellini; and there he made his fame 
and had his home. That his gifts were early recognized we 
know from the facts, recorded in contemporary documents, 
that in 1500, when he was only twenty-three (that is if Vasari 
gives rightly the age at which he died), he was chosen to paint 
portraits of the Doge Agostino Barberigo and the condottiere 
Consalvo Ferrante; that in 1504 he was commissioned to paint 
an altarpiece in memory of Matteo Costanzo in the cathedral 
of his native town, Castelfranco; that in 1507 he received at the 
order of the Council of Ten part payment for a picture (subject 
not mentioned) on which he was engaged for the Hall of the 
Audience in the ducal palace; and that in 1507-1508 he was 
employed, with other artists of his own generation, to decorate 
with frescoes the exterior of the newly rebuilt Fondaco dei 
Tedeschi or German merchants' hall at Venice, having already 
done similar work on the exterior of the Casa Soranzo, the Casa 
Grimani alii Servi and other Venetian palaces. Vasari gives 
also as an important event in Giorgione's life, and one which had 
influence on his work, his meeting with Leonardo da Vinci on 
the occasion of the Tuscan master's visit to Venice in 1 500. In 
September or October 1510 he died of the plague then raging 
in the city, and within a few days of his death we find the great 
art-patroness and amateur, Isabella d'Este, writing from Mantua 
and trying in vain to secure for her collection a night-piece by 
his hand of which the fame had reached her. 

All accounts agree in representing Giorgione as a personage 
of distinguished and romantic charm, a great lover, a great 
musician, made to enjoy in life' and to express in art to the 
uttermost the delight, the splendour, the sensuous and imaginative 
grace and fulness, not untinged with poetic melancholy, of the 
Venetian existence of his time. They represent him further as 
having made in Venetian painting an advance analogous to that 
made in Tuscan painting by Leonardo more than twenty years 
before; that is as having released the art from the last shackles 
of archaic rigidity and placed it in possession of full freedom 
and the full mastery of its means. He also introduced a new 
range of subjects. Besides altarpieces and portraits he painted 
pictures that told no story, whether biblical or classical, or if 
they professed to tell such, neglected the action and simply 
embodied in form and colour moods of lyrical or romantic 
feeling, much as a musician might embody them in sounds. 
Innovating with the courage and felicity of genius, he had for 
a time an overwhelming influence on his contemporaries and 
immediate successors in the Venetian school, including Titian, 
Sebastian del Piombo, the elder Palma, Cariani and the two 
Campagnolas, and not a little even on seniors of long-standing 
fame such as Giovanni Bellini. His name and work have 



exercised, and continue to exercise, no less a spell on posterity. 
But to identify and define, among the relics of his age and school, 
precisely what that work is, and to distinguish it from the 
kindred work of other men whom his influence inspired, is a 
very difficult matter. There are inclusive critics who still 
claim for Giorgione nearly every painting of the time that at 
all resembles his manner, and there are exclusive critics who pare 
down to some ten or a dozen the list of extant pictures which 
they will admit to be actually his. 

To name first those which are either certain or command 
the most general acceptance, placing them in something like 
an approximate and probable order of date. In the Uffizi at 
Florence are two companion pieces of the " Trial of Moses " 
and the " Judgment of Solomon," the latter the finer and 
better preserved of the two, which pass, no doubt justly, as 
typical works of Giorgione's youth, and exhibit, though not yet 
ripely, his special qualities of colour-richness and landscape 
romance, the peculiar facial types of his predilection, with the 
pure form of forehead, fine oval of cheek, and somewhat close-set 
eyes and eyebrows, and the intensity of that still and brooding 
sentiment with which, rather than with dramatic life and 
movement, he instinctively invests his figures. Probably the 
earliest of the portraits by common consent called his is the 
beautiful one of a young man at Berlin. His earliest devotional 
picture would seem to be the highly finished " Christ bearing 
his Cross " (the head and shoulders only, with a peculiarly 
serene and high-bred cast of features) formerly at Vicenza and 
now in the collection of Mrs Gardner at Boston. Other versions 
of this picture exist, and it has been claimed that one in private 
possession at Vienna is the true original: erroneously in the 
judgment of the present writer. Another " Christ bearing the 
Cross," with a Jew dragging at the rope round his neck, in the 
church of San Rocco at Venice, is a ruined but genuine work, 
quoted by Vasari and Ridolfi, and copied with the name of 
Giorgione appended, by Van Dyck in that master's Chatsworth 
sketch-book. (Vasari gives it to Giorgione in his first and to 
Titian in his second edition.) The composition of a lost early 
picture of the birth of Paris is preserved in an engraving of the 
" Teniers Gallery " series, and an old copy of part of the same 
picture is at Budapest. In the Giovanelli Palace at Venice 
is. that fascinating and enigmatical mythology or allegory, 
known to the Anonimo Morelliano, who saw it in 1 530 in the house 
of Gabriel Vendramin, simply as " the small landscape with 
the storm, the gipsy woman and the soldier"; the picture is 
conjecturally interpreted by modern authorities as illustrating 
a passage in Statius which describes the meeting of Adrastus 
with Hypsipyle when she was serving as nurse with the king of 
Nemea. Still belonging to the earlier part of the painter's 
brief career is a beautiful, virginally pensive Judith at St Peters- 
burg, which passed under various alien names, as Raphael, 
Moretto, &c., until its kindred with the unquestioned work of 
Giorgione was in late years firmly established. The great 
Castelfranco altarpiece, still, in spite of many restorations, 
one of the most classically pure and radiantly impressive works 
of Renaissance painting, may be taken as closing the earlier 
phase of the young master's work (1504). It shows the Virgin 
loftily enthroned on a plain, sparely draped stone structure with 
St Francis and a warrior saint (St Liberale) standing in attitudes 
of great simplicity on either side of the foot of the throne, a 
high parapet behind them, and a beautiful landscape of the 
master's usual type seen above it. Nearly akin to this master- 
piece, not in shape or composition but by the type of the Virgin 
and the very Bellinesque St Francis, is the altarpiece of the 
Madonna with St Francis and St Roch at Madrid. Of the 
master's fully ripened time is the fine and again enigmatical 
picture formerly in the house of Taddeo Contarini at Venice, 
described by contemporary witnesses as the "Three Philosophers," 
and now, on slender enough grounds, supposed to represent 
Evander showing Aeneas the site of Troy as narrated in the 
eighth Aeneid. The portrait of a knight of Malta in the Uffizi at 
Florence has more power and authority, if less sentiment, than 
the earlier example at Berlin, and may be taken to be of the 



GIOTTINO 



33 



master's middle time. Most entirely central and typical of all 
Giorgione's extant works is the Sleeping Venus at Dresden, 
first recognized by Morelli, and now universally accepted, as 
being the same as the picture seen by the Anonimo and later 
by Ridolfi in the Casa Marcello at Venice. An exquisitely pure 
and severe rhythm of line and contour chastens the sensuous 
richness of the presentment: the sweep of white drapery on 
which the goddess lies, and of glowing landscape that fills the 
space behind her, most harmoniously frame her divinity. It is 
recorded that the master left this piece unfinished and that 
the landscape, with a Cupid which subsequent restoration has 
removed, were completed after his death by Titian. The picture 
is the prototype of Titian's own Venus at the Uffizi and of many 
more by other painters of the school; but none of them attained 
the quality of the first exemplar. Of such small scenes of mixed 
classical mythology and landscape as early writers attribute in 
considerable number to Giorgione, there have survived at least 
two which bear strong evidences of his handiwork, though the 
action is in both of unwonted liveliness, namely the Apollo and 
Daphne of the Seminario at Venice and the Orpheus and Eurydice 
of Bergamo. The portrait of Antonio Grocardo at Budapest 
represents his fullest and most penetrating power in that branch 
of art. In his last years the purity and relative slenderness of 
form which mark his earlier female nudes, including the Dresden 
Venus, gave way to ideals of ampler mould, more nearly approach- 
ing those of Titian and his successors in Venetian art; as is 
proved by those last remaining fragments of the frescoes on the 
Grand Canal front of the Fondaco dei Tedeschi which were seen 
and engraved by Zanetti in 1760, but have now totally dis- 
appeared. Such change of ideal is apparent enough in the 
famous " Concert " or " Pastoral Symphony " of the Louvre, 
probably the latest, and certainly one of the most characteristic 
and harmoniously splendid, of Giorgione's creations that has 
come down to us, and has caused some critics too hastily to 
doubt its authenticity. 

We pass now to pictures for which some affirm and others 
deny the right to bear Giorgione's name. As youthful in style 
as the two early pictures in the Uffizi, and closely allied to them 
in feeling, though less so in colour, is an unexplained subject 
in the National Gallery, sometimes called for want of a better 
title the " Golden Age "; this is officially and by many critics 
given only to the " school of " Giorgione, but may not unreasonably 
be claimed for hisown work (No. 1173). There isalsoin England 
a group of three paintings which are certainly by one hand, 
and that a hand very closely related to Giorgione if not actually 
his own, namely the small oblong " Adoration of the Magi " 
in the National Gallery (No. 1160), the "Adoration of the 
Shepherds " belonging to Lord Allendale (with its somewhat 
inferior but still attractive replica at Vienna), and the small 
" Holy Family " in the collection of Mr R. H. Benson. The 
type of the Madonna in all these three pieces is different from 
that customary with the master, but there seems no reason why 
he should not at some particular moment have changed his 
model. The sentiment and gestures of the figures, the cast of 
draperies, the technical handling, and especially, in Lord Allen- 
dale's picture, the romantic richness of the landscape, all incline 
us to accept the group as original, notwithstanding the deviation 
of type already mentioned and certain weaknesses of drawing 
and proportion which we should have hardly looked for. Better 
known to European students in general are the two fine pictures 
commonly given to the master at the Pitti gallery in Florence, 
namely the " Three Ages " and the " Concert." Both are very 
Giorgionesque, the " Three Ages " leaning rather towards the 
early manner of Lorenzo Lotto, to whom by some critics it is 
actually given. The " Concert " is held on technical grounds 
by some of the best judges rather to bear the character of Titian 
at the moment when the inspiration of Giorgione was strongest 
on him, at least so far as concerns the extremely beautiful and 
expressive central figure of the monk playing on the clavichord 
with reverted head, a very incarnation of musical rapture and 
yearning the other figures are too much injured to judge. 

There are at least two famous single portraits as to which 

XII. 2 



critics will probably never agree whether they are among the 
later works of Giorgione or among the earliest of Titian under 
his influence: these are the jovial and splendid half-length of 
Catherine Cornaro (or a stout lady much resembling her) with 
a bas-relief, in the collection of Signer Crespi at Milan, and the 
so-called " Ariosto " from Lord Darnley's collection acquired 
for the National Gallery in 1904. Ancient and half-effaced 
inscriptions, of which there is no cause to doubt the genuineness, 
ascribe them both to Titian; both, to the mind of the present 
writer at least, are more nearly akin to such undoubted early 
Titians as the " Man with the Book " at Hampton Court and 
the " Man with the Glove " at the Louvre than to any authen- 
ticated work of Giorgione. At the same time it should be 
remembered that Giorgione is known to have actually enjoyed 
the patronage of Catherine Cornaro and to have painted her 
portrait. The Giorgionesque influence and feeling, to a degree 
almost of sentimental exaggeration, encounter us again in another 
beautiful Venetian portrait at the National Gallery which has 
sometimes been claimed for him, that of a man in crimson velvet 
with white pleated shirt and a background of bays, long attributed 
to the elder Palma (No. 636). The same qualities are present 
with more virility in a very striking portrait of a young man 
at Temple Newsam, which stands indeed nearer than any other 
extant example to the Brocardo portrait at Budapest. The 
full-face portrait of a woman in the Borghese gallery at Rome 
has the marks of the master's design and inspiration, but in its 
present sadly damaged condition can hardly be claimed for his 
handiwork. The head of a boy with a pipe at Hampton Court, 
a little over life size, has been enthusiastically claimed as Gior- 
gione's workmanship, but is surely too slack and soft in handling 
to be anything more than an early copy of a lost work, analogous 
to, though better than, the similar copy at Vienna of a young 
man with an arrow, a subject he is known to have painted. 
The early records prove indeed that not a few such copies of 
Giorgione's more admired works were produced in his own time 
or shortly afterwards. One of the most interesting and un- 
mistakable such copies still extant is the picture formerly in the 
Manfrin collection at Venice, afterwards in that of Mr Barker in 
London, and now at Dresden, which is commonly called " The 
Horoscope," and represents a woman seated near a classic ruin 
with a young child at her feet, an armed youth standing looking 
down at them, and a turbaned sage seated near with compasses, 
disk and book. Of important subject pictures belonging to the 
debatable borderland between Giorgione and his imitators are the 
large and interesting unfinished " Judgment of Solomon " at 
Kingston Lacy, which must certainly be the same that Ridolfi 
saw and attributed to him in the Casa Grimani at Venice, but 
has weaknesses of design and drawing sufficiently baffling to 
criticism; and the " Woman taken in Adultery " in the public 
gallery at Glasgow, a picture truly Giorgionesque in richness of 
colour, but betraying in its awkward composition, the relative 
coarseness of its types and the insincere, mechanical animation 
of its movements, the hand of some lesser master of the school, 
almost certainly (by comparison with his existing engravings 
and woodcuts) that of Domenico Campagnola. It seems un- 
necessary to refer, in the present notice, to any of the numerous 
other and inferior works which have been claimed for Giorgione 
by a criticism unable to distinguish between a living voice and its 
echoes. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Morelli, Notizie,&c. (ed. Frizzoni, 1884): Vasari 
(ed. Milanesi), vol. iv. ; Ridolfi, Le Maraviglie dell' arte, vol. i. ; 
Zanetti, Varie Pitture (1760) ; Crowe-Cavalcaselle, History of Painting 
in North Italy; Morelli, Kunstkritische Studien; Gronau, Zorzon da 
Castelfranco, la sua origine, &c. (1894); Herbert Cook, Giorgione (in 
" Great Masters " series, 1900) ; Ugo Monneret de Villard, Giorgione 
da Castelfranco (1905). The two last-named works are critically 
far too inclusive, but useful as going over the whole ground of 
discussion, with full references to earlier authorities, &c. (S. C.) 

GIOTTINO (1324-1357), an early Florentine painter. Vasari 
is the principal authority in regard to this artist; but it is not by 
any means easy to bring the details of his narrative into harmony 
with such facts as can now be verified. It would appear that there 
was a painter of the name of Tommaso (or Maso) di Stefano, 



34 



GIOTTO 



termed Giottino; and the Giottino of Vasari is said to have been 
born in 1324, and to have died early, of consumption, in 1357, 
dates which must be regarded as open to considerable doubt. 
Stefano, the father of Tommaso, was himself a celebrated painter 
in the early revival of art; his naturalism was indeed so highly 
appreciated by contemporaries as to earn him the appellation of 
" Scimia della Natura " (ape of nature) . He, it seems, instructed 
his son, who, however, applied himself with greater predilection 
to studying the works of the great Giotto, formed his style on 
these, and hence was called Giottino. It is even said that 
Giottino was really the son (others say the great-grandson) of 
Giotto. To this statement little or no importance can be attached. 
To Maso di Stefano, or Giottino, Vasari and Ghiberti attribute 
the frescoes in the chapel of S. Silvestro (or of the Bardi family) 
in the Florentine church of S. Croce; these represent the miracles 
of Pope S. Silvestro as narrated in the " Golden Legend," one 
conspicuous subject being the sealing of the lips of a malignant 
dragon. These works are animated and firm in drawing, with 
naturalism carried further than by Giotto. From the evidence 
of style, some modern connoisseurs assign to the same hand the 
paintings in the funeral vault of the Strozzi family, below the 
Cappella degli Spagnuoli in the church of S. Maria Novella, 
representing the crucifixion and other subjects. Vasari ascribes 
also to his Giottino the frescoes of the life of St Nicholas in the 
lower church of Assisi. This series, however, is not really in that 
part of the church which Vasari designates, but is in the chapel of 
the Sacrament; and the works in that chapel are understood 
to be by Giotto di Stefano, who worked in the second half of 
the 1 4th century very excellent productions of their period. 
They are much damaged, and the style is hardly similar to that of 
the Sylvester frescoes. It might hence be inferred that two 
different men produced the works which are unitedly fathered 
upon the half-legendary " Giottino," the consumptive youth, 
solitary and melancholic, but passionately devoted to his art. 
A large number of other works have been attributed to the same 
hand; we need only mention an " Apparition of the Virgin to 
St Bernard," in the Florentine Academy; a lost painting, very 
popular in its day, commemorating the expulsion, which took 
place in 1343, of the duke of Athens from Florence; and a 
marble statue erected on the Florentine campanile. Vasari 
particularly praises Giottino for well-blended chiaroscuro.' 

GIOTTO [GIOTTO DI BONDONE'] (1267 P-I337), Italian painter, 
was born at Vespignano in the Mugello, a few miles north of 
Florence, according to one account in 1276, and according to 
another, which from the few known circumstances of his life seems 
more likely to be correct, in 1 266 or 1 267. His father was a land- 
owner at Colle in the commune of Vespignano, described in a 
contemporary document as vir praedarus, but by biographers 
both early and late as a poor peasant; probably therefore a 
peasant proprietor of no large possessions but of reputable stock 
and descent. It is impossible to tell whether there is any truth 
in the legend of Giotto's boyhood which relates how he first 
showed his disposition for art, and attracted the attention of 
Cimabue, by being found drawing one of his father's sheep with 
a sharp stone on the face of a smooth stone or slate. With his 
father's consent, the story goes on, Cimabue carried off the boy 
to be his apprentice, and it was under Cimabue's tuition that 
Giotto took his first steps in the art of which he was afterwards 
to be the great emancipator and renovator. The place where 
these early steps can still, according to tradition, be traced, is 
in the first and second, reckoning downwards, of the three 
courses of frescoes which adorn the walls of the nave in the Upper 
Church of St Francis at Assisi. These frescoes represent subjects 
of the Old and New Testament, and great labour, too probably 
futile, has been spent in trying to pick out those in which the 
youthful handiwork of Giotto can be discerned, as it is imagined, 
among that of Cimabue and his other pupils. But the truth 
is that the figure of Cimabue himself, in spite of Dante's testimony 
to his having been the foremost painter of Italy until Giotto 
arose, has under the search-light of modern criticism melted into 

1 Not to be confused with Giotto di Buondone, a contemporary 
citizen and politician of Siena. 



almost mythical vagueness. His accepted position as Giotto's 
instructor and the pioneer of reform in his art has been attacked 
from several sides as a mere invention of Florentine writers for 
the glorification of their own city. One group of critics maintain 
that the real advance in Tuscan painting before Giotto was the 
work of the Sienese school and not of the Florentine. Another 
group contend that the best painting done in Italy down to the 
last decade of the i3th century was not done by Tuscan hands at 
all, but by Roman craftsmen trained in the inherited principles 
of Italo-Byzantine decoration in mosaic and fresco, and that 
from such Roman craftsmen alone could Giotto have learnt 
anything worth his learning. The debate thus opened is far 
from closed, and considering how scanty, ambiguous and often 
defaced are the materials existing for discussion, it is perhaps 
never likely to be closed. But there is no debate as to the general 
nature of the reform effected by the genius of Giotto himself. 
He was the great humanizer of painting; it is his glory to have 
been the first among his countrymen to breathe life into wall- 
pictures and altar-pieces, and to quicken the dead conventional- 
ism of inherited practice with the fire of natural action and 
natural feeling. Upon yet another point there is no question; 
and that is that the reform thus effected by Giotto in painting 
had been anticipated in the sister art of sculpture by nearly 
a whole generation. About the middle of the i3th century 
Nicola Pisano had renewed that art, first by strict imitation of 
classical models, and later by infusing into his work a fresh 
spirit of nature and humanity, perhaps partly caught from the 
Gothic schools of France. His son Giovanni had carried the same 
re- vitalising of sculpture a great deal further; and hence to some 
critics it would seem that the real inspirer and precursor of Giotto 
was Giovanni Pisano the sculptor, and not any painter or wall- 
decorator, whether of Florence, Siena or Rome. 

In this division of opinion it is safer to regard the revival of 
painting in Giotto's hands simply as part of the general awaken- 
ing of the time, and to remember that, as of all Italian com- 
munities Florence was the keenest in every form of activity 
both intellectual and practical, so it was natural that a son of 
Florence should be the chief agent in such an awakening. And 
in considering his career the question of his possible participation 
in the primitive frescoes of the upper courses at Assisi is best left 
out of account, the more so because of the deplorable condition 
in which they now exist. But with reference to the lowest 
course of paintings on the same walls, those illustrating the life 
of St Francis according to the narrative of St Bonaventura, 
no one has any doubt, at least in regard to nineteen or twenty 
of the twenty-eight subjects which compose the series, that Giotto 
himself was their designer and chief executant. In these, sadly 
as they too have suffered from time and wholesale repair, there 
can nevertheless be discerned the unmistakable spirit of the 
young Florentine master as we know him in his other works 
his shrewd realistic and dramatic vigour, the deep sincerity and 
humanity of feeling which he knows how to express in every 
gesture of his figures without breaking up the harmony of their 
grouping or the grandeur of their linear design, qualities in- 
herited from the earlier schools of impressive but lifeless hieratic 
decoration. The " Renunciation of the Saint by his Father," 
the " Pope's Dream of the Saint upholding the tottering Church," 
the " Saint before the Sultan," the " Miracle of the Spring of 
Water," the " Death of the Nobleman of Celano," the " Saint 
preaching before Pope Honorius " these are some of the most 
noted and best preserved examples of the painter's power in this 
series. Where doubt begins again is as to the relations of date 
and sequence which the series bears to other works by the master 
executed at Assisi and at Rome in the same early period of his 
career, that is, probably between 1295 and 1300. Giotto's 
remaining undisputed works at Assisi are the four celebrated 
allegorical compositions in honour of St Francis in the vaulting 
of the Lower Church, the " Marriage of St Francis to Poverty," 
the " Allegory of Chastity," the " Allegory of Obedience " 
and the " Vision of St Francis in Glory." These works are 
scarcely at all retouched, and relatively little dimmed by time; 
they are of a singular beauty, at once severe and tender, both 



GIOTTO 



35 



in colour and design; the compositions, especially the first three, 
fitted with admirable art into the cramped spaces of the vaulting, 
the subjects, no doubt in the main dictated to the artist by his 
Franciscan employers, treated in no cold or mechanical spirit 
but with a full measure of vital humanity and original feeling. 
Had the career and influence of St Francis had no other of their 
vast and far-reaching effects in the world than that of inspiring 
these noble works of art, they would still have been entitled 
to no small gratitude from mankind. Other works at Assisi 
which most modern critics, but not all, attribute to Giotto him- 
self are three miracles of St Francis and portions of a group of 
frescoes illustrating the history of Mary Magdalene, both in the 
Lower Church; and again, in one of the transepts of the same 
Lower Church, a series of ten frescoes of the Life of the Virgin 
and Christ, concluding with the Crucifixion. It is to be remarked 
as to this transept series that several of the frescoes present not 
only the same subjects, but with a certain degree of variation 
the same compositions, as are found in the master's great series 
executed in the Arena chapel at Padua in the fullness of his 
powers about 1306; and that the versions in the Assisi transept 
show a relatively greater degree of technical accomplishment 
than the Paduan versions, with a more attractive charm and 
more abundance of accessory ornament, but a proportionately 
less degree of that simple grandeur in composition and direct 
strength of human motive which are the special notes of Giotto's 
style. Therefore a minority of critics refuse to accept the 
modern attribution of this transept series to Giotto himself, 
and see in it later work by an accomplished pupil softening and 
refining upon his master's original creations at Padua. Others, 
insisting that these unquestionably beautiful works must be 
by the hand of Giotto and none but Giotto, maintain that in 
comparison with the Paduan examples they illustrate a gradual 
progress, which can be traced in other of his extant works, from 
the relatively ornate and soft to the austerely grand and simple. 
This argument is enforced by comparison with early work of the 
master's at Rome as to the date of which we have positive 
evidence. In 1298 Giotto completed for Cardinal Stefaneschi 
for the price of 2200 gold ducats a mosaic of Christ saving St 
Peter from the waves (the celebrated " Navicella ") ; this is 
still to be seen, but in a completely restored and transformed 
state, in the vestibule of St Peter's. For the same patron he 
executed, probably just before the " Navicella," an elaborate 
ciborium or altar-piece for the high altar of St Peter's , for which 
he received 800 ducats. It represents on the principal face a 
colossal Christ enthroned with adoring angels beside him and 
a kneeling donor at his feet, and the martyrdoms of St Peter and 
St Paul on separate panels to right and left; on the reverse is 
St Peter attended by St George and other saints, receiving from 
the donor a model of his gift, with stately full-length figures of 
two apostles to right and two to left, besides various accessory 
scenes and figures in the predellas and the margins. The 
separated parts of this altar-piece are still to be seen, in a quite 
genuine though somewhat tarnished condition, in the sacristy 
of St Peter's. A third work by the master at Rome is a repainted 
fragment at the Lateran of a fresco of Pope Boniface VIII. 
proclaiming the jubilee of 1300. The " Navicella " and the 
Lateran fragment are too much ruined to argue from; but the 
ciborium panels, it is contended, combine with the aspects of 
majesty and strength a quality of ornate charm and suavity 
such as is remarked in the transept frescoes of Assisi. The 
sequence proposed for these several works is accordingly, first 
the St Peter's ciborium, next the allegories in the vaulting of the 
Lower Church, next the three frescoes of St Francis' miracles 
in the north transept, next the St Francis series in the Upper 
Church; and last, perhaps after an interval and with the help 
of pupils, the scenes from the life of Mary Magdalene in her 
chapel in the Lower Church. This involves a complete reversal 
of the prevailing view, which regards the unequal and sometimes 
clumsy compositions of this St Francis series as the earliest 
independent work of the master. It must be admitted that 
there is something paradoxical in the idea of a progress from 
the manner of the Lower Church transept series of the life of 



Christ to the much ruder manner of the Upper Church series 
of St Francis. 

A kindred obscurity and little less conflict of opinion await 
the inquirer at almost all stages of Giotto's career. In 1841 
there were partially recovered from the whitewash that had 
overlain them a series of frescoes executed in the chapel of the 
Magdalene, in the Bargello or Palace of the Podesta at Florence, 
to celebrate (as was supposed) a pacification between the Black 
and White parties in the state effected by the Cardinal d'Acqua- 
sparta as delegate of the pope in 1302. In them are depicted a 
series of Bible scenes, besides great compositions of Hell and 
Paradise, and in the Paradise are introduced portraits of Dante, 
Brunetto Latini and Corso Donato. These recovered fragments, 
freely " restored " as soon as they were disclosed, were acclaimed 
as the work of Giotto and long held in especial regard for the 
sake of the portrait of Dante. Latterly it has been shown that 
if Giotto ever executed them at all, which is doubtful, it must 
have been at a later date than the supposed pacification, and 
that they must have suffered grievous injury in the fire which 
destroyed a great part of the building in 1332, and been after- 
wards repainted by some well-trained follower of the school. 
To about 1302 or 1303 would belong, if there is truth in it, the 
familiar story of Giotto's O. Pope Benedict XI., the successor 
of Boniface VIII., sent, as the tale runs, a messenger to bring 
him proofs of the painter's powers. Giotto would give no other 
sample of his talent than an O drawn with a free sweep of the 
brush from the elbow; but the pope was satisfied and engaged 
him at a great salary to go and adorn with frescoes the papal 
residence at Avignon. Benedict, however, dying at this time 
(1305), nothing came of this commission; and the remains of 
Italian 14th-century frescoes still to be seen at Avignon are now 
recognized as the work, not, as was long supposed, of Giotto, 
but of the Sienese Simone Martini and his school. 

At this point in Giotto's life we come to the greatest by far of 
his undestroyed and undisputed enterprises, and one which can 
with some certainty be dated. This is the series of frescoes 
with which he decorated the entire internal walls of the chapel 
built at Padua in honour of the Virgin of the Annunciation by a 
rich citizen of the town, Enrico Scrovegni, perhaps in order to 
atone for the sins of his father, a notorious usurer whom Dante 
places in the seventh circle of hell. The building is on the site 
of an ancient amphitheatre, and is therefore generally called 
the chapel of the Arena. Since it is recorded that Dante was 
Giotto's guest at Padua, and since we know that it was in 1306 
that the poet came from Bologna to that city, we may conclude 
that to the same year, 1306, belongs the beginning of Giotto's 
great undertaking in the Arena chapel. The scheme includes a 
Saviour in Glory over the altar, a Last Judgment, full of various 
and impressive incident, occupying the whole of the entrance wall, 
with a series of subjects from the Old and New Testament and 
the apocryphal Life of Christ painted in three tiers on either side 
wall, and lowest of all a fourth tier with emblematic Virtues and 
Vices in monochrome; the Virtues being on the side of the chapel 
next the incidents of redemption in the entrance fresco of the 
Last Judgment, the Vices on the side next the incidents of perdi- 
tion. A not improbable tradition asserts that Giotto was helped 
by Dante in the choice and disposition of the subjects. The 
frescoes, though not free from injury and retouching, are upon 
the whole in good condition, and nowhere else can the highest 
powers of the Italian mind and hand at the beginning of the I4th 
century be so well studied as here. At the close of the middle 
ages we find Giotto laying the foundation upon which all the 
progress of the Renaissance was afterwards securely based. 
In his day the knowledge possessed by painters of the human 
frame and its structure rested only upon general observation 
and not upon detailed or scientific study; while to facts other 
than those of humanity their observation had never been closely 
directed. Of linear perspective they possessed but elementary 
and empirical ideas, and their endeavours to express aerial per- 
spective and deal with the problems of light and shade were rare 
and partial. As far as painting could possibly be carried under 
these conditions, it was carried by Giotto. In its choice of 



GIOTTO 



subjects, his art is entirely subservient to the religious spirit of 
his age. Even in its mode of conceiving and arranging those 
subjects it is in part still trammelled by the rules and consecrated 
traditions of the past. Many of those truths of nature to which 
the painters of succeeding generations learned to give accurate 
and complete expression, Giotto was only able to express by way 
of imperfect symbol and suggestion. But among the elements of 
art over which he has control he maintains so just a balance that 
his work produces in the spectator less sense of imperfection 
than that of many later and more accomplished masters. In 
some particulars his mature painting, as we see it in the Arena 
chapel, has never been surpassed in mastery of concise and 
expressive generalized line and of inventive and harmonious 
decorative tint; in the judicious division of the field and massing 
and scattering of groups; in the combination of high gravity 
with complete frankness in conception, and the union of noble 
dignity in the types with direct and vital truth in the gestures 
of the personages. 

The frescoes of the Arena chapel must have been a labour 
of years, and of the date of their termination we have no proof. 
Of many other works said to have been executed by Giotto at 
Padua, all that remains consists of some scarce recognizable traces 
in the chapter-house of the great Franciscan church of St Antonio. 
For twenty years or more we lose all authentic data as to Giotto's 
doings and movements. Vasari, indeed, sends him on a giddy 
but in the main evidently fabulous round of travels, including a 
sojourn in France, which it is certain he never made. Besides 
Padua, he is said to have resided and left great works at Ferrara, 
Ravenna, Urbino, Rimini, Faenza, Lucca and other cities; in 
some of them paintings of his school are still shown, but nothing 
which can fairly be claimed to be by his hand. It is recorded 
also that he was much employed in his native city of Florence; 
but the vandalism of later generations has effaced nearly all that 
he did .there. Among works whitewashed over by posterity 
were the frescoes with which he covered no less than five chapels 
in the church of Santa Croce. Two of these, the chapels of the 
Bardi and the Peruzzi families, were scraped in the early part 
of the i Qth century, and very important remains were uncovered 
and immediately subjected to a process of restoration which 
has robbed them of half their authenticity. But through the 
ruins of time we can trace in some of these Santa Croce frescoes 
all the qualities of Giotto's work at an even higher and more 
mature development than in the best examples at Assisi or Padua. 
The frescoes of the Bardi chapel tell again the story of St Francis, 
to* which so much of his best power had already been devoted; 
those of the Peruzzi chapel deal with the lives of St John the 
Baptist and St John the Evangelist. Such scenes as the Funeral 
of St Francis, the Dance of Herodias's Daughter, and the Re- 
surrection of St John the Evangelist, which have to some extent 
escaped the disfigurements of the restorer, are among acknow- 
ledged classics of the world's art. The only clues to the dates 
of any of these works are to be found in the facts that among the 
figures in the Bardi chapel occurs that of St Louis of Toulouse, 
who was not canonized till 1317, therefore the painting must be 
subsequent to that year, and that the " Dance of Salome " must 
have been painted before 1331, when it was copied by the Loren- 
zetti at Siena. The only other extant works of Giotto at Florence 
are a fine " Crucifix," not undisputed, at San Marco, and the 
majestic but somewhat heavy altar-piece of the Madonna, prob- 
ably an early work, which is placed in the Academy beside a 
more primitive Madonna supposed to be the work of Cimabue. 

Towards the end of Giotto's life we escape again from confused 
legend, and from the tantalizing record of works which have 
not survived for us to verify, into the region of authentic docu- 
ment and fact. It appears that Giotto had come under the notice 
of Duke Charles of Calabria, son of King Robert of Naples, during 
the visits of the duke to Florence which took place between 
1326 and 1328, in which year he died. Soon afterwards Giotto 
must have gone to King Robert's court at Naples, where he was 
enrolled as an honoured guest and member of the household by 
a royal decree dated the 2oth of January 1330. Another docu- 
ment shows him to have been still at Naples two years later. 



Tradition says much about the friendship of the king for the 
painter and the freedom of speech and jest allowed him; much 
also of the works he carried out at Naples in the Castel Nuovo, 
the Castel dell' Uovo, and the church and convent of Sta Chiara. 
Not a trace of these works remains; and others which later 
criticism have claimed for him in a hall which formerly belonged 
to the convent of Sta Chiara have been proved not to be his. 

Meantime Giotto had been advancing, not only in years and 
worldly fame, but in prosperity. He was married young, and 
had, so far as is recorded, three sons, Francesco, Niccola and 
Donate, and three daughters, Bice, Caterina and Lucia. He 
had added by successive purchases to the plot of land inherited 
from his father at Vespignano. His fellow-citizens of all occupa- 
tions and degrees delighted to honour him. And now, in his sixty- 
eighth year (if we accept the birth-date 1266/7), on his return 
from Naples by way of Gaeta, he received the final and official 
testimony to the esteem in which he was held at Florence. By 
a solemn decree of the Priori on the I2th of April 1334, he was 
appointed master of the works of the cathedral of Sta Reparata 
(later and better known as Sta Maria del Fiore) and official 
architect of the city walls and the towns within her territory. 
What training as a practical architect his earlier career had 
afforded him we do not know, but his interest in the art from 
the beginning is made clear by the carefully studied architectural 
backgrounds of many of his frescoes. Dying on the 8th of 
January 1336 (old style 1337), Giotto only enjoyed his new 
dignities for two years. But in the course of them he had found 
time not only to make an excursion to Milan, on the invitation 
of Azzo Visconti and with the sanction of his own government, 
but to plan two great architectural works at Florence and 
superintend the beginning of their execution, namely the west 
front of the cathedral and its detached campanile or bell-tower. 
The unfinished enrichments of the cathedral front were stripped 
away in a later age. The foundation-stone of the Campanile was 
laid with solemn ceremony in the presence of a great concourse 
of magistrates and people on the i8th of July 1334. Its lower 
courses seem to have been completed from Giotto's design, and 
the first course of its sculptured ornaments (the famous series of 
primitive Arts and Industries) actually by his own hand, before 
his death. It is not clear what modifications of his design were 
made by Andrea Pisano, who was appointed to succeed him, 
or again by Francesco Talenti, to whom the work was next 
entrusted; but the incomparable structure as we now see it 
stands justly in the world's esteem as the most fitting monument 
to the genius who first conceived and directed it. 

The art of painting, as re-created by Giotto, was carried 
on throughout Italy by his pupils and successors with little 
change or development for nearly a hundred years,- until a new 
impulse was given to art by the combined influences of naturalism 
and classicism in the hands of men like Donatello and Masaccio. 
Most of the anecdotes related of the master are probably in- 
accurate in detail, but the general character both as artist and 
man which tradition has agreed in giving him can never be 
assailed. He was from the first a kind of popular hero. He is 
celebrated by the poet Petrarch and by the historian Villani. 
He is made the subject of tales and anecdotes by Boccaccio 
and by Franco Sacchetti. From these notices, as well as from 
Vasari, we gain a distinct picture of the man, as one whose 
nature was in keeping with his country origin; whose sturdy 
frame and plain features corresponded to a character rather 
distinguished for shrewd and genial strength than for sublimer 
or more ascetic qualities; a master craftsman, to whose strong 
combining and inventing powers nothing came amiss; conscious 
of his own deserts, never at a loss either in the things of art or in 
the things of life, and equally ready and efficient whether he has 
to design the scheme of some great spiritual allegory in colour 
or imperishable monument in stone, or whether he has to show 
his wit in the encounter of practical jest and repartee. From his 
own hand we have a contribution to literature which helps to 
substantiate this conception of his character. A large part of 
Giotto's fame as painter was won in the service of the Franciscans, 
and in the pictorial celebration of the life and ordinances of 



GIPSIES 



37 



their founder. As is well known, it was a part of the ordinances 
of Francis that his disciples should follow his own example in 
worshipping and being wedded to poverty, poverty idealized 
and personified as a spiritual bride and mistress. Giotto, having 
on the commission of the order given the noblest pictorial 
embodiment to this and other aspects of the Franciscan doctrine, 
presently wrote an ode in which his own views on poverty are 
expressed; and in this he shows that, if on the one hand his 
genius was at the service of the ideals of his time, and his imagina- 
tion open to their significance, on the other hand his judgment 
was shrewdly and humorously awake to their practical dangers 
and exaggerations. 

AUTHORITIES. Ghiberti, Commentari; Vasari, Le Vile, vol. i. ; 
Crowe-Cavalcaselle, History oj Painting in Italy, ed. Langton 
Douglas (1903); H. Thode, Giotto (1899); M. G. Zimmermann, 
Giotto una die Kunst Italiens im Mittelalter (1899); B. Berenson, 
Florentine Painters of the Renaissance; F. Mason Perkin, Giotto 
(in " Great Masters " series) (1902) ; Basil de Se'lincourt, Giotto 
(1905). (S. C.) 

GIPSIES, or GYPSIES, a wandering folk scattered through 
every European land, over the greater part of western Asia 
and Siberia; found also in Egypt and the northern coast of 
Africa, in America and even in Australia. No correct estimate 
of their numbers outside of Europe can be given, and even in 
Europe the information derived from official statistics is often 
contradictory and unreliable. The only country in which the 
figures have been given correctly is Hungary. In 1893 there 
were 274,940 in Transleithania, of whom 243,432 were settled, 
20,406 only partly settled and 8938 nomads. Of these 91,603 
spoke the Gipsy language in 1890, but the rest had already been 
assimilated. Next in numbers stands Rumania, the number 
varying between 250,000 and 200,000 (1895). Turkey in Europe 
counted 117,000 (1903), of whom 51,000 were in Bulgaria and 
Eastern Rumelia, 22,000 in the vilayet of Adrianople and 2500 in 
the vilayet of Kossovo. In Asiatic Turkey the estimates vary 
between 67,000 and 200,000. Servia has 41,000; Bosnia and 
Herzegovina, 18,000; Greece, 10,000; Austria (Cisleithania), 
16,000, of whom 13,500 are in Bohemia and Moravia; Germany, 
2000; France, 2000 (5000?); Basque Provinces, 500 to 700; 
Italy, 32,000; Spain, 40,000; Russia, 58,000; Poland, 15,000; 
Sweden and Norway, 1500; Denmark and Holland, 5000; 
Persia, 15,000; Transcaucasia, 3000. The rest is mere guesswork. 
For Africa, America and Australia the numbers are estimated 
between 135,000 and 166,000. The estimate given by Miklosich 
(1878) of 700,000 fairly agrees with the above statistics. No 
statistics are forthcoming for the number in the British Isles. 
Some estimate their number at 12,000. 

The Gipsies are known principally by two names, which 
have been modified by the nations with whom they came in 
contact, but which can easily be traced to either the one or the 
other of these two distinct stems. The one group, embracing 
the majority of Gipsies in Europe, the compact masses living 
in the Balkan Peninsula, Rumania and Transylvania and 
extending also as far as Germany and Italy, are known by the 
name Atzigan or Alsigan, which becomes in time Tshingian 
(Turkey and Greece), Tsigan (Bulgarian, Servian, Rumanian), 
Czigany (Hungarian), Zigeuner (Germany), Zingari (Italian), 
and it is not unlikely that the English word Tinker or Tinkler 
(the latter no doubt due to a popular etymology connecting the 
gaudy gipsy with the tinkling coins or the metal wares which 
he carried on his back as a smith and tinker) may be a local 
transformation of the German Zigeuner. The second name, 
partly known in the East, where the word, however, is used as an 
expression of contempt, whilst Zigan is not felt by the gipsies 
as an insult, is Egyptian; in England, Gipsy; in some German 
documents of the i6th century Aegypter; Spanish GUano; 
modern Greek Gyphtos. They are also known by the parallel 
expressions Faraon (Rumanian) and Pharao Nephka (Hungarian) 
or Pharaoh's people, which are only variations connected with 
the Egyptian origin. In France they are known as Bohemiens, 
a word the importance of which will appear later. To the same 
category belong other names bestowed upon them, such as 
Walachi, Saraceni, Agareni, Nubiani, &c. They were also known 



by the name of Tartars, given to them in Germany, or as 
" Heathen," Heydens. All these latter must be considered as 
nicknames without thereby denoting their probable origin. 
The same may have now been the case with the first name 
with which they appear in history, Alzigan. Much ingenuity 
has been displayed in attempts to explain the name, for it was 
felt that a true explanation might help to settle the question of 
their origin and the date of their arrival in Europe. Here 
again two extreme theories have been propounded, the one 
supported by Bataillard, who connected them with the Sigynnoi 
of Herodotus and identified them with the Komodromoi of the 
later Byzantine writers, known already in the 6th century. 
Others bring them to Europe as late as the I4th century; and 
the name has also been explained by de Goeje from the Persian 
Chang, a kind of harp or zither, or the Persian Zang, black, 
swarthy. Rienzi (1832) and Trumpp (1872) have connected 
the name with the Changars of North-East India, but all have 
omitted to notice that the real form was Atzigan or (more correct) 
Atzingan and not Tsigan. The best explanation remains that sug- 
gested by Miklosich, who derives the word from the Athinganoi, 
a name originally belonging to a peculiar heretical sect living 
in Asia Minor near Phrygia and Lycaonia, known also as the 
Melki-Zedekites. The members of this sect observed very strict 
rules of purity, as they were afraid to be defiled by the touch 
of other people whom they considered unclean. They therefore 
acquired the name of Athinganoi (i.e. " Touch-me-nots ") 

Miklosich has collected seven passages where the Byzantine 
historians of the gth century describe the Athinganoi as sooth- 
sayers, magicians and serpent-charmers. From these descrip- 
tions nothing definite can be proved as to the identity of the 
Athinganoi with the Gipsies, or the reason why this name was 
given to soothsayers, charmers, &c. But the inner history of the 
Byzantine empire of that period may easily give a clue to it 
and explain how it came about that such a nickname was given 
to a new sect or to a new race which suddenly appeared in the 
Greek Empire at that period. In the history of the Church we 
find them mentioned in one breath with the Paulicians and other 
heretical sects which were transplanted in their tens of thousands 
from Asia Minor to the Greek empire and settled especially in 
Rumelia, near Adrianople and Philippopolis. The Greeks called 
these heretical sects by all kinds of names, derived from ancient 
Church traditions, and gave to each sect such names as first struck 
them, on the scantiest of imaginary similarities. One sect was 
called Paulician, another Melki-Zedekite; so also these were 
called Athinganoi, probably being considered the descendants 
of the outcast Samer, who, according to ancient tradition, was 
a goldsmith and the maker of the Golden Calf in the desert. 
For this sin Samer was banished and compelled to live apart 
from human beings and even to avoid their touch (Athinganos: 
" Touch-me-not "). Travelling from East to West these heretical 
sects obtained different names in different countries, in accord- 
ance with the local traditions or to imaginary origins. The 
Bogomils and Patarenes became Bulgarians in France, and so 
the gypsies Bohemiens, a name which was also connected with 
the heretical sect of the Bohemian brothers (Bohmische Bruder). 
Curiously enough the Kutzo-Vlachs living in Macedonia (q.v.) 
and Rumelia are also known by the nickname Tsintsari, a word 
that has not yet been explained. Very likely it stands in close 
connexion with Zingari, the name having been transferred from 
one people to the other without the justification of any common 
ethnical origin, except that the Kutzo-Vlachs, like the Zingari, 
differed from their Greek neighbours in race, as in language, 
habits and customs; while they probably followed similar 
pursuits to those of the Zingari, as smiths, &c. As to the other 
name, Egyptians, this is derived from a peculiar tale which the 
gipsies spread when appearing in the west of Europe. They 
alleged that they had come from a country of their own called 
Little Egypt, either a confusion between Little Armenia and 
Egypt or the Peloponnesus. 

Attention may be drawn to a remarkable passage in the Syriac 
version of the apocryphal Book of Adam, known as the Cave of 
Treasures and compiled probably in the 6th century: "And 



GIPSIES 



of the seed of Canaan were as I said the Aegyptians; and, lo, 
they were scattered all over the earth and served as slaves of 
slaves " (ed. Bezold, German translation, p. 25). No reference 
to such a scattering and serfdom of the Egyptians is mentioned 
anywhere else. This must have been a legend, current in Asia 
Minor, and hence probably transferred to the swarthy Gipsies. 

A new explanation may now be ventured upon as to the name 
which the Gipsies of Europe give to themselves, which, it must 
be emphasized, is not known to the Gipsies outside of Europe. 
Only those who starting from the ancient Byzantine empire 
have travelled westwards and spread over Europe, America and 
Australia call themselves by the name of Rom, the woman being 
Romni and a stranger Gazi. Many etymologies have been sug- 
gested for the word Rom. Paspati derived it from the word 
Droma (Indian), and Miklosich had identified it with Doma or 
Domba, a " low caste musician," rather an extraordinary name 
for a nation to call itself by. Having no home and no country 
of their own and no political traditions and no literature, they 
would naturally try to identify themselves with the people in 
whose midst they lived, and would call themselves by the same 
name as other inhabitants of the Greek empire, known also as 
the Empire of New Rom, or of the Romaioi, Romeliots, Romanoi, 
as the Byzantines used to call themselves before they assumed 
the prouder name of Hellenes. The Gipsies would therefore 
call themselves also Rom, a much more natural name, more 
flattering to their vanity, and geographically and politically 
more correct than if they called themselves "low caste 
musicians." This Greek origin of the name would explain why 
it is limited to the European Gipsies, and why it is not found 
among that stock of Gipsies which has migrated from Asia 
Minor southwards and taken a different route to reach Egypt 
and North Africa. 

Appearance in Europe. Leaving aside the doubtful passages 
in the Byzantine writers where the Athinganoi are mentioned, 
the first appearance of Gipsies in Europe cannot be traced 
positively further back than the beginning of the I4th century. 
Some have hitherto believed that a passage in what was errone- 
ously called the Rhymed Version of Genesis of Vienna, but which 
turns out to be the work of a writer before the year 1122, 
and found only in the Klagenfurt manuscript (edited by Ditmar, 
1862), referred to the Gipsies. It runs as follows: Gen. xiii. 15 
" Hagar had a son from whom were born the Chaltsmide. When 
Hagar had that child, she named it Ismael, from whom the 
Ismaelites descend who journey through the land, and we call 
them Chaltsmide, may evil befall them! They sell only things 
with blemishes, and for whatever they sell they always ask more 
than its real value. They cheat the people to whom they sell. 
They have no home, no country, they are satisfied to live in 
tents, they wander over the country, they deceive the people, 
they cheat men but rob no one noisily." 

This reference to the Chaltsmide (not goldsmiths, but very 
likely ironworkers, smiths) has wrongly been applied to the 
Gipsies. For it is important to note that at least three centuries 
before historical evidence proves the immigration of the genuine 
Gipsy, there had been wayfaring smiths, travelling from country 
to country, and practically paving the way for their successors, 
the Gipsies, who not only took up their crafts but who probably 
have also assimilated a good proportion of these vagrants of 
the west of Europe. The name given to the former, who pro- 
bably were Oriental or Greek smiths and pedlars, was then 
transferred to the new-comers. The Komodromoi mentioned 
by Theophanes (758-818), who speaks under the date 554 of one 
hailing from Italy, and by other Byzantine writers, are no 
doubt the same as the Chaltsmide of the German writer of the 
1 2th century translated by Ducange as Chaudroneurs. We 
are on surer ground in the I4th century. Hopf has proved the 
existence of Gipsies in Corfu before 1326. Before 1346 the 
empress Catherine de Valois granted to the governor of Corfu 
authority to reduce to vassalage certain vagrants who came 
from the mainland; and in 1386, under the Venetians, they 
formed the Feudum Acindanorum, which lasted for many 
centuries. About 1378 the Venetian governor of Nauplia 



confirmed to the " Acingani " of that colony the privileges 
granted by his predecessor to their leader John. It is even 
possible to identify the people described by Friar Simon in his 
Itinerarium, who, speaking of his stay in Crete in 1322, says: 
" We saw there a people outside the city who declare themselves 
to be of the race of Ham and who worship according to the Greek 
rite. They wander like a cursed people from place to place, not 
stopping at all or rarely in one place longer than thirty days; 
they live in tents like the Arabs, a little oblong black tent." 
But their name is not mentioned, and although the similarity 
is great between these " children of Ham " and the Gipsies, 
the identification has only the value of an hypothesis. By the 
end of the isth century they must have been settled for a 
sufficiently long time in the Balkan Peninsula and the countries 
north of the Danube, such as Transylvania and Walachia, to have 
been reduced to the same state of serfdom as they evidently 
occupied in Corfu in the second half of the I4th century. The 
voivode Mircea I. of Walachia confirms the grant made by his 
uncle Vladislav Voivode to the monastery of St Anthony of 
Voditsa as to forty families of " Atsigane," for whom no taxes 
should be paid to the prince. They were considered crown 
property. The same gift is renewed in the year 1424 by the 
voivode Dan, who repeats the very same words (i AcigSne, m, 
Celiudi. da su slobodni ot vstkih rabot i dankov) (Hajdiiu, 
Arhiva, i. 20). At that time there must already have been 
in Walachia settled Gipsies treated as serfs, and migrating 
Gipsies plying their trade as smiths, musicians, dancers, sooth- 
sayers, horse-dealers, &c., for we find the voivode Alexander of 
Moldavia granting these Gipsies in the year 1478 " freedom of 
air and soil to wander about and free fire and iron for their 
smithy. " But a certain portion, probably the largest, became 
serfs, who could be sold, exchanged, bartered and inherited. 
It may be mentioned here that in the I7th century a family 
when sold fetched forty Hungarian florins, and in the i8th 
century the price was sometimes as high as 700 Rumanian 
piastres, about 8, . los. As late as 1845 an auction of 200 
families of Gipsies took place in Bucharest, where they were sold 
in batches of no less than 5 families and offered at a " ducat " 
cheaper per head than elsewhere. The Gipsies followed at least 
four distinct pursuits in Rumania and Transylvania, where they 
lived in large masses. A goodly proportion of them were tied 
to the soil; in consequence their position was different from that 
of the Gipsies who had started westwards and who are nowhere 
found to have obtained a permanent abode for any length of 
time, or to have been treated, except for a very short period, 
with any consideration of humanity. 

Their appearance in the West is first noted by chroniclers 
early in the isth century. In 1414 they are said to have already 
arrived in Hesse. This date is contested, but for 1417 the reports 
are unanimous of their appearance in Germany. Some count 
their number to have been as high as 1400, which of course is 
exaggeration. In 1418 they reached Hamburg, 1419 Augsburg, 
1428 Switzerland. In 1427 they had already entered France 
(Provence). A troupe is said to have reached Bologna in 1422, 
whence they are said to have gone to Rome, on a pilgrimage 
alleged to have been undertaken for some act of apostasy. After 
this first immigration a second and larger one seems to have 
followed in its wake, led by Zumbel. The Gipsies spread over 
Germany, Italy and France between the years 1438 and 1512. 
About 1500 they must have reached England. On the 5th of 
July 1505 James IV. of Scotland gave to " Antonius Gaginae," 
count of Little Egypt, letters of recommendation to the king of 
Denmark; and special privileges were granted by James V. 
on the 1 5th of February 1540 to " cure louit johnne Faw Lord 
and Erie of Litill Egypt," to whose son and successor he granted 
authority to hang and punish all Egyptians within the realm 
(May 26, 1540). 

It is interesting to hear what the first writers who witnessed 
their appearance have to tell us; for ever since the Gipsies 
have remained the same. Albert Krantzius (Krantz), in his 
Saxonia (xi. 2), was the first to give a full description, which was 
afterwards repeated by Munster in his Cosmographia (iii. 5). 



GIPSIES 



39 



He says that in the year 1417 there appeared for the first time 
in Germany a people uncouth, black, dirty, barbarous, called 
in Italian " Ciani," who indulge specially in thieving and cheat- 
ing. They had among them a count and a few knights well 
dressed, others followed afoot. The women and children 
travelled in carts. They also carried with them letters of safe- 
conduct from the emperor Sigismund and other princes, and they 
professed that they were engaged on a pilgrimage of expiation 
for some act of apostasy. 

The guilt of the Gipsies varies in the different versions of the 
story, but all agree that the Gipsies asserted that they came from 
their own country called " Litill Egypt," and they had to go 
to Rome, to obtain pardon for that alleged sin of their fore- 
fathers. According to one account it was because they had not 
shown mercy to Joseph and Mary when they had sought refuge 
in Egypt from the persecution of Herod (Basel Chronicle). 
According to another, because they had forsaken the Christian 
faith for a while (Rhaetia, 1656), &c. But these were fables, 
no doubt connected with the legend of Cartaphylus or the 
Wandering Jew. 

Krantz's narrative continues as follows: This people have 
no country and travel through the land. They live like dogs and 
have no religion although they allow themselves to be baptized 
in the Christian faith. They live without care and gather unto 
themselves also other vagrants, men and women. Their old 
women practise fortune-telling, and whilst they are telling men 
of their future they pick their pockets. Thus far Krantz. It 
is curious that he should use the name by which these people 
were called in Italy, " Ciani." Similarly Crusius, the author of the 
Annales Suevici, knows their Italian name Zigani and the French 
Bohemiens. Not one of these oldest writers mentions them 
as coppersmiths or farriers or musicians. The immunity which 
they enjoyed during their first appearance in western Europe 
is due to the letter of safe-conduct of the emperor. As it is of 
extreme importance for the history of civilization as well as the 
history of the Gipsies, it may find a place here. It is taken from 
the compilation of Felix Oefelius, Rerum Boicarum scriptores 
(Augsburg, 1763), ii. 15, who reproduces the " Diarium 
sexennale " of " Andreas Presbyter," the contemporary of the 
first appearance of the Gipsies in Germany. 

" Sigismundus Dei gratia Romanorum Rex semper Augustus, 
ac Hungariae, Bohemiae, Dalmatiae, Croatiae, &c. Rex 
Fidelibus nostris universis Nobilibus, Militibus, Castellanis, 
Officialibus, Tributariis, civitatibus liberis, opidis et eorum 
iudicibus in Regno et sub domino nostro constitutis ex existenti- 
bus salutem cum dilectione. Fideles nostri adierunt in prae- 
sentiam personaliter Ladislaus Wayuoda Ciganorum cum aliis ad 
ipsum spectantibus, nobis humilimas porrexerunt supplicationes, 
hue in sepus in nostra praesentia supplicationum precum cum 
instantia, ut ipsis gratis nostra uberiori providere dignaremur. 
Unde nos illorum supplicatione illecti eisdem hanc libertatem 
duximus concedendam, qua re quandocunque idem Ladislaus 
Wayuoda et sua gens ad dicta nostra dominia videlicet civitates 
vel oppida pervenerint, ex tune vestris fidelitatibus praesentibus 
firmiter committimus et mandamus ut eosdem Ladislaum 
Wayuodam et Ciganos sibi subiectos omni sine impedimento ac 
perturbatione aliquali fovere ac conservare debeatis, immo 
ab omnibus impetitionibus seu offensionibus tueri velitis: Si 
autem inter ipsos aliqua Zizania seu perturbatio evenerit ex 
parte, quorumcunque ex tune non vos nee aliquis alter vestrum, 
sed idem Ladislaus Wayuoda iudicandi et liberandi habeat 
facultatem. Praesentes autem post earum lecturam semper 
reddi iubemus praesentanti. 

"Datum in Sepus Dominica die ante festum St Georgii Martyris 
Anno Domini MCCCCXXIII., Regnorum nostrorum anno 
Hungar. XXXVI., Romanorum vero XII., Bohemiae tertio." 

Freely translated this reads: " We Sigismund by the grace 
of God emperor of Rome, king of Hungary, Bohemia, &c. unto 
all true and loyal subjects, noble soldiers, commanders, castellans, 
open districts, free towns and their judges in our kingdom 
established and under our sovereignty, kind greetings. Our 
faithful voivode of the Tsigani with others belonging to him has 



humbly requested us that we might graciously grant them our 
abundant favour. We grant them their supplication, we have 
vouchsafed unto them this liberty. Whenever therefore this 
voivode Ladislaus and his people should come to any part of our 
realm in any town, village or place, we commit them by these 
presents, strongly to your loyalty and we command you to pro- 
tect in every way the same voivode Ladislaus and the Tsigani 
his subjects without hindrance, and you should show kindness 
unto them and you should protect them from every trouble and 
persecution. But should any trouble or discord happen among 
them from whichever side it may be, then none of you nor any- 
one else belonging to you should interfere, but this voivode 
Ladislaus alone should have the right of punishing and pardoning. 
And we moreover command you to return these presents always 
after having read them. Given in our court on Sunday the day 
before the Feast of St George in the year of our Lord 1423. The 
36th year of our kingdom of Hungary, the I2th of our being 
emperor of Rome and the 3rd of our being king of Bohemia." 

There is no reason to doubt the authenticity of this document, 
which is in no way remarkable considering that at that time the 
Gipsies must have formed a very considerable portion of the 
inhabitants of Hungary, whose king Sigismund was. They may 
have presented the emperor's grant of favours to Alexander 
prince of Moldavia in 1472, and obtained from him safe-conduct 
and protection, as mentioned above. 

No one has yet attempted to explain the reason why the Gipsies 
should have started in the I4th and especially in the first half 
of the 1 5th century on their march westwards. But if, as has 
been assumed above, the Gipsies had lived for some length of 
time in Rumelia, and afterwards spread thence across the Danube 
and the plains of Transylvania, the incursion of the Turks into 
Europe, their successive occupation of those very provinces, 
the overthrow of the Servian and Bulgarian kingdoms and the 
dislocation of the native population, would account to a remark- 
able degree for the movement of the Gipsies: and this movement 
increases in volume with the greater successes of the Turks and 
with the peopling of the country by immigrants from Asia Minor. 
The first to be driven from their homes would no doubt be the 
nomadic element, which felt itself ill at ease in its new surround- 
ings, and found it more profitable first to settle in larger numbers 
in Walachia and Transylvania and thence to spread to the western 
countries of Europe. But their immunity from persecution did 
not last long. -. 

Later History. Less than fifty years from the time that they 
emerge out of Hungary, or even from the date of the Charter of 
the emperor Sigismund, they found themselves exposed to the 
fury and the prejudices of the people whose good faith they had 
abused, whose purses they had lightened, whose barns they had 
emptied, and on whose credulity they had lived with ease and 
comfort. Their inborn tendency to roaming made them the 
terror of the peasantry and the despair of every legislator who 
tried to settle them on the land. Their foreign appearance, their 
unknown tongue and their unscrupulous habits forced the legis- 
lators of many countries to class them with rogues and vagabonds, 
to declare them outlaws and felons and to treat them with 
extreme severity. More than one judicial murder has been com- 
mitted against them. In some places they were suspected as 
Turkish spies and treated accordingly, and the murderer of a 
Gipsy was often regarded as innocent of any crime. 

Weissenbruch describes the wholesale murder of a group of 
Gipsies, of whom five men were broken on the wheel, nine perished 
on the gallows, and three men and eight women were decapitated. 
This took place on the I4th and I5th of November 1726. Acts 
and edicts were issued in many countries from the end of the 
i sth century onwards sentencing the " Egyptians " to exile under 
pain of death. Nor was this an empty threat. In Edinburgh 
four "Faas" were hanged in 1611 "for abyding within the 
kingdome, they being Egiptienis," and in 1636 at Haddington 
the Egyptians were ordered " the men to be hangied and the 
weomen to be drowned, and suche of the weo'men as hes children 
to be scourgit throw the burg and burnt in the cheeks." The 
burning on the cheek or on the back was a common penalty. 



GIPSIES 



In 1692 four Estremadura Gipsies caught by the Inquisition were 
charged with cannibalism and made to own that they had eaten 
a friar, a pilgrim and even a woman of their own tribe, for which 
they suffered the penalty of death. And as late as 1782, 45 
Hungarian Gipsies were charged with a similar monstrous crime, 
and when the supposed victims of a supposed murder could not be 
found on the spot indicated by the Gipsies, they owned under 
torture and said on the rack, " We ate them." Of course they 
were forthwith beheaded or hanged. The emperor Joseph II., 
who was also the author of one of the first edicts in favour of the 
Gipsies, and who abolished serfdom throughout the Empire, 
ordered an inquiry into the incident ; it was then discovered that 
no murder had been committed, except that of the victims of 
this monstrous accusation. 

The history of the legal status of the Gipsies, of their treatment 
in various countries and of the penalties and inflictions to which 
they have been subjected, would form a remarkable chapter in 
the history of modern civilization. The materials are slowly 
accumulating, and it is interesting to note as one of the latest 
instances, that not further back than the year 1007 a " drive " 
was undertaken in Germany against the Gipsies, which fact may 
account for the appearance of some German Gipsies in England 
in that year, and that in 1904 the Prussian Landtag adopted 
unanimously a proposition to examine anew the question of 
granting peddling licences to German Gipsies; that on the i7th 
of February 1906 the Prussian minister issued special instructions 
to combat the Gipsy nuisance; and that in various parts of 
Germany and Austria a special register is kept for the tracing of 
the genealogy of vagrant and sedentary Gipsy families. 

Different has been the history of the Gipsies in what originally 
formed the Turkish empire of Europe, notably in Rumania, 
i.e. Walachia and Moldavia, and a careful search in the archives 
of Rumania would offer rich materials for the history of the 
Gipsies in a country where they enjoyed exceptional treatment 
almost from the beginning of their settlement. They were 
divided mainly into two classes, (i) Robi or Serfs, who were 
settled on the land and deprived of all individual liberty, being 
the property of the nobles and of churches or monastic establish- 
ments, and (2) the Nomadic vagrants. They were subdivided 
into four classes according to their occupation, such as the 
Lingurari (woodcarvers; lit. "spoonmakers"), Caldarari (tinkers, 
coppersmiths and ironworkers), Ursari (lit. " bear drivers ") 
and Rudari (miners), also called Aurari (gold- washers), who used 
formerly to wash the gold out of the auriferous river-sands 
of Walachia. A separate and smaller class consisted of the 
Gipsy L&eshi or VHtrashi (settled on a homestead or " having 
a fireplace " of their own). Each shalra or Gipsy community 
was placed under the authority of a judge or leader, known in 
Rumania as jude, in Hungary as aga; these officials were 
subordinate to the bulubasha or voivod, who was himself under 
the direct control of the yuzbasha (or governor appointed by the 
prince from among his nobles). The yuzbasha was responsible 
for the regular income to be derived from the vagrant Gipsies, 
who were considered and treated as the prince's property. 
These voivodi or yuzbashi who were not Gipsies by origin often 
treated the Gipsies with great tyranny. In Hungary down to 
1648 they belonged to the aristocracy. The last Polish Krolestvo 
cyganskie or Gipsy king died in 1 790. The Robi could be bought 
and sold, freely exchanged and inherited, and were treated 
as the negroes in America down to 1856, when their final freedom 
in Moldavia was proclaimed. In Hungary and in Transylvania 
the abolition of servitude in 1781-1782 carried with it the 
freedom of the Gipsies. In the i8th and igth centuries many 
attempts were made to settle and to educate the roaming Gipsies; 
in Austria this was undertaken by the empress Maria Theresa 
and the emperor Francis II. (1761-1783), in Spain by Charles III. 
(1788). In Poland (1791) the attempt succeeded. In England 
(1827) and in Germany (1830) societies were formed for the 
reclamation of the Gipsies, but nothing was accomplished in 
either case. In other countries, however, definite progress was 
made. Since 1866 the Gipsies have become Rumanian citizens, 
and the latest official statistics no longer distinguish between 



the Rumanians and the Gipsies, who are becoming thoroughly 
assimilated, forgetting their language, and being slowly absorbed 
by the native population. In Bulgaria the Gipsies were declared 
citizens, enjoying equal political rights in accordance with the 
treaty of Berlin in 1878, but through an arbitrary interpretation 
they were deprived of that right, and on the 6th of January 1906 
the first Gipsy Congress was held in Sofia, for the purpose of 
claiming political rights for the Turkish Gipsies or Gopti as they 
call themselves. Ramadan Alief, the tzari-bashi (i.e. the head 
of the Gipsies in Sofia), addressed the Gipsies assembled; they 
decided to protest and subsequently sent a petition to the 
Sobranye, demanding the recognition of their political rights. 
A curious reawakening, and an interesting chapter in the 
history of this peculiar race. 

Origin and Language of the Gipsies. The real key to their 
origin is, however, the Gipsy language. The scientific study 
of that language began in the middle of the I9th century with 
the work of Pott, and was brought to a high state of perfection 
by Miklosich. From that time on monographs have multiplied 
and minute researches have been carried on in many parts of 
the world, all tending to elucidate the true origin of the Gipsy 
language. It must remain for the time being an open question 
whether the Gipsies were originally a pure race. Many a strange 
element has contributed to swell their ranks and to introduce 
discordant elements into their vocabulary. Ruediger (1782), 
Grellmann (1783) and Marsden (1783) almost simultaneously 
and independently of one another came to the same conclusion, 
that the language of the Gipsies, until then considered a thieves' 
jargon, was in reality a language closely allied with some Indian 
speech. Since then the two principal problems to be solved 
have been, firstly, to which of the languages of India the 
original Gipsy speech was most closely allied, and secondly, by 
which route the people speaking that language had reached 
Europe and then spread westwards. Despite the rapid increase 
in our knowledge of Indian languages, no solution has yet been 
found to the first problem, nor is it likely to be found. For the 
language of the Gipsies, as shown now by recent studies of the 
Armenian Gipsies, has undergone such a profound change and 
involves so many difficulties, that it is impossible to compare 
the modern Gipsy with any modern Indian dialect owing to the 
inner developments which the Gipsy language has undergone 
in the course of centuries. All that is known, moreover, of the 
Gipsy language, and all that rests on reliable texts, is quite 
modern, scarcely earlier than the middle of the igth century. 
Followed up in the various dialects into which that language 
has split, it shows such a thorough change from dialect to dialect, 
that except as regards general outlines and principles of inflexion, 
nothing would be more misleading than to draw conclusions 
from apparent similarities between Gipsy, or any Gipsy dialect, 
and any Indian language; especially as the Gipsies must have 
been separated from the Indian races for a much longer period 
than has elapsed since their arrival in Europe and since the forma- 
tion of their European dialects. It must also be borne in mind 
that the Indian languages have also undergone profound changes 
of their own, under influences totally different from those to 
which the Gipsy language has been subjected. The problem 
would stand differently if by any chance an ancient vocabulary 
were discovered representing the oldest form of the common 
stock from which the European dialects have sprung; for there 
can be no doubt of the unity of the language of the European 
Gipsies. The question whether Gipsy stands close to Sanskrit 
or Prakrit, or shows forms more akin to Hindi dialects, specially 
those of the North- West frontier, or Dardestan and Kafiristan, 
to which may be added now the dialects of the Pisaca language 
(Grierson, 1906), is affected by the fact established by Fink that 
the dialect of the Armenian Gipsies shows much closer resem- 
blance to Prakrit than the language of the European Gipsies, 
and that the dialects of Gipsy spoken throughout Syria and Asia 
Minor differ profoundly in every respect from the European 
Gipsy, taken as a whole spoken. The only explanation possible 
is that the European Gipsy represents the first wave of the 
Westward movement of an Indian tribe or caste which, dislocated 



GIPSIES 



at a certain period by political disturbances, had travelled 
through Persia, making a very short stay there, thence to Armenia 
staying there a little longer, and then possibly to the Byzantine 
Empire at an indefinite period between noo and 1200; and that 
another clan had followed in their wake, passing through Persia, 
settling in Armenia and then going farther down to Syria, Egypt 
and North Africa. These two tribes though of a common 
remote Indian origin must, however, be kept strictly apart 
from one another in our investigation, for they stand to each 
other in the same relation as they stand to the various dialects 
in India. The linguistic proof of origin can therefore now not 
go further than to establish the fact that the Gipsy language 
is in its very essence an originally Indian dialect, enriched in its 
vocabulary from the languages of the peoples among whom 
the Gipsies had sojourned, whilst in its grammatical inflection 
it has slowly been modified, to such an extent that in some 
cases, like the English or the Servian, barely a skeleton has 
remained. 

Notwithstanding the statements to the contrary, a Gipsy 
from Greece or Rumania could no longer understand a Gipsy 
of England or Germany, so profound is the difference. But the 
words which have entered into the Gipsy language, borrowed as 
they were from the Greeks, Hungarians, Rumanians, &c., are not 
only an indication of the route taken and this is the only use 
that has hitherto been made of the vocabulary but they are 
of the highest importance for fixing the time when the Gipsies 
had come in contact with these languages. The absence of Arabic 
is a positive proof that not only did the Gipsies not come via 
Arabia (as maintained by De Goeje) before they reached Europe, 
but that they could not even have been living for any length of 
time in Persia after the Mahommedan conquest, or at any rate 
that they could not have come in contact with such elements of 
the population as had already adopted Arabic in addition to 
Persian. But the form of the Persian words found among 
European Gipsies, and similarly the form of the Armenian words 
found in that language, are a clear indication that the Gipsies 
could not have come in contact with these languages before 
Persian had assumed its modern form and before Armenian had 
been changed from the old to the modern form of language. 
Still more strong and clear is the evidence in the case of the Greek 
and Rumanian words. If the Gipsies had lived in Greece, as some 
contend, from very ancient times, some at least of the old Greek 
words would be found in their language, and similarly the Slavonic 
words would be of an archaic character, whilst on the contrary 
we find medieval Byzantine forms, nay, modern Greek forms, 
among the Gipsy vocabulary collected from Gipsies in Germany 
or Italy, England or France; a proof positive that they could not 
have been in Europe much earlier than the approximate date 
given above of the nth or I2th century. We then find from a 
grammatical point of view the same deterioration, say among the 
English or Spanish Gipsies, as has been noticed in the Gipsy 
dialect of Armenia. It is no longer Gipsy, but a corrupt English 
or Spanish adapted to some remnants of Gipsy inflections. The 
purest form has been preserved among the Greek Gipsies and 
to a certain extent among the Rumanian. Notably through 
Miklosich's researches and comparative studies, it is possible 
to follow the slow change step by step and to prove, at any rate, 
that, as far as Europe is concerned, the language of these Gipsies 
was one and the same, and that it was slowly split up into a 
number of dialects (13 Miklosich, 14 Colocci) which shade off 
into one another, and which by their transitional forms mark 
the way in which the Gipsies have travelled, as also proved by 
historical evidence. The Welsh dialect, known by few, has 
retained, through its isolation, some of the ancient forms. 

Religion, Habits and Customs. Those who have lived among 
the Gipsies will readily testify that their religious views are a 
strange medley of the local faith, which they everywhere embrace, 
and some old-world superstitions which they have in common 
with many nations. Among the Greeks they belong to the Greek 
Church, among the Mahommedans they are Mahommedans, in 
Rumania they belong to the National Church. In Hungary they 
are mostly Catholics, according to the faith of the inhabitants of 



that country. They have no ethical principles and they do not 
recognize the obligations of the Ten Commandments. There is 
extreme moral laxity in the relation of the two sexes, and on the 
whole they take life easily, and are complete fatalists. At the 
same time they are great cowards, and they play the rdle of the 
fool or the jester in the popular anecdotes of eastern Europe. 
There the poltroon is always a Gipsy, but he is good-humoured 
and not so malicious as those Gipsies who had endured the 
hardships of outlawry in the west of Europe. 

There is nothing specifically of an Oriental origin in their 
religious vocabulary, and the words Devla (God), Bang (devil) 
or Trushul (Cross), in spite of some remote similarity, must be 
taken as later adaptations, and not as remnants of an old Sky- 
worship or Serpent-worship. In general their beliefs, customs, 
tales, &c. belong to the common stock of general folklore, and 
many of their symbolical expressions find their exact counterpart 
in Rumanian and modern Greek, and often read as if they were 
direct translations from these languages. Although they love 
their children, it sometimes happens that a Gipsy mother will hold 
her child by the legs and beat the father with it. In Rumania 
and Turkey among the settled Gipsies a good number are carriers 
and bricklayers; and the women take their full share in every 
kind of work, no matter how hard it may be. The nomadic 
Gipsies carry on the ancient craft of coppersmiths, or workers in 
metal; they also make sieves and traps, but in the East they are 
seldom farriers or horse-dealers. They are far-famed for their 
music, in which art they are unsurpassed. The Gipsy musicians 
belong mostly to the class who originally were serfs. They were 
retained at the courts of the boyars for their special talent in 
reciting old ballads and love songs and their deftness in playing, 
notably the guitar and the fiddle. The former was used as an 
accompaniment to the singing of either love ditties and popular 
songs or more especially in recital or heroic ballads and epic 
songs; the latter for dances and other amusements. They 
were the troubadours and minstrels of eastern Europe; the 
largest collection of Rumanian popular ballads and songs was 
gathered by G. Dem. Teodorescu from a Gipsy minstrel, Petre 
Sholkan; and not a few of the songs of the guslars among the 
Servians and other Slavonic nations in the Balkans come also 
from the Gipsies. They have also retained the ancient tunes 
and airs, from the dreamy " doina " of the Rumanian to the 
fiery " czardas " of the Hungarian or the stately " hora " of the 
B ulgarian. Liszt went so far as to ascribe to the Gipsies the origin 
of the Hungarian national music. This is an exaggeration, as 
seen by the comparison of the Gipsy music in other parts of south- 
east Europe; but they undoubtedly have given the most 
faithful expression to the national temperament. Equally famous 
is the Gipsy woman for her knowledge of occult practices. She 
is the real witch; she knows charms to injure the enemy or to 
help a friend. She can break the charm if made by others. 
But neither in the one case nor in the other, and in fact as little 
as in their songs, do they use the Gipsy language. It is either 
the local language of the natives as in the case of charms, or a 
slightly Romanized form of Greek, Rumanian or Slavonic. The 
old Gipsy woman is also known for her skill in palmistry and 
fortune-telling by means of a special set of cards, the well-known 
Tarokof the Gipsies. They have also a large stock of fairy tales 
resembling in each country the local fairy tales, in Greece agreeing 
with the Greek, and in Rumania with the Rumanian fairy tales. 
It is doubtful, however, whether they have contributed to the 
dissemination of these tales throughout Europe, for a large 
number of Gipsy tales can be shown to have been known in 
Europe long before the appearance of the Gipsies, and others are 
so much like those of other nations that the borrowing may be 
by the Gipsy from the Greek, Slav or Rumanian. It is, however, 
possible that playing-cards might have been introduced to 
Europe through the Gipsies. The oldest reference to cards is 
found in the Chronicle of Nicolaus of Cavellazzo, who says that 
the cards were first brought into Viterbo in 1379 from the land 
of the Saracens, probably from Asia Minor or the Balkans. 
They spread very quickly, but no one has been able as yet to trace 
definitely the source whence they were first brought. Without 



4,2 



GIPSIES 



entering here into the history of the playing-cards and of the 
different forms of the faces and of the symbolical meaning of the 
different designs, one may assume safely that the cards, before 
they were used for mere pastime or for gambling, may originally 
have had a mystical meaning and been used as sortes in various 
combinations. To this very day the oldest form is known by the 
hitherto unexplained name of Tarock, played in Bologna at the 
beginning of the isth century and retained by the French under 
the form Tarot, connected direct with the Gipsies, " Le Tarot des 
Boh6miens." It was noted abov^ that the oldest chronicler 
(Presbyter) who describes the appearance of the Gipsies in 1416 
in Germany knows them by their Italian name " Cianos," 
so evidently he must have known of their existence in Italy 
previous to any date recorded hitherto anywhere, and it is there- 
fore not impossible that coming from Italy they brought with 
them also their book of divination. 

Physical Characteristics. As a race they are of small stature, 
varying in colour from the dark tan of the Arab to the whitish 
hue of the Servian and the Pole. In fact there are some white- 
cdloured Gipsies, especially in Servia and Dalmatia, and these 
are o*ten not easily distinguishable from the native peoples, 
except that they are more lithe and sinewy, better proportioned 
and more agile in their movements than the thick-set Slavs and 
the mixed race of the Rumanians. By one feature, however, 
they are easily distinguishable and recognize one another, viz. 
by the lustre of their eyes and the whiteness of their teeth. Some 
are well built; others have the features of a mongrel race, due 
no doubt to intermarriage with outcasts of other races. The 
women age very quickly and the mortality among the Gipsies 
is great, especially among children; among adults it is chiefly 
due to pulmonary diseases. They love display and Oriental 
showiness, bright-coloured dresses, ornaments, bangles, &c.; 
red and green are the colours mostly favoured by the Gipsies 
in the East. Along with a showy handkerchief or some shining 
gold coins round their necks, they will wear torn petticoats and 
no covering on their feet. And even after they have been 
assimilated and have forgotten their own language they still 
retain some of the prominent features of their character, such 
as the love of inordinate display and gorgeous dress; and their 
moral defects not only remain for a long time as glaring as among 
those who live the life of vagrants, but even become more pro- 
nounced. The Gipsy of to-day is no longer what his fore- 
fathers have been. The assimilation with the nations in the 
near East and the steps taken for the suppression of vagrancy 
in the West, combine to denationalize the Gipsy and to make 
" Roman! Chib " a thing of the past. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The scientific study of the Gipsy language and 
its origin, as well as the critical history of the Gipsy race, dates 
(with the notable exception of Grellmann) almost entirely from 
Pott's researches in 1844. 

I. Collections of Documents, &c. Lists of older publications 
appeared in the books of Pott, Miklosich and the archduke Joseph; 
Pott adds a critical appreciation of the scientific value of the books 
enumerated. See also Verzeichnis von Werken und Aufsatzen . . . 
uber die Geschichteund Sprache der Zigeuner, &c., 248 entries (Leipzig, 
1886) ; J. Tipray, " Adalekok a cziganyokrol szolo frodalomhoz," in 
Magyar Konyvszemle (Budapest, 1877); Ch. G. Leland, A Collection 
of Cuttings . . . relating to Gypsies (1874-1891), bequeathed by 
hiratothe British Museum. See also the Orientalischer Jahresbericht, 
ed. Muller (Berlin, 1887 ff.). 

II. History. (a) The first appearance of the Gipsies in Europe. 
Sources: A. F. Oefelius, Rerum Boicarum scriptores, &c. (Augsburg, 
1763); M. Freher, Andreae Presbyteri . . . chronicon de ducibus 
Bavariae . . . (1602); S. Munster, Cosmographia . . . &c. (Basel, 
1545); ! Thurmaier, AnnaUum Boiorum libri septem, ed. T. Zie- 
glerus (Ingolstad, 1554); M. Crusius, Annales Suevici, &c. (Frank- 
furt, 1595-1596), Schwdbische Chronik . . . (Frankfurt, 1733); 
A. Krantz, Saxonia (Cologne, 1520); Simon Simeon, Itineraria, &c., 
ed. J. Nasmith (Cambridge, 1778). (6) Origin and spread of the 
Gipsies: H. M. G. Grellmann, Die Zigeuner, &c. (ist ed., Dessau and 
Leipzig, 1783; 2nd ed., Gottingen, 1787); English by M. Roper 
(London, 1787; 2nd ed., London, 1807), entitled Dissertation on the 
Gipsies, &c.; Carl yon Heister, Ethnographische . . . Notizen uber 
die Zigeuner (Konigsberg, 1842), a third and greatly improved 
edition of Grellmann and the best book of its kind up to that date; 
A. F. Pott, Die Zigeuner in Europa und Asien (2 vols., Halle, 1844- 
1845), the first scholarly work with complete and critical biblio- 
graphy, detailed grammar, etymological dictionary and important 



texts; C. Hopf, Die Einwanderung der Zigeuner in Europa (Gotha, 
1870); F. von Miklosich, " Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Zigeuner- 
Mundarten," i.-iv., in Sitzungsber. d. Wiener Akad. d. Wissenschaften 
(Vienna, 1874-1878), " Uber die Mundarten und die Wanderungen 
der Zigeuner Europas," i.-xii., in Denkschriften d. Wiener Akad. d. 
Wissenschaften (1872-1880); M. J. de Goeje, Bijdrage tot de ge- 
schiedenis der Zigeuners (Amsterdam, 1875), English translation by 
MacRitchie, Account of the Gipsies of India (London, 1886); Zedler, 
Universal-Lexicon, vol. Ixii., s.v. Zigeuner," pp. 520-544 con- 
taining a rich bibliography; many publications of P. Bataillard 
from 1844 to 1885; A. Colocci, Storia d' un popolo errante, with 
illustrations, map and Gipsy-Ital. and Ital.-Gipsy glossaries (Turin, 
1889); F. H. Groome, " The Gypsies," in E. Magnusson, National 
Life and Thought (1891), and art. " Gipsies " in Encyclopaedia 
Britannica (gth ed., 1879); C. Ame'ro, Bohemiens, Tsiganes et 
Gypsies (Paris, 1895); M. Kogalnitschan, Esquisse sur I'histoire, les 
mceurs et la langue des Cigains (Berlin, 1837; German trans., Stutt- 
gart, 1840) valuable more for the historical part than for the 
linguistic; J. Czacki, Dziela, vol. iii. (1844-1845) for historic data 
about Gipsies in Poland; I. Kppernicki and J. Mover, Charaktery- 
styka fizyczna ludrosci galicyjskiej (1876) for the history and 
customs of Galician gipsies; Ungarische statistische Mitteilungen, 
vol. ix. (Budapest, 1895), containing the best statistical information 
on the Gipsies; V. Dittrich, A nagy-idai czigdnyok (Budapest, 
1898); T. H. Schwicker, " Die Zigeuner in Ungarn u. Sieben- 
btirgen," in vol. xii. of Die Volker Osterreich-Ungarns (Vienna, 
1883), and in Mitteilungen d. K. K. gepgraphischen Gesellschaft 
(Vienna, 1896) ; Dr J. Polek, Die Zigeuner in der Bukowina (Czerno- 
witz, 1908); Ficker, " Die Zigeuner der Bukowina," in Statist. 
Monatschrift, v. 6, Hundert Jahre 1775-1875: Zigeuner in d. Buko- 
wina (Vienna, 1875), Die Volkerstamme der osterr.-ungar. Monarchic, 
&c. (Vienna, 1869); V. S. Morwood, Our Gipsies (London, 1885); 
D. MacRitchie, Scottish Gypsies under the Stewarts (Edinburgh, 1 894) ; 
F. A. Coelho, " Os Ciganos de Portugal," in Bol. Soc. Geog. (Lisbon, 
1892) ; A. Dumbarton, Gypsy Life in the Mysore Jungle (London, 
1902). 

III. Linguistic. [Armenia], F. N. Finck, " Die Sprache der arme- 
nischen Zigeuner," in Memoires de I'Acad. Imp. des Sciences, viii. 
(St Petersburg, 1907). [Austria-Hungary], K. von Sowa, Die 
Mundart der slovakischen Zigeuner (Gottingen, 1887), and Die 
mdhrische Mundart der Romsprache (Vienna, 1893) ; A. J . Puchmayer, 
Romany Cib (Prague, 1821); P. Josef Jesina, Romdni Cib (in Czech, 
1880; in German, 1886); G. Ihnatko, Czigdny nyelvtan (Losoncon, 
1877); A. Kalina, La Langue des Tsiganes slovaques (Posen, 1882); 
the archduke Joseph, Czigdny nyelvtan (Budapest, 1888); H. von 
Wlislocki, Die Sprache der transsilvanischen Zigeuner (Leipzig, 1884). 
[Brazil], A. T. de Mello Moraes, Os ciganos no Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, 
1886). [France, the Basques], A. Baudrimont, Vocabulaire de la 
langue des Bohemiens habitant les pays basques-fran^ais (Bordeaux, 



xi. I, very valuable (Leipzig, 1898); F. N. Finck, Lehrbuch des 
Dialekts der deutschen Zigeuner very valuable (Marburg, 1903). 
[Great Britain, &c.], Ch. G. Leland, The English Gipsies and their 
Language (London and New York, 1873; 2nd ed., 1874), The Gipsies 
of Russia, Austria, England, America, &c. (London, 1882) the 
validity of Leland's conclusions is often doubtful ; B. C. Smart and 
H. J. Crofton, The Dialect of the English Gypsies (2nd ed., London, 
1875); G. Borrow, Romano lavo-lil (London, 1874, 1905), Lavengro, 
ed. F. H. Groome (London, 1899). [Rumania], B. Constantinescu, 
Probe de Limba si literatura figanilor din Romania (Bucharest, 
1878). [Russia, Bessarabia], O. Boethlingk, Uber die Sprache der 
Zigeuner in Russland (St Petersburg, 1852; supplement, 1854). 
[Russia, Caucasus], K. Badganian, Cygany. Neskoliko slovu o nareii- 
jahu zakavkazskihu cyganu (St Petersburg, 1887); Istomin, Ciganskij 
Jazyku (1900). [Spain], G. H. Borrow, The Zincali, or an Account 
of the Gipsies of Spain (London, 1841, and numerous later editions) ; 
R. Campuzano, Origen . . . de los Gitanos, y diccionario de su 
dialecto (2nd ed., Madrid, 1857); A. de C., Diccionario del dialecto 
gitano, &c. (Barcelona, 1851); M. de Sales y Guindale, Historia, 
costumbres y dialecto de los Gitanos (Madrid, 1870); M. de Sales, 
El Gitanismo (Madrid, 1870); J. Tineo Rebolledo, " A Chipicalli " 
la lengua gitana: \diccionario gitano-espanol (Granada, 1900). 
[Turkey], A. G. Paspati, Etudes sur les Tchinghianes, ou Bohemiens 
de V empire ottoman (Constantinople, 1870), with grammar, vocabu- 
lary, tales and French glossary; very important. [General], John 
Sampson, " Gypsy Language and Origin," in Journ. Gypsy Lore Soc. 
vol. i. (2nd ser., Liverpool, 1907); J. A. Decourdemanche, Gram- 
maire du Tchingant, &c. (Paris, 1908) fantastic in some of its 
philology; F. Kluge, Rotwelsche Quetten (Strassburg, 1901); L. 
Gilnther, Das Rotwelsch des deutschen Gauners (Leipzig, 1905), for 
the influence of Gipsy on argot; L. Besses, Diccionario de argot 
espanol (Barcelona); G. A. Grierson, The Pi'saca Languages of 
North-Western India (London, 1906), for parallels in Indian dialects; 
G. Borrow, Criscote e majarS Lucas . . . El evangelio segun S. 
Lucas . . . (London, 1837; 2nd ed., 1872) this is the only complete 
translation of any one of the gospels into Gipsy. For older fragments 
of such translations, see Pott ii. 464-521. 

IV. Folklore, Tales, Songs, &c. Many songs and tales are found 



GIRAFFE GIRALDI, G. G. 



43 



in the books enumerated above, where they are mostly accompanied 
by literal translations. See also Ch. G. Leland, E. H. Palmer and 
T. Tuckey, English Gipsy Songs in Romany, with Metrical English 
Translation (London, 1875); G. Smith, Gipsy Life, &c. (London, 
1880); M. Rosenfeld, Lieder der Zigeuner (1882); Ch. G. Leland, 
The Gypsies (Boston, Mass., 1882), Gypsy Sorcery and Fortune- 
Telline (London, 1891); H. von Wlislocki, Mdrchen und Sagen der 
trans silvanischen Zigeuner (Berlin, 1886) containing 63 tales, 
very freely translated; Volksdichtungen der siebenburgischen und 
sudungarischen Zigeuner (Vienna, 1890) songs, ballads, charms, 
proverbs and 100 tales; Vom wandernden Zigeunervolke (Hamburg, 
1890); Wesen und Wirkungskreis der Zauberfrauen bei den sieben- 
burgischen Zigeuner (1891) ; Aus dem inneren Leben der Zigeuner," 
in Ethnologische Mitteilungen (Berlin, 1892); R. Pischel, Bericht 
fiber Wlislocki vom wandernden Zigeunervolke (Gottingen, 1890) a 
strong criticism of Wlislocki's method, &c. ; F. H. Groome, Gypsy 
Folk-Tales (London, 1899), with historical introduction andacomplete 
and trustworthy collection of 76 gipsy tales from many countries; 
Katada, Contes gitanos (Logrono, 1907); M. Caster, Zigeuner- 
mdrchen aus Rumanien (1881); " Tiganii, &c.," in Revista pentru 
Istorie, Sfc., i. p. 469 ff. (Bucharest, 1^83) ; " Gypsy Fairy-Tales " in 
Folklore. The Journal of the Gipsy-Lore Society (Edinburgh, 1888- 
1892) was revived in Liverpool in 1907. 

V. Legal Status, A few of the books in which the legal status of 
the Gipsies (either alone or in conjunction with " vagrants ") is 
treated from a juridical point of view are here mentioned, also the 
history of the trial in 1726. J. B. Weissenbruch, Ausfiihrliche 
Relation von der famosen Zigeuner-Diebes-Mord und Rduber (Frank- 
furt and Leipzig, 1727); A. Ch. Thomasius, Tractatio juridica de 
vagabundo, &fc. (Leipzig, 1731); F. Ch. B. Ave-Lallemant, Das 
deutsche Gaunertum, &c. (Leipzig, 1858-1862); V. de Rochas, Les 
Farias de France et d'Espagne (Paris, 1876); P. Chuchul, Zum 
Kampfe gegen Landstreicher und Bettler (Kassel, 1881) ; R. Breithaupt, 
Die Zigeuner und der deutsche Stoat (Wurzburg, 1907); G. Stein- 
hausen, Geschichte der deutschen Kultur (Leipzig and Vienna, 1904). 

(M. G.) 

GIRAFFE, a corruption of Zarafah, the Arabic name for the 
tallest of all mammals, and the typical representative of the 
family Giraffidae, the distinctive characters of which are given 
in the article PECORA, where the systematic position of the 
group is indicated. The classic term " camelopard," probably 
introduced when these animals were brought from North 
Africa to the Roman amphitheatre, has fallen into complete 
disuse. 

In common with the okapi, giraffes have skin-covered horns 
on the head, but in these animals, which form the genus Giraffa, 
these appendages are present in both sexes; and there is often 
an unpaired one in advance of the pair on the forehead. Among 
other characteristics of these animals may be noticed the great 
length of the neck and limbs, the complete absence of lateral 
toes and the long and tufted tail. The tongue is remarkable 
for its great length, measuring about 17 in. in the dead animal, 
and for its great elasticity and power of muscular contraction 
while living. It is covered with numerous large papillae, and 
forms, like the trunk of the elephant, an admirable organ for 
the examination and prehension of food. Giraffes are inhabit- 
ants of open country, and owing to their length of neck and long 
flexible tongues are enabled to browse on tall trees, mimosas 
being favourites. To drink or graze they are obliged to straddle 
the fore-legs apart; but they seldom feed on grass and are 
capable of going iong without water. When standing among 
mimosas they so harmonize with their surroundings that they 
are difficult of detection. Formerly giraffes were found in large 
herds, but persecution has reduced their number and led to their 
extermination from many districts. Although in late Tertiary 
times widely spread over southern Europe and India, giraffes are 
now confined to Africa south of the Sahara. 

Apart from the distinct Somali giraffe (Giraffa reticulata), 
characterized by its deep liver-red colour marked with a very 
coarse network of fine white lines, there are numerous local forms 
of the ordinary giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis). The northern 
races, such as the Nubian G. c. typica and the Kordofan G. c. 
antiquorum, are characterized by the large frontal horn of the 
bulls, the white legs, the network type of coloration and the pale 
tint. The latter feature is specially developed in the Nigerian 
G. c. peralta, which is likewise of the northern type. The Baringo 
G. c. rolhschUdi also has a large frontal horn and white legs, but 
the spots in the bulls are very dark and those of the females 
jagged. In the Kilimanjaro G. c. lippdskirchi the frontal horn 



is often developed in the bulls, but the legs are frequently spotted 
to the fetlocks. Farther south the frontal horn tends to dis- 
appear more or less completely, as in the Angola G. c. angolensis, 
the Transvaal G. c. wardi and the Cape G. c. capensis, while the 
legs are fully spotted and the colour-pattern on the body 
(especially in the last-named) is more of a blotched type, that 



^^B^MM=i5=^ <~ 



^^"'^' 




The North African or Nubian Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis). 

is to say, consists of dark blotches on a fawn ground, instead of 
a network of light lines on a dark ground. 

For details, see a paper on the subspecies of Giraffa camelopardalis, 
by R. Lydekker in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 
for 1904. (R. L.*) 

GIRALDI, GIGLIO GREGORIO [LiLius GREGORIUS GYRAL- 
DUS] (1479-1552), Italian scholar and poet, was born on the 
I4th of June 1479, at Ferrara, where he early distinguished 
himself by his talents and acquirements. On the completion 
of his literary course he removed to Naples, where he lived on 
familiar terms with Jovianus Pontanus and Sannazaro; and 
subsequently to Lombardy, where he enjoyed the favour of the 
Mirandola family. At Milan in 1507 he studied Greek under 
Chalcondylas; and shortly afterwards, at Modena, he became 
tutor to Ercole (afterwards Cardinal) Rangone. About the year 
1514 he removed to Rome, where, under Clement VII., he held 
the office of apostolic protonotary; but having in the sack of that 
city (1527), which almost coincided with the death of his patron 
Cardinal Rangone, lost all his property, he returned in poverty 
once more to Mirandola, whence again he was driven by the 
troubles consequent on the assassination of the reigning prince in 
I S33- The rest of his life was one long struggle with ill-health, 
poverty and neglect; and he is alluded to with sorrowful regret 
by Montaigne in one of his Essais (i. 34), as having, like Sebastian 
Castalio, ended his days in utter destitution. He died at Ferrara 
in February 1552; and his epitaph makes touching and graceful 
allusion to the sadness of his end. Giraldi was a man of very 



44 



GIRALDI, G. B. GIRARD, J. B. 



extensive erudition; and numerous testimonies to his profundity 
and accuracy have been given both by contemporary and by 
later scholars. His Historia de diis gentium marked a distinctly 
forward step in the systematic study of classical mythology; 
and by his treatises De annis et mensibus, and on the Calen- 
darium Romanum et Graecum, he contributed to bring about the 
reform of the calendar, which, was ultimately effected by Pope 
Gregory XIII. His Progymnasma adversus Uterus et literates 
deserves mention at least among the curiosities of literature; 
and among his other works to which reference is still occasionally 
made are Historiae poelarum Graecorum ac Latinorum; De 
poetis suorum temporum; and De sepultura ac vario sepeliendi 
ritu. Giraldi was also an elegant Latin poet. 
His Opera omnia were published at Leiden in 1696. 

GIRALDI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1504-1573), surnamed 
CYNTHIUS, CINTHIO or CINTIO, Italian novelist and poet, born 
at Ferrara in November 1504, was educated at the university 
of his native town, where in 1525 he became professor of natural 
philosophy, and, twelve years afterwards, succeeded Celio 
Calcagnini in the chair of belles-lettres. Between 1542 and 1560 
he acted as private secretary, first to Ercole II. and afterwards 
to Alphonso II. of Este; but having, in connexion with a literary 
quarrel in which he had got involved, lost the favour of his 
patron in the latter year, he removed to Mondovi, where he 
remained as a teacher of literature till 1568. Subsequently, 
on the invitation of the senate of Milan, he occupied the chair 
of rhetoric at Pavia till 1573, when, in search of health, he 
returned to his native town, where on the 3oth of December he 
died. Besides an epic entitled Ercole (1557), in twenty-six 
cantos, Giraldi wrote nine tragedies, the best known of which, 
Orbeccke, was produced in 1541. The sanguinary and disgusting 
character of the plot of this play, and the general poverty of 
its style, are, in the opinion of many of its critics, almost fully 
redeemed by occasional bursts of genuine and impassioned 
poetry; of one scene in the third act in particular it has even 
been affirmed that, if it alone were sufficient to decide the 
question, the Orbecche would be the finest play in the world. 
Of the prose works of Giraldi the most important is the Hecatom- 
mithi or Ecatomiti, a collection of tales told somewhat after the 
manner of Boccaccio, but still more closely resembling the novels 
of Giraldi's contemporary Bandello, only much inferior in work- 
. manship to the productions of either author in vigour, liveliness 
and local colour. Something, but not much, however, may be 
said in favour of their professed claim to represent a higher 
standard of morality. Originally published at Monteregale, 
Sicily, in 1565, they were frequently reprinted in Italy, while a 
French translation by Chappuys appeared in 1583 and one in 
Spanish in 1590. They have a peculiar interest to students of 
English literature, as having furnished, whether directly or in- 
directly, the plots of Measure for Measure and Othello. That 
of the latter, which is to be found in the Hecatommithi (iii. 7), 
is conjectured to have reached Shakespeare through the French 
translation; while that of the former (Hecat. viii. 5) is probably 
to be traced to Whetstone's Promos and Cassandra (1578), an 
adaptation of Cinthio's story, and to his Heptamerone (1582), 
which contains a direct English translation. To Giraldi also 
must be attributed the plot of Beaumont and Fletcher's Custom 
of the Country. 

GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS (ii46?-i22o), medieval historian, 
also called GERALD DE BARRI, was born in Pembrokeshire. He 
was the son of William de Barri and Augharat, a daughter of 
Gerald, the ancestors of the Fitzgeralds and the Welsh princess, 
Nesta, formerly mistress of King Henry I. Falling under the 
influence of his uncle, David Fitzgerald, bishop of St David's, 
he determined to enter the church. He studied at Paris, and his 
works show that he had applied himself closely to the study of 
the Latin -poets. In 1172 he was appointed to collect tithe in 
Wales, and showed such vigour that he was made archdeacon. 
In 1176 an attempt was made to elect him bishop of St David's, 
but Henry II. was unwilling to see any one with powerful native 
connexions a bishop in Wales. In 1180, after another visit to 
Paris, he was appointed commissiary to the bishop of St David's, 



who had ceased to reside. But Giraldus threw up his post, 
indignant at the indifference of the bishop to the welfare of his 
see. In 1184 he was made one of the king's chaplains, and was 
elected to accompany Prince John on his voyage to Ireland. 
While there he wrote a Topographia Hibernica, which is full of 
information, and a strongly prejudiced history of the conquest, 
the Expugnatio Hibernica. In 1186 he read his work with great 
applause before the masters and scholars of Oxford. In 1188 
he was sent into Wales with the primate Baldwin to preach 
the Third Crusade. Giraldus declares that the mission was 
highly successful; in any case it gave him the material for his 
Itinerarium Cambrense, which is, after the Expugnatio, his best 
known work. He accompanied the archbishop, who intended 
him to be the historian of the Crusade, to the continent, with the 
intention of going to the Holy Land. But in 1189 he was sent 
back to Wales by the king, who knew his influence was great, 
to keep order among his countrymen. Soon after he was absolved 
from his crusading vow. According to his own statements, 
which often tend to exaggeration, he was offered both the sees of 
Bangor and Llandaff, but refused them. From 1192 to 1198 
he lived in retirement at Lincoln and devoted himself to literature. 
It is probably during this period that he wrote the Gemma 
ecclesiastica (discussing disputed points of doctrine, ritual, &c.) 
and the Vita S. Remigii. In 1198 he was elected bishop of St 
David's. But Hubert Walter, the archbishop of Canterbury, 
was determined to have in that position no Welshman who 
would dispute the metropolitan pretensions of the English 
primates. The king, for political reasons, supported Hubert 
Walter. For four years Giraldus exerted himself to get his 
election confirmed, and to vindicate the independence of St 
David's from Canterbury. He went three times to Rome. 
He wrote the De jure Meneviensis ecclesiae in support of the 
claims of his diocese. He made alliances with the princes of 
North and South Wales. He called a general synod of his diocese. 
He was accused of stirring up rebellion among the Welsh, and 
the justiciar proceeded against him. At length in 1202 the pope 
annulled all previous elections, and ordered a new one. The 
prior of Llanthony was finally elected. Gerald was immediately 
reconciled to the king and archbishop; the utmost favour was 
shown to him; even the expenses of his unsuccessful election 
were paid. He spent the rest of his life in retirement, though 
there was some talk of his being made a cardinal. He certainly 
survived John. 

The works of Giraldus are partly polemical and partly historical. 
His value as a historian is marred by his violent party spirit; 
some of his historical tracts, such as the Liber de inslructione 
principum and the Vita Galfridi Archiepiscopi Eborecensis, 
seem to have been designed as political pamphlets. Henry II., 
Hubert Walter and William Longchamp, the chancellor of 
Richard I., are the objects of his worst invectives. His own 
pretensions to the see of St David are the motive of many of his 
misrepresentations. But he is one of the most vivid and witty 
of our medieval historians. 

See the Rolls edition of his works, ed. J. S. Brewer, J. F. Dimock 
and G. F. Warner in 8 vols. (London, 1861-1891), some of which 
have valuable introductions. 

GIRANDOLE (from the Ital. girandold), an ornamental 
branched candlestick of several lights. It came into use about 
the second half of the I7th century, and was commonly made 
and used in pairs. It has always been, comparatively speaking, 
a luxurious appliance for lighting, and in the great 18th-century 
period of French house decoration the famous ciseleurs designed 
some exceedingly beautiful examples. A great variety of metals 
has been used for the purpose sometimes, as in the case of the 
candlestick, girandoles have been made in hard woods. Gilded 
bronze has been a very frequent medium, but for table purposes 
silver is still the favourite material. 

GIRARD, JEAN BAPTISTS [known as " Le Pere Girard " 
or" Le Pere Gregoire "1(1765-1850), French-Swiss educationalist, 
was born at Fribourg and educated for the priesthood at Lucerne. 
He was the fifth child in a family of fourteen, and his gift for 
teaching was early shown at home in helping his mother with the 



GIRARD, P. H. DE GIRARD, S. 



45 



younger children; and after passing through his noviciate he 
spent some time as an instructor in convents, notably at Wiirz- 
burg (1785-1788). Then for ten years he was busy with 
religious duty. In 1798, full of Kantian ideas, he published an 
essay outlining a scheme of national Swiss education; and in 
1804 he began his career as a public teacher, first in the elementary 
school at Fribourg (1805-1823), then (being driven away by 
Jesuit hostility) in the gymnasium at Lucerne till 1834, when 
he retired to Fribourg and devoted himself with the production 
of his books on education, De I'enseignement regulier de la 
langue maternelle (1834, pth ed. 1894; Eng. trans, by Lord 
Ebrington, The Mother Tongue, 1847), and Cours tducatif (1844- 
1 846) . Father Girard's reputation and influence as an enthusiast 
in the cause of education became potent not only in Switzerland, 
where he was hailed as a second Pestalozzi, but in other countries. 
He had a genius for teaching, his method of stimulating the 
intelligence of the children at Fribourg and interesting them 
actively in learning, and not merely cramming them with rules 
and facts, being warmly praised by the Swiss educationalist 
Francois Naville (1784-1846) in his treatise on public education 
(1832). His undogmatic method and his Liberal Christianity 
brought him into conflict with the Jesuits, but his aim was, 
in all his teaching, to introduce the moral idea into the minds of 
his pupils by familiarizing them with the right or wrong working 
of the facts he brought to their attention, and thus to elevate 
character all through the educational curriculum. 

GIRARD, PHILIPPE HENRI DE (1775-1845), French 
mechanician, was born at Lourmarin, Vaucluse, on the ist of 
February 1775. He is chiefly known in connexion with flax- 
spinning machinery. Napoleon having in 1810 decreed a reward 
of one million francs to the inventor of the best machine for 
spinning flax, Girard succeeded in producing what was required. 
But he never received the promised reward, although in 1853, 
after his death, a comparatively small pension was voted to his 
heirs, and having relied on the money to pay the expenses of 
his invention he got into serious financial difficulties. He was 
obliged, in 1815, to abandon the flax mills he had established 
in France, and at the invitation of the emperor of Austria 
founded a flax mill and a factory for his machines at Hirtenberg. 
In 1825, at the invitation of the emperor Alexander I. of Russia, 
he went to Poland, and erected near Warsaw a flax manufactory, 
round which grew up a village which received the name of 
Girardow. In 1818 he built a steamer to ran on the Danube. 
He did not return to Paris till 1844, where he still found some 
of his old creditors ready to press their claims, and he died in 
that city on the 26th of August 1845. He was also the author 
of numerous minor inventions. 

GIRARD, STEPHEN (1750-1831), American financier and 
philanthropist, founder of Girard College in Philadelphia, was 
born in a suburb of Bordeaux, France, on the 2oth of May 1750. 
He lost the sight of his right eye at the age of eight and had little 
education. His father was a sea captain, and the son cruised 
to the West Indies and back, during 1764-1773, was licensed 
captain in 1773, visited New York in 1774, and thence with the 
.assistance of a New York merchant began to trade to and from 
New Orleans and Port au Prince. In May 1776 he was driven 
into the port of Philadelphia by a British fleet and settled there as 
a merchant; in June of the next year he married Mary (Polly) 
Lum, daughter of a shipbuilder, who, two years later, after 
Girard's becoming a citizen of Pennsylvania (1778), built for him 
the " Water Witch," the first of a fleet trading with New Orleans 
.and the West Indies most of Girard's ships being named after 
his favourite French authors, such as " Rousseau," " Voltaire," 
" Helv6tius " and " Montesquieu." His beautiful young wife 
became insane and spent the years from 1790 to her death in 
1815 in the Pennsylvania Hospital. In 1810 Girard used about 
a million dollars deposited by him with the Barings of London 
for the purchase of shares of the much depreciated stock of 
the Bank of the United States a purchase of great assistance 
to the United States government in bolstering European confi- 
dence in its securities. When the Bank was not rechartered the 
.building and the cashier's house in Philadelphia were purchased 



at a third of the original cost by Girard, who in May 
established the Bank of Stephen Girard. He subscribed in 
1814 for about 95% of the government's war loan of $5,000,000, 
of which only $20,000 besides had been taken, and he generously 
offered at par shares which upon his purchase had gone to a 
premium. He pursued his business vigorously in person until 
the izth of February 1830, when he was injured in the street 
by a truck; he died on the 26th of December 1831. His public 
spirit had been shown during his life not only financially but 
personally; in 1793, during the plague of yellow fever in Phil- 
adelphia, he volunteered to act as manager of the wretched 
hospital at Bush Hill, and with the assistance of Peter Helm 
had the hospital cleansed and its work systematized; again 
during the yellow fever epidemic of 1797-1798 he took the lead 
in relieving the poor and caring for the sick. Even more was his 
philanthropy shown in his disposition by will of his estate, 
which was valued at about $7,500,000, and doubtless the greatest 
fortune accumulated by any individual in America up to that 
time. Of his fortune he bequeathed $116,000 to various 
Philadelphia charities, $500,000 to the same city for the im- 
provement of the Delaware water front, $300,000 to Pennsyl- 
vania for internal improvements, and the bulk of his estate to 
Philadelphia, to be used in founding a school or college, in 
providing a better police system, and in making municipal 
improvements and lessening taxation. Most of his bequest 
to the city was to be used for building and maintaining a school 
" to provide for such a number of poor male white orphan 
children ... a better education as well as a more comfortable 
maintenance than they usually receive from the application of 
the public funds." His will planned most minutely for the 
erection of this school, giving details as to the windows, doors, 
walls, &c.; and it contained the following phrase: "I enjoin 
and require that no ecclesiastic, missionary or minister of any 
sect whatsoever, shall ever hold or exercise any duty whatsoever 
in the said college; nor shall any such person ever be admitted 
for any purpose, or as a visitor, within the premises appropriated 
to the purposes of the said college. ... I desire to keep the 
tender minds of orphans . . . free from the excitements which 
clashing doctrines and sectarian controversy are so apt to 
produce." Girard's heirs-at-law contested the will in 1836, and 
they were greatly helped by a public prejudice aroused by the 
clause cited; in the Supreme Court of the United States in 1844 
Daniel Webster, appearing for the heirs, made a famous plea 
for the Christian religion, but Justice Joseph Story handed down 
an opinion adverse to the heirs (Vidals v. Girard's Executors). 
Webster was opposed in this suit by John Sergeant and Horace 
Binney. Girard specified that those admitted to the college 
must be white male orphans, of legitimate birth and good 
character, between the ages of six and ten; that no boy was 
to be permitted to stay after his eighteenth year; and that as 
regards admissions preference was to be shown, first to orphans 
born in Philadelphia, second to orphans born in any other part of 
Pennsylvania, third to orphans born in New York City, and 
fourth to orphans born in New Orleans. Work upon the build- 
ings was begun in 1833, and the college was opened on the ist 
of January 1848, a technical point of law making instruction 
conditioned upon the completion of the five buildings, of which 
the principal one, planned by Thomas Ustick Walter (1804-1887), 
has been called " the most perfect Greek temple in existence." 
To a sarcophagus in this main building the remains of Stephen 
Girard were removed in 1851. In the 40 acres of the college 
grounds there were in 1909 18 buildings (valued at $3,350,000), 
1513 pupils, and a total "population," including students, 
teachers and all employes, of 1907. The value of the Girard 
estate in the year 1907 was $35,000,000, of which $550,000 
was devoted te other charities than Girard College. The control 
of the college was under a board chosen by the city councils 
until 1869, when by act of the legislature it was transferred to 
trustees appointed by the Common Pleas judges of the city of 
Philadelphia. The course of training is partly industrial for 
a long time graduates were indentured till they came of age 
but it is also preparatory to college entrance. 



4 6 



GIRARDIN, D. DE GIRART DE ROUSSILLON 



See H. A. Ingram, The Life and Character of Stephen Girard 
(Philadelphia, 1884), and George P. Rupp, " Stephen Girard 
Merchant and Mariner," in 1848-1808: Semi- Centennial of Girard 
College (Philadelphia, 1898). 

GIRARDIN, DELPHINE DE (1804-1855), French author, 
was born at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 26th of January 1804. Her 
mother, the well-known Madame Sophie Gay, brought her up 
in the midst of a brilliant literary society. She published two 
volumes of miscellaneous pieces, Essais poetiques (1824) and 
Nouveaux Essais poetiques (1825). A visit to Italy in 1827, 
during which she was enthusiastically welcomed by the literati 
of Rome and even crowned in the capitol, was productive of 
various poems, of which the most ambitious was Napoline (1833). 
Her marriage in 1831 to Emile de Girardin (see below) opened 
up a new literary career. The contemporary sketches which 
she contributed from 1836 to 1839 to the feuilleton of La Presse, 
under the nom de plume of Charles de Launay, were collected 
under the title of Lettres parisiennes (1843), and obtained a 
brilliant success. Contes d'une vieille fille a ses neveux (1832), 
La Canne de Monsieur de Balzac (1836) and // ne faut pas jouer 
avec la douleur (1853) are among the best-known of her romances; 
and her dramatic pieces in prose and verse include L'Ecole des 
journalistes (1840), Judith (1843), Cleopdtre (1847), Lady Tartufe 
(1853), and the one-act comedies, C'est la faute du mari (1851), 
La Joiefait peur (1854), Le Chapeau d'un horloger (1854) and Une 
Femme qui deteste son mari, which did not appear till after the 
author's death. In the literary society of her time Madame 
Girardin exercised no small personal influence, and among the 
frequenters of her drawing-room were Theophile Gautier and 
Balzac, Alfred de Musset and Victor Hugo. She died on the 
29th of June 1855. Her collected works were published in six 
volumes (1860-1861). 

See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, t. iii. ; G. de Molenes, 
"Les Femmes poetes," in Revue des deux mondes (July 1842); 
Taxile Delord, Les Matinees litter air es (1860); L' Esprit de Madame 
Girardin, avec une preface par M. Lamartine (1862); G. d'Heilly, 
Madame de Girardin, sa vie et ses ceuvres (1868); Imbert de Saint 
Amand, Mme de Girardin (1875). 

GIRARDIN, EMILE DE (1802-1881), French publicist, was 
born, not in Switzerland in 1806 of unknown parents, but (as 
was recognized in 1837) in Paris in 1802, the son of General 
Alexandra de Girardin and of Madame Dupuy, wife of a Parisian 
advocate. His first publication was a novel, Emile, dealing 
with his birth and early life, and appeared under the name of 
Girardin in 1827. He became inspector of fine arts under the 
Martignac ministry just before the revolution of 1830, and 
was an energetic and passionate journalist. Besides his work 
on the daily press he issued miscellaneous publications which 
attained an enormous circulation. His Journal des connais- 
sances utiles had 1 20,000 subscribers, and the initial edition of 
his Almanack de France (1834) ran to a million copies. In 1836 
he inaugurated cheap journalism in a popular Conservative 
organ, La Presse, the subscription to which was only forty 
francs a year. This undertaking involved him in a duel with 
Armand Carrel, the fatal result of which made him refuse satis- 
faction to later opponents. In 1839 he was excluded from the 
Chamber of Deputies, to which he had been four times elected, 
on the plea of his foreign birth, but was admitted in 1842. He 
resigned early in February 1847, and on the 24th of February 
1848 sent a note to Louis Philippe demanding his resignation and 
the regency of the duchess of Orleans.' In the Legislative 
Assembly he voted with the Mountain. He pressed eagerly in 
his paper for the election of Prince Louis Napoleon, of whom he 
afterwards became one of the most violent opponents. In 1856 
he sold La Presse, only to resume it in 1862, but its vogue was 
over, and Girardin started a new journal, La Liberte, the sale 
of which was forbidden in the public streets. 'He supported 
Emile Ollivier and the Liberal Empire, but plunged into vehement 
journalism again to advocate war against Prussia. Of his 
many subsequent enterprises the most successful was the purchase 
of Le Petit Journal, which served to advocate the policy of Thiers, 
though he himself did not contribute. The crisis of the i6th 
of May 1877, when Jules Simon fell from power, made him 



resume his pen to attack MacMahon and the party of reaction 
in La France and in Le Petit Journal. Emile de Girardin married 
in 1831 Delphine Gay (see above), and after her death in 1855 
Guillemette Josephine Brunold, countess von Tieffenbach, 
widow of Prince Frederick of Nassau. He was divorced from 
his second wife in 1872. 

The long list of his social and political writings includes: De la 
presse periodique au XIX* siecle (1837); De I' instruction publique 
(1838); Etudes politiques (1838); De la liberte de la presse et du 
journalisme (1842) ; Le Droit au travail au Luxembourg et a I'Assemblee 
Nationale (2 vols., 1848); Les Cinquante-deux (1849, &c.), a series 
of articles on current parliamentary questions; La Politique uni- 
verselle, decrets de I'avenir (Brussels, 1852); Le Condamne du 6 mars 
(1867), an account of his own differences with the government in 
1867 when he was fined 5000 fr. for an article in La Liberte; Le 
Dossier de la guerre (1877), a collection of official documents; Ques- 
tions de man temps, 1836 a 1856, articles extracted from the daily 
and weekly press (12 vols., 1858). 

GIRARDON, FRANCOIS (1628-1715), French sculptor, was 
born at Troyes on the i7th of March 1628. As a boy he had for 
master a joiner and wood-carver of his native town, named 
Baudesson, under whom he is said to have worked at the chateau 
of Liebault, where he attracted the notice of Chancellor S6guier. 
By the chancellor's influence Girardon was first removed to 
Paris and placed in the studio of Francois Anguier, and afterwards 
sent to Rome. In 1652 he was back in France, and seems at 
once to have addressed himself with something like ignoble 
subserviency to the task of conciliating the court painter Charles 
Le Brun. Girardon is reported to have declared himself incap- 
able of composing a group, whether with truth or from motives of 
policy it is impossible to say. This much is certain, that a very 
large proportion of his work was carried out from designs by 
Le Brun, and shows the merits and defects of Le Brun's manner 
a great command of ceremonial pomp in presenting his subject, 
coupled with a large treatment of forms which if it were more 
expressive might be imposing. The court which Girardon paid 
to the " premier peintre du roi " was rewarded. An immense 
quantity of work at Versailles was entrusted to him, and in 
recognition of the successful execution of four figures for the 
Bains d'Apollon, Le Brun induced the king to present his protege 
personally with a purse of 300 louis, as a distinguishing mark 
of royal favour. In 1650 Girardon was made member of the 
Academy, in 1659 professor, in 1674 " adjoint au recteur," 
and finally in 1695 chancellor. Five years before (1690), on the 
death of Le Brun, he had also been appointed " inspecteur 
general des ouvrages de sculpture " a place of power and profit. 
In 1699 he completed the bronze equestrian statue of Louis 
XIV., erected by the town of Paris on the Place Louis le Grand. 
This statue was melted down during the Revolution, and is 
known to us only by a small bronze model (Louvre) finished 
by Girardon himself. His Tomb of Richelieu (church of the' 
Sorbonne) was saved from destruction by Alexandre Lenoir, 
who received a bayonet thrust in protecting the head of the 
cardinal from mutilation. It is a capital example of Girardon's 
work, and the theatrical pomp of its style is typical of the funeral 
sculpture of the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV. ; but amongst 
other important specimens yet remaining may also be cited the 
Tomb of Louvois (St Eustache), that of Bignon, the king's 
librarian, executed in 1656 (St Nicolas du Chardonneret), and 
decorative sculptures in the Galerie d'Apollon and Chambre du 
roi in the Louvre. Mention should not be omitted of the group, 
signed and dated 1699, " The Rape of Proserpine " at Versailles, 
which also contains the " Bull of Apollo." Although chiefly 
occupied at Paris Girardon never forgot his native Troyes, the 
museum of which town contains some of his best works, including 
the marble busts of Louis XIV. and Maria Theresa. In the 
hotel de ville is still shown a medallion of Louis XIV., and in the 
church of St Remy a bronze crucifix of some importance both 
works by his hand. He died in Paris in 1715. 

See Corrard de Breban, Notice sur la vie et les ceuvres de Girardon 
(1850). 

GIRART DE ROUSSILLON, an epic figure of the Carolingian 
cycle of romance. In the genealogy of romance he is a son of 
Boon de Mayence, and he appears in different and irreconcilable 



GIRAUD GIRDLE 



47 



Circumstances in many of the chansons de geste. The legend of 
Girart de Roussillon is contained in a Vita Girardi de Roussillon 
(ed. P. Meyer, in Romania, 1878), dating from the beginning 
of the 1 2th century and written probably by a monk of the abbey 
of Pothieres or of Vezelai, both of which were founded in 860 by 
Girart; in Girart de Roussillon, a chanson de geste written early 
in the I2th century in a dialect midway between French and 
Provencal, and apparently based on an earlier Burgundian 
poem; in a I4th century romance in alexandrines (ed. T. J. A. P. 
Mignard, Paris and Dijon, 1878); and in a prose romance by 
Jehan Wauquelin in 1447 (ed. L. de Montille, Paris, 1880). The 
historical Girard, son of Leuthard and Grimildis, was a 
Burgundian chief who was count of Paris in 837, and embraced 
the cause of Lothair against Charles the Bald. He fought at 
Fontenay in 841, and doubtless followed Lothair to Aix. In 
855 he became governor of Provence for Lothair's son Charles, 
king of Provence (d. 863). His wife Bertha defended Vienne 
unsuccessfully against Charles the Bald in 870, and Girard, 
who had perhaps aspired to be the titular ruler of the northern 
part of Provence, which he had continued to administer under 
Lothair II. until that prince's death in 869, retired with his wife 
to Avignon, where he died probably in 877, certainly before 879. 
The tradition of his piety, of the heroism of his wife Bertha, 
and of his wars with Charles passed into romance; but the 
historical facts are so distorted that in Girart de Roussillon the 
trouvere makes him the opponent of Charles Martel, to whom 
he stands in the relation of brother-in-law. He is nowhere 
described in authentic historic sources as of Roussillon. The 
title is derived from his castle built on Mount Lassois, near 
Chatillon-sur-Seine. Southern traditions concerning Count 
Girart, in which he is made the son of Garin de Monglane, are 
embodied in Girart de Viane (i3th century) by Bertrand de 
Bar-sur-1'Aube, and in the Aspramonte of Andrea da Barberino, 
based on the French chanson of Aspremont , where he figures as 
Girart de Frete or de Fratte. 1 Girart de Viane is the recital of 
.a siege of Vienne by Charlemagne, and in Aspramonte Girart de 
Fratte leads an army of infidels against Charlemagne. Girart de 
Roussillon was long held to be of Provencal origin, and to be 
.a proof of the existence of an independent Provencal epic, 
but its Burgundian origin may be taken as proved. 

See F. Michel, Gerard de Rossillon . . . public en fran^ais et en 
Provencal d'apres les MSS. de Paris et de Londres (Paris, 1856); 
P. Meyer, Girart de Roussillon (1884), a translation in modern French 
with a comprehensive introduction. For Girart de Viane (ed. P. 
TarbS, Reims, 1850) see L. Gautier, Epopees franfaises, vol. iv. ; 
F. A. Wulff, Notice sur les sagas de Magus et de Geirard (Lund, 1874). 

GIRAUD, GIOVANNI, COUNT (1776-1834), Italian dramatist, 
of French origin, was born at Rome, and showed a precocious 
passion for the theatre. His first play, L'Onestd non si vince, 
was successfully produced in 1798. He took part in politics 
as an active supporter of Pius VI., but was mainly occupied with 
the production of his plays, and in 1809 became director-general 
of the Italian theatres. He died at Naples in 1834. Count 
Giraud's comedies, the best of which are Gelosie per equivoco 
(1807) a.ndL'Ajonell' imbarazzo (1824), were bright and amusing 
on the stage, but of no particular literary quality. 

His collected comedies were published in 1823 and his Teatro 
domestico in 1825. 

GIRDLE (O. Eng. gyrdel, from gyrdan, to gird; cf. Ger. GUrtel, 
Dutch gordel, from giirlen and garden ; " gird " and its doublet 
" girth " together with the other Teutonic cognates have been 
referred by some to the root ghar to seize, enclose, seen in 
Gr. \t[p, hand, Lat. hortus, garden, and also English yard, 
garden, garth, &c.), a band of leather or other material worn 
round the waist, either to confine the loose and flowing outer 
robes so as to allow freedom of movement, or to fasteji and 
support the garments of the wearer. Among the Romans it 
was used to confine the tunica, and it formed part of the dress 
of the soldier; when a man quitted military service he was said, 

1 It is of interest to note that Freta was the old name for the 
town of Saint Remy, and that it is close to the site of the ancient 
town of Glanum, the name of which is possibly preserved in Garin 
de Monglane, the ancestor of the heroes of the cycle of Guillaume 
d'Orange. 



cingulum deponere, to lay aside the girdle. Money being carried 
in the girdle, zonam perdere signified to lose one's purse, and, 
among the Greeks, to cut the girdle was to rob a man of his 
money. 

Girdles and girdle-buckles are not often found in Gallo-Roman 
graves, but in the graves of Franks and Burgundians they are 
constantly present, often ornamented with bosses of silver or 
bronze, chased or inlaid. Sidonius Apollinaris speaks of the 
Franks as belted round the waist, and Gregory of Tours in the 
6th century says that a dagger was carried in the Prankish 
girdle. 

In the Anglo-Saxon dress the girdle makes an unimportant 
figure, and the Norman knights, as a rule, wore their belts under 
their hauberks. After the Conquest, however, the artificers 
gave more attention to a piece whose buckle and tongue invited 
the work of the goldsmith. Girdles of varying richness are seen 
on most of the western medieval effigies. That of Queen Beren- 
garia lets the long pendant hang below the knee, following a 
fashion which frequently reappears. 

In the latter part of the I3th century the knight's surcoat 
is girdled with a narrow cord at the waist, while the great belt, 
which had become the pride of the well-equipped cavalier, 
loops across the hips carrying the heavy sword aslant over the 
thighs or somewhat to the left of the wearer. 

But it is in the second half of the following century that the 
knightly belt takes its most splendid form. Under the year 
1356 the continuator of the chronicle of Nangis notes that the 
increase of jewelled belts had mightily enhanced the price of 
pearls. The belt is then worn, as a rule, girdling the hips at 
some distance below the waist, being probably supported by 
hooks as is the belt of a modern infantry soldier. The end of the 
belt, after being drawn through the buckle, is knotted or caught 
up after the fashion of the tang of the Garter. The waist girdle 
either disappears from sight or as a narrow and ornamented 
strap is worn diagonally to help in the support of the belt. A 
mass of beautiful ornament covers the whole belt, commonly 
seen as an unbroken line of bosses enriched with curiously 
worked roundels or lozenges which, when the loose strap-end 
is abandoned, meet in a splendid morse or clasp on which the 
enameller and jeweller had wrought their best. About 1420 
this fashion tends to disappear, the loose tabards worn over 
armour in the jousting-yard hindering its display. The belt 
never regains its importance as an ornament, and, at the beginning 
of the 1 6th century, sword and dagger are sometimes seen hanging 
at the knight's sides without visible support. 

In civil dress the magnificent belt of the I4th century is 
worn by men of rank over the hips of the tight short-skirted 
coat, and in that century and in the isth and i6th there are 
sumptuary laws to check the extravagance of rich girdles worn 
by men and women whose humble station made them unseemly. 
Even priests must be rebuked for their silver girdles with baselards 
hanging from them. Purses, daggers, keys, penners and inkhorns, 
beads and even books, dangled from girdles in the isth and 
early i6th centuries. Afterwards the girdle goes on as a mere 
strap for holding up the clothing or as a sword-belt. At the 
Restoration men contrasted the fashion of the court, a light 
rapier hung from a broad shoulder-belt, with the fashion of the 
countryside, where a heavy weapon was supported by a narrow 
waistbelt. Soon afterwards both fashions disappeared. Sword- 
hangers were concealed by the skirt, and the belt, save in certain 
military and sporting costumes, has no more been in sight in 
England. Even as a support for breeches or trousers, the use 
of braces has gradually supplanted the girdle during the past 
century. 

In most of those parts of the Continent Brittany, for example 
where the peasantry maintains old fashions in clothing, the 
belt or girdle is still an important part of the clothing. Italian 
non-commissioned officers find that the Sicilian recruit's main 
objection to the first bath of his life-time lies in the fact that he 
must lay down the cherished belt which carries his few valuables. 
With the Circassian the belt still buckles on an arsenal of pistols 
and knives. 



GIRGA GIRONDE 



Folklore and ancient custom are much concerned with the 
girdle. Bankrupts at one time put it off in open court ; French 
law refused courtesans the right to wear it; Saint Guthlac 
casts out devils by buckling his girdle round a possessed man; 
an earl is " a belted earl " since the days when the putting on 
of a girdle was part of the ceremony of his creation; and fairy 
tales of half the nations deal with girdles which give invisibility 
to the wearer. (O. BA.) 

GIRGA, or GIRGEH, a town of Upper Egypt on the W. bank 
of the Nile, 313 m. S.S.E. of Cairo by rail and about 10 m. N.N.E. 
of the ruins of Abydos. Pop. (1907) 19,893, of whom about 
one-third are Copts. The town presents a picturesque appearance 
from the Nile, which at this point makes a sharp bend. A 
ruined mosque with a tall minaret stands by the river-brink. 
Many of the houses are of brick decorated with glazed tiles. 
The town is noted for the excellence of its pottery. Girga is 
the seat of a Coptic bishop. It also possesses a Roman Catholic 
monastery, considered the most ancient in the country. As 
lately as the middle of the i8th century the town stood a quarter 
of a mile from the river, but is now on the bank, the intervening 
space having been washed away, together with a large part of 
the town, by the stream continually encroaching on its left 
bank. 

GIRGENTI (anc. Agrigentum, q.v.), a town of Sicily, capital 
of the province which bears its name, and an episcopal see, on 
the south coast, 58 m. S. by E. of Palermo direct and 845 m. by 
rail. Population (1901) 25,024. The town is built on the 
western summit of the ridge which formed the northern portion 
of the ancient site; the main street runs from E. to W. on 
the level, but the side streets are steep and narrow. The cathedral 
occupies the highest point in the town; it was not founded till 
the i3th century, taking the place of the so-called temple of 
Concord. The campanile still preserves portions of its original 
architecture, but the interior has been modernized. In the 
chapter-house a famous sarcophagus, with scenes illustrating 
the myth of Hippolytus, is preserved. There are other scattered 
remains of 13th-century architecture in the town, while, in the 
centre of the ancient city, close to the so-called oratory of 
Phalaris, is the Norman church of S. Nicolo. A small museum 
in the town contains vases, terra-cottas, a few sculptures, &c. 
The port of Girgenti, 55 m. S.W. by rail, now known as Porto 
Empedocle (population in 1901, 11,529), as the principal place 
of shipment for sulphur, the mining district beginning immedi- 
ately north of Girgenti. (T. As.) 

GIRISHK, a village and fort of Afghanistan. It stands on 
the right bank of the Helmund 78 m. W. of Kandahar on the 
road to Herat; 3641 ft. above the sea. The fort, which is 
garrisoned from Kandahar and is the residence of the governor 
of the district (Pusht-i-Rud), has little military value. It 
commands the fords of the Helmund and the road to Seistan, 
from which it is about 190 m. distant; and it is the centre of a 
rich agricultural district. Girishk was occupied by the British 
during the first Afghan War; and a small garrison of sepoys, 
under a native officer, successfully withstood a siege of nine 
months by an overwhelming Afghan force. The Dasht-i-Bakwa 
stretches beyond Girishk towards Farah, a level plain of consider- 
able width, which tradition assigns as the field of the final 
contest for supremacy between Russia and England. 

GIRNAR, a sacred hill in Western India, in the peninsula 
of Kathiawar, 10 m. E. of Junagarh town. It consists, of 
five peaks, rising about 3500 ft. above the sea, on which are 
numerous old Jain temples, much frequented by pilgrims. 
At the foot of the hill is a rock, with an inscription of Asoka 
(znd century B.C.), and also two other inscriptions (dated 150 
and 455 A.D.) of great historical importance. 

GIRODET DE ROUSSY, ANNE LOUIS (1767-1824), French 
painter, better known as Girodet-Trioson, was born at Montargis 
on the 5th of January 1767. He lost his parents in early youth, 
and the care of his fortune and education fell to the lot of his 
guardian, M. Trioson, " medecin de mesdames," by whom he was 
in later life adopted. After some preliminary studies under a 
painter named Luquin, Girodet entered the school of David, 



and at the age of twenty-two he successfully competed for the 
Prix de Rome. At Rome he executed his " Hippocrate refusant 
les presents d'Artaxerxes "and" Endymion dormant " (Louvre), 
a work which was hailed with acclamation at the Salon of 1792. 
The peculiarities which mark Girodet's position as the herald 
of the romantic movement are already evident in his " Endymion." 
The firm-set forms, the grey cold colour, the hardness of the 
execution are proper to one trained in the school of David, but 
these characteristics harmonize ill with the literary, sentimental 
and picturesque suggestions which the painter has sought to 
render. The same incongruity marks Girodet's " Danae " and his 
" Quatre Saisons," executed for the king of Spain (repeated for 
Compiegne) , and shows itself to a ludicrous extent in his " Fingal " 
(St Petersburg, Leuchtenberg collection), executed for Napoleon 
I. in 1802. This work unites the defects of the classic and 
romantic schools, for Girodet's imagination ardently and ex- 
clusively pursued the ideas excited by varied reading both of 
classic and of modern literature, and the impressions which he 
received from the external world afforded him little stimulus or 
check; he consequently retained the mannerisms of his master's 
practice whilst rejecting all restraint on choice of subject. The 
credit lost by "Fingal" Girodet regained in i8o6,whenheexhibited 
" Scene de Deluge " (Louvre), to which (in competition with the 
"Sabines" of David) was awarded the decennial prize. This success 
was followed up in 1808 by the production of the " Reddition de 
Vienne " and " Atala au Tombeau " a work which went far to 
deserve its immense popularity, by a happy choice of subject, 
and remarkable freedom from the theatricality of Girodet's 
usual manner, which, however, soon came to the front again in 
his " Revolte de Caire " (1810). His pcwers now began to fail, 
and his habit of working at night and other excesses told upon 
his constitution; in the Salon of 1812 he exhibited only a 
" Tete de Vierge " ; in 1819 " Pygmalion et Galatee " showed a still 
further decline of strength; and in 1824 the year in which he 
produced his portraits of Cathelineau and Bonchamps Girodet 
died on the 9th of December. 

He executed a vast quantity of illustrations, amongst which may 
be cited those to the Didot Virgil (1798) and to the Louvre Racine 
(1801-1805). Fifty-four of his designs for Anacreon were engraved 
by M. Chatillon. Girodet wasted much time on literary composition, 
his poem Le Peintre (a string of commonplaces), together with poor 
imitations of classical poets, and essays on Le Genie and La Grace, 
were published after his death (1829), with a biographical notice 
by his friend M. Coupin de la Couperie; and M. Del6cluze, in his 
Louis David et son temps, has also a brief life of^Girodet. 

GIRONDE, a maritime department of south-western France, 
formed from four divisions of the old province of Guyenne, viz. 
Bordelais, Bazadais, and parts of Perigord and Agenais. Area, 
4140 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 823,925. It is bounded N. by the 
department of Charente-Inferieure, E. by those of Dordogne 
and Lot-et-Garonne, S. by that of Landes, and W. by the Bay 
of Biscay. It takes its name from the river or estuary of the 
Gironde formed by the union of the Garonne and Dordogne. 
The department divides itself naturally into a western and an 
eastern portion. The former, which is termed the Landes (q.v.), 
occupies more than a third of the department, and consists 
chiefly of morass or sandy plain, thickly planted with pines and 
divided from the sea by a long line of dunes. These dunes are 
planted with pines, which, by binding the sand together with 
their roots, prevent it from drifting inland and afford a barrier 
against the sea. On the east the dunes are fringed for some 
distance by two extensive lakes, Carcans and Lacanau, communi- 
cating with each other and with the Bay of Arcachon, near the 
southern extremity of the department. The Bay of Arcachon 
contains numerous islands, and on the land side forms a vast 
shallow lagoon, a considerable portion of which, however, has 
been drained and converted into arable land. The eastern 
portion of the department consists chiefly of a succession of hill 
and dale, and, especially in the valley of the Gironde, is very 
fertile. The estuary of the Gironde is about 45 m. in length, 
and varies in breadth from 2 to 6 m. It presents a succession of 
islands and mud banks which divide it into two channels and 
render navigation somewhat difficult. It is, however, well 



GIRONDISTS 



49 



buoyed and lighted, and has a mean depth of 21 ft. There are 
extensive marshes on the right bank to the north of Blaye, and 
the shores on the left are characterized, especially towards the 
mouth, by low-lying polders protected by dikes and composed 
of fertile salt marshes. At the mouth of the Gironde stands the 
famous tower of Cordouan, one of the finest lighthouses of the 
French coast. It was built between the years 1585 and 1611 
by the architect and engineer Louis de Foix, and added to 
towards the end of the i8th century. The principal affluent of 
the Dordogne in this department is the Isle. The feeders of the 
Garonne are, with the exception of the Dropt, all small. West 
of the Garonne the only river of importance is the Leyre, which 
flows into the Bay of Arcachon. The climate is humid and 
mild and very hot in summer. Wheat, rye, maize, oats and 
tobacco are grown to a considerable extent. The corn produced, 
however, does not meet the wants of the inhabitants. The 
culture of the vine is by far the most important branch of industry 
carried on (see WINE) , the vineyards occupying about one-seventh 
of the surface of the department. The wine-growing districts 
are the Medoc, Graves, C6tes, Palus, Entre-deux-Mers and 
Sauternes. The Medoc is a region of 50 m. in length by about 
6 m. in breadth, bordering the left banks of the Garonne and the 
Gironde between Bordeaux and the sea. The Graves country 
forms a zone 30 m. in extent, stretching along the left bank of 
the Garonne from the neighbourhood of Bordeaux to Barsac. 
The Sauternes country lies to the S.E. of the Graves. The 
Cotes lie on the right bank of the Dordogne and Gironde, 
between it and the Garonne, and on the left bank of the Garonne. 
The produce of the Palus, the alluvial land of the valleys, and of 
the Entre-deux-Mers, situated on the left bank of the Dordogne, 
is inferior. Fruits and vegetables are extensively cultivated, 
the peaches and pears being especially fine. Cattle are exten- 
sively raised, the Bazadais breed of oxen and the Bordelais breed 
of milch-cows being well known. Oyster-breeding is carried on 
on a large scale in the Bay of Arcachon. Large supplies of resin, 
pitch and turpentine are obtained from the pine woods, which 
also supply vine-props, and there are well-known quarries of 
limestone. The manufactures are various, and, with the general 
trade, are chiefly carried on at Bordeaux (<?..), the chief town 
and third port in France. Pauillac, Blaye, Libourne and Arcachon 
are minor ports. Gironde is divided into the arrondissements of 
Bordeaux, Blaye, Lesparre, Libourne, Bazas and La Reole, 
with 49 cantons and 554 communes. The department is served 
by five railways, the chief of which are those of the Orleans and 
Southern companies. It forms part of the circumscription of 
the archbishopric, the appeal-court and the acadimie (educational 
division) of Bordeaux, and of the region of the XVIII. army 
corps, the headquarters of which are at that city. Besides 
Bordeaux, Libourne, La Reole, Bazas, Blaye, Arcachon, St 
Emilion and St Macaire are the most noteworthy towns and 
receive separate treatment. Among the other places of interest 
the chief are Cadillac, on the right bank of the Garonne, where 
there is a castle of the i6th century, surrounded by fortifications 
of the i4th century; Labrede, with a feudal chateau in which 
Montesquieu was born and lived; Villandraut, where there is a 
ruined castle of the I3th century; Uzeste, which has a church 
begun in 1310 by Pope Clement V.; Mazeres with an imposing 
castle of the I4th century; La Sauve, which has a church 
(nth and I2th centuries) and other remains of a Benedictine 
abbey; and Ste Foy-la-Grande, a bastide created in 1255 and 
afterwards a centre of Protestantism, which is still strong there. 
La Teste (pop. in 1906, 5699) was the capital in the middle ages 
of the famous lords of Buch. 

GIRONDISTS (Fr. Girondins), the name given to a political 
party in the Legislative Assembly and National Convention 
during the French Revolution (1791-1793). The Girondists 
were, indeed, rather a group of individuals holding certain 
opinions and principles in common than an organized political 
party, and the name was at first somewhat loosely applied to 
them owing to the fact that the most brilliant exponents of their 
point of view were deputies from the Gironde. These deputies 
were twelve in number, six of whom the lawyers Vergniaud, 



Guadet, Gensonn6, Grangeneuve and Jay, and the tradesman 
Jean Francois Ducos sat both in the Legislative Assembly 
and the National Convention. In the Legislative Assembly these 
represented a compact body of opinion which, though not as yet 
definitely republican, was considerably more advanced than the 
moderate royalism of the majority of the Parisian deputies. 
Associated with these views was a group of deputies from other 
parts of France, of whom the most notable were Condorcet, 
Fauchet, Lasource, Isnard, Kersaint, Henri Lariviere, and, 
above all, Jacques Pierre Brissot, Roland and P6tion, elected 
mayor of Paris in succession to Bailly on the i6th of November 
1791. On the spirit and policy of the Girondists Madame Roland, 
whose salon became their gathering-place, exercised a powerful 
influence (see ROLAND); but such party cohesion as they 
possessed they owed to the energy of Brissot (q.v.), who came 
to be regarded as their mouthpiece in the Assembly and the 
Jacobin Club. Hence the name Brissotins, coined by Camille 
Desmoulins, which was sometimes substituted for that of 
Girondins, sometimes closely coupled with it. As strictly party 
designations these first came into use after the assembling of the 
National Convention (September 2oth, 1792), to which a large 
proportion of the deputies from the Gironde who had sat in the 
Legislative Assembly were returned. Both were used as terms 
of opprobrium by the orators of the Jacobin Club, who freely 
denounced " the Royalists, the Federalists, the Brissotins, the 
Girondins and all the enemies of the democracy " (F. Aulard, 
Soc. des Jacobins, vi. 531). 

In the Legislative Assembly the Girondists represented the 
principle of democratic revolution within and of patriotic 
defiance to the European powers without. They were all- 
powerful in the Jacobin Club (see JACOBINS), where Brissot's 
influence had not yet been ousted by Robespierre, and they 
did not hesitate to use this advantage to stir up popular passion 
and intimidate those who sought to stay the progress of the 
Revolution. They compelled the king in 1 792 to choose a ministry 
composed of their partisans among them Roland, Dumouriez, 
Claviere and Servan; and it was they who forced the declaration 
of war against Austria. In all this there was no apparent 
line of cleavage between " La Gironde " and the Mountain. 
Montagnards and Girondists alike were fundamentally opposed 
to the monarchy; both were democrats as well as republicans; 
both were prepared to appeal to force in order to realize their 
ideals; in spite of the accusation of " federalism " freely brought 
against them, the Girondists desired as little as the Montagnards 
to break up the unity of France. Yet from the first the leaders 
of the two parties stood in avowed opposition, in the Jacobin 
Club as in the Assembly. It was largely a question of tempera- 
ment. The Girondists were idealists, doctrinaires and theorists 
rather than men of action; they encouraged, it is true, the 
" armed petitions " which resulted, to their dismay, in the 
tmeute of the aoth of June; but Roland, turning the ministry of 
the interior into a publishing office for tracts on the civic virtues, 
while in the provinces riotous mobs were burning the chateaux 
unchecked, is more typical of their spirit. With the ferocious 
fanaticism or the ruthless opportunism of the future organizers 
of the Terror they had nothing in common. As the Revolution 
developed they trembled at the anarchic forces they had helped 
to unchain, and tried in vain to curb them. The overthrow 
of the monarchy on the loth of August and the massacres of 
September were not their work, though they claimed credit 
for the results achieved. 

The crisis of their fate was not slow in coming. It was they 
who proposed the suspension of the king and the summoning 
of the National Convention; but they had only consented to 
overthrow the kingship when they found that Louis XVI. was 
impervious to their counsels, and, the republic once established, 
they were anxious to arrest the revolutionary movement which 
they had helped to set in motion. As Daunou shrewdly observes 
in his Mimoires, they were too cultivated and too polished to 
retain their popularity long in times of disturbance, and were 
therefore the more inclined to work for the establishment 
of order, which would mean the guarantee of their own 



GIRONDISTS 



power. 1 Thus the Girondists, who had been the Radicals of the 
Legislative Assembly, became the Conservatives of the Conven- 
tion. But they were soon to have practical experience of the fate 
that overtakes those who attempt to arrest in mid-career a revolu- 
tion they themselves have set in motion. The ignorant populace, 
for whom the promised social millennium had by no means 
dawned, saw in an attitude seemingly so inconsistent obvious 
proof of corrupt motives, and there were plenty of prophets 
of misrule to encourage the delusion orators of the clubs and 
the street corners, for whom the restoration of order would have 
meant well-deserved obscurity. Moreover, the Septembriseurs 
Robespierre, Danton, Marat and their lesser satellites realized 
that not only their influence but their safety depended on keeping 
the Revolution alive. Robespierre, who hated the Girondists, 
whose lustre had so long obscured his own, had proposed to 
include them in the proscription lists of September; the Mountain 
to a man desired their overthrow. 

The crisis came in March 1793. The Girondists, who had 
a majority in the Convention, controlled the executive council 
and filled the ministry, believed themselves invincible. Their 
orators had no serious rivals in the hostile camp; their system 
was established in the purest reason. But the Montagnards 
made up by their fanatical, or desperate, energy and boldness 
for what they lacked in talent or in numbers. They had behind 
them the revolutionary Commune, the Sections and the National 
Guard of Paris, and they had gained control of the Jacobin club, 
where Brissot, absorbed in departmental work, had been super- 
seded by Robespierre. And as the motive power of this formid- 
able mechanism of force they could rely on the native suspicious- 
ness of the Parisian populace, exaggerated now into madness by 
famine and the menace of foreign invasion. The Girondists 
played into their hands. At the trial of Louis XVI. the bulk 
of them had voted for the " appeal to the people," and so laid 
themselves open to the charge of " royalism "; they denounced 
the domination of Paris and summoned provincial levies to their 
aid, and so fell under suspicion of " federalism," though they 
rejected Buzot's proposal to transfer the Convention to Versailles. 
They strengthened the revolutionary Commune by decreeing 
its abolition, and then withdrawing the decree at the first sign 
of popular opposition; they increased the prestige of Marat by 
prosecuting him before the Revolutionary Tribunal, where his 
acquittal was a foregone conclusion. In the suspicious temper 
of the times this vacillating policy was doubly fatal. Marat 
never ceased his denunciations of the "faction des hommes 
d'lttat," by which France was being betrayed to her ruin, and 
his parrot cry of "Nous sommes Irakis 1" was re-echoed from 
group to group in the streets of Paris. The Girondists, for 
all their fine phrases, were sold to the enemy, as Lafayette, 
Dumouriez and a hundred others once popular favourites 
had been sold. 

The hostility of Paris to the Girondists received a fateful 
advertisement by the election, on the isth of February 1793, 
of the ex-Girondist Jean Nicolas Pache (1746-1823) to the 
mayoralty. Pache had twice been minister of war in the 
Girondist government; but his incompetence had laid him open 
to strong criticism, and on the 4th of February he had been 
superseded by a vote of the Convention. This was enough to 
secure him the suffrages of the Paris electors ten days later, 
and the Mountain was strengthened by the accession of an ally 
whose one idea was to use his new power to revenge himself 
on his former colleagues. Pache, with Chaumette, procureur of 
the Commune, and Hebert, deputy procureur, controlled the 
armed organization of the Paris Sections, and prepared to 
turn this against the Convention. The abortive emeute of the 
loth of March warned the Girondists of their danger, but the 
Commission of Twelve appointed on the i8th of May, the arrest 
of Marat and Hebert, and other precautionary measures, were 
defeated by the popular risings of the 27th and 3ist of May, 
and, finally, on the 2nd of June, Hanriot with the National 

1 Daunou, " Mdmoires pour servir & 1'hist. de la Convention 
Nationale," p. 409, vol. xii. of M. Fr. Barriere, Bibl. des mem. rel d 
I'hist. de la France, &c. (Paris, 1863). 



Guards purged the Convention of the Girondists. Isnard's 
threat, uttered on the 25th of May, to march France upon Paris 
had been met by Paris marching upon the Convention. 

The list drawn up by Hanriot, and endorsed by a decree 
of the intimidated Convention, included twenty-two Girondist 
deputies and ten members of the Commission of Twelve, who 
were ordered to be detained at their lodgings " under the safe- 
guard of the people." Some submitted, among them Gensonne, 
Guadet, Vergniaud, Petion, Birotteau and Boyer-Fonfrede. 
Others, including Brissot, Louvet, Buzot, Lasource, Grangeneuve, 
Lariviere and Bergoing, escaped from Paris and, joined later 
by Guadet, Petion and Birotteau, set to work to organize a 
movement of the provinces against the capital. This attempt 
to stir up civil war determined the wavering and frightened 
Convention. On the i3th of June it voted that the city of 
Paris had deserved well of the country, and ordered the imprison- 
ment of the detained deputies, the filling up of their places in 
the Assembly by their suppliants, and the initiation of vigorous 
measures against the movement in the provinces. The excuse 
for the Terror that followed was the imminent peril of France, 
menaced on the east by the advance of the armies of the Coalition, 
on the west by the Royalist insurrection of La Vendee, and the 
need for preventing at all costs the outbreak of another civil 
war. The assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday (q.v.) 
only served to increase the unpopularity of the Girondists 
and to seal their fate. On the 28th of July a decree of the 
Convention proscribed, as traitors and enemies of their country, 
twenty-one deputies, the final list of those sent for trial comprising 
the names of Antiboul, Boilleau the younger, Boyer-Fonfrede, 
Brissot, Carra, Duchastel, the younger Ducos, Dufriche de 
Valaze, Duprat, Fauchet, Gardien, Gensonn6, Lacaze, Lasource, 
Lauze-Deperret, Lehardi, Lesterpt-Beauvais, the elder Minvielle, 
Sillery, Vergniaud and Viger, of whom five were deputies from 
the Gironde. The names of thirty-nine others were included in 
the final acte d 'accusation, accepted by the Convention on the 
24th of October, which stated the crimes for which they were 
to be tried as their perfidious ambition, their hatred of Paris, 
their " federalism " and, above all, their responsibility for the 
attempt of their escaped colleagues to provoke civil war. 

The trial of the twenty-one, which began before the Revolu- 
tionary Tribunal on the 24th of October, was a mere farce, the 
verdict a foregone conclusion. On the 3ist they were borne 
to the guillotine in five tumbrils, the corpse of Dufriche de 
Valaze who had killed himself being carried with them. 
They met death with great courage, singing the refrain " Plutdt 
la mart que I'esclavagel " Of those who escaped to the provinces 
the greater number, after wandering about singly or in groups, 
were either captured and executed or committed suicide, among 
them Barbaroux, Buzot, Condorcet, Grangeneuve, Guadet, 
Kersaint, Petion, Rabaut de Saint-fitienne and Rebecqui. 
Roland had killed himself at Rouen on the isth of November, 
a week after the execution of his wife. Among the very few 
who finally escaped was Jean Baptiste Louvet, whose Memoires 
give a thrilling picture of the sufferings of the fugitives. In- 
cidentally they prove, too, that the sentiment of France was 
for the time against the Girondists, who were proscribed even 
in their chief centre, the city of Bordeaux. The survivors of 
the party made an effort to re-enter the Convention after the 
fall of Robespierre, but it was not until the 5th of March 1795 
that they were formally reinstated. On the 3rd of October 
of the same year (n Vendemiaire, year III.) a solemn fete in 
honour of the Girondist " martyrs of liberty " was celebrated 
in the Convention. See also the article FRENCH REVOLUTION 
and separate biographies. 

Of the special works on the Girondists Lamartine's Histoire des 
Girondins (2 vols., Paris, 1847, new ed. 1902, in 6 vols.) is rhetoric 
rather than history and is untrustworthy; the Histoire des Girondins, 
by A. Gramier de Cassagnac (Paris, 1860) led to the publicaton of a 
Protestation by J. Guadet, a nephew of the Girondist orator, which 
was followed by his Les Girondins, leur vie privee, leur vie publique, 
leur proscription el leur mart (2 yols., Paris, 1861, new ed. 1890); 
with which cf. Alary, Les Girondins par Guadet (Bordeaux, 1863); 
also Charles Vatel, Charlotte de Corday el les Girondins: pieces 
dassees el annotees (3 vols., Paris, 1864-1872) ; Recherches historiques 



GIRTIN GISBORNE 



sur les Girondins (2 vols., ib. 1873); Ducos, Les Trois Girondines 
(Madame Roland, Charlotte Corday, Madame Bouquey) et les 
Girondins (ib. 1896) ; Edmond Bir6, La Legende des Girondins (Paris, 
1881, new ed. 1896); also Helen Maria Williams, State of Manners 
and Opinions in the French Republic towards the close of the i8th 
Century (2 vols., London, 1801). Memoirs or fragments of memoirs 
also exist by particular Girondists, e.g. Barbaroux, Petion, Louvet, 
Madame Roland. See, further, the bibliography to the article 
FRENCH REVOLUTION. (W. A. P.) 

GIRTIN, THOMAS (1775-1802), English painter and etcher, 
was the son of a well-to-do cordage maker in Southwark, London. 
His father died while Thomas was a child, and his widow married 
Mr Vaughan, a pattern-draughtsman. Girtin learnt drawing 
as a boy, and was apprenticed to Edward Doyes (1763-1804), 
the mezzotint engraver, and he soon made J. M. W. Turner's 
acquaintance. His architectural and topographical sketches 
and drawings soon established his reputation, his use of water- 
colour for landscapes being such as to give him the credit of 
having created modern water-colour painting, as opposed to 
mere " tinting." His etchings also were characteristic of his 
artistic genius. His early death from consumption (gth of 
November 1802) led indeed to Turner saying that " had Tom 
Girtin lived I should have starved." From 1794 to his death 
he was an exhibitor at the Royal Academy; and some fine 
examples of his work have been bequeathed by private owners 
to the British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum. 

GIRVAN, a police burgh, market and fishing town of Ayrshire, 
Scotland, at the mouth of the Girvan, 21 m. S.W. of Ayr, and 
63 m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. 
Pop. (1901) 4024. The principal industry was weaving, but the 
substitution of the power-loom for the hand-loom nearly put 
an end to it. The herring fishery has developed to considerable 
proportions, the harbour having been enlarged and protected 
by piers and a breakwater. Moreover, the town has grown in 
repute as a health and holiday resort, its situation being one of 
the finest in the west of Scotland. There is excellent sea- 
bathing, and a good golf-course. The vale of Girvan, one of 
the most fertile tracts in the shire, is made so by the Water of 
Girvan, which rises in the loch of Girvan Eye, pursues a very 
tortuous course of 36 m. and empties into the sea. Girvan is 
the point of communication with Ailsa Craig. About 13 m. 
S.W. at the mouth of the Stinchar is the fishing village of 
Ballantrae (pop. 511). 

GIRY (JEAN MARIE JOSEPH), ARTHUR (1848-1899), French 
historian, was born at Trevoux (Ain) on the 2gth of February 
1848. After rapidly completing his classical studies at the lycee 
at Chartres, he spent some time in the administrative service 
and in journalism. He then entered the Ecole des Charles, 
where, under the influence of J. Quicherat, he developed a strong 
inclination to the study of the middle ages. The lectures at the 
Ecole des Hautes Etudes, which he attended from its foundation 
in 1868, revealed his true bent; and henceforth he devoted 
himself almost entirely to scholarship. He began modestly by 
the study of the municipal charters of St Omer. Having been 
appointed assistant lecturer and afterwards full lecturer at the 
Ecole des Hautes Etudes, it was to the town of St Omer that he 
devoted his first lectures and his first important work, Histoire 
de la mile de Saint-Omer et de ses institutions jusqu'au XI V' 
siecle (1877). He, however, soon realized that the charters of 
one town can only be understood by comparing them with those 
of other towns, and he was gradually led to continue the work 
which Augustin Thierry had broadly outlined in his studies on 
the Tiers Etat. A minute knowledge of printed books and a 
methodical examination of departmental and communal archives 
furnished him with material for a long course of successful 
lectures, which gave rise to some important works on municipal 
history and led to a great revival of interest in the origins and 
significance of the urban communities in France. Giry himself 
published Les Etablissements de Rouen (1883-1885), a study, based 
on very minute researches, of the charter granted to the capital 
of Normandy by Henry II., king of England, and of the diffusion 
of similar charters throughout the French dominions of the 
Plantagenets; a collection of Documents sur les relations de 



la royaule avec les tiilles de France de 1180 A 1314 (1885); and 
Etude sur les origines de la commune de Saint-Quentin (1887). 

About this time personal considerations induced Giry to 
devote the greater part of his activity to the study of diplomatic, 
which had been much -neglected at the Ecole des Chartes, but 
had made great strides in Germany. As assistant (1883) and 
successor (1885) to Louis de Mas Latrie, Giry restored the study 
of diplomatic, which had been founded in France by Dom Jean 
Mabillon, to its legitimate importance. In 1894 he published 
his Manuel de diplomatique, a monument of lucid and well- 
arranged erudition, which contained the fruits of his long 
experience of archives, original documents and textual criticism; 
and his pupils, especially those at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, 
soon caught his enthusiasm. With their collaboration he under- 
took th'e preparation of an inventory and, subsequently, of a 
critical edition of the Carolingian diplomas. By arrangement 
with E. Muhlbacher and the editors of the Monumenta Germaniae 
hislorica, this part of the joint work was reserved for Giry. 
Simultaneously with this work he carried on the publication 
of the annals of the Carolingian epoch on the model of the German 
Jahrbucher, reserving for himself the reign of Charles the Bald. 
Of this series his pupils produced in his lifetime Les Derniers 
Carolingiens (by F. Lot, 1891), Eudes, comte de Paris et roi de 
France (by E. Favre, 1893), and Charles le Simple (by Eckel, 
1899). The biographies of Louis IV. and Hugh Capet and the 
history of the kingdom of Provence were not published until 
after his death, and his own unfinished history of Charles the 
Bald was left to be completed by his pupils. The preliminary 
work on the Carolingian diplomas involved such lengthy and 
costly researches that the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles- 
Lettres took over the expenses after Giry's death. 

In the midst of these multifarious labours Giry found time 
for extensive archaeological researches, and made a special 
study of the medieval treatises dealing with the technical 
processes employed in the arts and industries. He prepared 
a new edition of the monk Theophilus's celebrated treatise, 
Diversarum artium schedula, and for several years devoted his 
Saturday mornings to laboratory research with the chemist 
Aime Girard at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, the results 
of which were utilized by Marcellin Berthelot in the first volume 
( 1 894) of his Chimie au moyen age. Giry took an energetic part in 
the Collection de textes relatifs a I'histoire du moyen Age, which 
was due in great measure to his initiative. He was appointed 
director of the section of French history in La Grande Encyclo- 
pedic, and contributed more than a hundred articles, many of 
which, e.g. " Archives " and " Diplomatique," were original 
works. In collaboration with his pupil Andre Reville, he wrote 
the chapters on " L' Emancipation des villes, les communes et les 
bourgeoisies " and " Le Commerce et 1'industrie au moyen age " 
for the Histoire generate of Lavisse and Rambaud. Giry took 
a keen interest in politics, joining the republican party and 
writing numerous articles in the republican newspapers, mainly 
on historical subjects. He was intensely interested in the Dreyfus 
case, but his robust constitution was undermined by the anxieties 
and disappointments occasioned by the Zola trial and the Rennes 
court-martial, and he died in Paris on the I3th of November 1899. 

For details of Giry's life and works see the funeral orations pub- 
lished in the Bibliotheque de V Ecole des Chartes, and afterwards in a 
pamphlet (1899). See also the biography by Ferdinand Lot in the 
Annuaire de I'Ecole des Hautes Ettides for 1901 ; and the bibliography 
of his works by Henry Maistre in the Correspondence historique et 
archeologique (1899 an d 1900). 

GISBORNE, a seaport of New Zealand, in Cook county, 
provincial district of Auckland, on Poverty Bay of the east 
coast of North Island. Pop. (1901) 2733; (1906)5664. Wool, 
frozen mutton and agricultural produce are exported from the 
rich district surrounding. Petroleum has been discovered in 
the neighbourhood, and about 40 m. from the town there are 
warm medicinal springs. Near the site of Gisborne Captain 
Cook landed in 1769, and gave Poverty Bay its name from his 
inability to obtain supplies owing to the hostility of the natives. 
Young Nick's Head, the southern horn of the bay, was named 
from Nicholas Young, his ship's boy, who first observed it. 



GISLEBERT GIULIO ROMANO 



GISLEBERT (or GILBERT) OF MONS (c. 1150-1225), Flemish 
chronicler, became a clerk, and obtained the positions of provosi 
of the churches of St Germanus at Mons and St Alban at Namur 
in addition to several other ecclesiastical appointments. In 
official documents he is described as chaplain, chancellor or 
notary, of Baldwin V., count of Hainaut (d. 1 195), who employee 
him on important business. After 1200 Gislebert wrote the 
Chronicon Hanoniense, a history of Hainaut and the neighbouring 
lands from about 1050 to 1195, which is specially valuable for 
the latter part of the i2th century, and for the life and times o: 
Baldwin V. 

The chronicle is published in Band xxi. of the Monumenta Ger- 
maniae historica (Hanover, 1826 fol.) ; and separately with intro- 
duction by W. Arndt (Hanover, 1869). Another edition has been 
published by L. Vanderkindere in the Recueil de textes pour servir a 
I'etude de I'histoire de Belgique (Brussels, 1904) ; and there is a French 
translation by G. Menilglaise (Tournai, 1874). 

See W. Meyer, Das Werk des Kanders Gislebert von Mons ah 
verfassungsgeschichtliche Quelle (Konigsberg, 1888); K. Huygens 
Sur la valeur historique de la chronique Gislebert de Mons (Ghent, 
1889); and W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, Band ii. 
(Berlin, 1894). 

GISORS, a town of France, in the department of Eure, situated 
in the pleasant valley of the Epte, 44 m. N.W. of Paris on the 
railway to Dieppe. Pop. (1906) 4345. Gisors is dominated by 
a feudal stronghold built chiefly by the kings of England in the 
1 1 th and 1 2th centuries. The outer enceinte, to which is attached 
a cylindrical donjon erected by Philip Augustus, king of France, 
embraces an area of over 7 acres. On a mound in the centre of 
this space rises an older donjon, octagonal in shape, protected 
by another enceinte. The outer ramparts and the ground they 
enclose have been converted into promenades. The church of 
St Gervais dates in its oldest parts the central tower, the choir 
and parts of the aisles from the middle of the I3th century, 
when it was founded by Blanche of Castile. The rest of the 
church belongs to the Renaissance period. The Gothic and 
Renaissance styles mingle in the west facade, which, like the 
interior of the building, is adorned with a profusion of sculptures; 
the fine carving on the wooden doors of the north and west 
portals is particularly noticeable. The less interesting buildings 
of the town include a wooden house of the Renaissance era, 
an old convent now used as an h&tel de ville, and a handsome 
modern hospital. There is a statue of General de Blanmont, 
born at Gisors in 1770. Among the industries of Gisors are 
felt manufacture, bleaching, dyeing and leather-dressing. 

In the middle ages Gisors was capital of the Vexin. Its 
position on the frontier of Normandy caused its possession to 
be hotly contested by the kings of England and France during 
the 1 2th century, at the end of which it and the dependent 
fortresses of Neaufles and Dangu were ceded by Richard Cceur 
de Lion to Philip Augustus. During the wars of religion of the 
1 6th century it was occupied by the duke of Mayenne on behalf 
of the League, and in the I7th century, during the Fronde, by 
the duke of Longueville. Gisors was given to Charles Auguste 
Fouquet in 1718 in exchange for Belle-Ile-en-Mer and made a 
duchy in 1742. It afterwards came into the possession of the 
count of Eu and the duke of Penthievre. 

GISSING, GEORGE ROBERT (1857-1903), English novelist, 
was born at Wakefield on the 22nd of November 1857. He was 
educated at the Quaker boarding-school of Alderley Edge and 
at Owens College, Manchester. His life, especially its earlier 
period, was spent in great poverty, mainly in London, though 
he was for a time also in the United States, supporting him- 
self chiefly by private teaching. He published his first novel, 
Workers in the Dawn, in 1880. The Unclassed (1884) and Isabel 
Clarendon (1886) followed. Demos (1886), a novel dealing with 
socialistic ideas, was, however, the first to attract attention. It 
was followed by a series of novels remarkable for their pictures 
of lower middle class life. Gissing's own experiences had pre- 
occupied him with poverty and its brutalizing effects on char- 
acter. He made no attempt at popular writing, and for a long 
time the sincerity of his work was appreciated only by a limited 
public. Among his more characteristic novels were: Thyrza 
(1887), A Life's Morning (1888), The Nether World (1889), New 



Grub Street (1891), Born in Exile (1892), The Odd Women (1893), 
In the Year of Jubilee (1894), The Whirlpool (1897). Others, 
e.g. The Town Traveller (1901), indicate a humorous faculty, 
but the prevailing note of his novels is that of the struggling 
life of the shabby-genteel and lower classes and the conflict 
between education and circumstances. The quasi-autobio- 
graphical Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft (1903) reflects 
throughout Gissing's studious and retiring tastes. He was a 
good classical scholar and had a minute acquaintance with the 
late Latin historians, and with Italian antiquities; and his 
posthumous Veranilda (1904), a historical romance of Italy in 
the time of Theodoric the Goth, was the outcome of his favourite 
studies. Gissing's powers as a literary critic are shown in his 
admirable study on Charles Dickens (1898). A book of travel, 
By the Ionian Sea, appeared in 1901. He died at St Jean de 
Luz in the Pyrenees on the 28th of December 1903. 

See also the introductory essay by T. Seccombe to The House of 
Cobwebs (1906), a posthumous volume of Gissing's short stories. 

GITSCHIN (Czech Jicin), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 65 m. 
N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 9790, mostly Czech. The 
parish church was begun by Wallenstein after the model of 
the pilgrims' church of Santiago de Compostela in Spain, but 
not completed till 1655. The castle, which stands next to the 
church, was built by Wallenstein and finished in 1630. It was 
here that the emperor Francis I. of Austria signed the treaty of 
1 8 1 3 by which he threw in his lot with the Allies against Napoleon. 
Wallenstein was interred at the neighbouring Carthusian mon^ 
astery, but in 1639 the head and right hand were taken by 
General Baner to Sweden, and in 1702 the other remains were 
removed by Count Vincent of Waldstein to his hereditary 
burying ground at Miinchengratz. Gitschin was originally the 
village of Zidineves and received its present name when it was 
raised to the dignity of a town by Wenceslaus II. in 1302. The 
place belonged to various noble Bohemian families, and in the 
1 7th century came into the hands of Wallenstein, who made it 
the capital of the duchy of Friedland and did much to improve 
and extend it. His murder, and the miseries of the Thirty 
Years' War, brought it very low; and it passed through several 
hands before it was bought by Prince Trauttmannsdorf, to 
whose family it still belongs. On the 29th of June 1866 the 
Prussians gained here a great victory over the Austrians. This 
victory made possible the junction of the first and second 
Prussian army corps, and had as an ultimate result the Austrian 
defeat at Koniggratz. 

GIUDICI, PAOLO EMILIANO (1812-1872), Italian writer, 
was born in Sicily. His History of Italian Literature (1844) 
brought him to the front, and in 1848 he became professor of 
Italian literature at Pisa, but after a few months was deprived 
of the chair on account of his liberal views in politics. On the 
re-establishment of the Italian kingdom he became professor of 
aesthetics (resigning 1862) and secretary of the Academy of 
Fine Arts at Florence, and in 1867 was elected to the chamber 
of deputies. He held a prominent place as an historian, his 
works including a Storia del teatro (1860), and Storia dei comuni 
ilaliani (1861), besides a translation of Macaulay's History of 
England (1856). He died at Tonbridge in England, on the 8th of 
September 1872. 
A Life appeared at Florence in 1874. 

GIULIO ROMANO, or GIULIO PIPP.I (c. 1492-1546), the head 
of the Roman school of painting in succession to Raphael. 
This prolific painter, modeller, architect and engineer receives 
lis common appellation from the place of his birth Rome, 
n the Macello de' Corbi. His name in full was Giulio di Pietro 
de Filippo de' Giannuzzi Giannuzzi being the true family name, 
and Pippi (which has practically superseded Giannuzzi) being 
an abbreviation from the name of his grandfather Filippo. 
The date of Giulio's birth is a little uncertain. Vasari (who 
knew him personally) speaks of him as fifty-four years old at 
he date of his death, ist November 1546; thus he would have 
>een born in 1492. Other accounts assign 1498 as the date of 
irth. This would make Giulio young indeed in the early and 
n such case most precocious stages of his artistic career, and 



GIULIO ROMANO 



53 



would show him as dying, after an infinity of hard work, at the 
comparatively early age of forty-eight. 

Giulio must at all events have been quite youthful when he 
first became the pupil of Raphael, and at Raphael's death in 
1520 he was at the utmost twenty-eight years of age. Raphael 
had loved him as a son, and had employed him in some leading 
works, especially in the Loggie of the Vatican; the series there 
popularly termed " Raphael's Bible " is done in large measure 
by Giulio, as for instance the subjects of the " Creation of Adam 
and Eve," " Noah's Ark," and " Moses in the Bulrushes." In 
the saloon of the " Incendio del Borgo," also, the figures of 
" Benefactors of the Church " (Charlemagne, &c.) are Giulio's 
handiwork. It would appear that in subjects of this kind 
Raphael simply furnished the design, and committed the execu- 
tion of it to some assistant, such as Giulio, taking heed, however, 
to bring it up, by final retouching, to his own standard of style 
and type. Giulio at a later date followed out exactly the same 
plan; so that in both instances inferiorities of method, in the 
general blocking-out and even in the details of the work, are not 
to be precisely charged upon the caposcuola. Amid the multitude 
of Raphael's pupils, Giulio was eminent in pursuing his style, and 
showed universal aptitude; he did, among other things, a large 
amount of architectural planning for his chief. Raphael be- 
queathed to Giulio, and to his fellow-pupil Gianfrancesco Penni 
(" II Fattore "), his implements and works of art; and upon 
them it devolved to bring to completion the vast fresco-work of 
the " Hall of Constantine " in the Vatican consisting, along 
with much minor matter, of the four large subjects, the " Battle of 
Constantine," the " Apparition of the Cross," the " Baptism of 
Constantine " and the " Donation of Rome to the Pope." The 
two former compositions were executed by Pippi, the two latter 
by Penni. The whole of this onerous undertaking was com- 
pleted within a period of only three years, which is the more 
remarkable as, during some part of the interval since Raphael's 
decease, the Fleming, Adrian VI., had been pope, and his anti- 
aesthetic pontificate had left art and artists almost in a state of 
inanition. Clement VII. had now, however, succeeded to the 
popedom. By this time Giulio was regarded as the first painter 
in Rome; but his Roman career was fated to have no further 
sequel. 

Towards the end of 1524 his friend the celebrated writer 
Baldassar Castiglione seconded with success the urgent request 
of the duke of Mantua, Federigo Gonzaga, that Giulio should 
migrate to that city, and enter the duke's service for the purpose 
of carrying out his projects in architecture and pictorial decora- 
tion. These projects were already considerable, and under 
Giulio's management they became far more extensive still. 
The duke treated his painter munificently as to house, table, 
horses and whatever was in request; and soon a very cordial 
attachment sprang up between them. In Pippi's multifarious 
work in Mantua three principal undertakings should be noted, 
(i) In the Castello he painted the " History of Troy," along with 
other subjects. (2) In the suburban ducal residence named 
the Palazzo del Te (this designation being apparently derived 
from the form of the roads which led towards the edifice) he 
rapidly carried out a rebuilding on a vastly enlarged scale, 
the materials being brick and terra-cotta, as there is no local 
stone, and decorated the rooms with his most celebrated 
works in oil and fresco painting the story of Psyche, Icarus, 
the fall of the Titans, and the portraits of the ducal horses and 
hounds. The foreground figures of Titans are from 12 to 14 ft. 
high; the room, even in its structural details, is made to subserve 
the general artistic purpose, and many of its architectural 
features are distorted accordingly. Greatly admired though these 
pre-eminent works have always been, and at most times even 
more than can now be fully ratified, they have suffered severely 
at the hands of restorers, and modern eyes see them only through 
a dull and deadening fog of renovation. The whole of the work 
on the Palazzo del Te, which is of the Doric order of architecture, 
occupied about five years. (3) Pippi recast and almost rebuilt the 
cathedral of Mantua; erected his own mansion, replete with 
numerous antiques and other articles of vertu; reconstructed 



the street architecture to a very large extent, and made the city, 
sapped as it is by the shallows of the Mincio, comparatively 
healthy; and at Marmiruolo, some 5 m. distant from Mantua, 
he worked out other important buildings and paintings. He 
was in fact, for nearly a quarter of a century, a sort of Demiurgus 
of the arts of design in the Mantuan territory. 

Giulio's activity was interrupted but not terminated by the 
death of Duke Federigo. The duke's brother, a cardinal who 
became regent, retained him in full employment. For a while he 
went to Bologna, and constructed the facade of the church of 
S. Petronio in that city. He was afterwards invited to succeed 
Antonio Sangallo as architect of St Peter's in Rome, a splendid 
appointment, which, notwithstanding the strenuous opposition 
of his wife and of the cardinal regent, he had almost resolved 
to accept, when a fever overtook him, and, acting upon a con- 
stitution somewhat enfeebled by worry and labour, caused his 
death on the ist of November 1 546. He was buried in the church 
of S. Barnaba in Mantua. At the time of his death Giulio 
enjoyed an annual income of more than 1000 ducats, accruing 
from the liberalities of his patrons. He left a widow, and a son 
and daughter. The son, named Raffaello, studied painting, 
but died before he could produce any work of importance; the 
daughter, Virginia, married Ercole Malatesta. 

Wide and solid knowledge of design, combined with a prompti- 
tude of composition that was never at fault, formed the chief 
motive power and merit of Giulio Romano's art. Whatever 
was wanted, he produced it at once, throwing off, as Vasari says, 
a large design in an hour; and he may in that sense, though not 
equally so. when an imaginative or ideal test is applied, be called 
a great inventor. It would be difficult to name any other artist 
who, working as an architect, and as the plastic and pictorial 
embellisher of his architecture, produced a total of work so fully 
and homogeneously his own; hence he has been named "the 
prince of decorators." He had great knowledge of the human 
frame, and represented it with force and truth, though some- 
times with an excess of movement; he was also learned in other 
matters, especially in medals, and in the plans of ancient buildings. 
In design he was more strong and emphatic than graceful, and 
worked a great deal from his accumulated stores of knowledge, 
without consulting nature direct. As a general rule, his designs 
are finer and freer than his paintings, whether in fresco or in oil 
his easel pictures being comparatively few, and some of them 
the reverse of decent; his colouring is marked by an excess of 
blackish and heavy tints. 

Giulio Romano introduced the style of Raphael into Mantua, 
and established there a considerable school of art, which surpassed 
in development that of his predecessor Mantegna, and almost ' 
rivalled that of Rome. Very many engravings more than 
three hundred are mentioned were made contemporaneously 
from his works; and this not only in Italy, but in France and 
Flanders as well. His plan of entrusting principally to assistants 
the pictorial execution of his cartoons has already been referred 
to; Primaticcio was one of the leading coadjutors. Rinaldo 
Mantovano, a man of great ability who died young, was the 
chief executant of the " Fall of the Giants "; he also co-operated 
with Benedetto Pagni da Pescia in painting the remarkable 
series of horses and hounds, and the story of Psyche. Another 
pupil was Fermo Guisoni, who remained settled in Mantua. 
The oil pictures of Giulio Romano are not generally of high 
importance; two leading ones are the " Martyrdom of Stephen," 
in the church of that saint in Genoa, and a "Holy Family" 
in the Dresden Gallery. Among his architectural works not 
already mentioned is the Villa Madama in Rome, with a fresco 
of Polyphemus, and boys and satyrs; the Ionic facade of this 
building may have been sketched out by Raphael. 

Vasari gives a pleasing impression of the character of Giulio. 
He was very loving to his friends, genial, affable, well-bred, 
temperate in the pleasures of the table, but Liking fine apparel 
and a handsome scale of living. He was good-looking, of 
middle height, with black curly hair and dark eyes, and an 
ample beard; his portrait, painted by himself, is in the 
Louvre. 



54 



GIUNTA PISANO GIUSTINIANI 



Besides Vasari, Lanzi and other historians of art, the following 
works may be mentioned: C. D. Arco, Vita di G. Pippi (1828); 
G. C. yon Murr, Notice sur les estampes gravees apres dessins de Jules 
Remain (1865); R. Sanzio, two works on Etchings and Paintings 
(1800, 1836). (W. M. R.) 

GIUNTA PISANO, the earliest Italian painter whose name is 
found inscribed on an extant work. He is said to have exercised 
his art from 1202 to 1236. He may perhaps have been born 
towards 1180 in Pisa, and died in or soon after 1236; but other 
accounts give 1202 as the date of his birth, and 1258 or there- 
abouts for his death. There is some ground for thinking that 
his family name was Capiteno. The inscribed work above 
referred to, one of his earliest, is a " Crucifix," long in the kitchen 
of the convent of St Anne in Pisa. Other Pisan works of like 
date are very barbarous, and some of them may be also from 
the hand of Giunta. It is said that he painted in the upper 
church of Assisi, in especial a "Crucifixion " dated I236,with a 
figure of Father Elias, the general of the Franciscans, embracing 
the foot of the cross. In the sacristy is a portrait of St Francis, 
also ascribed to Giunta; but it more probably belongs to the 
close of the I3th century. He was in the practice of painting 
upon cloth stretched on wood, and prepared with plaster. 

GIURGEVO (Giurgiu), the capital of the department of 
Vlashca, Rumania; situated amid mud-flats and marshes on 
the left bank of the Danube. Pop. (1900) 13,977. Three small 
islands face the town, and a larger one shelters its port, Smarda, 
25 m. E. The rich corn-lands on the north are traversed by a 
railway to Bucharest, the first line opened in Rumania, which 
was built in 1869 and afterwards extended to Smarda. Steamers 
ply to Rustchuk, i\ m. S.W. on the Bulgarian shore, linking 
the Rumanian railway system to the chief Bulgarian line north 
of the Balkans (Rustchuk- Varna). Thus Giurgevo, besides 
having a considerable trade with the home ports lower down 
the Danube, is the headquarters of commerce between Bulgaria 
and Rumania. It exports timber, grain, salt and petroleum; 
importing coal, iron and textiles. There are also large saw-mills. 

Giurgevo occupies the site of Theodorapolis, a city built 
by the Roman emperor Justinian (A.D. 483-565). It was 
founded in the I4th century by Genoese merchant adventurers, 
who established a bank, and a trade in silks and velvets. They 
called the town, after the patron saint of Genoa, San Giorgio 
(St George) ; and hence comes its present name. As a fortified 
town, Giurgevo figured often in the wars for the conquest of the 
lower Danube; especially in the struggle of Michael the Brave 
(1593-1601) against the Turks, and in the later Russo-Turkish 
Wars. It was burned in 1659. In 1829, its fortifications were 
finally razed, the only defence left being a castle on the island of 
Slobosia, united to the shore by a bridge. 

GIUSTI, GIUSEPPE (1800-1850), Tuscan satirical poet, was 
born at Monsummano, a small village of the Valdinievole, on 
the 1 2th of May 1809. His father, a cultivated and rich man, 
accustomed his son from childhood to study, and himself taught 
him, among other subjects, the first rudiments of music. After- 
wards, in order to curb his too vivacious disposition, he placed 
the boy under the charge of a priest near the village, whose 
severity did perhaps more evil than good. At twelve Giusti 
was sent to school at Florence, and afterwards to Pistoia and to 
Lucca; and during those years he wrote his first verses. In 
1826 he went to study law at Pisa; but, disliking the study, 
he spent eight years in the course, instead of the customary four. 
He lived gaily, however, though his father kept him short of 
money, and learned to know the world, seeing the vices of 
society, and the folly of certain laws and customs from which 
his country was suffering. The experience thus gained he turned 
to good account in the use he made of it in his satire. 

His father had in the meantime changed his place of abode 
to Pescia; but Giuseppe did worse there, and in November 
1832, his father having paid his debts, he returned to study at 
Pisa, seriously enamoured of a woman whom he could not marry, 
but now commencing to write in real earnest in behalf of his 
country. With the poem called La Ghigliottina (the guillotine) , 
Giusti began to strike out a path for himself, and thus revealed 
his great genius. From this time he showed himself the Italian 



Beranger, and even surpassed the Frenchman in richness of 
language, refinement of humour and depth of satirical conception. 
In Beranger there is more feeling for what is needed for popular 
poetry. His poetry is less studied, its vivacity perhaps more 
boisterous, more spontaneous; but Giusti, in both manner and 
conception, is perhaps more elegant, more refined, more pene- 
trating. In 1834 Giusti, having'at last entered the legal profes- 
sion, left Pisa to go to Florence, nominally to practise with the 
advocate Capoquadri, but really to enjoy life in the capital of 
Tuscany. He fell seriously in love a second time, and as before 
was abandoned by his love. It was then he wrote his finest 
verses, by means of which, although his poetry was not yet 
collected in a volume, but for some years passed from hand to 
hand, his name gradually became famous. The greater part 
of his poems were published clandestinely at Lugano, at no 
little risk, as the work was destined to undermine the Austrian 
rule in Italy. After the publication of a volume of verses at 
Bastia, Giusti thoroughly established his fame by his Gingillino, 
the best in moral tone as well as the most vigorous and effective 
of his poems. The poet sets himself to represent the vileness 
of the treasury officials, and the base means they used to conceal 
the necessities of the state. The Gingillino has all the character 
of a classic satire. When first issued in Tuscany, it struck all 
as too impassioned and personal. Giusti entered heart and soul 
into the political movements of 1847 and 1848, served in the 
national guard, sat in the parliament for Tuscany; but finding 
that there was more talk than action, that to the tyranny of 
princes had succeeded the tyranny of demagogues, he began to 
fear, and to express the fear, that for Italy evil rather than 
good had resulted. He fell, in consequence, from the high 
position he had held in public estimation, and in 1848 was 
regarded as a reactionary. His friendship for the marquis 
Gino Capponi, who had taken him into his house during the last 
years of his life, and who published after Giusti's death a volume 
of illustrated proverbs, was enough to compromise him in the 
eyes of such men as Guerrazzi, Montanelh' and Niccolini. On 
the 3ist of May 1850 he died at Florence in the palace of his 
friend. 

The poetry of Giusti, under a light trivial aspect, has a lofty 
civilizing significance. The type of his satire is entirely original, 
and it had also the great merit of appearing at the right moment, 
of wounding judiciously, of sustaining the part of the comedy 
that " castigat ridendo mores." Hence his verse, apparently 
jovial, was received by the scholars and politicians of Italy in 
all seriousness. Alexander Manzoni in some of his letters showed 
a hearty admiration of the genius of Giusti; and the weak 
Austrian and Bourbon governments regarded them as of the 
gravest importance. 

His poems have often been reprinted, the best editions being those 
of Le Monnier, Carducci (1859; 3rd ed., 1879), Fioretti (1876) and 
Bragi (1890). Besides the poems and the proverbs already men- 
tioned, we have a volume of select letters, full of vigour and written 
in the best Tuscan language, and a fine critical discourse on Giuseppe 
Parini, the satirical poet. In some of his compositions the elegiac 
rather than the satirical poet is seen. Many of his verses have been 
excellently translated into German by Paul Heyse. Good English 
translations were published in the Athenaeum by Mrs T. A. Trollope, 
and some by W. D. Howells are in his Modern Italian Poets (1887). 

GIUSTINIANI, the name of a prominent Italian family which 
originally belonged to Venice, but established itself subsequently 
in Genoa also, and at various times had representatives in 
Naples, Corsica and several of the islands of the Archipelago. 
In the Venetian line the following are most worthy of mention : 
i. LORENZO (1380-1465), the Laurentius Justinianus of the 
Roman calendar, at an early age entered the congregation of 
the canons of St George in Alga, and in 1433 became general 
of that order. About the same time he was made by Eugenius 
IV. bishop of Venice; and his episcopate was marked by con- 
siderable activity in church extension and reform. On the 
removal of the patriarchate from Grado to Venice by Nicholas V. 
in 1451, Giustiniani was promoted to that dignity, which he 
held for fourteen years. He died on January 8, 1465, was 
canonized by Pope Alexander VIII., his festival (semi-duplex) 



GIUSTO DA GUANTO 



55 



being fixed by Innocent XII. for September 5th, the anni- 
versary of his elevation to the bishopric. His works, consisting 
of sermons, letters and ascetic treatises, have been frequently 
reprinted, the best edition being that of the Benedictine 
P. N. A. Giustiniani, published at Venice in 2 vols. folio, 1751. 
They are wholly devoid of literary merit. His life has been 
written by Bernard Giustiniani, by Maffei and also by the 
Bollandists. 

2. LEONARDO (1388-1446), brother of the preceding, was for 
some years a senator of Venice, and in 1443 was chosen procurator 
of St Mark. He translated into Italian Plutarch's Lives of 
Cinna and Lucullus, and was the author of some poetical pieces, 
amatory and religious strambolti and canzonetti as well as 
of rhetorical prose compositions. Some of the popular songs 
set to music by him became known as Giustiniani. 

3. BERNARDO (1408-1489), son of Leonardo, was a pupil of 
Guarino and of George of Trebizond, and entered the Venetian 
senate at an early age. He served on several important diplo- 
matic missions both to France and Rome, and about 1485 
became one of the council of ten. His orations and letters 
were published in 1492; but his title to any measure of fame 
he possesses rests upon his history of Venice, De origine urbis 
Venetiarum rebusque ab ipsa gestis historia (1492), which was 
translated into Italian by Domenichi in 1545, and which at the 
time of its appearance was undoubtedly the best work upon the 
subject of which it treated. It is to be found in vol. i. of the 
Thesaurus of Graevius. 

4. PIETRO, also a senator, lived in the i6th century, and 
wrote on Historia rerum Venetarum in continuation of that of 
Bernardo. He was also the author of chronicles De gestis Petri 
Mocenigi and De hello Venetorum cum Carolo VIII. The latter 
has been reprinted in the Script, rer. Hal. vol. xxi. 

Of the Genoese branch of the family the most prominent 
members were the following: 

5. PAOLO, DI MONIGLIA (1444-1502), a member of the order 
of Dominicans, was, from a comparatively early age, prior of 
their convent at Genoa. As a preacher he was very successful, 
and his talents were fully recognized by successive popes, by 
whom he was made master of the sacred palace, inquisitor- 
general for all the Genoese dominions, and ultimately bishop 
of Scio and Hungarian legate. He was the author of a number of 
Biblical commentaries (no longer extant), which are said to 
have been characterized by great erudition. 

6. AGOSTINO (1470-1536) was born at Genoa, and spent 
some wild years in Valencia, Spain. Having in 1487 joined the 
Dominican order, he gave himself with great energy to the 
study of Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic, and in 1514 
began the preparation of a polyglot edition of the Bible. As 
bishop of Nebbio in Corsica, he took part in some of the earlier 
sittings of the Lateran council (1516-1517), but, in consequence 
of party complications, withdrew to his diocese, and ultimately 
to France, where he became a pensioner of Francis I., and was 
the first to occupy a chair of Hebrew and Arabic in the university 
of Paris. After an absence from Corsica for a period of five 
years, during which he visited England and the Low Countries, 
and became acquainted with Erasmus and More, he returned 
to Nebbio, about 1522, and there remained, with comparatively 
little intermission, till in 1536, when, while returning from a 
visit to Genoa, he perished in a storm at sea. He was the 
possessor of a very fine library, which he bequeathed to the 
republic of Genoa. Of his projected polyglot only the Psalter 
was published (Psalterium Hebraeum, Graecum, Arabicum, el 
Chaldaicum, Genoa, 1616). Besides the Hebrew text, the LXX. 
translation, the Chaldee paraphrase, and an Arabic version, it 
contains the Vulgate translation, a new Latin translation by 
the editor, a Latin translation of the Chaldee, and a collection 
of scholia. Giustiniani printed 2000 copies at his own expense, 
including fifty in vellum for presentation to the sovereigns of 
Europe and Asia; but the sale of the work did not encourage 
him to proceed with the New Testament, which he had also 
prepared for the press. Besides an edition of the book of Job, 
containing the original text, the Vulgate, and a new translation, 



he published a Latin version of the Moreh Nevochim of Maimonides 
(Director dubitanlium aut perplexorum, 1520), and also edited in 
Latin the Aureus libettus of Aeneas Platonicus, and the Timaeus 
of Chalcidius. His annals of Genoa (Castigalissimi annali di 
Cenova) were published posthumously in 1537. 
The following are also noteworthy: 

7. POMPEIO (1560-1616), a native of Corsica, who served under 
Alessandro Farnese and the marquis of Spinola in the Low 
Countries, where he lost an arm, and, from the artificial substitute 
which he wore, came to be known by the sobriquet Bras de Fer. 
He also defended Crete against the Turks; and subsequently was 
killed in a reconnaissance at Friuli. He left in Italian a personal 
narrative of the war in Flanders, which has been repeatedly 
published in a Latin translation (Bellum Belgicum, Antwerp, 
1609). 

8. GIOVANNI (1513-1556), born in Candia, translator of 
Terence's Andria and Eunuchus, of Cicero's In Verrem, and of 
Virgil's Aeneid, viii. 

9. ORSATTO (1538-1603), Venetian senator, translator of the 
Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophocles and author of a collection of 
Rime, in imitation of Petrarch. He is regarded as one of the 
latest representatives of the classic Italian school. 

10. GERONIMO, a Genoese, flourished during the latter half 
of the 1 6th century. He translated the Alcestis of Euripides 
and three of the plays of Sophocles; and wrote two original 
tragedies, Jephte and Christo in Passione. 

11. VINCENZO, who in the beginning of the I7th century 
built the Roman palace and made the art collection which are 
still associated with his name (see Galleria Giustiniana, Rome, 
1631). The collection was removed in 1807 to Paris, where it 
was to some extent broken up. In 1815 all that remained of it, 
about 170 pictures, was purchased by the king of Prussia and 
removed to Berlin, where it forms a portion of the royal museum. 

GIUSTO DA GUANTO [Jooocus, or JUSTUS, or GHENT] 
(fl. 1465-1475), Flemish painter. The public records of the city 
of Ghent have been diligently searched, but in vain, for a clue 
to the history of Justus or Jodocus, whom Vasari and Guicciardini 
called Giusto da Guanto. Flemish annalists of the i6th century 
have enlarged upon the scanty statements of Vasari, and described 
Jodocus as a pupil of Hubert Van Eyck. But there is no source 
to which this fable can be traced. The registers of St Luke's 
gild at Ghent comprise six masters of the name of Joos or 
Jodocus who practised at Ghent in the isth century. But none 
of the works of these masters has been preserved, and it is 
impossible to compare their style with that of Giusto. It was 
between 1465 and 1474 that this artist executed the " Communion 
of the Apostles " which Vasari has described, and modern critics 
now see to the best advantage in the museum of Urbino. It 
was painted for the brotherhood of Corpus Christi at the bidding 
of Frederick of Montefeltro, who was introduced into the picture 
as the companion of Caterino Zeno, a Persian envoy at that 
time on a mission to the court of Urbino. From this curious 
production it may be seen that Giusto, far from being a pupil of 
Hubert Van Eyck, was merely a disciple of a later and less 
gifted master, who took to Italy some of the peculiarities of his 
native schools, and forthwith commingled them with those of 
his adopted country. As a composer and draughtsman Giusto 
compares unfavourably with the better-known painters of 
Flanders; though his portraits are good, his ideal figures are 
not remarkable for elevation of type or for subtlety of character 
and expression. His work is technically on a level with that of 
Gerard of St John, whose pictures are preserved in the Belvedere 
at Vienna. Vespasian, a Florentine bookseller who contributed 
much to form the antiquarian taste of Frederick of Montefeltro, 
states that this duke sent to the Netherlands for a capable artist 
to paint a series of " ancient worthies " for a library recently 
erected in the palace of Urbino. It has been conjectured that 
the author of these " worthies," which are still in existence 
at the Louvre and in the Barberini palace at Rome, was Giusto. 
Yet there are notable divergences betweeen these pictures and the 
" Communion of the Apostles." Still, it is not beyond the range 
of probability that Giusto should have been able, after a certain 



GIVET GLACIAL PERIOD 



time, to temper his Flemish style by studying the masterpieces 
of Santi and Melozzo, and so to acquire the mixed manner of the 
Flemings and Italians which these portraits of worthies display. 
Such an assimilation, if it really took place, might justify the 
Flemings in the indulgence of a certain pride, considering that 
Raphael not only admired these worthies, but copied them in 
the sketch-book which is now the ornament of the Venetian 
Academy. There is no ground for presuming that Giusto ad 
Guanto is identical with Justus d'Allamagna who painted the 
" Annunciation " (1451) in the cloisters of Santa Maria di Castello 
at Genoa. The drawing and colouring of this wall painting 
shows that Justus d'Allamagna was as surely a native of south 
Germany as his homonym at Urbino was a born Netherlander. 

GIVET, a town of northern France, in the department of 
Ardennes, 40 m. N. by E. of Mezieres on the Eastern railway 
between the town and Namur. Pop. (1906) town, 5110; 
commune, 7468. Givet lies on the Meuse about i m. from the 
Belgian frontier, and was formerly a fortress of considerable 
importance. It is divided into three portions the citadel 
called Charlemont and Grand Givet on the left bank of the river, 
and on the opposite bank Petit Givet, connected with Grand 
Givet by a stone bridge of five arches. The fortress of Charle- 
mont, situated at the top of a precipitous rock 705 ft. high, was 
founded by the emperor Charles V. in the i6th century, and 
further fortified by Vauban at the end of the I7th century; it 
is the only survival of the fortifications of the town, the rest 
of which were destroyed in 1892. In Grand Givet there are a 
church and a town-hall built by Vauban, and a statue of the 
composer Etienne Mehul stands in the fine square named after 
him. Petit Givet, the industrial quarter, is traversed by a 
small tributary of the Meuse, the Houille, which is bordered by 
tanneries and glue factories. Pencils and tobacco-pipes are 
also manufactured. The town has considerable river traffic, 
consisting chiefly of coal, copper and stone. There is a chamber 
of arts and manufactures. 

GIVORS, a manufacturing town of south-eastern France, in 
the department of Rh&ne, on the railway between Lyons and 
St Etienne, 14 m. S. of Lyon. Pop. (1906) 11,444. It is situated 
on the right bank of the Rhone, here crossed by a suspension 
bridge, at its confluence with the Gier and the canal of Givors, 
which starts at Grand Croix on the Gier, some 13 m. distant. 
The chief industries are metal-working, engineering-construction 
and glass-working. There are coal mines in the vicinity. On the 
hill overlooking the town are the ruins of the chateau of St 
Gerald and of the convent of St Ferreol, remains of the old 
town destroyed in 1594. 

GJALLAR, in Scandinavian mythology, the horn of Heimdall, 
the guardian of the rainbow bridge by which the gods pass and 
repass between earth and heaven. This horn had to be blown 
whenever a stranger approached the bridge. 

GLABRIO. i. MANIUS ACILTOS GLABRIO, Roman statesman 
and general, member of a plebeian family. When consul in 
191 B.C. he defeated Antiochus the Great of Syria at Thermopylae, 
and compelled him to leave Greece. He then turned his attention 
to the Aetolians, who had persuaded Antiochus to declare war 
against Rome, and was only prevented from crushing them by 
the intercession of T. Quinctius Flamininus. In 189 Glabrio 
was a candidate for the censorship, but was bitterly opposed 
by the nobles. He was accused by the tribunes of having 
concealed a portion of the Syrian spoils in his own house; his 
legate gave evidence against him, and he withdrew his candi- 
dature. It is probable that he was the author of the law which 
left it to the discretion of the pontiffs to insert or omit the 
intercalary month of the year. 

Censorinus, De die natali, xx. ; Macrobius, Saturnalia, i. 13; 
index to Livy; Appian, Syr. 17-21. 

2. MANIDS ACILIUS GLABRIO, Roman statesman and general, 
grandson of the famous jurist P. Mucius Scaevola. When 
praetor urbanus (70 B.C.) he presided at the trial of Verres. 
According to Dio Cassius (xxxvi. 38), in conjunction with 
L. Calpurnius Piso, his colleague in the consulship (67), he 
brought forward a severe law (Lex Acilia Calpurnia) against 



illegal canvassing at elections. In the same year he was ap- 
pointed to supersede L. Lucullus in the government of Cilicia 
and the command of the war against Mithradates, but as he did 
absolutely nothing and was unable to control the soldiery, 
he was in turn superseded by Pompey according to the provisions 
of the Manilian law. Little else is known of him except that 
he declared in favour of the death punishment for the Catilinarian 
conspirators. 

Dio Cassius xxxvi. 14, 16. 24; Cicero, Pro lege Manilia, 2. 9; 
Appian, Mithrid. 90. 

GLACE BAY, a city and port of entry of Cape Breton county, 
Nova Scotia, Canada, on the Atlantic Ocean, 14 m. E. of Sydney, 
with which it is connected both by steam and electric railway. 
It is the centre of the properties of the Dominion Coal Company 
(founded 1893), which produce most of the coal of Nova Scotia. 
Though it has a fair harbour, most of the shipping is done from 
Sydney in summer and from Louisburg in winter. Pop. (1892) 
2000; (1901) 6945; (1906) 13,000. 

GLACIAL PERIOD, in geology, the name usually given, by 
English and American writers, to that comparatively recent 
time when all parts of the world suffered a marked lowering 
of temperature, accompanied in northern Europe and North 
America by glacial conditions, not unlike those which now 
characterize the Polar regions. This period, which is also 
known as the " Great Ice Age " (German Die Eiszeit), is 
synchronous with the Pleistocene period, the earlier of the Post- 
Tertiary or Quaternary divisions of geological time. Although 
" Glacial period " and " Pleistocene " (q.v.) are often used 
synonymously it is convenient to consider them separately, 
inasmuch as not a few Pleistocene formations have no causal 
relationship with conditions of glaciation. Not until the begin- 
ning of the i gth century did the deposits now generally recog- 
nized as the result of ice action receive serious attention; the 
tendency was to regard such superficial and irregular material 
as mere rubbish. Early ideas upon the subject usually assigned 
floods as the formative agency, and this view is still not without 
its supporters (see Sir H. H. Howorth, The Glacial Nightmare 
and the Flood). Doubtless this attitude was in part due to the 
comparative rarity of glaciers and ice-fields where the work of 
ice could be directly observed. It was natural therefore that the 
first scientific references to glacial action should have been 
stimulated by the Alpine regions of Switzerland, which called 
forth the writings of J. J. Scheuchzer, B. F. Kuhn, H. B. de 
Saussure, F. G. Hugi, and particularly those of J. Venetz, J. G. 
von Charpentier and L. Aggasiz. Canon Rendu, J. Forbes 
and others had studied the cause of motion of glaciers, while 
keen observers, notably Sir James Hall, A. Brongniart and 
J. Playfair, had noted the occurrence of travelled and scratched 
stones. 

The result of these efforts was the conception of great ice-sheets 
flowing over the land, grinding the rock surfaces and transporting 
rock debris in the manner to be observed in the existing glaciers. 
However, before this view had become established Sir C. Lyell 
evolved the " drift theory " to explain the widely spread pheno- 
menon of transported blocks, boulder clay and the allied deposits; 
in this he was supported by Sir H. de la Beche, Charles Darwin, 
Sir R. I. Murchison and many others. According to the drift 
theory, the transport and distribution of " erratic blocks," &c., 
had been effected by floating icebergs; this view naturally 
involved a considerable and widespread submergence of the 
land, an assumption which appeared to receive support from 
the occasional presence of marine shells at high levels in the 
" drift " deposits. So great was the influence of those who- 
favoured the drift theory that even to-day it cannot be said to 
have lost complete hold; we still speak of " drift " deposits in 
England and America, and the belief in one or more great sub- 
mergences during the Glacial period is still held more firmly 
by certain geologists than the evidence would seem to warrant. 
The case against the drift theory was most clearly expressed 
by Sir A. C. Ramsay for England and Scotland, and by the 
Swedish scientist Otto Torell. Since then the labours of Professor 
James Geikie, Sir Archibald Geikie, Professor P. Kendall and 



GLACIAL PERIOD 



57 



others in England; von Verendt, H. Credner, de Geer, E. 
Geinitz, A. Helland, Jentzsch, K. Keilhack, A. Penck, H. 
Schroder, F. Wahnschaffe in Scandinavia and Germany; T. C. 
Chamberlin, W. Upham, G. F. Wright in North America, have 
all tended to confirm the view that it is to the movement of 
glaciers and ice-sheets that we must look as the predominant 
agent of transport and abrasion in this period. The three stages 
through which our knowledge of glacial work has advanced 
may thus be summarized: (i) the diluvial hypothesis, deposits 
formed by floods; (2) the drift hypothesis, deposits formed 
mainly by icebergs and floating ice; (3) the ice-sheet hypothesis, 
deposits formed directly or indirectly through the agency of 
flowing ice. 

Evidences. The evidence relied upon by geologists for the 
former existence of the great ice-sheets which traversed the 
northern regions of Europe and America is mainly of two kinds: 
(i) the peculiar erosion of the older rocks by ice and ice-borne 
stones, and (2) the nature and disposition of ice-borne rock 
debris. After having established the criteria by which the work 
of moving ice is to be recognized in regions of active glaciation, 
the task of identifying the results of earlier glaciation elsewhere 
has been carried on with unabated energy. 

i. Ice Erosion. Although there are certain points of difference 
between the work of glaciers and broad ice-sheets, the former 




Map showing the :^ _.V 
maximum extension of tin' ^ 
Ice Sheets in the /.- 

Glacial Period / '* 



I Ijlreti* not affected by extreme glaciation 

S = The Scandinavian Centrr 

C = r* Cordilleran Centn 

K = The Keewatin Centre 

L = The Labrador or Laurentide Centre 

Arrows indicate the direction of Ice-flout 



being more or less restricted laterally by the valleys in which 
they flow, the general results of their passage over the rocky 
floor are essentially similar. Smooth rounded outlines are 
imparted to the rocks, markedly contrasting with the pinnacled 
and irregular surfaces produced by ordinary weathering; where 
these rounded surfaces have been formed on a minor scale the 
well-known features of roches moutonnees (German Rundhocker) 
are created; on a larger scale we have the erosion-form known 
as " crag and tail," when the ice-sheet has overridden ground 
with more pronounced contours, the side of the hill facing the 
advancing ice being rounded and gently curved (German 
Stossseite), and the opposte side (Leeseite) steep, abrupt and 
much less smooth. Such features are never associated with the 
erosion of water. The rounding of rock surfaces is regularly 
accompanied by grooving and striation (German Schrammen, 
Schliffe) caused by the grinding action of stones and boulders 
embedded in the moving ice. These " glacial striae " are of 
great value in determining the latest path of the vanished ice- 
sheets (see map). Several other erosion-features are generally 
associated with ice action ; such are the circular-headed valleys, 
" cirques " or " corries " (German Zirkus) of mountain districts; 
the pot-holes, giants' kettles (Strudellocher, Riesentopfe),ia.mi]ia.Tly 
exemplified in the Gletschergarten near Lucerne; the " rock- 
basins " (Felsseebecken) of mountainous regions are also believed 
to be assignable to this cause on account of their frequent 
association with other glacial phenomena, but it is more than 
probable that the action of running water (waterfalls, &c.) 



influenced no doubt by the disposition of the ice has had much 
to do with these forms of erosion. As regards rock-basins, 
geologists are still divided in opinion: Sir A. C. Ramsay, J. 
Geikie, Tyndall, Helland, H. Hess, A. Penck, and others have 
expressed themselves in favour of a glacial origin; while A. 
Heim, F. Stapff, T. Kjerulf, L. Riitimeyer and many others 
have strongly opposed this view. 

2. Glacial deposits may be roughly classified in two groups: 
those that have been formed directly by the action of the ice, 
and those formed through the agency of water flowing under, 
upon, and from the ice-sheets, or in streams and lakes modified 
by the presence of the ice. To differentiate in practice between 
the results of these two agencies is a matter of some difficulty 
in the case of unstratified deposits; but the boulder clay may 
be taken as the typical formation of the glacier or ice-sheet, 
whether it has been left as a terminal moraine at the limit of 
glaciation or as a ground moraine beneath the ice. A stratified 
form of boulder clay, which not infrequently rests upon, and is 
therefore younger than, the more typical variety, is usually 
regarded as a deposit formed by water from the material 
(englacial, innenmoran) held in suspension within the ice, and 
set free during the process of melting. Besides the innumerable 
boulders, large and small, embedded in the boulder clay, isolated 
masses of rock, often of enormous size, have been borne by ice- 
sheets far from their original home and stranded when the ice 
melted. These " erratic blocks," " perched blocks " (German 
Findlinge) are familiar objects in the Alpine glacier districts, 
where they have frequently received individual names, but they 
are just as easily recognized in regions from which the glaciers 
that brought them there have long since been banished. Not 
only did the ice transport blocks of hard rock, granite and the 
like, but huge masses of stratified rock were torn from their 
bed by the same agency; the masses of chalk in the cliffs near 
Cromer are well known; near Berlin, at Firkenwald, there is a 
transported mass of chalk estimated to be at least 2,000,000 
cubic metres in bulk, which has travelled probably 15 kilometres 
from its original site; a block of Lincolnshire oolite is recorded 
by C. Fox-Strangways near Melton in Leicestershire, which is 
300 yds. long and 100 yds. broad if no more; and instances of a 
similar kind might be multiplied. 

When we turn to the " fluvio-glacial " deposits we find a 
bewildering variety of stratified and partially bedded deposits 
of gravel, sand and clay, occurring separately or in every 
conceivable condition of association. Some of these deposits 
have received distinctive names; such are the " Kames " of 
Scotland, which are represented in Ireland by " Eskers," and in 
Scandinavia by " Asar." Another type of hillocky deposit is 
exemplified by the " drums " or " drumlins." Everywhere 
beyond the margin of the advancing or retreating ice-sheets 
these deposits were being formed; streams bore away coarse and 
fine materials and spread them out upon alluvial plains or upon 
the floors of innumerable lakes, many of which were directly 
caused by the damming of the ordinary water-courses by the ice. 
As the level of such lakes was changed new beach-lines were 
produced, such as are still evident in the great lake region of 
North America, in the parallel roads of Glen Roy, and the 
" Strandlinien " of many parts of northern Europe. 

Viewed in relation to man's position on the earth, no geological 
changes have had a more profound importance than those of the 
Glacial period. The whole of the glaciated region bears evidence 
of remarkable modification of topographic features; in parts 
of Scotland or Norway or Canada the old rocks are bared of 
soil, rounded and smoothed as far as the eye can see. The old 
soil and subsoil, the product of ages of ordinary weathering, 
were removed from vast areas to be deposited and concentrated 
in others. Old valleys were filled often to a great depth, 
300-400 ft.; rivers were diverted from their old courses, never 
to return; lakes of vast size were caused by the damming of old 
outlets (Lake Lahontan, Lake Agassiz, &c., in North America), 
while an infinite number of shifting lakelets with their deposits 
played an important part along the ice-front at all stages 
of its career. The influence of this period upon the present 



5 



GLACIAL PERIOD 



distribution of plant and animal life in northern latitudes can 
hardly be overestimated. 

Much stress has been laid upon supposed great changes in 
the level of the land in northern regions during the Glacial 
period. The occurrence of marine shells at an elevation of 
1350 ft. at Moel Tryfaen in north Wales, and at 1200 ft. near 
Macclesfield in Cheshire, has been cited as evidence of profound 
submergence by some geologists, though others see in these 
and similar occurrences only the transporting action of ice-sheets 
that have traversed the floor of the adjoining seas. Marine 
shells in stratified materials have been found on the coast of 
Scotland at 100 ft. and over, in S. Scandinavia at 600 to 800 ft., 
and in the " Champlain " deposits of North America at various 
heights. The dead shells of the " Yoldia clay " cover wide areas 
at the bottom of the North Atlantic at depths from 500 to 1300 
fathoms, though the same mollusc is now found living in Arctic 
seas at the depth of 5 to 15 fathoms. This has been looked upon 
as a proof that in the N.W. European region the lithosphere 
stood about 2600 ft. higher than it does now (Brogger, Nansen, 
&c.), and it has been suggested that a union of the mainland of 
Europe with that of North America forming a northern con- 
tinental mass, " Prosarctis " may have been achieved by way 
of Iceland, Jan Mayen Land and Greenland. The pre-glacial 
valleys and fjords of Norway and Scotland, with their deeply 
submerged seaward ends, are regarded as proofs of former 
elevation. The great depth of alluvium in some places (236 
metres at Bremen) points in the same direction. Evidences of 
changes of level occur in early, middle and late Pleistocene 
formations, and the nature of the evidence is such that it is on 
the whole safer to assume the existence only of the more moderate 
degree of change. 

The Cause of the Glacial Period. Many attempts have been 
made to formulate a satisfactory hypothesis that shall conform 
with the known facts and explain the great change in climatic 
conditions which set in towards the close of the Tertiary era, 
and culminated during the Glacial period. Some of the more 
prominent hypotheses may be mentioned, but space will not 
permit of a detailed analysis of theories, most of which rest 
upon somewhat unsubstantial ground. The principal facts 
to be taken into consideration are (i) the great lowering of 
temperature over the whole earth; (2) the localization of 
extreme glaciation in north-west Europe and north-east America; 
and (3) the local retrogression of the ice-sheets, once or more 
times repeated. 

Some have suggested the simple solution of a change in the 
earth's axis, and have indicated that the pole may have travelled 
through some 15 to 20 of latitude; thus, the polar glaciation, 
as it now exists, might have been in this way transferred to include 
north-west Europe and North America; but modern views on 
the rigidity of the earth's body, together with the lack of any 
evidence of the correlative movement of climatic zones in other 
parts of the world, render this hypothesis quite untenable. 
On similar grounds a change in the earth's centre of gravity is 
unthinkable. Theories based upon the variations in the obliquity 
of the ecliptic or eccentricity of the earth's orbit, or on the 
passage of the solar system through cold regions of space, or 
upon the known variations in the heat emitted by the sun, are 
all insecure and unsatisfactory. The hypothesis elaborated by 
James Croll (Phil. Mag., 1864, 28, p. 121; Climate and Time, 
1875; and Discussion on Climate and Cosmology, 1889) was 
founded upon the assumption that with the earth's eccentricity 
at its maximum and winter in the north at aphelion, there would 
be a tendency in northern latitudes for the accumulation of snow 
and ice, which would be accentuated indirectly by the formation 
of fogs and a modification of the trade winds. The shifting of 
the thermal equator, and with it the direction of the trade winds, 
would divert some of the warm ocean currents from the cold 
regions, and this effect was greatly enhanced, he considered, 
by the configuration of the Atlantic Ocean. CrolPs hypothesis 
was supported by Sir R. Ball (The Cause of the Great Ice Age, 
1893), and it met with very general acceptance; but it has 
been destructively criticized by Professor S. Newcomb (Phil. 



Mag., 1876, 1883, 1884) and by E. P. Culverwell (Phil. Mag., 
1894, p. 541, and Geol. Mag., 1895, pp. 3 and 55). The difficulties 
in the way of Croll's theory are: (i) the fundamental assump- 
tion, that midwinter and midsummer temperatures are directly 
proportional to the sun's heat at those periods, is not in accord- 
ance with observed facts; (2) the glacial periods would be 
limited in duration to an appropriate fraction of the precessional 
period (21,000 years), which appears to be too short a time for 
the work that was actually done by ice agency; and (3) Croll's 
glacial periods would alternate between the northern and 
southern hemispheres, affecting first one then the other. Sir 
C. Lyell and others have advocated the view that great elevation 
of the land in polar regions would be conducive to glacial condi- 
tions; this is doubtless true, but the evidence that the Glacial 
period was primarily due to this cause is not well established. 
Other writers have endeavoured to support the elevation theory 
by combining with it various astronomical and meteorological 
agencies. More recently several hypotheses have been advanced 
to explain the glacial period as the result of changes in the 
atmosphere; F. W. Harmer (" The Influence of Winds upon the 
Climate during the Pleistocene Epoch," Q.J.G.S., 1901, 57, 
p. 405) has shown the importance of the influence of winds in 
certain circumstances; Marsden Manson (" The Evolution of 
Climate," American Geologist, 1899, 24, p. 93) has laid stress 
upon the influence of clouds; but neither of these theories 
grapples successfully with the fundamental difficulties. Others 
again have requisitioned the variability in the amount of the 
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere hypotheses which depend 
upon the efficiency of this gas as a thermal absorbent. The 
supply of carbon dioxide may be increased from time to time, 
as by the emanations from volcanoes (S. Arrhenius and A. G. 
Hogbom), or it may be decreased by absorption into sea- water, 
and by the carbonation of rocks. Professor T. C. Chamberlin 
based a theory of glaciation on the depletion of the carbon 
dioxide Of the air (" An Attempt to frame a Working Hypothesis 
of the cause of Glacial Periods on an Atmospheric Basis," //. 
Geol., 1899, vii. 752-771; see also Chamberlin and Salisbury, 
Geology, 1906, ii. 674 and iii. 432). The outline of this 
hypothesis is as follows: The general conditions for glaciation 
were (i) that the oceanic circulation was interrupted by the 
existence of land; (2) that vertical circulation of the atmosphere 
was accelerated by continental and other influences; (3) that 
the thermal blanketing of the earth was reduced by a depletion 
of the moisture and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and that 
hence the average temperature of the surface of the earth and 
of the body of the ocean was reduced, and diversity in the 
distribution of heat and moisture introduced. The localization 
of glaciation is assignable to the two great areas of permanent 
atmospheric depression that have their present centres near 
Greenland and the Aleutian Islands respectively. The periodicity 
of glacial advances and retreats, demanded by those who believe 
in the validity of so-called " interglacial " epochs, is explained 
by a series of complicated processes involving the alternate 
depletion and completion of the normal charge of carbon dioxide 
in the air. 

Whatever may be the ultimate verdict upon this difficult 
subject, it is tolerably clear that no simple cause of glacial 
conditions is likely to be discovered, but rather it will appear 
that these conditions resulted from the interaction of a compli- 
cated series of factors; and further, until a greater degree of 
unanimity can be approached in the interpretation of observed 
facts, particularly as regards the substantiality of interglacial 
epochs, the very foundations of a sound working hypothesis 
are wanting. 

Classification of Glacial Deposits Interglacial Epochs. Had 
the deposits of glaciated regions consisted solely of boulder 
clay little difficulty might have been experienced in dealing 
with their classification. But there are intercalated in the boulder 
clays those irregular stratified and partially stratified masses 
of sand, gravel and loam, frequently containing marine or 
freshwater shells and layers of peat with plant remains, which 
have given rise to the conception of " interglacial epochs " 



GLACIAL PERIOD 



59 



pauses in the rigorous conditions of glaciation, when the ice- 
sheets dwindled almost entirely away, while plants and animals 
re-established themselves on the newly exposed soil. Glacialists 
may be ranged in two schools: those who believe that one or 
more phases of milder climatic conditions broke up the whole 
Glacial period into alternating epochs of glaciation and "de- 
glaciation "; and those 1 who believe that the intercalated 
deposits represent rather the localized recessional movements 
of the ice-sheets within one single period of glaciation. In 
addition to the stratified deposits and their contents, important 
evidence in favour of interglacial epochs occurs in the presence 
of weathered surfaces on the top of older boulder clays, which 
are themselves covered by younger glacial deposits. 

The cause of the interglacial hypothesis has been most ardently 
championed in England by Professor James Geikie; who has en- 
deavoured to show that there were in Europe six distinct glacial 
epochs within the Glacial period, separated by five epochs of more 
moderate temperature. These are enumerated below : 

6th Glacial epoch, Upper Turbarian, indicated by the deposits of 
peat which underlie the lower raised beaches. 
5th Interracial epoch, Upper Forestian. 

5th Glacial epoch, Lower Turbarian, indicated by peat deposits 
overlying the lower forest-bed, by the raised beaches and carse- 
clays of Scotland, and in part by the Littorina-clnys of Scandinavia. 
4th Interglacial epoch. Lower Forestian, the lower forests under 
peat beds, the Ancylus-beds of the great freshwater Baltic lake and 
the Liitorina-days of Scandinavia. 

4th Glacial epoch, Mecklenburgian, represented by the moraines 
of the last great Baltic glacier, which reach their southern limit in 
Mecklenburg ; the loo-ft. terrace of Scotland and the KoWt'a-beds of 
Scandinavia. 

3rd Interglacial epoch, Neudeckian, intercalations of marine and 

freshwater deposits in the boulder clays of the southern Baltic coasts. 

3rd Glacial epoch, Polandian, glacial and fluvio-glacial formations 

of the minor Scandinavian ice-sheet; and the " upper boulder clay" 

of northern and western Europe. 

2nd Interglacial epoch, Helvetian, interglacial beds of Britain and 
lignites of Switzerland. 

and Glacial epoch, Saxonian, deposits of the period of maximum 
glaciation when the northern ice-sheet reached the low ground of 
Saxony, and the Alpine glaciers formed the outermost moraines. 
1st Interglacial epoch, Norfolkian, the forest-bed series of Norfolk. 
1st Glacial epoch, Scanian, represented only in the south of Sweden, 
which was overridden by a large Baltic glacier. The Chillesford 
clay and Weybourne crag of Norfolk and the oldest moraines and 
fluvio-glacial gravels of the Arctic lands may belong to this epoch. 

In a similar manner Professor Chamberlin and other American 
geologists have recognized the following stages in the glaciation of 
North America : 

The Champlain, marine substage. 
The Glacio-lacustrine substage. 
The later Wisconsin (6th glacial). 
The fifth interglacial. 
The earlier Wisconsin (sth glacial). 
The Peorian (4th interglacial). 
The lowan (4th glacial). 
The Sangamon (jrd interglacial). 
The Illinoian (3rd glacial). 
The Yarmouth or Buchanan (2nd interglacial). 
The Kansan (and glacial). 
The Aftonian (ist inter glacial). 
The sub-Aftonian or Jerseyan (1st glacial). 

Although it is admitted that no strict correlation of the European 
and North American stages is possible, it has been suggested that 
the Aftonian may be the equivalent of the Helvetian ; the Kansan 
may represent the Saxonian; the lowan, the Polandian; _the 
Jerseyan, the Scanian; the early Wisconsin, the Mecklenburgian. 
But considering how fragmentary is much of the evidence in favour 
of these stages both in Europe and America, the value of such 
attempts at correlation must be infinitesimal. This is the more 
evident when it is observed that there are other geologists of equal 
eminence who are unable to accept so large a number of epochs 
after a close study of the local circumstances; thus, in the sub- 
joined scheme for north Germany, after H. W. Munthe, there are 
three glacial and two interglacial epochs. 

[The My a time = beech-time. 
Post-Glacial epoch -i The Littorina time = oak-time. 

[The Ancylus time = pine- and birch-time. 

(Including the upper boulder clay, 
" younger Baltic moraine " with the 
Yoldia or Dryas phase in the retro- 
gressive stage. 

and Interglacial epoch including the Cyprina-clay. 
2nd Glacial epoch, the maximum glaciation. 
1st Interglacial epoch. 
ist Glacial epoch, " older boulder clay." 



Again, in the Alps four interglacial epochs have been recognized ; 
while in England there are many who are willing to concede one 
such epoch, though even for this the evidence is not enough to satisfy 
all glacialists (G. W. Lamplugh, Address, Section C, Brit. Assoc., 
York, 1906). 

This great diversity of opinion is eloquent of the difficulties of the 
subject; it is impossible not to see that the discovery of interglacial 
epochs bears a close relationship to the origin of certain hypotheses 
of the cause of glaciation; while it is significant that those who 
have had to do the actual mapping of glacial deposits have usually 
greater difficulty in finding good evidence of such definite ameliora- 
tions of climate, than those who have founded their views upon the 
examination of numerous but isolated areas. 

Extent of Glacial Deposits. From evidence of the kind cited above, 
it appears that during the glacial period a series of great ice-sheets 
covered enormous areas in North America and north-west Europe. 
The area covered during the maximum extension of the ice has been 
reckoned at 20 million square kilometres (nearly 8 million sq. m.) 
in North America and 63 million square kilometres (about 2i million 
sq. m.) in Europe. 

In Europe three great centres existed from which the ice-streams 
radiated; foremost in importance was the region of Fennoscandia 
(the name for Scandinavia with Finland as a single geological region) ; 
from this centre the ice spread out far into Germany and Russia and 
westward, across the North Sea, to the shores of Britain. The 
southern boundary of the ice extended from the estuary of the Rhine 
in an irregular series of lobes along the Schiefergebirge, Harz, 
Thiiringerwald, Erzgebirge and Riesengebirge, and the northern 
flanks of the Carpathians towards Cracow. Down the valley of 
the Dnieper a lobe of the ice-sheet projected as far as 40 50' N. ; 
another lobe extended down the Don valley as far as 48 N. ; thence 
the boundary runs north-easterly towards the Urals and the Kara 
Sea. The British Islands constituted the centre second in import- 
ance; Scotland, Ireland and all but the southern part of England 
were covered by a moving ice-cap. On the west the ice-sheets reached 
out to sea; on the east they were conterminous with those from 
Scandinavia. The third European centre was the Alpine region; 
it is abundantly clear from the masses of morainic detritus and 
perched blocks that here, in the time of maximum glaciation, the 
ice-covered area was enormously in excess of the shrivelled remnants, 
which still remain in the existing glaciers. All the valleys were filled 
with moving ice ; thus the Rhone glacier at its maximum filled Lake 
Geneva and the plain between the Bernese Oberland and the Jura ; 
it even overrode the latter and advanced towards Besancpn. Ex- 
tensive glaciation was not limited to the aforesaid regions, for all 
the areas of high ground had their independent glaciers strongly 
developed; the Pyrenees, the central highlands of France, the 
Vosges, Black Forest, Apennines and Caucasus were centres of 
minor but still important glaciation. 

The greatest expansion of ice-sheets was located on the North 
American continent; here, too, there were three principal centres 
of outflow: the " Cordilleran " ice-sheet in the N.W., the " Kee- 
watin " sheet, radiating from the central Canadian plains, and the 
eastern " Labrador " or " Laurentide " sheet. From each of these 
centres the ice poured outwards in every direction, but the principal 
flow in each case was towards the south-west. The southern 
boundary of the glaciated area runs as an irregular line along the 
49 parallel in the western part of the continent, thence it follows 
the Mississippi valley down to its junction with the Ohio (southern 
limit 37 30' N.), eastward it follows the direction of that river and 
turns north-eastward in the direction of New Jersey. As in Europe, 
the mountainous regions of North America produced their own local 
glaciers; in the Rockies, the Olympics and Sierras, the Bighorn 
Mountains of Wyoming, the Uinta Mountains of Utah, &c. Although 
it was in the northern hemisphere that the most extensive glaciation 
took place, the effects of a general lowering of temperature seem to 
have been felt in the mountainous regions of all parts; thus in South 
America, New Zealand, Australia and Tasmania glaciers reached 
down the valleys far below the existing limits, and even where none 
are now to be found. In Asia the evidences of a former extension 
of glaciation are traceable in the Himalayas, and northward in the 
high ranges of China and Eastern Siberia. The same is true of parts of 
Turkestanand Lebanon. I n Af ricaalso, in British East Africa moraines 
are discovered 5400 ft. below their modern limit. In Iceland and 
Greenland, and even in the Antarctic, there appears to be evidence 
of a former greater extension of the ice. It is of interest to note that 
Alaska seems to be free from excessive glaciation, and that a remark- 
able " driftless " area lies in Wisconsin. The maximum glaciation of 
the Glacial period was clearly centred around the North Atlantic. 

Glacial Epochs in the Older Geological Periods. Since Ramsay 
drew attention to the subject in 1855 ( On the occurrence of angular, 
subangular, polished and striated fragments and boulders in the 
Permian Breccia of Shropshire, Worcestershire, &c., and on the 
probable existence of glaciers and icebergs in the Permian epoch," 
Q.J.G.S., 1855, pp. 185-205), a good deal of attention has been paid 
to such formations. It is now generally acknowledged that the 
Permo-carboniferous conglomerates with striated boulders and 
polished rock surfaces, such as are found in the Karoo formation _of 
South Africa, the Talkir conglomerate of the Salt Range in India, 
and the corresponding formations in Australia, represent undeniable 



6o 



GLACIER 



glacial conditions at that period on the great Indo-Australian 
continent. A glacial origin has been suggested for numerous other 
conglomeratic formations, such as the Pre-Cambrian Torridonian of 
Scotland, and " Geisaschichten " of Norway ; the basal Carboniferous 
conglomerate of parts of England ; the Permian breccias of England 
and parts of Europe; the Trias of Devonshire; the coarse con- 
glomerates in the Tertiary Flysch in central Europe ; and the Miocene 
conglomerates of the Ligurian Apennines. In regard to the glacial 
nature of all these formations there is, however, great divergence of 
opinion (see A. Heim, " Zur Frage der exotischen Blocke in Flysch," 
Eclogue geologicae Helvetia*, vol. ix. No. 3, 1907, pp. 413-424). 

AUTHORITIES. The literature dealing directly with the Glacial 
period has reached enormous dimensions ; in addition to the works 
already mentioned the following may be taken as a guide to the 
general outline of the subject: J. Geikie, The Great Ice Age (3rd ed., 
London, 1904), also Earth Sculpture (1898); G. F. Wright, The Ice 
Age in North America (4th ed., New York, 1905) and Man and the 
Glacial Period (1892); F. E. Geinitz, Die Eiszeit (Braunschweig, 
1906) ; A. Penck and E. Bruckner, Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter (Leipzig, 
19011906, uncompleted). Many references to the literature will be 
found in Sir A. Geikie's Textbook of Geology, vol. ii. (4th ed., 1903); 
Chamberlin and Salisbury, Geology, vol. iii. (1906). As an example 
of glacial theories cprried beyond the usual limits, see M. Gugenhan, 
Die Ergletscherung der Erde von Pol zu Pol (Berlin, 1906). See also 
Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde (Berlin, 1906 and onwards quarterly); 
Sir H. H. Howorth (opposing accepted glacial theories), The Glacial 
Nightmare and the Flood, i., ii. (London, 1893), Ice and Water, i., ii. 
(London, 1905), The Mammoth and the Flood (London, 1887). 

(J. A. H.) 

GLACIER (adopted from the French; from glace, ice, Lat. 
glades), a mass of compacted ice originating in a snow-field. 
Glaciers are formed on any portion of the earth's surface that 
is permanently above the snow-line. This line varies locally 
in the same latitudes, being in some places higher than in others, 
but in the main it may be described as an elliptical shell surround- 
ing the earth with its longest diameter in the tropics and its 
shortest in the polar regions, where it touches sea-level. From 
the extreme regions of the Arctic and Antarctic circles this cold 
shell swells upwards into a broad dome, from 15,000 to 18,000 ft. 
high over the tropics, truncating, as it rises, a number of peaks 
and mountain ranges whose upper portions like all regions 
above this thermal shell receive all their moisture in the form of 
snow. Since the temperature above the snow-line is below 
freezing point evaporation is very slight, and as the snow is 
solid it tends to accumulate in snow-fields, where the snow of 
one year is covered by that of the next, and these are wrapped 
over many deeper layers that have fallen in previous years. 
If these piles of snow were rigid and immovable they would 
increase in height until the whole field rose above the zone of 
ordinary atmospheric precipitation, and the polar ice-caps would 
add a load to these regions that would produce far-reaching 
results. The mountain regions also would rise some miles in 
height, and all their features would be buried in domes of snow 
some miles in thickness. When, however, there is sufficient 
weight the mass yields to pressure and flows outwards and 
downwards. Thus a balance of weight and height is established, 
and the ice-field is disintegrated principally at the edges, the 
surplus in polar regions being carried off in the form of icebergs, 
and in mountain regions by streams that flow from the melting 
ends of the glaciers. 

Formation. The formation of glaciers is in all cases due to 
similar causes, namely, to periodical and intermittent falls of 
snow. After a snow-fall there is a period of rest during which 
the snow becomes compacted by pressure and assumes the 
well-known granular character seen in banks and patches of 
ordinary snow that lie longest upon the ground when the snow 
is melting. This is thefirn or neve. The next fall of snow covers 
and conceals the neve, but the light fresh crystals of this new 
snow in turn become compacted to the coarsely crystalline 
granular form of the underlying layer and become nev6 in turn. 
The process goes on continually; the lower layers become subject 
to greater and greater pressure, and in consequence become 
gradually compacted into dense clear ice, which, however, retains 
its granular crystalline texture throughout. The upper layers 
of neve are usually stratified, owing to some individual peculiarity 
in the fall, or to the accumulation of dust or debris upon the 
surface before it is covered by fresh snow. This stratification 



is often visible on the emerging glacier, though it is to be distin- 
guished from the foliation planes caused by shearing movement 
in the body of the glacier ice. 

Types. The snow-field upon which a glacier depends is 
always formed when snow-fall is greater than snow-waste. This 
occurs under varying conditions with a differently resulting 
type of glacier. There are limited -fields of snow in many 
mountain regions giving rise to long tongues of ice moving 
slowly down the valleys and therefore called " valley glaciers." 
The greater part of Greenland is covered by an ice-cap extending 
over nearly 400,000 sq. m., forming a kind of enormous continuous 
glacier on its lower slopes. The Antarctic ice region is believed 
to extend over more than 3,000,000 sq. m. Each of these 
continental fields, besides producing block as distinguished 
from tongue glaciers, sends into the sea a great number of ice- 
bergs during the summer season. These ice-caps covering 
great regions are by far the most important types. Between 
these " polar " or " continental glaciers " and the " alpine >f 
type there are many grades. Smaller detached ice-caps may 
rest upon high plateaus as in Iceland, or several tongues of ice 
coming down neighbouring valleys may splay out into convergent 
lobes on lower ground and form a " piedmont glacier " such as 
the Malaspina Glacier in Alaska. When the snow-field lies in a 
small depression the glacier may remain suspended in the 
hollow and advance no farther than the edge of the snow-field. 
This is called a " cliff -glacier," and is not uncommon in mountain 
regions. The end of a larger glacier, or the edge of an ice-sheet, 
may reach a precipitous cliff, where the ice will break from the 
edge of the advancing mass and fall in blocks to the lower ground, 
where a " reconstructed glacier " will, be formed from the frag- 
ments and advance farther down the slope. 

When a glacier originates upon a dome-shaped or a level 
surface the ice will deploy radially in all directions. When a 
snow-field is formed above steep valleys separated by high 
ridges the ice will flow downwards in long streams. If the 
valleys under the snow-fields are wide and shallow the resultant 
glaciers will broaden out and partially fill them, and in all cases, 
since the conditions of glacier formation are similar, the resultant 
form and the direction of motion will depend upon the amount 
of ice and the form of the surface over which the glacier flows. 
A glacier flowing down a narrow gorge to an open valley, or on 
to a plain, will spread at its foot into a fan-shaped lobe as the 
ice spreads outwards while moving downwards. An ice-cap 
is in the main thickest at the centre, and thins out at the edges. 
A valley glacier is thickest at some point between its source 
and its end, but nearer to its source than to its termination, 
but its thickness at various portions will depend upon the 
contour of the valley floor over which the glacier rides, and 
may reach many hundreds of feet. At its centre the Greenland 
ice-cap is estimated to be over 5000 ft. thick. In all cases the 
glacier ends where the waste of ice is greater than the supply, 
and since the relationship varies in different years, or cycles of 
years, the end of a glacier may advance or retreat in harmony 
with greater or less snow-fall or with cooler or hotter summers. 
There seems to be a cycle of inclusive contraction and expansion 
of from 35 to 40 or 50 years. At present the ends of the Swiss 
glaciers are cradled in a mass of moraine-stuff due to former 
extension of the glaciers, and investigations in India show that 
in some parts of the Himalayas the glaciers are retreating as 
they are in North America and even in the southern hemisphere 
(Nature, January 2, 1908, p. 201). 

Movement. The fact that a glacier moves is easily demon- 
strated; the cause of the movement is pressure upon a yielding 
mass; the nature of the movement is still under discussion. 
Rows of stakes or stones placed in line across a glacier are found 
to change their position with respect to objects on the bank and 
also with regard to each other. The posts in the centre of the 
ice-stream gradually move away from those at the side, proving 
that the centre moves faster than the sides. It has also been 
proved that the surface portions move more rapidly than the 
deeper layers and that the motion is slowest at the sides and 
bottom where friction is greatest. 



GLACIER 



61 



The rate of motion past the same spot is not uniform. Heat 
accelerates it, cold arrests it, and the pressure of a large amount 
of water stimulates the flow. The rate of flow under the same 
conditions varies at different parts of the glacier directly as the 
thickness of ice, the steepness of slope and the smoothness of 
rocky floor. Generally speaking, the rate of motion depends 
upon the amount of ice that forms the " head " pressure, the 
slope of the under surface and of the upper surface, the nature 
of the floor, the temperature and the amount of water present 
in the ice. The ordinary rate of motion is very slow. In Switzer- 
land it is from i or 2 in. to 4 ft. per day, in Alaska 7 ft., in Green- 
land 50 to 60 ft., and occasionally 100 ft. per day in the height 
of summer under exceptional conditions of quantity of ice and 
of water and slope. Measurements of Swiss glaciers show that 
near the ice foot where wastage is great there is very little 
movement, and observations upon the inland border of Greenland 
ice show that it is almost stationary over long distances. In 
many aspects the motion of a body of ice resembles that of a 
body of water, and an alpine glacier is often called an ice-river, 
since like a river it moves faster in the centre than at the sides 
and at the top faster than at the bottom. A glacier follows a 
curve in the same way as a river, and there appear to be ice 
swirls and eddies as well as an upward- creep on shelving curves 
recalling many features of stream action. The rate of motion 
of both ice-stream and river is accelerated by quantity and 
steepness of slope and retarded by roughness of bed, but here 
the comparison ends, for temperature does not affect the rate 
of water motion, nor will a liquid crack into crevasses as a glacier 
does, or move upwards over an adverse slope as a glacier always 
does when there is sufficient " head " of ice above it. So that 
although in many respects ice behaves as a viscous fluid the 
comparison with such a fluid is not perfect. The cause of glacier 
motion must be based upon some more or less complex considera- 
tions. The flakes of snow are gradually transformed into 
granules because the points and angles of the original flakes 
melt and evaporate more readily than the more solid central 
portions, which become aggregated round some master flake 
that continues to grow in the neve at the expense of its smaller 
neighbours, and increases in size until finally the glacier ice is 
composed of a mass of interlocked crystalline granules, some as 
large as a walnut, closely compacted under pressure with the 
principal crystalline axes in various directions. In the upper 
portions of the glacier movement due to pressure probably 
takes place by the gliding of one granule over another. In this 
connexion it must be noted that pressure lowers the melting 
point of ice while tension raises it, and at all points of pressure 
there is therefore a tendency to momentary melting, and also 
to some evaporation due to the heat caused by pressure, and at 
the intermediate tension spaces between the points of pressure 
this resultant liquid and vapour will be at once re-frozen and 
become solid. The granular movement is thus greatly facilitated, 
while the body of ice remains in a crystalline solid condition. 
In this connexion it is well to remember that the pressure of 
the glacier upon its floor will have the same result, but the 
effect here is a mass-effect and facilitates the gliding of the ice 
over obstacles, since the friction produces heat and the pressure 
lowers the melting point, so that the two causes tend to liquefy 
the portion where pressure is greatest and so to " lubricate " 
the prominences and enable the glacier to slide more easily over 
them, while the liquid thus produced is re-frozen when the 
pressure is removed. 

In polar regions of very low temperature a very considerable 
amount of pressure must be necessary before the ice granules 
yield to momentary liquefactjon at the points of pressure, and 
this probably accounts for the extreme thickness of the Arctic 
and Antarctic ice-caps where the slopes are moderate, for although 
equally low temperatures are found in high Alpine snow-fields 
the slopes there are exceedingly steep and motion is therefore 
more easily produced. 

Observations made upon the Greenland glaciers indicate 
a considerable amount of " shearing " movement in the lower 
portions of a glacier. Where obstacles in the bed of the glacier 



arrest the movement of the ice immediately above it, or where 
the lower portion of the glacier is choked by debris, the upper 
ice glides over the lower in shearing planes that are sometimes 
strongly marked by debris caught and pushed forwards along 
these planes of foliation. It must be remembered that there 
is a solid push from behind upon the lower portion of a glacier, 
quite different from the pressure of a body of water upon any 
point, for the pressure of a fluid is equal in all directions, and 
also that this push will tend to set the crystalline granules in 
positions in which their crystalline axes are parallel along the 
gliding planes. The production of gliding planes is in some 
cases facilitated by the descent into the glacier of water melted 
during summer, where it expands in freezing and pushes the 
adjacent ice away from it, forming a surface along which move- 
ment is readily established. 

If under all circumstances the glacier melted under pressure 
at the bottom, glacial abrasion would be nearly impossible, since 
every small stone and fragment of rock would rotate in a liquid 
shell as the ice moved forward, but since the pressure is not 
always sufficient to produce melting, the glacier sometimes 
remains dry at its base; rock fragments are held firmly; and 
a dry glacier may thus become a graving tool of enormous 
power. Whatever views may be adopted as to the causes of 
glacier motion, the peculiar character of glacier ice as distinct 
from homogeneous river or pond ice must be kept in view, as 
well as the characteristic tendency of water to expand in freezing, 
the lowering of the melting point of ice under pressure, the 
raising of the melting point under tension, the production of 
gliding or shearing planes under pressure from above, the 
presence in summer of a considerable quantity of water in the 
lower portions of the glacier which are thus loosened, the cracking 
of ice (as into crevasses), under sudden strain, and the regelation 
of ice in contact. A result of this last process is that fissures 
are not permanent, but having been produced by the passage 
of ice over an obstruction, they subsequently become healed 
when the ice proceeds over a flatter bed. Finally it must be 
remembered that although glacier ice behaves in some sense 
like a viscous fluid its condition is totally different, since " a 
glacier is a crystalline rock of the purest and simplest type, and 
it never has other than the crystalline state." 

Characteristics. The general appearance of a glacier varies 
according to its environment of position and temperature. 
The upper portion is hidden by neve and often by freshly fallen 
snow, and is smooth and unbroken. During the summer, when 
little snow falls, the body of the glacier moves away from the 
snow-field and a gaping crevasse of great depth is usually 
established called the bergschrund, which is sometimes taken 
as the upper limit of the glacier. The glacier as it moves down 
the valley may become " loaded " in various ways. Rock-falls 
send periodical showers of stones upon it from the heights, and 
these are spread out into long lines at the glacier sides as the ice 
moves downwards carrying the rock fragments with it. These 
are the " lateral moraines." When two or more glaciers descend- 
ing adjacent valleys converge into one glacier one or more sides 
of the higher valleys disappear, and the ice that was contained 
in several valleys is now carried by one. In the simplest case 
where two valleys converge into one the two inner lateral 
moraines meet and continue to stream down the larger valley 
as one " median moraine." Where several valleys meet there 
are several such parallel median moraines, and so long as the ice 
remains unbroken these will be carried upon the surface of the 
glacier and finally tipped over the end. There is, however, 
differential heating of rock and ice, and if the stones carried 
are thin they tend to sink into the ice because they absorb 
heat readily and melt the ice under them. Dust has the 
same effect and produces " dust wells " that honeycomb the 
upper surface of the ice with holes into which the dust sinks. 
If the moraine rocks are thick they prevent the ice under 
them from melting in sunlight, and isolated blocks often 
remain supported upon ice-pillars in the form of ice tables, 
which finally collapse, so that such rocks may be scattered 
out of the line of the moraine. As the glacier descends into 



GLACIER 



the lower valleys it is more strongly heated, and surface 
streams are established in consequence that flow into channels 
caused by unequal melting of the ice and finally plunge into 
crevasses. These crevasses are formed by strains established 
as the central parts drag away from the sides of the glacier and 
the upper surface from the lower, and more markedly by the 
tension due to a sudden bend in the glacier caused by an in- 
equality in its bed which must be over-ridden. These crevasses 
are developed at right angles to the strain and often produce 
intersecting fissures in several directions. The morainic material 
is gradually dispersed by the inequalities produced, and is 
further distributed by the action of superficial streams until the 
whole surface is strewn with stones and debris, and presents, 
as in the lower portions of the Mer de Glace, an exceedingly 
dirty appearance. Many blocks of stone fall into the gaping 
crevasses and much loose rock is carried down as " englacial 
material " in the body of the glacier. Some of it reaches the 
bottom and becomes part of the "ground moraine" which 
underlies the glacier, at least from the bergschrundto the " snout," 
where much of it is carried away by the issuing stream and 
spread finally on to the plains below. It appears that a very 
considerable amount of degradation is caused under the berg- 
schrund by the mass of ice " plucking " and dragging great 
blocks of rock from the side of the mountain valley where the 
great head of ice rests in winter and whence it begins to move 
in summer. These blocks and many smaller fragments are 
carried downwards wedged in the ice and cause powerful abrasion 
upon the rocky floor, rasping and scoring the channel, producing 
conspicuous striae, polishing and rounding the rock surfaces, 
and grinding the contained fragments as well as the surface 
over which it passes into small fragments and fine powder, 
from which " boulder clay " or " till " is finally produced. 
Emerging, then, from the snow-field as pure granular ice the 
glacier gradually becomes strewn and filled with foreign material, 
not only from above but also, as is very evident in some Greenland 
glaciers, occasionally from below by masses of fragments that 
move upwards along gliding planes, or are forced upwards by 
slow swirls in the ice itself. 

As a glacier is a very brittle body any abrupt change in gradient 
will produce a number of crevasses, and these, together with 
those produced by dragging strains, will frequently wedge the 
glacier into a mass of pinnacles or seracs that may be partially 
healed but are usually evident when the melting end of the 
glacier emerges suddenly from a steep valley. Here the streams 
widen the weaker portions and the moraine rocks fall from the 
end to produce the " terminal " moraine, which usually lies in 
a crescentic heap encircling the glacier snout, whence it can 
only be moved by a further advance of the glacier or by the 
ordinary slow process of atmospheric denudation. 

In cases where no rock falls upon the surface there is a con- 
siderable amount of englacial material due to upturning either 
over accumulated ground debris or over structural inequalities 
in the rock floor. This is well seen at the steep sides and ends 
of Greenland glaciers, where material frequently comes to the 
surface of the melting ice and produces median and lateral 
moraines, besides appearing in enormous " eyes " surrounded 
m the glacial body by contorted and foliated ice and sometimes 
producing heaps and embankments as it is pushed out at the 
end of the melting ice. 

The environment of temperature requires consideration. 
At the upper or dorsal portion of the glacier there is a zone 
of variable (winter and summer) temperature, beneath which, 
if the ice is thick enough, there is a zone of constant temperature 
which will be about the mean annual temperature of the region 
of the snow-field. Underlying this there is a more or less constant 
ventral or ground temperature, depending mainly upon the 
internal heat of the earth, which is conducted to the under 
surface of the glacier where it slowly melts the ice, the more 
readily because the pressure lowers the melting point consider- 
ably, so that streams of water run constantly from beneath many 
glaciers, adding their volume to the springs which issue from the 
rock. The middle zone of constant temperature is wedge-shaped 



in " alpine " glaciers, the apex pointing downwards to the zone 
of waste. The upper zone of variable temperature is thinnest 
in the snow-field where the mean temperature is lowest, and 
entirely dominant in the snout end of the glacier where the zone 
of constant temperature disappears. Two temperature wedges 
are thus superposed base to point, the one being thickest where 
the other is thinnest, and both these lie upon the basal film of 
temperature where the escaping earth-heat is strengthened 
by that due to friction and pressure. The cold wave of winter 
may pass right through a thin glacier, or the constant temperature 
may be too low to permit of the ice melting at the base, in which 
cases the glacier is " dry " and has great eroding power. But 
in the lower warmer portions water running through crevasses 
will raise the temperature, and increase the strength of the 
downward heat wave, while the mean annual temperature 
being there higher, the combined result will be that the glacier 
will gradually become " wet " at the base and have little eroding 
power, and it will become more and more wet as it moves down 
the lower valley zone of ice-waste, until at last the balance 
is reached between waste and supply and the glacier finally 
disappears. 

If the mean annual temperature be 20 F., and the mean 
winter temperature be - 12 F., as in parts of Greenland, all 
the ice must be considerably below the melting point, since the 
pressure of ice a mile in depth lowers the melting point only 
to 30 F., and the earth-heat is only sufficient to melt j in. of 
ice in a year. Therefore in these regions, and in snow-fields and 
high glaciers with an equal or lower mean temperature than 
20 F., the glacier will be " dry " throughout, which may account 
for the great eroding power stated to exist near the bergschrund 
in glaciers of an alpine type, which usually have their origin on 
precipitous slopes. 

A considerable amount of ice-waste takes place by water- 
drainage, though much is the result of constant evaporation 
from the ice surface. The lower end of a glacier is in summer 
flooded by streams of water that pour along cracks and plunge 
into crevasses, often forming " pot-holes " or moulins where 
stones are swirled round in a glacial " mill " and wear holes 
in the solid rock below. Some of these streams issue in a spout 
half way up the glacier's end wall, but the majority find their 
way through it and join the water running along the glacier 
floor and emerging where the glacier ends in a large glacial 
stream. 

Results of Glacial Action. A glacier is a degrading and an 
aggrading agent. Much difference of opinion exists as to the 
potency of a glacier to alter surface features, some maintaining 
that it is extraordinarily effective, and considering that a valley 
glacier forms a pronounced cirque at the region of its origin 
and that the cirque is gradually cut backward until a long and 
deep valley is formed (which becomes evident, as in the Rocky 
Mountains, in an upper valley with " reversed grade " when 
the glacier disappears), and also that the end of a glacier plunging 
into a valley or a fjord will gouge a deep basin at its region of 
impact. The Alaskan and Norwegian fjords and the rock basins 
of the Scottish lochs are adduced as examples. Other writers 
maintain that a glacier is only a modifying and not a dominant 
agent in its effects upon the land-surface, considering, for example, 
that a glacier coming down a lateral valley will preserve the 
valley from the atmospheric denudation which has produced 
the main valley over which the lateral valley "hangs," a result 
which the believers in strong glacial action hold to be due to the 
more powerful action of the main glacier as contrasted with the 
weaker action of that in the lateral valley. Both the advocates 
and the opponents of strenuous ice action agree that a V-shaped 
valley of stream erosion is converted to a U-shaped valley of 
glacial modification, and that rock surfaces are rounded into 
roches moutonnies, and are grooved and striated by the passage 
of ice shod with fragments of rock, while the subglacial material 
is ground into finer and finer fragments until it becomes mud 
and " rock-flour " as the glacier proceeds. In any case striking 
results are manifest in any formerly glaciated region. The high 
peaks rise into pinnacles, and ridges with " house-roof " structure, 



GLACIS GLADIATORS 



above the former glacier, while below it the contours are all 
rounded and typically subdued. A landscape that was formerly 
completely covered by a moving ice-cap has none but these 
rounded features of dome-shaped hills and U-shaped valleys 
that at least bear evidence to the great modifying power that 
a glacier has upon a landscape. 

There is no conflict of opinion with regard to glacial aggradation 
and the distribution of superglacial, englacial and subglacial 
material, which during the active existence of a glacier is finally 
distributed by glacial streams that produce very considerable 
alluviation. In many regions which were covered by the 
Pleistocene ice-sheet the work of the glacier was arrested by 
melting before it was half done. Great deposits of till and boulder 
clay that lay beneath the glaciers were abandoned in situ, and 
remain as an unsorted mixture of large boulders, pebbles and 
mingled fragments, embedded in clay or sand. The lateral, 
median and terminal moraines were stranded where they sank 
as the ice disappeared, and together with perched blocks (roches 
perchies) remain as a permanent record of former conditions 
which are now found to have existed temporarily in much earlier 
geological times. In glaciated North America lateral moraines 
are found that are 500 to 1000 ft. high and in northern Italy 
1500 to 2000 ft. high. The surface of the ground in all these 
places is modified into the characteristic glaciated landscape, 
and many formerly deep valleys are choked with glacial debris 
either completely changing the local drainage systems, or compel- 
ling the reappearing streams to cut new channels in a superposed 
drainage system. Kames also and eskers (q.v.) are left under 
certain conditions, with many puzzling deposits that are clearly 
due to some features of ice-work not thoroughly understood. 

See L. Agassiz, Etudes sur les glaciers (Neuchatel, 1840) and 
Nouvelles Etudes . . . (Paris, 1847); N. S. Shaler and W. M. Davis, 
Glaciers (Boston, 1881); A. Penck, Die Begletscherung der deulschen 
Alpen (Leipzig, 1882); J. Tyndall, The Glaciers of the Alps (London, 
1896); T. G. Bonney, Ice-Work, Past and Present (London, 1896); 
I. C. Russell, Glaciers of North America (Boston, 1897); E. Richter, 
Neue Ergebnisse und Probleme der Gletscherforschung (Vienna, 1899) ; 
F. Forel, Essai sur les variations periodiques des glaciers (Geneva, 1 88 1 
and 1900); H. Hess, Die Gletscher (Brunswick, 1904). (E. C. SP.) 

GLACIS, in military engineering (see FORTIFICATION AND 
SIEGECRAFT), an artificial slope of earth in the front of works, 
so constructed as to keep an assailant under the fire of the 
defenders to the last possible moment. On the natural ground- 
level, troops attacking any high work would be sheltered from 
its fire when close up to it; the ground therefore is raised to 
form a glacis, which is swept by the fire of the parapet. More 
generally, the term is used to denote any slope, natural or 
artificial, which fulfils the above requirements. 

GLADBACH, the name of two towns in Germany distinguished 
as Bergisch-Gladbach and Miinchen-Gladbach. 

1. BERGISCH-GLADBACH is in Rhenish Prussia, 8 m. N.E. of 
Cologne by rail. Pop. (1905) 13,410. It possesses four large 
paper mills and among its other industries are paste-board, 
powder, percussion caps, nets and machinery. Ironsione, 
peat and lime are found in the vicinity. The town has four 
Roman Catholic churches and one Protestant. The Stunden- 
thalshohe, a popular resort, is in the neighbourhood, and near 
Gladbach is Altenberg, with a remarkably fine church, built 
for the Cistercian abbey at this place. 

2. MtiNCHEN-GLADBACH, also in Rhenish Prussia, 16 m. 
W.S.W. of Dusseldorf on the main line' of railway to Aix-la- 
Chapelle. Pop. (1885) 44,230; (1005) 60,714. It is one of the chief 
manufacturing places in Rhenish Prussia, its principal industries 
being the spinning and weaving of cotton, the manufacture 
of silks, velvet, ribbon and damasks, and dyeing and bleaching. 
There are also tanneries, tobacco manufactories, machine works 
and foundries. The town possesses a fine park and has statues 
of the emperor William I. and of Prince Bismarck. There are 
ten Roman Catholic churches here, among them being the 
beautiful minster, with a Gothic choir dating from 1250, a nave 
dating from the beginning of the I3th century and a crypt of 
the 8th century. The town has two hospitals, several schools, 
and is the headquarters of important insurance societies. 



Gladbach existed before the time of Charlemagne, and a Bene- 
dictine monastery was founded near it in 793. It was thus 
called Miinchen-Gladbach or Monks' Gladbach, to distinguish 
it from another town of the same name. The monastery was 
suppressed in 1802. It became a town in 1336; weaving was 
introduced here towards the end of the i8th century, and 
having belonged for a long time to the duchy of Juliers it came 
into the possession of Prussia in 1815. 

See Strauss, Geschichle der Sladt Munchen-Gladbach (1805); and 
G. Eckertz, Das Verbruderungs- und Todtenbuch der Abtei Gladbach 
(1881). 

GLADDEN, WASHINGTON (1836- ), American Congrega- 
tional divine, was born in Pottsgrove, Pennsylvania, on the nth 
of February 1836. He graduated at Williams College in 1859, 
preached in churches in Brooklyn, Morrisania (New York City), 
North Adams, Massachusetts, and Springfield, Massachusetts, 
and in 1882 became pastor of the First Congregational Church 
of Columbus, Ohio. He was an editor of the Independent in 
1871-1875, and a frequent contributor to it and other periodicals. 
He consistently and earnestly urged in pulpit and press the 
need of personal, civil and, particularly, social righteousness, 
and in 1900-1902 was a member of the city council of Columbus. 
Among his many publications, which include sermons, occasional 
addresses, &c., are: Plain Thoughts on the Art of Living (1868); 
Workingmen and their Employers (1876); The Christian Way 
(1877); Things New and Old (1884); Applied Christianity 
(1887); Tools and the Man Property and Industry under the 
Christian Law {1893); The Church and the Kingdom (1894), 
arguing against' a confusion and misuse of these two terms; 
Seven Puzzling Bible Books (1897); How much is Left of the Old 
Doctrines (1899); Social Salvation (1901); Witnesses of the 
Light (1903); the William Belden Noble Lectures (Harvard), 
being addresses on Dante, Michelangelo, Fichte, Hugo, Wagner 
and Ruskin; The New Idolatry (1905); Christianity and Social- 
ism (1906), and The Church and Modern Life (1908). In 1909 he 
published his Recollections. 

GLADIATORS (from Lat. gladius, sword), professional com- 
batants who fought to the death in Roman public shows. That 
this form of spectacle, which is almost peculiar to Rome and 
the Roman provinces, was originally borrowed from Etruria 
is shown by various indications. On an Etruscan tomb dis- 
covered at Tarquinii there is a representation of gladiatorial 
games; the slaves employed to carry off the dead bodies from 
the arena wore masks representing the Etruscan Charon; and 
we learn from Isidore of Seville (Origines, x.) that the name for 
a trainer of gladiators (lanista) is an Etruscan word meaning 
butcher or executioner. These gladiatorial games are evidently 
a survival of the practice of immolating slaves and prisoners 
on the tombs of illustrious chieftains, a practice recorded in 
Greek, Roman and Scandinavian legends, and traceable even as 
late as the igth century as the Indian suttee. Even at Rome 
they were for a long time confined to funerals, and hence the older 
name for gladiators was busluarii; but in the later days of the 
republic their original significance was forgotten, and they 
formed as indispensable a part of the public amusements as the 
theatre and the circus. 

The first gladiators are said, on the authority of Valerius 
Maximus (ii. 4. 7), to have been exhibited at Rome in the Forum 
Boarium in 264 B.C. by Marcus and Decimus Brutus at the 
funeral of their father. On this occasion only three pairs fought, 
but the taste for these games spread rapidly, and the number 
of combatants grew apace. In 1 74 Titus Flamininus celebrated 
his father's obsequies by a three-days' fight, in which 74 gladiators 
took part. Julius Caesar engaged such extravagant numbers 
for his aedileship that his political opponents took fright and 
carried a decree of the senate imposing a certain limit of numbers, 
but notwithstanding this restriction he was able to exhibit no 
less than 300 pairs. During the later days of the republic the 
gladiators were a constant element of danger to the public 
peace. The more turbulent spirits among the nobility had 
each his band of gladiators to act as a bodyguard, and the 
armed troops of Clodius, Milo and Catiline played the same part 



GLADIATORS 



in Roman history as the armed retainers of the feudal barons 
or the condottieri of the Italian republics. Under the empire, 
notwithstanding sumptuary enactments, the passion for the 
arena steadily increased. Augustus, indeed, limited the shows 
to two a year, and forbade a praetor to exhibit more than 120 
gladiators, yet allusions in Horace (Sat. ii. 3. 85) and Persius 
(vi. 48) show that 100 pairs was the fashionable number for 
private entertainments; and in the Marmor Ancyranum the 
emperor states that more than 10,000 men had fought during 
his reign. The imbecile Claudius was devoted to this pastime, 
and would sit from morning till night in his chair of state, descend- 
ing now and then to the arena to coax or force the reluctant 
gladiators to resume their bloody work. Under Nero senators 
and even well-born women appeared as combatants; and 
Juvenal (viii. 199) has handed down to eternal infamy the 
descendant of the Gracchi who appeared without disguise as a 
retiarius, and begged his life from the secular, who blushed to 
conquer one so noble and so vile. 1 Titus, whom his countrymen 
surnamed the Clement, ordered a show which lasted 100 days; 
and Trajan, in celebration of his triumph over Decebalus, 
exhibited 5000 pairs of gladiators. Domitian at the Saturnalia 
of A.D. 90 arranged a battle between dwarfs and women. Even 
women of high birth fought in the arena, and it was not till 
A.D. 200 that the practice was forbidden by edict. How widely 
the taste for these sanguinary spectacles extended throughout 
the Roman provinces is attested by monuments, inscriptions 
and the remains of vast amphitheatres. From Britain to Syria 
there was not a town of any size that could not boast its arena 
and annual games. After Italy, Gaul, North Africa and Spain 
were most famous for their amphitheatres; and Greece was the 
only Roman province where the institution never thoroughly 
took root. 

Gladiators were commonly drawn either from prisoners of 
war, or slaves or criminals condemned to death. Thus in the 
first class we read of tattooed Britons in their war chariots, 
Thracians with their peculiar bucklers and scimitars, Moors 
from the villages round Atlas and negroes from central Africa, 
exhibited in the Colosseum. Down to the time of the empire 
only greater malefactors, such as brigands and incendiaries, 
were condemned to the arena; but by Caligula, Claudius and 
Nero this punishment was extended to minor offences, such as 
fraud and peculation, in order to supply the growing demand 
for victims. For the first century of the empire it was lawful 
for masters to sell their slaves as gladiators, but this was forbidden 
by Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius. Besides these three regular 
classes, the ranks were recruited by a considerable number of 
freedmen and Roman citizens who had squandered their estates 
and voluntarily took the auctoramentum gladiatorium, by which 
for a stated time they bound themselves to the lanista. Even 
men of birth and fortune not seldom entered the lists, either for 
the pure love of fighting or to gratify the whim of some dissolute 
emperor; and one emperor, Commodus, actually appeared in 
person in the arena. 

Gladiators were trained in schools (ludi) owned either by 
the state or by private citizens, and though the trade of a 
lanista was considered disgraceful, to own gladiators and let 
them out for hire was reckoned a legitimate branch of commerce. 
Thus Cicero, in his letters to Atticus, congratulates his friend 
on the good bargain he had made in purchasing a band, and 
urges that he might easily recoup himself by consenting to let 
them out twice. Men recruited mainly from slaves and criminals, 
whose lives hung on a thread, must have been more dangerous 
characters than modern galley slaves or convicts; and, though 
highly fed and carefully tended, they were of necessity subject 
to an iron discipline. In the school of gladiators discovered at 
Pompeii, of the sixty-three skeletons buried in the cells many 
were in irons. But hard as was the gladiators' lot, so hard 
that special precautions had to be taken to prevent suicide, 
it had its consolations. A successful gladiator enjoyed far 
greater fame than any modern prize-fighter or athlete. He was 

* See A. E. Housmanon the passage in Classical Review (November 
1904). 



presented with broad pieces, chains and jewelled helmets, such 
as may be seen in the museum at Naples; poets like Martial 
sang his prowess; his portrait was multiplied on vases, lamps 
and gems; and high-born ladies contended for his favours. 
Mixed, too, with the lowest dregs of the city, there must have 
been many noble barbarians condemned to the vile trade by the 
hard fate of war. There are few finer characters in Roman 
history than the Thracian Spartacus, who, escaping with seventy 
of his comrades from the school of Lentulus at Capua, for three 
years defied the legions of Rome; and after Antony's defeat at 
Actium, the only part of his army that remained faithful to 
his cause were the gladiators whom he had enrolled at Cyzicus 
to grace his anticipated victory. 

There were various classes of gladiators, distinguished by 
their arms or modes of fighting. The Samnites fought with the 
national weapons a large oblong shield, a vizor, a plumed 
helmet and a short sword. The Thraces had a small round 
buckler and a dagger curved like a scythe; they were generally 
pitted against the Mirmillones, who were armed in Gallic fashion 
with helmet, sword and shield, and were so called from the fish 
(jwppiuXos or juop/iiipos) which served as the crest of their helmet. 
In like manner the Retiarius was matched with the Secutor: 
the former had nothing on but a short tunic or apron, and sought 
to entangle his pursuer, who was fully armed, with the cast-net 
(j-aculum) that he carried in his right hand; and if successful, 
he despatched him with the trident (tridens, fuscina) that he 
carried in his left. We may also mention the Andabatae who 
are generally believed to have fought on horseback and wore 
helmets with closed vizors; the Dimachaeri of the later empire, 
who carried a short sword in each hand; the Essedarii, who 
fought from chariots like the ancient Britons; the Hoplomachi, 
who wore a complete suit of armour; and the Laquearii, who 
tried to lasso their antagonists. 

Gladiators also received special names according to the 
time or circumstances in which they exercised their calling. 
The Bustuarii have already been mentioned; the Catervarii 
fought, not in pairs, but in bands; the Meridian! came forward 
in the middle of the day for the entertainment of those spectators 
who had not left their seats; the Ordinarii fought only in pairs, 
in the regular way; the Fiscales were trained and supported 
at the expense of the imperial treasury; the Paegniarii used 
harmless weapons, and their exhibition was a sham one; the 
Postulaticii were those whose appearance was asked as a favour 
from the giver of the show, in addition to those already exhibited. 

The shows were announced some days before they took 
place by bills affixed to the walls of houses and public buildings, 
copies of which were also sold in the streets. These bills gave 
the names of the chief pairs of competitors, the date of the show, 
the name of the giver and the different kinds of combats. The 
spectacle began with a procession of the gladiators through the 
arena, after which their swords were examined by the giver of 
the show. The proceedings opened with a sham fight (praelusio, 
prolusio) with wooden swords and javelins. The signal for real 
fighting was given by the sound of the trumpet, those who 
showed fear being driven on to the arena with whips and red-hot 
irons. When a gladiator was wounded, the spectators shouted 
Habet (he is wounded) ; if he was at the mercy of his adversary, 
he lifted up his forefinger to implore the clemency of the people, 
with whom (in the later times of the republic) the giver left the 
decision as to his life or death. If the spectators were in favour 
of mercy, they waved their handkerchiefs; if they desired the 
death of the conquered gladiator, they turned their thumbs 
downwards. 2 The reward of victory consisted of branches of 
palm, sometimes of money. Gladiators who had exercised 
their calling for a long time, or such as displayed special skill 
and bravery, were presented with a wooden sword (rudis), and 
discharged from further service. 



2 A different account is given by Mayor on Juvenal iii. 36, 
says: "Those who wished the death of the conquered glad 



who 
iator 



turned their thumbs towards their breasts, as a signal to his opponents 
to stab him ; those who wished him to be spared, Burned their thumbs 
downwards, as a signal for dropping the sword." 



GLADIOLUS 



Both the estimation in which gladiatorial games were held by 
Roman moralists, and the influence that they exercised upon the 
morals and genius of the nation, deserve notice. The Roman was 
essentially cruel, not so much from spite or vindictiveness as from 
callousness and defective sympathies. This element of inhumanity 
and brutality must have been deeply ingrained in the national 
character to have allowed the games to become popular, but there 
' can be no doubt that it was fed and fostered by the savage form 
which their amusements took. That the sight of bloodshed provokes 
a love of bloodshed and cruelty is a commonplace of morals. To 
the horrors of the arena we may attribute in part, not only the 
brutal treatment of their slaves and prisoners, but the frequency 
of suicide among the Romans. On the other hand, we should be 
careful not to exaggerate the effects or draw too sweeping infer- 
ences from the prevalence of this degrading amusement. Human 
nature is happily illogical; and we know that many of the Roman 
statesmen who gave these games, and themselves enjoyed these sights 
of blood, were in every other department of life irreproachable 
indulgent fathers, humane generals and mild rulers of provinces. 
In the present state of society it is difficult to conceive how a man 
of taste can have endured to gaze upon a scene of human butchery. 
Yet we should remember that it is not so long since bear-baiting was 
prohibited in England, and we are only now attaining that stage of 
morality in respect of cruelty to animals that was reached in the 5th 
century, by the help of Christianity, in respect of cruelty to men. 
We shall not then be greatly surprised if hardly one of the Roman 
moralists is found to raise his voice against this amusement, except 
on the score of extravagance. Cicero in a well-known passage com- 
mends the gladiatorial games as the best discipline against the fear 
of death and suffering that can be presented to the eye. The 
younger Pliny, who perhaps of all Romans approaches nearest to our 
ideal of a cultured gentleman, speaks approvingly of them. Marcus 
Aurelius, though he did much to mitigate their horrors, yet in his 
writings condemns the monotony rather than the cruelty. Seneca 
is indeed a splendid exception, and his letter to Lentulus is an 
eloquent protest against this inhuman sport. But it is without 
a parallel till we come to the writings of the Christian fathers, 
Tertullian, Lactantius, Cyprian and Augustine. In the Confessions 
of the last there occurs a narrative which is worth quoting as a proof 
of the strange fascination which the games exercised even on a 
religious man and a Christian. He tells us how his friend Alipius 
was dragged against his will to the amphitheatre, how he strove 
to quiet his conscience by closing his eyes, how at some exciting 
crisis the shouts of the whole assembly aroused his curiosity, how 
he looked and was lost, grew drunk with the sight of blood, and 
returned again and again, knowing his guilt yet unable to abstain. 
The first Christian emperor was persuaded to issue an edict abolishing 
gladiatorial games (325), yet in 404 we read of an exhibition of 
gladiators to celebrate the triumph of Honorius over the Goths, 
and it is said that they were not totally extinct in the West till the 
time of Theodoric. 

Gladiators formed admirable models for the sculptor. One of 
the finest pieces of ancient sculpture that has come down to us is 
the " Wounded Gladiator" of the National Museum at Naples. The 
so-called "Fighting Gladiator" of the Borghese collection, now in the 
Museum of the Louvre, and the "Dying Gladiator" of the Capitoline 
Museum, which inspired the famous stanza of Childe Harold, have 
been pronounced by modern antiquaries to represent, not gladiators, 
but warriors. In this connexion we may mention the admirable 
picture of Gerome which bears the title, Ave, Caesar, morituri te 
salutant." 

The attention of archaeologists has been recently directed to the 
tesserae of gladiators. These tesserae, of which about sixty exist in 
various museums, are small oblong tablets of ivory or bone, with 
an inscription on each of the four sides. The first line contains 
a name in the nominative case, presumably that of the gladiator; 
the second line a name in the genitive, that of the patronus or 
dominus; the third line begins with the letters SP (for spectatus 
= approved), which shows that the gladiator had passed his pre- 
liminary trials; this is followed by a day of a Roman month; and 
in the fourth line are the names of the consuls of a particular year. 



in Marquardt's Romische Staatstierwaltung, iii. (1885) p. 554; see 
also article by G. Lafaye in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire 
des anliquites. See also F. W. Ritschl, Tesserae gladialoriae (1864) 
and P. J. Meier, De gladiatura Romana quaestiones selectae (1881). 
The articles by Lipsius on the Saturnalia and amphitheatrum in 
Graevius, Thesaurus antiquitatum Romanarum, ix., may still be 
consulted with advantage. 

GLADIOLUS, a genus of monocotyledonous plants, belonging 
to the natural order Iridaceae. They are herbaceous plants 
growing from a solid fibrous-coated bulb (or conn), with long 
narrow plaited leaves and a terminal one-sided spike of generally 
bright-coloured irregular flowers. The segments of the limb of 
the perianth are very unequal, the perianth tube is curved, funnel- 
xii. 3 



shaped and widening upwards, the segments equalling or 
exceeding the tube in length. There are about 150 known 
species, a large number of which are South African, but the 
genus extends into tropical Africa, forming a characteristic 
feature of the mountain vegetation, and as far north as central 
Europe and western Asia. One species G. illyricus (sometimes 
regarded as a variety of G. communis) is found wild in England, 
in the New Forest and the Isle of Wight. Some of the species 
have been cultivated for a long period in English flower-gardens, 
where both the introduced species and the modern varieties 
bred from them are very ornamental and popular. G. segetum 
has been cultivated since 1596, and G. byzantinus since 1629, 
while many additional species were introduced during the latter 
half of the i8th century. One of the earlier of the hybrids 
originated in gardens was the beautiful G. Colvillei, raised in the 
nursery of Mr Colville of Chelsea in 1823 from G. tristis fertilized* 
by G. cardinalis. In the first decade of the iQth century, however, 
the Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert had successfully crossed the 
showy G. cardinalis with the smaller but more free-flowering 
G. blandus, and the result was the production of a race of great 
beauty and fertility. Other crosses were made with G. tristis, 
G. oppositiflorus, G. hirsutus, G. alatus and G. psittacinus; but 
it was not till after the production of G. gandavensis that the 
gladiolus really became a general favourite in gardens. This 
fine hybrid was raised in 1837 by M. Bedinghaus, gardener to 
the due d'Aremberg, at Enghien, crossing G. psittacinus and 
G. cardinalis. There can, however, be little doubt that before 
the gandavensis type had become fairly fixed the services of 
other species were brought into force, and the most likely of 
these were G. oppositiflorus (which shows in the white forms), 
G. blandus and G. ramosus. Other species may also have been 
used, but in any case the gandavensis gladiolus, as we now know 
it, is the result of much crossing and inter-crossing between 
the best forms as they developed (J. Weathers, Practical Guide 
to Garden Plants). Since that time innumerable varieties have 
appeared only to sink into oblivion upon being replaced by 
still finer productions. 

The modern varieties of gladioli have almost completely 
driven the natural species out of gardens, except in botanical 
collections. The most gorgeous groups in addition to the 
gandavensis type are those known under the names of Lemoinei, 
Childsi, nanceianus and brenchleyensis. The last-named was 
raised by a Mr Hooker at Brenchley in 1848, and although quite 
distinct in appearance from gandavensis, it undoubtedly had 
that variety as one of its parents. Owing to the brilliant scarlet 
colour of the flowers, this is always a great favourite for planting 
in beds. The Lemoinei forms originated at Nancy, in France, 
by fertilizing G. purpureo-auratus with pollen from G. gandavensis, 
the first flower appearing in 1877, and the plants being put into 
commerce in 1880. The Childsi gladioli first appeared in 1882, 
having been raised at Baden-Baden by Herr Max Leichtlin 
from the best forms of G. gandavensis and G. Saundersi. The 
flowers of the best varieties are of great size and substance, often 
measuring 7 to 9 in. across, while the range of colour is marvellous, 
with shades of grey, purple, scarlet, salmon, crimson, rose, white, 
pink, yellow, &c., often beautifully mottled and blotched in the 
throat. The plants are vigorous in growth, often reaching a 
height of 4 to 5 ft. G. nanceianus was raised at Nancy by 
MM. Lemoine and were first put into commerce in 1889. Next 
to the Childsi group they are the most beautiful, and have the 
blood of the best forms of G. Saundersi and G. Lemoinei in their 
veins. The plants are quite as hardy as the gandavensis hybrids, 
and the colours of the flowers are almost as brilliant and varied 
in hue as those of the Childsi section. 

A deep and rather stiff sandy loam is the best soil for the gladiolus, 
and this should be trenched up in October and enriched with well- 
decomposed manure, consisting partly of cow dung, the manure being 
disposed altogether below the corms, a layer at the bottom of the 
upper trench, say 9 in. from the surface, and another layer at double 
that depth. The corms should be planted in succession at intervals 
of two or three weeks through the months of March, April and May ; 
about 3 to 5 in. deep and at least I ft. apart, a little pure soil or sand 
being laid over each before the earth is closed in about them, an 



66 



GLADSHEIM GLADSTONE 



arrangement which may be advantageously followed with bulbous 
plants generally. In hot summer weather they should have a good 
mulching of well-decayed manure, and, as soon as the flower spikes 
are produced, liquid manure may occasionally be given them with 
advantage. 

The gladiolus is easily raised from seeds, which should be sown in 
March or April in pots of rich soil placed in slight heat, the pots 
being kept near the glass after they begin to grow, and the plants 
being gradually hardened to permit their being placed out-of-doors 
in a sheltered spot for the summer. Modern growers often grow the 
seeds in the open in April on a nicely prepared bed in drills about 
6 in. apart and $ in. deep, covering them with finely sifted gritty 
mould. The seed bed is then pressed down evenly and firmly, 
watered occasionally and kept free from weeds during the summer. 
In October they will have ripened off, and must be taken out of the 
soil, and stored in paper bags in a dry room secure from frost. They 
will have made little bulbs from the size of a hazel nut downwards, 
according to their vigour. In the spring they should be planted 
Jike the old bulbs, and the larger ones will flower during the season, 
while the smaller ones must be again harvested and planted out as 
before. The time occupied from the sowing of the seed until the 
plant attains its full strength is from three to four years. The 
approved sorts, which are identified by name, are multiplied by 
means of bulblets or offsets or " spawn," which form around the 
principal bulb or corm; but in this they vary greatly, some kinds 
furnishing abundant increase and soon becoming plentiful, while 
others persistently refuse to yield offsets. The stately habit and 
rich glowing colours of the modern gladioli render them exceedingly 
valuable as decorative plants during the late summer months. They 
are, moreover, very desirable and useful flowers for cutting for the 
purpose of room decoration, for while the blossoms themselves last 
fresn for some days if cut either early in the morning or late in the 
evening, the undeveloped buds open in succession, if the stalks are 
kept in water, so that a cut spike will go on blooming for some time. 

GLADSHEIM (Old Norse Gladsheimr), in Scandinavian 
mythology, the region of joy and home of Odin. Valhalla, 
the paradise whither the heroes who fell in battle were escorted, 
was situated there. 

GLADSTONE, JOHN HALL (1827-1902), English chemist, 
was born at Hackney, London, on the 7th of March 1827. From 
childhood he showed great aptitude for science; geology was 
his favourite subject, but since this in his father's opinion did 
not afford a career of promise, he devoted himself to chemistry, 
which he studied under Thomas Graham at University College, 
London, and Liebig at Giessen, where he graduated as Ph.D. 
in 1847. In 1850 he became chemical lecturer at St Thomas's 
hospital, and three years later was elected a fellow of the Royal 
Society at the unusually early age of twenty-six. From 1858 
to 1 86 1 he served on the royal commission on lighthouses, and 
from 1864 to 1868 was a member of the war office committee 
on gun-cotton. From 1874 to 1877 he was Fullerian professor 
of chemistry at the Royal Institution, in 1874 he was chosen 
first president of the Physical Society, and in 1877-1879 he was 
president of the Chemical Society. In 1897 the Royal Society 
recognized his fifty years of scientific work by awarding him the 
Davy medal. Dr Gladstone's researches were large in number 
and wide in range, dealing to a great extent with problems 
that lie on the border-line between physics and chemistry. 
Thus a number of his inquiries, and those not the least important, 
were partly chemical, partly optical. He determined the optical 
constants of hundreds of substances, with the object of discover- 
ing whether any of the elements possesses more than one atomic 
refraction. Again, he investigated the connexion between the 
optical behaviour, density and chemical composition of ethereal 
oils, and the relation between molecular magnetic rotation and 
the refraction and dispersion of nitrogenous compounds. So 
early as 1856 he showed the importance of the spectroscope 
in chemical research, and he was one of the first to notice that 
the Fraunhofer spectrum at sunrise and sunset differs from that 
at midday, his conclusion being that the earth's atmosphere 
must be responsible for many of its absorption lines, which 
indeed were subsequently traced to the oxygen and water-vapour 
in the air. Another portion of his work was of an electro-chemical 
character. His studies, with Alfred Tribe (1840-1885) and W. 
Hibbert, in the chemistry of the storage battery, have added 
largely to our knowledge, while- the " copper-zinc couple," with 
which his name is associated together with that of Tribe, among 
other things, afforded a simple means of preparing certain 



organo-metallic compounds, and thus promoted research in 
branches of organic chemistry where those bodies are especially 
useful. Mention may also be made of his work on phosphorus, 
on explosive substances, such as iodide of nitrogen, gun-cotton 
and the fulminates, on the influence of mass in the process of 
chemical reactions, and on the effect of carbonic acid on the 
germination of plants. Dr Gladstone always took a great 
interest in educational questions, and from 1873 to 1894 he was 
a member of the London School Board. He was also a member 
of the Christian Evidence Society, and an early supporter of 
the Young Men's Christian Association. His death occurred 
suddenly in London on the 6th of October 1902. 

GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART (1809-1898), British 
statesman, was born on the 29th of December 1809 at No. 62 
Rodney Street, Liverpool. His forefathers were Gledstanes 
of Gledstanes, in the upper ward of Lanarkshire; or in Scottish 
phrase, Gledstanes of that Ilk. As years went on their estates 
dwindled, and by the beginning of the I7th century Gledstanes 
was sold. The adjacent property of Arthurshiel remained in 
the hands of the family for nearly a hundred years longer. Then 
the son of the last Gledstanes of Arthurshiel removed to Biggar, 
where he opened the business of a maltster. His grandson, 
Thomas Gladstone (for so the name was modified), became a 
corn-merchant at Leith. He happened to send his eldest son, 
John, to Liverpool to sell a cargo of grain there, and the energy 
and aptitude of the young man attracted the favourable notice 
of a leading corn-merchant of Liverpool, who recommended him 
to settle in that city. Beginning his commercial career as a 
clerk in his patron's house, John Gladstone lived to become 
one of the merchant-princes of Liverpool, a baronet and a 
member of parliament. He died in 1851 at the age of eighty- 
seven. Sir John Gladstone was a pure Scotsman, a Lowlander 
by birth and descent. He married Anne, daughter of Andrew 
Robertson of Stornoway , sometime provost of Dingwall. Provost 
Robertson belonged to the Clan Donachie, and by this marriage 
the robust and business-like qualities of the Lowlander were 
blended with the poetic imagination, the sensibility and fire 
of the Gael. 

John and Anne Gladstone had six children. The fourth son, 
William Ewart, was named after a merchant of Liverpool who 
was his father's friend. He seems to have been a 
remarkably good child, and much beloved at home. 
In 1818 or 1819 Mrs Gladstone, who belonged to the tloo _ 
Evangelical school, said in a letter to a friend, that 
she believed her son William had been " truly converted to God." 
After some tuition at the vicarage of Seaforth, a watering-place 
near Liverpool, the boy went to Eton in 1821. His tutor was 
the Rev. Henry Hartopp Knapp. His brothers, Thomas and 
Robertson Gladstone, were already at Eton. Thomas was in the 
fifth form, and William, who was placed in the middle remove 
of the fourth form, became his eldest brother's fag. He worked 
hard at his classical lessons, and supplemented the ordinary 
business of the school by studying mathematics in the holidays. 
Mr Hawtrey, afterwards headmaster, commended a copy of 
his Latin verses, and " sent him up for good "; and this ex- 
perience first led the young student to associate intellectual 
work with the ideas of ambition and success. He was not a 
fine scholar, in that restricted sense of the term which implies 
a special aptitude for turning English into Greek and Latin, or 
for original versification in the classical languages. " His 
composition," we read, " was stiff," but he was imbued with 
the substance of his authors; and a contemporary who was in 
the sixth form with him recorded that " when there were thrilling 
passages of Virgil or Homer, or difficult passages in the Scriptores 
Graeci, to translate, he or Lord Arthur Hervey was generally 
called up to edify the class with quotation or translation." By 
common consent he was pre-eminently God-fearing, orderly 
and conscientious. " At Eton," said Bishop Hamilton of 
Salisbury, " I was a thoroughly idle boy, but I was saved from 
some worse things by getting to know Gladstone." His most 
intimate friend was Arthur Hallam, by universal acknowledg- 
ment the most remarkable Etonian of his day; but he was not 



GLADSTONE 



67 



generally popular or even widely known. He was seen to the 
greatest advantage, and was most thoroughly at home, in the 
debates of the Eton Society, learnedly called " The Literati," and 
vulgarly " Pop," and in the editorship of the Eton Miscellany. 
He left Eton at Christmas 1827. He read for six months with 
private tutors, and in October 1828 went up to Christ Church, 
where, in the following year, he was nominated to a studentship. 

At Oxford Gladstone read steadily, but not laboriously, 
till he neared his final schools. During the latter part of his 
undergraduate career he took a brief but brilliant share in the 
proceedings of the Union, of which he was successively secretary 
and president. He made his first speech on the nth of February 
1830. Brought up in the nurture and admonition of Canning, he 
defended Roman Catholic emancipation, and thought the duke 
of Wellington's government unworthy of national confidence. 
He opposed the removal of Jewish disabilities, arguing, we are 
told by a contemporary, " on the part of the Evangelicals," 
and pleaded for the gradual extinction, in preference to the 
immediate abolition, of slavery. But his great achievement 
was a speech against the Whig Reform Bill. One who heard 
this famous discourse says: " Most of the speakers rose, more 
or less, above their usual level, but when Mr Gladstone sat 
down we all of us felt that an epoch in our lives had occurred. 
It certainly was the finest speech of his that I ever heard." 
Bishop Charles Wordsworth said that his experience of Gladstone 
at this time " made me (and I doubt not others also) feel no less 
sure than of my own existence that Gladstone, our then Christ 
Church undergraduate, would one day rise to be prime minister 
of England." In December 1831 Gladstone crowned his career 
by taking a double first-class. Lord Halifax (1800-1885) used 
to say, with reference to the increase in the amount of reading 
requisite for the highest honours: " My double-first must have 
been a better thing than Peel's; Gladstone's must have been 
better than mine." 

Now came the choice of a profession. Deeply anxious to make 
the best use of his life, Gladstone turned his thoughts to holy 
orders. But his father had determined to make him 
Entry into a politician. Quitting Oxford in the spring of 1832, 
^fa"' Gladstone spent six months in Italy, learning the 
language and studying art. In the following September 
he was suddenly recalled to England, to undertake his first 
parliamentary campaign. The fifth duke of Newcastle was one 
of the chief potentates of the High Tory party. His frank 
claim to " do what he liked with his own " in the representation 
of -Newark has given him a place in political history. But that 
claim had been rudely disputed by the return of a Radical 
lawyer at the election of 1831. The Duke was anxious to obtain 
a capable candidate to aid him in regaining his ascendancy over 
the rebellious borough. His son, Lord Lincoln, had heard 
Gladstone's speech against the Reform Bill delivered in the 
Oxford Union, and had written home that " a man had uprisen 
in Israel." At his suggestion the duke invited Gladstone to 
stand for Newark in the Tory interest against Mr Serjeant 
Wilde, afterwards Lord Chancellor Truro. The last of the 
Unreformed parliaments was dissolved on the 3rd of December 

1832. Gladstone, addressing the electors of Newark, said that 
he was bound by the opinions of no man and no party, but felt 
it a duty to watch and resist that growing desire for change 
which threatened to produce " along with partial good a melan- 
choly preponderance of mischief." The first principle to which 
he looked for national salvation was, that the"duties of governors 
are strictly and peculiarly religious, and that legislatures, like 
individuals, are bound to carry throughout their acts the spirit 
of the high truths they have acknowledged." The condition of 
the poor demanded special attention; labour should receive 
adequate remuneration; and he thought favourably of the 
" allotment of cottage grounds." He regarded slavery as 
sanctioned by Holy Scripture, but the slaves ought to be educated 
and gradually emancipated. The contest resulted in his return 
at the head of the poll. 

The first Reformed parliament met on the 2gth of January 

1833, and the young member for Newark took his seat for the first 



time in an assembly which he was destined to adorn, delight 
and astonish for more than half a century. His maiden speech 
was delivered on the 3rd of June in reply to what was 
almost a personal challenge. The colonial secretary, Tlle " 
Mr Stanley, afterwards Lord Derby, brought forward ,; a "J^ 
a series of resolutions in favour of the extinction of 
slavery in the British colonies. On the first night of the debate 
Lord Howick, afterwards Lord Grey, who had been under- 
secretary for the Colonies, and who opposed the resolutions 
as proceeding too gradually towards abolition, cited certain 
occurrences on Sir John Gladstone's plantation in Demerara 
to illustrate his contention that the system of slave-labour in 
the West Indies was attended by great mortality among the 
slaves. Gladstone in his reply his first speech in the House 
avowed that he had a pecuniary interest in the question, " and, 
if he might say so much without exciting suspicion, a still deeper 
interest in it as a question of justice, of humanity and of religion." 
If there had recently been a high mortality on his father's planta- 
tion, it was due to the age of the slaves rather than to any 
peculiar hardship in their lot. It was true that the particular 
system of cultivation practised in Demerara was more trying 
than some others; but then it might be said that no two trades 
were equally conducive to health. Steel-grinding was notoriously 
unhealthy, and manufacturing processes generally were less 
favourable to life than agricultural. While strongly condemning 
cruelty, he declared himself an advocate of emancipation, but 
held that it should be effected gradually, and after due prepara- 
tion. The slaves must be religiously educated, and stimulated 
to profitable industry. The owners of emancipated slaves were 
entitled to receive compensation from parliament, because it 
was parliament that had established this description of property. 
" I do not," said Gladstone, " view property as an abstract 
thing; it is the creature of civil society. By the legislature it is 
granted, and by the legislature it is destroyed. " On the following 
day King William IV. wrote to Lord Althorp: " The king 
rejoices that a young member has come forward in so promis- 
ing a manner as Viscount Althorp states Mr W. E. Gladstone 
to have done." In the same session Gladstone spoke on 
the question of bribery and corruption at Liverpool, and 
on the temporalities of the Irish Church. In the session 
of 1834 his most important performance was a speech in 
opposition to Hume's proposal to throw the universities open 
to Dissenters. 

On the loth of November 1834 Lord Althorp succeeded to 
his father's peerage, and thereby vacated the leadership of 
the House of Commons. The prime minister, Lord Melbourne, 
submitted to the king a choice of names for the chancellorship 
of the exchequer and leadership of the House of Commons; 
but his majesty announced that, having lost the services of 
Lord Althorp as leader of the House of Commons, he could feel 
no confidence in the stability of Lord Melbourne's government, 
and that it was his intention to send for the duke of Wellington. 
The duke took temporary charge of affairs, but Peel was felt to 
be indispensable. He had gone abroad after the session, and 
was now in Rome. As soon as he could be brought back he 
formed an administration, and appointed Gladstone to a junior 
lordship of the treasury. Parliament was dissolved on the 2pth 
of December. Gladstone was returned unopposed, this time in 
conjunction with the Liberal lawyer whom he had beaten at the 
last election. The new parliament met on the igth of February 
1835. The elections had given the Liberals a considerable 
majority. Immediately after the meeting of parliament Glad- 
stone was promoted to the under-secretaryship for the colonies, 
where his official chief was Lord Aberdeen. The administration 
was not long-lived. On the 3oth of March Lord John Russell 
moved a resolution in favour of an inquiry into the temporalities 
of the Irish Church, with the intention of applying the surplus 
to general education without distinction of religious creed 
This was carried against ministers by a majority of thirty-three. 
On the 8th of April Sir Robert Peel resigned, and the under- 
secretary for the colonies of course followed his chief into private 
life. 



68 



GLADSTONE 



Released from the labours of office, Gladstone, living in 
chambers in the Albany, practically divided his time between 

his parliamentary duties and study. Then, as always, 
wor ' y his constant companions were Homer and Dante, and 

it is recorded that he read the whole of St Augustine, 
in twenty-two octavo volumes. He used to frequent the services 
at St James's, Piccadilly, and Margaret chapel, since better 
known as All Saints', Margaret Street. On the 2oth of June 
1837 King William IV. died, and Parliament, having been 
prorogued by the young queen in person, was dissolved on the 
1 7th of the following month. Simply on the strength of his 
parliamentary reputation Gladstone was nominated, without 
his consent, for Manchester, and was placed at the bottom of 
the poll; but, having been at the same time nominated at 
Newark, was again returned. The year 1838 claims special note 
in a record of Gladstone's life, because it witnessed the appearance 
of his famous work on The State in its Relations with the Church. 
He had left Oxford just before the beginning of that Catholic 
revival which has transfigured both the inner spirit and the 
outward aspect of the Church of England. But the revival was 
now in full strength. The Tracts for the Times were saturating 
England with new influences. The movement counted no more 
enthusiastic or more valuable disciple than Gladstone. Its 
influence had reached him through his friendships, notably with 
two Fellows of Merton Mr James Hope, who became Mr Hope- 
Scott of Abbotsford, and the Rev. H. E. Manning, afterwards 
cardinal archbishop. The State in its Relations with the Church 
was his practical contribution to a controversy in which his 
deepest convictions were involved. He contended that the 
Church, as established by law, was to be " maintained for its 
truth," and that this principle, if good for England, was good 
also for Ireland. 

On the 25th of July 1839 Gladstone was married at Ha warden 
to Miss Catherine Glynne, sister, and in her issue heir, of Sir 
Stephen Glynne, ninth and last baronet of that name. In 
1840 he published Church Principles considered in their Results. 

Parliament was dissolved in June 1841. Gladstone was 
again returned for Newark. The general election resulted in 

a Tory majority of eighty. Sir Robert Peel became 
cabinet. * P r i me minister, and made the member for Newark 

vice-president of the Board of Trade. An inevitable 
change is from this time to be traced in the topics of Gladstone's 
parliamentary speaking. Instead of discoursing on the corporate 
conscience of the state and the endowments of the Church, the 
importance of Christian education, and the theological unfitness 
of the Jews to sit in parliament, he is solving business-like 
problems about foreign tariffs and the exportation of machinery; 
waxing eloquent over the regulation of railways, and a graduated 
tax on corn; subtle on the monetary merits of half-farthings, 
and great in the mysterious lore of quassia and cocculus indicus. 
In 1842 he had a principal hand in the preparation of the revised 
tariff, by which duties were abolished or sensibly diminished 
in the case of 1 200 duty-paying articles. In defending the new 
scheme he spoke incessantly, and amazed the House by his 
mastery of detail, his intimate acquaintance with the commercial 
needs of the country, and his inexhaustible power of exposition. 
In 1843 Gladstone, succeeding Lord Ripon as president of the 
Board of Trade, became a member of the cabinet at the age of 
thirty-three. He has recorded the fact that " the very first 
opinion which he ever was called upon to give in cabinet " was 
an opinion in favour of withdrawing the bill providing education 
for children in factories, to which vehement opposition was 
offered by the Dissenters, on the ground that it was too favourable 
to the Established Church. 

At the opening of the session of 1845 the government, in 
pursuance of a promise made to Irish members that they would 
Mayoooth deal with the question of academical education in 
grant: Ireland, proposed to establish non-sectarian colleges 
"o'n""' m t ^ lat countr y an d to make a large addition to the 

grant to the Roman Catholic College of Maynooth. 
Gladstone resigned office, in order, as he announced in the debate 
on the address, to form " not only an honest, but likewise an 



Free 
trade. 



independent and an unsuspected judgment," on the plan to be 
submitted by the government with respect to Maynooth. His 
subsequent defence of the proposed grant, on the ground that 
it would be improper and unjust to exclude the Roman Catholic 
Church in Ireland from a " more indiscriminating support " 
which the state might give to various religious beliefs, was 
regarded by men of less sensitive conscience as only proving that 
there had been no adequate cause for his resignation. Before 
he resigned he completed a second revised tariff, carrying 
considerably further the principles on which he had acted in 
the earlier revision of 1842. 

In the autumn of 1845 the failure of the potato crop in Ireland 
threatened a famine, and convinced Sir Robert Peel that all 
restrictions on the importation of food must be at 
once suspended. He was supported by only three 
members of the cabinet, and resigned on the 5th of 
December. Lord John Russell, who had just announced his 
conversion to total and immediate repeal of the Corn Laws, 
declined the task of forming an administration, and on the 2oth 
of December Sir Robert Peel resumed office. Lord Stanley 
refused to re-enter the government, and his place as secretary 
of state for the colonies was offered to and accepted by Gladstone. 
He did not offer himself for re-election at Newark, and remained 
outside the House of Commons during the great struggle of the 
coming year. It was a curious irony of fate which excluded 
him from parliament at this crisis, for it seems unquestionable 
that he was the most advanced Free Trader in Sir Robert Peel's 
Cabinet. The Corn Bill passed the House of Lords on the 28th 
of June 1846, and on the same day the government were beaten 
in the House of Commons on an Irish Coercion Bill. Lord John 
Russell became prime minister, and Gladstone retired for a season 
into private life. Early in 1847 it was announced that one of the 
two members for the university of Oxford intended to retire at 
the general election, and Gladstone was proposed for the vacant 
seat. The representation of the university had been pronounced 
by Canning to be the most coveted prize of public life, and 
Gladstone himself confessed that he " desired it with an almost 
passionate fondness." Parliament was dissolved on the 23rd 
of July 1847. The nomination at Oxford took place on the 29th 
of July, and at the close of the poll Sir Robert Inglis stood at 
the head, with Gladstone as his colleague. 

The three years 1847, 1848, 1849 were for Gladstone a period 
of mental growth, of transition, of development. A change 
was silently proceeding, which was not completed for 
twenty years. " There have been," he wrote in later 
days to Bishop Wilberforce, " two great deaths, or 
transmigrations of spirit, in my political existence one, very 
slow, the breaking of ties with my original party." This was 
now in progress. In the winter of 1850-1851 Gladstone spent 
between three and four months at Naples, where he learned 
that more than half the chamber of deputies, who had followed 
the party of Opposition, had been banished or imprisoned; that 
a large number, probably not less than 20,000, of the citizens 
had been imprisoned on charges of political disaffection, and that 
in prison they were subjected to the grossest cruelties. Having 
made careful investigations, Gladstone, on the 7th of April 1851, 
addressed an open letter to Lord Aberdeen, bringing an elaborate, 
detailed and horrible indictment against the rulers of Naples, 
especially as regards the arrangements of their prisons and the 
treatment of persons confined in them for political offences. 
The publication of this letter caused a wide sensation in England 
and abroad, and profoundly agitated the court of Naples. In 
reply to a question in the House of Commons, Lord Palmerston 
accepted and adopted Gladstone's statement, expressed keen 
sympathy with the cause which he had espoused, and sent a 
copy of his letter to the queen's representative at every court of 
Europe. A second letter and a third followed, and their effect, 
though for a while retarded, was unmistakably felt in the 
subsequent revolution which created a free and united Italy. 

In February 1852 the Whig government was defeated on a 
Militia Bill, and Lord John Russell was succeeded by Lord 
Derby, formerly Lord Stanley, with Mr Disraeli, 'who now 



Naples 
prison*. 



GLADSTONE 



69 



entered office for the first time, as chancellor of the exchequer 
and leader of the House of Commons. Mr Disraeli introduced 
and carried a makeshift budget, and the government 
Gladstone t jd e d over tne session, and dissolved parliament on the 
"sraeU. istof July 1852. There was some talk of inducing Glad- 
stone to join the Tory government, and on the zpth of 
November Lord Malmesbury dubiously remarked, " I cannot 
make out Gladstone, who seems to me a dark horse." In the 
following month the chancellor of the exchequer produced his 
second budget. The government redeemed their pledge to do 
something for the relief of the agricultural interest by reducing 
the duty on malt. This created a deficit, which they repaired by 
doubling the duty on inhabited houses. The voices of criticism 
were heard simultaneously on every side. The debate waxed 
fast and furious. In defending his proposals Mr Disraeli gave full 
scope to his most characteristic gifts; he pelted his opponents 
right and left with sarcasms, taunts and epigrams. Gladstone 
delivered an unpremeditated reply, which has ever since been 
celebrated. Tradition says that he " foamed at the mouth." 
The speech of the chancellor of the exchequer, he said, must be 
answered " on the moment:" It must be " tried by the laws 
of decency and propriety." He indignantly rebuked his rival's 
language and demeanour. He tore his financial scheme to 
ribbons. It was the beginning of a duel which lasted till 
death removed one of the combatants from the political arena. 
" Those who had thought it impossible that any impression 
could be made upon the House after the speech of Mr Disraeli 
had to acknowledge that a yet greater impression was produced 
by the unprepared reply of Mr Gladstone." The House divided, 
and the government were left in a minority of nineteen. Lord 
Derby resigned. 

The new government was a coalition of Whigs and Peelites. 
Lord Aberdeen became prime minister, and Gladstone chancellor 
of the exchequer. Having been returned again for 
Chancellor tne university of Oxford, he entered on the active 
exchequer, duties of a great office for which he was pre-eminently 
fitted by an unique combination of financial, adminis- 
trative and rhetorical gifts. His first budget was introduced on 
the i8th of April 1853. It tended to make life easier and cheaper 
for large and numerous classes; it promised wholesale remissions 
of taxation; it lessened the charges on common processes of 
business, on locomotion, on postal communication, and on 
several articles of general consumption. The deficiency thus 
created was to be met by a " succession-duty," or application 
of the legacy-duty to real property; by an increase of the duty 
on spirits; and by the extension of the income-tax, at sd. in 
the pound, to all incomes between 100 and 150. The speech 
in which these proposals were introduced held the House spell- 
bound. Here was an orator who could apply all the resources 
of a burnished rhetoric to the elucidation of figures; who could 
sweep the widest horizon of the financial future, and yet stoop 
to bestow the minutest attention on the microcosm of penny 
stamps and post-horses. Above all, the chancellor's mode of 
handling the income-tax attracted interest and admiration. It 
was a searching analysis of the financial and moral grounds on 
which the impost rested, and a historical justification and eulogy 
of it. Yet, great as had been the services of the tax at a time 
of national danger, Gladstone could not consent to retain it as 
a part of the permanent and ordinary finances of the country. 
It was objectionable on account of its unequal incidence, of the 
harassing investigation into private affairs which it entailed, 
and of the frauds to which it inevitably led. Therefore, having 
served its turn, it was to be extinguished in 1860. The scheme 
astonished, interested and attracted the country. The queen 
and Prince Albert wrote to congratulate the chancellor of the 
exchequer. Public authorities and private friends joined in 
the chorus of eulogy. The budget demonstrated at once its 
author's absolute mastery over figures and the persuasive force 
of his expository gift. It established the chancellor of the 
exchequer as the paramount financier of his day, and it was only 
the first of a long series of similar performances, different, of 
course, in' detail, but alike in their bold outlines and brilliant 



handling. Looking back on a long life of strenuous exertion, 
Gladstone declared that the work of preparing his proposals 
about the succession-duty and carrying them through Parlia- 
ment was by far the most laborious task which he ever performed. 

War between Great Britain and Russia was declared on the 
27th of March 1854, and it thus fell to the lot of the most pacific 
of ministers, the devotee of retrenchment, and the anxious 
cultivator of all industrial arts, to prepare a war budget, and to 
meet as well as he might the exigencies of a conflict which had so 
cruelly dislocated all the ingenious devices of financial optimism. 
No amount of skill in the manipulation of figures, no ingenuity 
in shifting fiscal burdens, could prevent the addition of forty-one 
millions to the national debt, or could countervail the appalling 
mismanagement at the seat of war. Gladstone declared that 
the state of the army in the Crimea was a " matter for weeping 
all day and praying all night." As soon as parliament met in 
January 1855 J. A. Roebuck, the Radical member for Sheffield, 
gave notice that he would move for a select committee " to 
inquire into the condition of our army before Sevastopol, and 
into the conduct of those departments of the government whose 
duty it has been to minister to the wants of that army." On 
the same day Lord John Russell, without announcing his inten- 
tion to his colleagues, resigned his office as president of the 
council sooner than attempt the defence of the government. 
Gladstone, in defending the government against Roebuck, 
rebuked in dignified and significant terms the conduct of men 
who, " hoping to escape from punishment, ran away from duty." 
On the division on Mr Roebuck's motion the government was 
beaten by the unexpected majority of 157. 

Lord Palmerston became prime minister. The Peelites 
joined him, and Gladstone resumed office as chancellor of the 
exchequer. A shrewd observer at the time pronounced him 
indispensable. " Any other chancellor of the exchequer would 
be torn in bits by him." The government was formed on the 
understanding that Mr Roebuck's proposed committee was to 
be resisted. Lord Palmerston soon saw that further resistance 
was useless; his Peelite colleagues stuck to their text, and, 
within three weeks after resuming office, Gladstone, Sir James 
Graham and Mr Sidney Herbert resigned. Gladstone once said 
of himself and his Peelite colleagues, during the period of political 
isolation, that they were like roving icebergs on which men 
could not land with safety, but with which ships might come 
into perilous collision. He now applied himself specially to 
financial criticism, and was perpetually in conflict with the 
chancellor of the exchequer, Sir George Cornewall Lewis. 

In 1858 Lord Palmerston was succeeded by Lord Derby at 
the head of a Conservative administration, and Gladstone 
accepted the temporary office of high commissioner extraordinary 
to the Ionian Islands. Returning to England for the session of 
1859, he found himself involved in the controversy which arose 
over a mild Reform Bill introduced by the government. They 
were defeated on the second reading of the bill, Gladstone voting 
with them. A dissolution immediately followed, and Gladstone 
was again returned unopposed for the university of Oxford. 
As soon as the new parliament met a vote of want of confidence 
in the ministry was moved in the House of Commons. In the 
critical division which ensued Gladstone voted with the govern- 
ment, who were left in a minority. Lord Derby resigned. Lord 
Palmerston became prime minister, and asked Gladstone to 
join him as chancellor of the exchequer. To vote confidence 
in an imperilled ministry, and on its defeat to take office with 
the rivals who have defeated it, is a manoeuvre which invites 
the reproach of tergiversation. But Gladstone risked the re- 
proach, accepted the office and had a sharp tussle for his seat. 
He emerged from the struggle victorious, and entered on his 
duties with characteristic zeal. The prince consort wrote: 
" Gladstone is now the real leader in the House of Commons, 
and works with' an energy and vigour altogether incredible." 

The budget of 1860 was marked by two distinctive features. 
It asked the sanction of parliament for the commercial treaty 
which Cobden had privately arranged with the emperor Napoleon, 
and it proposed to abolish the duty on paper. The French treaty 



7 o 



GLADSTONE 



Budget 
of I860. 



was carried, but the abolition of the paper-duty was defeated in 
the House of Lords. Gladstone justly regarded the refusal to 
remit a duty as being in effect an act of taxation, and 
therefore as an infringement of the rights of the House 
of Commons. The proposal to abolish the paper- 
duty was revived in the budget of 1861, the chief proposals 
of which, instead of being divided, as in previous years, into 
several bills, were included in one. By this device the Lords were 
obliged to acquiesce in the repeal of the paper-duty. 

During Lord Palmerston's last administration, which lasted 
from 1859 to 1865, Gladstone was by far the most brilliant and 
most conspicuous figure in the cabinet. Except in finance, he 
was not able to accomplish much, for he was met and thwarted 
at every turn by his chief's invincible hostility to change; but 
the more advanced section of the Liberal party began to look 
upon him as their predestined leader. In 1864, in a debate on a 
private member's bill for extending the suffrage, he declared that 
the burden of proof lay on those " who would exclude forty-nine 
fiftieths of the working-classes from the franchise." In 1865, 
in a debate on the condition of the Irish Church Establishment, 
he declared that the Irish Church, as it then stood, was in a false 
position, inasmuch as it ministered only to one-eighth or one- 
ninth of the whole community. But just in proportion as Glad- 
stone advanced in favour with the Radical party he lost the 
confidence of his own constituents. Parliament was dissolved 
in July 1865, and the university elected Mr Gathorne Hardy 
in his place. 

Gladstone at once turned his steps towards South Lancashire, 

where he was returned with two Tories above him. The result 

of the general election was to retain Lord Palmerston's 

Leader of government in power, but on the i8th of October the 

House of . . i I TT i j i T j 

Commons. W prime minister died. He was succeeded by Lord 
Russell, and Gladstone, retaining the chancellorship 
of the exchequer, became for the first time leader of the House 
of Commons. Lord Russell, backed by Gladstone, persuaded 
his colleagues to consent to a moderate Reform Bill, and the 
task of piloting this measure through the House of Commons 
fell to Gladstone. The speech in which he wound up the debate 
on the second reading was one of the finest, if not indeed the very 
finest, which he ever delivered. But it was of no practical avail. 
The government were defeated on an amendment in committee, 
and thereupon resigned. Lord Derby became prime minister, 
with Disraeli as chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the 
House of Commons. On the i8th of March 1867 the Tory 
Reform Bill, which ended in establishing Household Suffrage 
in the boroughs, was introduced, and was read a second time 
without a division. After undergoing extensive alterations in 
committee at the hands of the Liberals and Radicals, the bill 
became law in August. 

At Christmas 1867 Lord Russell announced his final retirement 
from active politics, and Gladstone was recognized by acclama- 
tion as leader of the Liberal party. Nominally he was 
' n OPP 03 ' 1 ! 011 ; but his party formed the majority 
party. f the House of Commons, and could beat the govern- 
ment whenever they chose to mass their forces. 
Gladstone seized the opportunity to give effect to convictions 
which had long been forming in his mind. Early in the session 
he brought in a bill abolishing compulsory church-rates, and 
this passed into law. On the i6th of March, in a debate raised 
by an Irish member, he declared that in his judgment the Irish 
Church, as a State Church, must cease to exist. Immediately 
afterwards he embodied this opinion in a series of resolutions 
concerning the Irish Church Establishment, and carried them 
against the government. Encouraged by this triumph, he 
brought in a Bill to prevent any fresh appointments in the Irish 
Church, and this also passed the Commons, though it was 
defeated in the Lords. Parliament was dissolved on the nth of 
November. A single issue was placed before the country Was 
the Irish Church to be, or not to be, disestablished? The 
response was an overwhelming affirmative. Gladstone, who had 
been doubly nominated, was defeated in Lancashire, but was 
returned for Greenwich. He chose this moment for publishing 



a Chapter of Autobiography, in which he explained and justified 
his change of opinion with regard to the Irish Church. 

On the 2nd of December Disraeli, who had succeeded Lord 
Derby as premier in the preceding February, announced that 
he and his colleagues, recognizing their defeat, had 
resigned without waiting for a formal vote of the new Minister- 
parliament. On the following day Gladstone was Irish 
summoned to Windsor, and commanded by the Church 
queen to form an administration. The great task to 5teAmc*< 
which the new prime minister immediately addressed 
himself was the disestablishment of the Irish Church. The 
queen wrote to Archbishop Tail that the subject of the Irish 
Church " made her very anxious," but that Mr Gladstone 
" showed the most conciliatory disposition." " The government 
can do nothing that would tend to raise a suspicion of their 
sincerity in proposing to disestablish the Irish Church, and to 
withdraw all state endowments from all religious communions 
in Ireland; but, were these conditions accepted, all other 
matters connected with the question might, the queen thinks, 
become the subject of discussion and negotiation." The bill 
was drawn and piloted on the lines thus indicated, and became 
law on the 26th of July. In the session of 1870 Gladstone's 
principal work was the Irish Land Act, of which the object was 
to protect the tenant against eviction as long as he paid his rent, 
and to secure to him the value of any improvements which his 
own industry had made. In the following session Religious 
Tests in the universities were abolished, and a bill to establish 
secret voting was carried through the House of Commons. 
This was thrown out by the Lords, but became law a year later. 
The House of Lords threw out a bill to abolish the purchase of 
commissions in the army. Gladstone found that purchase 
existed only by royal sanction, and advised the queen to issue 
a royal warrant cancelling, on and after the ist of November 
following, all regulations authorizing the purchase of commissions. 

In 1873 Gladstone set his hand to the third of three great 
Irish reforms to which he had pledged himself. His scheme 
for the establishment of a university which should satisfy both 
Roman Catholics and Protestants met with general disapproval. 
The bill was thrown out by three votes, and Gladstone resigned. 
The queen sent for Disraeli, who declined to take office in a 
minority of the House of Commons, so Gladstone was compelled 
to resume. But he and his colleagues were now, in Disraelitish 
phrase, " exhausted volcanoes." Election after election went 
wrong. The government had lost favour with the public, and 
was divided against itself. There were resignations and rumours 
of resignations. When the session of 1873 had come to an end 
Gladstone took the chancellorship of the exchequer, and, as 
high authorities contended, vacated his seat by doing so. The 
point was obviously one of vital importance; and we learn from 
Lord Selborne, who was lord chancellor at the time, that Glad- 
stone ' : was sensible of the difficulty of either taking his seat 
in the usual manner at the opening of the session, or letting .... 
the necessary arrangements for business in the House of Commons 
be made in the prime minister's absence. A dissolution was the 
only escape." On the 23rd of January 1874 Gladstone announced 
the dissolution in an address to his constituents, 
declaring that the authority of the government had 
now " sunk below the point necessary for the due de- 
fence and prosecution of the public interest." He promised that, 
if he were returned to power, he would repeal the income-tax. 
This bid for popularity failed, the general election resulting in a 
Tory majority of forty-six. Gladstone kept his seat for Greenwich, 
but was only second on the poll. Following the example of 
Disraeli in 1868, he resigned without meeting parliament. 

For some years he had alluded to his impending retirement 
from public life, saying that he was " strong against going on in 

politics to the end." He was now sixty-four, and his _ 

i > 1-111 e \- *. Temporary 

life had been a continuous experience of exhausting retirement. 

labour. On the i2th of March 1874 he informed 
Lord Granville that he could give only occasional attendance 
in the House of Commons during the current session, and that 
he must " reserve his entire freedom to divest himself of all the 



, 





GLADSTONE 



responsibilities of leadership at no distant date." His most 
important intervention in the debates of 1874 was when he 
opposed Archbishop Tail's Public Worship Bill. This was read 
a second time without a division, but in committee Gladstone 
enjoyed some signal triumphs over his late solicitor-general, 
Sir William Harcourt, who had warmly espoused the cause of 
the government and the bill. At the beginning of 1875 Gladstone 
carried into effect the resolution which he had announced a year 
before, and formally resigned the leadership of the Liberal 
party. He was succeeded by Lord Hartington, afterwards 
duke of Devonshire. The learned leisure which Gladstone had 
promised himself when released from official responsibility 
was not of long duration. In the autumn of 1875 an insurrection 
broke out in Bulgaria, and the suppression of it by the Turks 
was marked by massacres and outrages. Public indignation 
was aroused by what were known as the " Bulgarian atrocities," 
and Gladstone flung himself into the agitation against Turkey 
with characteristic zeal. At public meetings, in the press, and 
in parliament he denounced the Turkish government and its 
champion, Disraeli, who had now become Lord Beaconsfield. 
Lord Hartington soon found himself pushed aside from his 
position of titular leadership. For four years, from 1876 to 1880, 
Gladstone maintained the strife with a courage, a persistence 
and a versatility which raised the enthusiasm of his followers 
to the highest pitch. The county of Edinburgh, or Midlothian, 
which he contested against the dominant influence of 
. the duke of Buccleuch, was the scene of the most 
astonishing exertions. As the general election ap- 
proached the only question submitted to the electors was Do 
you approve or condemn Lord Beaconsfield's foreign policy ? 
The answer was given at Easter 1880, when the Liberals were 
returned by an overwhelming majority over Tories and Home 
Rulers combined. Gladstone was now member for Midlothian, 
having retired from Greenwich at the dissolution. 

When Lord Beaconsfield resigned, the queen sent for Lord 
Hartington, the titular leader of the Liberals, but he and Lord 
Granville assured her that no other chief than Gladstone would 
satisfy the party. Accordingly, on the 23rd of April he became 
prime minister for the second time. His second administration, 
of which the main achievement was the extension of the suffrage 
to the agricultural labourers, was harassed by two controversies, 
relating to Ireland and Egypt, which proved disastrous to the 
Liberal party. Gladstone alienated considerable masses of 
English opinion by his efforts to reform the tenure of Irish land, 
and provoked the Irish people by his attempts to establish 
social order and to repress crime. A bill to provide compensation 
for tenants who had been evicted by Irish landlords passed the 
Commons, but was shipwrecked in the Lords, and a ghastly 
record of outrage and murder stained the following winter. A 
Coercion Bill and a Land Bill passed in 1881 proved unsuccessful. 
On the 6th of May 1882 the newly appointed chief secretary 
for Ireland, Lord Frederick Cavendish, and his under-secretary, 
Mr Burke, were stabbed to death in the Phoenix Park at Dublin. 
A new Crimes Act, courageously administered by Lord Spencer 
and Sir George Trevelyan, abolished exceptional crime in Ireland, 
but completed the breach between the British government and 
the Irish party in parliament. 

The bombardment of the forts at Alexandria and the occupa- 
tion of Egypt in 1882 were viewed with great disfavour by the 
bulk of the Liberal party, and were but little congenial to 
Gladstone himself. The circumstances of General Gordon's 
untimely death awoke an outburst of indignation against those 
who were, or seemed to be, responsible for it. Frequent votes of 
censure were proposed by the Opposition, and on the 8th of June 
1885 the government were beaten on the budget. Gladstone 
resigned. The queen offered him the dignity of an earldom, 
which he declined. He was succeeded by Lord Salisbury. 

The general election took place in the following November. 
When it wasover the Liberal party was just short of the numerical 
strength which was requisite to defeat the combination of Tories 
and Parnellites. A startling surprise was at hand. Gladstone 
had for some time been convinced of the expediency of conceding 



Home Rule to Ireland in the event of the Irish constituencies 
giving unequivocal proof that they desired it. His intentions 
were made known only to a privileged few, and 
these, curiously, were not his colleagues. The general H 0me 
election of 1885 showed that Ireland, outside Ulster, Rule Bill. 
was practically unanimous for Home Rule. On the 
I7th of December an anonymous paragraph was published, 
stating that if Mr Gladstone returned to office he was prepared 
to " deal in a liberal spirit with the demand for Home Rule." 
It was clear that if Gladstone meant what he appeared to mean, 
the Parnellites would support him, and the Tories must leave 
office. The government seemed to accept the situation. When 
parliament met they executed, for form's sake, some confused 
manoeuvres, and then they were beaten on an amendment 
to the address in favour of Municipal Allotments. On the ist 
of February 1886 Gladstone became, for the third time, prime 
minister. Several of his former colleagues declined to join 
him, on the ground of their absolute hostility to the policy of 
Home Rule; others joined on the express understanding that 
they were only pledged to consider the policy, and did not fetter 
their further liberty of action. On the 8th of April Gladstone 
brought in his bill for establishing Home Rule, and eight days 
later the bill for buying out the Irish landlords. Meanwhile 
two members of his cabinet, feeling themselves unable to support 
these measures, resigned. Hostility to the bills grew apace. 
Gladstone was implored to withdraw them, or substitute a 
resolution in favour of Irish autonomy; but he resolved to press 
at least the Home Rule Bill to a second reading. In the early 
morning of the 8th of June the bill was thrown out by thirty. 
Gladstone immediately advised the queen to dissolve parliament. 
Her Majesty strongly demurred to a second general election 
within seven months; but Gladstone persisted, and she yielded. 
Parliament was dissolved on the 26th of June. In spite of 
Gladstone's skilful appeal to the constituencies to sanction 
the principle of Home Rule, as distinct from the practical 
provisions of his late bill, the general election resulted in a 
majority of considerably over 100 against his policy, and Lord 
Salisbury resumed office. Throughout the existence of the new 
parliament Gladstone never relaxed his extraordinary efforts, 
though now nearer eighty than seventy, on behalf of the cause 
of self-government for Ireland. The fertility of argumentative 
resource, the copiousness of rhetoric, and the physical energy 
which he threw into the enterprise, would have been remarkable 
at any stage of his public life; continued into his eighty-fifth 
year they were little less than miraculous. Two incidents of 
domestic interest, one happy and the other sad, belong to that 
period of political storm and stress. On the 25th of July 1889 
Gladstone celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of his marriage, 
and on the 4th of July 1891 his eldest son, William Henry, a 
man of fine character and accomplishments, died, after a lingering 
illness, in his fifty-second year. 

The crowning struggle of Gladstone's political career was 
now approaching its climax. Parliament was dissolved on the 
28th of June 1892. The general election resulted 
in a majority of forty for Home Rule, heterogeneously 
composed of Liberals, Labour members and Irish. BUI. 
As soon as the new parliament met a vote of want of 
confidence in Lord Salisbury's government was moved and 
carried. Lord Salisbury resigned, and on the isth of August 
1892 Gladstone kissed hands as first lord of the treasury. He 
was the first English statesman that had been four times prime 
minister. Parliament reassembled in January 1893. Gladstone 
brought in his new Home Rule Bill on the I3th of February. 
It passed the House of Commons, but was thrown out by the 
House of Lords on the second reading on the 8th of September 
1893. Gladstone's political work was now, in his own judgment, 
ended. He made his last speech in the House of Commons on the 
ist of March 1894, acquiescing in some amendments introduced 
by the Lords into the Parish Councils Bill; and on the 3rd of 
March he placed his resignation in the queen's hands. He 
never set foot again in the House of Commons, though he re- 
mained a member of it till the dissolution of 1895. He paid 



GLADSTONE GLAGOLITIC 



occasional visits to friends in London, Scotland and the south 
of France; but the remainder of his life was spent for the most 
part at Hawarden. He occupied his leisure by writing a rhymed 
translation of the Odes of Horace, and preparing an elaborately 
annotated edition of Butler's Analogy and Sermons. He had 
also contemplated some addition to the Homeric studies which 
he had always loved, but this design was never carried into effect, 
for he was summoned once again from his quiet life of study 
and devotion to the field of public controversy. The Armenian 
massacres in 1894 and 1895 revived all his ancient hostility to 
" the governing Turk." He denounced the massacres and their 
perpetrators at public meetings held at Chester on the 6th of 
August 1895, and at Liverpool on the 24th of September 1896. 
In March 1897 he recapitulated the hideous history in an open 
letter to the duke of Westminster. 

But the end, though not yet apprehended, was at hand. 
Since his retirement from office Gladstone's physical vigour, 
up to that time unequalled, had shown signs of impairment. 
Towards the end of the summer of 1897 he began to suffer from 
an acute pain, which was attributed to facial neuralgia, and 
in November he went to Cannes. In February 1898 he returned 
to England and went to Bournemouth. There he was informed 
that the pain had its origin in a disease which must soon prove 
fatal. He received the information with simple thankfulness, 
and only asked that he might die at home. On the 22nd of 
March he returned to Hawarden, and there he died 
on the 1 9th of May 1898. During the night of the 
25th of May his body was conveyed from Hawarden to London 
and the coffin was placed on a bier in Westminster Hall. Through- 
out the 26th and 27th a vast train of people, officially estimated 
at 250,000, and drawn from every rank and class, moved in 
unbroken procession past the bier. On the 28th of May the 
coffin, preceded by the two Houses of Parliament and escorted 
by the chief magnates of the realm, was carried from Westminster 
Hall to Westminster Abbey. The heir-apparent and his son, 
the prime minister and the leader of the House of Commons, 
were among those who bore the pall. The body was buried 
in the north transept of the abbey, where, on the igth of June 
1900, Mrs Gladstone's body was laid beside it. 

Mr and Mrs Gladstone had four sons and four daughters, of 
whom one died in infancy. The eldest son, W. H. Gladstone 
Fatally (1840-1891), was a member of parliament for many 
years, and married the daughter of Lord Blantyre, his 
son William (b. 1885) inheriting the family estates. The fourth 
son, Herbert John (b. 1854), sat in parliament for Leeds from 
1880 to 1910, and filled various offices, being home secretary 
1905-1910; in 1910 he was created Viscount Gladstone, on being 
appointed governor-general of united South Africa. The eldest 
daughter, Agnes, married the Rev. E. C. Wickham, headmaster of 
Wellington, 1873-1893, and later Dean of Lincoln. Another 
daughter married the Rev. Harry Drew, rector of Hawarden. 
The youngest, Helen, was for some years vice-principal of 
Newnham College, Cambridge. 

After a careful survey of Mr Gladstone's life, enlightened 
by personal observation, it is inevitable to attempt some analysis 

,. _ of his character. First among his moral attributes 
Character. ... ... _ 

must be placed his religiousness. From those early 

days when a fond mother wrote of him as having been " truly 
converted to God," down to the verge of ninety years, he lived 
in the habitual contemplation of the unseen world, and regulated 
his private and public action by reference to a code higher 
than that of mere prudence or worldly wisdom. A second 
characteristic, scarcely less prominent than the first, was his 
love of power. His ambition had nothing in common with the 
vulgar eagerness for place and pay and social standing. Rather 
it was a resolute determination to'possess that control over the 
machine of state which should enable him to fulfil without let 
or hindrance the political mission with which he believed that 
Providence had charged him. The love of power was supported 
by a splendid fearlessness. No dangers were too threatening 
for him to face, no obstacles tooformidable,no tasks too laborious, 
no heights too steep. The love of power and the supporting 



courage were allied with a marked imperiousness. Of this 
quality there was no trace in his manner, which was courteous, 
conciliatory and even deferential; nor in his speech, which 
breathed an almost exaggerated humility. But the imperious- 
ness showed itself in the more effectual form of action; in his 
sudden resolves, his invincible insistence, his recklessness of 
consequences to himself and his friends, his habitual assumption 
that the civilized world and all its units must agree with him, 
his indignant astonishment at the bare thought of dissent or 
resistance, his incapacity to believe that an overruling Provid- 
ence would permit him to be frustrated or defeated. He had 
by nature what he himself called a " vulnerable temper and 
impetuous moods." But so absolute was his lifelong self-mastery 
that he was hardly ever betrayed into saying that which, on 
cooler reflection, needed to be recalled. It was easy enough 
to see the " vulnerable temper " as it worked within, but it 
was never suffered to find audible expression. It may seem 
paradoxical, but it is true, to say that Mr Gladstone was by 
nature conservative. His natural bias was to respect things as 
they were. In his eyes, institutions, customs, systems, so long 
as they had not become actively mischievous, were good because 
they were old. It is true that he was sometimes forced by 
conviction or fate or political necessity to be a revolutionist 
on a large scale; to destroy an established Church; to add two 
millions of voters to the electorate; to attack the parliamentary 
union of the kingdoms. But these changes were, in their in- 
ception, distasteful to their author. His whole life was spent 
in unlearning the prejudices in which he was educated. His 
love of freedom steadily developed, and he applied its principles 
more and more courageously to the problems of government. 
But it makes some difference to the future of a democratic 
state whether its leading men are eagerly on the look-out for 
something to revolutionize, or approach a constitutional change 
by the gradual processes of conviction and conversion. 

Great as were his eloquence, his knowledge and his financial 
skill, Gladstone was accustomed to say of himself that the only 
quality in which, so far as he knew, he was distinguished from 
his fellow-men was his faculty of concentration. Whatever were 
the matter in hand, he so concentrated himself on it, and absorbed 
himself in it, that nothing else seemed to exist for him. 

A word must be said about physical characteristics. In 
his prime Gladstone was just six feet high, but his inches 
diminished as his years increased, and in old age the unusual 
size of his head and breadth of his shoulders gave him a slightly 
top-heavy appearance. His features were strongly marked; 
the nose trenchant and hawk-like, and the mouth severely 
lined. His flashing eyes were deep-set, and in colour resembled 
the onyx with its double band of brown and grey. His com- 
plexion was of an extreme pallor, and, combined with his jet-black 
hair, gave in earlier life something of an Italian aspect to his 
face. His dark eyebrows were singularly flexible, and they per- 
petually expanded and contracted in harmony with what he 
was saying. He held himself remarkably upright, and even 
from his school-days at Eton had been remarked for the rapid 
pace at which he habitually walked. His voice was a baritone, 
singularly clear and far-reaching. In the Waverley Market 
at Edinburgh, which is said to hold 20,000 people, he could be 
heard without difficulty; and as late as 1895 he said to the 
present writer: " What difference does it make to me whether 
I speak to 400 or 4000 people ? " His physical vigour in old 
age earned him the popular nickname of the Grand Old Man. 

Lord Morley of Blackburn's Life of Gladstone was published in 
1903. (G. W. E. R.) 

GLADSTONE, a seaport of Clinton county, Queensland, 
Australia, 328 m. by rail N.E. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 1566. 
It possesses a fine, well-sheltered harbour reputed one of the 
best in Queensland, at the mouth of the river Boyne. Gold, 
manganese, copper and coal are found in the neighbourhood. 
Gladstone, founded in 1847, became a municipality in 1863. 

See J. F., Hogan, The Gladstone Colony (London, 1898). 

GLAGOLITIC, an early Slavonic alphabet: also the liturgy 
written therein, and the people (Dalmatians and Roman Catholic 



GLAIR GLAMORGANSHIRE 



73 



Montenegrins) among whom it has survived by special licence 
of the Pope (see SLAVS for table of letters). 

GLAIR (from Fr. glaire, probably from Lat. clarus, clear, 
bright), the white of an egg, and hence a term used for a prepara- 
tion made of this and used, in bookbinding and in gilding, to 
retain the gold and as a varnish. The adjective " glairy " is 
used of substances having the viscous and transparent consistency 
of the white ol an egg. 

GLAISHER, JAMES (1800-1903), English meteorologist and 
aeronaut, was born in London on the 7th of April 1809. After 
serving for a few years on the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, 
he acted as an assistant at the Cambridge and Greenwich ob- 
servatories successively, and when the department of meteorology 
and magnetism was formed at the latter, he was entrusted with 
its superintendence,which he continued to exercise for thirty-four 
years, until his retirement from the public service. In 1845 he 
published his well-known dew-point tables, which have gone 
through many editions. In 1850 he established the Meteoro- 
logical Society, acting as its secretary for many years, and in 
1866 he assisted in the foundation of the Aeronautical Society 
of Great Britain. He was appointed a member of the royal 
commission on, the warming and ventilation of dwellings in 1875, 
and for twelve years from 1880 acted as chairman of the executive 
committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. But his name 
is best known in connexion with the series of balloon ascents 
which he made between 1862 and 1866, mostly in company 
with Henry Tracey Coxwell. Many of these ascents were 
arranged by a committee of the British Association, of which 
he was a member, and were strictly scientific in character, the 
object being to carry out observations on the temperature, 
humidity, &c., of the atmosphere at high elevations. In one of 
them, that which took place at Wolverhampton on the 5th of 
September 1862, Glaisher and his companion attained the 
greatest height that had been reached by a balloon carrying 
passengers. As no automatically recording instruments were 
available, and Glaisher was unable to read the barometer at 
the highest point owing to loss of consciousness, the precise 
altitude can never be known, but it is estimated at about 
7 m. from the earth. He died on the 7th of February 1903 at 
Croydon. 

GLAMIS, a village and parish of Forfarshire, Scotland, 5! m. 
W. by S. of Forfar by the Caledonian railway. Pop. of parish 
(1901) 1351. The name is sometimes spelled Glammis and the 
* is mute: it is derived from the Gaelic, glamhus, " a wide gap," 
" a vale." The chief object in the village is the sculptured stone, 
traditionally supposed to be a memorial of Malcolm II., although 
Fordun's statement that the king was slain in the castle is now 
rejected. About a mile from the station stands Glamis Castle, 
the seat of the earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne, a fine example 
of the Scottish Baronial style, enriched with certain features 
of the French chateau. In its present form it dates mostly 
from the i7th century, but the original structure was as old as 
the nth century, for Macbeth was Thane of Glamis. Several 
of the early Scots kings, especially Alexander III., used it 
occasionally as a residence. Robert II. bestowed the thanedom 
on John Lyon, who had married the king's second daughter 
by Elizabeth Mure and was thus the founder of the existing 
family. Patrick Lyon became hostage to England for James I. 
in 1424. When, in 1537, Janet Douglas, widow of the 6th Lord 
Glamis, was burned at Edinburgh as a witch, for conspiring to 
procure James V.'s death, Glamis was forfeited to the crown, but 
it was restored to her son six years later when her innocence had 
been established. The 3rd earl of Strathmore entertained the 
Old Chevalier and eighty of his immediate followers in 1715. 
After discharging the duties of hospitality the earl joined the 
Jacobites at Sheriff muir and fell on the battlefield. Sir Walter 
Scott spent a night in the " hoary old pile " when he was about 
twenty years old, and gives a striking relation of his experiences 
in his Demonology and Witchcraft. The hall has an arched 
ceiling and several historical portraits, including those of Claver- 
house, Charles II. and James II. of England. At Gossans, in 
the parish of Glamis, there is a remarkable sculptured monolith, 



and other examples occur at the Hunters' Hill and in the old 
kirkyard of Eassie. 

GLAMORGANSHIRE (Welsh Morgamvg), a maritime county 
occupying the south-east corner of Wales, and bounded N.W. 
by Carmarthenshire, N. by Carmarthenshire and Breconshire, 
E. by Monmouthshire and S. and S.W. by the Bristol Channel 
and Carmarthen Bay. The contour of the county is largely 
determined by the fact that it lies between the mountains of 
Breconshire and the Bristol Channel. Its extreme breadth from 
the sea inland is 29 m., while its greatest length from east to 
west is 53 m. Its chief rivers, the Rhymney, Taff, Neath (or 
Nedd) and Tawe or Tawy, have their sources in the Breconshire 
mountains, the two first trending towards the south-east, while 
the two last trend to the south-west, so that the main body of the 
county forms a sort of quarter-circle between the Taff and the 
Neath. Near the apex of the angle formed by these two rivers 
is the loftiest peak in the county, the great Pennant scarp of 
Craig y Llyn or Carn Moesyn, 1970 ft. high, which in the Glacial 
period diverted the ice-flow from the Beacons into the valley 
on either side of it. To the south and south-east of this peak 
extend the great coal-fields of mid-Glamorgan, their surface 
forming an irregular plateau with an average elevation of 600 to 
1 200 ft. above sea-level, but with numerous peaks about j 500 ft. 
high, or more; Mynydd y Caerau, the second highest being 
1823 ft. Out of this plateau have been carved, to the depth 
of 500 to 800 ft. below its general level, three distinct series 
of narrow valleys, those in each series being more or less parallel. 
The rivers which give their names to these valleys include the 
Cynon, the Great and Lesser Rhondda (tributaries of the Taff) 
and the Ely flowing to the S.E., the Ogwr or Ogmore (with its 
tributaries the Garw and Llynfi) flowing south through Bridgend, 
and the Avan bringing the waters of the Corwg and Gwynfi to 
the south-west into Swansea Bay at Aberavon. To the south 
of this central hill country, which is wet, cold and sterile, and 
whose steep slopes form the southern edge of the coal-field, there 
stretches out to the sea a gently undulating plain, compendiously 
known as the " Vale of Glamorgan," but in fact consisting of a 
succession of small vales of such fertile land and with such a 
mild climate that it has been styled, not inaptly, the " Garden 
of Wales." To the east of the central area referred to and 
divided from it by a spur of the Brecknock mountains culminating 
in Carn Bugail, 1570 ft. high, is the Rhymney, which forms the 
county's eastern boundary. On the west other spurs of the 
Beacons divide the Neath from the Tawe (which enters the 
sea at Swansea), and the Tawe from the Loughor, which, with 
its tributary the Amman, separates the county on the N.W. 
from Carmarthenshire, in which it rises, and falling into Car- 
marthen Bay forms what is known as the Burry estuary, so 
called from a small stream of that name in the Gower peninsula. 
The rivers are all comparatively short, the Taff, in every respect 
the chief river, being only 33 m. long. 

Down to the middle of the igth century most of the Glamorgan 
valleys were famous for their beautiful scenery, but industrial 
operations have since destroyed most of this beauty, except in 
the so-called " Vale of Glamorgan," the Vale of Neath, the 
" combes " and limestone gorges of Gower and the upper reaches 
of the Taff and the Tawe. The Vale of Neath is par excellence 
the waterfall district of South Wales, the finest falls being the 
Cilhepste fall, the Sychnant and the three Clungwyns on the 
Mellte and its tributaries near the Vale of Neath railway from 
Neath to Hirwaun, Scwd Einon Gam and Scwd Gladys on the 
Pyrddin on the west side of the valley close by, with Melin Court 
and Abergarwed still nearer Neath. There are also several 
cascades on the Dulais, and in the same district, though in 
Breconshire, is Scwd Henrhyd on the Llech near Colbren Junction. 
Almost the only part of the county which is now well timbered 
is the Vale of Neath. There are three small lakes, Llyn Fawr 
and Llyn Fach near Craig y Llyn and Kenfig Pool amid the 
sand-dunes of Margam. The rainfall of the county varies from 
an average of about 25 in. at Porthcawl and other parts of the 
Vale of Glamorgan to about 37 in. at Cardiff, 40 in. at Swansea 
and to upwards of 70 in. in the northern part of the county, 



74 



GLAMORGANSHIRE 



the fall being still higher in the adjoining parts of Breconshire 
whence Cardiff, Swansea, Merthyr and a large area near Neath 
draw their main supplies of water. 

The county has a coast-line of about 83 m. Its two chief bays 
are the Burry estuary and Swansea, one on either side of the 
Gower Peninsula, which has also a number of smaller inlets with 
magnificent cliff scenery. The rest of the coast is fairly regular, 
the chief openings being at the mouths of the Ogmore and the 
Taff respectively. The most conspicuous headlands are Whitef ord 
Point, Worms Head and Mumbles Head in Gower, Nash Point 
and Lavernock Point on the eastern half of the coast. 

Geology. The Silurian rocks, the oldest in the county, form a 
small inlier about 2 sq. m. in area at Rumney and Pen-y-lan, north 
of Cardiff, and consist of mudstones and sandstones of Wenlock and 
Ludlow age ; a feeble representative of the Wenlock Limestone also 
is present. They are conformably succeeded by the Old Red Sand- 
stone which extends westwards as far as Cowbridge as a deeply- 
eroded anticline largely concealed by Trias and Lias. The Old 
Red Sandstone consists in the lower parts of red marls and sand- 
stones, while the upper beds are quartzitic and pebbly, and form 
bold scarps which dominate the low ground formed by the softer 
beds below. Cefn-y-bryn, another anticline of Old Red Sandstone 
(including small exposures of Silurian rocks), forms the prominent 
backbone of the Gower peninsula. The next formation is the 
Carboniferous Limestone which encircles and underlies the great 
South Wales coal-field, on the south of which, west of Cardiff, it 
forms a bold escarpment of steeply-dipping beds surrounding the 
Old Red Sandstone anticline. It shows up through the Trias and 
Lias in extensive inliers near Bridgend, while in Gower it dips away 
from the Old Red Sandstone of Cefn-y-bryn. On the north of the 
coal-field it is just reached near Merthyr Tydfil. The Millstone Grit, 
which consists of grits, sandstones and shales, crops out above the 
limestone and serves to introduce the Coal Measures, which lie in the 
form of a great trough extending east and west across the county and 
occupying most of its surface. The coal seams are most numerous 
in the lower part of the series; the Pennant Sandstone succeeds 
and occupies the inner parts of the basin, forming an elevated 
moorland region deeply trenched by the teeming valleys (e.g. the 
Rhondda) which cross the coal-field from north to south. Above 
the Pennant Sandstone still higher coals come in. Taken generally, 
the coals are bituminous in the south-east and anthracitic in the 
north-west. 

After the Coal Measures had been deposited, the southern part of 
the region was subjected to powerful folding; the resulting anticlines 
were worn down during a long period of detrition, and then sub- 
merged slowly beneath a Triassic lake in which accumulated the 
Keuper conglomerates and marls which spread over the district 
west of Cardiff and are traceable on the coast of Gower. The 
succeeding Rhaetic and Lias which form most of the coastal plain 
(the fertile Vale of Glamorgan) from Penarth to near Bridgend were 
laid down by the Jurassic sea. A well-marked raised beach is 
traceable in Gower. Sand-dunes are present locally around Swansea 
Bay. Moraines, chiefly formed of gravel and clay, occupy many 
of the Glamorgan valleys; and these, together with the striated 
surfaces which may be observed at higher levels, are clearly glacial 
in origin. In the Coal Measures and the newer Limestones and 
Triassic, Rhaetic and Liassic conglomerates, marls and shales, many 
interesting fossils have been disinterred: these include the remains 
of an air-breathing reptile (Anthracespeton). Bones of the cave-bear, 
lion, mammoth, reindeer, rhinoceros, along with flint weapons and 
tools, have been discovered in some caves of the Gower peninsula. 

Agriculture. The low-lying land on the south from Caerphilly to 
Margam is very fertile, the soil being a deep rich loam; and here the 
standard of agriculture is fairly high, and there prevails a well- 
defined tenant-right custom, supposed to be of ancient origin but 
probably dating only from the beginning of the igth century. 
Everywhere on the Coal Measures the soil is poor, while vegetation is 
also injured by the smoke from the works, especially copper smoke. 
Leland (c. 1535) describes the lowlands as growing good corn and 
grass but little wood, while the mountains had " redde dere, kiddes 
plenty, oxen and sheep." The land even in the " Vale " seems to 
have been open and unenclosed till the end of the isth or beginning 
of the 1 6th century, while enclosure spread to the uplands still later. 
About one-fifth of the total area is still common land, more than half 
of which is unsuitable for cultivation. The total area under culti- 
vation in 1905 was 269,271 acres or about one-half of the total are a 
of the county. The chief crops raised (giving them in the order 
of their respective acreages) are oats, barley, turnips and swedes, 
wheat, potatoes and mangolds. A steady decrease of the acreage 
under grain-crops, green-crops and clover has been accompanied 
by an increase in the area of pasture. Dairying has been largely 
abandoned for stock-raising, and very little " Caerphilly cheese " is 
now made in that district. In 1905 Glamorgan had the largest 
number of horses in agriculture of any Welsh county except those of 
Carmarthen and Cardigan. Good sheep and ponies are reared in the 
hill-country. Pig-keeping is much neglected, and despite the mild 
climate very little fruit is grown. The average size of holdings in 



1905 was 47-3 acres, there being only 46 holdings above 300 acres, 
and 1719 between 50 and 500 acres. 

Mining and Manufactures. Down to the middle of the i8th 
century the county had no industry of any importance except 
agriculture. The coal which underlies practically the whole surface 
of the county except the Vale of Glamorgan and West Gower was 
little worked till about 1755, when it began to be used instead of 
charcoal for the smelting of iron. By 1811, when there were 25 
blast furnaces in the county, the demand for coal for this purpose 
had much increased, but it was in the most active period of railway 
construction that it reached its maximum. Down to about 1850, 
if not later, the chief collieries were owned by the ironmasters and 
were worked for their own requirements, but when the suitability 
of the lower seams in the district north of Cardiff for steam purposes 
was realized, an export trade sprang up and soon assumed enormous 
proportions, so that " the port of Cardiff " (including Barry and 
Penarth), from which the bulk of the steam coal was shipped, became 
the first port in the world for the shipment of coal . The development 
of the anthracite coal-field lying to the north and west of Swansea 
(from which port it is mostly shipped) dates mainly from the closing 
years of the igth century, when the demand for this coal grew 
rapidly. There are still large areas in the Rhymney Valley on the 
east, and in the districts of Neath and Swansea on the west, whose 
development has only recently been undertaken. In connexion with 
the coal industry, patent fuel (made from small coal and tar) is 
largely manufactured at Cardiff, Port Talbot and Swansea, the ship- 
ments from Swansea being the largest in the kingdom. Next in 
importance to coal are the iron, steel and tin-plate industries, and 
in the Swansea district the smelting of copper and a variety of other 
ores. 

The manufacture of iron and steel is carried on at Dowlais, Merthyr 
Tydfil, Cardiff, Port Talbot, Briton Ferry, Pontardawe, Swansea, 
Gorseinon and Gowerton. During the last quarter of the i<jth cen- 
tury the use of the native ironstone was almost wholly given up, 
and the necessary ore is now imported, mainly from Spain* As a 
result several of the older inland works, such as those of Aberdare, 
Ystalyfera and Brynaman have been abandoned, and new works 
have been established on or near the sea-board; e.g. the Dowlais 
company in 1891 opened large works at Cardiff. The tin-plate 
industry is mainly confined to the west of the county, Swansea being 
the chief port for the shipment of tin-plates, though there are works 
near Llantrisant and at Melin Griffith near Cardiff, the latter being 
the oldest in the county. Copper-smelting is carried on on a large 
scale in the west of the county, at Port Talbot, Cwmavon, Neath and 
Swansea, and on a small scale at Cardiff, the earliest works having 
been established at Neath in 1584 and at Swansea in 1717. There 
are nickel works at Clydach near Swansea, the nickel being imported 
in the form of " matte " from Canada. Swansea has almost a 
monopoly of the manufacture of spelter or zinc. Lead, silver and a 
number of other metals or their by-products are treated in or near 
Swansea, which is often styled the metallurgical capital of Wales." 
Limestone and silica quarries are worked, while sandstone and clay 
are also raised. Swansea and Nantgarw were formerly famous for 
their china, coarse ware is still made chiefly at Ewenny and terra- 
cotta at Pencoed. Large numbers of people are employed in 
engineering works and m the manufacture of machines, chains, 
conveyances, tools, paper and chemicals. The textile factories are 
few and unimportant. 

Fisheries. Fisheries exist all along the coast; by lines, draught- 
nets, dredging, trawling, fixed nets and by hand. There is a fleet of 
trawlers at Swansea. The principal fish caught are cod, herring, 
pollock, whiting, flukes, brill, plaice, soles, turbot, oysters, mussels, 
limpets, cockles, shrimps, crabs and lobsters. There are good fish- 
markets at Swansea and Cardiff. 

Communications. The county has ample dock accommodation. 
The various docks of Cardiff amount to 210 acres, including timber 
ponds; Penarth has a dock and basin of 26 acres and a tidal harbour 
of 55 acres. Barry docks cover 114 acres; Swansea has 147 acres, 
including its new King's Dock; and Port Talbot 90 acres. There 
are also docks at Briton Ferry and Porthcawl, but they are not 
capable of admitting deep-draft vessels. 

Besides its ports, Glamorgan has abundant means of transit in 
many railways, of which the Great Western is the chief. Its trunk 
line traversing the country between the mountains and the sea passes 
through Cardiff, Bridgend and Landore (on the outskirts of Swansea) , 
and throws off numerous branches to the north. The Taff Vale 
railway serves all the valley of the Taff and its tributaries, and has 
also extensions to Barry and (through Llantrisant and Cowbridge) 
to Aberthaw. The Rhymney railway likewise serves the Rhymney 
Valley, and has a joint service with the Great Western between 
Cardiff and Merthyr Tydfil the latter town being also the terminus 
of the Brecon and Merthyr and a branch of the North-Western from 
Abergavenny. The Barry railway visits Cardiff and then travels in 
a north-westerly direction to Pontypridd and Forth, while it sends 
another branch along the coast through Llantwit Major to Bridgend. 
Swansea is connected with Merthyr by the Great Western, with 
Brecon by the Midland, with Craven Arms and Mid-Wales generally 
by the London & North-Western, with the Rhondda Valley by 
the Rhondda and Swansea Bay (now worked by the Great Western) 
and with Mumbles by the Mumbles railway. The Port Talbot 



GLAMORGANSHIRE 



75 



railway runs to Blaengarw, and the Neath and Brecon railway 
(starting from Neath) joins the Midland at Colbren Junction. The 
canals of the county are the Glamorgan canal from Cardiff to 
Merthyr Tydfil (25$ m.), with a branch (7 m.) to Aberdare, the 
Neath canal (13 m.) from Briton Ferry to Abernant, Glyn Neath 
(whence a tramway formerly connected it with Aberdare), the 
Tennant canal connecting the rivers Neath and Tawe, and the Swan- 
sea canal (i6J m.), running up the Swansea Valley from Swansea to 
Abercrave in Breconshire. Comparatively little use is now made of 
these canals, excepting the lower portions of the Glamorgan canal. 

Population and Administration. The area of the ancient county 
with which the administrative county is conterminous is 518,863 
acres, with a population in 1901 0^859,931 persons. In the three 
decades between 1831 and 1861 it increased 35'2, 35^4 and 37-1 % 
respectively, and in 1881-1891, 34'4, its average increase in the other 
decennial periods subsequent to 1861 being about 25%. The 
county is divided into five parliamentary divisions (viz. Glamorgan- 
shire East, South and Middle, Gower and Rhondda) ; it also includes 
the Cardiff district of boroughs (consisting of Cardiff, Cowbridge and 
Llantrisant), which has one member; the greater part of the parlia- 
mentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil (which mainly consists of the 
county borough of Merthyr, the urban district of Aberdare and part 
of Mountain Ash), and returns two members; and the two divisions 
of Swansea District returning one member each, one division con- 
sisting of the major part of Swansea town, the other comprising the 
remainder of Swansea and the boroughs of Aberavon, Kenfig, 
Llwchwr and Neath. There are six municipal boroughs: Aberavon 
(pop. in 1901, 7553), Cardiff (164,333), Cowbridge (1202), Merthyr 
Tydfil (69,228), Neath (13,720) and Swansea (94,537). Cardiff 
(which in 1905 was created a city), Merthyr Tydfil and Swansea are 
county boroughs. The following are urban districts: Aberdare 
(43,365), Barry (27,030), Bridgend (6062), Briton Ferry (6973), 
Caerphilly (15,835), Glyncorrwg (6453), Maesteg (15,012), Margam- 
(9014), Mountain Ash (31,093), Ogmore and Garw (19,907), Oyster- 
mouth (4461), Penarth (14,228), Pontypridd (32,316), Porthcawl 
(1872) and Rhondda, previously known as Ystradyfodwg (113,735). 
Glamorgan is in the S. Wales circuit, and both assizes and quarter- 
sessions are held at Cardiff and Swansea alternately. All the 
municipal boroughs have separate commissions of the peace, and 
Cardiff and Swansea have also separate courts of quarter-sessions. 
The county has thirteen other petty sessional divisions, Cardiff, the 
Rhondda (with Pontypridd) and the Merthyr and Aberdare district 
have stipendiary magistrates. There are 165 civil parishes. Ex- 
cepting the districts of Gower and Kilvey, which are in the diocese 
of St David's, the whole county is in the diocese of Llandaff. There 
are 159 ecclesiastical parishes or districts situated wholly or partly 
within the county. 

History. The earliest known traces of man within the area 
of the present county are the human remains found in the famous 
bone-caves of Gower, though they are scanty as compared with 
the huge deposits of still earlier animal remains. To a later 
stage, perhaps in the Neolithic period, belongs a numberof com- 
plete skeletons discovered in 1903 in sand-blown tumuli at 
the mouth of the Ogmore, where many flint implements were 
also found. Considerably later, and probably belonging to the 
Bronze Age (though finds of bronze implements have been scanty) , 
are the many cairns and tumuli, mainly on the hills, such as on 
Garth Mountain near Cardiff, Crug-yr-avan and a number east 
of the Tawe; the stone circles often found in association with 
the tumuli, that of Carn Llecharth near Pontardawe being one 
of the most complete in Wales; and the fine cromlechs of Cefn 
Bryn in Gower (known as Arthur's Stone), of St Nicholas and of 
St Lythan's near Cardiff. 

In Roman times the country from the Neath to the Wye was 
occupied by the Silures, a pre-Celtic race, probably governed at 
that time by Brythonic Celts. West of the Neath and along the 
fringe of the Brecknock Mountains were probably remnants of the 
earlier Goidelic Celts, who have left traces in the place-names of 
the Swansea valley (e.g. llwch, " a lake ") and in the illegible 
Ogham inscription at Loughor, the only other Ogham stone in 
the county being at Kenfig, a few miles to the east of the Neath 
estuary. The conquest of the Silures by the Romans was begun 
about A.D. 50 by Ostorius Scapula and completed some 25 years 
later by Julius Frontinus, who probably constructed the great 
military road, called Via Julia Maritima, from Gloucester to St 
David's, with stations at Cardiff, Bovium (variously identified 
with Boverton, Cowbridge and Ewenny), Nidum (identified with 
Neath) and Leucarum or Loughor. The important station of 
Gaer on the Usk near Brecon was connected by two branch 
roads, one running from Cardiff through Gelligaer (where there 
was a strong hill fort) and Merthyr Tydfil, and another from Neath 



through Capel Colbren. Welsh tradition credits Glamorgan 
with being the first home of Christianity, and Llandaff the earliest 
bishopric in Britain, the name of three reputed missionaries of 
the 2nd century being preserved in the names of parishes in south 
Glamorgan. What is certain, however, is that the first two bishops 
of Llandaff, St Dubricius and St Teilo, lived during the first 
half of the 6th century, to which period also belongs the establish- 
ment of the great monastic settlements of Llancarvan by Cadoc, 
of Llandough by Oudoceus and of Llantwit Major by Illtutus, the 
last of which flourished as a seat of learning down to the I2th 
century. A few moated mounds such as at Cardiff indicate that, 
after the withdrawal of the Romans, the coasts were visited by 
sporadic bands of Saxons, but the Scandinavians who came in 
the gth and succeeding centuries left more abundant traces both 
in the place-names of the coast and in such camps as that on 
Sully Island, the Bulwarks at Porthkerry and Hardings Down 
in Gower. Meanwhile the native tribes of the district had 
regained their independence under a line of Welsh chieftains, 
whose domain was consolidated into a principality known as 
Glywyssing, till about the end of the loth century when it 
acquired the name of Morganwg, that is the territory of Morgan, 
a prince who died in A.D. 980; it then comprised the whole 
country from the Neath to the Wye, practically corresponding 
to the present diocese of Llandaff. Gwlad Morgan, later softened 
into Glamorgan, never had much vogue and meant precisely the 
same as Morganwg, though the two terms became differentiated 
a few centuries later. 

The Norman conquest of Morganwg was effected in the 
closing years of the nth century by Robert Fitzhamon, lord of 
Gloucester. His followers settled in the low-lying lands of the 
" Vale," which became known as the " body " of the shire, 
while in the hill country, which consisted of ten " members," 
corresponding to its ancient territorial divisions, the Welsh 
retained their customary laws and much of their independence. 
Glamorgan, whose bounds were now contracted between the 
Neath and the Rhymney, then became a lordship marcher, its 
status and organization being that of a county palatine; its 
lord possessed jura regalia, and his chief official was from the 
first a vice-comes, or sheriff, who presided over a county court 
composed of his lord's principal tenants. The inhabitants of 
Cardiff in which, as the capul baroniae, this court was held 
(though sometimes ambulatory-), were soon granted municipal 
privileges, and in time Cowbridge, Kenfig, Llantrisant, Aberavon 
and Neath also became chartered market-towns. The manorial 
system was introduced throughout the " Vale," the manor in 
many cases becoming the parish, and the owner building for its 
protection first a castle and then a church. The church itself 
became Normanized, and monasteries were established the 
Cistercian abbey of Neath and Margam in 1129 and 1147 re- 
spectively, the Benedictine priory of Ewenny in 1141 and that of 
Cardiff in 1147. Dominican and Franciscan houses were also 
founded at Cardiff in the following century. 

Gower (with Kilvey) or the country west of the morass between 
Neath and Swansea had a separate history. It was conquered 
about 1 100 by Henry de Newburgh, ist earl of Warwick, by 
whose descendants and the powerful family of De Breos it 
was successively held as a marcher lordship, organized to some 
extent on county lines, till 1469. Swansea (which was the caput 
baroniae of Gower) and Loughor received their earlier charters 
from the lords of Gower (see GOWER). 

For the first two centuries after Fitzhamon's time the lordship 
of Glamorgan was held by the earls of Gloucester, a title con- 
ferred by Henry I. on his natural son Robert, who acquired 
Glamorgan by marrying Fitzhamon's daughter. To the ist 
earl's patronage of Geoffrey of Monmouth and other men of 
letters, at Cardiff Castle of which he was the builder, is probably 
due the large place which Celtic romance, especially theArthurian 
cycle, won for itself in medieval literature. The lordship passed 
by descent through the families of Clare (who held it from 1217 
to 1317), Despenser, Beauchamp and Neville to Richard III., on 
whose fall it escheated to the crown. From time to time, the 
Welsh of the hills, often joined by their countrymen from other 



7 6 



GLANDERS 



parts, raided the Vale, and even Cardiff Castle was seized about 
11 53 by Ivor Bach, lord of Senghenydd, who for a time held its 
lord a prisoner. At last Caerphilly Castle was built to keep them 
in check, but this provoked an invasion in 1270 by Prince 
Llewelyn ap Griffith, who besieged the castle and refused to retire 
except on conditions. In 1316 Llewelyn Bren headed a revolt in 
the samedistrict,but being defeated wasput to death by Despenser, 
whose great unpopularity with the Welsh made Glamorgan less 
safe as a retreat for Edward II. a few years later. In 1404 
Glendower swept through the county, burning castles and laying 
waste the possessions of the king's supporters. By the Act of 
Union of 1535 the county of Glamorgan was incorporated as it 
now exists, by the addition to the old county of the lordship 
of Gower and Kilvey, west of the Neath. By another act of 
1542 the court of great sessions was established, and Glamorgan, 
with the counties of Brecon and Radnor, formed one of its four 
Welsh circuits from thence till 1830, when the English assize 
system was introduced into Wales. In the same year the county 
was given one parliamentary representative, increased to two 
in 1832 and to five in 1885. The boroughs were also given a 
member. In 1832 Cardiff (with Llantrisant and Cowbridge), the 
Swansea group of boroughs and the parliamentary borough of 
Merthyr Tydfil were given one member each, increased to two, 
in the case of Merthyr Tydfil in 1867. In 1885 the Swansea 
group was divided into two constituencies with a member each. 

The lordship of Glamorgan, shorn of its quasi-regal status, was 
granted by Edward VI. to William Herbert, afterwards ist earl 
of Pembroke, from whom it has descended to the present marquess 
of Bute. 

The rule of the Tudors promoted the rapid assimilation of the 
inhabitants of the county, and by the reign of Elizabeth even 
the descendants of the Norman knights had largely become 
Welsh both in speech and sentiment. Welsh continued to be the 
prevalent speech almost throughout the county, except in the 
peninsular part of Gower and perhaps Cardiff, till the last quarter 
of the ipth century. Since then it has lost ground in the mari- 
time towns and the south-east corner of the county generally, 
while fairly holding its own, despite much English migration, in 
the industrial districts to the north. In 1901 about 56% of the 
total population above three years of age was returned as speaking 
English only, 37% as speaking both English and Welsh, and 
about 65 % as speaking Welsh only. 

In common with the rest of Wales the county was mainly 
Royalist in the Civil War, and indeed stood foremost in its 
readiness to pay ship-money, but when Charles I. visited Cardiff 
in July 1645 he failed to recruit his army there, owing to the 
dissatisfaction of the county, which a few months later declared 
for the parliament. There was, however, a subsequent Royalist 
revolt in Glamorgan in 1648, but it was signally crushed by 
Colonel Horton at the battle of St Pagan's (8th of May). 

The educational gap caused by final disappearance of the 
great university of Llantwit Major, founded in the 6th century, 
and by the dissolution of the monasteries was to some extent 
filled by the foundation, by the Stradling family, of a grammar 
school at Cowbridge which, refounded in 1685 by Sir Leoline 
Jenkins, is still carried on as an endowed school. The only other 
ancient grammar school is that of Swansea, founded by Bishop 
Gore in 1682, and now under the control of the borough council. 
Besides the University College of South Wales and Monmouth- 
shire established at Cardiff in 1883, and a technical college 
at Swansea, there is a Church of England theological college 
(St Michael's) at Llandaff (previously at Aberdare), a training 
college for school-mistresses at Swansea, schools for the blind at 
Cardiff and Swansea and for the deaf at Cardiff, Swansea and 
Pontypridd. 

Antiquities. The antiquities of the county not already 
mentioned include an unusually large number of castles, all 
of which, except the castles of Morlais (near Merthyr Tydfil), 
Castell Coch and Llantrisant, are between the hill country and 
the sea. The finest specimen is that of Caerphilly, but there 
are also more or less imposing ruins at Oystermouth, Coity, 
Newcastle (at Bridgend), Llanblethian, Pennard and Swansea. 



Among the restored castles, resided in by their present owners, 
are St Donat's, " the latest and most complete of the structures 
built for defence," Cardiff, the residence of the marquess of 
Bute, St Pagan's, Dunraven, Fonmon and Penrice. Of the 
monastic buildings, that of Ewenny is best preserved, Neath 
and Margam are mere ruins, while all the others have disappeared. 
Almost all the older churches possess towers of a somewhat 
military character, and most of them, except in Gower, retain 
Borne Norman masonry. Coity, Coychurch and Ewenny (all near 
Bridgend) are fine examples of cross churches with embattled 
towers characteristic of the county. There are interesting 
monumental effigies at St Mary's, Swansea, Oxwich, Ewenny, 
Llantwit Major, Llantrisant, Coity and other churches in the 
Vale. There are from twenty-five to thirty sculptured stones, 
of which some sixteen are both ornamented and inscribed, five 
of the latter being at Margam and three at Llantwit Major, 
and dating from the gth century if not earlier. 

AUTHORITIES. The records of the Curia comitatus or County 
Court of Glamorgan are supposed to have perished, so also have 
the records of Neath. With these exceptions, the records of the 
county have been well preserved. A collection edited by G. T. 
Clark under the title Cartae et alia munimenta quae ad dominium de 
Glamorgan pertinent was privately printed by him in four volumes 
(1885-1893). A Descriptive Catalogue of the Penrice and Margam 
Abbey MSS. in the Possession of Miss Talbot of Margam (6 vols.) 
was privately issued (1893-1905) under the editorship of Dr de 
Gray Birch, who has also published histories of the Abbeys of 
Neath and Margam. The Book of Llan Ddf (edited by Dr Gweno- 
"gvryn Evans, 1903) contains documents illustrative of the early 
history of the diocese of Llandaff. Cardiff has published its Records 
in 5 vols., and there is a volume of Swansea charters. There is no 
complete history of the county, except a modest but useful one 
in Welsh Hanes Morganwg, by D. W. Jones (Dafydd Morganwg) 
( 1 874) ; the chief contributions are Rice Merrick's Booke of Glamorgan- 
shire s Antiquities, written in 1578; The Land of Morgan (1883) 
(a history of the lordship of Glamorgan), by G. T. Clark, whose 
Genealogies of Glamorgan (1886) and Medieval Military Architecture 
(1884) are also indispensable; see also T. Nicholas, Annals and 
Antiquities of the Counties and County Families of Wales (2 vols., 
1872). For Gower, see GOWER. (D. LL. T.) 

GLANDERS, or FARCY (Equinia), a specific infective and 
contagious disease, caused by a tissue parasite (Bacillus mallei), 
to which certain animals, chiefly the horse, ass and mule, are 
liable, and which is communicable from them to man. Glanders 
in the domesticated animals is dealt with under VETERINARY 
SCIENCE; it is happily a rare form of disease in man, there being 
evidently less affinity for its development in the human subject 
than in the equine species. For the pathology see the article 
PARASITIC DISEASES. It occurs chiefly among those who from 
their occupation are frequently in contact with horses, such as 
grooms, coachmen, cavalry soldiers, veterinary surgeons, &c. ; the 
bacillus is communicated from a glandered animal either through 
a wound or scratch or through application to the mucous mem- 
brane of the nose or mouth. A period of incubation, lasting 
from three to five days, generally follows the introduction of 
the virus into the human system. This period, however, appears 
sometimes to be of much longer duration, especially where there 
has been no direct inoculation of the poison. The first symptoms 
are a general feeling of illness, accompanied with pains in the 
limbs and joints resembling those of acute rheumatism. If 
the disease has been introduced by means of an abraded surface, 
pain is felt at that point, and inflammatory swelling takes place 
there, and extends along the neighbouring lymphatics. An 
ulcer is formed at the point of inoculation which discharges 
an offensive ichor, and blebs appear in the inflamed skin, along 
with diffuse abscesses, as in phlegmonous erysipelas. Sometimes 
the disease stops short with these local manifestations, but 
more commonly goes on rapidly accompanied with symptoms 
of grave constitutional disturbance. Over the whole surface 
of the body there appear numerous red spots or pustules, which 
break and discharge a thick mucous or sanguineous fluid. Besides 
these there are larger swellings lying deeper in the subcutaneous 
tissue, which at first are extremely hard and painful, and to 
which the term farcy " buds " or " buttons " is applied. These 
ultimately open and become extensive sloughing ulcers. 

The mucous membranes participate in the same lesions as 



GLANVILL GLAPTHORNE 



77 



are present in the skin, and this is particularly the case with 
the interior of the nose, where indeed, in many instances, the 
disease first of all shows itself. This organ becomes greatly 
swollen and inflamed, while from one or both nostrils there 
exudes a copious discharge of highly offensive purulent or 
sanguineous matter. The lining membrane of the nostrils 
is covered with papules similar in character to those on the 
skin, which form ulcers, and may lead to the destruction of the 
cartilaginous and bony textures of the nose. The diseased action 
extends into the throat, mouth and eyes, while the whole face 
becomes swollen and erysipelatous, and the lymphatic glands 
under the jaws inflame and suppurate. Not unfrequently the 
bronchial tubes become affected, and cough attended with 
expectoration of matter similar to that discharged from the 
nose is the consequence. The general constitutional symptoms 
are exceedingly severe, and advance with great rapidity, the 
patient passing into a state of extreme prostration. In the 
acute form of the disease recovery rarely if ever occurs, and the 
case generally terminates fatally in a period varying from two 
or three days to as many weeks. 

A chronic form of glanders and farcy is occasionally met with, 
in which the symptoms, although essentially the same as those 
above described, advance much more slowly, and are attended 
with relatively less urgent constitutional disturbance. Cases 
of recovery from this form are on record; but in general the 
disease ultimately proves fatal by exhaustion of the patient, 
or by a sudden supervention, which is apt to occur, of the acute 
form. On the other hand, acute glanders is never observed 
to become chronic. 

In the treatment of this malady in human beings reliance 
is mainly placed on the maintenance of the patient's strength 
by strong nourishment and tonic remedies. Cauterization 
should be resorted to if the point of infection is early known. 
Abscesses may be opened and antiseptic lotions used. In all 
cases of the outbreak of glanders it is of the utmost consequence 
to prevent the spread of the disease by the destruction of affected 
animals and the cleansing and disinfection of infected localities. 

GLANVILL (or GLANVIL), JOSEPH (1636-1680), English 
philosopher, was born at Plymouth in 1636, and was educated 
at Exeter and Lincoln colleges, Oxford, where he graduated as 
M.A. in 1658. After the Restoration he was successively rector 
of Wimbush, Essex, vicar of Frome Selwood, Somersetshire, 
rector of Streat and Walton. In 1666 he was appointed to the 
abbey church, Bath; in 1678 he became prebendary of Wor- 
cester Cathedral, and acted as chaplain in ordinary to Charles II. 
from 1672. He died at Bath in November 1680. Glanvill's 
first work (a passage in which suggested the theme of Matthew 
Arnold's Scholar Gipsy), The Vanity of Dogmatizing, or Con- 
fidence in Opinions, manifested in a Discourse of the shortness 
and uncertainty of our Knowledge, and its Causes, with Reflexions 
on Peripateticism, and an Apology for Philosophy (1661), is 
interesting as showing one special direction in which the new 
method of the Cartesian philosophy might be developed. Pascal 
had already shown how philosophical scepticism might be 
employed as a bulwark for faith, and Glanvill follows in the 
same track. The philosophic endeavour to cognize the whole 
system of things by referring all events to their causes appears 
to him to be from the outset doomed to failure. For if we 
inquire into this causal relation we find that though we know 
isolated facts, we cannot perceive any such connexion between 
them as that the one should give rise to the other. In the 
words of Hume, " they seem conjoined but never connected." 
All causes then are but secondary, i.e. merely the occasions 
on which the one first cause operates. It is singular enough 
that Glanvill who had not only shown, but even exaggerated, 
the infirmity of human reason, himself provided an example of 
its weakness; for, after having combated scientific dogmatism, 
he not only yielded to vulgar superstitions, but actually en- 
deavoured to accredit them both in his revised edition of the 
Vanity of Dogmatizing, published as Scepsis scientifica (1665, 
ed. Rev. John Owen, 1885), and in his Philosophical Considera- 
tions concerning the existence of Sorcerers and Sorcery (1666). 



The latter work appears to have been based on the story of the 
drum which was alleged to have been heard every night in a 
house in Wiltshire (Tedworth, belonging to a Mr Mompesson), 
a story which made much noise in the year 1663, and which is 
supposed to have furnished Addison with the idea of his comedy 
the Drummer. At his death Glanvill left a piece entitled Saddu- 
cismus Triumphatus (printed in 1681, reprinted with some 
additions in 1682, German trans. 1701). He had there collected 
twenty-six relations or stories of the same description as that 
of the drum, in order to establish, by a series of facts, the opinion 
which he had expressed in his Philosophical Considerations. 
Glanvill supported a much more honourable cause when he 
undertook the defence of the Royal Society of London, under 
the title' of _Plus Ultra, or the Progress and Advancement of 
Science since the time of Aristotle (1668), a work which shows 
how thoroughly he was imbued with the ideas of the empirical 
method. 

Besides the works already noticed, Glanvill wrote Lux orientals 
(1662); Philosophia pia (1671); Essays on Several Important 
Subjects in Philosophy and Religion (1676); An Essay concerning 
Preaching; and Sermons. See C. RSmusat, Hist, de la phil. en 
Angleterre, bk. iii. ch. xi. ; W. E. H. Lecky, Rationalism in Europe 
(1865), i. 120-128; Hallam's Literature of Europe, iii. 358-362; 
Tulloch's Rational Theology, ii. 443-455. 

GLANVILL, RANULF DE (sometimes written GLANVIL, 
GLANVILLE) (d. 1190), chief justiciar of England and reputed 
author of a book on English law, was born at Stratford in Suffolk, 
but in what year is unknown. There is but little information 
regarding his early life. He first comes to the front as sheriff 
of Yorkshire from 1163 to 1170. In 1173 he became sheriff 
of Lancashire and custodian of the honour of Richmond. In 
1174 he was one of the English leaders at the battle of Alnwick, 
and it was to him that the king of the Scots, William the Lion, 
surrendered. In 1175 he was reappointed sheriff of Yorkshire, 
in 1176 he became justice of the king's court and a justice 
itinerant in the northern circuit, and in 1180 chief justiciar of 
England. It was with his assistance that Henry II. completed 
his judicial reforms, though the principal of them had been 
carried out before he came into office. He became the king's 
right-hand man, and during Henry's frequent absences was in 
effect viceroy of England. After the death of Henry in 1189, 
Glanvill was removed from his office by Richard I., and im- 
prisoned till he had paid a ransom, according to one authority, 
of 15,000. Shortly after obtaining his freedom he took the 
cross, and he died at the siege of Acre in 1190. At the instance, 
it may be, of Henry II., Glanvill wrote or superintended the 
writing of the Tractatus de legibus et consuetudinibus regni 
Angliae, which is a practical treatise on the forms of procedure 
in the king's court. As the source of our knowledge regarding 
the earliest form of the curia regis, and for the information it 
affords regarding ancient customs and laws, it is of great value 
to the student of English history. It is now generally agreed 
that the work of Glanvill is of earlier date than the Scottish law 
book known from its first words as Regiam Majestatem, a work 
which bears a close resemblance to his. 

The treatise of Glanvill was first printed in 1554. An English 
translation, with notes and introduction by John Beames, was 
published at London in 1812. A French version is found in various 
MSS., but has not yet been printed. (See also ENGLISH LAW: 
History of.) 

GLAPTHORNE, HENRY (fl. 1635-1642), English poet and 
dramatist, wrote in the reign of Charles I. All that is known 
of him is gathered from his own work. He published Poems 
(1639), many of them in praise of an unidentified " Lucinda "; 
a poem in honour of his friend Thomas Beedome, whose Poems 
Divine and Humane he edited in 1641; and Whitehall (1642), 
dedicated to his " noble friend and gossip, Captain Richard 
Lovelace." The first volume contains a poem in honour of the 
duke of York, and Whitehall is a review of the past glories of 
the English court, containing abundant evidences of the writer's 
devotion to the royal cause. Argalus and Parthenia (1639) is a 
pastoral tragedy founded on an episode in Sidney's Arcadia; 
Albertus Wallenstein (1639), his only attempt at historical tragedy, 
represents Wallenstein as a monster of pride and cruelty. His 



GLARUS 



other plays are The Hollander (written 1635; printed 1640), 
a romantic comedy of which the scene is laid in Genoa; Wit in a 
Constable (1640), which is probably a version of an earlier play, 
and owes something to Shakespeare's Much Ado about Nothing; 
and The Ladies Priviledge (1640). The Lady Mother (1635) 
has been identified (Fleay, Biog. Chron. of the Drama) with The 
Noble Trial, one of the plays destroyed by Warburton's cook, 
and Mr A. H. Bullen prints it in vol. ii. of his Old English Plays 
as most probably Glapthorne's work. The Paraside, or Revenge 
for Honour (1654), entered at Stationers' Hall in 1653 as Glap- 
thorne's, was printed in the next year with George Chapman's 
name on the title-page. It should probably be included among 
Glapthorne's plays, which, though they hardly rise above the 
level of contemporary productions, contain many felicitous 
isolated passages. . 

The Plays and Poems of Henry Clapthorne (1874) contains an un- 
signed memoir, which, however, gives no information about the 
dramatist's life. There is no reason for supposing that the George 
Glapthorne of whose trial details are given was a relative of the poet. 

GLARUS (Fr. Claris), one of the Swiss cantons, the name 
being taken from that of its chief town. Its area is 266-8 sq. m., 
of which 173-1 sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests 
covering 41 sq. m.), but it also contains 13-9 sq. m. of glaciers, 
ranking as the fifth Swiss canton in this respect. It is thus a 
mountain canton, the loftiest point in it being the Todi (11,887 ft.), 
the highest summit that rises to the north of the upper Aar and 
Vorder Rhine valleys. It is composed of the upper valley of 
the Linth, that is the portion which lies to the south of a line 
drawn from the Lake of Zurich to the Walensee. This river 
rises in the glaciers of the Todi, and has carved out for itself a 
deep bed, so that the floor of the valley is comparatively level, 
and therefore is occupied by a number of considerable villages. 
Glacier passes only lead from its head to the Grisons, save the 
rough footpath over the Kisten Pass, while a fine new carriage 
road over the Klausen Pass gives access to the canton of Uri. 
The upper Linth valley is sometimes called the Grossthal (main 
valley) to distinguish it from its chief (or south-eastern) tributary, 
the Sernf valley or Kleinthal, which joins it at Schwanden, a 
little above Glarus itself. At the head of the Kleinthal a mule 
track leads to the Grisons over the Panixer Pass, as also a foot- 
path over the Segnes Pass. Just below Glarus town, another 
glen (coming from the south-west) joins the main valley, and is 
watered by the Klon, while from its head the Pragel Pass 
(a mule path, converted into a carriage road) leads over to 
the canton of Schwyz. The Klon glen (uninhabited save in 
summer) is separated from the main glen by the fine bold mass 
of the Glarnisch (9580 ft.), while the Sernf valley is similarly cut 
off from the Grossthal by the high ridge running northwards 
from the Hausstock (10,342 ft.) over the Karpfstock (9177 ft.). 
The principal lakes, the Klonthalersee and the Muttensee, are 
of a thoroughly Alpine character, while there are several fine 
waterfalls near the head of the main valley, such as those formed 
by the Sandbach, the Schreienbach and the Fatschbach. The 
Pantenbrucke, thrown over the narrow cleft formed by the 
Linth, is one of the grandest sights of the Alps below the snow- 
line. There is a sulphur spring at Stachelberg, near Linthal 
village, and an iron spring at Elm, while in the Sernf valley 
there are the Plattenberg slate quarries, and just south of Elm 
those of the Tschingelberg, whence a terrific landslip descended 
to Elm (nth September 1 88 1 ) , destroying many houses and killing 
115 persons. A railway runs through the whole canton from 
north to south past Glarus to Linthal village (i6| m.), while 
from Schwanden there is an electric line (opened in 1905) up to 
Elm (8J m.). 

In 1900 the population of the canton was 32,349 (a decrease 
on the 33,825 of 1888, this being the only Swiss canton which 
shows a decrease), of whom 31,797 were German-speaking, 
while there were 24,403 Protestants, 7918 Romanists (many in 
Nafels) and 3 Jews. After the capital, Glarus (q.v.), the largest 
villages are Nafels (2 557 inhabitants), Ennenda (2494 inhabitants, 
opposite Glarus, of which it is practically a suburb), Netstal 
(2003 inhabitants), Mollis (1912 inhabitants) and Linththal 



(1894 inhabitants). The slate industry is now the most important 
as the cotton manufacture has lately very greatly fallen off, 
this being the real reason of the diminution in the number of the 
population. There is little agriculture, for it is a pastoral region 
(owing to its height) and contains 87 mountain pastures (though 
the finest of all within the limits of the canton, the Urnerboden, 
or the Glarus side of the Klausen Pass, belongs to Uri), which 
can support 8054 cows, and are of an estimated capital value 
of about 246,000. One of the most characteristic products 
(though inferior qualities are manufactured elsewhere in Switzer- 
land) is the cheese called Schabzieger, Krauterka.se, or green cheese, 
made of skim milk (Zieger or serac), whether of goats or cows, 
mixed with buttermilk and coloured with powdered Steinklee 
(Melilotus officinalis) or blauer Honigklee (Melilotus caerulea). 
The curds are brought down from the huts on the pastures, and, 
after being mixed with the dried powder, are ground in a mill, 
then put into shapes and pressed. The cheese thus produced 
is ripe in about a year, keeps a long time and is largely exported, 
even to America. The ice formed on the surface of the Klon- 
thalersee in winter is stored up on its shore and exported. A 
certain number of visitors come to the canton in the summer, 
either to profit by one or other of the mineral springs men- 
tioned above, or simply to enjoy the beauties of nature, especially 
at Obstalden, above the Walensee. The canton forms but a 
single administrative district and contains 28 communes. It 
sends to the Federal Stiinderath 2 representatives (elected by 
the Lands gemeinde) and 2 also to the Federal Nationalrath. The 
canton still keeps its primitive democratic assembly or Lands- 
gemeinde (meeting annually in the open air at Glarus on the first 
Sunday in May), composed of all male citizens of 20 years of age. 
It acts as the sovereign body, so that no " referendum " is 
required, while any citizen can submit a proposal. It names the 
executive of 6 members, besides the Landammann or president, 
all holding office for three years. The communes (forming 18 
electoral circles) elect for three years the Landrath, a sort of 
standing committee composed of members in the proportion of 
i for every 500 inhabitants or fraction over 250. The present 
constitution dates from 1887. (W. A. B. C.) 

GLARUS (Fr. Claris), the capital of the Swiss canton of the 
same name. It is a clean, modern little town, built on the left 
bank of the Linth (opposite it is the industrial suburb of Ennenda 
on the right bank), at the north-eastern foot of the imposing 
rock peak of the Vorder Glarnisch (7648 ft.), while on the east 
rises the Schild (6400 ft.). It now contains but few houses 
built before 1861, for on the 10/11 May 1861 practically the 
whole town was destroyed by fire that was fanned by a violent 
Fohn or south wind, rushing down from the high mountains 
through the natural funnel formed by the Linth valley. The 
total loss is estimated at about half a million sterling, of which 
about 100,000 were made up by subscriptions that poured in 
from every side. It possesses the broad streets and usual 
buildings of a modern town, the parish church being by far the 
most stately and well-situated building; it is used in common 
by the Protestants and Romans. Zwingli, the reformer, was 
parish priest here from 1506 to 1516, before he became a Pro- 
testant. The town is 1578 ft. above the sea-level, and in 1900 
had a population of 4877, almost all German-speaking, while 
1248 were Romanists. For the Linth canals (1811 and 1816) 
see LINTH. 

The DISTRICT OF GLARUS is said to have been converted to 
Christianity in the 6th century by the Irish monk, Fridolin, 
whose special protector was St Hilary of Poitiers; the former 
was the founder, and both were patrons, of the Benedictine 
nunnery of Sackingen, on the Rhine between 'Constance and 
Basel, that about the gth century became the owner of the 
district which was then named after St Hilary. The Habsburgs, 
protectors of the nunnery, gradually drew to themselves the 
exercise of all the rights of the nuns, so that in 1352 Glarus 
joined the Swiss Confederation. But the men of Glarus did not 
gain their complete freedom till after they had driven back the 
Habsburgs in the glorious battle of Nafels (1388), the comple- 
ment of Sempach, so that the Habsburgers gave up their rights 



GLAS, G. GLAS, J. 



79 



in 1398, while those of Sackingen were bought up in 1395, on 
condition of a small annual payment. Glarus early adopted 
Protestantism, but there were many struggles later on between 
the two parties, as the chief family, that of Tschudi, adhered to 
the old faith. At last it was arranged that, besides the common 
Landsgemeinde, each party should have its separate Lands- 
gemeinde (1623) and tribunals (1683), while it was not till 1798 
that the Protestants agreed to accept the Gregorian calendar. 
The slate-quarrying industry appeared early in the xyth century, 
while cotton-spinning was introduced about 1714, and calico- 
printing by 1750. In 1798, in consequence of the resistance 
of Glarus to the French invaders, the canton was united to other 
districts under the name of canton of the Linth, though in 1803 
it was reduced to its former limits. In 1799 it was traversed 
by the Russian army, under Suworoff, coming over the Pragel 
Pass, but blocked by the French at Nafels, and so driven over 
the Panixer to the Grisons. The old system of government was 
set up again in 1814. But in 1836 by the new Liberal con- 
stitution one single Landsgemeinde was restored, despite the 
resistance (1837) of the Romanist population at Nafels. 

AUTHORITIES. J. Biibler, Die Alpwirtschaft im Kant. G. (Soleure. 
1898); J. J. Blumer, article on the early history of the canton in 
vol. iii. (Zurich, 1844) of the Archiv f. schweiz. Geschichte; E. Buss 
and A. Heim, Der Bergsturz von Elm (1881) (Zurich, 1881) ; W. A. B. 
Coolidge, The Range of the Todi (London, 1894); J. G. Ebel, Schilde- 
rung der Gebirgsvolker d. Schweiz, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1798); Gottfried 
Heer, Geschichte d. Landes Glarus (to 1830) (2 vols., Glarus, 1898- 
1899), Glarnerische Reformationsgeschichte (Glarus, 1900), Zur 500 
jdhrigen Gedachtnisfeier der Schlacht bei Nafels (1388) (Glarus, 1888) 
and Die Kirchen d. Kant. Glarus (Glarus, 1890); Oswald Heer and 
J. J. Blumer-Heer, Der Kant. Glarus (St Gall, 1846) ; J. J. Hottinger, 
Conrad Escher von der Linth (Zurich, 1852); jahrbuch, published 
annually since 1865 by the Cantonal Historical Society; A. Jenny- 
Triimpy, " Handel u. Industrie d. Kant. G." (article in vol. xxxih., 
1899,. of the Jahrbuch); M. Schuler, Geschichte d. Landes Glarus 
(Zurich, 1836); E. Naf-Blumer, Clubfiihrer durch die Glarner-Alpen 
(Schwanden, 1902) ; Aloys Schulte, article on the true and legendary 
early history of the Canton, published in vol. xviii., 1893, of the 
Jahrbuch f. schweiz. Geschichte (Zurich) ; J. J. Blumer, Staats- und 
Rechtsgeschichte d. schweiz. Demokratien (3 vols., St Gall, 1850- 
1859); H. Ryffel, Die schweiz. Landsgemeinden (Zurich, 1903); 
R. von Reding-Biberegg, Der Zug Suworofs durch die Schweiz in 
1799 (Stans, 1895). (W. A. B. C.) 

GLAS, GEORGE (1725-1765), Scottish seaman and merchant 
adventurer in West Africa, son of John Glas the divine, was 
born at Dundee in 1725, and is said to have been brought up 
as a surgeon. He obtained command of a ship which traded 
between Brazil, the N.W. coasts of Africa and the Canary Islands. 
During his voyages he discovered on the Saharan seaboard a 
river navigable for some distance inland, and here he proposed 
to found a trading station. The exact spot is not known with 
certainty, but it is plausibly identified with Gueder, a place 
in about 29 10' N., possibly the haven where the Spaniards had 
in the isth and i6th centuries a fort called Santa Cruz de Mar 
Pequena. Glas made an arrangement with the Lords of Trade 
whereby he was granted 15,000 if he obtained free cession of 
the port he had discovered to the British crown; the proposal 
was to be laid before parliament in the session of 1765. 
Having chartered a vessel, Glas, with his wife and daughter, 
sailed for Africa in 1764, reached his destination and made 
a treaty with the Moors of the district. He named his settle- 
ment Port Hillsborough, after Wills Hill, earl of Hillsborough 
(afterwards marquis of Downshire), president of the Board 
of Trade and Plantations, 1763-1765. In November 1764 
Glas and some companions, leaving his ship behind, went in 
the longboat to Lanzarote, intending to buy a small barque 
suitable for the navigation of the river on which was his settle- 
ment. From Lanzarote he forwarded to London the treaty 
he had concluded for the acquisition of Port Hillsborough. A 
few days later he was seized by the Spaniards, taken to Teneriffe 
and imprisoned at Santa Cruz. In a letter to the Lords of Trade 
from Teneriffe, dated the I5th of December 1764, Glas said 
be believed the reason for his detention was the jealousy of the 
Spaniards at the settlement at Port Hillsborough " because 
from thence in time of war the English might ruin their fishery 
and effectually stop the whole commerce of the Canary Islands." 



The Spaniards further looked upon the settlement as a step 
towards the conquest of the islands. " They are therefore 
contriving how to make out a claim to the port and will forge 
old manuscripts to prove their assertion " (Calendar of Home 
Office Papers, 1760-1765). In March 1765 the ship's company 
at Port Hillsborough was attacked by the natives and several 
members of it killed. The survivors, including Mrs and Miss 
Glas, escaped to Teneriffe. In October following, through the 
representations of the British government, Glas was released 
from prison. With his wife and child he set sail for England 
on board the barque " Earl of Sandwich." On the 3oth of 
November Spanish and Portuguese members of the crew, who 
had learned that the ship contained much treasure, mutinied, 
killing the captain and passengers. Glas was stabbed to death, 
and his wife and daughter thrown overboard. (The murderers 
were afterwards captured and hanged at Dublin.) After the 
death of Glas the British government appears to have taken 
no steps to carry out his project. 

In 1764 Glas published in London The History of the Discovery and 
Conquest of the Canary Islands, which he had translated from the 
MS. of an Andalusian monk named Juan Abreu de Galindo, then 
recently discovered at Palma. To this Glas added a description of 
the islands, a continuation of the history and an account of the 
manners, customs, trade, &c., of the inhabitants, displaying con- 
siderable knowledge of the archipelago. 

GLAS, JOHN (1695-1773), Scottish divine, was born at 
Auchtermuchty, Fife, where his father was parish minister, 
on the 5th of October 1695. He was educated at Kinclaven and 
the grammar school, Perth, graduated A.M. at the university of 
St Andrews in 1713, and completed his education for the ministry 
at Edinburgh. He was licensed as a preacher by the presbytery 
of Dunkeld, and soon afterwards ordained by that of Dundee 
as minister of the parish of Tealing (1719), where his effective 
preaching soon secured a large congregation. Early in his 
ministry he was " brought to a stand " while lecturing on the 
" Shorter Catechism " by the question " How doth Christ 
execute the office of a king ? " This led to an examination of 
the New Testament foundation of the Christian Church, and in 
1725, in a letter to Francis Archibald, minister of Guthrie, 
Forfarshire, he repudiated the obligation of national covenants. 
In the same year his views found expression in the formation of 
a society " separate from the multitude " numbering nearly a 
hundred, and drawn from his own and neighbouring parishes. 
The members of this ecclesiola in ecdesia pledged themselves 
" to join together in the Christian profession, to follow Christ 
the Lord as the righteousness of his people, to walk together 
in brotherly love, and in the duties of it, in subjection to 
Mr Glas as their overseer in the Lord, to observe the ordinance 
of the Lord's Supper once every month, to submit themselves 
to the Lord's law for removing offences," &c. (Matt, xviii. 
15-20). From the scriptural doctrine of the essentially spiritual 
nature of the kingdom of Christ, Glas in his public teaching 
drew the conclusions: (i) that there is no warrant in the New 
Testament for a national church; (2) that the magistrate as 
such has no function in the church; (3) that national covenants 
are without scriptural grounds; (4) that the true Reformation 
cannot be carried out by political and secular weapons but by 
the word and spirit of Christ only. 

This argument is most fully exhibited in a treatise entitled 
The Testimony of the King of Martyrs (1729). For the promulga- 
tion of these views, which were confessedly at variance with the 
doctrines of the standards of the national church of Scotland, 
he was summoned (1726) before his presbytery, where in the 
course of the investigations which followed he affirmed still 
more explicitly his belief that " every national church established 
by the laws of earthly kingdoms is antichristian in its constitution 
and persecuting in its spirit," and further declared opinions 
upon the subject of church government which amounted to a 
repudiation of Presbyterianism and an acceptance of the puritan 
type of Independency. For these opinions he was in 1728 
suspended from the discharge of ministerial functions, and 
finally deposed in 1730. The members of the society already 
referred to, however, for the most part continued to adhere 



8o 



GLASER GLASGOW 



to him, thus constituting the first " Glassite " or " Glasite " 
church. The seat of this congregation was shortly afterwards 
transferred to Dundee (whence Glas subsequently removed to 
Edinburgh), where he officiated for some time as an " elder." 
He next laboured in Perth for a few years, where he was joined 
by Robert Sandeman (see GLASITES), who became his son-in-law, 
and eventually was recognized as the leader and principal 
exponent of Glas's views; these he developed in a direction 
which laid them open to the charge of antinomianism. Ulti- 
mately in 1730 Glas returned to Dundee, where the remainder 
of his life was spent. He introduced in his church the primitive 
custom of the " osculum pacis " and the " agape " celebrated 
as a common meal with broth. From this custom his congrega- 
tion was known as the " kail kirk." In 1739 the General 
Assembly, without any application from him, removed the 
sentence of deposition which had been passed against him, and 
restored him to the character and function of a minister of the 
gospel of Christ, but not that of a minister of the Established 
Church of Scotland, declaring that he was not eligible for a 
charge until he should have renounced principles inconsistent 
with the constitution of the church. 

A collected edition of his works was published at Edinburgh in 
1761 (4 vols., 8vo), and again at Perth in 1782 (5 vols., 8vo). He 
died in 1773. 

Glas's published works bear witness to his vigorous mind and 
scholarly attainments. His reconstruction of the True Discourse of 
Celsus (1753), from Origen's reply to it, is a competent and learned 
piece of work. The Testimony of the King of Martyrs concerning His 
Kingdom (1729) is a classic repudiation of erastianism and defence 
of the spiritual autonomy of the church under Jesus Christ. His 
common sense appears in his rejection of Hutchinson's attempt to 
prove that the Bible supplies a complete system of physical science, 
and his shrewdness in his Notes on Scripture Texts (1747). He 
published a volume of Christian Songs (Perth, 1784). (D. MN.) 

GLASER, CHRISTOPHER, a pharmaceutical chemist of the 
1 7th century, was a native of Basel, became demonstrator of 
chemistry at the Jardin du Roi in Paris and apothecary to 
Louis XIV. and to the duke of Orleans. He is best known by 
his TraitS de la chymie (Paris, 1663), which went through some 
ten editions in about five-and-twenty years, and was translated 
into both German and English. It has been alleged that he was 
an accomplice in the notorious poisonings carried out by the 
marchioness de Brinvilliers, but the extent of his complicity is 
doubtful. He appears to have died some time before 1676. 
The sal polychrestum Glaseri is normal potassium sulphate which 
he prepared and used medicinally. 

GLASGOW, a city, county of a city, royal burgh and port of 
Lanarkshire, Scotland, situated on both banks of the Clyde, 
4015 m. N.W. of London by the West Coast railway route, and 
47 m. W.S.W. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. The 
valley of the Clyde is closely confined by hills, and the city 
extends far over these, the irregularity of its site making for 
picturesqueness. The commercial centre of Glasgow, with the 
majority of important public buildings, lies on the north bank 
of the river, which traverses the city from W.S.W. to E.N.E., 
and is crossed by a number of bridges. The uppermost is 
Dalmarnock Bridge, dating from 1891, and next below it is 
Rutherglen Bridge, rebuilt in 1896, and superseding a structure 
of 1 7 7 5. St Andrew's suspension bridge gives access to the Green 
to the inhabitants of Hutchesontown, a district which is ap- 
proached also by Albert Bridge, a handsome erection, leading 
from the Saltmarket. Above this bridge is the tidal dam and 
weir. Victoria Bridge, of granite, was opened in 1856, taking 
the place of the venerable bridge erected by Bishop Rae in 1345, 
which was demolished in 1847. Then follows a suspension bridge 
(dating from 1853) by which foot-passengers from the south side 
obtain access to St Enoch Square and, finally, the most important 
bridge of all is reached, variously known as Glasgow, Jamaica 
Street, or Broomielaw Bridge, built of granite from Telford's 
designs and first used in 1835. Towards the close of the century 
it. was reconstructed, and reopened in 1899. At the busier 
periods of the day it bears a very heavy traffic. The stream is 
spanned between Victoria and Albert Bridges by a bridge 
belonging to the Glasgow & South- Western railway and by two 



bridges carrying the lines of the Caledonian railway, one below 
Dalmarnock Bridge and the other a massive work immediately 
west of Glasgow Bridge. 

Buildings. George Square, in the heart of the city, is an 
open space of which every possible advantage has been taken. 
On its eastern side stand the municipal buildings, a palatial 
pile in Venetian renaissance style, from the designs of William 
Young, a native of Paisley. They were opened in 1889 and cost 
nearly 600,000. They form a square block four storeys high 
and carry a domed turret at each end of the western facade, 
from the centre of which rises a massive tower. The entrance 
hall and grand staircase, the council chamber, banqueting hall 
and reception rooms are decorated in a grandiose style, not 
unbecoming to the commercial and industrial metropolis of 
Scotland. Several additional blocks have been built or rented 
for the accommodation of the municipal staff. Admirably 
equipped sanitary chambers were opened in 1897, including a 
bacteriological and chemical laboratory. Up till 1810 the town 
council met in a hall adjoining the old tolbooth. It then moved 
to the fine classical structure at the foot of the Saltmarket, 
which is now used as court-houses. This was vacated in 1842 
for the county buildings in Wilson Street. Growth of business 
compelled another migration to Ingram Street in 1875, and, 
fourteen years later, it occupied its present quarters. On the 
southern side of George Square the chief structure is the massive 
General Post Office. On the western side stand two ornate Italian 
buildings, the Bank of Scotland and the Merchants' House, the 
head of which (the dean of gild), along with the head of the 
Trades' House (the deacon-convener of trades) has been de facto 
member of the town council since 1711, an arrangement devised 
with a view to adjusting the frequent disputes between the two 
gilds. The Royal Exchange, a Corinthian building with a fine 
portico of columns in two rows, is an admired example of the 
work of David Hamilton (1768-1843), a native of Glasgow, who 
designed several of the public buildings and churches, and gained 
the second prize for a design for the Houses of Parliament. The 
news-room of the exchange is a vast apartment, 130 ft. long, 
60 ft. wide, 130 ft. high, with a richly-decorated roof supported 
by Corinthian pillars. Buchanan Street, the most important 
and handsome street in the city, contains the Stock Exchange, 
the Western Club House (by David Hamilton) and the offices of 
the Glasgow Herald. In Sauchiehall Street are the Fine Art 
Institute and the former Corporation Art Gallery. Argyll 
Street, the busiest thoroughfare, mainly occupied with shops, 
leads to Trongate, where a few remains of the old town are now 
carefully preserved. On the south side of the street, spanning 
the pavement, stands the Tron Steeple, a stunted spire dating 
from 1637. It is all that is left of St Mary's church, which was 
burned down in 1793 during the revels of a notorious body 
known as the Hell Fire Club. On the opposite side, at the corner 
of High Street, stood the ancient tolbooth, or prison, a turreted 
building, five storeys high, with a fine Jacobean crown tower. 
The only remnant of the structure is the tower known as the 
Cross Steeple. 

Although almost all the old public buildings of Glasgow have 
been swept away, the cathedral remains in excellent preservation. 
It stands in the north-eastern quarter of the city at a 
height of 104 ft. above the level of the Clyde. It is a 
beautiful example of Early English work, impressive 
in its simplicity. Its form is that of a Latin cross, 
with imperfect transepts. Its length from east to west is 319 ft., 
and its width 63 ft. ; the height of the choir is 93 ft., and of the 
nave 85 ft. At the centre rises a fine tower, with a short octagonal 
spire, 225 ft. high. The choir, locally known as the High Church, 
serves as one of the city churches, and the extreme east end of it 
forms the Lady chapel. The rich western doorway is French 
in design but English in details. The chapter-house projects 
From the north-eastern corner and somewhat mars the harmony 
of the effect. It was built in the isth century and has a groined 
roof supported by a pillar 20 ft. high. Many citizens have 
contributed towards filling the windows with stained glass, 
executed at Munich, the government providing the eastern 



GLASGOW 



81 



GLASGOW 

and Environs 

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window in recognition of their enterprise. The crypt beneath 
the choir is not the least remarkable part of the edifice, being 
without equal in Scotland. It is borne on 65 pillars and lighted 
by 41 windows. The sculpture of the capitals of the columns 
and bosses of the groined vaulting is exquisite and the whole 
is in excellent preservation. Strictly speaking, it is not a crypt, 
but a lower church adapted to the sloping ground of the right 
bank of the Molendinar burn. The dripping aisle is so named 
from the constant dropping of water from the roof. St Mungo's 
Well in the south-eastern corner was considered to possess 
therapeutic virtues, and in the crypt a recumbent effigy, headless 
and handless, is faithfully accepted as the tomb of Kentigern. 
The cathedral contains few monuments of exceptional merit, 
but the surrounding graveyard is almost completely paved with 
tombstones. In 1115 an investigation was ordered by David, 
prince of Cumbria, into the lands and churches belonging to the 
bishopric, and from the deed then drawn up it is clear that at 
that date a cathedral had already been endowed. When David 
ascended the throne in 1124 he gave to the see of Glasgow the 
lands of Partick, besides restoring many possessions of which 
it had been deprived. Jocelin (d. 1199), made bishop in 1174, 
was the first great bishop, and is memorable for his efforts to 
replace the cathedral built in 1 136 by Bishop John Achaius, which 
had been destroyed by fire. The crypt is his work, and he began 
the choir, Lady chapel, and central tower. The new structure 



was sufficiently advanced to be dedicated in 1197. Other famous 
bishops were Robert Wishart (d. 1316), appointed in 1272, who 
was among the first to join in the revolt of Wallace, and received 
Robert Bruce when he lay under the ban of the church for the 
murder of Comyn; John Cameron (d. 1446), appointed in 1428, 
under whom the building as it stands was completed; and 
William Turnbull (d. 1454), appointed in 1447, who founded the 
university in 1450. James Beaton or Bethune (1517-1603) 
was the last Roman Catholic archbishop. He fled to France at 
the reformation in 1560, and took with him the treasures and 
records of the see, including the Red Book of Glasgow dating 
from the reign of Robert III. The documents were deposited 
in the Scots College in Paris, were sent at the outbreak of the 
Revolution for safety to St Omer, and were never recovered. 
This loss explains the paucity of the earlier annals of the city. 
The zeal of the Reformers led them to threaten to mutilate the 
cathedral, but the building was saved by the prompt action of 
the craftsmen, who mustered in force and dispersed the fanatics. 
Excepting the cathedral, none of the Glasgow churches 
possesses historical interest; and, speaking generally, it is 
only the buildings that have been erected since the cftureftM . 
beginning of the I9th century that have pronounced 
architectural merit. This was due largely to the long survival 
of the severe sentiment of the Covenanters, who discouraged, 
if they did not actually forbid, the raising of temples of beautiful 



GLASGOW 



design. Representative examples of later work are found in the 
United Free churches in Vincent Street, in Caledonia Road and 
at Queen's Park, designed by Alexander Thomson (1817-1875), 
an architect of distinct originality; St George's church, in West 
George Street, a remarkable work by William Stark, erected 
in the beginning of the igth century; St Andrew's church 
in St Andrew's Square off the Saltmarket, modelled after 
St Martin's-in-the-Fields, London, with a fine Roman portico; 
some of the older parish churches, such as St Enoch's, dating 
from 1780, with a good spire (the saint's name is said to be a 
corruption of Tanew, mother of Kentigern); the episcopal 
church of St Mary (1870), in Great Western Road, by Sir G. G. 
Scott; the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Andrew, on the 
river-bank between Victoria and Broomielaw bridges; the 
Barony church, replacing the older kirk in which Norman 
Macleod ministered; and several admirable structures, well 
situated, on the eastern confines of Kelvingrove Park. 

The principal burying-ground is the Necropolis, occupying 
Fir Park, a hill about 300 ft. high in the northern part of the 
city. It provides a not inappropriate background to the cathe- 
dral, from which it is approached by a bridge, known as the 
" Bridge of Sighs," over the Molendinar ravine. The ground, 
which once formed portion of the estate of Wester Craigs, belongs 
to the Merchants' House, which purchased it in 1650 from Sir 
Ludovic Stewart of Minto. A Doric column to the memory of 
Knox, surmounted by a colossal statue of the reformer, was 
erected by public subscription on the crown of the height in 
1824, and a few years later the idea arose of utilizing the land as 
a cemetery. The Jews have reserved for their own people a 
detached area in the north-western corner of the cemetery. 

Education. The university, founded in 1450 by Bishop 
Turnbull under a bull of Pope Nicholas V., survived in its old 
quarters till far in the ipth century. The paedagogium, 
Glasgow or co iiege of arts, was at first housed in Rottenrow, 
versity. Dut was rnoved in 1460 to a site in High Street, 
where Sir James Hamilton of Cadzow, first Lord 
Hamilton (d. 1479) , gave it four acres of land and some buildings. 
Queen Mary bestowed upon it thirteen acres of contiguous 
ground, and her son granted it a new charter and enlarged the 
endowments. Prior to the Revolution its fortunes fluctuated, 
but in the i8th century it became very famous. By the middle 
of the i pth century, however, its surroundings had deteriorated, 
and in 1860 it was decided to rebuild it elsewhere. The ground 
had enormously increased in value and a railway company 
purchased it for 100,000. In 1864 the university bought the 
Gilmore Hill estate for 65,000, the adjacent property of Dowan 
Hill for 16,000 and the property of Clayslaps for 17,400. Sir 
G. G. Scott was appointed architect and selected as the site of 
the university buildings the ridge of Gilmore Hill the finest 
situation in Glasgow. The design is Early English with a 
suggestion in parts of the Scots-French style of a much later 
period. The main structure is 540 ft. long and 300 ft. broad. 
The principal front faces southwards and consists of a lofty central 
tower with spire and corner blocks with turrets, between which 
are buildings of lower height. Behind the tower lies the Bute 
hall, built on cloisters, binding together the various departments 
and smaller halls, and dividing the massive edifice into an 
eastern and western quadrangle, on two sides of which are 
ranged the class-rooms in two storeys. The northern' facade 
comprises two corner blocks, besides the museum, the library 
and, in the centre, the students' reading-room on one floor and 
the Hunterian museum on the floor above. On the south the 
ground falls in terraces towards Kelvingrove Park and the 
Kelvin. On the west, but apart from the main structure, stand 
the houses of the principal and professors. The foundation 
stone was laid in 1868 and the opening ceremony was held in 
1870. The total cost of the university buildings amounted to 
500,000, towards which government contributed 120,000 and 
public subscription 250,000. The third marquess of Bute 
(1847-1900) gave 40,000 to provide the Bute or common hall, 
a room of fine proportions fitted in Gothic style and divided 
by a beautiful Gothic screen from the Randolph hall, named 



after another benefactor, Charles Randolph (1809-1878), a 
native of Stirling, who had prospered as shipbuilder and marine 
engineer and left 60,000 to the university. The graceful spire 
surmounting the tower was provided from the bequest of 5000 
by Mr A. Cunningham, deputy town-clerk, and Dr John M'Intyre 
erected the Students' Union at a cost of 5000, while other 
donors completed the equipment so generously that the senate 
was enabled to carry on its work, for the first time in its history, 
in almost ideal circumstances. The library includes the collec- 
tion of Sir William Hamilton, and the Hunterian museum, 
bequeathed by William Hunter, the anatomist, is particularly 
rich in coins, medals, black-letter books and anatomical prepara- 
tions. The observatory on Dowan Hill is attached to the chair 
of astronomy. An interesting link with the past are the exhibi- 
tions founded by John Snell (1629-1679), a native of Colmonell 
in Ayrshire, for the purpose of enabling students of distinction 
to continue their career at Balliol College, Oxford. Amongst 
distinguished exhibitioners have been Adam Smith, John 
Gibson Lockhart, John Wilson (" Christopher North"), Arch- 
bishop Tail, Sir William Hamilton and Professor Shairp. The 
curriculum of the university embraces the faculties of arts, 
divinity, medicine, law and science. The governing body 
includes the chancellor, elected for life by the general council, 
the principal, also elected for life, and the lord rector elected 
triennially by the students voting in " nations " according to 
their birthplace (Glottiana, natives of Lanarkshire; Trans- 
forthana, of Scotland north of the Forth; Rothseiana, of the 
shires of Bute, Renfrew and Ayr; and Loudonia, all others). 
There are a large number of well-endowed chairs and lectureships 
and the normal number of students exceeds 2000. The uni- 
versities of Glasgow and Aberdeen unite to return one member 
to parliament. Queen Margaret College for women, established 
in 1883, occupies a handsome building close to the botanic 
gardens, has an endowment of upwards of 25,000, and was 
incorporated with the university in 1893. Muirhead College 
is another institution for women. 

Elementary instruction is supplied at numerous board schools. 
Higher, secondary and technical education is provided at several 
well-known institutions. There are two educational 
endowments boards which apply a revenue of about Schools 
10,000 a year mainly to the foundation of bursaries. aa fi 
Anderson College in George Street perpetuates the >"* 
memory of its founder, John Anderson (1726-1796), professor of 
natural philosophy in the university, who opened a class in physics 
for working men, which he conducted to the end of his life. By his 
will he provided for an institution for the instruction of artisans and 
others unable to attend the university. The college which bears his 
name began in 1796 with lectures on natural philosophy and chemistry 
by Thomas Garnett (1766-1802). Two years later mathematics and 
geography were added. In 1799 Dr George Birkbeck (1776-18^1) 
succeeded Garnett and began those lectures on mechanics and applied 
science which, continued elsewhere, ultimately led to the foundation 
of mechanics' institutes in many towns. In later years the college 
was further endowed and its curriculum enlarged by the inclusion 
of literature and languages, but ultimately it was determined to 
limit the scope of its work to medicine (comprising, however, physics, 
chemistry and botany also). The lectures of its medical school, 
incorporated in 1887 and situated near the Western Infirmary, are 
accepted by Glasgow and other universities. The Glasgow and 
West of Scotland Technical College, formed in 1886 out of a com- 
bination of the arts side of Anderson College, the College of Science 
and Arts, Allan Glen's Institution and the Atkinson Institution, is 
subsidized by the corporation and the endowments board, and is 
especially concerned with students desirous of following an in- 
dustrial career. St Mungo's College, which has developed from an 
extra-mural school in connexion with the Royal Infirmary, was 
incorporated in 1889, with faculties of medicine and law. The 
United Free Church College, finely situated near Kelvingrove Park, 
the School of Art and Design, and the normal schools for the training 
of teachers, are institutions with distinctly specialize'd objects. 

The High school in Elmbank is the successor of the grammar 
school (long housed in John Street) which was founded in the I4th 
century as an appanage of the cathedral. It was placed under the 
jurisdiction of the school board in 1873. Other secondary schools 
include Glasgow Academy, Kelvinside Academy and the girls' and 
boys' schools endowed by the Hutcheson trust. Several of the 
schools under the board are furnished with secondary departments 
or equipped as science schools, and the Roman Catholics maintain 
elementary schools and advanced academies. 

Art Galleries, Libraries and Museums. Glasgow merchants and 



GLASGOW 



manufacturers alike have been constant patrons of art, and their 
liberality may have had some influence on the younger painters who, 
towards the close of the igth century, broke away from tradition 
and, stimulated by training in the studios of Paris, became known 
as the "Glasgow school." The art gallery and museum in Kelvin- 
grove Park, which was built at a cost of 250,000 (partly derived 
From the profits of the exhibitions held in the park in 1888 and 1901), 
is exceptionally well appointed. The collection originated in 1854 
in the purchase of the works of art belonging to Archibald M'Lellan, 
and was supplemented from time to time by numerous bequests of 
important pictures. It was housed for many years in the Corpora- 
tion galleries in Sauchiehall Street. The Institute of Fine Arts, in 
Sauchiehall Street, is mostly devoted to periodical exhibitions of 
modern art. There are also pictures on exhibition in the People's 
Palace on Glasgow Green, which was built by the corporation in 
1898 and combines an art gallery and museum with a conservatory 
and winter garden, and in the museum at Camphill, situated 
within the bounds of Queen's Park. The library and Huntcrian 
museum in the university are mostly reserved for the use of students. 
The faculty of procurators possess a valuable library which is housed 
in their hall, an Italian Renaissance building, in West George Street. 
In Bath Street there are the Mechanics and the Philosophical 
Society's libraries, and the Physicians' is in St Vincent Street. 
Miller Street contains the headquarters of the public libraries. The 
premises once occupied by the water commission have been converted 
to house the Mitchell library, which grew out of a bequest of 70,000 
by Stephen Mitchell, largely reinforced by further gifts of libraries 
and funds, and now contains upwards of 100,000 volumes. It is 
governed by the city council and has been in use since 1877. Another 
building in this street accommodates both the Stirling and Baillie 
libraries. The Stirling, with some 50,000 volumes, is particularly 
rich in tracts of the i6th and I7th centuries, and the Baillie was 
endowed by George Baillie, a solicitor who, in 1863, gave 18,000 
for educational objects. The Athenaeum in St George's Place, an 
institution largely concerned with evening classes in various subjects, 
contains an excellent library and reading-room. 

Charities. The old Royal Infirmary, designed by Robert Adam 
and opened in 1794, adjoining the cathedral, occupies the site of the 
archiepiscopal palace, the last portion of which was remwer<?> towards 
the close of the i8th century. The chief architectural feature of the 
infirmary is the central dome forming the roof of the operating 
theatre. On the northern side are the buildings of the medical 
school attached to the institution. The new infirmary commemor- 
ates the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. A little farther north, 
in Castle Street, is the blind asylum. The Western Infirmary is to 
some extent used for the purposes of clinical instruction in connexion 
with the university, to which it stands in immediate proximity. 
Near it is the Royal hospital for sick children. To the south of 
Queen's Park is Victoria Infirmary, and close to it the deaf and dumb 
institution. On the bank of the river, not far from the south-eastern 
boundary of the city, is the Belvedere hospital for infectious diseases, 
and at Ruchill, in the north, is another hospital of the same character 
opened in 1900. The Royal asylum at Gartnavel is situated near 
lordanhill station, and the District asylum at Gartloch (with a 
branch at West Muckroft) lies in the parish of Cadder beyond the 
north-eastern boundary. There are numerous hospitals exclusively 
devoted to the treatment of special diseases, and several nursing 
institutions and homes. Hutcheson's Hospital, designed by David 
Hamilton and adorned with statues of the founders, is situated in 
Ingram Street, and by the increase in the value of its lands has become 
a very wealthy body. George Hutcheson (1580-1639), a lawyer in 
the Trongate near the tolbooth, who afterwards lived in the Bishop's 
castle, which stood close to the spot where the Kelvin enters the Clyde, 
founded the hospital for poor old men. His brother Thomas (1589- 
1641) established in connexion with it a school for the lodging and 
education of orphan boys, the sons of burgesses. The trust, through 
the growth of its funds, has been enabled to extend its educational 
scope and to subsidize schools apart from the charity. 

Monuments. Most of the statues have been erected in George 
Square. They are grouped around a fluted pillar 80 ft. high, sur- 
mounted by a colossal statue of Sir Walter Scott by John Ritchie 
(1809-1850), erected in 1837, and include Queen Victoria and the 
Prince Consort (both equestrian) by Baron Marochctti; James Watt 
by Chantrey; Sir Robert Peel, Thomas Campbell the poet, who 
was born in Glasgow, and David Livingstone, all by John Mpssman; 
Sir John Moore, a native of Glasgow, by Flaxman, erected in 1819; 
James Oswald, the first member returned to parliament for the city 
after the Reform Act of 1832; Lord Clyde (Sir Colin Campbell), 
also a native, by Foley, erected in 1868; Dr Thomas Graham, 
master of the mint, another native, by Brodie; Robert Burns by 
G. E. Ewing, erected in 1877, subscribed for in shillings by the work- 
ing men of Scotland; and William Ewart Gladstone by Hamo 
Thornycroft, unveiled by Lord Rosebery in 1902. In front of the 
Royal Exchange stands the equestrian monument of the duke of 
Wellington. In Cathedral Square are the statues of Norman 
Macleod, James White and James Arthur, and in front of the Royal 
infirmary is that of Sir James Lumsden, lord provost and benefactor. 
Nelson is commemorated by an obelisk 143 ft. high on the Green, 
which was erected in 1806 and is said to be a copy of that in the 
Piazza del Popolo at Rome. One of the most familiar statues is the 



equestrian figure of William III. in the Trongate, which was presented 
to the town in 1735 by James Macrae (1677-1744), a poor Ayrshire 
lad who had amassed a fortune in India, where he was governor of 
Madras from 1725 to 1730. 

Recreations. Of the theatres the chief are the King's in Bath 
Street, the Royal and the Grand in Cowcaddens, the Royalty and 
Gaiety in Sauchiehall Street, and the Princess's in Mam Street. 
Variety theatres, headed by the Empire in Sauchiehall Street, are 
found in various parts of the town. There is a circus in Waterloo 
Street, a hippodrome in Sauchiehall Street and a zoological garden 
in New City Road. The principal concert halls are the great hall 
of the St Andrew's Halls, a group of rooms belonging to the corpora- 
tion; the City Hall in Candleriggs, the People's Palace on the Green, 
and Queen's Rooms close to Kelvingrove Park. Throughout winter 
enormous crowds throng the football grounds of the Queen's Park, 
the leading amateur club, and the Celtic, the Rangers, the Third 
Lanark and other prominent professional clubs. 

Parks and Open Spaces. The oldest open space is the Green 
(140 acres), on the right bank of the river, adjoining a densely- 
populated district. It once extended farther west, but a portion 
was built over at a time when public rights were not vigilantly 
guarded. It is a favourite area for popular demonstrations, and 
sections have been reserved for recreation or laid out in flower-beds. 
Kelvingrove Park, in the west end, has exceptional advantages, for 
the Kelvin burn flows through it and the ground is naturally terraced, 
while the situation is beautified by the adjoining Gilmore Hill with 
the university on its summit. The park was laid out under the 
direction of Sir Joseph Paxton, and contains the Stewart fountain, 
erected to commemorate the labours of Lord Provost Stewart 
and his colleagues in the promotion of the Loch Katrine water scheme. 
The other parks on the right bank are, in the north, Ruchill (53 
acres), acquired in 1891, and Springburn (53} acres), acquired in 
1892, and, in the east, Alexandra Park (120 acres), in which is laid 
down a nine-hole golf-course, and Tollcross (82j acres), beyond the 
municipal boundary, acquired in 1897. On the left bank Queen's 
f^rk (130 acres), occupying a commanding site, was laid out by Sir 
Joseph Paxton, and considerably enlarged in 1894 by the enclosure 
of the grounds of Camphill. The other southern parks are Richmond 
(44 acres), acquired in 1898, and named after Lord Provost Sir David 
Richmond, who opened it in 1899; Maxwell, which was taken over 
on the annexation of Pollokshields in 1891; Bellahouston (176 
acres), acquired in 1895; and Cathkin Braes (50 acres), 3jm. beyond 
the south-eastern boundary, presented to the city in 1886 by James 
Dick, a manufacturer, containing " Queen Mary's stone," a point 
which commands a view of the lower valley of the Clyde. In the 
north-western district of the town 40 acres between Great Western 
Road and the Kelvin are devoted to the Royal Botanic Gardens, 
which became public property in 1891. They are beautifully laid 
out, and contain a great range of hothouses. The gardens owed 
much to Sir William Hooker, who was regius professor of botany in 
Glasgow University before his appointment to the directorship of 
Kew Gardens. 

Communications. The North British railway terminus is situated 
in Queen Street, and consists of a high-level station (main line) 
and a low-level station, used in connexion with the City & District 
line, largely underground, serving the northern side of the town, 
opened in 1886. The Great Northern and North-Eastern railways 
use the high-level line of the N.B.R., the three companies forming the 
East Coast Joint Service. The Central terminus of the Caledonian 
railway in Gordon Street, served by the West Coast system (in 
which the London & North-Western railway shares), also comprises 
a high-level station for the main line traffic and a low-level station 
for the Cathcart District railway, completed in 1886 and made 
circular for the southern side and suburbs in 1894, and also for the 
connexion between Maryhill and Rutherglen, which is mostly under- 
ground. Both the underground lines communicate with certain 
branches of the main line, either directly or by change of carriage. 
The older terminus of the Caledonian railway in Buchanan Street 
now takes the northern and eastern traffic. The terminus of the 
Glasgow & South-Western railway company in St Enoch Square 
serves the country indicated in its title, and also gives the Midland 
railway of England access to the west coast and Glasgow. The 
Glasgow Subway an underground cable passenger line, 6J m. long, 
worked in two tunnels and passing below the Clyde twice-^-was 
opened in 1896. Since no more bridge-building will be sanctioned 
west of the railway bridge at the Broomielaw, there are at certain 
points steam ferry boats or floating bridges for conveying vehicles 
across the harbour, and at Stobcross there is a subway for foot and 
wheeled traffic. Steamers, carrying both goods and passengers, 
constantly leave the Broomielaw quay for the piers and ports on 
the river and firth, and the islands and sea lochs of Argyllshire. 
The city is admirably served by tramways which penetrate every 
populous district and cross the river by Glasgow and Albert bridges. 

Trade. Natural causes, such as proximity to the richest field of 
coal and ironstone in Scotland and the vicinity of hill streams of pure 
water, account for much of the great development of trade in Glasgow. 
It was in textiles that the city showed its earliest predominance, 
which, however, has not been maintained, owing, it is alleged, to 
the shortage of female labour. Several cotton mills are still worked, 
but the leading feature in the trade has always been the manufacture 



GLASGOW 



of such light textures as plain, striped and figured muslins, ginghams 
and fancy fabrics. Thread is made on a considerable scale, but jute 
and silk are of comparatively little importance. The principal 
varieties of carpets are woven. Some factories are exclusively 
devoted to the making of lace curtains. The allied industries of 
bleaching, printing and dyeing, on the other hand, have never 
declined. The use of chlorine in bleaching was first introduced in 
Great Britain at Glasgow in 1787, on the suggestion of James Watt, 
whose father-in-law was a bleacher; and it was a Glasgow bleacher, 
Charles Tennant, who first discovered and made bleaching powder 
(chloride of lime). Turkey-red dyeing was begun at Glasgow by 
David Dale and George M'Intosh, and the colour was long known 
locally as Dale's red. A large quantity of grey cloth continues to be 
sent from Lancashire and other mills to be bleached and printed in 
Scottish works. These industries gave a powerful impetus to the 
manufacture of chemicals, and the works at St Rollox developed 
rapidly. Among prominent chemical industries are to be reckoned 
the alkali trades including soda, bleaching powder and soap- 
making the preparation of alum and prussiates of potash, bichro- 
mate of potash, white lead and other pigments, dynamite and gun- 
powder. Glass-making and paper-making are also carried on, and 
there are several breweries and distilleries, besides factories for the 
making of aerated waters, starch, dextrine and matches. Many 
miscellaneous trades flourish, such as clothing, confectionery, 
cabinet-making, bread and biscuit making, boot and shoe making, 
flour mills and saw mills, pottery and indiarubber. Since the days 
of the brothers Robert Foulis (1705-1776) and Andrew Foulis 
(1712-1775), printing, both letterpress and colour, has been identified 
with Glasgow, though in a lesser degree than with Edinburgh. 
The tobacco trade still flourishes, though much lessened. But the 
great industry is iron-founding. The discovery of the value of 
blackband ironstone, till then regarded as useless " wild coal," by 
David Mushet (1772-1847), and Neilson's invention of the hot-air 
blast threw the control of the Scottish iron trade into the hands of 
Glasgow ironmasters, although the furnaces themselves were mostly 
erected in Lanarkshire and Ayrshire. The expansion of the industry 
was such that, in 1859, one-third of the total output in the United 
Kingdom was Scottish. During the following years, however, the 
trade seemed to have lost its elasticity, the annual production 
averaging about one million tons of pig-iron. Mild steel is manu- 
factured extensively, and some crucible cast steel is made. In addi- 
tion to brass foundries there are works for the extraction of copper 
and the smelting of lead and zinc. With such resources every 
branch of engineering is well represented. Locomotive engines are 
built for every country where railways are employed, and all kinds of 
builder's ironwork is forged in enormous quantities, and the sewing- 
machine factories in the neighbourhood are important. Boiler- 
making and marine engine works, in many cases in direct connexion 
with the shipbuilding yards, are numerous. Shipbuilding, indeed, is 
the greatest of the industries of Glasgow, and in some years more 
than half of the total tonnage in the United Kingdom has been 
launched on the Clyde, the yards of which extend from the harbour 
to Dumbarton on one side and Greenock on the other side of the river 
and firth. Excepting a trifling proportion of wooden ships, the 
Clyde-built vessels are of iron and steel, the trade having owed its 
immense expansion to the prompt adoption of this material. Every 
variety of craft is turned out, from battleships and great liners to 
dredging-plant and hopper barges. 

The Port. The harbour extends from Glasgow Bridge to the point 
where the Kelvin joins the Clyde, and occupies 206 acres. For the 
most part it is lined by quays and wharves, which have a total 
length of 8J m., and from the harbour to the sea vessels drawing 
26 ft. can go up or down on one tide. It is curious to remember 
that in the middle of the l8th century the river was fordable on 
foot at Dumbuck, 12 m. below Glasgow and ij m. S.E. of Dum- 
barton. Even within the limits of the present harbour Smeaton 
reported to the town council in 1740 that at Pointhouse ford, just 
east of the mouth of the Kelvin, the depth at low water was only 
15 in. and at high water 39 in. The transformation effected within 
a century and a half is due to the energy and enterprise of the Clyde 
Navigation Trust. The earliest shipping- port of Glasgow was Irvine 
jn Ayrshire, but lighterage was tedious and land carriage costly, and 
in 1658 the civic authorities endeavoured to purchase a site for a 
spacious harbour at Dumbarton. Being thwarted by the magistrates 
of that burgh, however, in 1662 they secured 13 acres on the southern 
bank at a spot some 2 m. above Greenock, which became known as 
Port Glasgow, where they built harbours and constructed the first 
graving dock in Scotland. Sixteen years later the Broomielaw quay 
was built, but it was not until the tobacco merchants appreciated 
the necessity of bringing their wares into the heart of the city that 
serious consideration was paid to schemes for deepening the water- 
way. Smeaton's suggestion of a lock and dam 4 m. below the 
Broomielaw was happily not accepted. In 1768 John Golborne 
advised the narrowing of the river and the increasing of the scour 
by the construction of rubble jetties and the dredging of sandbanks 
and shoals. After James Watt's report in 1769 on the ford at 
Dumbuck, Golborne succeeded in 1775 in deepening the ford to 6 ft. 
at low water with a width of 300 ft. By Rennie's advice in 1799, 
following up Golborne's recommendation, as many as 200 jetties 
were built between Glasgow and Bowling, some old ones were 



shortened and low rubble walls carried from point to point of the 
jetties, and thus the channel was made more uniform and much land 
reclaimed. By 1836 there was a depth of 7 or 8 ft. at the Broomielaw 
at low water, and in 1840 the whole duty of improving the navigation 
was devolved upon the Navigation Trust. Steam dredgers were 
kept constantly at work, shoals were removed and rocks blasted 
away. Two million cubic yards of matter are lifted every year 
and dumped in Loch Long. By 1900 the channel had been deepened 
to a minimum of 22 ft., and, as already indicated, the largest vessels 
make the open sea in one tide, whereas in 1840 it took ships drawing 
only 15 ft. two and even three tides to reach the sea. The debt of the 
Trust amounts to 6,000,000, and the annual revenue to 450,000. 
Long before these great results had been achieved, however, the 
shipping trade had been revolutionized by the application of steam 
to navigation, and later by the use of iron for wood in shipbuilding, 
in both respects enormously enhancing the industry and commerce 
of Glasgow. From 1812 to 1820 Henry Bell's " Comet," 30 tons, 
driven by an engine of 3 horse-power, plied between Glasgow and 
Greenock, until she was wrecked, being the first steamer to run 
regularly on any river in the Old World. Thus since the appearance 
of that primitive vessel phenomenal changes had taken place on the 
Clyde. When the quays and wharves ceased to be able to accom- 
modate the growing traffic, the construction of docks became 
imperative. In 1867 Kingston Dock on the south side, of 5$ acres, 
was opened, but soon proved inadequate, and in 1880 Queen's Dock 
(two basins) at Stobcross, on the north side, of 30 acres, was com- 
pleted. Although this could accommodate one million tons of 
shipping, more dock space was speedily called for, and in 1897 
Prince's Dock (three basins) on the opposite side, of 72 acres, was 
opened, fully equipped with hydraulic and steam cranes and all the 
other latest appliances. There are, besides, three graving docks, 
the longest of which (880 ft.) can be made at will into two docks 
of 417 ft. and 457 ft. in length. The Caledonian and Glasgow & 
South-Western railways have access to the harbour for goods and 
minerals at Terminus Quay to the west of Kingston Dock, and a 
mineral dock has been constructed by the Trust at Clydebank, 
about 3! m. below the harbour. The shipping attains to colossal 
proportions. The imports consist chiefly of flour, fruit, timber, 
iron ore, ''nvt stock and wheat; and the exports principally of cotton 
manufactures, manufactured iron and steel, machinery, whisky, 
cotton yarn, linen fabrics, coal, jute, jam and foods, and woollen 
manufactures. 

Government. By the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889 the 
city was placed entirely in the county of Lanark, the districts then 
transferred having previously belonged to the shires of Dumbarton 
and Renfrew. In 1891 the boundaries were enlarged to include 
six suburban burghs and a number of suburban districts, the area 
being increased from 6m acres to 11,861 acres. The total area 
of the city and the conterminous burghs of Govan, Partick and 
Kinning Park which, though they successfully resisted annexation 
in 1891, are practically part of the city is 15,659 acres. The 
extreme length from north to south and from east to west is about 
5 m. each way, and the circumference measures 27 m. In 1893 the 
municipal burgh was constituted a county of a city. Glasgow is 
governed by a corporation consisting of 77 members, including 14 
bailies and the lord provost. In 1895 all the powers which the town 
council exercised as police commissioners and trustees for parks, 
markets, water and the like were consolidated and conferred upon 
the corporation. Three years later the two parish councils of the 
city and barony, which administered the poor law over the greater 
part of the city north of the Clyde, were amalgamated as the parish 
council of Glasgow, with 31 members. As a county of a city Glasgow 
has a lieutenancy (successive lords provost holding the office) and a 
court of quarter sessions, which is the appeal court from the magis- 
trates sitting as licensing authority. Under the corporation municipal 
ownership has reached a remarkable development, the corporation 
owning the supplies of water, gas and electric power, tramways and 
municipal lodging-houses. The enterprise of the corporation has 
brought its work prominently into notice, not only in the United 
Kingdom, but in the United States of America and elsewhere. 
In 1859 water was conveyed by aqueducts and tunnels from Loch 
Katrine (364 ft. above sea-level, giving a pressure of 70 or 80 ft. 
above the highest point in the city) to the reservoir at Mugdock 
(with a capacity of 500,000,000 gallons), a distance of 27 m., whence 
after filtration it was distributed by pipes to Glasgow, a further 
distance of 7 m., or 34 m. in all. During the next quarter of a cen- 
tury it became evident that this supply would require to be aug- 
mented, and powers were accordingly obtained in 1895 to raise Loch 
Katrine 5 ft. and to connect with it by tunnel Loch Arklet (455 ft. 
above the sea), with storage for 2,050,000,000 gallons, the two lochs 
together possessing a capacity of twelve thousand million gallons. 
The entire works between the loch and the city were duplicated 
over a distance of 23^ m., and an additional reservoir, holding 
694,000,000 gallons, was constructed, increasing the supply held in 
reserve from I2jdays' to 30^ days'. In 1909 the building of a dam 
was undertaken I i m. west of the lower end of Loch Arklet, designed 
to create a sheet of water 2 J m. long and to increase the water-supply 
of the city by ten million gallons a day. The water committee 
supplies hydraulic power to manufacturers and merchants. In 
1869 the corporation acquired the gasworks, the productive capacity 



GLASGOW 



of which exceeds 70 million cub. ft. a day. In 1893 the supply 
of electric light was also undertaken, and since that date the city has 
been partly lighted by electricity. The corporation also laid down 
the tramways, which were leased by a company for twenty-three 
years at a rental of 150 a mile per annum. When the lease expired 
in 1894 the town council took over the working of the cars, substitut- 
ing overhead electric traction for horse-power. One of the most 
difficult problems that the corporation has had to deal with was the 
housing of the poor. By the lapse of time and the congestion of 
population, certain quarters of the city, in old Glasgow especially, 
had become slums and rookeries of the worst description. The 
condition of the town was rapidly growing into a byword, when the 
municipality obtained parliamentary powers in 1866 enabling it to 
condemn for purchase over-crowded districts, to borrow money and 
levy rates. The scheme of reform contemplated the demolition of 
10,000 insanitary dwellings occupied by 50,000 persons, but the 
corporation was required to provide accommodation for the dis- 
lodged whenever the numbers exceeded 500. In point of fact they 
never needed to build, as private enterprise more than kept pace 
with the operations of the improvement. The work was carried out 
promptly and effectually, and when the act expired in 1881 whole 
localities had been recreated and nearly 40,000 persons properly 
housed. Under the amending act of 1881 the corporation began in 
1888 to build tenement houses in which the poor could rent one or 
more rooms at the most moderate rentals; lodging-houses for men 
and women followed, and in 1896 a home was erected for the accom- 
modation of families in certain circumstances. The powers of the 
improvement trustees were practically exhausted in 1896, when it 
appeared that during twenty-nine years i ,955, 550 had been spent 
in buying and improving land and buildings, and 231 ,500 in building 
tenements and lodging-houses; while, on the other side, ground 
had been sold for 1,072,000, and the trustees owned heritable 
property valued at 692,000, showing a deficiency of 423,050. 
Assessment of ratepayers for the purposes of the trust had yielded 
593,000, and it was estimated that these operations, beneficial to 
the city in a variety of ways, had cost the citizens 24,000 a year. 
In 1897 an act was obtained for dealing in similar fashion with in- 
sanitary and congested areas in the centre of the city, and on the 
south side of the river, and for acquiring not more than 25 acres of 
land, within or without the city, for dwellings for the poorest classes. 
Along with these later improvements the drainage system was 
entirely remodelled, the area being divided into three sections, 
each distinct, with separate works for the disposal of its own sewage. 
One section (authorized in 1891 and doubled in 1901) comprises II 
sq. m. one-half within the city north of the river, and the other in 
the district in Lanarkshire with works at Dalmarnock; another 
section (authorized in 1896) includes the area on the north bank 
not provided for in 1891, as well as the burghs of Partick and Clyde- 
bank and intervening portions of the shires of Renfrew and Dum- 
barton, the total area consisting of 14 sq. m., with works at Dalmuir, 
7 m. below Glasgow; and the third section (authorized in 1898) 
embraces the whole municipal area on the south side of the river, 
the burghs of Rutherglen, Pollokshaws, Kinning Park and Govan, 
and certain districts m the counties of Renfrew and Lanark 14 
sq. m. in all, which may be extended by the inclusion of the burghs 
of Renfrew and Paisley with works at Braehead, I tn. east of 
Renfrew. Among other works in which it has interests there may be 
mentioned its representation on the board of the Clyde Navigation 
Trust and the governing body of the West of Scotland Technical 
College. In respect of parliamentary representation the Reform 
Act of 1832 gave two members to Glasgow, a third was added in 
1868 (though each elector had only two votes), and in 1885 the city 
was split up into seven divisions, each returning one member. 

Population. Throughout the igth century the population grew 
prodigiously. Only 77,385 in 1801, it was nearly doubled in twenty 
years, being 147,043 in 1821, already outstripping Edinburgh. It 
had become 395,503 in 1861, and in 1881 it was 511,415. In 1891, 
prior to extension of the boundary, it was 565,839, and, after ex- 
tension, 658,198, and in 1901 it stood at 761,709. The birth-rate 
averages 33, and the death-rate 21 per 1000, but the mortality before 
the city improvement scheme was carried out was as high as 33 
per 1000. Owing to its being convenient of access from the High- 
lands, a very considerable number of Gaelic-speaking persons live in 
Glasgow, while the great industries attract an enormous number of 
persons from other parts of Scotland. The valuation of the city, 
which in 1878-1879 was 3,420,697, now exceeds 5,000,000. 

History. There are several theories as to the origin of the 
name of Glasgow. One holds that it comes from Gaelic words 
meaning " dark glen," descriptive of the narrow ravine through 
which the Molendinar flowed to the Clyde. But the more 
generally accepted version is that the word is the Celtic Cleschu, 
afterwards written Glesco or Glasghu, meaning " dear green 
spot " (glas, green; cu or ghu, dear), which is supposed to have 
been the name of the settlement that Kentigern found here 
when he came to convert the Britons of Strathclyde. Mungo 
became the patron-saint of Glasgow, and the motto and arms 



of the city are wholly identified wkh him " Let Glasgow 
Flourish by the Preaching of the Word," usually shortened to 
" Let Glasgow Flourish." It is not till the 1 2th century, however, 
that the history of the city becomes clear. About 1178 William 
the Lion made the town by charter a burgh of barony, and gave 
it a market with freedom and customs. Amongst more or less 
isolated episodes of which record has been preserved may be 
mentioned the battle of the Bell o' the Brae, on the site of High 
Street, in which Wallace routed the English under Percy in 
1300; the betrayal of Wallace to the English in 1305 in a barn 
situated, according to tradition, in Robroyston, just beyond the 
north-eastern boundary of the city; the ravages of the plague in 
1350 and thirty years later; the regent Arran's siege, in 1544, 
of the bishop's castle, garrisoned by the earl of Glencairn, and 
the subsequent fight at the Butts (now the Gallowgate) when 
the terms of surrender were dishonoured, in which the regent's 
men gained the day. Most of the inhabitants were opposed to 
Queen Mary and many actively supported Murray in the battle 
of Langside the site of which is now occupied by the Queen's 
Park on the I3th of May 1568, in which she lost crown and 
kingdom. A memorial of the conflict was erected on the site 
in 1887. Under James VI. the town became a royal burgh in 
1636, with freedom of the river from the Broomielaw to the Cloch. 
But the efforts to establish episcopacy aroused the fervent 
anti-prelatical sentiment of the people, who made common 
cause with the Covenanters to the end of their long struggle. 
Montrose mulcted the citizens heavily after the battle of Kilsyth 
in 1645, and three years later the provost and bailies were deposed 
for contumacy to their sovereign lord. Plague and famine devast- 
ated the town in 1649, and in 1652 a conflagration laid a third 
of the burgh in ashes. Even after the restoration its sufferings 
were acute. It was the headquarters of the Whiggamores 
of the west and its prisons were constantly filled with rebels 
for conscience' sake. The government scourged the townsfolk 
with an army of .Highlanders, whose brutality only served to 
strengthen the resistance at the battles of Drumclog and Bothwell 
Brig. With the Union, hotly resented as it was at the time, 
the dawn of almost unbroken prosperity arose. By the treaty 
of Union Scottish ports were placed, in respect of trade, on the 
same footing as English ports, and the situation of Glasgow 
enabled it to acquire a full share of the ever-increasing Atlantic 
trade. Its commerce was already considerable and in population 
it was now the second town in Scotland. It enjoyed a practical 
monopoly of the sale of raw and refined sugars, had the right 
to distil spirits from molasses free of duty, dealt largely in cured 
herring and salmon, sent hides to English tanners and manu- 
factured soap and linen. It challenged the supremacy of Bristol 
in the tobacco trade fetching cargoes from Virginia, Maryland 
and Carolina in its own fleet so that by 1772 its importations 
of tobacco amounted to more than half of the whole quantity 
brought into the United Kingdom. The tobacco merchants 
built handsome mansions and the town rapidly extended west- 
wards. With the surplus profits new industries were created, 
whigh helped the city through the period of the American War. 
Most, though not all, of the manufactures in which Glasgow 
has always held a foremost place date from this period. It was 
in 1764 that James Watt succeeded in repairing a hitherto 
unworkable model of Newcomen's fire (steam) engine in his small 
workshop within the college precincts. Shipbuilding on a 
colossal scale and the enormous developments in the iron in- 
dustries and engineering were practically the growth of the igth 
century. The failure of the Western bank in 1857, the Civil 
War in the. United States, the collapse of the City of Glasgow 
bank in 1878, among other disasters, involved heavy losses and 
distress, but recovery was always rapid. 

AUTHORITIES. J. Cleland, Annals of Glasgow (Glasgow, 1816); 
Duncan, Literary History of Glasgow (Glasgow, 1886); Registrum 
Episcopates Glasgow (Maitland Club, 1843); Pagan, Sketch of the 
History of Glasgow (Glasgow, 1847); Sir J. D. Warwick, Extracts 
from the Burgh Records of Glasgow (Burgh Records Society) ; Charters 
relating to Glasgow (Glasgow, 1891); River Clyde and Harbour of 
Glasgow (Glasgow, 1898) ; Glasgow Past and Present (Glasgow, 1884) ; 
Munimenta Universitatis Glasgow (Maitland Club, 1854); J. Strang, 



86 



GLASITES GLASS 



Glasgow and its Clubs (Glasgow, 1864) ; Reid (" Senex "), Old Glasgow 
(Glasgow, 1864); A. Macgeorge, Old Glasgow (Glasgow, 1888); 
Deas, The River Clyde (Glasgow, 1881); Gale, Loch Katrine Water- 
works (Glasgow, 1883); Mason, Public and Private Libraries of 
Glasgow (Glasgow, 1885); J. Nicol, Vital, Social and Economic 
Statistics of Glasgow (1881) ; J.B.Russell, Life in One Room (Glasgow, 
1888); Ticketed Houses (Glasgow, 1889); T. Somerville, George 
Square (Glasgow, 1891); J. A. Kilpatrick, Literary Landmarks of 
Glasgow (Glasgow, 1898); J. K. M'Dowall, People's History of 
Glasgow (Glasgow, 1899); Sir J. Bell and J. Paton, Glasgow: Its 
Municipal Organization and Administration (Glasgow, 1896); Sir 
D. Richmond, Notes on Municipal Work (Glasgow, 1899); J. M. 
Lang, Glasgow and the Barony (Glasgow, 1 895) ; Old Glasgow (Glasgow, 
1896) ; J. H. Muir, Glasgow in IQOI. 

GLASITES, or SANDEMANIANS,' a Christian sect, founded in 
Scotland by John Glas (q.v.). It spread into England and 
America, but is now practically extinct. Glas dissented from 
the Westminster Confession only in his views as to the spiritual 
nature of the church and the functions of the civil magistrate. 
But his son-in-law Robert Sandeman added a distinctive doctrine 
as to the nature of faith which is thus stated on his tombstone: 
" That the bare death of Jesus Christ without a thought or 
deed on the part of man, is sufficient to present the chief of sinners 
spotless before God." In a series of letters to James Hervey, 
the author of Theron and Aspasia, he maintained that justifying 
faith is a simple assent to the divine testimony concerning 
Jesus Christ, differing in no way in its character from belief in any 
ordinary testimony. In their practice the Glasite churches aimed 
at a strict conformity with the primitive type of Christianity 
as understood by them. Each congregation had a plurality of 
elders, pastors or bishops, who were chosen according to what 
were believed to be the instructions of Paul, without regard to 
previous education or present occupation, and who enjoy a 
perfect equality in office. To have been married a second time 
disqualified for ordination, or for continued tenure of the office 
of bishop. In all the action of the church unanimity was con- 
sidered to be necessary; if any member differed in opinion from 
the rest, he must either surrender his judgment to that of the 
church, or be shut out from its communion. To join in prayer 
with any one not a member of the denomination was regarded 
as unlawful, and even to eat or drink with one who had been 
excommunicated was held to be wrong. The Lord's Supper 
was observed weekly; and between forenoon and afternoon 
service every Sunday a love feast was held at which every 
member was required to be present. Mutual exhortation was 
practised at all the meetings for divine service, when any member 
who had the gift of speech (xapi<7jua) was allowed to speak. 
The practice of washing one another's feet was at one time 
observed; and it was for a long time customary for each brother 
and sister to receive new members, on admission, with a holy 
kiss. " Things strangled " and " blood " were rigorously ab- 
stained from; the lot was regarded as sacred; the accumulation 
of wealth they held to be unscriptural and improper, and each 
member considered his property as liable to be called upon 
at any time to meet the wants of the poor and the necessities 
of the church. Churches of this order were founded in Paisley, 
Glasgow, Edinburgh, Leith, Arbroath, Montrose, Aberdeen, 
Dunkeld, Cupar, Galashiels, Liverpool and London, where 
Michael Faraday was long an elder. Their exclusiveness 
in practice, neglect of education for the ministry, and the 
antinomian tendency of their doctrine contributed to their 
dissolution. Many Glasites joined the general body of Scottish 
Congregationalists, and the sect may now be considered extinct. 
The last of the Sandemanian churches in America ceased to 
exist in 1890. 

See James Ross, History of Congregational Independency in 
Scotland (Glasgow, 1900). (D. MN.) 

GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old 
Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of 
shining, cf. " glare," " glow "), a hard substance, usually trans- 
parent or translucent, which from a fluid condition at a high 
temperature has passed to a solid condition with sufficient 
rapidity to prevent the formation of visible crystals. There 
'jj h ^ name Glasites or Glassites was generally used in Scotland ; 
in England and America the name Sandemanians was more common. 



are many varieties of glass differing widely in chemical com- 
position and in physical qualities. Most varieties, however, 
have certain qualities in common. They pass through a viscous 
stage in cooling from a state of fluidity; they develop effects 
of colour when the glass mixtures are fused with certain metallic 
oxides; they are, when cold, bad conductors both of electricity 
and heat, they are easily fractured by a blow or shock and show a 
conchoidal fracture; they are but slightly affected by ordinary 
solvents, but are readily attacked by hydrofluoric acid. 

The structure of glass has been the subject of repeated in- 
vestigations. The theory most widely accepted at present is 
that glass is a quickly solidified solution, in which silica,' silicates, 
berates, phosphates and aluminates may be either solvents or 
solutes, and metallic oxides and metals may be held either 
in solution or in suspension. Long experience has fixed the 
mixtures, so far as ordinary furnace temperatures are con- 
cerned, which produce the varieties of glass in common use. The 
essential materials of which these mixtures are made are, for 
English flint glass, sand, carbonate of potash and red lead; 
for plate and sheet glass, sand, carbonate or sulphate of soda 
and carbonate of lime; and for Bohemian glass, sand, carbonate 
of potash and carbonate of lime. It is convenient to treat 
these glasses as " normal " glasses, but they are in reality 
mixtures of silicates, and cannot rightly be regarded as definite 
chemical compounds or represented by definite chemical 
formulae. 

The knowledge of the chemistry of glass-making has been 
considerably widened by Dr F. O. Schott's experiments at the 
Jena glass-works. The commercial success of these works has 
demonstrated the value of pure science to manufactures. 

The recent large increase in the number of varieties of glass 
has been chiefly due to developments in the manufacture of 
optical glass. Glasses possessing special qualities have been 
required, and have been supplied by the introduction of new 
combinations of materials. The range of the specific gravity 
of glasses from 2-5 to 5-0 illustrates the effect of modified 
compositions. In the same way glass can be rendered more or 
less fusible, and its stability can be increased both in relation 
to extremes of temperature and to the chemical action of 
solvents. . . 

The fluidity of glass at a high temperature renders possible 
the processes of ladelling, pouring, casting and stirring. A 
mass of glass in a viscous state can be rolled with an iron roller 
like dough; can be rendered hollow by the pressure of the human 
breath or'by compressed air; can be forced by air pressure, or 
by a mechanically driven plunger, to take the shape and im- 
pression of a mould; and can be almost indefinitely extended as 
solid rod or as hollow tube. So extensible is viscous glass that 
it can be drawn out into a filament sufficiently fine and elastic 
to be woven into a fabric. 

Glasses are generally transparent but may be translucent or 
opaque. Semi-opacity due to crystallization may be induced 
in many glasses by maintaining them for a long period at a 
temperature just insufficient to cause fusion. In this way is pro- 
duced the crystalline, devitrified material, known as Reaumur's 
porcelain. Semi-opacity and opacity are usually produced 
by the addition to the glass-mixtures of materials which will 
remain in suspension in the glass, such as oxide of tin, oxide 
of arsenic, phosphate of lime, cryolite or a mixture of felspar 
and fluorspar. 

Little is known about the actual cause of colour in glass 
beyond the fact that certain materials added to and melted 
with certain glass-mixtures will in favourable circumstances 
produce effects of colour. The colouring agents are generally 
metallic oxides. The same oxide may produce different colours 
with different glass-mixtures, and different oxides of the same 
metal may produce different colours. The purple-blue of cobalt, 
the chrome green or yellow of chromium, the dichroic canary- 
colour of uranium and the violet of manganese, are constant. 
Ferrous oxide produces an olive green or a pale blue according 
to the glass with which it is mixed. Ferric oxide gives a yellow 
colour, but requires the presence of an oxidizing agent to prevent 



GLASS 



reduction to the ferrous state. Lead gives a pale yellow colour. 
Silver oxide, mixed as a paint and spread on the surface of a 
piece of glass and heated, gives a permanent yellow stain. Finely 
divided vegetable charcoal added to a soda-lime glass gives a 
yellow colour. It has been suggested that the colour is due to 
sulphur, but the effect can be produced with a glass mixture 
containing no sulphur, free or combined, and by increasing 
the proportion of charcoal the intensity of the colour can be 
increased until it reaches black opacity. Selenites and selenates 
give a pale pink or pinkish 
yellow. Tellurium appears 
to give a pale pink tint. 
Nickel with a potash-lead 
glass gives a violet colour, 
and a brown colour with 
a soda-lime glass. Copper 
gives a peacock-blue which 
becomes green if the pro- 
portion of the copper oxide 
is increased. If oxide of 
copper is added to a glass 
mixture containing a strong 
reducing agent, a glass is 
produced which when first 
taken from the crucible is 
colourless but on being re- 
heated develops a deep 
crimson - ruby colour. A 
similar glass, if its cooling 



source of heat, or by placing them in a heated kiln and allowing 
the heat gradually to die out. 

The furnaces (fig. 15) employed for melting glass are usually 
heated with gas on the " Siemens," or some similar system of 
regenerative heating. In the United States natural gas is used 
wherever it is available. In some English works coal is still 
employed for direct heating with various forms of mechanical 
stokers. Crude petroleum and a thin tar, resulting from the 
process of enriching water-gas with petroleum, have been used 




737 



FIG. 15. Siemens's Continuous Tank Furnace. 



is greatly retarded, produces throughout its substance minute 
crystals of metallic copper, and closely resembles the mineral 
called avanturine. There is also an intermediate stage in which 
the glass has a rusty red colour by reflected light, and a purple- 
blue colour by transmitted light. Glass containing gold behaves 
in almost precisely the same way, but the ruby glass is less crimson 
than copper ruby glass. J. E. C. Maxwell Garnett, whohasstudied 
the optical properties of theee glasses, has suggested that the 
changes in colour correspond with changes effected in the 
structure of the metals as they pass gradually from solution in 
the glass to a state of crystallization. 

Owing to impurities contained in the materials from which 
glasses are made, accidental coloration or discoloration is often 
produced. For this reason chemical agents are added to glass 
mixtures to remove or neutralize accidental colour. Ferrous 
oxide is the usual cause of'discoloration. By converting ferrous 
into ferric oxide the green tint is changed to yellow, which is 
less noticeable. Oxidation may be effected by the addition to 
the glass mixture of a substance which gives up oxygen at a 
high temperature, such as manganese dioxide or arsenic trioxide. 
With the same object, red lead and saltpetre are used in the 
mixture for potash-lead glass. Manganese dioxide not only acts 
as a source of oxygen, but develops a pink tint in the glass, which 
is complementary to and neutralizes the green colour due to 
ferrous oxide. 

Glass is a bad conductor of heat. When boiling water is 
poured into a glass vessel, the vessel frequently breaks, on 
account of the unequal expansion of the inner and outer layers. 
If in the process of glass manufacture a glass vessel is suddenly 
cooled, the constituent particles are unable to arrange themselves 
and the vessel remains in a state of extreme tension. The surface 
of the vessel may be hard, but the vessel is liable to fracture 
on receiving a trifling shock. M. de la Bastie's process of 
" toughening " glass consisted in dipping glass, raised to a 
temperature slightly below the melting-point, into molten 
tallow. The surface of the glass was hardened, but the inner 
layers remained in unstable equilibrium. Directly the crust 
was pierced the whole mass was shattered into minute fragments. 
In all branches of glass manufacture the process of " annealing," 
i.e. cooling the manufactured objects sufficiently slowly to allow 
the constituent particles to settle into a condition of equilibrium, 
is of vital importance. The desired result is obtained either by 
moving the manufactured goods gradually away from a constant 



both with compressed air and with steam with considerable 
success. Electrical furnaces have not as yet been employed 
for ordinary glass-making on a commercial scale, but the electrical 
plants which have been erected for melting and moulding 
quartz suggest the possibility of electric heating being employed 
for the manufacture of glass. Many forms of apparatus have 
been tried for ascertaining the temperature of glass furnaces. 
It is usually essential that some parts of the apparatus shall be 
made to acquire a temperature identical with the temperature 
to be measured. Owing to the physical changes produced in the 
material exposed prolonged observations of temperature are 
impossible. In the Fery radiation pyrometer this difficulty 
is obviated, as the instrument may be placed at a considerable 
distance from the furnace. The radiation passing out from an 
opening in the furnace falls upon a concave mirror in a telescope 
and is focused upon a thermoelectric couple. The hotter the 
furnace the greater is the rise of temperature of the couple. 
The electromotive force thus generated is measured by a galvano- 
meter, the scale of which is divided and figured so that the 
temperature may be directly read. (See THERMOMETRY.) 

In dealing with the manufacture of glass it is convenient 
to group the various branches in the following manner: 
Manufactured Class. 
I. Optical Glass 



)ttles. 



III. Mechanically Pressed Glass 

A. Plate and rolled plate glass. B. Pressed table glass. 

I. OPTICAL GLASS. As regards both mode of production and 
essential properties optical glass differs widely from all other 
varieties. These differences arise primarily from the fact that 
glass for optical uses is required in comparatively large and thick 
pieces, while for most other purposes glass is used in the form 
of comparatively thin sheets; when, therefore, as a consequence 



II. Blown Glass 

1 


A. 


1 
Table glass. 


B. Tube. 

Special glasses 
for thermo- 
meters, and 
other special 
glasses. 


C. Sheet D. B 
and crown 

glass. 



GLASS 



of Dollond's invention of achromatic telescope objectives in 
1757, a demand first arose for optical glass, the industry was 
unable to furnish suitable material. Flint glass particularly, 
which appeared quite satisfactory when viewed in small pieces, 
was found to be so far from homogeneous as to be useless for 
lens construction. The first step towards overcoming this vital 
defect in optical glass was taken by P. L. Guinand, towards the 
end of the i8th century, by introducing the process of stirring 
the molten glass by means of a cylinder of fireclay. Guinand 
was induced to migrate from his home in Switzerland to Bavaria, 
where he worked at the production of homogeneous flint glass, 
first with Joseph von Utzschneider and then with J. Fraunhofer; 
the latter ultimately attained considerable success and produced 
telescope disks up to 28 centimetres (i i in.) diameter. Fraunhofer 
further initiated the specification of refraction and dispersion 
in terms of certain lines of the spectrum, and even attempted 
an investigation of the effect of chemical composition on the 
relative dispersion produced by glasses in different parts of the 
spectrum. Guinand's process was further developed in France 
by Guinand's sons and subsequently by Bontemps and E. Feil. 
In 1848 Bontemps was obliged to leave France for political 
reasons and came to England, where he initiated the optical 
glass manufacture at Chance's glass works near Birmingham, 
and this firm ultimately attained a considerable reputation in 
the production of optical glass, especially of large disks for 
telescope objectives. Efforts at improving optical glass had, 
however, not been confined to the descendants and successors 
of Guinand and Fraunhofer. In 1824 the Royal Astronomical 
Society of London appointed a committee on the subject, the 
experimental work being carried out by Faraday. Faraday 
independently recognized the necessity for mechanical agitation 
of the molten glass in order to ensure homogeneity, and to 
facilitate his manipulations he worked with dense lead borate 
glasses which are very fusible, but have proved too unstable 
for ordinary optical purposes. Later Maes of Clichy (France) 
exhibited some " zinc crown " glass in small plates of optical 
quality at the London Exhibition of 1851; and another French 
glass-maker, Lamy, produced a dense thallium glass in 1867. 
In 1834 W. V. Harcourt began experiments in glass-making, 
in which he was subsequently joined by G. G. Stokes. Their 
object was to pursue the inquiry begun by Fraunhofer as to the 
effect of chemical composition on the distribution of dispersion. 
The specific effect of boric acid in this respect was correctly 
ascertained by Stokes and Harcourt, but they mistook the effect 
of titanic acid. J. Hopkinson, working at Chance's glass works, 
subsequently made an attempt to produce a titanium silicate 
glass, but nothing further resulted. 

The next and most important forward step in the progress of 
optical glass manufacture was initiated by Ernst Abbe and 
carried out jointly by him and O. Schott at Jena in Germany. 
Aided by grants from the Prussian government, these workers 
systematically investigated the effect of introducing a large 
number of different chemical substances (oxides) into vitreous 
fluxes. As a result a whole series of glasses of novel composition 
and optical properties were produced. A certain number of the 
most promising of these, from the purely optical point of view, 
had unfortunately to be abandoned for practical use owing to 
their chemical instability, and the problem of Fraunhofer, viz. 
the production of pairs of glasses of widely differing refraction 
and dispersion, but having a similar distribution of dispersion 
in the various regions of the spectrum, was not in the first instance 
solved. On the other hand, while in the older crown and flint 
glasses the relation between refraction and dispersion had been 
practically fixed, dispersion and refraction increasing regularly 
with the density of the glass, in some of the new glasses introduced 
by Abbe and Schott this relation is altered and a relatively 
low refractive index is accompanied by a relatively high disper- 
sion, while in others a high refractive index is associated with 
low dispersive power. 

The initiative of Abbe and Schott, which was greatly aided 
by the resources for scientific investigation available at the 
Physikalische Reichsanstalt (Imperial Physical Laboratory), 



led to such important developments that similar work was 
undertaken in France by the firm of Mantois, the successors 
of Feil, and somewhat later by Chance in England. The manu- 
facture of the new varieties of glass, originally known as " Jena " 
glasses, is now carried out extensively and with a considerable 
degree of commercial success in France, and also to a less extent 
in England, but none of the other makers of optical glass has 
as yet contributed to the progress of the industry to anything 
like the same extent as the Jena firm. 

The older optical glasses, now generally known as the 
"/ordinary " crown and flint glasses, are all of the nature of pure 
silicates, the basic constituents being, in the case of crown 
glasses, lime and soda or lime and potash, or a mixture of both, 
and in the case of flint glasses, lead and either (or both) soda and 
potash. With the exception of the heavier flint (lead) glasses, 
these can be produced so as to be free both from noticeable 
colour and from such defects as bubbles, opaque inclusions or 
" striae," but extreme care in the choice of all the raw materials 
and in all the manipulations is required to ensure this result. 
Further, these glasses, when made from properly proportioned 
materials, possess a very considerable degree of chemical stability, 
which is amply sufficient for most optical purposes. The newer 
glasses, on the other hand, contain a much wider variety of 
chemical constituents, the most important being the oxides of 
barium, magnesium, aluminium and zinc, used either with or 
without the addition of the bases already named in reference 
to the older glasses, and among acid bodies boric anhydride 
(B2O 3 ) which replaces the silica of the older glasses to a varying 
extent. It must be admitted that, by the aid of certain of these 
new constituents, glasses can be produced which, as regards 
purity of colour, freedom from defects and chemical stability are 
equal or even superior to the best of the " ordinary " glasses, but 
it is a remarkable fact that when this is the case the optical 
properties of the new glass do not fall very widely outside 
the limits set by the older glasses. On the other hand, the more 
extreme the optical properties of these new glasses, i.e. the 
further they depart from the ratio of refractive index to dispersive 
power found in the older glasses, the greater the difficulty found 
in obtaining them of either sufficient purity or stability to be of 
practical use. It is, in fact, admitted that some of the glasses, 
most useful optically, the dense barium crown glasses, which 
are so widely used in modern photographic lenses, cannot be 
produced entirely free either from noticeable colour or from 
numerous small bubbles, while the chemical nature of these 
glasses is so sensitive that considerable care is required to protect 
the surfaces of lenses made from them if serious tarnishing is to 
be avoided. In practice, however, it is not found that the presence 
either of a decidedly greenish-yellow colour or of numerous 
small bubbles interferes at all seriously with the successful use 
of the lenses for the majority of purposes, so that it is preferable 
to sacrifice the perfection of the glass in order to secure valuable 
optical properties. 

It is a further striking fact, not unconnected with those just 
enumerated, that the extreme range of optical properties covered 
even by the relatively large number of optical glasses now available 
is in reality very small. The refractive indices of all glasses at 
present available lie between 1-46 and 1-90, whereas transparent 
minerals are known having refractive indices lying considerably 
outside these limits; at least one of these, fluorite (calcium 
fluoride), is actually used by opticians in the construction of 
certain lenses, so that probably progress is to be looked for in a 
considerable widening of the limits of available optical materials; 
possibly such progress may lie in the direction of the artificial 
production of large mineral crystals. 

The qualities required in optical glasses have already been 
partly referred to, but may now be summarized: 

1. Transparency and Freedom from Colour. These qualities can 
be readily judged by inspection of the glass in pieces of considerable 
thickness, and they may be quantitatively measured by means of the 
spectro-photometer. 

2. Homogeneity. The optical desideratum is uniformity of re- 
fractive incfex and dispersive power throughout the mass of the glass. 
This is probably never completely attained, variations in the sixth 



GLASS 



89 



significant figure of the refractive index being observed in different 
parts of single large blocks of the most perfect glass. While such 
minute and gradual variations are harmless for most optical purposes, 
sudden variations which generally take the form of striae or veins 
are fatal defects in all optical glass. In their coarsest forms such 
striae are readily visible to the unaided eye, but finer ones escape 
detection unless special means are taken for rendering them visible; 
such special means conveniently take the form of an apparatus for 
examining the glass in a beam of parallel light, when the striae 
scatter the light and appear as either dark or bright lines according 
to the position of the eye. Plate glass of the usual quality, which 
appears to be perfectly homogeneous when looked at in the ordinary 
way, is seen to be a mass of fine striae, when a considerable thickness 
is examined in parallel light. Plate glass is, nevertheless, consider- 
ably used for the cheaper forms of lenses, where the scattering of 
the light and loss of definition arising from these fine striae is not 
readily recognized. 

Bubbles and enclosures of opaque matter, although more readily 
observed, do not constitute such serious defects; their presence in a 
lens, to a moderate extent, does not interfere with its performance 
(see above). 

3. Hardness and Chemical Stability. These properties contribute 
to the durability of lenses, and are specially desirable in the outer 
members of lens combinations which are likely to be subjected to 
frequent handling or are exposed to the weather. As a general rule, 
to which, however, there are important exceptions, both these 
qualities are found to a greater degree, the lower the refractive index 
of the glass. The chemical stability, i.e. the power of resisting the 
disintegrating effects of atmospheric moisture and carbonic acid, 
depends largely upon the quantity of alkalis contained in the glass 
and their proportion to the lead, lime or barium present, the stability 
being generally less the higher the proportion of alkali. A high 
silica-content tends towards both hardness and chemical stability, 
and this can be further increased by the addition of small proportions 
of boric acid; in larger quantities, however, the latter constituent 
produces the opposite effect. 

4. Absence of Internal Strain. Internal strain in glass arises from 
the unequal contraction of the outer and inner portions of masses 
of glass during cooling. Processes of annealing, or very gradual 
cooling, are intended to relieve these strains, but such processes are 
only completely effective when the cooling, particularly through 
those ranges of temperature where the glass is just losing the last 
traces of plasticity, is extremely gradual, a rate measured in hours 
per degree Centigrade being required. The existence of internal 
strains in glass can be readilv recognized by examination in polarized 
light, any signs of double refraction indicating the existence of strain. 
If the glass is very badly annealed, the lenses made from it may fly 
to pieces during or after manufacture, but apart from such extreme 
cases the optical effects of internal strain are not readily observed 
except in large optical apparatus. Very perfectly annealed optical 
glass is now, however, readily obtainable. 

5. Refraction and Dispersion. The purely optical properties of 
refraction and dispersion, although of the greatest importance, 
cannot be dealt with in any detail here; for an account of the optical 
properties required in glasses for various forms of lenses see the 
articles LENS and ABERRATION: II. In Optical Systems. As typical 
of the range of modern optical glasses Table I. is given, which 
constituted the list of optical glasses exhibited by Messrs Chance 
at the Optical Convention in London in 1905. In this table n is the 



refractive index of the glass for sodium light (the D line of the solar 
spectrum), while the letters C, F and G' refer to lines in the hydrogen 
spectrum by which dispersion is now generally specified. The 
symbol v represents the inverse of the dispersive power, its value 
being (n D -i)/(C-F). The very much longer lists of German and 
French firms contain only a few types not represented in this table. 
Manufacture of Optical Glass. In its earlier stages, the process 
for the production of optical glass closely resembles that used in 
the production of any other glass of the highest quality. The raw 
materials are selected with great care to assure chemical purity, 
but whereas in most glasses the only impurities to be dreaded 
are those that are either infusible or produce a colouring effect 
upon the glass, for optical purposes the admixture of other 
glass-forming bodies than those which are intended to be present 
must be avoided on account of their effect in modifying the 
optical constants of the glass. Constancy of composition of the 
raw materials and their careful and thorough admixture in con- 
stant proportions are therefore essential to the production of the 
required glasses. The materials are generally used in the form 
either of oxides (lead, zinc, silica, &c.) or of salts readily decom- 
posed by heat, such as the nitrates or carbonates. Fragments of 
glass of the same composition as that aimed at are generally 
incorporated to a limited extent with the mixed raw materials 
to facilitate their fusion. The crucibles or pots used for the 
production of optical glass very closely resemble those used in the 
manufacture of flint glass for other purposes; they are " covered " 
and the molten materials are thus protected from the action of 
the furnace gases by the interposition of a wall of fireclay, but 
as crucibles for optical glass are used for only one fusion and are 
then broken up, they are not made so thick and heavy as those 
used in flint-glass making, since the latter remain in the furnace 
for many weeks. On the other hand, the chemical and physical 
nature of the fireclays used in the manufacture of such crucibles 
requires careful attention in order to secure the best results. 
The furnace used for the production of optical glass is generally 
constructed to take one crucible only, so that the heat of the 
furnace may be accurately adjusted to the requirements of the 
particular glass under treatment. These small furnaces are 
frequently arranged for direct coal firing, but regenerative gas- 
fired furnaces are also employed. The empty crucible, having 
first been gradually dried and heated to a bright red heat in a 
subsidiary furnace, is taken up by means of massive iron tongs 
and introduced into the previously heated furnace, the tempera- 
ture of which is then gradually raised. When a suitable tempera- 
ture for the fusion of the particular glass in question has been 
attained, the mixture of raw materials is introduced in com- 
paratively small quantities at a time. In this way the crucible 
is gradually filled with a mass of molten glass, which is, however, 



TABLE I. Optical Properties. 



Factory 
Number. 


Name. 


"D. 


V. 


Medium 
Dispersion. 
C-F. 


Partial and Relative Partial Dispersions. 


C-D. 


C-D 
T=F7 


D-F. 


D-F 


F-G'. 


F-G' 


C. 644 
B. 646 
A. 605 
C. 577 


Extra Hard Crown 
Boro-silicate Crown . 
Hard Crown 
Medium Barium Crown 
Densest Barium Crown 


4959 
5096 
5175 
5738 
6065 


64-4 

63-3 
60-5 

57-9 
57'9 


00770 
00803 
00856 
00990 
01046 


00228 
00236 
00252 
00293 
00308 


296 
294 
294 
296 

294 


00542 
00562 
00604 
00697 
00738 


704 
700 
706 
704 
75 


00431 
00446 
00484 
00552 
00589 


56o 
555 
554 
557 
563 


A. 560 
B. 563 
B. 535 
A. 490 
A. 485 
C. 474 
B. 466 


Soft Crown . 
Medium Barium Crown 
Barium Light Flint 
Extra Light Flint 
Extra Light Flint 
Boro-silicate Flint 
Barium Light Flint 


5152 
1-5660 
5452 

5333 
5623 

5833 


56-9 
56-3 
53-5 
49-0 

48-5 
47-4 
46-6 


00906 
01006 

OIO2O 
01085 
OIO99 
OII87 
OI25I 


00264 
00297 
00298 
00313 
00322 
00343 
00362 


291 

295 
292 
288 
293 
289 
288 


00642 
00709 
00722 
00772 
00777 
00844 
00889 


708 
704 
701 
711 
707 
711 
711 


00517 
00576 
00582 
00630 
00640 
00693 
00721 


570 
572 
57 
58o 

584 
576 


B. 458 


Soda Flint 


5482 


45-8 


OII95 


00343 


287 


00852 


7'3 


00690 


577 


A. 458 


Light Flint 


5472 


45-8 


OII96 


00348 


291 


00848 


709 


00707 




A. 432 
A. 410 


Light Flint 
Light Flint 


5610 
5760 


43-2 
41-0 


01299 
OI4O4 


00372 
00402 


287 
286 


00927 

OIOO2 


713 
713 


00770 
00840 


593 
598 


B. 407 


Light Flint 


5787 


40-7 


OI42O 


00404 


284 


OIOI6 




00840 


591 


A. 370 


Dense Flint 


6118 


36-9 


01657 


00470 


284 


OII87 


716 


01004 


606 


A. 361 
A. 360 
A. 337 


Dense Flint 
Dense Flint 
Extra Dense Flint 


6214 
6225 
6469 


36-1 
36-0 
337 


OI722 
01729 
OI9I7 


00491 
00493 
00541 


285 
286 
285 


OI23I 
01236 
01376 


715 
715 
720 


01046 
01054 
01170 


608 
609 
655 


A. 299 


Densest Flint 


7129 


29-9 


02384 


00670 


281 


OI7I4 


789 


01661 


678 



9 o 



GLASS 



full of bubbles of all sizes. These bubbles arise partly from the 
air enclosed between the particles of raw materials and partly 
from the gaseous decomposition products of the materials 
themselves. In the next stage of the process, the glass is raised 
to a high temperature in order to render it sufficiently fluid to 
allow of the complete elimination of these bubbles; the actual 
temperature required varies with the chemical composition of 
the glass, a bright red heat sufficing for the most fusible glasses, 
while with others the utmost capacity of the best furnaces 
is required to attain the necessary temperature. With these 
latter glasses there is, of course, considerable risk that the 
partial fusion and consequent contraction of the fireclay of the 
crucible may result in its destruction and the entire loss of the 
glass. The stages of the process so far described generallyoccupy 
from 36 to 60 hours, and during this time the constant care and 
watchfulness of those attending the furnace is required. This is 
still more the case in the next stage. The examination of small 
test-pieces of the glass withdrawn from the crucible by means 
of an iron rod having shown that the molten mass is free from 
bubbles, the stirring process may be begun, the object of this 
manipulation being to render the glass as homogeneous as possible 
and to secure the absence of veins or striae in the product. For 
this purpose a cylinder of fireclay, provided with a square axial 
hole at the upper end, is heated in a small subsidiary furnace and 
is then introduced into the molten glass. Into the square axial 
hole fits the square end of a hooked iron bar which projects 
several yards beyond the mouth of the furnace; by means of 
this bar a workman moves the fireclay cylinder about in the glass 
with a steady circular sweep. Although the weight of the iron 
bar is carried by a support, such as an overhead chain or a swivel 
roller, this operation is very laborious and trying, more especially 
during the earlier stages when the heat radiated from the open 
mouth of the crucible is intense. The men who manipulate the 
stirring bars are therefore changed at short intervals, while the 
bars themselves have also to be changed at somewhat longer 
intervals, as they rapidly become oxidized, and accumulated 
scale would tend to fall off them, thus contaminating the glass 
below. The stirring process is begun when the glass is perfectly 
fluid at a temperature little short of the highest attained in its 
fusion, but as the stirring proceeds the glass is allowed to cool 
gradually and thus becomes more and more viscous until finally 
the stirring cylinder can scarcely be moved. When the glass has 
acquired this degree of consistency it is supposed that no fresh 
movements can occur within its mass, so that if homogeneity has 
been attained the glass will preserve it permanently. The stirring 
is therefore discontinued and the clay cylinder is either left 
embedded in the glass, or by the exercise of considerable force 
it may be gradually withdrawn. The crucible 
with the semi-solid glass which it contains is now 
allowed to cool considerably in the melting furnace, 
or it may be removed to another slightly heated 
furnace. When the glass has cooled so far as 
to become hard and solid, the furnace is hermetic- 
ally sealed up and allowed to cool very gradually 
to the ordinary temperature. If the cooling is very 
gradual occupying several weeks it sometimes 
happens that the entire contents of a large crucible, weighing 
perhaps 1000 Ib, are found intact as a single mass of glass, but 
more frequently the mass is found broken up into a number of 
fragments of various sizes. From the large masses great lenses 
and mirrors may be produced, while the smaller pieces are used 
for the production of the disks and slabs of moderate size, in 
which the optical glass of commerce is usually supplied. In order 
to allow of the removal of the glass, the cold crucible is broken 
up and the glass carefully separated from the fragments of fire- 
clay. The pieces of glass are then examined for the detection of 
the grosser defects, and obviously defective pieces are rejected. 
As the fractured surfaces of the glass in this condition are un- 
suitable for delicate examination a good deal of glass that passes 
this inspection has yet ultimately to be rejected. The next stage 
in the preparation of the glass is the process of moulding and 
annealing. Lumps of glass of approximately the right weight 



are chosen, and are heated to a temperature just sufficient to 
soften the glass, when the lumps are caused to assume the shape 
of moulds made of iron or fireclay either by the natural flow of 
the softened glass under gravity, or by pressure from suitable 
tools or presses. The glass, now in its approximate form, is 
placed in a heated chamber where it is allowed to cool very 
gradually the minimum time of cooling from a dull red heat 
being six days, while for " fine annealing " a much longer period 
is required (see above). At the end of the annealing process the 
glass issues in the shape of disks or slabs slightly larger than 
required by the optician in each case. The glass is, however, by 
no means ready for delivery, since it has yet to be examined 
with scrupulous care, and all defective pieces must be rejected 
entirely or at least the defective part must be cut out and the 
slab remoulded or ground down to a smaller size. For the purpose 
of rendering this minute examination possible, opposite plane 
surfaces of the glass are ground approximately flat and polished, 
the faces to be polished being so chosen as to allow of a view 
through the greatest possible thickness of glass; thus in slabs 
the narrow edges are polished. 

It will be readily understood from the above account of the 
process of production that optical glass, relatively to other 
kinds of glass, is very expensive, the actual price varying from 
35. to 305. per Ib in small slabs or disks. The price, however, 
rapidly increases with the total bulk of perfect glass required in 
one piece, so that large disks of glass suitable for telescope 
objectives of wide aperture, or blocks for large prisms, become 
exceedingly costly. The reason for this high cost is to be found 
partly in the fact that the yield of optically perfect glass even 
in large and successful meltings rarely exceeds 20% of the total 
weight of glass melted. Further, all the subsequent processes 
of cutting, moulding and annealing become increasingly difficult, 
owing to the greatly increased risk of breakage arising from 
either external injury or internal strain, as the dimensions of 
the individual piece of glass increase. Nevertheless, disks of 
optical glass, both crown and flint, have been produced up to 
39 in. in diameter. 

II. BLOWN GLASS. (A) Table-ware and Vases. The varieties 
of glass used for the manufacture of table-ware and vases are 
the potash-lead glass, the soda-lime glass and the potash-lime 
glass. These glasses may be colourless or coloured. Venetian 
glass is a soda-lime glass; Bohemian glass is a potash-lime 
glass. The potash-lead glass, which was first used on a com-* 
mercial scale in England for the manufacture of table-ware, 
and which is known as " flint " glass or " crystal," is also largely 
used in France, Germany and the United States. Table II. 
shows the typical composition of these glasses. 

TABLE II. 





SiO z . 


K 2 0. 


PbO. 


Na 2 O. 


CaO. 


MgO. 


Fe*0, 
and 
AljOs. 


Potash-lead (flint) glass . 
Soda-lime (Venetian) glass . 
Potash-lime (Bohemian) glass 


53-17 
73-4 
71-70 


13-88 
12-70 


32-95 


18-58 
2-50 


5-06 
10-30 




2-48 
0-90 



For melting the leadless glasses, open, bowl-shaped crucibles 
are used, ranging from 12 to 40 in. in diameter. Glass mixtures 
containing lead are melted in covered, beehive-shaped crucibles 
holding from 12 to 18 cwt. of glass. They have a hooded open- 
ing on one side near the top. This opening serves for the intro- 
duction of the glass-mixture, for the removal of the melted 
glass and as a source of heat for the processes of manipulation. 

The Venetian furnaces in the island of Murano are small 
low structures heated with wood. The heat passes from the 
melting furnace into the annealing kiln. In Germany, Austria 
and the United States, gas furnaces are generally used. In 
England directly-heated coal furnaces are still in common use, 
which in many cases are stoked by mechanical feeders. There 
are two systems of annealing. The manufactured goods are 
either removed gradually from a constant source of heat by means 
of a train of small iron trucks drawn along a tramway by an 



GLASS 



9 1 



endless chain, or are placed in a heated kiln in which the fire is 
allowed gradually to die out. The second system is especially 
used for annealing large and heavy objects. The manufacture 
of table-ware is carried on by small gangs of men and boys. In 
England each " gang " or " chair " consists of three men and one 
boy. In works, however, in which most of thegoodsare moulded, 
and where less skilled labour is required, the proportion of boy 
labour is increased. There are generally two shifts of workmen, 
each shift working six hours, and the work is carried on continu- 
ously from Monday morning until Friday morning. Directly 
work is suspended the glass remaining in the crucibles is ladled 
into water, drained and dried. It is then mixed with the glass 
mixture and broken glass (" cullet "), and replaced in the 



P 

F*IG. 1 6. Pontils and Blowing Iron. 
a, Puntee; b, spring puntee; c, blowing iron. 

crucibles. The furnaces are driven to a white heat in order to 
fuse the mixture and expel bubbles of gas and air. Before work 
begins the temperature is lowered sufficiently to render the glass 
viscous. In the viscous state a mass of glass can be coiled upon 
the heated end of an iron rod, and if the rod is hollow can be 
blown into a hollow bulb. The tools used are extremely primitive 
hollow iron blowing-rods, solid rods for holding vessels during 
manipulation, spring tools, resembling sugar-tongs in shape, 
with steel or wooden blades for fashioning the viscous glass, 
callipers, measure-sticks, and a variety of moulds of wood, 
carbon, cast iron, gun-metal and plaster of Paris (figs. i6and 17). 
The most important tool, however, is the bench or " chair " 
on which the workman sits, which serves as his lathe. He sits 




FIG. 17. Shaping and Measuring Tools. 

d, " Sugar-tongs " tool with wooden /, Pincers, 

ends. g, Scissors. 

e, e, " Sugar-tongs " tools with cutting h. Battledore. 

edges. i, Marking compacs. 

between two rigid parallel arms, projecting forwards and back- 
wards and sloping slightly from back to front. Across the arms 
he balances the iron rod to which the glass bulb adheres, and 
rolling it backwards and forwards with the fingers of his left 
hand fashions the glass between the blades of his sugar-tongs 
tool, grasped in his right hand. The hollow bulb is worked into 
the shape it is intended to assume, partly by blowing, partly by 
gravitation, and partly by the workman's tool. If the blowing 
iron is held vertically with the bulb uppermost the bulb becomes 
flattened and shallow, if the bulb is allowed to hang downwards 
it becomes elongated and reduced in diameter, and if the end of 
the bulb is pierced and the iron is held horizontally and sharply 
trundled, as a mop is trundled, the bulb opens out into a flattened 
disk. 

During the process of manipulation, whether on the chair 



or whilst the glass is being reheated, the rod must be constantly 
and gently trundled to prevent the collapse of the bulb or vessel. 
Every natural development of the spherical form can be obtained 
by blowing and fashioning by hand. A non-spherical form can only 
be produced by blowing the hollow bulb into a mould of the 
required shape. Moulds are used both for giving shape to vessels 
and also for impressing patterns on their suface. Although 
spherical forms can be obtained without the use of moulds, 
moulds are now largely used for even the simplest kinds of table- 
ware in order to economize time and skilled labour. In France, 
Germany and the United States it is rare to find a piece of table- 
ware which has not received its shape in a mould. The old and 
the new systems of making a wine-glass illustrate almost all the 
ordinary processes of glass working. Sufficient glass is first 
" gathered " on the end of a blowing iron to form the bowl of 
the wine-glass. The mere act of coiling an exact weight of 
molten glass round the end of a rod 4 ft. in length requires 
considerable skill. The mass of glass is rolled on a polished 
slab of iron, the " marvor," to solidify it, and it is then slightly 
hollowed by blowing. Under the old system the form of the bowl 
is gradually developed by blowing and by shaping the bulb with 
the sugar-tongs tool. The leg is either pulled out from the 
substance of the base of the bowl, or from a small lump of glass 
added to the base. The foot starts as a small independent bulb 
on a separate blowing iron. One extremity of this bulb is made 
to adhere to the end of the leg, and the other extremity is broken 
away from its blowing iron. The fractured end is heated, and by 
the combined action of heat and centrifugal force opens out 
into a flat foot. The bowl is now severed from its blowing iron 
and the unfinished wine-glass is supported by its foot, which is 
attached to the end of a working rod by a metal clip or by a seal 
of glass. The fractured edge of the bowl is heated, trimmed 
with scissors and melted so as to be perfectly smooth and even, 
and the bowl itself receives its final form from the sugar-tongs 
tool. 

Under the new system the bowl is fashioned by blowing the 
slightly hollowed mass of glass into a mould. The leg is formed 
and a small lump of molten glass is attached to its extremity 
to form the foot. The blowing iron is constantly trundkd, and 
the small lump of glass is squeezed and flattened into the shape 
of a foot, either between two slabs of wood hinged together, 
or by pressure against an upright board. The bowl is severed 
from the blowing iron, and the wine-glass is sent to the an- 
nealing oven with a bowl, longer than that of the finished glass, 
and with a rough fractured edge. When the glass is cold the 
surplus is removed either by grinding, or by applying heat to a 
line scratched with a diamond round the bowl. The fractured 
edge is smoothed by the impact of a gas flame. 

In the manufacture of a wine-glass the ductility of glass is 
illustrated on a small scale by the process of pulling out the leg. 
It is more strikingly illustrated in the manufacture of glass cane 
and tube. Cane is produced from a solid mass of molten glass, 
tube from a mass hollowed by blowing. One workman holds 
the blowing iron with the mass of glass attached to it, and 
another fixes an iron rod by means of a seal of glass to the 
extremity of the mass. The two workmen face each other 
and walk backwards. The diameter of the cane or tube is 
regulated by the weight of glass carried, and by the distance 
covered by the two workmen. It is a curious property of viscous 
glass that whatever form is given to the mass of glass before it 
is drawn out is retained by the finished cane or tube, however 
small its section may be. Owing to this property, tubes or 
canes can be produced with a square, oblong, oval or triangular 
section. Exceedingly fine canes of milk-white glass play an 
important part in the masterpieces produced by the Venetian 
glass-makers of the i6th century. Vases and drinking cups 
were produced of extreme lightness, in the walls of which were 
embedded patterns rivalling lace-work in fineness and intricacy. 
The canes from which the patterns are formed are either simple 
or complex. The latter are made by dipping a small mass of 
molten colourless glass into an iron cup around the inner wall 
of which short lengths of white cane have been arranged at 



GLASS 



regular intervals. The canes adhere to the molten glass, and 
the mass is first twisted and then drawn out into fine cane, 
which contains white threads arranged in endless spirals. The 
process can be almost indefinitely repeated and canes formed 
of extreme complexity. A vase decorated with these simple 
or complex canes is produced by embedding short lengths of 
the cane on the surface of a mass of molten glass and blowing 
and fashioning the mass into the required shape. 

Table-ware and Vases .may be wholly coloured or merely 
decorated with colour. Touches of colour may be added to 
vessels in course of manufacture by means of seals of molten 
glass, applied like sealing-wax; or by causing vessels to wrap 
themselves round with threads or coils of coloured glass. By 
the application of a pointed iron hook, while the glass is still 
ductile, the parallel coils can be distorted into bends, loops or 
zigzags. The surface of vessels may be spangled with gold or 
platinum by rolling the hot glass on metallic leaf, or iridescent, 
by the deposition of metallic tin, or by the corrosion caused 
by the chemical action of acid fumes. Gilding and enamel 
decoration are applied to vessels when cold, and fixed by 
heat. 

Cutting and engraving are mechanical processes for producing 
decorative effects by abrading the surface of the glass when cold. 
The abrasion is effected by pressing the glass against the edge 
of wheels, or disks, of hard material revolving on horizontal 
spindles. The spindles of cutting wheels are driven by steam 
or electric power. The wheels for making deep cuts are made 
of iron, and are fed with sand and water. The wheels range 
in diameter from 18 in. to 3 in. Wheels of carborundum are 
also used. Wheels of fine sandstone fed with water are used 
for making slighter cuts and for smoothing the rough surface 
left by the iron wheels. Polishing is effected by wooden wheels 
fed with wet pumice-powder and rottenstone and by brushes 
fed with moistened putty-powder. Patterns are produced by 
combining straight and curved cuts. Cutting brings out the 
brilliancy of glass, which is one of its intrinsic qualities. At 
the end of the i8th century English cut glass was unrivalled 
for design and beauty. Gradually, however, the process was 
applied without restraint and the products lost all artistic 
quality. At the present time cut glass is steadily regaining 
favour. 

Engraving is a process of drawing on glass by means of small . 
copper wheels. The wheels range from in. to 2 in. in diameter, 
and are fed with a mixture of fine emery and oil. The spindles 
to which the wheels are attached revolve in a lathe worked by 
a foot treadle. The true use of engraving is to add interest to 
vessels by means of coats of arms, crests, monograms, inscriptions 
and graceful outlines. The improper use of engraving is to 
hide defective material. There are two other processes of 
marking patterns on glass, but they possess no artistic value. 
In the " sandblast " process the surface of the glass is exposed 
to a stream of sharp sand driven by compressed air. The parts 
of the surface which are not to be blasted are covered by adhesive 
paper. In the " etching " process the surface of the glass is 
etched by the chemical action of hydrofluoric acid, the parts 
which are not to be attacked being covered with a resinous paint. 
The glass is first dipped in this protective liquid, and when the 
paint has set the pattern is scratched through it with a sharp 
point. The glass is then exposed to the acid. 

Glass stoppers are fitted to bottles by grinding. The mouth 
of the bottle is ground by a revolving iron cone, or mandrel, 
fed with sand and water and driven by steam. The head of the 
stopper is fastened in a chuck and the peg is ground to the size 
of the mouth of the bottle by means of sand and water pressed 
against the glass by bent strips of thin sheet iron. The mouth 
of the bottle is then pressed by hand on the peg of the stopper, 
and the mouth and peg are ground together with a medium of 
very fine emery and water until an air-tight joint is secured. 

The revival in recent years of the craft of glass-blowing in 
England must be attributed to William Morris and T.G. Jacksen, 
R.A. (PI. II. figs, ii and 12). They, at any rate, seem to have 
been the first to grasp the idea that a wine-glass is not merely 



a bowl, a stem and a foot, but that, whilst retaining simplicity 
of form, it may nevertheless possess decorative effect. They, 
moreover, suggested the introduction for the manufacture of 
table-glass of a material similar in texture to that used by the 
Venetians, both colourless and tinted. 

The colours previously available for English table-glass were 
ruby, canary-yellow, emerald-green, dark peacock-green, light 
peacock-blue, dark purple-blue and a dark purple. About 
1870 the " Jackson " table-glass was made in a light, dull green 
glass. The dull green was followed successively by amber, white 
opal, blue opal, straw opal, sea-green, horn colour and various 
pale tints of soda-lime glass, ranging from yellow to blue. Ex- 
periments were also tried with a violet-coloured glass, a violet 
opal, a transparent black and with glasses shading from red 
to blue, red to amber and blue to green. 

In the Paris Exhibition of 1900 surface decoration was the 
prominent feature of all the exhibits of table-glass. The carved 
or " cameo " glass, introduced by Thomas Webb of Stourbridge 
in 1878, had been copied with varying success by glass-makers 
of all nations. In many specimens there were three or more 
layers of differently coloured glass, and curious effects of blended 
colour were obtained by cutting through, or partly through, 
the different layers. The surface of the glass had usually been 
treated with hydrofluoric acid so as to have a satin-like gloss. 
Some vases of this character, shown by Emile Galle and Daum 
Freres of Nancy, possessed considerable beauty. The " Favrile " 
glass of Louis C. Tiffany of New York (PI. II. fig. 13) owes its 
effect entirely to surface colour and lustre. The happiest speci- 
mens of this glass almost rival the wings of butterflies in the 
brilliancy of their iridescent colours. The vases of Karl Koepping 
of Berlin are so fantastic and so fragile that they appear to be 
creations of the lamp rather than of the furnace. An illustration 
is also given of some of Powell's " Whitefriars" glass, shown at 
the St Louis Exhibition, 1904 (PI. II. fig. 14). The specimens 
of " pate de verre " exhibited by A. L. Dammouse, of Sevres, 
in the Musee des Arts decoratifs in Paris, and at the London 
Franco-British Exhibition in 1908, deserve attention. They 
have a semi-opaque body with an "egg-shell" surface and are 
delicately tinted with colour. The shapes are exceedingly 
simple, but some of the pieces possess great beauty. The material 
and technique suggest a close relationship to porcelain. 

(B) Tube. The process of making tube has already been 
described. Although the bore of the thermometer-tube is 
exceedingly small, it is made in the same way as ordinary 
tube. The white line of enamel, which is seen in some thermo- 
meters behind the bore, is introduced before the mass of glass 
is pulled out. A flattened cake of viscous glass-enamel is welded 
on to one side of the mass of glass after it has been hollowed by 
blowing. The mass, with the enamel attached, is dipped into 
the crucible and covered with a layer of transparent glass; 
the whole mass is then pulled out into tube. If the section of 
the finished tube is to be a triangle, with the enamel and bore 
at the base, the molten mass is pressed into a V-shaped mould 
before it is pulled out. 

In modern thermometry instruments of extreme accuracy 
are required, and researches have been made, especially in 
Germany and France, to ascertain the causes of variability 
in mercurial thermometers, and how such variability is to be 
removed or reduced. In all mercurial thermometers there 
is a slight depression of the ice-point after exposure to high 
temperatures; it is also not .uncommon to find that the readings 
of two thermometers between the ice- and boiling-points 
fail to agree at any intermediate temperature, although the 
ice- and boiling-points of both have been determined together 
with perfect accuracy, and the intervening spaces have been 
equally divided. It has been proved that these variations 
depend to a great extent on the chemical nature of the glass of 
which the thermometer is made. Special glasses have therefore 
been produced by Tonnelot in France and at the Jena glass- 
works in Germany expressly for the manufacture of thermometers 
for accurate physical measurements; the analyses of these are 
shown in Table III. 





















Depression 




SiO,. 


Na,O. 


K,O. 


CaO. 


Al 2 Os- 


MgO. 


BjOs. 


ZnO. 


of 
Ice-point. 


Tonnelot's " Verre dur " 


70-96 


12-02 


0-56 


14-40 


1-44 


0-40 






0-07 


Jena glass 
XV I. -in 


67-5 


I4-O 




7-0 


2-5 




2-O 


7-0 


0-05 


59-1" 


72-0 


II-O 




5- 


5-o 




I2-O 




O-02 



Since the discovery of the Rontgen rays, experiments have 
been made to ascertain the effects of the different constituents 
of glass on the transparency of glass to X-rays. The oxides 
of lead, barium, zinc and antimony are found perceptibly to 
retard the rays. The glass tubes, therefore, from which the 
X-ray bulbs are to be fashioned, must not contain any of these 
oxides, whereas the glass used for making the funnel-shaped 
shields, which direct the rays upon the patient and at the same 
time protect the hands of the operator from the action of the 
rays, must contain a large proportion of lead. 

Among the many developments of the Jena Works, not the 
least important are the glasses made in the form of a tube, 
from which gas-chimneys, gauge-glasses and chemical apparatus 
are fashioned, specially adapted to resist sudden changes of 
temperature. One method is to form the tube of two layers 
of glass, one being considerably more expansible than the other. 

(C) Sheet and Crown-glass. Sheet-glass is almost wholly 
a soda-lime-silicate glass, containing only small quantities of 
iron, alumina and other impurities. The raw materials used 
in this manufacture are chosen with considerable care, since the 
requirements as to the colour of the product are somewhat 
stringent. The materials ordinarily employed are the following: 
sand, of good quality, uniform in grain and free from any 
notable quantity of iron oxide; carbonate of lime, generally 
in the form of a pure variety of powdered limestone; and 
sulphate of soda. A certain proportion of soda ash (carbonate 
of soda) is also used in some works in sheet-glass mixtures, while 
" decolorizers " (substances intended to remove or reduce the 
colour of the glass) are also sometimes added, those most generally 
used being manganese dioxide and arsenic. Another essential 
ingredient of all glass mixtures containing sulphate of soda 
is some form of carbon, which is added either as coke, charcoal 
or anthracite coal; the carbon so introduced aids the reducing 
substances contained in the atmosphere of the furnace in bringing 
about the reduction of the sulphate of soda to a condition in 
which it combines more readily with the silicic acid of the sand. 
The proportions in which these ingredients are mixed vary 
according to the exact quality of glass required and with the 
form and temperature of the melting furnace employed. A 
good quality of sheet-glass should show, on analysis, a composi- 
tion approximating to the following: silica (SiOj), 72%; 
lime (CaO), 13%; soda (Na 2 O), 14%; and iron and alumina 
(Fe2O 3 ,Al 2 O 3 ), i%. The actual composition, however, of a 
mixture that will give a glass of this composition cannot be 
directly calculated from these figures and the known composition 
of the raw materials, owing to the fact that considerable losses, 
particularly of alkali, occur during melting. 

The fusion of sheet-glass is now generally carried out in 
gas-fired regenerative tank furnaces. The glass in process 
of fusion is contained in a basin or tank built up of large blocks 
of fire-clay and is heated by one or more powerful gas flames 
which enter the upper part of the furnace chamber through 
suitable apertures or " ports." In Europe the gas burnt in 
these furnaces is derived from special gas-producers, while in 
some parts of America natural gas is utilized. With producer 
gas it is necessary to pre-heat both the gas and the air which 
is supplied for its combustion by passing both through heated 
regenerators (for an account of the principles of the regenerative 
furnace see article FURNACE). In many respects the glass- 
melting tank resembles the open-hearth steel furnace, but there 
are certain interesting differences. Thus the dimensions of the 
largest glass tanks greatly exceed those of the largest steel 
furnaces; glass furnaces containing up to 250 tons of molten 



GLASS 93 

TABLE III. glass have been successfully oper- 

ated, and owing to the relatively 
low density of glass this involves 
very large dimensions. The tem- 
perature required in the fusion of 
sheet-glass and of other glasses 
produced in tank furnaces is much 
lower than that attained in steel 
furnaces, and it is consequently pos- 
sible to work glass-tanks continuously for many months together; 
on the other hand, glass is not readily freed from foreign bodies 
that may become admixed with it, so that the absence of detach- 
able particles is much more essential in glass than in steel melting. 
Finally, fluid steel can be run or poured off, since it is perfectly 
fluid, while glass cannot be thus treated, but is withdrawn from 
the furnace by means of either a ladle or a gatherer's pipe, 
and the temperature required for this purpose is much lower than 
that at which the glass is melted. In a sheet-glass tank there 
is therefore a gradient of temperature and a continuous passage 
of material from the hotter end of the furnace where the raw 
materials are introduced to the cooler end where the glass, 
free from bubbles and raw material, is withdrawn by the 
gatherers. For the purpose of the removal of the glass, the 
cooler end of the furnace is provided with a number of suitable 
openings, provided with movable covers or shades. The 
" gatherer " approaches one of these openings, removes the 
shade and introduces his previously heated " pipe." This 
instrument is an iron tube, some 5 ft. long, provided at one end 
with an enlarged butt and at the other with a wooden covering 
acting as handle and mouthpiece. The gatherer dips the butt 
of the pipe into the molten " metal " and withdraws upon it a 
small ball of viscous glass, which he allows to cool in the air 
while constantly rotating it so as to keep the mass as nearly 
spherical in shape as he can. When the first ball or " gathering " 
has cooled sufficiently, the whole is again dipped into the molten 
glass and a further layer adheres to the pipe-end, thus forming 
a larger ball. This process is repeated, with slight modifications, 
until the gathering is of the proper size and weight to yield the 
sheet which is to be blown. When this is the case the gathering 
is carried to a block or half-open mould in which it is rolled 
and blown until it acquires, roughly, the shape of a hemisphere, 
the flat side being towards the pipe and the convexity away 
from it; the diameter of this hemisphere is so regulated as to 
be approximately that of the cylinder which is next to be formed 
of the viscous mass. From the hemispherical shape the mass 
of glass is now gradually blown into the form of a short cylinder, 
and then the pipe with the adherent mass of glass is handed 
over to the blower proper. This workman stands upon a platform 
in front of special furnaces which, from their shape and purpose, 
are called " blowing holes." The blower repeatedly heats 
the lower part of the mass of glass and keeps it distended by 
blowing while he swings it over a deep trench which is provided 
next to his working platform. In this way the glass is extended 
into the form of a long cylinder closed at the lower end. The 
size of cylinder which can be produced in this way depends 
chiefly upon the dimensions of the working platform and the 
weight which a man is able to handle freely. The lower end of 
the cylinder is opened, in the case of small and thin cylinders, 
by the blower holding his thumb over the mouthpiece of the 
pipe and simultaneously warming the end of the cylinder in the 
furnace, the expansion of the imprisoned air and the softening 
of the glass causing the end of the cylinder to burst open. The 
blower then heats the end of the cylinder again and rapidly 
spins the pipe about its axis; the centrifugal effect is sufficient 
to spread the soft glass at the end to a radius equal to that of the 
rest of the cylinder. In the case of large and thick cylinders, 
however, another process of opening the ends is generally 
employed: an assistant attaches a small lump of hot glass to the 
domed end, and the heat of this added glass softens the cylinder 
sufficiently to enable the assistant to cut the end open with a 
pair of shears; subsequently the open end is spun out to the 
diameter of the whole as described above. The finished cylinder 



94 



GLASS 



is next carried to a rack and the pipe detached from it by applying 
a cold iron to the neck of thick hot glass which connects pipe-butt 
and cylinder, the neck cracking at the touch. Next, the rest 
of the connecting neck is detached from the cylinder by the 
application of a heated iron to the chilled glass. This leaves a 
cylinder with roughly parallel ends; these ends are cut by the 
use of a diamond applied internally and then the cylinder is 
split longitudinally by the same means. The split cylinder is 
passed to the flattening furnace, where it is exposed to a red heat, 
sufficient to soften the glass; when soft the cylinder is laid upon 
a smooth flat slab and flattened down upon it by the careful 
application of pressure with some form of rubbing implement, 
which frequently takes the form of a block of charred wood. 
When flattened, the sheet is moved away from the working 
opening of the furnace, and pushed to a system of movable 
grids, by means of which it is slowly moved along a tunnel, 
away from a source of heat nearly equal in temperature to that 
of the flattening chamber. The glass thus cools gradually as it 
passes down the tunnel and is thereby adequately annealed. 

The process of sheet-glass manufacture described above is 
typical of that in use in a large number of works, but many 
modifications are to be found, particularly in the furnaces in 
which the glass is melted. In some works, the older method 
of melting the glass in large pots or crucibles is still adhered to, 
although the old-fashioned coal-fired furnaces have nearly 
everywhere given place to the use of producer gas and re- 
generators. For the production of coloured sheet-glass, however, 
the employment of pot furnaces is still almost universal, prob- 
ably because the quantities of glass required of any one tint 
are insufficient to employ even a small tank furnace continuously; 
the exact control of the colour is also more readily attained with 
the smaller bulk of glass which has to be dealt with in pots. The 
general nature of the colouring ingredients employed, and the 
colour effects produced by them, have already been mentioned. 
In coloured sheet-glass, two distinct kinds are to be recognized; 
in one kind the colouring matter is contained in the body of the 
glass itself, while in the other the coloured sheet consists of 
ordinary white glass covered upon one side with a thin coating of 
intensely coloured glass. The latter kind is known as " flashed," 
and is universally employed in the case of colouring matters 
whose effect is so intense that in any usual thickness of glass 
they would cause almost entire opacity. Flashed glass is 
produced by taking either the first or the last gathering in the 
production of a cylinder out of a crucible containing the coloured 
" metal," the other gatherings being taken out of ordinary 
white sheet-glass. It is important that the thermal expansion 
of the two materials which are thus incorporated should be 
nearly alike, as otherwise warping of the finished sheet is liable 
to result. 

Mechanical Processes for the Production of Sheet-glass. The 
complicated and indirect process of sheet-glass manufacture 
has led to numerous inventions aiming at a direct method of 
production by more or less mechanical means. All the earlier 
attempts in this direction failed on account of the difficulty of 
bringing the glass to the machines without introducing air-bells, 
which are always formed in molten glass when it is ladled or 
poured from one vessel into another. More modern inventors 
have therefore adopted the plan of drawing the glass direct from 
the furnace. In an American process the glass is drawn direct 
from the molten mass in the tank hi a cylindrical form by means 
of an iron ring previously immersed in the glass, and is kept 
in shape by means of special devices for cooling it rapidly as it 
leaves the molten bath. In this process, however, the entire 
operations of splitting and flattening are retained, and although 
the mechanical process is said to be in successful commercial 
operation, it has not as yet made itself felt as a formidable rival 
to hand-made sheet-glass. An effort at a more direct mechanical 
process is embodied in the inventions of Foucault which are at 
present being developed in Germany and Belgium; in this 
process the glass is drawn from the molten bath in the shape of 
flat sheets, by the aid of a bar of iron, previously immersed in the 
glass, the glass receiving its form by being drawn through slots 



in large fire-bricks, and being kept in shape by rapid chilling 
produced by the action of air-blasts. The mechanical operation 
is quite successful for thick sheets, but it is not as yet available 
for the thinner sheets required for the ordinary purposes of 
sheet-glass, since with these excessive breakage occurs, while 
the sheets generally show grooves or lines derived from small 
irregularities of the drawing orifice. For the production of thick 
sheets which are subsequently to be polished the process may 
thus claim considerable success, but it is not as yet possible 
to produce satisfactory sheet-glass by such means. 

Crown-glass has at the present day almost disappeared from 
the market, and it has been superseded by sheet-glass, the more 
modern processes described above being capable of producing 
much larger sheets of glass, free from the knob or " bullion " 
which may still be seen in old crown-glass windows. For a 
few isolated purposes, however, it is desirable to use a glass 
which has not been touched upon either surface and thus pre- 
serves the lustre of its " fire polish " undiminished; this can 
be attained in crown-glass but not in sheet, since one side of 
the latter is always more or less marked by the rubber used 
in the process of flattening. One of the few uses of crown-glass 
of this kind is the glass slides upon which microscopic specimens 
are mounted, as well as the thin glass slips with which such 
preparations are covered. A full account of the process of 
blowing crown-glass will be found in all older books and articles 
on the subject, so that it need only be mentioned here that the 
glass, instead of being blown into a cylinder, is blown into a 
flattened sphere, which is caused to burst at the point opposite 
the pipe and is then, by the rapid spinning of the glass in front 
of a very hot furnace-opening, caused to expand into a flat disk 
of large diameter. This only requires to be annealed and is then 
ready for cutting up, but the lump of glass by which the original 
globe was attached to the pipe remains as the bullion in the centre 
of the disk of glass. 

Coloured Glass forM osaic Windows. The production of coloured 
glass for " mosaic " windows has become a separate branch 
of glass-making. Charles Winston, after prolonged study 
of the coloured windows of the I3th, I4th and isth centuries, 
convinced himself that no approach to the colour effect of these 
windows could be made with glass which is thin and even in 
section, homogeneous in texture, and made and coloured with 
highly refined materials. To obtain the effect it was necessary 
to reproduce as far as possible the conditions under which the 
early craftsmen worked, and to create scientifically glass which 
is impure in colour, irregular in section, and non-homogeneous 
in texture. The glass is made in cylinders and in " crowns " or 
circles. The cylinders measure about 14 in. in length by 8 in. 
in diameter, and vary in thickness from 5 to f in. The crowns 
are about 15 in. in diameter, and vary in thickness from 5 to J in., 
the centre being the thickest. These cylinders and crowns 
may- be either solid colour or flashed. Great variety of colour 
may be obtained by flashing one colour upon another, such as 
blue on green, and ruby on blue, green or yellow. 

E. J. Prior has introduced an ingenious method of making 
small oblong and square sheets of coloured glass, which are thick 
in the centre and taper towards the edges, and which have one 
surface slightly roughened and one brilliantly polished. Glass is 
blown into an oblong box-shaped iron mould, about 1 2 in. in depth 
and 6 in. across. A hollow rectangular bottle is formed, the base 
and sides of which are converted into sheets. The outer surface 
of these sheets is slightly roughened by contact with the iron 
mould. 

(D) Bottles and mechanically blown Glass. The manufacture 
of bottles has become an industry of vast proportions. The 
demand constantly increases, and, owing to constant improve- 
ments in material in the moulds and in the methods of working, 
the supply fully keeps pace with the demand. Except for 
making bottles of special colours, gas-heated tank furnaces are 
in general use. Melting and working are carried on continuously. 
The essential qualities of a bottle are strength and power to resist 
chemical corrosion. The materials are selected with a view to 
secure these qualities. For the highest quality of bottles, which 



GLASS 



95 




are practically colourless, sand, limestone and sulphate and 
carbonate of soda are used. The following is a typical analysis 
of high quality bottle-glass: Si0 2 , 69-15%; Na 2 O, 13-00%; 
CaO, 15-00%; Al 2 Oj, 2-20%; and Fe 2 O 3 , 0-65%. For the 
commoner grades of dark-coloured bottles the glass mixture 
is cheapened by substituting common salt for part of the sulphate 
of soda, and by the addition of felspar, granite, granulite, 
furnace slag and other substances fusible at a high temperature. 
Bottle moulds are made of cast iron, either in two pieces, hinged 
together at the base or at one side, or in three pieces, one 
forming the body and two pieces forming the neck. 

A bottle gang or " shop " consists of five persons. The 
" gatherer " gathers the glass from the tank furnace on the end 
of the blowing-iron, rolls it on a slab of iron or stone, slightly 
expands the glass by blowing, and hands the blowing iron and 
glass to the " blower." The blower places the glass in the mould, 
closes the mould by pressing a lever with his foot, and either 
blows down the blowing iron or attaches it to a tube connected 
with a supply of compressed air. When the air has forced the 
glass to take the form of the mould, the 
mould is opened and the blower gives the 
blowing iron with the bottle attached to 
it to the "wetter off." The wetter off 
touches the top of the neck of the bottle 
with a moistened piece of iron and by 
tapping the blowing iron detaches the 
bottle and drops it into a wooden trough. 
He then grips the body of the bottle with 
a four-pronged clip, attached to an iron 
rod, and passes it to the " bottle maker." 
The bottle maker heats the fractured neck 
of the bottle, binds a band of molten glass 
round the end of it and simultaneously 
shapes the inside and the outside of the 

FIG. 1 8. Tool for neck bv Usin 8 the to()1 shown in fig. 18. 
moulding the inside The finished bottle is taken by the " taker 
and outside of the in " to the annealing furnace. The bottles 
neck of a bottle. are stacked in iron trucks, which, when 
A" Co nical piece of ^ u ^> are move( i slowly away from a constant 
iron to form the source of heat. 

inside of the The processes of manipulation which have 
R p ec ,?jl , . been described, although in practice they 
' of'iron a ,Thic P hTa e n afe ver y ra P idl y Performed, are destined 
be pressed upon to be replaced by the automatic working 
the outside of of a machine. Bottle-making machines, 
the neck by the based on Ashley's original patent, are 
H - already being largely used. They ensure 
absolute regularity in form and save both 
time and labour. A bottle-making machine combines the 
process of pressing with a plunger with that of blowing by 
compressed air. The neck of the bottle is first formed by the 
plunger, and the body is subsequently blown by compressed air 
admitted through the plunger. A sufficient weight of molten 
glass to form a bottle is gathered and placed in a funnel-shaped 
vessel which serves as a measure, and gives access to the mould 
which shapes the outside of the neck. A plunger is forced 
upwards into the glass in the neck-mould and forms the neck. 
The funnel is removed, and the plunger, neck-mould and the 
mass of molten glass attached to the neck are inverted. A bottle 
mould rises and envelops the mass of molten glass. Com- 
pressed air admitted through the plunger forces the molten glass 
to take the form of the bottle mould and completes the bottle. 

In the case of the machine patented by Michael Owens of 
Toledo, U.S.A., for making tumblers, lamp-chimneys, and other 
goods of similar character, the manual operations required are 

(1) gathering the molten glass at the end of a blowing iron; 

(2) placing the blowing iron with the glass attached to it in the 
machine; (3) removing the blowing iron with the blown vessel 
attached. Each machine (fig. 19) consists of a revolving table 
carrying five or six moulds. The moulds are opened and closed 
by cams actuated by compressed air. As soon as a blowing 
iron is in connexion with an air jet, the sections of the mould 



close upon the molten glass, and the compressed air forces the 
glass to take the form of the mould. After removal from the 
machine, the tumbler is severed from the blowing iron, and 
its fractured edge is trimmed. 

Compressed air or steam is also used for fashioning very large 
vessels, baths, dishes and reservoirs by the " Sievert " process. 
Molten glass is spread upon a large iron plate of the required 
shape and dimensions. The flattened mass of glass is held by 
a rim, connected to the edge of the plate. The plate with the glass 
attached to it is inverted, and compressed air or steam is intro- 
duced through openings in the plate. The mass of glass, yielding 
to its own weight and the pressure of air or steam, sinks down- 
wards and adapts itself to any mould or receptacle beneath it. 

The processes employed in the manufacture of the glass 
bulbs for incandescent electric lamps, are similar to the old- 




FIG. 19. Owens's Glass-blowing Machine. g,g,g, Blowing-irons. 

fashioned processes of bottle making. The mould is in two 
pieces hinged together; it is heated and the inner surface is 
rubbed over with finely powdered plumbago. When the glass 
is being blown in the mould the blowing iron is twisted round and 
round so that the finished bulb may not be marked by the joint 
of the mould. 

III. MECHANICALLY PRESSED GLASS. (A) Plate-glass. The 
glass popularly known as " plate-glass " is made by casting and 
rolling. The following are typical analyses: 





SiO 2 . 


CaO. 


Na 2 O. 


A1 2 O S . 


Fe,0,. 


French . 
English . 


71-80 
70-64 


I.V70 
16-27 


II-IO 

11-47 


1-26 
0-70 


0-14% 
0-49% 



The raw materials for the production of plate-glass are chosen 
with great care so as to secure a product as free from colour 
as possible, since the relatively great thickness of the sheets' 



9 6 



GLASS 



would render even a faint tint conspicuous. The substances 
employed are the same as those used for the manufacture 
of sheet-glass, viz. pure sand, a pure form of carbonate of lime, 
and sulphate of soda, with the addition of a suitable proportion 
of carbon in the form of coke, charcoal or anthracite coal. 

The glass to be used for the production of plate is universally 
melted in pots or crucibles and not in open tank furnaces. 
When the glass is completely melted and " fine," i.e. free from 
bubbles, it is allowed to cool down to a certain extent so as 
to become viscous or pasty. The whole pot, with its contents 
of viscous glass, is then removed bodily from the furnace by 
means of huge tongs and is transported to a crane, which grips 
the pot, raises it, and ultimately tips it over so as to pour the 
glass upon the slab of the rolling-table. In most modern works 
the greater part of these operations, as well as the actual rolling 
of the glass, is carried out by mechanical means, steam power 
and subsequently electrical power having been successfully 
applied to this purpose; the handling of the great weights of 
glass required for the largest sheets of plate-glass which are 
produced at the present time would, indeed, be impossible 
without the aid of machinery. The casting-table usually con- 
sists of a perfectly smooth cast-iron slab, frequently built up 
of a number of pieces carefully fitted together, mounted upon 
a low, massive truck running upon rails, so that it can be readily 
moved to any desired position in the casting-room. The viscous 
mass having been thrown on the casting-table, a large and 
heavy roller passes over it and spreads it out into a sheet. 
Rollers up to 5 tons in weight are employed and are now 
generally driven by power. The width of the sheet or plate 
is regulated by moving guides which are placed in front of 
the roller and are pushed along by it, while its thickness 
is regulated by raising or lowering the roller relatively to 
the surface of the table. Since the surfaces produced by 
rolling have subsequently to be ground and polished, it is 
essential that the glass should leave the rolling-table with as 
smooth a surface as possible, so that great care is required in 
this part of the process. It is, however, equally important 
that the glass as a whole should be flat and remains flat during 
the process of gradual cooling (annealing), otherwise great 
thicknesses of glass would have to be ground away at the pro- 
jecting parts of the sheet. The annealing process is therefore 
carried out in a manner differing essentially from that in use 
for any other variety of flat glass and nearly resembling that 
used for optical glass. The rolled sheet is left on the casting- 
table until it has set sufficiently to be pushed over a flat iron 
plate without risk of distortion; meanwhile the table has been 
placed in front of the opening of one of the large annealing 
kilns and the slab of glass is carefully pushed into the kiln. The 
annealing kilns are large fire-brick chambers of small height 
but with sufficient floor area to accommodate four or six large 
slabs, and the slabs are placed directly upon the floor of the 
kiln, which is built up of carefully dressed blocks of burnt fire- 
clay resting upon a bed of sand; in order to avoid any risk of 
working or buckling in this floor these blocks are set slightly 
apart and thus have room to expand freely when heated. Before 
the glass is introduced, the annealing kiln is heated to dull red 
by means of coal fires in grates which are provided at the ends 
or sides of the kiln for that purpose. When the floor of the kiln 
has been covered with slabs of glass the opening is carefully 
built up and luted with fire-bricks and fire-clay, and the whole 
is then allowed to cool. In the walls and floor of the kiln special 
cooling channels or air passages are provided and by gradually 
opening these to atmospheric circulation the cooling is con- 
siderably accelerated while a very even distribution of tempera- 
ture is obtained; by these means even the largest slabs can now 
be cooled in three or four days and are nevertheless sufficiently 
well annealed to be free from any serious internal stress. From 
the annealing kiln the slabs of glass are transported to the 
cutting room, where they are cut square, defective slabs being 
rejected or cut down to smaller sizes. The glass at this stage 
has a comparatively dull surface and this must now be replaced 
by that brilliant and perfectly polished surface which is the chief 



beauty of this variety of glass. The first step in this process is 
that of grinding the surface down until all projections are 
removed and a close approximation to a perfect plane is obtained. 
This operation, like all the subsequent steps in the polishing 
of the glass, is carried out by powerful machinery. By means 
of a rotating table either two surfaces of glass, or one surface 
of glass and one of cast iron, are rubbed together with the inter- 
position of a powerful abrasive such as sand, emery or carbor- 
undum. The machinery by which this is done has undergone 
numerous modifications and improvements, all tending to pro- 
duce more perfectly plane glass, to reduce the risk of breakage, 
and to lessen the expenditure of time and power required per 
sq. yd. of glass to be worked. It is impossible to describe 
this machinery within the limits of this article, but it is notable 
that the principal difficulties to be overcome arise from the 
necessity of providing the glass with a perfectly continuous 
and unyielding support to which it can be firmly attached but 
from which it can be detached without undue difficulty. 

When the surface of the glass has been ground down to a plane, 
the surface itself is still " grey," i.e. deeply pitted with the marks 
of the abrasive used in grinding it down; these marks are re- 
moved by the process of smoothing, in which the surface is 
successively ground with abrasives of gradually increasing fine- 
ness, leaving ultimately a very smooth and very minutely pitted 
" grey " surface. This smooth surface is then brilliantly polished 
by the aid of friction with a rubbing tool covered with a soft 
substance like leather or felt and fed with a polishing material, 
such as rouge. A few strokes of such a rubber are sufficient to 
produce a decidedly " polished " appearance, but prolonged 
rubbing under considerable pressure and the use of a polishing 
paste of a proper consistency are required in order to remove the 
last trace of pitting from the surface. This entire process must, 
obviously, be applied in turn to each of the two surfaces of the 
slab of glass. Plate-glass is manufactured in this manner in 
thicknesses varying from & in. to i in. or even more, while 
single sheets are produced measuring more than 27 ft. by 13 ft. 

" Rolled Plate " and figured " Rolled Plate." Glass for this 
purpose, with perhaps the exception of the best white and 
tinted varieties, is now universally produced in tank-furnaces, 
similar in a general way to those used for sheet-glass, except that 
the furnaces used for " rolled plate " glass of the roughest kinds 
do not need such minutely careful attention and do not work at 
so high a temperature. The composition of these glasses is very 
similar to that of sheet-glass, but for the ordinary kinds of rolled 
plate much less scrupulous selection need be made in the choice 
of raw materials, especially of the sand. 

The glass is taken from the furnace in large iron ladles, which 
are carried upon slings running on overhead rails; from the 
ladle the glass is thrown upon the cast-iron bed of a rolling-table, 
and is rolled into sheet by an iron roller, the process being 
similar to that employed in making plate-glass, but on a smaller 
scale. The sheet thus rolled is roughly trimmed while hot and 
soft, so as to remove those portions of glass which have been 
spoilt by immediate contact with the ladle, and the sheet, still 
soft, is pushed into the open mouth of an annealing tunnel or 
" lear," down which it is carried by a system of moving grids. 

The surface of the glass produced in this way may be modified 
by altering the surface of the rolling-table; if the table has a 
smooth surface, the glass will also be more or less smooth, but 
much dented and buckled on the surface and far from having the 
smooth face of blown sheet. If the table has a pattern engraved 
upon it the glass will show the same pattern in relief, the most 
frequent pattern of the kind being either small parallel ridges or 
larger ribs crossing to form a lozenge pattern. 

The more elaborate patterns found on what is known as 
" figure rolled plate " are produced in a somewhat different 
manner; the glass used for this purpose is considerably whiter 
in colour and much softer than ordinary rolled plate, and instead 
of being rolled out on a table it is produced by rolling between 
two moving rollers from which the sheet issues. The pattern is 
impressed upon the soft sheet by a printing roller which is 
brought down upon the glass as it leaves the main rolls. This 



GLASS 



97 



glass shows a pattern in high relief and gives a very brilliant 
effect. 

The various varieties of rolled plate-glass are now produced 
for some purposes with a reinforcement of wire netting which is 
embedded in the mass of the glass. The wire gives the glass 
great advantages in the event of fracture from a blow or from 
fire, but owing to the difference in thermal expansion between 
wire and glass, there is a strong tendency for such " wired glass " 
to crack spontaneously. 

Patent Plate-glass. This term is applied to blown sheet-glass, 
whose surface has been rendered plane and brilliant by a process 
of grinding and polishing. The name " patent plate " arose from 
the fact that certain patented devices originated by James 
Chance of Birmingham first made it possible to polish com- 
paratively thin glass in this way. 

(B) Pressed Glass. The technical difference between pressed 
and moulded glass is that moulded glass-ware has taken its form 
from a mould under the pressure of a workman's breath, or of com- 
pressed air, whereas pressed glass-ware has taken its form from a 
mould under the pressure of a plunger. Moulded glass receives 

the form of the 
mould on its in- 
terior as well as on 
its exterior surface. 
In pressed glass the 
exterior surface is 
modelled by the 
mould, whilst the 
interior surface is 
modelled by the 
plunger (fig. 20). 

The process of 
pressing glass was 
introduced to meet 
the demand for 
cheap table-ware. 
Pressed glass, 
which isnecessarily 
thick and service- 
able, has well met 
this legitimate de- 
mand, but it also 
caters for the less 
legitimate taste for 
cheap imitations of 
hand-cut glass. An 
American writer 
has expressed his 
satisfaction that 
the day-labourer can now have on his table at a nominal price 
glass dishes of elaborate design, which only an expert can dis- 
tinguish from hand-cut crystal. The deceptive effect is in some 
cases heightened by cutting over and polishing by hand the 
pressed surface. 

The glass for pressed ware must be colourless, and, when 
molten, must be sufficiently fluid to adapt itself readily to the 
intricacies of the moulds, which are often exceedingly complex. 
The materials employed are sand, sulphate of soda, nitrate of 
soda, calcspar and in some works carbonate of barium. The 
following is an analysis of a specimen of English pressed glass ; 
Si0 2 , 70-68%; Na 2 0, 18-38%; CaO, 5-45%; BaO, 4-17%; 
A1 2 O 3 , 0-33%; and Fe 2 O 3 ,o-2o%. Tanks and pots are both used 
for melting the glass. The moulds are made of cast iron. They 
are usually in two main pieces, a base and an upper part or collar 
of hinged sections. The plunger 1 is generally worked by a hand 
lever. The operator knows by touch when the plunger has 
pressed the glass far enough to exactly fill the mould. Although 
the moulds are heated, the surface of the glass is always slightly 
ruffled by contact with the mould. For this reason every piece 
of pressed glass-ware, as soon as it is liberated from the mould, 
is exposed to a sharp heat in a small subsidiary furnace in order 
that the ruffled surface may be removed by melting. These 
xii. 4 




FIG. 20. Modern American Glass-Press. 



small furnaces are usually heated by an oil spray under the 
pressure of steam or compressed air. 

See Antonio Neri, Ars vilraria, cum Merritti observationibus 
(Amsterdam, 1668) (Neri's work was translated into English by C. 
Merritt in 1662, and the translation, The Art of making Glass, was 
privately reprinted by Sir T. Phillipps, Bart., in 1826); Johann 
Kunkel, Vollsldndige Glasmacher-Kunst (Nuremberg, 1785); Apsley 
Pellatt, Curiosities of Glass-making (London, 1840); A. Sauzay, 
Marvels of Glass-making (from the French) (London, 1869); G. 
Bontempis, Guide du verrier (Paris, 1868); E. Peligot, Le Verre, 
son histoire, sa fabrication (Paris, 1878); W. Stein, " Die Glasfabri- 
kation," in Bolley's Technologie, vol. iii. (Brunswick, 1862); H. E. 
Benrath, Die Glasfabrikation (Brunswick, 1875); J. Falck and L. 
Lobmeyr, Die Glasindustrie (Vienna, 1875); D. H. Hovestadt, 
Jenaer Glas (Jena, 1900; Eng. trans, by J. D. and A. Everett, 
Macmillan, 1907); J. Henrivaux, Le Verre et le cristal (Paris, 1887), 
and La Verrerie au XX' siecle (1903); Chance, Harris and Powell, 
Principles of Glass-making (London, 1883); Moritz V. Rohr, Theorie 
und Geschichte der photographischen Objektive (Berlin, 1899); C. E. 
Guillaume, TraM pratique de la thermomttrie de precision (Paris, 
1889); Louis Coffignal, Verres et maux (Paris, 1900); R. Gerner, 
Die Glasfabrikation (Vienna, 1897) ; C. Wetzel, Herstellung grosser 
Glaskorper (Vienna, lopo) ; C. Wetzel, Bearbeitung von Glaskorpern 
(Vienna, 1901); E. Tscheuschner, Handbuch der Glasfabrikation 
(Weimar, 1885); R. Dralle, Anlage und Betrieb der Glasfabriken 
(Leipzig, 1886); G. Tammann, Kristallisieren und Schmelzen 
(Leipzig, 1903); W. Rosenhain, " Some Properties of Glass," Trans. 
Optical Society (London, 1903), " Possible Directions of Progress in 
Optical Glass," Proc. Optical Convention (London, 1905) and Glass 
Manufacture (London, 1908); Introduction to section I, Catalogue 
of the Optical Convention (London, 1905). ' (H. J. P.; W. RN.). 

History of Glass Manufacture. 

The great similarity in form, technique and decoration of 
the earliest known specimens of glass-ware suggests that the 
craft of glass-making originated from a single centre. It has 
been generally assumed that Egypt was the birthplace of the 
glass industry. It is true that many conditions existed in Egypt 
favourable to the development of the craft. The Nile supplied a 
waterway for the conveyance of fuel and for the distribution 
of the finished wares. Materials were available providing the 
essential ingredients of glass. The Egyptian potteries afforded 
experience in dealing with vitreous glazes and vitreous colours, 
and from Egyptian alabaster-quarries veined vessels were 
wrought, which may well have suggested the decorative arrange- 
ment of zigzag lines (see Plate I. figs, i, 2, 4 d) so frequently 
found on early specimens of glass-ware. In Egypt, however, 
no traces have at present been found of the industry in a rudi- 
mentary condition, and the vases which have been classified 
as " primitive " bear witness to an elaboration of technique 
far in advance of the experimental period. The earliest specimens 
of glass-ware which can be definitely claimed as Egyptian 
productions, and the glass manufactory discovered by Dr 
Flinders- Petrie at Tell el Amarna, belong to the period of the 
XVIIIth dynasty. The comparative lateness of this period 
makes it difficult to account for the wall painting at Beni Hasan, 
which accurately represents the process of glass-blowing, and 
which is attributed to the period of the Xlth dynasty. Dr 
Petrie surmounts the difficulty by saying that the process 
depicted is not glass-blowing, but some metallurgical process 
in which reeds were used tipped with lumps of clay. It is possible 
that the picture does not represent Egyptian glass-blowers, but 
is a traveller's record of the process of glass-blowing seen in some 
foreign or subject country. The scarcity of specimens of early 
glass-ware actually found in Egypt, and the advanced technique 
of those which have been found, lead to the supposition that 
glass- making was exotic and not a native industry. The 
tradition, recorded by Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 65), assigns the 
discovery of glass to Syria, and the geographical position of that 
country, its forests as a source of fuel, and its deposits of sand 
add probability to the tradition. The story that Phoenician 
merchants found a glass-like substance under their cooking pots, 
which had been supported on' blocks of natron, need not be 
discarded as pure fiction. The fire may well have caused the 
natron, an impure form of carbonate of soda, to combine with 
the surrounding sand to form silicate of soda, which, although 
not a permanent glass, is sufficiently glass-like to suggest the 



9 8 



GLASS 



possibility of creating a permanent transparent material. More- 
over, Pliny (xxxvi. 66) actually records the discovery which 
effected the conversion of deliquescent silicate of soda into 
permanent glass. The words are " Coeptus addi magnes lapis." 
There have been many conjectures as to the meaning of the 
words " magnes lapis." The material has been considered by 
some to be magnetic iron ore and by others oxide of manganese. 
Oxides of iron and manganese can only be used in glass manu- 
facture in comparatively small quantities for the purpose of 
colouring or neutralizing colour in glass, and their introduction 
would not be a matter of sufficient importance to be specially 
recorded. In chapter 25 of the same book Pliny describes five 
varieties of " magnes lapis." One of these he says is found in 
magnesia, is white in colour, does not attract iron and is like 
pumice stone. This variety must certainly be magnesian 
limestone. Magnesian limestone mixed and fused with sand and 
an alkaline carbonate produces a permanent glass. The scene 
of the discovery of glass is placed by Pliny on the banks of the 
little river Belus, under the heights of Mount Carmel, where 
sand suitable for glass-making exists and wood for fuel is 
abundant. In this neighbourhood fragments and lumps of glass 
are still constantly being dug up, and analysis proves that the 
glass contains a considerable proportion of magnesia. The 
district was a glass-making centre in Roman times, and it is 
probable that the Romans inherited and perfected an indigenous 
industry of remote antiquity. Pliny has so accurately recorded 
the stages by which a permanent glass was developed that it 
may be assumed that he had good reason for claiming for Syria 
the discovery of glass. Between Egypt and Syria there was 
frequent intercourse both of conquest and commerce. It was 
customary for the victor after a successful raid to carry off 
skilled artisans as captives. It is recorded that Tahutmes III. 
sent Syrian artisans to Egypt. Glass-blowers may have been 
amongst their captive craftsmen, and may have started the 
industry in Egypt. The claims of Syria and Egypt are at the 
present time so equally balanced that it is advisable to regard 
the question of the birthplace of the glass industry as one that 
has still to be settled. 

The "primitive" vessels which have been found in Egypt are 
small in size and consist of columnar stibium jars, flattened 
bottles and amphorae, all decorated with zigzag lines, tiny 
wide-mouthed vases on feet and minute jugs. The vessels 
of later date which have been found in considerable quantities, 
principally in the coast towns and islands of the Mediterranean, 
are amphorae and alabastra, also decorated with zigzag lines. 
The amphorae (Plate I. figs, i and 2) terminate with a point, 
or with an unfinished extension from the terminal point, or with 
a knob. The alabastra have short necks, are slightly wider at 
the base than at the shoulder and have rounded bases. Dr 
Petrie has called attention to two technical peculiarities to be 
found in almost every specimen of early glass-ware. The 
inner surface is roughened (Plate I. fig. 4 c), and has particles 
of sand adhering to it, as if the vessel had been filled with sand 
and subjected to heat, and the inside of the neck has the impres- 
sion of a metal rod (Plate I. fig. 4 a), which appears to have 
been extracted from the neck with difficulty. From this evidence 
Dr Petrie has assumed that the vessels were not blown, but 
formed upon a core of sandy paste, modelled upon a copper rod, 
the rod being the core of the neck (see EGYPT: Art and 
Archaeology). The evidence, however, hardly warrants the 
abandonment of the simple process of blowing in favour of a 
process which is so difficult that it may almost be said to be 
impossible, and of which there is no record or tradition except 
in connexion with the manufacture of small beads. The technical 
difficulties to which Dr Petrie has called attention seem to 
admit of a somewhat less heroic explanation. A modern glass- 
blower, when making an amphora-shaped vase, finishes the base 
first, fixes an iron rod to the finished base with a seal of glass, 
severs the vase from the blowing iron, and finishes the mouth, 
whilst he holds the vase by the iron attached to its base. The 
" primitive " glass-worker reversed this process. Having blown 
the body of the vase, he finished the mouth and neck part, and 



fixed a small, probably hollow, copper rod inside the finished 
neck by pressing the neck upon the rod (Plate I. fig. 4 b). Having 
severed the body of the vase from the blowing iron, he heated 
and closed the fractured base, whilst holding the vase by means 
of the rod fixed in the neck. Nearly every specimen shows 
traces of the pressure of a tool on the outside of the neck, as 
well as signs of the base having been closed by melting. Occasion- 
ally a knob or excrescence, formed by the residue of the glass 
beyond the point at which the base has been pinched together, 
remains as a silent witness of the process. 

If glass-blowing had been a perfectly new invention of Graeco- 
Egyptian or Roman times, some specimens illustrating the 
transition from core-moulding to blowing must have been 
discovered. The absence of traces of the transition strengthens 
the supposition that the revolution in technique merely consisted 
in the discovery that it was more convenient to finish the base 
of a vessel before its mouth, and such a revolution would leave 
no trace behind. The roughened inner surface and the adhering 
particles of sand may also be accounted for. The vessels, 
especially those in which many differently coloured glasses were 
incorporated, required prolonged annealing. It is probable that 
when the metal rod was withdrawn the vessel was filled with 
sand, to prevent collapse, and buried in heated ashes to anneal. 
The greater the heat of the ashes the more would the sand 
adhere to and impress the inner surface of the vessels. The 
decoration of zigzag lines was probably applied directly after 
the body of the vase had been blown. Threads of coloured 
molten glass were spirally coiled round the body, and, whilst 
still viscid, were dragged into zigzags with a metal hook. 

Egypt. The glass industry flourished in Egypt in Graeco- 
Egyptian and Roman times. All kinds of vessels were blown, 
both with and without moulds, and both moulding and cutting 
were used as methods of decoration. The great variety of these 
vessels is well shown in the illustrated catalogue of Graeco- 
Egyptian glass in the Cairo museum, edited by C. C. Edgar. 

Another species of glass manufacture in which the Egyptians 
would appear to have been peculiarly skilled is the so-called 
mosaic glass, formed by the union of rods of various colours 
in such a manner as to form a pattern; the rod so formed was 
then reheated and drawn out until reduced to a very small size, 
i sq. in. or less, and divided into tablets by being cut trans- 
versely, each of these tablets presenting the pattern traversing 
its substance and visible on each face. This process was no 
doubt first practised in Egypt, and is never seen in such per- 
fection as in objects of a decidedly Egyptian character. Very 
beautiful pieces of ornament of an architectural character are 
met with, which probably once served as decorations of caskets 
or other small pieces of furniture or of trinkets; also tragic 
masks, human faces and birds. Some of the last-named are 
represented with such truth of colouring and delicacy of detail 
that even the separate feathers of the wings and tail are well 
distinguished, although, as in an example in the British Museum, 
a human-headed hawk, the piece which contains the figure 
may not exceed f in. in its largest dimension. Works of this 
description probably belong to the period when Egypt passed 
under Roman domination, as similar objects, though of inferior 
delicacy, appear to have been made in Rome. 

Assyria. Early Assyrian glass is represented in the British 
Museum by a vase of transparent greenish glass found in the 
north-west palace of Nineveh. On one side of this a lion is 
engraved, and also a line of cuneiform characters, in which 
is the name of Sargon, king of Assyria, 722 B.C. Fragments of 
coloured glasses were also found there, but our materials are 
too scanty to enable us to form any decided opinion as to the 
degree of perfection to which the art was carried in Assyria. Many 
of the specimens discovered by Layard at Nineveh have all the 
appearance of being Roman, and were no doubt derived from 
the Roman colony, Niniva Claudiopolis, which occupied the same 
site. 

Roman Glass. In the first centuries of our era the art of glass- 
making was developed at Rome and other cities under Roman 
rule in a most remarkable manner, and it reached a point of 



GLASS 



PLATE I. 




XII. 98. 



FIG. 7 



FIG. 9. 



PLATE II. 

r 



GLASS 








I 




" 

I 




FIG. ii. TABLE GLASS. 
DESIGNED BY T. G. JACKSON IN 1870. 



FIG. 12. TABLE GLASS 
DESIGNED FOR WM. MORRIS ABOUT 1872 BY PHILIP WEBB. 












FIG. 13 TIFFANY GLASS. 




FIG. 14. WHITEFRIARS GLASS, 1906. 



GLASS 



99 



excellence which in some respects has never been excelled or 
even perhaps equalled. It may appear a somewhat exaggerated 
assertion that glass was used for more purposes, and in one sense 
more extensively, by the Romans of the imperial period than 
by ourselves in the present day; but it is one which can be 
borne out by evidence. It is true that the use of glass for windows 
was only gradually extending itself at the time when Roman 
civilization sank under the torrent of German and Hunnish 
barbarism, and that its employment for optical instruments 
was only known in a rudimentary stage; but for domestic 
purposes, for architectural decoration and for personal orna- 
ments glass was unquestionably much more used than at the 
present day. It must be remembered that the Romans possessed 
no fine procelain decorated with lively colours and a beautiful 
glaze; Samian ware was the most decorative kind of pottery 
which was then made. Coloured and ornamental glass held 
among them much the same place for table services, vessels for 
toilet use and the like, as that held among us by porcelain. 
Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 26, 67) tells us that for drinking vessels 
it was even preferred to gold and silver. 

Glass was largely used in pavements, and in thin plates as a 
coating for walls. It was used in windows, though by no means 
exclusively, mica, alabaster and shells having been also em- 
ployed. Glass, in flat pieces, such as might be employed for 
windows, has been found in the ruins of Roman houses, both in 
England and in Italy, and in the house of the faun at Pompeii 
a small pane in a bronze frame remains. Most of the pieces 
have evidently been made by casting, but the discovery of 
fragments of sheet-glass at Silchester proves that the process 
of making sheet-glass was known to the Romans. When the 
window openings were large, as was the ease in basilicas and 
other public buildings, and even in houses, the pieces of glass 
were, doubtless, fixed in pierced slabs of marble or in frames 
of wood or bronze. The Roman glass-blowers were masters 
of all the ordinary methods of manipulation and decoration. 
Their craftsmanship is proved by the large cinerary urns, by 
the jugs with wide, deeply ribbed, scientifically fixed handles, 
and by vessels and vases as elegant in form and light in weight 
as any that have been since produced at Murano. Their moulds, 
both for blowing hollow vessels and for pressing ornaments, were 
as perfect for the purposes for which they were intended as those 
of the present time. Their decorative cutting (Plate I. figs. 5 
and 6), which took the form of simple, incised lines, or bands of 
shallow oval or hexagonal hollows, was more suited to the 
material than the deep prismatic cutting of comparatively 
recent times. 

The Romans had at their command, of transparent colours, 
blue, green, purple or amethystine, amber, brown and rose; 
of opaque colours, white, black, red, blue, yellow, green and 
orange. There are many shades of transparent blue and of 
opaque blue, yellow and green. In any large collection of 
fragments it would be easy to find eight or ten varieties of opaque 
blue, ranging from lapis lazuli to turquoise or to lavender and 
six or seven of opaque green. Of red the varieties are fewer; 
the finest is a crimson red of very beautiful tint, and there are 
various gradations from this to a dull brick red. One variety 
forms the ground of a very good imitation of porphyry; and 
there is a dull semi-transparent red which, when light is passed 
through it, appears to be of a dull green hue. With these 
colours the Roman vitrarius worked, either using them singly 
or blending them in almost every conceivable combination, 
sometimes, it must be owned, with a rather gaudy and inharmo- 
nious effect. 

The glasses to which the Venetians gave the name " mille 
fiori " were formed by arranging side by side sections of glass 
cane, the canes themselves being built up of differently coloured 
rods of glass, and binding them together by heat. A vast 
quantity of small cups and paterae were made by this means in 
patterns which bear considerable resemblance to the surfaces of 
madrepores. In these every colour and every shade of colour 
seem to have been tried in great variety of combination with 
effects more or less pleasing, but transparent violet or purple 



appears to have been the most common ground colour. Although 
most of the vessels of this mille fiori glass were small, some were 
made as large as 20 in. in diameter. Imitations of natural 
stones were made by stirring together in a crucible glasses of 
different colours, or by incorporating fragments of differently 
coloured glasses into a mass of molten glass by rolling. One 
variety is that in which transparent brown glass is so mixed 
with opaque white and blue as to resemble onyx. This was 
sometimes done with great success, and very perfect imitations 
of the natural stone were produced. Sometimes purple glass 
is used in place of brown, probably with the design of imitating 
the precious murrhine. Imitations of porphyry, of serpentine, 
and of granite are also met with, but these were used chiefly 
in pavements, and for the decoration of walls, for which pur- 
poses the onyx-glass was likewise employed. 

The famous cameo glass was formed by covering a mass of 
molten glass with one or more coatings of a differently coloured 
glass. The usual process was to gather, first, a small quantity 
of opaque white glass; to coat this with a thick layer of trans- 
lucent blue glass; and, finally, to cover the blue glass with a 
coating of the white glass. The outer coat was then removed 
from that portion which was to constitute the ground, leaving 
the white for the figures, foliage or other ornamentation; these 
were then sculptured by means of the gem-engraver's tools. 
Pliny no doubt means to refer to this when he says (Nat. Hist. 
xxxvi. 26. 66), " aliud argenti modo caelatur," contrasting it 
with the process of cutting glass by the help of a wheel, to which 
he refers in the words immediately preceding, " aliud torno 
teritur." 

The Portland or Barberini vase in the British Museum is the 
finest example of this kind of work which has come down to us, 
and was entire until it was broken into some hundred pieces by a 
madman. The pieces, however, were joined together by Mr 
Doubleday with extraordinary skill, and the beauty of design 
and execution may still be appreciated. The two other most 
remarkable examples of this cameo glass are an amphora at 
Naples and the Auldjo vase. The amphora measures i ft. J in. 
in height, i ft. 75 in. in circumference; it is shaped like the 
earthern amphoras with a foot far too small to support it, and 
must no doubt have had a stand, probably of gold; the greater 
part is covered with a most exquisite design of garlands and 
vines, and two groups of boys gathering and treading grapes 
and playing on various instruments of music; below these 
is a line of sheep and goats in varied attitudes. The ground 
is blue and the figures white. It was found in a house in the 
Street of Tombs at Pompeii in the year 1839, and is now in the 
Royal Museum at Naples. It is well engraved in Richardson's 
Studies of Ornamental Design. The Auldjo vase, in the British 
Museum, is an oenochoe about 9 in. high; the ornament consists 
mainly of a most beautiful band of foliage, chiefly of the vine, 
with bunches of grapes; the ground is blue and the ornaments 
white; it was found at Pompeii in the house of the faun. It also 
has been engraved by Richardson. The same process was used 
in producing large tablets, employed, no doubt, for various 
decorative purposes. In the South Kensington Museum is a 
fragment of such a tablet or slab; the figure, a portion of which 
remains, could not have been less than about 14 in. high. The 
ground of these cameo glasses is most commonly transparent 
blue, but sometimes opaque blue, purple or dark brown. The 
superimposed layer, which is sculptured, is generally opaque 
white. A very few specimens have been met with in which 
several colours are employed. 

At a long interval after these beautiful objects come those 
vessels which were ornamented either by means of coarse threads 
trailed over their surfaces and forming rude patterns, or by 
coloured enamels merely placed on them in lumps; and these, 
doubtless, were cheap and common wares. But a modification 
of the first-named process was in use in the 4th and succeeding 
centuries, showing great ingenuity and manual dexterity, that, 
namely, in which the added portions of glass are united to the 
body of the cup, not throughout, but only at points, and then 
shaped either by the wheel or by the hand (Plate I. fig. 3). The 



100 



GLASS 



attached portions form in some instances inscriptions, as on a 
cup found at Strassburg, which bears the name of the emperor 
Maximian (A.D. 286-310), on another in the Vereinigte Samm- 
lungen at Munich, and on a third in the Trivulzi collection at 
Milan, where the cup is white, the inscription green and the 
network blue. Probably, however, the finest example is a 
situla, loj in. high by 8 in. wide at the top and 4 in. at the 
bottom, preserved in the treasury of St Mark at Venice. This 
is of glass of a greenish hue; on the upper part is represented, 
in relief, the chase of a lion by two men on horseback accompanied 
by dogs; the costume appears to be Byzantine rather than 
Roman, and the style is very bad. The figures are very much 
undercut. The lower part has four rows of circles united to the 
vessel at those points alone where the circles touch each other. 
All the other examples have the lower portion covered in like 
manner by a network of circles standing nearly a quarter of an 
inch from the body of the cup. An example connected with the 
specimens just described is the cup belonging to Baron Lionel 
de Rothschild; though externally of an opaque greenish colour, 
it is by transmitted light of a deep red. On the outside, in very 
high relief, are figures of Bacchus with vines and panthers, 
some portions being hollow from within, others fixed on the 
exterior. The changeability of colour may remind us of the 
" calices versicolores " which Hadrian sent to Servianus. 

So few examples of glass vessels of this period which have 
been painted in enamel have come down to us that it has been 
questioned whether that art was then practised; but several 
specimens have been described which can leave no doubt on the 
point; decisive examples are afforded by two cups found at 
Vaspelev, in Denmark, engravings of which are published in 
the Annaler for Nordisk Oldkyndeghed for 1861, p. 305. These 
are small cups, 3 in. and 2$ in. high, 3! in. and 3 in. wide, with 
feet and straight sides; on the larger are a lion and a bull, on 
the smaller two birds with grapes, and on each some smaller 
ornaments. On the latter are the letters DVB. R. The colours 
are vitrified and slightly in relief; green, blue and brown may 
be distinguished. They are found with Roman bronze vessels 
and other articles. 

The art of glass-making no doubt, like all other art, deteriorated 
during the decline of the Roman empire, but it is probable that 
it continued to be practised, though with constantly decreasing 
skill, not only in Rome but in the provinces. Roman technique 
was to be found in Byzantium and Alexandria, in Syria, in Spain, 
in Germany, France and Britain. 

Early Christian and Byzantine Glass. The process of embed- 
ding gold and silver leaf between two layers of glass originated 
as early as the ist century, probably in Alexandria. The process 
consisted in spreading the leaf on a thin film of blown glass and 
pressing molten glass on to the leaf so that the molten glass 
cohered with the film of glass through the pores of the metallic 
leaf. If before this application of the molten glass the metallic 
leaf, whilst resting on the thin film of blown glass, was etched 
with a sharp point, patterns, emblems, inscriptions and pictures 
could be embedded and rendered permanent by the double 
coating of glass. The plaques thus formed could be reheated 
and fashioned into the bases of bowls and drinking vessels. 
In this way the so-called " fondi d'oro " of the catacombs in Rome 
were made. They are the broken bases of drinking vessels 
containing inscriptions, emblems, domestic scenes and portraits 
etched in gold leaf. Very few have any reference to Christianity, 
but they served as indestructible marks for indicating the position 
of interments in the catacombs. The fondi d'oro suggested the 
manufacture of plaques of gold which could be broken up into 
tesserae for use in mosaics. 

Some of the Roman artificers in glass no doubt migrated 
to Constantinople, and it is certain that the art was practised 
there to a very great extent during the middle ages. One 
of the gates near the port took its name from the adjacent 
glass houses. St Sofia when erected by Justinian had vaults 
covered with mosaics and immense windows filled with plates 
of glass fitted into pierced marble frames; some of the plates, 
7 to 8 in. wide and 9 to 10 in. high, not blown but cast, which 



are in the windows may possibly date from the building of the 
church. It is also recorded that pierced silver disks were sus- 
pended by chains and supported glass lamps " wrought by fire." 
Glass for mosaics was also largely made and exported. In the 
8th century, when peace was made between the caliph Walid 
and the emperor Justinian II., the former stipulated for a 
quantity of mosaic for the decoration of the new mosque at 
Damascus, and in the loth century the materials for the decora- 
tion of the niche of the kibla at Cordova were furnished by 
Romanus II. In the nth century Desiderius, abbot of Monte 
Casino, sent to Constantinople for workers in mosaic. 

We have in the work of the monk Theophilus, Diversarum 
arlium schedida, and in the probably earlier work of Eraclius, 
about the nth century, instructions as to the art of glass-making 
in general, and also as to the production of coloured and enamelled 
vessels, which these writers speak of as being practised by the 
Greeks. The only entire enamelled vessel which we can con- 
fidently attribute to Byzantine art is a small vase preserved in 
the treasury of St Mark's at Venice. This is decorated with 
circles of rosettes of blue, green and red enamel, each surrounded 
by lines of gold; within the circles are little figures evidently 
suggested by antique originals, and precisely like similar figures 
found on carved ivory boxes of Byzantine origin dating from 
the nth or I2th century. Two inscriptions in Cufic characters 
surround the vase, but they, it would seem, are merely ornamental 
and destitute of meaning. The presence of these inscriptions 
may perhaps lead to the inference that the vase was made 
in Sicily, but by Byzantine workmen. The double-handled 
blue-glass vase in the British Museum,dating from the sth century, 
is probably a chalice, as it closely resembles the chalices re- 
presented on early Christian monuments. 

Of uncoloured glass brought from Constantinople several 
examples exist in the treasury of St Mark's at Venice, part of 
the plunder of the imperial city when taken by the crusaders 
in 1204. The glass in all is greenish, very thick, with many 
bubbles, and has been cut with the wheel; in some instances 
circles and cones, and in one the outlines of the figure of a 
leopard, have been left standing up, the rest of the surface having 
been laboriously cut away. The intention would seem to have 
been to imitate vessels of rock crystal. The so-called " Hedwig " 
glasses may also have originated in Constantinople. These are 
small cups deeply and rudely cut with conventional representa- 
tions of eagles, lions and griffins. Only nine specimens are known. 
The specimen in the Rijks Museum at Amsterdam has an eagle 
and two lions. The specimen in the Germanic Museum at 
Nuremberg has two lions and a griffin. 

Saracenic Glass. The Saracenic invasion of Syria and Egypt 
did not destroy the industry of glass-making. The craft survived 
and flourished under the Saracenic regime in Alexandria, Cairo, 
Tripoli, Tyre, Aleppo and Damascus. In inventories of the I4th 
century both in England and in France mention may frequently 
be found of glass vessels of the manufacture of Damascus. A 
writer in the early part of the isth century states that " glass- 
making is an important industry at Haleb (Aleppo)." Edward 
Dillon (Glass, 1902) has very properly laid stress on the import- 
ance of the enamelled Saracenic glass of the i3th, I4th and 
1 5th centuries, pointing out that, whereas the Romans and 
Byzantine Greeks made some crude and ineffectual experiments 
in enamelling, it was under Saracenic influence that the processes 
of enamelling and gilding on glass vessels were perfected. An 
analysis of the glass of a Cairene mosque lamp shows that it is a 
soda-lime glass and contains as much as 4 % of magnesia. This 
large proportion of magnesia undoubtedly supplied the stability 
required to withstand the process of enamelling. The enamelled 
Saracenic glasses take the form of flasks, vases, goblets, beakers 
and mosque lamps. The enamelled decoration on the lamps is 
restricted to lettering, scrolls and conventional foliage; on other 
objects figure-subjects of all descriptions are freely used. C. H. 
Read has pointed out a curious feature in the construction of the 
enamelled beakers. The base is double but the inner lining has 
an opening in the centre. Dillon has suggested that this central 
recess may have served to support a wick. It is possible, however, 



GLASS 



101 



that it served no useful purpose, but that the construction 
is a survival from the manufacture of vessels with fondi d'oro. 
The bases containing the embedded gold leaf must have been 
welded to the vessels to which they belonged, in the same way 
as the bases are welded to the Saracenic beakers. The enamelling 
process was probably introduced in the early part of the ijth 
century; most of the enamelled mosque lamps belong to the 
I4th century. 

Venetian Glass. Whether refugees from Padua, Aquileia 
or other Italian cities carried the art to the lagoons of Venice 
in the sth century, or whether it was learnt from the Greeks 
of Constantinople at a much later date, has been a disputed 
question. It would appear not improbable that the former 
was the case, for it must be remembered that articles formed 
of glass were in the later days of Roman civilization in constant 
daily use, and that the making of glass was carried on, not as 
now in large establishments, but by artisans working on a small 
scale. It seems certain that some knowledge of the art was 
preserved in France, in Germany and in Spain, and it seems 
improbable that it should have been lost in that archipelago, 
where the traditions of ancient civilization must have been 
better preserved than in almost any other place. In 523 
Cassiodorus writes of the " innumerosa navigia " belonging 
to Venice, and where trade is active there is always a probability 
that manufactures will flourish. However this may be, the 
earliest positive evidence of the existence at Venice of a worker 
in glass would seem to be the mention of Petrus Flavianus, 
phiolarius, in the ducale of Vitale Falier in the year 1090. In 
1224 twenty-nine persons are mentioned as friolari (i.e. phiolari), 
and in the same century " mariegole," or codes of trade regula- 
tions, were drawn up (Monografia della vetraria Veneziana e 
Muranese, p. 219). The manufacture had then no doubt attained 
considerable proportions: in 1268 the glass- workers became 
an incorporated body; in their processions they exhibited 
decanters, scent-bottles and the like; in 1279 they made, among 
other things, weights and measures. In the latter partcOf this 
century the glass-houses were almost entirely transferred to 
Murano. Thenceforward the manufacture continued to grow 
in importance; glass vessels were made in large quantities, 
as well as glass for windows. The earliest example which has 
as yet been described a cup of blue glass, enamelled and gilt 
is, however, not earlier than about 1440. A good many other 
examples have been preserved which may be assigned to the 
same century: the earlier of these bear a resemblance in form 
to the vessels of silver made in the west of Europe; in the later 
an imitation of classical forms becomes apparent. Enamel 
and gilding were freely used, in imitation no doubt of the much- 
admired vessels brought from Damascus. Dillon has pointed 
out that the process of enamelling had probably been derived 
from Syria, with which country Venice had considerable com- 
mercial intercourse. Many of the ornamental processes which 
we admire in Venetian glass were already in use in this century, 
as that of mille fiori, and the beautiful kind of glass known as 
" vitro di trina " or lace glass. An elaborate account of the 
processes of making the vitro di trina and the vasi a reticelli 
(Plate I., fig. 7) is given in Bontemps's Guide du verrier, pp. 
602-612. Many of the examples of these processes exhibit 
surprising skill and taste, and are among the most beautiful 
objects produced at the Venetian furnaces. That peculiar 
kind of glass usually called schmelz, an imperfect imitation of 
calcedony, was also made at Venice in the isth century. Avan- 
turine glass, that in which numerous small particles of copper 
are diffused through a transparent yellowish or brownish mass, 
was not invented until about 1600. 

The peculiar merits of the Venetian manufacture are the 
elegance of form and the surprising lightness and thinness of 
the substance of the vessels produced. The highest perfection 
with regard both to form and decoration was reached in the 
1 6th century; subsequently the Venetian workmen somewhat 
abused their skill by giving extravagant forms to vessels, making 
drinking glasses in the forms of ships, lions, birds, whales and 
the like. 



Besides the making of vessels of all kinds the factories of 
Murano had for a long period almost an entire monopoly of 
two other branches of the art the making of mirrors and of 
beads. Attempts to make mirrors of glass were made as early 
as A.D. 1317, but even in the i6th century mirrors of steel were 
still in use. To make a really good mirror of glass two things 
are required a plate free from bubbles and striae, and a method 
of applying a film of metal with a uniform bright surface free 
from defects. The principle of applying metallic films to glass 
seems to have been known to the Romans and even to the 
Egyptians, and is mentioned by Alexander Neckam in the 1 2th 
century, but it would appear that it was not until the i6th 
century that the process of " silvering " mirrors by the use of an 
amalgam of tin and mercury had been perfected. During the 
i6th and I7th centuries Venice exported a prodigious quantity of 
mirrors, but France and England gradually acquired knowledge 
and skill in the art, and in 1772 only one glass-house at Murano 
continued to make mirrors. 

The making of beads was probably practised at Venice from 
a very early period, but the earliest documentary evidence 
bearing on the subject does not appear to be of earlier date than 
the I4th century, when prohibitions were directed against those 
who made of glass such objects as were usually made of crystal 
or other hard stones. In the i6th century it had become a trade 
of great importance, and about 1764 twenty-two furnaces were 
employed in the production of beads. Towards the end of the 
same century from 600 to 1000 workmen were, it is stated, 
employed on one branch of the art, that of ornamenting beads 
by the help of the blow-pipe. A very great variety of patterns 
was produced; a tariff of the year 1800 contains an enumeration 
of 562 species and a vast number of sub-species. 

The efforts made in France, Germany and England, in the 
I7th and i8th centuries, to improve the manufacture of glass 
in those countries had a very injurious effect on the industry 
of Murano. The invention of colourless Bohemian glass brought 
in its train the practice of cutting glass, a method of ornamenta- 
tion for which Venetian glass, from its thinness, was ill adapted. 
One remarkable man, Giuseppe Briati, exerted himself, with 
much success, both in working in the old Venetian method and 
also in imitating the new fashions invented in Bohemia. He 
was especially successful in making vases and circular dishes of 
vitro di trina; one of the latter in the Correr collection at Venice, 
believed to have been made in his glass-house, measures 55 
centimetres (nearly 23 in.) in diameter. The vases made by 
him are as elegant in form as the best of the Cinquecento period, 
but may perhaps be distinguished by the superior purity and 
brilliancy of the glass. He also made with great taste and 
skill large lustres and mirrors with frames of glass ornamented 
either in intaglio or with foliage of various colours. He obtained 
a knowledge of the methods of working practised in Bohemia 
by disguising himself as a porter, and thus worked for three 
years in a Bohemian glass-house. In 1 736 he obtained a patent 
at Venice to manufacture glass in the Bohemian manner. He 
died in 1772. 

The fall of the republic was accompanied by interruption of 
trade and decay of manufacture, and in the last years of the 
i8th and beginning of the igth century the glass-making of 
Murano was at a very low ebb. In the year 1838 Signer Bussolin 
revived several of the ancient processes of glass-working, and 
this revival was carried on by C. Pietro Biguglia in 1845, and 
by others, and later by Salviati, to whose successful efforts the 
modern renaissance of Venetian art glass is principally due. 

The fame of Venice in glass-making so completely eclipsed 
that of other Italian cities that it is difficult to learn much 
respecting their progress in the art. Hartshorne and Dillon have 
drawn attention to the important part played by the little 
Ligurian town, Altare, as a centre from which glass-workers 
migrated to all parts of Europe. It is said that the glass industry 
was established at Altare, in the nth century, by French 
craftsmen. In the i4th century Muranese glass-workers settled 
there and developed the industry. It appears that as early 
as 1295 furnaces had been established at Treviso, Vicenza, 



102 



GLASS 



Padua, Mantua, Ferrara, Ravenna and Bologna. In 1634 
there were two glass-houses in Rome and one in Florence; but 
whether any of these produced ornamented vessels, or only articles 
of common use and window glass, would not appear to have as 
yet been ascertained. 

Germany Glass-making in Germany during the Roman 
period seems to have been carried on extensively in the neighbour- 
hood of Cologne. The Cologne museum cont ains many specimens 
of Roman glass, some of which are remarkable for their cut 
decoration. The craft survived the downfall of the Roman 
power, and a native industry was developed. This industry 
must have won some reputation, for in 758 the abbot of Jarrow 
appealed to the bishop of Mainz to send him a worker in glass. 
There are few records of glass manufacture in Germany before 
the beginning of the i6th century. The positions of the factories 
were determined by the supply of wood for fuel, and subse- 
quently, when the craft of glass-cutting was introduced, by the 
accessibility of water-power. The vessels produced by the 
16th-century glass-workers in Germany, Holland and the Low 
Countries are closely allied in form and decoration. The glass 
is coloured (generally green) and the decoration consists of glass 
threads and glass studs, or prunts (" Nuppen "). The use of 
threads and prunts is illustrated by the development of the 
" Roemer," so popular as a drinking-glass, and as a feature 
in Dutch studies of still life. The " Igel," a squat tumbler 
covered with prunts, gave rise to the " Krautsrunk," which is 
like the " Igel," but longer and narrow- waisted. The " Roemer" 
itself consists of a cup, a short waist studded with prunts and 
a foot. The foot at first was formed by coiling a thread of 
glass round the base of the waist; but, subsequently, an open 
glass cone was joined to the base of the waist, and a glass thread 
was coiled upon the surface of the cone. The " Passglas," 
another popular drinking-glass, is cylindrical in form and marked 
with horizontal rings of glass, placed at regular intervals, to 
indicate the quantity of liquor to be taken at a draught. 

In the edition of 1581 of the De re melallica by Georg Agricola, 
there is a woodcut showing the interior of a German glass 
factory, and glass vessels both finished and unfinished. 

In 1428 a Muranese glass- worker set up a furnace in Vienna, 
and another furnace was built in the same town by an Italian 
in 1486. In 1531 the town council of Nuremberg granted a 
subsidy to attract teachers of Venetian technique. Many 
specimens exist of German winged and enamelled glasses of 
Venetian character. The Venetian influence, however, was 
indirect rather than direct. The native glass-workers adopted 
the process of enamelling, but applied it to a form of decoration 
characteristically German. On tall, roomy, cylindrical glasses 
they painted portraits of the emperor and electors of Germany, 
or the imperial eagle bearing on its wings the arms of the states 
composing the empire. The earliest-known example of these 
enamelled glasses bears the date 1553. They were immensely 
popular and the fashion for them lasted into the i8th century. 
Some of the later specimens have views of cities, battle scenes 
and processions painted in grisaille. 

A more important outcome, however, of Italian influence was 
the production, in emulation of Venetian glass, of a glass made 
of refined potash, lime and sand, which was more colourless 
than the material it was intended to imitate. This colourless 
potash-lime glass has always been known as Bohemian glass. 
It was well adapted for receiving cut and engraved decoration, 
and in these processes the German craftsmen proved themselves 
to be exceptionally skilful. At the end of the i6th century 
Rudolph II. brought Italian rock-crystal cutters from Milan 
to take control of the crystal and glass-cutting works he had 
established at Prague. It was at Prague that Caspar Lehmann 
and Zachary Belzer learnt the craft of cutting glass. George 
Schwanhart, a pupil of Caspar Lehmann, started glass-cutting 
at Ratisbon, and about 1690 Stephen Schmidt and Hermann 
Schwinger introduced the crafts of cutting and engraving 
glass in Nuremberg. To the Germans must be credited the 
discovery, or development, of colourless potash-lime glass, 
the reintroduction of the crafts of cutting and engraving on 



glass, the invention by H. Schwanhart of the process of etching 
on glass by means of hydrofluoric acid, and the rediscovery by 
J. Kunkel, who was director of the glass-houses at Potsdam in 
1679, of the method of making copper-ruby glass. 

Low Countries and the United Provinces. The glass industry 
of the Low Countries was chiefly influenced by Italy and Spain, 
whereas German influence and technique predominated in the 
United Provinces. The history of glass-making in the provinces 
is almost identical with that of Germany. In the i7th and 
1 8th centuries the processes of scratching, engraving and etching 
were brought to great perfection. 

The earliest record of glass-making in the Low Countries 
consists in an account of payments made in 1453-1454 on behalf 
of Philip the Good of Burgundy to " Gossiun de Vieuglise, 
Maitre Vorrier de Lille " for a glass fountain and four glass 
plateaus. Schuermans has traced Italian glass-workers to 
Antwerp, Liege, Brussels and Namur. Antwerp appears to 
have been the headquarters of the Muranese, and Li6ge the 
headquarters of the Altarists. Guicciardini in his description 
of the Netherlands, in 1563, mentions glass as among the chief 
articles of export to England. 

In 1599 the privilege of making " Voires de cristal a la faschon 
Venise," was granted to Philippe de Gridolphi of Antwerp. 
In 1623 Anthony Miotti, a Muranese, addressed a petition to 
Philip IV. of Spain for permission to make glasses, vases and 
cups of fine crystal, equal to those of Venice, but to be sold at 
one- third less than Venetian glasses. In 1642 Jean Savonetti 
" gentilhomme Verrier de Murano " obtained a patent for 
making glass in Brussels. The Low Country glasses are closely 
copied from Venetian models, but generally are heavier and 
less elegant. Owing to the fashion of Dutch and Flemish painters 
introducing glass vases and drinking-glasses into their paintings 
of still life, interiors and scenes of conviviality, Holland and 
Belgium at the present day possess more accurate records of 
the products of their ancient glass factories than any other 
countries. 

Spain. During the Roman occupation Pliny states that glass 
was made " per Hispanias " (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 26. 66). Traces 
of Roman glass manufactories have been found in Valencia 
and Murcia, in the valleys which run down to the coast of Cata- 
lonia, and near the mouth of the Ebro. Little is known about 
the condition of glass-making in Spain between the Roman 
period and the I3th century. In the i3th century the craft of 
glass-making was practised by the Moors in Almeria, and was 
probably a survival from Roman times. The system of decorat- 
ing vases and vessels by means of strands of glass trailed upon 
the surface in knots, zigzags and trellis work, was adopted by 
the Moors and is characteristic of Roman craftsmanship. Glass- 
making was continued at Pinar de la Vidriera and at Al Castril 
de la Pena into the i7th century. The objects produced show 
no sign of Venetian influence, but are distinctly Oriental in form. 
Many of the vessels have four or as many as eight handles, and 
are decorated with serrated ornamentation, and with the trailed 
strands of glass already referred to. The glass is generally of a 
dark-green colour. 

Barcelona has a long record as a centre of the glass industry. 
In 1324 a municipal edict was issued forbidding the erection 
of glass-furnaces within the city. In 1455 the glass-makers of 
Barcelona were permitted to form a gild. Jeronimo Paulo, writing 
in 1491, says that glass vessels of various sorts were sent thence 
to many places, and even to Rome. Marineus Siculus, writing 
early in the i6th century, says that the best glass was made at 
Barcelona; and Caspar Baneiros, in his Chronographia, published 
in 1562, states that the glass made at Barcelona was almost 
equal to that of Venice and that large quantities were exported. 

The author of the Atlante espanol, writing at the end of the 
i8th century, says that excellent glass was still made at Barcelona 
on Venetian models. The Italian influence was strongly felt 
in Spain, but Spanish writers have given no precise information 
as to when it was introduced or whence it came. Schuermans 
has, however, discovered the names of more than twenty Italians 
who found their way into Spain, in some cases by way of Flanders, 



GLASS 



103 



either from Altare or from Venice. The Spanish glass-makers 
were very successful in imitating the Venetian style, and many 
specimens supposed to have originated from Murano are really 
Spanish. In addition to the works at Barcelona, the works 
which chiefly affected Venetian methods were those of Cadalso 
in the province of Toledo, founded in the i6th century, and the 
works established in 1680 at San Martin de Valdeiglesias in 
Avila. There were also works at Valdemaqueda and at Villa- 
franca. In 1680 the works in Barcelona, Valdemaqueda and 
Villafranca are named in a royal schedule giving the prices at 
which glass was to be sold in Madrid. In 1772 important glass 
works were established at Recuenco in the province of Cuenca, 
mainly to supply Madrid. The royal glass manufactory of La 
Granja de San Ildefonso was founded about 1725; in the first 
instance for the manufacture of mirror plates, but subsequently 
for the production of vases and table-ware in the French style. 
The objects produced are mostly of white clear glass, cut, 
engraved and gilded. Engraved flowers, views and devices 
are often combined with decorative cutting. Don Sigismundo 
Brun is credited with the invention of permanent gilding fixed 
by heat. Spanish glass is well represented in the Victoria and 
Albert Museum. 

France. Pliny states that glass was made in Gaul, and there 
is reason to believe that it was made in many parts of the country 
and on a considerable scale. There were glass-making districts 
both in Normandy and in Poitou. 

Little information can be gathered concerning the glass 
industry between the Roman period and the I4th century. 
It is recorded that in the 7th century the abbot of Wearmouth 
in England obtained artificers in glass from France; and there 
is a tradition that in the nth century glass- workers migrated 
from Normandy and Brittany and set up works at Altare near 
Genoa. 

In 1302 window glass, probably crown-glass, was made at 
Beza le Fort in the department of the Eure. In 1416 these 
works were in the hands of Robin and Leban Guichard, but 
passed subsequently to the Le Vaillants. 

In 1338 Humbert, the dauphin, granted a part of the forest 
of Chamborant to a glass-worker named Guionet on the condition 
that Guionet should supply him with vessels of glass. 

In 1466 the abbess of St Croix of Poitiers received a gross 
of glasses from the glass-works of La Ferriere, for the privilege 
of gathering fern for the manufacture of potash. 

In France, as in other countries, efforts were made to intro- 
duce Italian methods of glass-working. Schuermans in his 
researches discovered that during the isth and i6th centuries 
many glass-workers left Altare and settled in France, the 
Saroldi migrated to Poitou, the Ferri to Provence, the Massari to 
Lorraine and the Bormioli to Normandy. In 1551 Henry II. 
of France established at St Germain en Laye an Italian named 
Mutio; he was a native of Bologna, but of Altare origin. In 
1598 Henry IV. permitted two " gentil hommes verriers " from 
Mantua to settle at Rouen in order to make " verres de cristal, 
verres doree emaul et autres ouvrages qui se font en Venise." 

France assimilated the craft of glass-making, and her crafts- 
men acquired a wide reputation. Lorraine and Normandy 
appear to have been the most important centres. To Lorraine 
belong the well-known names Hennezel, de Thietry, du Thisac, 
de Houx; and to Normandy the names de Bongar, de Cacqueray 
le Vaillant and de Brossard. 

In the 1 7th century the manufacture of mirror glass became 
an important branch of the industry. In 1663 a manufactory 
was established in the Faubourg St Antoine in Paris, and another 
at Tour-la-Ville near Cherbourg. 

Louis Lucas de Nehou, who succeeded de Cacqueray at the 
works at Tour-la-Ville, moved in 1675 to the works in Paris. 
Here, in 1688, in conjunction with A. Thevart, he succeeded 
in perfecting the process of casting plate-glass. Mirror plates 
previous to the invention had been made from blown " sheet " 
glass, and were consequently very limited in size. De Nehou's 
process of rolling molten glass poured on an iron table rendered 
the manufacture of very large plates possible. 



The Manufactoire Royale des Glaces was removed in 1693 to 
the Chateau de St Gobain. 

In the 1 8th century the manufacture of vases de verre had 
become so neglected that the Academy of Sciences in 1759 
offered a prize for an essay on the means by which the industry 
might be revived (Labarte, Histoire des arts ind ustriels) . 

The famous Baccarat works, for making crystal glass, were 
founded in 1818 by d'Artigues. 

English Glass. The records of glass-making in England are 
exceedingly meagre. There is reason to believe that during the 
Roman occupation the craft was carried on in several parts of 
the country. Remains of a Roman glass manufactory of con- 
siderable extent were discovered near the Manchester Ship 
Canal at Warrington. Wherever the Romans settled glass 
vessels and fragments of glass have been found. There is no 
evidence to prove that the industry survived the withdrawal 
of the Roman garrison. 

It is probable that the glass drinking- vessels, which have been 
found in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon tombs, were introduced 
from Germany. Some are elaborate in design and bear witness 
to advanced technique of Roman character. In 675 Benedict 
Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, was obliged to obtain glass-workers 
from France, and in 758 Cuthbert, abbot of Jarrow, appealed 
to the bishop of Mainz to send him artisans to manufacture 
" windows and vessels of glass, because the English were ignorant 
and helpless." Except for the statement in Bede that the French 
artisans, sent by Benedict Biscop, taught their craft to the 
English, there is at present no evidence of glass having been made 
in England between the Roman period and the I3th century. 
In some deeds relating to the parish of Chiddingfold, in Surrey, 
of a date not later than 1230, a grant is recorded of twenty 
acres of land to Lawrence " vitrearius," and in another deed, 
of about 1 280, the " ovenhusveld " is mentioned as a boundary. 
This field has been identified, and pieces of crucible and fragments 
of glass have been dug up. There is another deed, dated 1300, 
which mentions one William " le verir " of Chiddingfold. 

About 1350 considerable quantities of colourless flat glass 
were supplied by John Alemayn of Chiddingfold for glazing 
the windows in St George's chapel, Windsor, and in the chapel 
of St Stephen, Westminster. The name Alemayn (Aleman) 
suggests a foreign origin. In 1380 John Glasewryth, a Stafford- 
shire glass-worker, came to work at Shuerewode, Kirdford, 
and there made brode-glas and vessels for Joan, widow of 
John Shertere. 

There were two kinds of flat glass, known respectively as 
" brode-glas " and " Normandy " glass. The former was made, 
as described by Theophilus, from cylinders, which were split, 
reheated and flattened into square sheets. It was known as 
Lorraine glass, and subsequently as " German sheet " or sheet- 
glass. Normandy glass was made from glass circles or disks. 
When, in after years, the process was perfected, the glass was 
known as " crown " glass. In 1447 English flat glass is 
mentioned in the contract for the windows of the Beauchamp 
chapel at Warwick, but disparagingly, as the contractor binds 
himself not to use it. In 1486, however, it is referred to in such 
a way as to suggest that it was superior to " Dutch, Venice or 
Normandy glass." The industry does not seem to have prospered, 
for when in 1567 an inquiry was made as to its condition, it was 
ascertained that only small rough goods were being made. 

In the 1 6th century the fashion for using glass vessels of 
ornamental character spread from Italy into France and England. 
Henry VIII. had a large collection of glass drinking-vessels 
chiefly of Venetian manufacture. The increasing demand for 
Venetian drinking-glasses suggested the possibility of making 
similar glass in England, and various attempts were made to 
introduce Venetian workmen and Venetian methods of manu- 
facture. In 1550 eight Muranese glass-blowers were working in 
or near the Tower of London. They had left Murano owing to 
slackness of trade, but had been recalled, and appealed to the 
Council of Ten in Venice to be allowed to complete their contract 
in London. Seven of these glass-workers left London in the 
following year, but one, Josepho Casselari, remained and joined 



GLASS 



Thomas Cavato, a Dutchman. In 1574 Jacob Verzellini, a 
fugitive Venetian, residing in Antwerp, obtained a patent for 
making drinking-glasses in London " such as are made in 
Murano." He established works in Crutched Friars, and to him 
is probably due the introduction of the use of soda-ash, made 
from seaweed and seaside plants, in place of the crude potash 
made from fern and wood ashes. His manufactory was burnt 
down in 1575, but was rebuilt. He afterwards moved his works 
to Winchester House, Broad Street. There is a small goblet 
(PI. I., fig. 8) in the British Museum which is attributed to 
Verzellini. It is Venetian in character, of a brownish tint, with 
two white enamel rings round the body. It is decorated with 
diamond or steel-point etching, and bears on one side the date 
1586, and on the opposite side the words " In God is al mi trust." 
Verzellini died in 1606 and was buried at Down in Kent. In 
1592 the Broad Street works had been taken over by Jerome 
Bowes. They afterwards passed into the hands of Sir R. Mansel, 
and in 1618 James Howell, author of Epistolae Ho-elianae, was 
acting as steward. The works continued in operation until 1641. 
During excavations in Broad Street in 1874 many fragments 
of glass were found^ amongst them were part of a wine-glass, 
a square scent-bottle and a wine-glass stem containing a spiral 
thread of white enamel. 

A greater and more lasting influence on English glass-making 
came from France and the Low Countries. In 1567 James 
Carre of Antwerp stated that he had erected two glass-houses 
at " Fernefol " (Fernfold Wood in Sussex) for Normandy and 
Lorraine glass for windows, and had brought over workmen. 
From this period began the records in England of the great 
glass-making families of Hennezel, de Thietry, du Thisac and du 
Houx from Lorraine, and of de Bongar and de Cacqueray from 
Normandy. About this time glass-works were established at 
Ewhurst and Alford in Surrey, Loxwood, Kirdford, Wisborough 
and Petworth in Sussex, and Sevenoaks and Penshurst in Kent. 
Beginning in Sussex, Surrey and Kent, where wood for fuel 
was plentiful, the foreign glass-workers and their descendants 
migrated from place to place, always driven by the fuel-hunger 
of their furnaces. They gradually made their way into Hamp- 
shire, Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, Staffordshire, Northumberland, 
Scotland and Ireland. They can be traced by cullet heaps and 
broken-down furnaces, and by their names, often mutilated, 
recorded in parish registers. 

In 1610 a patent was granted to Sir W. Slingsby for burning 
coal in furnaces, and coal appears to have been used in the 
Broad Street works. In 1615 all patents for glass^making 
were revoked and a new patent issued for making glass with 
coal as fuel, in the names of Mansel, Zouch, Thelwall, Kellaway 
and Percival. To the last is credited the first introduction of 
covered crucibles to protect the molten glass from the products 
of burning coal. 

Simultaneously with the issue of this patent the use of wood 
for melting glass was prohibited, and it was made illegal to import 
glass from abroad. About 1617 Sir R. Mansel, vice-admiral 
and treasurer of the navy, acquired the sole rights of making 
glass in England. These rights he retained for over thirty years. 

During the protectorate all patent rights virtually lapsed, 
and mirrors and drinking-glasses were once more imported from 
Venice. In 1663 the duke of Buckingham, although unable to 
obtain a renewal of the monopoly of glass-making, secured the 
prohibition of the importation of glass for mirrors, coach plates, 
spectacles, tubes and lenses, and contributed to the revival of 
the glass industry in all its branches. Evelyn notes in his 
Diary a visit in 1673 to the Italian glass-house at Greenwich, 
" where glass was blown of finer metal than that of Murano," and 
a visit in 1677 to the duke of Buckingham's glass-works, where 
they made huge " vases of mettal as cleare, ponderous and 
thick as chrystal; also looking-glasses far larger and better 
than any that came from Venice." 

Some light is thrown on the condition of the industry at the 
end of the I7th century by the Hough ton letters on the improve- 
ment of trade and commerce, which appeared in 1696. A few 
of these letters deal with the glass trade, and in one a list is 



given of the glass-works then in operation. There were 88 glass 
factories in England which are thus classified : 

Bottles 39 



Looking-glass plates 
Crown and plate-glass . 
Window glass 
Flint and ordinary glass 



2 

5 
15 
27 

88 



It is probable that the flint-glass of that date was very different 
from the flint-glass of to-day. The term flint-glass is now 
understood to mean a glass composed of the silicates of potash 
and lead. It is the most brilliant and the most colourless 
of all glasses, and was undoubtedly first perfected in England. 
Hartshorne has attributed its discovery to a London merchant 
named Tilson, who in 1663 obtained a patent for making 
" crystal glass." E. W. Hulme, however, who has carefully 
investigated the subject, is of opinion that flint-glass in its 
present form was introduced about 1730. The use of oxide of 
lead in glass-making was no new thing; it had been used, 
mainly as a flux, both by Romans and Venetians. The invention, 
if it may be regarded as one, consisted in eliminating lime from 
the glass mixture, substituting refined potash for soda, and using 
a very large proportion of lead oxide. It is probable that flint- 
glass was not invented, but gradually evolved, that potash-lead 
glasses were in use during the latter part of the i7th century, 
but that the mixture was not perfected until the middle of the 
following century. 

The i8th century saw a great development in all branches of 
glass-making. Collectors of glass are chiefly concerned with the 
drinking-glasses which were produced in great profusion and 
adapted for every description of beverage. The most noted 
are the glasses with stout cylindrical legs (Plate I. fig. 9), con- 
taining spiral threads 'of air, or of white or coloured enamel. 
To this type of glass belong many of the Jacobite glasses which 
commemorate the old or the young Pretender. 

In 1746 the industry was in a sufficiently prosperous condition 
to tempt the government to impose an excise duty. The report 
of the commission of excise, dealing with glass, published in 1835 
is curious and interesting reading. So burdensome was the duty 
and so vexatious were the restrictions that it is a matter for 
wonder that the industry survived. In this respect England 
was more fortunate than Ireland. Before 1825, when the excise 
duty was introduced into Ireland, there were flourishing glass- 
works in Belfast, Cork, Dublin and Waterford. By 1850 the 
Irish glass industry had been practically destroyed. Injurious 
as the excise duty undoubtedly was to the glass trade generally, 
and especially to the flint-glass industry, it is possible that it 
may have helped to develop the art of decorative glass-cutting. 
The duty on flint-glass was imposed on the molten glass in the 
crucibles and on the unfinished goods. The manufacturer had, 
therefore, a strong inducement to enhance by every means in his 
power the selling value of his glass after it had escaped the 
exciseman's clutches. He therefore employed the best available 
art and skill in improving the craft of glass-cutting. It is 
the development of this craft in connexion with the perfecting 
of flint-glass that makes the i8th century the most important 
period in the history of English glass-making. Glass-cutting 
was a craft imported from Germany, but the English material 
so greatly surpassed Bohemian glass in brilliance that the 
Bohemian cut-glass was eclipsed. Glass-cutting was carried on 
at works in Birmingham, Bristol, Belfast, Cork, Dublin, Glas- 
gow, London, Newcastle, Stourbridge, Whittington and Water- 
ford. The most important centres of the craft were London, 
Bristol, Birmingham and Waterford (see Plate I., fig. 10, for 
oval cut-glass Waterford bowl). The finest specimens of cut- 
glass belong to the period between 1780 and 1810. Owing, 
to the sacrifice of form to prismatic brilliance, cut-glass gradually 
lost its artistic value. Towards the middle of the igth century 
it became the fashion to regard all cut-glass as barbarous, and 
services of even the best period were neglected and dispersed. 
At the present time scarcely anything is known about the 
origin of the few specimens of iSth-century English cut-glass 



GLASS, STAINED 



which have been preserved in public collections. It is strange 
that so little interest has been taken in a craft in which for 
some thirty years England surpassed all competitors, creating 
a wave of fashion which influenced the glass industry throughout 
the whole of Europe. 

In the report of the Excise Commission a list is given of the 
glass manufactories which paid the excise duty in 1833. There 
were 105 factories in England, 10 in Scotland and 10 in Ireland. 
In England the chief centres of the industry were Bristol, 
Birmingham, London, Manchester, Newcastle, Stourbridge 
and York. Plate-glass was made by Messrs Cookson of New- 
castle, and by the British Plate Glass Company of Ravenhead. 
Crown and German sheet-glass were made by Messrs Chance & 
Hartley of Birmingham. The London glass-works were those 
of Apsley Pellatt of Blackfriars, Christie of Stangate, and William 
Holmes of Whitefriars. In Scotland there were works in Glasgow, 
Leith and Portobello. In Ireland there were works in Belfast, 
Cork, Dublin and Waterford. The famous Waterford works 
were in the hands of Gatchell & Co. 

India. Pliny states (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 26. 66) that no glass 
was to be compared to the Indian, and gives as a reason that it 
was made from broken crystal; and in another passage (xii. 
19, 42) he says that the Troglodytes brought to Ocelis (Ghella 
near Bab-el- Mandeb) objects of glass. We have, however, 
very little knowledge of Indian glass of any considerable antiquity. 
A few small vessels have been found in the " topes," as in that 
at Manikiala in the Punjab, which probably dates from about 
the Christian era; but they exhibit no remarkable character, 
and fragments found at Brahmanabad are hardly distinguishable 
from Roman glass of the imperial period. The chronicle of the 
Sinhalese kings, the Mahavamsa, however, asserts that mirrors 
of glittering glass were carried in procession in 306 B.C., and beads 
like gems, and windows with ornaments like jewels, are also 
mentioned at about the same date. If there really was an 
important manufacture of glass in Ceylon at this early time, 
that island perhaps furnished the Indian glass of Pliny. In the 
later part of the iyth century some glass decorated with enamel 
was made at Delhi. A specimen is in the Indian section of the 
South Kensington Museum. Glass is made in several parts of 
India as Patna and Mysore by very simple and primitive 
methods, and the results are correspondingly defective. Black, 
green, red, blue and yellow glasses are made, which contain a 
large proportion of alkali and are readily fusible. The greater 
part is worked into bangles, but some small bottles are blown 
(Buchanan, Journey through Mysore, i. 147, iii. 369). 

Persia. No very remarkable specimens of Persian glass are 
known in Europe, with the exception of some vessels of blue 
glass richly decorated with gold. These probably date from 
the 1 7th century, for Chardin tells us that the windows of the 
tomb of Shah Abbas II. (ob. 1666), at Kum, were " de cristal 
peint d'or et d'azur." At the present day bottles and drinking- 
vessels are made in Persia which in texture and quality differ 
little from ordinary Venetian glass of the i6th or i7th centuries, 
while in form they exactly resemble those which may be seen 
in the engravings in Chardin's Travels. 

China. The history of the manufacture of glass in China is 
obscure, but the common opinion that it was learnt from 
the Europeans in the i7th century seems to be erroneous. A 
writer in the Memoires concernant les Chinois (ii. 46) states 
on the authority of the annals of the Han dynasty that the 
emperor Wu-ti (140 B.C.) had a manufactory of the kind of glass 
called " lieou-li " (probably a form of opaque glass), that in the 
beginning of the 3rd century of our era the emperor Tsaou-tsaou 
received from the West a considerable present of glasses of all 
colours, and that soon after a glass-maker came into the country 
who taught the art to the natives. 

The Wei dynasty, to which Tsaou-tsaou belonged, reigned in 
northern China, and at this day a considerable manufacture 
of glass is carried on at Po-shan-hien in Shantung, which it 
would seem has existed for a long period. The Rev. A. William- 
son (Journeys in North China, i. 131) says that the glass is 
extremely pure, and is made from the rocks in the neighbourhood. 



The rocks are probably of quartz, i.e. rock crystal, a correspond- 
ence with Pliny's statement respecting Indian glass which seems 
deserving of attention. 

Whether the making of glass in China was an original dis- 
covery of that ingenious people, or was derived via Ceylon from 
Egypt, cannot perhaps be now ascertained; the manufacture 
has, however, never greatly extended itself in China. The case 
has been the converse of that of the Romans; the latter had no 
fine pottery, and therefore employed glass as the material for 
vessels of an ornamental kind, for table services and the like. 
The Chinese, on the contrary, having from an early period had 
excellent porcelain, have been careless about the manufacture of 
glass. A Chinese writer, however, mentions the manufacture 
of a huge vase in A.D. 627, and in 1154 Edrisi (first climate, tenth 
section) mentions Chinese glass. A glass vase about a foot high 
is preserved at Nara in Japan, and is alleged to have been placed 
there in the 8th century. It seems probable that this is of 
Chinese manufacture. A writer in the Memoires concernant 
les Chinois (ii. 463 and 477), writing about 1770, says that 
there was then a glass-house at Peking, where every year a 
good number of vases were made, some requiring great labour 
because nothing was blown (rien n'est souffle), meaning no doubt 
that the ornamentation was produced not by blowing and mould- 
ing, but by cutting. This factory was, however, merely an 
appendage to the imperial magnificence. The earliest articles 
of Chinese glass the date of which has been ascertained, which 
have been noticed, are some bearing the name of the emperor 
Kienlung (1735-1795), one of which is in the Victoria and Albert 
Museum. 

In the manufacture of ornamental glass the leading idea 
in China seems to be the imitation of natural stones. The 
coloured glass is usually not of one bright colour throughout, 
but semi-transparent and marbled; the colours in many instances 
are singularly fine and harmonious. As in 1770, carving or cut- 
ting is the chief method by which ornament is produced, the 
vessels being blown very solid. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Georg Agricola, De re metattica (Basel, 1556); 
Percy Bate, English Table Glass (n.d.) ; G. Bontemps, Guide du verrier 
(Pans, 1868); Edward Dillon, Glass (London, 1907); C. C. Edgar, 
" Graeco-Egyptian Glass," Catalogue du Musee du Caire (1905); 
Sir A. W. Franks, Guide to Glass Room in British Museum (1888) ; 
Rev. A. Hallen, " Glass-making in Sussex," Scottish Antiquary, 
No. 28 (1893); Albert Hartshorne, Old English Glasses (London); 
E. W. Hulme, " English Glass-making in XVI. andXVII. Centuries," 
The Antiquary, Nos. 59, 60, 63, 64, 65; Alexander Nesbitt, " Glass," 
Art Handbook, Victoria and Albert Museum; E. Peligot, Le Verre, 
son histoire, sa fabrication (Paris, 1878); Apsley Pellatt, Curiosities 
of Glass-making (London, 184.9); F. Petrie, Tell-el-Amarna, Egypt 
Exploration Fund (1894); "Egypt," sect. Art; H. J. Powell, 
" Cut Glass," Journal Society of Arts, No. 2795; C. H. Read, " Sara- 
cenic Glass," Archaeologia, vol. 58, part i.; Juan F. Riano, 
"Spanish Arts," Art Handbook, Victoria and Albert Museum; 
H. Schuermans, " Muranese and Altarist Glass Workers," eleven 
letters: Bulletins des commissions royales (Brussels, 1883, 1891). 
For the United States, see vol. x. of Reports of the 12th Census, pp. 
949-1000, and Special Report of Census of Manufactures (1905), Part 
III., pp. 837-935. (A. NE.;H.J. P.) 

GLASS, STAINED. All coloured glass is, strictly speaking, 
" stained " by some metallic oxide added to it in the process 
of manufacture. But the term " stained glass " is popularly, 
as well as technically, used in a more limit ed sense, and is under- 
stood to refer to stained glass windows. Still the words " stained 
glass " do not fully describe what is meant; for the glass in 
coloured windows is for the most part not only stained but 
painted. Such painting was, however, until comparatively 
modern times, used only to give details of drawing and to define 
form. The colour in a stained glass window was not painted 
on the glass but incorporated in it, mixed with it in the making 
whence the term " pot-metal " by which self-coloured glass is 
known, i.e. glass coloured in the melting pot. 

A medieval window was consequently a patchwork of variously 
coloured pieces. And the earlier its date the more surely was 
it a mosaic, not in the form of tesserae, but in the manner 
known as " opus sectile." Shaped pieces of coloured glass were, 
that is to say, put together like the parts of a puzzle. The 



io6 



GLASS, STAINED 



nearest approach to an exception to this rule is a fragment at 
the Victoria and Albert Museum, in which actual tesserae are 
fused together into a solid slab of many-coloured glass, in effect 
a window panel, through which the light shines with all the 
brilliancy of an Early Gothic window. But apart from the fact 
that the design proves in this case to be even more effective 
with the light upon it, the use of gold leaf in the tesserae con- 
firms the presumption that this work, which (supposing it to 
be genuine) would be Byzantine, centuries earlier than any 
coloured windows that we know of, and entirely different from 
them in technique, is rather a specimen of fused mosaic that 
happens to be translucent than part of a window designedly 
executed in tesserae. 

The Eastern (and possibly the earlier) practice was to set 
chips of coloured glass in a heavy fretwork of stone or to imbed 
them in plaster. In a medieval window they were held together 
by strips of lead, in section something like the letter H , the 
upright strokes of which represent the " tapes " extending on 
either side well over the edges of the glass, and the crossbar the 
connecting " core " between them. The leading was soldered 
together at the points of junction, cement or putty was rubbed 
into the crevices between glass and lead, and the window was 
attached (by means of copper wires soldered on to the leads) 
to iron saddle-bars let into the masonry. 

Stained glass was primarily the art of the glazier; but the 
painter, called in to help, asserted himself more and more, and 
eventually took it almost entirely into his own hands. Between 
the period when it was glazier's work eked out by painting 
and when it was painter's work with the aid of the glazier lies 
the entire development of stained and painted window-making. 
With the eventual endeavour of the glass painter to do without 
the glazier, and to get the colour by painting in translucent 
enamel upon colourless glass, we have the beginning of a form of 
art no longer monumental and comparatively trivial. 

This evolution of the painted window from a patchwork of 
little pieces of coloured glass explains itself when it is remembered 
that coloured glass was originally not made in the big sheets 
produced nowadays, but at first in jewels to look as much as 
possible like rubies, sapphires, emeralds and other precious 
stones, and afterwards in rounds and sheets of small dimensions. 
Though some of the earliest windows were in the form of pure 
glazing (" leaded-lights "), the addition of painting seems to have 
been customary from the very first. It was a means of render- 
ing detail not to be got in lead. Glazing affords by itself scope 
for beautiful pattern work; but the old glaziers never carried their 
art as far as they might have done in the direction of ornament; 
their aim was always in the direction of picture; the idea was to 
make windows serve the purpose of coloured story books. That 
was beyond the art of the glazier. It was easy enough to repre- 
sent the drapery of a saint by red glass, the ground on which he 
stood by green, the sky above by blue, his crown by yellow, 
the scroll in his hand by white, and his flesh by brownish pink; 
but when it came to showing the folds of red drapery, blades of 
green grass, details of goldsmith's work, lettering on the scroll, 
the features of the face the only possible way of doing it was 
by painting. The use of paint was confined at first to an opaque 
brown, used, not as colour, but only as a means of stopping out 
light, and in that way defining comparatively delicate details 
within the lead lines. These themselves outlined and defined 
the main forms of the design. The pigment used by the glass 
painter was of course vitreous: it consisted of powdered glass 
and sundry metallic oxides (copper, iron, manganese, &c.), 
so that, when the pieces of painted glass were made red hot in 
the kiln, the powdered glass became fused to the surface, and 
with it the dense colouring matter also. When the pieces of 
painted glass were afterwards glazed together and seen against 
the light, the design appeared in the brilliant colour of the glass, 
its forms drawn in the uniform black into which, at a little 
distance, leadwork and painting lines became merged. 

It needed solid painting to stop out the light entirely: thin 
paint only obscured it. And, even in early glass, thin paint was 
used, whether to subdue crude colour or to indicate what little 



shading a 13th-century draughtsman might desire. In the 
present state of old glass, the surface often quite disintegrated, 
it is difficult to determine to what extent thin paint was used for 
either purpose. There must always have been the temptation to 
make tint do instead of solid lines; but the more workmanlike 
practice, and the usual one, was to get difference of tint, as a 
pen-draughtsman does, by lines of solid opaque colour. In 
comparatively colourless glass (grisaille) the pattern was often 
made to stand out by cross-hatching the background; and 
another common practice was to coat the glass with paint all 
over, and scrape the design out of it. The effect of either 
proceeding was'to lower the tone of the glass without dirtying 
the colour, as a smear of thin paint would do. 

Towards the I4th century, when Gothic design took a more 
naturalistic direction, the desire to get something like modelling 
made it necessary to carry painting farther, and they got rid 
to some extent of the ill effect of shading-colour smeared on the 
glass by stippling it. This not only softened the tint and allowed 
of gradation according to the amount of stippling, but let some 
light through, where the bristles of the stippling-tool took up 
the pigment. Shading of this kind enforced by touches of strong 
brushwork, cross-hatching and some scratching out of high 
lights was the method of glass painting adopted in the I4th 
century. 

Glass was never at the best a pleasant surface to paint on; 
and glass painting, following the line of least resistance, 
developed in the later Gothic and early Renaissance periods 
into something unlike any other form of painting. The outlines 
continued to be traced upon the glass and fixed in the fire; but, 
after that, the process of painting consisted mainly in the 
removal of paint. The entire surface of the glass was coated with 
an even " matt " of pale brown; this was allowed to dry; and 
then the high lights were rubbed off, and the modelling was got 
by scrubbing away the paint with a dry hog-hair brush, more 
or less, according to the gradations required. Perfect modelling 
was got by repeating the operation how often depended upon 
the dexterity of the painter. A painter's method is partly the 
outcome of his individuality. One man would float on his colour 
and manipulate it to some extent in the moist state; another 
would work entirely upon the dry matt. Great use was made 
of the pointed stick with which sharp lines of light were easily 
scraped out; and in the i6th century Swiss glass painters, 
working upon a relatively small scale, got their modelling 
entirely with a needle-point', scraping away the paint just as an 
etcher scratches away the varnish from his etching plate. The 
practice of the two craftsmen is, indeed, identical, though the 
one scratches out what are to be black lines and the other lines 
of light. In the end, then, though a painter would always use 
touches of the brush to get crisp lines of dark, the manipulation 
of glass painting consisted more in erasing lights than in painting 
shadows, more in rubbing out or scraping off paint than in putting 
it on in brush strokes. 

So far there was no thought of getting colour by means of 
paint. The colour was in the glass itself, permeating the mass 
(" pot-metal "). There was only one exception to this ruby 
glass, the colour of which was so dense that red glass thick 
enough for its purpose would have been practically obscure; 
and so they made a colourless pot-metal coated on one side 
only with red glass. This led to a practice which forms an ex- 
ception to the rule that in "pot-metal" glass every change of 
colour, or from colour to white, is got by the use of a separate 
piece of glass. It was possible in the case of this " flashed " 
ruby to grind away portions of the surface and thus obtain 
white on red or red on white. Eventually they made coated 
glass of blue and other colours, with a view to producing similar 
effects by abrasion. (The same result is arrived at nowadays 
by means of etching. The skin of coloured glass, in old days 
laboriously ground or cut away, is now easily eaten off by fluoric 
acid.) One other exceptional expedient in colouring had very 
considerable effect upon the development of glass design from 
about the beginning of the i4th century. The discovery that 
a solution of silver applied to glass would under the action of the 




GLASS, STAINED 



107 



__re stain it yellow enabled the glass painter to get yellow upon 
colourless glass, green upon grey-blue, and (by staining only 
the abraded portions) yellow upon blue or ruby. This yellow was 
neither enamel nor pot-metal colour, but stain the only staining 
actually done by the glass painter as distinct from the glass 
maker. It varied in colour from pale lemon to deep orange, and 
was singularly pure in quality. As what is called " white " 
glass became purer and was employed in greater quantities it 
was lavishly used; so much so that a brilliant effect of silvery 
white and golden yellow is characteristic of later Gothic 
windows. 

The last stage of glass painting was the employment of enamel 
not for stopping out light but to get colour. It began to be used 
in the early part of the i6th century at first only in the form of a 
flesh tint ; but it was not long before other colours were introduced. 
This use of colour no longer in the glass but upon it marks quite 
a new departure in technique. Enamel colour was finely powdered 
coloured glass mixed with gum or some such substance into a 
pigment which could be applied with a brush. When the glass 
painted with it was brought to a red heat in the oven, the powdered 
glass melted and was fused to it, just like the opaque brown 
employed from the very beginning of glass-painting. 

This process of enamelling was hardly called for in the interests 
of art. Even the red flesh-colour (borrowed from the Limoges 
enamellers upon copper) did not in the least give the quality of 
flesh, though it enabled the painter to suggest by contrast the 
whiteness of a man's beard. As for the brighter enamel colours, 
they had nothing like the. depth or richness of "stained " glass. 
What enamel really did was to make easy much that had been 
impossible in mosaic, as, for example, to represent upon the 
very smallest shield of arms any number of " charges " all in 
the correct tinctures. It encouraged the minute workmanship 
characteristic of Swiss glass painting; and, though this was not 
altogether inappropriate to domestic window panes, the painter 
was tempted by it to depart from the simplicity and breadth of 
design inseparable from the earlier mosaic practice. In the end 
he introduced coloured glass only where he could hardly help it, 
and glazed the great part of his window in rectangular panes of 
clear glass, upon which he preferred to paint his picture in opaque 
brown and translucent enamel colours. 

Enamel upon glass has not stood the test of time. Its presence 
is usually to be detected in old windows by specks of light shining 
through the colour. This is where the enamel has crumbled off. 
There is a very good reason for that. Enamel must melt at a 
temperature at which the glass it is painted on keeps its shape. 
The lower the melting point of the powdered glass the more easily 
it is fused. The painter is consequently inclined to use enamel of 
which the contraction and expansion is much greater than that of 
his glass with the result that, under the action of the weather, 
the colour is apt to work itself free and expose the bare white 
glass beneath. The only enamel which has held its own is that of 
the Swiss glass-painters of the i6th and I7th centuries. The 
domestic window panes they painted may not in all cases have 
been tried by the sudden changes of atmosphere to which church 
windows are subject; but credit must be given them for ex- 
ceptionally skilful and conscientious workmanship. 

The story of stained glass is bound up with the history of 
architecture, to which it was subsidiary, and of the church, 
which was its patron. Its only possible course of development 
was in the wake of church building. From its very inception it 
was Gothic and ecclesiastical. And, though it survived the 
upheaval of the Renaissance and was turned to civil and domestic 
use, it is to church windows that we must go to see what stained 
glass really was or is; for time has been kind to it. The charm 
of medieval glass lies to a great extent in the material, and especi- 
ally in the inequality of it. Chemically impure and mechanic- 
ally imperfect, it was rarely crude in tint or even in texture. It 
shaded off from light to dark according to its thickness; it was 
speckled with air bubbles; it was streaked and clouded; and all 
these imperfections of manufacture went to perfection of colour. 
And age has improved it: the want of homogeneousness in the 
material has led to the disintegration of its surface; soft particles 



in it have been dissolved away by the action of the weather, and 
the surface, pitted like an oyster-shell, refracts the light in a way 
which adds greatly to the effect; at the same time there is 
roothold for the lichen which (like the curtains of black cobwebs) 
veils and gives mystery to the colour. An appreciable part of the 
beauty of old glass is the result of age and accident. In that 
respect no new glass can compare with it. There is, however, no 
such thing as " the lost secret " of glass-making. It is no secret 
that age mellows. 

Stained and painted glass is commonly apportioned to its 
" period," Gothic or Renaissance, and further to the particular 
phase of the style to which it belongs. C. Winston, who was the 
first to inquire thoroughly into English glass, adopting T. 
Rickman's classification, divided Gothic windows into Early 
English (to c. 1280), Decorated (to c. 1380) and Perpendicular 
(to c. 1530). These dates will do. But the transition from one 
phase of design to another is never so sudden, nor so easily 
defined, as any table of dates would lead us to suppose. The old 
style lingered in one district long after the new fashion was 
flourishing in another. Besides, the English periods do not quite 
coincide with those of other countries. France, Germany and 
the Low Countries count for much in the history of stained glass; 
and in no two places was the pace of progress quite the same. 
There was, for example, scarcely any 13th-century Gothic in 
Germany, where the " geometric " style, equivalent to our 
Decorated, was preceded by the Romanesque period; in France 
the Flamboyant took the place of our Perpendicular; and in 
Italy Gothic never properly took root at all. All these con- 
sidered, a rather rough and ready division presents the least 
difficulty to the student of old glass; and it will be found con- 
venient to think of Gothic glass as (i) Early, (2) Middle and (3) 
Late, and of the subsequent windows as (i) Renaissance and (2) 
Late Renaissance. The three periods of Gothic correspond 
approximately to the i3th, i4th and isth centuries. The 
limits of the two periods of the Renaissance are not so easily 
defined. In the first part of the i6th century (in Italy long 
before that) the Renaissance and Gothic periods overlapped; in 
the latter part of it, glass painting was already on the decline; 
and in the iyth and i8th centuries it sank to deeper depths of 
degradation. 

The likeness of early windows to translucent enamel (which is 
also glass) is obvious. The lines of lead glazing correspond 
absolutely to the " cloisons " of Byzantine goldsmith's work. 
Moreover, the extreme minuteness of the leading (not always 
either mechanically necessary or architecturally desirable) 
suggests that the starting point of all this gorgeous illumination 
was the idea of reproducing on a grandiose scale the jewelled 
effect produced in small by cloisonne enamellers. In other 
respects the earliest glass shows the influence of Byzantine 
tradition. It is mainly according to the more or less Byzantine 
character of its design and draughtsmanship that archaeologists 
ascribe certain remains of old glass to the 1 2th or the nth century. 
Apart from documentary or direct historic evidence, it is not 
possible to determine the precise date of any particular fragment. 
In the " restored " windows at St Denis there are remnants of 
glass belonging to the year 1108. Elsewhere in France (Reims, 
Anger, Le Mans, Chartres, &c.) there is to be found very early 
glass, some of it probably not much later than the end of the loth 
century, which is the date confidently ascribed to certain 
windows at St Remi (Reims) and at Tegernsee. The rarer the 
specimen the greater may be its technical and antiquarian 
interest. But, even if we could be quite sure of its date, there is 
not enough of this very early work, and it does not sufficiently 
distinguish itself from what followed, to count artistically for 
much. The glory of early glass belongs to the i3th century. 

The design of windows was influenced, of course, by the con- 
ditions of the workshop, by the nature of glass, the difficulty 
of shaping it, the way it could be painted, and the necessity 
of lead glazing. The place of glass in the scheme of church 
decoration led to a certain severity in the treatment of it. The 
growing desire to get more and more light into the churches, 
and the consequent manufacture of purer and more transparent 



io8 



GLASS, STAINED 



glass, affected the glazier's colour scheme. For all that, the 
fashion of a window was, mutatis mutandis, that of the painting, 
carving, embroidery, goldsmith's work, enamel and other crafts- 
manship of the period. The design of an ivory triptych is very 
much that of a three-light window. There is a little enamelled 
shrine of German workmanship in the Victoria and Albert 
Museum which might almost have been designed for glass; 
and the famous painted ceiling at Hildesheim is planned precisely 
on the lines of a medallion window of the I3th century. By that 
time glass had fallen into ways of its own, and there were already 
various types of design which we now recognize as characteristic 
of the first great period, in some respects the greatest of all. 

Pre-eminently typical of the first period is the " medallion 
window." Glaziers began by naively accepting the iron bars 
across the light as the basis of their composition, and planned 
a window as a series of panels, one above the other, between the 
horizontal crossbars and the upright lines of the border round it. 
The next step was to mitigate the extreme severity of this com- 
position by the introduction of a circular or other medallion 
within the square boundary lines. Eventually these were 
abandoned altogether, the iron bars were shaped according to 
the pattern, and there was evolved the " medallion window," 
in which the main divisions of the design are emphasized by the 
strong bands of iron round them. Medallions were invariably 
devoted to picturing scenes from Bible history or from the lives 
of the saints, set forth in the simplest and most straightforward 
manner, the figures all on one plane, and as far as possible clear-cut 
against a sapphire-blue or ruby-red ground. Scenery was not so 
much depicted as suggested. An arch or two did duty for archi- 
tecture, any scrap of foliated ornament for landscape. Simplicity 
of silhouette was absolutely essential to the readableness of 
pictures on the small scale allowed by the medallion. As it is, 
they are so difficult to decipher, so confused and broken in effect, 
as to give rise (the radiating shape of " rose windows " aiding) 
to the misconception that the design of early glass is kaleido- 
scopic which it is not. The intervals between subject medallions 
were filled in England (Canterbury) with scrollwork, in France 
(Chartres) more often with geometric diaper, in which last 
sometimes the red and blue merge into an unpleasant purple. 
Design on this small scale was obviously unsuited to distant 
windows. Clerestory lights were occupied by figures, sometimes 
on a gigantic scale, entirely occupying the window, except for 
the border and perhaps the slightest pretence of a niche. This 
arrangement lent itself to broad effects of colour. The drawing 
may be rude; at times the figures are grotesque; but the general 
impression is one of mysterious grandeur and solemnity. 

The depth and intensity of colour in the windows so far described 
comes chiefly from the quality of the glass, but partly also from 
the fact that very little white or pale-coloured glass was used. 
It was not the custom at this period to dilute the colour of a 
rich window with white. If light was wanted they worked in 
white, enlivened, it might be, by colour. Strictly speaking, 
13th-century glass was never colourless, but of a greenish tint, 
due to impurities in the sand, potash or other ingredients; it 
was of a horny consistency, too; but it is convenient to speak 
of all would-be-clear glass as " white." The greyish windows in 
which it prevails are technically described as " in grisaille." 
There are examples (Salisbury, Chalons, Bonlieu, Angers) of 
" plain glazing " in grisaille, in which the lead lines make very 
ingenious and beautiful pattern. In the more usual case of 
painted grisaille the lead lines still formed the groundwork of 
the design, though supplemented by foliated or other detail, 
boldly outlined in strong brown and emphasized by a background 
of cross-hatching. French grisaille was frequently all in white 
(Reims, St Jean-aux-Bois, Sens), English work was usually 
enlivened by bands and bosses of colour (Salisbury); but the 
general effect of the window was still grey and silvery, even 
though there might be distributed about it (the " five sisters," 
York minster) a fair amount of coloured glass. The use of grisaille 
is sufficiently accounted for by considerations of economy 
and the des.ire to get light; but it was also in some sort a protest 
(witness the Cistercian interdict of 1 134) against undue indulgence 



in the luxury of colour. At this stage of its development it was 
confined strictly to patternwork; figure subjects were always 
in colour. For all that, some of the most restful and entirely 
satisfying work of the I3th century was in grisaille (Salisbury, 
Chartres, Reims, &c.). 

The second or Middle period of Gothic glass marks a stage 
between the work of the Early Gothic artist who thought out his 
design as glazing, and that of the later draughtsman who con- 
ceived it as something to be painted. It represents to many the 
period of greatest interest probably because of its departure 
from the severity of Early work. It was the period of more 
naturalistic design; and a touch of nature is more easily 
appreciated than architectural fitness. Middle Gothic glass, 
halting as it does between the relatively rude mosaic of early 
times and the painter-like accomplishment of fully-developed 
glass painting, has not the salient merits of either. In the matter 
of tone also it is intermediate between the deep, rich, sober 
harmonies of Early windows and the lighter, brighter, gayer 
colouring of later glass. Now for the first time grisaille ornament 
and coloured figurework were introduced into the same window. 
And this was done in a very judicious way, in alternate bands 
'of white and deep rich colour, binding together the long lights 
into which windows were by this time divided (chapter-house, 
York minster) . A similar horizontal tendency of design is notice- 
able in windows in which the figures are enshrined under canopies, 
henceforth a feature in glass design. The pinnaclework falls 
into pronounced bands of brassy yellow between the tiers of 
figures (nave, York minster) and serves to correct the vertical 
lines of the masonry. Canopywork grew sometimes to such 
dimensions as quite to overpower the figure it was supposed 
to frame; but, then, the sense of scale was never a directing 
factor in Decorated design. A more interesting form of ornament 
is to be found in Germany, where it was a pleasing custom 
(Regensburg) to fill windows with conventional foliage without 
figurework. There is abundance of Middle Gothic glass in 
England (York, Wells, Ely, Oxford), but the best of it, such as 
the great East window at Gloucester cathedral, has features 
more characteristic of the isth than of the i4th century. 

The keynote of Late Gothic glass is brilliancy. It had a silvery 
quality. The isth century was the period of white glass, which 
approached at last to colourlessness, and was employed in great 
profusion. Canopywork, more universal than ever, was repre- 
sented almost entirely in white touched with yellow stain, but 
not in sufficient quantities to impair its silveriness. Whatever 
the banality of the idea of imitation stonework in glass, the 
effect of thus framing coloured pictures in delicate white is 
admirable: at last we have white and colour in perfect combina- 
tion. Fifteenth-century figurework contains usually a large 
proportion of white glass; flesh tint is represented by white; 
there is white in the drapery; in short, there is always white 
enough in the figures to connect them with the canopywork and 
make the whole effect one. The preponderance of white will be 
better appreciated when it is stated that very often not a fifth 
or sixth part of the glass is coloured. It is no uncommon thing 
to find figures draped entirely in white with only a little colour 
in the background; and figurework all in grisaille upon a ground 
of white latticework is quite characteristic of Perpendicular 
glass. 

One of the most typical forms of Late English Gothic canopy 
is where (York minster) its slender pinnacles fill the upper part 
of the window, and its solid base frames a picture in small of 
some episode in the history of the personage depicted as large as 
life above. A much less satisfactory continental practice was 
to enrich only the lower half of the window with stained glass and 
to make shift above (Munich) with " roundels " of plain white 
glass, the German equivalent for diamond latticework. 

A sign of later times is the way pictures spread beyond the 
confines of a single light. This happened by degrees. At first 
the connexion between the figures in separate window openings 
was only in idea, as when a central figure of the crucified Christ 
was flanked by the Virgin and St John in the side lights. Then 
the arms of the cross would be carried through, or as it were 



GLASS, STAINED 

ii. 



PLATE I. 




n. 
in. 



EARLY GLAZING. From S. Serge, Angers, Grisaille, with 

colour introduced in the small circles. 
AN EARLY BORDER. From S. Kunibert, Cologne. 
PORTION OF AN EARLY MEDALLION WINDOW. 

From Canterbury, showing the plan of the design and the 

ornamental details. 



VI. 



IV. AN EARLY FIGURE FROM LYONS. Showing the leading 
of the eyes, hair, nimbus, and drapery. 

V. DECORATED LIGHTS. From S. Urbain, Troyes, showing 
both the influence of the early period in the figures, and 
the beginning of the architectural canopy. 

VI. TYPICAL DECORATED CANOPY. From Exeter. 



XII. 108. 



Nos. I., II., III., IV., VI. are taken from illustrations in Lewis F. Day, Windows, by permission of B. T. Batsford. 



PLATE II. 



GLASS, STAINED 







I. A TYPICAL PERPENDICULAR CANOPY (from Lewis F. Day, Windows, by permission of B. T. Batsford). 
II. A WINDOW FROM AUCH. Illustrating the transition from Perpendicular to Renaissance. 

III. A SIXTEENTH-CENTURY JESSE WINDOW. From Beauvais (source as in Fig. I.). 

IV. PORTION OF A RENAISSANCE WINDOW: From Montmorency, showing the perfection of glass painting. 

From Lucien Magne, Oeuvre des Peintres Verricrs Francais, by permission of Firmm-Didot et O. 



GLASS, STAINED 



behind, the mullions. The expansion to a picture right across 
the window was only a question of time. Not that the artist 
ventured as yet to disregard the architectural setting of his 
picture that happened later on but that he often composed 
it with such cunning reference to intervening stonework that it 
did not interfere with it. It has been argued that each separate 
light of a window ought to be complete in itself. On the other 
hand it has proved possible to make due acknowledgment of 
architectural conditions without cramping design in that way. 
There can be no doubt as to the variety and breadth of treatment 
gained by accepting the whole window as field for a design. And, 
when a number of lights go to make a window, it is the window, 
and no separate part of it, which is the main consideration. 

By the end of the Gothic period, glass painters proceeded on 
an entirely different method from that of the I3th century. 
The designer of early days began with glazing: he thought in 
mosaic and leadwork; the lines he first drew were the lines of 
glazing; painting was only a supplementary process, enabling 
him to get what lead lines would not give. The Late Gothic 
draughtsman began with the idea of painting; glazing was to him 
of secondary importance; he reached a stage (Creation window, 
Great Malvern) where it is clear that he first sketched out his 
design, and then bethought him how to glaze it in such wise that 
the leadwork (which once boldly outlined everything) should not 
interfere with the picture. The artful way in which he would 
introduce little bits of colour into a window almost entirely 
white, makes it certain that he had always at the back of his 
mind the consideration of the glazing to come. So long as he 
thought of that, and did not resent it, all was fairly well with 
glass painting, but there came a point where he found it difficult, 
if not impossible, to reconcile the extreme delicacy of his painting 
upon white glass with the comparatively brutal strength of 
his lead lines. It is here that the conditions of painting and 
glazing clash at last. 

It must not be supposed that Late Gothic windows were never 
by any chance rich in colour. Local conservatism and personal 
predilection prevented anything like monotonous progress in 
a single direction. There is (St Sebald, Nuremberg) Middle 
Gothic glass as dense in colour as any 13th-century work, and 
Late Gothic (Troyes cathedral) which, from its colour, one might 
take at first to be a century earlier than it is. In Italy (Florence) 
and to some extent in Spain (Seville) it was the custom to make 
canopywork so rich in colour that it was more like part of the 
picture than a frame to it. But that was by exception. The 
tendency was towards lighter windows. Glass itself was less 
deeply stained when painters depended more upon their power 
of deepening it by paint. It was the seeking after delicate 
effects of painting, quite as much as the desire to let light into 
the church, which determined the tone of later windows. The 
clearer the glass the more scope it gave for painting. 

It is convenient to draw a line between Gothic art and Renais- 
sance. Nothing is easier than to say that windows in which 
crocketed canopywork occurs are Gothic, and that those with 
arabesque are Renaissance. But that is an arbitrary distinction, 
which does not really distinguish. Some of the most beautiful 
work in glass, such for example as that at Auch, is so plainly 
intermediate between two styles that it is impossible to describe 
it as anything but " transitional." And, apart from particular 
instances, we have only to look at the best Late Gothic work to 
see that it is informed by the new spirit, and at fine Renaissance 
glass to observe how it conforms to Gothic traditions of workman- 
ship. The new idea gave a spurt to Gothic art; and it was 
Gothic impetus which carried Renaissance glass painting to the 
summit of accomplishment reached in the first half of the i6th 
century. When that subsided, and the pictorial spirit of the age 
at last prevailed, the bright days of glass were at an end. If we 
have to refer to the early Renaissance as the culminating period 
of glass painting, it is because the technique of an earlier period 
found in it freer and fuller expression. With the Renaissance, 
design broke free from the restraints of tradition. 

An interesting development of Renaissance design was the 
framing of pictures in golden-yellow arabesque ornament, 



scarcely architectural enough to be called canopywork, and 
reminiscent rather. of beaten goldsmith's work than of stone 
carving. This did for the glass picture what a gilt frame does for 
a painting in oil. Very often framework of any kind was dispensed 
with. The primitive idea of accepting bars and mullions as 
boundaries of design, and filling the compartments formed by 
them with a medley of little subjects, lingered on. The result 
was delightfully broken colour, but inevitable confusion; for 
iron and masonry do not effectively separate glass pictures. 
There was no longer in late glass any pretence of preserving the 
plane of the window. It was commonly designed to suggest that 
one saw out of it. Throughout the period of the Renaissance, 
architectural and landscape backgrounds play an important 
part in design. An extremely beautiful feature in early 16th- 
century French glass pictures (Rouen, &c.) is the little peep of 
distant country delicately painted upon the pale-blue glass which 
represents the sky. In larger work landscape and architecture 
were commonly painted upon white (King's College, Cambridge). 
The landscape effect was always happiest when one or other of 
these conventions was adopted. Canopywork never went quite 
out of fashion. For a long while the plan was still to frame 
coloured pictures in white. Theoretically this is no less effectually 
to be done by Italian than by Gothic shrinework. Practically the 
architectural setting assumed in the i6th century more and more 
the aspect of background to the figures, and, in order that it 
should take its place in the picture, they painted it so heavily that 
it no longer told as white. Already in van Orley's magnificent 
transept windows at St Gudule, Brussels, the great triumphal arch 
behind the kneeling donors and their patron saints (in late glass 
donors take more and more the place of holy personages) tells 
dark against the clear ground. There came a time, towards the 
end of the century, when, as in the wonderful windows at Gouda, 
the very quality of white glass is lost in heavily painted shadow. 

The pictorial ambition of the glass painter, active from the 
first, was kept for centuries within the bounds of decoration. 
Medallion subjects were framed in ornament, standing figures in 
canopywork, and pictures were conceived with regard to the 
window and its place in architecture. Severity of treatment in 
design may have been due more to the limitations of technique 
than to restraint on the part of the painter. The point is that it 
led to unsurpassed results. It was by absolute reliance upon the 
depth and brilliancy of self-coloured glass that all the beautiful 
effects of early glass were obtained. We need not compare early 
mosaic with later painted glass; each was in its way admirable; 
but the early manner is the more peculiar to glass, if not the more 
proper to it. The ruder and more archaic design gives in fullest 
measure the glory of glass for the loss of which no quality of 
painting ever got in glass quite makes amends. The pictorial 
effects compatible with glass design are those which go with pure, 
brilliant and translucent colour. The ideal of a "primitive" 
Italian painter was more or less to be realized in glass: that of a 
Dutch realist was not. It is astonishing what glass painters did 
in the way of light and shade. But the fact remains that heavy 
painting obscured the glass, that shadows rendered in opaque 
surface-colour lacked translucency, and that in seeking before all 
things the effects of shadow and relief, glass painters of the lyth 
century fell short of the qualities on the one hand of glass and on 
the other of painting. 

The course of glass painting was not so even as this general 
survey of its progress might seem to imply. It was quickened 
here, impeded there, by historic events. The art made a splendid 
start in France; but its development was stayed by the disasters 
of war, just when in England it was thriving under the Planta- 
genets. It revived again under Francis I. In Germany it was 
with the prosperity of the free cities of the Empire that glass 
painting prospered. In the Netherlands it blossomed out under 
the favour of Charles V. In the Swiss Confederacy its direction 
was determined by civil and domestic instead of church patron- 
age. In most countries there were in different districts local 
schools of glass painting, each with some character of its own. To 
what extent design was affected by national temperament it is not 
easy to say. The marked divergence of the Flemish from the 



no 



GLASS, STAINED 



French treatment of glass in the i6th century is not entirely due 
to a preference on the one part for colour and on the other for 
light and shade, but is partly owing to the circumstance that, 
whilst in France design remained in the hands of craftsmen, 
whose trade was glass painting, in the Netherlands it was 
entrusted by the emperor to his court painter, who concerned 
himself as little as possible with a technique of which he knew 
nothing. If in France we come also upon the names of well- 
known artists, they seem, like Jean Cousin, to have been closely 
connected with glass painting: they designed so like glass 
painters that they might have begun their artistic career in the 
workshop. 

The attribution of fine windows to famous artists should not 
be too readily accepted; for, though it is a foible of modern 
times to father whatever is noteworthy upon some great name, 
the masterpieces of medieval art are due to unknown craftsmen. 
In Italy, where glass painting was not much practised, and it 
seems to have been the custom either to import glass painters as 
they were wanted or to get work done abroad, it may well be 
that designs were supplied by artists more or less distinguished. 
Ghiberti and Donatello may have had a hand in the cartoons for 
the windows of the Duomo at Florence; but it is not to any 
sculptor that we can give the entire credit of design so absolutely 
in the spirit of colour decoration. The employment of artists not 
connected with glass design would go far to explain the great 
difference of Italian glass from that of other countries. The 14th- 
century work at Assisi is more correctly described as " Trecento " 
than as Gothic, and the " Quattrocento " windows at Florence 
are as different as could be from Perpendicular work. One 
compares them instinctively with Italian paintings, not with 
glass elsewhere. And so with the isth-century Italian glass. 
The superb 16th-century windows of William of Marseilles at 
Arezzo, in which painting is carried to the furthest point possible 
short of sacrificing the pure quality of glass, are more according 
to contemporary French technique. Both French and Italian 
influence may be traced in Spanish glass (Avila, Barcelona, 
Burgos, Granada, Leon, Seville, Toledo). Some of it is said to 
have been executed in France. If so it must have been done to 
Spanish order. The coarse effectiveness of the design, the 
strength of the colour, the general robustness of the art, are 
characteristically Spanish; and nowhere this side of the Pyrenees 
do we find detail on a scale so enormous. 

We have passed by, in following the progressive course of 
craftsmanship, some forms of design, peculiar to no one period 
but very characteristic of glass. The " quarry window," barely 
referred to, its diamond-shaped or oblong panes painted, richly 
bordered, relieved by bosses of coloured ornament often heraldic, 
is of constant occurrence. Entire windows, too, were from 
first to last given up to heraldry. The " Jesse window " occurs 
in every style. According to the fashion of the time the " Stem 
of Jesse " burst out into conventional foliage, vine branches 
or arbitrary scrollwork. It appealed to the designer by the 
scope it gave for freedom of design. He found vent, again, 
for fantastic imagination in the representation of the "Last 
Judgment," to which the west window was commonly devoted. 
And there are other schemes in which he delighted; but this 
is not the place to dwell upon them. 

The glass of the lyth century does not count for much. Some 
of the best in England is the work of the Dutch van Linge family 
(Wadham and Balliol Colleges, Oxford). What glass painting 
came to in the i8th century is nowhere better to be seen than in 
the great west window of the ante-chapel at New College, Oxford. 
That is all Sir Joshua Reynolds and the best china painter of 
his day could do between them. The very idea of employing a 
china painter shows how entirely the art of the glass painter 
had died out. 

It re-awoke in England with the Gothic revival of the ipth 
century; and the Gothic revival determined the direction 
modern glass should take. Early Victorian doings are interesting 
only as marking the steps of recovery (cf . the work of T.Willement 
in the choir of the Temple church; of Ward and Nixon, lately 
removed from the south transept of Westminster Abbey; of 



Wailes). Better things begin with the windows at Westminster 
inspired by A. C. Pugin, who exercised considerable influence 
over his contemporaries. John Powell (Hardman & Co.) was 
an able artist content to walk, even after that master's death, 
reverently in his footsteps. Charles Winston, whose Hints 
on Glass Painting was the first real contribution towards the 
understanding of Gothic glass, and who, by the aid of the Powells 
(of Whitefriars) succeeded in getting something very like the 
texture and colour of old glass, was more learned in ancient 
ways of workmanship than appreciative of the art resulting 
from them. (He is responsible for the Munich glass in Glasgow 
cathedral.) So it was that, except for here and there a window 
entrusted by exception to W. Dyce, E. Poynter, D. G. Rossetti, 
Ford Madox Brow,n or E. Burne- Jones, glass, from the beginning 
of its recovery, fell into the hands of men with a strong bias 
towards archaeology. The architects foremost in the Gothic 
revival (W. Butterfield, Sir G. Scott, G. E. Street, &c.) were all 
inclined that way; and, as they had the placing of commissions 
for windows, they controlled the policy of glass painters. 
Designers were constrained to work in the pedantically archaeo- 
logical manner prescribed by architectural fashion. Unwillingly 
as it may have been, they made mock-medieval windows, the 
interest in which died with the popular illusion about a Gothic 
revival. But they knew their trade; and when an artist like 
John Clayton (master of a whole school of later glass painters) 
took a window in hand (St Augustine's, Kilburn ; Truro cathedral ; 
King's College Chapel, Cambridge) the result was a work of art 
from which, tradework as it may in a sense be, we may gather 
what such men might have done had they been left free to follow 
their own artistic impulse. It is necessary to refer to this because 
it is generally supposed that whatever is best in recent glass is 
due to the romantic movement. The charms of Burne-Jones's 
design and of William Morris's colour, place the windows done 
by them among the triumphs of modern decorative art; but 
Morris was neither foremost in the reaction, nor quite such a 
master of the material he was working in as he showed himself 
in less exacting crafts. Other artists to be mentioned in con- 
nexion with glass design are: Clement Heaton, Bayne, N. H. J. 
Westlake and Henry Holiday, not to speak of a younger genera- 
tion of able men. 

Foreign work shows, as compared with English, a less just 
appreciation of glass, though the foremost draughtsmen of 
their day were enlisted for its design. In Germany, King Louis 
of Bavaria employed P. von Cornelius and W. von Kaulbach 
(Aix-la-Chapelle, Cologne, Glasgow); in France the Bourbons 
employed J. A. D. Ingres, F. V. E. Delacroix, Vernet and J. H. 
Flandrin (Dreux); and the execution of their designs was 
entrusted to the most expert painters to be procured at Munich 
and Sevres; but all to little effect. They either used potmetal 
glass of poor quality, or relied upon enamel with the result 
that their colour lacks the qualities of glass. Where it is not 
heavy with paint it is thin and crude. In Belgium happier 
results were obtained. In the chapel of the Holy Sacrament at 
Brussels there is one window by J. B. Capronnier not unworthy 
of the fine series by B. van Orley which it supplements. At the 
best, however, foreign artists failed to appreciate the quality 
of glass; they put better draughtsmanship into their windows 
than English designers of the mid- Victorian era, and painted 
them better; but they missed the glory of translucent colour. 

Modern facilities of manufacture make possible many things 
which were hitherto out of the question. Enamel colours are 
richer; their range is extended; and it may be possible, with 
the improved kilns and greater chemical knowledge we possess, 
to make them hold permanently fast. It was years ago demon- 
strated at Sevres how a picture may be painted in colours upon 
a sheet of plate-glass measuring 4 ft. by 2\ ft. We are now no 
doubt in a position to produce windows painted on much larger 
sheets. But the results achieved, technically wonderful as they 
are, hardly warrant the waste of time and labour upon work so 
costly, so fragile, so lacking in the qualities of a picture on the 
one hand and of glass on the other. 

In America, John la Farge, finding European material not 






GLASS, STAINED 



in 



dense enough, produced potmetal more heavily charged with 
colour. This was wilfully streaked, mottled and quasi- 
accidentally varied; some of it was opalescent; much of it was 
more like agate or onyx than jewels. Other forms of American 
enterprise were : the making of glass in lumps, to be chipped 



- cathedrals. 



France. 
Chartres -\ 
Le Mans 
Bourges 
Reims 
Auxerre J 
Ste Chapelle, Paris. 
Church of St Jean-aux-Bois. 

England. 
York minster. 
Ely cathedral. 
Wells cathedral. 
Tewkesbury abbey. 



Church of St Francis, Assisi. 
Church of Or San Michele, 

Florence. 
Church of S. Petronio, Bologna. 



into flakes; the ruckling it; 
the shaping it in a molten 
state, or the pulling it out of 
shape. It takes an artist of 
some reserve to make judicious 
use of glass like this. La Farge 
and L. C. Tiffany have turned it 
to beautiful account; but even 
they have put it to purposes 
more pictorial than it can 
properly fulfil. The design it 
calls for is a severely abstract 
form of ornament verging upon 
the barbaric. 

Of late years each country 
has been learning so much 
from the others that the 
newest effort is very much in 
one direction. It seems to be 
agreed that the art of the 
window-maker begins with 
glazing, that the all-needful 
thing is beautiful glass, that 
painting may be reduced to a 
minimum, and on occasion 
(thanks to new developments 
in the making of glass) dis- 
pensed with altogether. A 
tendency has developed itself 
in the direction not merely of 
mosaic, but of carrying the 
glazier's art farther than has 
been done before and render- 
ing landscapes and even figure 
subjects in unpainted glass. 
When, however, it comes to 
the representation of the 
human face, the limitations 
of simple lead-glazing are at 
once apparent. A possible 
way out of the difficulty was 
shown at the Paris Exhibition 
of 1900 by M. Tournel, who, 
by fusing together coloured 
tesserae on to larger pieces of 
colourless glass, anticipated the 
discovery of the already men- 
tioned fragment of Byzantine 
mosaic now in the Victoria 
and Albert Museum. He may 
have seen or heard of some- 
thing of the sort. There would 
be no advantage in building 
up whole windows in this 
way; but for the rendering of 
the flesh and sundry minute 
details in a window for the 
most part heavily leaded, this 
fusing together of tesserae, 
and even of . little pieces of 

glass cut carefully to shape, seems to supply the want of some- 
thing more in keeping with severe mosaic glazing than painted 
flesh proves to be. 

Glass painters are allowed to-day a freer hand than formerly. 
They are no longer exclusively engaged upon ecclesiastical work ; 
domestic glass is an important industry; and a workman once 
comparatively exempt from pedantic control is not so easily 



restrained from self-expression. Moreover, the recognition of 
the artistic position of craftsmen in general makes it possible 
for a man to devote himself to glass without sinking to the rank 
of a mechanic; and artists begin to realize the scope glass offers 
them. What they lack as yet is experience in their craft, and 



Examples of Important Historical Stained Glass. 

There are remains of the earliest known glass: in France at Le Mans, Chartres, ChSlons-sur-Marne, 
Angers and Poitiers cathedrals, the abbey church of St Denis and at St Remi, Reims : in England at 
York minster (fragments): in Germany at Augsburg and Strassburg cathedrals: in Austria in the 
cloisters of Heiligen Kreuz. 

The following is a classified list of some of the most characteristic and important windows, omitting 
for the most part isolated examples, and giving by preference the names of churches where there is a fair 
amount of glass remaining; the country in which at each period the art throve best is put first. 

EARLY GOTHIC 

England. 
Canterbury ) 
Salisbury cathedrals. 
Lincoln ) 
York minster. 



Germany. 
Church of St Kunibert, Cologne 

(Romanesque). 
Cologne cathedral. 



MIDDLE GOTHIC 

Germany. 

Church of St Sebald, Nuremberg. 
Strassburg -\ 
Regensburg 

Augsburg L cathedrals. 
Erfurt 

Freiburg J 
Church of Nieder Haslach. 



LATE GOTHIC 

France. 
Bourges . cathedrals> 



England. 

New College, Oxford. 

Gloucester cathedral. XT 

York, minster and other churches. Church of Notre Dame, Alencon. 
Great Malvern abbey. 



Church of St Mary, Shrewsbury. 

Fairford church. The Duomo, Florence. 

TRANSITION PERIOD 
The choir of the cathedral at Auch. 



France. 
St Vincent ) 
St Patrice y Rouen. 
St Godard J 

Church of St Foy, Conches. 
Church of St Gervais, Paris. 
Church of St Etienne-du-Mont, 

Paris. 
Church of St Martin, 

morency. 

Church of Ecouen. 
Church of St Etienne, Beauvais. 
Church of St Nizier, Troyes. 
Church of Brou, Bourg-en- 

Bresse. 
The Chateau de Chantilly. 



RENAISSANCE 
Netherlands. 
Brussels cathedral. 
Church of St Jacques 
Church of St Martin 
Cathedral 



Liege. 



France. 

Evreux cathedral. 
Church of St Pierre, Chartres. 
Cathedral and church of St 

Urbain, Troyes. 

Church of Ste Radegonde, Poitiers. 
Cathedral and church of St Ouen, 

Rouen. 

Spain. 
Toledo cathedral. 



Germany. 
Cologne ) 

Ulm C cathedrals.. 
Munich ) 
Church of St Lorenz, Nuremberg. 

Spain. 
Toledo cathedral. 



Switzerland. 

Lucerne and most of the. other 
principal museums. 



Arezzo 



Italy. 
I cathedrals. 



Granada 
Seville 



Spain. 
cathedrals. 



Netherlands. 
Groote Kirk, Gouda. 
Choir of Brussels cathedral. 
Antwerp cathedral. 



Mont- Milan 

Certosa di Pavia. 
Church of S. Petronio, Bologna. 
Church of Sta Maria Novella, 
Florence. 

Germany. 
Freiburg cathedral., 

LATE RENAISSANCE 

France. 
Church of St Martin-es-Vignes, 

Troyes. 

Nave and transepts of Auch 
cathedral. 



Cam- 



England. 

King's College chapel, 
bridge. 

Lichfield cathedral. 

St George's church, Hanover 
Square, London. 

St Margaret's church, West- 
minster. 

England. 
Wadham ) 

Balliol f colleges, Oxford. 
New ) 



Switzerland. 
Most museums. 

perhaps due workmanlike respect for traditional ways of work- 
manship. When the old methods come to be superseded 
it will be only by new ones evolved out of them. At present the 
conditions of glass painting remain very much what they were. 
The supreme beauty of glass is still in the purity, the brilliancy, 
the translucency of its colour. To make the most of this the 
designer must be master of his trade. The test of window design 



112 



GLASSBRENNER GLASTONBURY 



is, now as ever, that it should have nothing to lose and everything 
to gain by execution in stained glass. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Theophilus, Arts of the Middle Ages (London, 
1847); Charles Winston, An Inquiry into the Difference of Style 
observable in Ancient Glass Painting, especially in England (Oxford, 
1847), and Memoirs illustrative of the Art of Glass Painting (London, 
1865); N. H. J. Westlake, A History of Design in Painted Glass 
(4 vols., London, 1881-1894); L. F. Day, Windows, A Book about 
Stained and Painted Glass (London, 1909), and Stained Glass (London, 
1903); A. W. Franks, A Book of Ornamental Glazing Quarries 
(London, 1849) ; A Booke of Sundry Draughtes, principaly serving 
for Glasiers (London, 1615, reproduced 1900); F. G. Joyce, The 
Fairford Windows (coloured plates) (London, 1870); Divers Works 
of Early Masters in Ecclesiastical Decoration, edited by John Weale 
(2 vols., London, 1846); Ferdinand de Lasteyrie, Histoire de la 
peinture sur verre d'apres ses monuments en France (2 vols., Paris, 
1852), and Quelques mots sur la theorie de la peinture sur verre (Paris, 
1853); L. Magne, (Euvre des peintres verriers franc, ais (2 vols., Paris, 
1885) ; Viollet le Due, " Vitrail," vol. ix. of the Dictionnaire raisonne 
de V architecture (Paris, 1868) ; O. Merson, " Les Vitraux," Biblio- 
theoue de V enseignement des beaux-arts (Paris, 1895); E. Levy and 
J. B. Caproftnier, Histoire de la peinture sur verre (coloured plates) 
(Brussels, 1860); Ottin, Le Vitrail, son histoire a trovers les dges 
(Paris) ; Pierre le Vieil, L'Art de la peinture sur verre et de la vitrerie 
(Paris, 1774); C. Cahier and A. Martin, Vitraux peints de Bourges 
du XIII' siecle (2 vols., Paris, 1841-1844); S. Clement and A. 
Guitard, Vitraux du XIII' siecle de la cathedrale de Bourges (Bourges, 
1900); M. A. Gessert, Geschichte der Glasmalerei in Deutschland 
and den Niederlanden, Frankreich, England, &c., von ihrem Vr sprung 
bis auf die neueste Zeit (Tubingen and Stuttgart, 1839; also an 
English translation, London, 1851); F. Geiges, Der alte Fenster- 
schmuck des Freiburger Munsters, 5 parts (Freiburg im Breisgau, 
1902, &c.) ; A. Hafner, Chefs-d'csuvre de la peinture suisse sur verre 
(Berlin). (L. F. D.) 

GLASSBRENNER, ADOLF (1810-1876), German humorist 
and satirist, was born at Berlin on the 27th of March 1810. 
After being for a short time in a merchant's office, he took to 
journalism, and in 1831 edited Don Quixote, a periodical which 
was suppressed in 1833 owing to its revolutionary tendencies. 
He next, under the pseudonym Adolf Brennglas, published a 
series of pictures of Berlin life, under the titles Berlin ivie es 
ist und trinkl (30 parts, with illustrations, 1833-1849), and 
Buntes Berlin (14 parts, with illustrations, Berlin, 1837-1858), 
and thus became the founder of a popular satirical literature 
associated with modern Berlin. In 1840 he married the actress 
Adele Peroni (1813-1895), and removed in the following year 
to Neustrelitz, where his wife had obtained an engagement at 
the Grand ducal theatre. In 1848 Glassbrenner entered the 
political arena and became the leader of the democratic party 
in Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Expelled from that country in 1850, 
he settled in Hamburg, where he remained until 1858; and then 
he became editor of the Montagszeitung in Berlin, where he died 
on the 25th of September 1876. 

Among Glassbrenner's other humorous and satirical writings may 
be mentioned: Leben und Treiben der feinen Welt (1834); Bilder 
und Traume aus Wien (2 vols., 1836); Gedichte (1851, 5th ed. 1870); 
the comic epics, Neuer Reineke Fuchs (1846, Ath ed. 1870) and 
Die verkehrte Welt (1857, 6th ed. 1873); also Berliner Volksleben 
(3 vols., illustrated; Leipzig, 1847-1851). Glassbrenner has 
published some charming books for children, notably Lachende Kinder 
(idth ed., 1884), and Sprechende Tiere (2Oth ed., Hamburg, 1899). 

See R. Schmidt-Cabanis, " Adolf Glassbrenner," in unsere Zeit 
(1881). 

GLASS CLOTH, a textile material, the name of which indicates 
the use for which it was originally intended. The cloths are in 
general woven with the plain weave, and the fabric may be all 
white, striped or checked with red, blue or other coloured 
threads; the checked cloths are the most common. The real 
article should be all linen, but a large quantity is made with 
cotton warp and tow weft, and in some cases they are composed 
entirely of cotton. The short fibres of the cheaper kind are 
easily detached from the cloth, and hence they are not so satis- 
factory for the purpose for which they are intended. 

GLASSIUS, SALOMO (1593-1656), theologian and biblical 
critic, was born at Sondershausen, in the principality of Schwarz- 
burg-Sondershausen, on the 20th of May 1593. In 1612 he 
entered the university of Jena. In 1 6 1 5 , with the idea of studying 
law, he moved to Wittenberg. In consequence of an illness, 
however, he returned to Jena after a year. Here, as a student 
of theology under Johann Gerhard, he directed his attention 



especially to Hebrew and the cognate dialects; in 1619 he was 
made an " adjunctus " of the philosophical faculty, and some 
time afterwards he received an appointment to the chair of 
Hebrew. From 1625 to 1638 he was superintendent in Sonders- 
hausen; but shortly after the death of Gerhard (1637) he was, 
in accordance with Gerhard's last wish, appointed to succeed 
him at Jena. In 1640, however, at the earnest invitation of 
Duke Ernest the Pious, he removed to Gotha as court preacher 
and general superintendent in the execution of important reforms 
which had been initiated in the ecclesiastical and educational 
establishments of the duchy. The delicate duties attached to 
this office he discharged with tact and energy; and in the 
" syncretistic " controversy, by which Protestant Germany 
was so long vexed, he showed an unusual combination of firmness 
with liberality, of loyalty to the past with a just regard to the 
demands of the present and the future. He died on the 27th of 
July 1656. 

His principal work, Philologia sacra (1623), marks the transition 
from the earlier views on questions of biblical criticism to those of 
the school of Spener. It was more than once reprinted during his 
lifetime, and appeared in a new and revised form, edited by J. A. 
Dathe (17311791) and G. L. Bauer at Leipzig. Glassius succeeded 
Gerhard as editor of the Weimar Bibelwerk, and wrote the commentary 
on the poetical books of the Old Testament for that publication. A 
volume of his Opuscula was printed at Leiden in 1700. 

See the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, 

GLASS WORT, a name given to Salicornia herbacea (also 
known as marsh samphire), a salt-marsh herb with succulent, 
jointed, leafless stems, in reference to its former use in glass- 
making, when it was burnt for barilla. Salsola Kali, an allied 
plant with rigid, fleshy, spinous-pointed leaves, which was used 
for the same purpose, was known as prickly glasswort. Both 
plants are members of the natural order Chenopodiaceae. 

GLASTONBURY, a market town and municipal borough in 
the Eastern parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, 
on the main road from London to Exeter, 37 m. S.W. of Bath by 
the Somerset & Dorset railway. Pop. (1901) 4016. The town 
lies in the midst of orchards and water-meadows, reclaimed from 
the fens which encircled Glastonbury Tor, a conical height once 
an island, but now, with the surrounding flats, a peninsula washed 
on three sides by the river Brue. 

The town is famous for its abbey, the ruins of which are frag- 
mentary, and as the work of destruction has in many places 
descended to the very foundations it is impossible to make out 
the details of the plan. Of the vast range of buildings for the 
accommodation of the monks hardly any part remains except the 
abbot's kitchen, noteworthy for its octagonal interior (the ex- 
terior plan being square, with the four corners filled in with fire- 
places and chimneys), the porter's lodge and the abbey barn. 
Considerable portions are standing of the so-called chapel of St 
Joseph at the west end, which has been identified with the Lady 
chapel, occupying the site of the earliest church. This chapel, 
which is the finest part of the ruins, is Transitional work of the 
1 2th century. It measures about 66 ft. from east to west and 
about 36 from north to south. Below the chapel is a crypt of the 
i sth century inserted beneath a building which had no previous 
crypt. Between the chapel and the great church is an Early 
English building which appears to have served as a Galilee porch. 
The church itself was a cruciform structure with a choir, nave 
and transepts, and a tower surmounting the centre of intersection. 
From east to west the length was 410 ft. and the breadth of the 
nave was about 80 ft. The nave had ten bays and the choir six. 
Of the nave three bays of the south side are still standing, and the 
windows have pointed arches externally and semicircular arches 
internally. Two of the tower piers and a part of one arch give 
some indication of the grandeur of the building. The foundations 
of the Edgar chapel, discovered in 1908, make the whole church 
the longest of cathedral or monastic churches in the country. The 
old clock, presented to the abbey by Adam de Sodbury (1322- 
1335), and noteworthy as an early example of a clock striking the 
hours automatically with a count-wheel, was once in Wells 
cathedral, but is now preserved in the Victoria and Albert 
Museum. 



rl-il />! 



GLASTONBURY 



The Glastonbury thorn, planted, according to the legend, by 
Joseph of Arimathea, has been the object of considerable com- 
ment. It is said to be a distinct variety, flowering twice a year. 
The actual thorn visited by the pilgrims was destroyed about the 
Reformation time, but specimens of the same variety are still 
extant in various parts of the country. 

The chief buildings, apart from the abbey, are the church of St 
John Baptist, Perpendicular in style, with a fine tower and some 
15th-century monuments; St Benedict's, dating from 1493-1524; 
St John's hospital, founded 1246; and the George Inn, built in 
the time of Henry VII. or VIII. The present stone cross replaced 
a far finer one of great age, which had fallen into decay. The 
Antiquarian Museum contains an excellent collection, including 
remains from a prehistoric village of the marshes, discovered in 
1892, and consisting of sixty mounds within a space of five acres. 
There is a Roman Catholic missionaries' college. In the i6th 
century the woollen industry was introduced by the duke of 
Somerset; and silk manufacture was carried on in the i8th 
century. Tanning and tile-making, and the manufacture of 
boots and sheep-skin rugs are practised. The town is governed 
by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 5000 acres. 

The lake- village discovered in 1892 proves that there was a 
Celtic settlement about 300-200 B.C. on an island in the midst of 
swamps, and therefore easily defensible. British earthworks 
and Roman roads and relics prove later occupation. The name 
of Glastonbury, however, is of much later origin, being a corrup- 
tion of the Saxon Glcestyngabyrig. By the Britons the spot 
seems to have been called Ynys yr Afalon (latinized as Avallonia) 
or Ynysvitrin (see AVALON), and it became the local habitation of 
various fragments of Celtic romance. According to the legends 
which grew up under the care of the monks, the first church of 
Glastonbury was a little wattled building erected by Joseph of 
Arimathea as the leader of the twelve apostles sent over to 
Britain from Gaul by St Philip. About a hundred years later, 
according to the same authorities, the two missionaries, Phaganus 
and Deruvianus, who came to king Lucius from Pope Eleutherius, 
established a fraternity of anchorites on the spot, and after three 
hundred years more St Patrick introduced among them a regular 
monastic life. The British monastery founded about 601 was 
succeeded by a Saxon abbey built by Ine in 708. From the 
decadent state into which Glastonbury was brought by the 
Danish invasions it was recovered by Dunstan, who had been 
educated within its walls and was appointed its abbot about 946. 
The church and other buildings of his erection remained till the 
installation, in 1082, of the first Norman abbot, who inaugurated 
the new epoch by commencing a new church. His successor 
Herlewin (1101-1120), however, pulled it down to make way for 
a finer structure. Henry of Blois (1126-1172) added greatly to 
the extent of the monastery. In 1 184 (on 25th May) the whole of 
the buildings were laid in ruins by fire; but Henry II. of England, 
in whose hands the monastery then was, entrusted his chamberlain 
Rudolphus with the work of restoration, and caused it to be 
carried out with much magnificence. The great church of which 
the ruins still remain was then erected. In the end of the i2th 
century, and on into the following, Glastonbury was distracted 
by a strange dispute, caused by the attempt of Savaric, the 
ambitious bishop of Bath, to make himself master of the abbey. 
The conflict was closed by the decision of Innocent III., that the 
abbacy should be merged in the new see of Bath and Glastonbury, 
and that Savaric should have a fourth of the property. On 
Savaric's death his successor gave up the joint bishopric and 
allowed the monks to elect their own abbot. From this date to the 
Reformation the monastery, one of the chief Benedictine abbeys 
in England, continued to flourish, the chief events in its history 
being connected with the maintenance of its claims to the 
possession of the bodies or tombs of King Arthur and St Dunstan. 
From early times through the middle ages it was a place of 
pilgrimage. As early at least as the beginning of the nth 
century the tradition that Arthur was buried at Glastonbury 
appears to have taken shape; and in the reign of Henry II., 
according to Giraldus Cambrensis and others, the abbot Henry de 
Blois, causing search to be made, discovered at the depth of 16 



ft. a massive oak trunk with an inscription " Hie jacet sepultus 
inclitus rex Arthurus in insula Avalonia." After the fire of 1 184 
the monks asserted that they were in possession of the remains of 
St Dunstan, which had been abstracted from Canterbury after the 
Danish sack of ion and kept in concealment ever since. The 
Canterbury monks naturally denied the assertion, and the contest 
continued for centuries. In 1508 Warham and Goldston having 
examined the Canterbury shrine reported that it contained all the 
principal bones of the saint, but the abbot of Glastonbury in 
reply as stoutly maintained that this was impossible. The day 
of such disputes was, however, drawing to a close. In 1539 the 
last and 6oth abbot of Glastonbury, Robert Whyting, was 
lodged in the Tower on account of " divers and sundry treasons." 
" The ' account ' or ' book ' of his treasons .... seems to be lost, 
and the nature of the charges .... can only be a matter of specu- 
lation " (Gairdner, Col. Pap. on Hen. VIII., xiv. ii. pref. xxxii). 
He was removed to Wells, where he was " arraigned and next 
day put to execution for robbing of Glastonbury church." The 
execution took place on Glastonbury Tor. His body was 
quartered and his head fixed on the abbey gate. A darker 
passage does not occur in the annals of the English Reformation 
than this murder of an able and high-spirited man, whose worst 
offence was that he defended as best he could from the hand of the 
spoiler the property in his charge. 

In 1907, the site of the abbey with the remains of the buildings, 
which had been in private hands since the granting of the estate 
to Sir Peter Carew by Elizabeth in 1559, was bought by Mr 
Ernest Jardine for the purpose of transferring it to the Church 
of England. Bishop Kennion of Bath and Wells entered into 
an agreement to raise a sum of 31,000, the cost of the purchase; 
this was completed, and the site and buildings were formally 
transferred at a dedicatory service in 1909 to the Diocesan 
Trustees of Bath and Wells, who are to hold and manage the 
property according to a deed of trust. This deed provided for 
the appointment of an advisory council, consisting of the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, the bishop of Bath and Wells and four 
other bishops, each with power to nominate one clerical and 
one lay member. The council has the duty of deciding the 
purpose for which the property is to be used " in connexion with 
and for the benefit of the Church of England." To give time for 
further collection of funds and deliberation, the property was 
re-let for five years to the original purchaser. 

In the 8th century Glastonbury was already a borough owned 
by the abbey, which continued to be overlord till the Dissolution. 
The abbey obtained charters in the 7th century, but the town 
received its first charter from Henry II., who exempted the men 
of Glastonbury from the jurisdiction of royal officials and freed 
them from certain tolls. This was confirmed by Henry III. in 
1227, by Edward I. in 1278, by Edward II. in 1313 and by 
Henry VI. in 1447. The borough was incorporated by Anne in 
1706, and the corporation was reformed by the act of 1835. 
In 1319 Glastonbury received a writ of summons to parliament, 
but made no return, and has not since been represented. A 
fair on the 8th of September was granted in 1127; another on 
the 2pth of May was held under a charter of 1282. Fairs known 
as Torr fair and Michaelmas fair are now held on the second 
Mondays in September and October and are chiefly important 
for the sale of horses and cattle. The market day every other 
Monday is noted for the sale of cheese. Glastonbury owed its 
medieval importance to its connexion with the abbey. At the 
Dissolution the introduction of woollen manufacture checked 
the decay of the town. The cloth trade flourished for a century 
and was replaced by silk-weaving, stocking-knitting and glove- 
making, all of which have died out. 

See Abbot Gasquet, Henry VI 1 1. and the English Monasteries (1906), 
and The Last Abbot of Glastonbury (1895 and 1908); William of 
Malmesbury, " De antiq. Glastoniensis ecclesiae," in Rerum Angli- 
carum script, vet. torn. i. (1684) (also printed by Hearne and Miene) ; 
John of Glastonbury, Chronica sive de hist, de rebus Glast., ed. by 
Hearne (2 vols., Oxford, 1726); Adam of Domerham, De rebus 
geslis Glast., ed. by Hearne (2 vols., Oxford, 1727); Hist, and Antiq. 
of Glast. (London, 1807); Avalonian Guide to the Town of Glastonbury 
(8th ed., 1839); Warner, Hist, of the Abbey and Town (Bath, 1826); 
Rev. F. Warre, " Glastonbury Abbey," in Proc. of Somersetshire 



GLATIGNY GLAUCHAU 



Archaeol. and Nat. Hist. Soc., 1849; Rev. F. Warre, " Notice of 
Ruins of Glastonbury Abbey," ib. 1859; Rev. W. A. Jones, 
" On the Reputed Discovery of King Arthur's Remains at Glaston- 
bury," ib. 1859; Rev. T. R. Green, " Dunstan at Glastonbury" 
and " Giso and Savaric, ib. 1863; Rev. Canon Jackson, " Savaric, 
Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury," ib. 1862, 1863; E. A. Free- 
man, " King Ine," ib. 1872 and 1874; Dr W. Beattie, in Journ. 
of Brit. Archaeol. Ass. vol. xii., 1856; Rev. R. Willis, Architectural 
History of Glastonbury Abbey (1866); W. H. P. Greswell, Chapters 
on the Early History of Glastonbury Abbey (1900). Views and plans 
of the abbey building will be found in Dugdale s Monasticon (1655) ; 
Stevens's Monasticon (1720) ; Stukeley, Itinerarium curiosum (1724) ; 
Grose, Antiquities (1754) ; Carter, Ancient Architecture (1800) ; Storer, 
Antiq. and Topogr. Cabinet, ii., iv., v. (1807), &c.; Britton's Archi- 
tectural Antiquities, iv. (1813); Vetusta monumenta, iv. (1815); and 
New Monasticon, i. (1817). 

GLATIGNY, JOSEPH ALBERT ALEXANDRE (1839-1873), 
French poet, was born at Lillebonne (Seine Inferieure) on the 
2ist of May 1839. His father, who was a carpenter and after- 
wards a gendarme, removed in 1844 to Bernay, where Albert 
received an elementary education. Soon after leaving school 
he was apprenticed to a printer at Pont Audemer, where he pro- 
duced a three-act play at the local theatre. He then joined a 
travelling company of actors to whom he acted as prompter. 
Inspired primarily by the study of Theodore de Banville, he 
published his Vignes folles in 1857; his best collection of lyrics, 
Les Fleches d'or, appeared in 1864; and a third volume, Gilles 
etpasquins,in 1872. After Glatigny settled in Paris he improvised 
at cafe concerts and wrote several one-act plays. On an 
expedition to Corsica with a travelling company he was on one 
occasion arrested and put in irons for a week through being 
mistaken by the police for a notorious criminal. His marriage 
with Emma Dennie brought him great happiness, but the hard- 
ships of his life weakened his health and he died at Sevres on 
the i6th of April 1873. 

See Catulle Mendes, Legende du Parnasse contemporain (1884), and 
Glatigny, drame funambulesque (1906). 

GLATZ (Slav. Kladsko), a fortified town of Germany, in the 
Prussian province of Silesia, in a narrow valley on the left bank 
of the Neisse, not far from the Austrian frontier, 58 m. S.W. 
from Breslau by rail. Pop. (1905) 16,051. The town with its 
narrow streets winds up the fortified hill which is crowned by 
the old citadel. Across the river, on the Schaferberg, lies a 
more modern fortress built by the Prussians about 1750. Before 
the town on both banks of the river there is a fortified camp by 
which bombardment from the neighbouring heights can be 
hindered and which affords accommodation for 10,000 men. 
The inner ceinture of walls was razed in 1891 and their site is 
now occupied by new streets. There are a Lutheran and two 
Roman Catholic churches, one of which, the parish church, 
contains the monuments of seven Silesian dukes. Among the 
other buildings the principal are the Royal Catholic gymnasium 
and the military hospital. The industries include machine 
shops, breweries, and the manufacture of spirits, linen, damask, 
cloth, hosiery, beads and leather. 

Glatz existed as early as the loth century, and received 
German settlers about 1250. It was besieged several times 
during the Thirty Years' War and during the Seven Years' 
War and came into the possession of Prussia in 1742. In 1821 
and 1883 great devastation was caused here by floods. The 
co unty of Glatz was long contended for by the kingdoms of Poland 
and of Bohemia. Eventually it became part of the latter country, 
and in 1 534 was sold to the house of Habsburg, from whom it 
was taken by Frederick the Great during his attack on Silesia. 

See Ludwig, Die Grafschaft Glatz in Wort und Bild (Breslau, 1897) ; 
Kutzen, Die Grafschaft Glatz (Glogau, 1873); and Geschichlsquellen 
der Grafschaft Glatz, edited by F. Volkmer and Hohaus (1883-1891). 

GLAUBER, JOHANN RUDOLF (1604-1668), German chemist, 
was born at Karlstadt, Bavaria, in 1604 and died at Amsterdam 
in 1668. Little more is known of his life than that he resided 
successively in Vienna, Salzburg, Frankfurt and Cologne before 
settling in Holland, where he made his living chiefly by the sale 
of secret chemical and medicinal preparations. Though his 
writings abound in universal solvents and other devices of the 
alchemists, he made some real contributions to chemical know- 
ledge. Thus he clearly described the preparation of hydrochloric 



acid by the action of oil of vitriol on common salt, the manifold 
virtues of sodium sulphate sal mirabile, Glauber's salt formed 
in the process being one of the chief themes of his Miraculum 
mundi; and he noticed that nitric acid was formed when 
nitre was substituted for the common salt. Further he prepared 
a large number of substances, including the chlorides and other 
salts of lead, tin, iron, zinc, copper, antimony and arsenic, and 
he even noted some of the phenomena of double decomposition. 
He was always anxious to turn his knowledge to practical account, 
whether in preparing medicines, or in furthering industrial arts 
such as dyeing, or in increasing the fertility of the soil by artificial 
manures. One of his most notable works was his Teutschlands 
Wohlfarth in which he urged that the natural resources of 
Germany should be developed for the profit of the country and 
gave various instances of how this might be done. 

His treatises, about 30 in number, were collected and published 
at Frankfort in 1658-1659, at Amsterdam in 1661, and, in an English 
translation by Packe, at London in 1689. 

GLAUBER'S SALT, decahydrated sodium sulphate, 
Na 2 SO4,10H 2 O. It is said by J. Kunkel to have been known 
as an arcanum or secret medicine to the electoral house of 
Saxony in the middle of the i6th century, but it was first described 
by J. R. Glauber (De natura salium, 1658), who prepared it 
by the action of oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid on common salt, 
and, ascribing to it many medicinal virtues, termed it sal mirabile 
Glauberi. As the mineral thenardite or mirabilite, which 
crystallizes in the rhombic system, it occurs in many parts of 
the world, as in Spain, the western states of North America 
and the Russian Caucasus; in the last-named region, about 
25 m. E. of Tiflis, there is a thick bed of the pure salt about 5 ft. 
below the surface, and at Balalpashinsk there are lakes or ponds 
the waters of which are an almost pure solution. The substance 
is the active principle of many mineral waters, e.g. Fredericks- 
hall; it occurs in sea- water and it is a constant constituent 
of the blood. In combination with calcium sulphate, it con- 
stitutes the mineral glauberite or brongniartite, Na 2 SO 4 -CaSO4, 
which assumes forms belonging to the monoclinic system and 
occurs in Spain and Austria. It has a bitter, saline, but not 
acrid taste. At ordinary temperatures it crystallizes from 
aqueous solutions in large colourless monoclinic prisms, which 
effloresce in dry air, and at 3 5 C. melt in their water of crystalliza- 
tion. At 100 they lose all their water, and on further heating 
fuse at 843. Its maximum solubility in water is at 34; above 
that temperature it ceases to exist in the solution as a deca- 
hydrate, but changes to the anhydrous salt, the solubility of which 
decreases with rise of temperature. Glauber's salt readily forms 
supersaturated solutions, in which crystallization takes place 
suddenly when a crystal of the salt is thrown in; the same effect 
is obtained by exposure to the air or by touching the solution 
with a glass rod. In medicine it is employed as an aperient, 
and is one of the safest and most innocuous known. For children 
it may be mixed with common salt and the two be used with the 
food without the child being conscious of any difference. Its 
simulation of the taste of common salt also renders it suitable 
for administration to insane patients and others who refuse to 
take any drug. If, however, its presence is recognized sodium 
phosphate may be substituted. 

GLAUCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 
on the right bank of the Mulde, 7 m. N. of Zwickau and 17 W. of 
Chemnitz by rail. Pop. (1875) 21,743; (i9S) 24,556. It has 
important manufactures of woollen and half-woollen goods, 
in regard to which it occupies a high position in Germany. 
There are also dye-works, print-works, and manufactories 
of paper, linen, thread and machinery. Glauchau possesses a 
high grade school, elementary schools, a weaving school, an 
orphanage and an infirmary. Some portions of the extensive 
old castle date from the 1 2th century, and the Gottesacker church 
contains interesting antiquarian relics. Glauchau was founded 
by a colony of Sorbs and Wends, and belonged to the lords of 
Schonburg as early as the i2th century. 

See R. Hofmann, Riickblick iiber die Geschichte der Stadt Glauchau 
(1897)- 



GLAUCONITE GLAUCUS 



GLAUCONITE, a mineral, green in colour, and chemically a 
hydrous silicate of iron and potassium. It especially occurs in the 
green sands and muds which are gathering at the present time on 
the sea bottom at many different places. The wide extension of 
these sands and muds was first made known by the naturalists of 
the " Challenger," and it is now found that they occur in the 

Mediterranean as well as in the open ocean, but they have not 
been found in the Black Sea or in any fresh-water lakes. These 
deposits are not in a true sense abyssal, but are of terrigenous 
origin, the mud and sand being derived from the wear of the con- 

tinents, transported by marine currents. The greater part of the 
mass consists in all cases of minerals such as quartz, felspar 
(often labradorite), mica, chlorite, with more or less calcite which 
is probably always derived from shtlls or other organic sources. 
Many accessory minerals such as tourmaline and zircon have 
been identified also, while augite, hornblende and other volcanic 
minerals occur in varying proportion as in all the sediments of the 
open sea. The depth in which they accumulate varies a good 
deal, viz. from 200 up to 2000 fathoms, but as a rule is less than 
looo fathoms, and it is believed that the most common situations 
are where the continental shores slope rather steeply into moderate 
depths of water. Many of the blue muds, which owe their colour 
to fine particles of sulphide of iron, contain also a small quantity 
of glauconite; in Globigerina oozes this substance has also been 
found, and in fact there exists every gradation between the 
glauconitic deposits and the other types of sands and muds which 
are found at similar depths. 

The colouring matter is believed in every case to be glauconite. 
Other ingredients, such as lime, alumina and magnesia are 
usually shown to be present by the analyses, but may perhaps be 
regarded as non-essential : it is impossible to isolate this substance 
in a pure state as it occurs only in fine aggregates, mixed with 
other minerals. The glauconite, though crystalline, never occurs 
well crystallized but only as dense clusters of very minute 
particles which react feebly on polarized light. They have one 
well-marked characteristic inasmuch as they often form rounded 
lumps. In many cases it is certain that these are casts, which 
fill up the interior of empty shells of Foraminifera. They may be 
seen occupying these shells, and when the shell is dissolved away 
perfect casts of glauconite are set free. Apparently in some 
manner not understood, the decaying organic matter in the shell 
of the dead organism initiated or favoured the chemical reactions 
by which the glauconite was formed. That the mineral originated 
on the sea bottom among the sand and mud is quite certainly 
established by these facts; moreover, since it is so soft and 
friable that it is easily powdered up by pressure with the fingers, 
it cannot have been transported from any great distance by 
currents. Small rounded glauconite lumps, which are common 
on the sands but show no trace of having filled the chambers of 
Foraminifera, may have arisen by a re-deposit of broken-down 
casts such as have been described; probably slight movement of 
the deposits, occasioned by currents, may have broken up the 
glauconite casts and scattered the soft material through the 
water. Films or stains of glauconite on shells, sand grains and 
phosphate nodules are explained by a similar deposit of frag- 
mental glauconite. 

In a small number of Tertiary and older rocks glauconite occurs 
as an essential component. It is found in the Pliocene sands of 
Holland, the Eocene sands of Paris and the " Molasse " of 
Switzerland, but is much more abundant in the Lower Cret- 
aceous rocks of N. Europe, especially in the subdivision known 
as the Greensand. Rounded lumps and casts like those of the 
green sands of the present day are plentiful in these rocks, and it 
is obvious that the mode of formation was in all respects the 
same. The green sand when weathered is brown or rusty 
coloured, the glauconite being oxidized to limonite. Calcareous 
sands or impure limestones with glauconite are also by no 
means rare, an example being the well-known Kentish Rag. 
In the Chalk-rock and Chalk-marl of some parts of England 
glauconite is rather frequent, and glauconitic chalk is known also 
in the north of France. Among the oldest rocks which contain 
this mineral are the Lower Silurian of the St Petersburg district, 



but it is very rare in the Palaeozoic formations, possibly because it 
undergoes crystalline change and is also liable to be oxidized 
and converted into other ferruginous minerals. It has been 
suggested that certain deposits of iron ores may owe their origin 
to deposits of glauconite, as for example those of the Mesabi 
range, Minnesota, U.S.A. (J. S. F.) 

GLAUCOUS (Gr. yXavubs, bright, gleaming), a word meaning of 
a sea-green colour, in botany covered with bloom, like a plum or a 
cabbage-leaf. 

GLAUCUS (" bright "), the name of several figures in Greek 
mythology, the most important of which are the following: 

1. GLAUCUS, surnamed Pontius, a sea divinity. Originally a 
fisherman and diver of Anthedon in Boeotia, having eaten of a 
certain magical herb sown by Cronus, he leapt into the sea, where 
he was changed into a god, and endowed with the gift of unerring 
prophecy. According to others he sprang into the sea for love 
of the sea-god Melicertes, with whom he was often identified 
(Athenaeus vii. 296). He was worshipped not only at Anthedon, 
but on the coasts of Greece, Sicily and Spain, where fishermen 
and sailors at certain seasons watched for his arrival during the 
night in order to consult him (Pausanias ix. 22). In art he is 
depicted as a vigorous old man with long hair and beard, his body 
terminating in a scaly tail, his breast covered with shells and sea- 
weed. He was said to have been the builder and pilot of the 
Argo, and to have been changed into a god after the fight between 
the Argonauts and Tyrrhenians. He assisted the expedition in 
various ways (Athenaeus, loc. til.; see also Ovid, Metam. xiii. 904). 
Glaucus was the subject of a satyric drama by Aeschylus. He 
was famous for his amours, especially those with Scylla and Circe. 

See the exhaustive monograph by R. Gaedechens, Glaukos der 
Meergott (1860), and article by the same in Roscher's Lexikon der 
Mythologie; and for Glaucus and Scylla, E. Vinet in Annali del- 
l' Institute di Correspondent archeologica, xv. (1843). 

2. GLAUCUS, usually surnamed Potnieus, from Potniae near 
Thebes, son of Sisyphus by Merope and father of Bellerophon. 
According to the legend he was torn to pieces by his own mares 
(Virgil, Georgics, iii. 267; Hyginus, Fab. 250, 273). On the 
isthmus of Corinth, and also at Olympia and Nemea, he was 
worshipped as Taraxippus (" terrifier of horses "), his ghost being 
said to appear and frighten the horses at the games (Pausanias 
vi. 20). He is closely akin to Glaucus Pontius, the frantic horses 
of the one probably representing the stormy waves, the other 
the sea in its calmer mood. He also was the subject of a lost 
drama of Aeschylus. 

3. GLAUCUS, the son of Minos and Pasiphae. When a child, 
while playing at baU or pursuing a mouse, he fell into a jar of 
honey and was smothered. His father, after a vain search for 
him, consulted the oracle, and was referred to the person who 
should suggest the aptest comparison for one of the cows of 
Minos which had the power of assuming three different colours. 
Polyidus of Argos, who had likened it to a mulberry (or bramble), 
which changes from white to red and then to black, soon after- 
wards discovered the child; but on his confessing his inability 
to restore him to life, he was shut up in a vault with the corpse. 
Here he killed a serpent which was revived by a companion, 
which laid a certain herb upon it. With the same herb Polyidus 
brought the dead Glaucus back to life. According to others, 
he owed his recovery to Aesculapius. The story was the subject 
of plays by the three great Greek tragedians, and was often 
represented in mimic dances. 

See Hyeinus, Fab. 136; Apollodorus iii. 3. 10; C. Hock, Kreta, 
iii. 1829; C. Eckermann, Melampus, 1840. 

4. GLAUCUS, son of Hippolochus, and grandson of Bellerophon, 
mythical progenitor of the kings of Ionia. He was a Lycian 
prince who, along with his cousin Sarpedon, assisted Priam in 
the Trojan War. When he found himself opposed to Diomedes, 
with whom he was connected by ties of hospitality, they ceased 
fighting and exchanged armour. Since the equipment of Glaucus 
was golden and that of Diomedes brazen, the expression " golden 
for brazen " (Iliad, vi. 236) came to be used proverbially for a 
bad exchange. Glaucus was afterwards slain by Ajax. 

All the above are exhaustively treated by R. Gaedechens in Ersch 
and Gruber's Attgemeine Encyclopddie. 



n6 



GLAZING 



GLAZING. The business of the glazier may be confined to 
the mere fitting and setting of glass (?..), even the cutting up 
of the plates into squares being generally an independent art, 
requiring a degree of tact and judgment not necessarily possessed 
by the building artificer. The tools generally used by the glazier 
are the diamond for cutting, laths or straight edges, tee square, 
measuring rule, glazing knife, hacking knife and hammer, duster, 
sash tool, two-foot rule and a glazier's cradle for carrying the 
glass. Glaziers' materials are glass, putty, priming or paint, 
springs, wash-leather or india-rubber for door panels, size, black. 
The glass is supplied by the manufacturer and cut to the sizes 
required for the particular work to be executed. Putty is made 
of whiting and linseed oil, and is generally bought in iron kegs 
of 5 or i cwt.; the putty should always be kept covered over, 
and when found to be getting hard in the keg a little oil 
should be put on it to keep it moist. Priming is a thin coat of 
paint with a small amount of red lead in it. In the majority 
of cases after the sashes for the windows are fitted they are 
sent to the glazier's and primed and glazed, and then returned 
to the job and hung in their proper positions. When priming 
sashes it is important that the rebates be thoroughly primed, 
else the putty will not adhere. All wood that is to be painted 
requires before being primed to have the knots coated with 
knotting. When the priming is dry, the glass is cut and fitted 
into its place; each pane should fit easily with about iVth in. 
play all round. The glazier runs the putty round the rebates 
with his hands, and then beds the glass in it, pushing it down 
tight, and then further secures it by knocking in small nails, 
called glaziers' sprigs, on the rebate side. He then trims up 
the edges of the protruding putty and bevels off the putty on 
the rebate or outside of the sash with a putty knife. The sash 
is then ready for painting. Large squares and plate glass are 
usually inserted when the sashes are hung to avoid risks of 
breakage. For inside work the panes of glass are generally 
secured with beads (not with putty), and in the best work 
these beads are fixed with brass screws and caps to allow of easy 
removal without breaking the beads and damaging the paint, 
&c. In the case of glass in door panels where there is much 
vibration and slamming, the glass is bedded in wash-leather 
or india-rubber and secured with beads as before mentioned. 

The most common glass and that generally used is clear sheet 
in varying thicknesses, ranging in weight from 15 to 30 oz. per sq. 
ft. This can be had in several qualities of English 
or f re ig n manufacture. But there are many other 
varieties obscured, fluted, enamelled, coloured and 
ornamental, rolled and rough plate, British polished plate, 
patent plate, fluted rolled, quarry rolled, chequered rough, and 
a variety of figured rolled, and stained glass, and crown-glass 
with buUs'-eyes in the centre. 

Lead light glazing is the glazing of frames with small squares 
of glass, which are held together by reticulations of lead; these 
are secured by means of copper wire to iron saddle bars, which 
are let into mortices in the wood frames or stone jambs. This 
is formed with strips of lead, soldered at the angles; the glass 
is placed between the strips and the lead flattened over the 
edges of glass to secure it. This is much used in public build- 
ings and private residences. In Weldon's method the saddle 
bars are bedded in the centre of the strips of lead, thus 
strengthening the frame of lead strips and giving a better 
appearance. 

Wired rolled plate or wired cast plate, usually \ in. thick, has 
wire netting embedded in it to prevent the glass from falling 
in the case of fire; its use is obligatory in London for all lantern 
and skylights, screens and doors on the staircases of public 
and warehouse buildings, in accordance with the London Building 
Act. It is also used for the decks of ships and for port and cabin 
lights, as it is much stronger than plain glass, and if fractured is 
held together by the wire. 

Patent prismatic rolled glass, or " refrax " (fig. i), consists of an 
effectual application of the well-known properties of the prism; 
it absorbs all the light that strikes the window opening, and 
diffuses it in the most efficient manner possible in the darkest 



portions of the apartment. It can be fixed in the ordinary 
way or placed over the existing glass. 

Pavement lights (fig. 2) and stallboard lights are constructed 
with iron frames in small squares and glazed with thick prismatic 
glass, and are used to light basements. They 
are placed on the pavement and under shop 
fronts in the portion called the stallboard, and 
are also inserted in iron coal plates. 

Great skill has of late years been displayed in 
the ornamentation of glass such as is seen in 
public saloons, restaurants, &c., as, for instance, 
in bevelling the edges, silvering, brilliant cutting, 
embossing, bending, cutting shelving to fancy 
shapes and polishing, and in'glass ventilators. 

There are several patent methods of roof glazing, 
such as are applied to railway stations, studios 
and printing and other factories requir- 
ing light. Some of the first patents of & i a 
this kind were erected with wood glazing 
bars; these were unsightly, since they required to 
be of large sectional area when spanning a distance 
of 7 or 8 ft., and also required to be constantly 
painted. This was a source of trouble; the roof 
was constantly leaking and, moreover, it was not 
fire-resisting. 

Of subsequent patents one includes the use of 
steel T-bars, in which the glass is bedded and FIG. I. Prism 
covered with a capping of copper or zinc secured Window Glass, 
with bolts and nuts. Another employs steel bars 
covered with lead ; and this is a very good method, as the bars are 
of small section, require no painting, and are also fire-resisting. 
There is one reason for preferring wood to steel, namely, that wood 
does not expand and contract like steel does. After the sun has been 
on steel bars, especially those in long lengths, they tend to buckle 
and then when cold contract, thus getting out of shape ; there is also 
the possibility that when expanding they may break the glass. 
This is more noticeable in the case of iron ventilating frames in this 
glazing, which after having weathered for a year or two will begin 
to get out of shape and so give trouble in opening and closing. 

Care should be taken not to fit the glass in iron bars tightly, but 

Water 





FIG. 2. Section through Prism Pavement Light, the direction of 
light rays being indicated by arrows. 

a good Jth in. play all round should be allowed. A few of the 
systems of patent roof glazing will be described in the following 
pages, together with illustrations. 

The system of glazing known as the " British Challenge " (fig. 3), 
with steel bars encased with a sheeting of 4-lb lead, is very simple 
and durable, needs no painting, and can be fixed at as much as 8 ft. 
clear bearings, with the bars spaced 2 ft. apart. The ends of the 
bars rest on the woodpr steel purlins or plates, and are either notched 
and screwed down, or simply fitted with a bracket which is screwed. 
The bar is of T section with condensation grooves, and the lead 
wings on top are turned down on to the glass after fitting. This 
lead-covered steel bar 
is a great improve- 
ment on the plain steel 
bar as it is entirely 
unaffected by smoke, 
acids or exhaust fumes 
from steam engines; 
this is important in 
the case of a railway 
station, where the 

fumes would otherwise Challenge " Glazing, 
eat the steel away and 





FIG. 3." British 



FIG. Mellowes' 
Glazing. 



so weaken the bars that in time they would snap. Another somewhat 
similar system is known as " Mellowes' Eclipse Roof Glazing " (fig. 4). 
It consists of steel T-bars having lead wings on top to turn on to the 
glass in a similar manner to the last, the top wings being double and 
the underside of the bar having an additional wing to catch the con- 
densation. The Heywood combination system (fig. 5) is composed 
of galvanized steel T-bars, sometimes encased in lead and sometimes 
partly encased. It has a capping and condensation gutters of lead, 



GLAZUNOV GLEE 



117 





and the glass is bedded on asbestos packing to get a better bearing 
edge, so as to be held more securely. Hope s glazing is very similar, 
but the bars are either T or cross according to the span. The 
" Perfection " glazing used by Messrs Helliwell & Co. (fig. 6) is com- 
posed of steel shaped T bars with copper capping, secured with bolts 
and nuts and having asbestos packing on 
top of the glass under the edges of the 
f^,^, 1,?^ capping. Penny-cook's glazing is composed 
of steel shaped T bars encased with lead 
VZlJ^ and lead wings. Rendle's " Invincible " 

FIG s Heywood's glazing (fig. 7) is composed of steel T bars 
Glazine wit ' 1 specially shaped copper water and con- 

densation channels, all formed in the one 
*^> piece and resting on top of the T steel; 

5iR \ the glass rests on the zinc channel, and a 

JH ><V- copper rapping is fixed over the edges of 
^<^lM}ij^-3 the glass and secured with bolts and nuts. 
C^Trfrj Deard's glazing is very similar, and is com- 

&i^^!$*^ posed of T steel encased with lead; it 
"ex claims to save all drilling for fixing to iron 

FIG. 6. Helliwell's roofs. There are also other systems com- 
" Perfection " Glazing, posed of wood bars with condensation gutter 
and capping of copper secured with bolts 
and nuts, and asbestos packing with slight 
differences in some minor matters, but these 
systems are but little used. 

Cloisonne^ glass is a patent ornamental 
glass formed by placing two pieces flat 
against each other enclosing a species of 
glass mosaic. Designs are worked and 
shaped in gilt wire and placed on one sheet 
of glass; the space between the wire is 
then filled in with coloured beads, and 

p IG -j Rendle's another sheet of glass is placed on top of 

"Invincible" Glazine il to kee P them in position, and the edges 
of the glass are bound with linen, &c., 
to keep them firmly together. 

Glass is now used for decorative purposes, such as wall tiling 
and ceilings; it is coloured and decorated in almost any shade 
and presents a very effective appearance. An invention 
has ^ een P a t en t e d for building houses entirely of 
glass; the walls are constructed of blocks or bricks 
of opaque glass, the several walls being varied in thickness 
according to the constructional requirements. 

It is certainly true that daylight has much to do with the 
sanitary condition of all buildings, and this being so the proper 
distribution of daylight to a building is of the greatest possible 
importance, and must be effected by an ample provision of 
windows judiciously arranged. The heads of all windows should 
be kept as near the ceiling as possible, as well to obtain easy 
ventilation as to ensure good lighting. As far as is practicable 
a building should be planned so that each room receives the 
sun's rays for some part of the day. This is rarely an easy 
matter, especially in towns where the aspect of the building 
is out of the architect's hands. The best sites for light are 
found in streets running north and south and east and west, 
and lighting areas or courts in buildings should always if possible 
be arranged on these lines. The task of adequately lighting 
lofty city buildings has been greatly minimized by the introduc- 
tion of many forms of reflecting and intensifying contrivances, 
which are used to deflect light into those apartments into which 
daylight does not directly penetrate, and which would otherwise 
require the use of artificial light to render them of any use; 
the most useful of these inventions are the various forms of 
prism glass already referred to and illustrated in this article. 

See L. F. Day, Stained and Painted Glass; and W. Eckstein, 
Interior Lighting. (J. BT.) 

GLAZUNOV, ALEXANDER CONSTANTINOVICH (1865- ), 
Russian musical composer, was born in St Petersburg on the 
loth of August 1865, his father being a publisher and bookseller. 
He showed an early talent for music, and studied for a year or 
so with Rimsky-Korsakov. At the age of sixteen he composed 
a symphony (afterwards elaborated and published as op. 5), 
but his opus i was a quartet in D, followed by a pianoforte 
suite on S-a-c-h-a, the diminutive of his name Alexander. In 
1884 he was taken up by Liszt, and soon became known as a 
composer. His first symphony was played that year at Weimar, 
and he appeared as a conductor at the Paris exhibition in 1889. 
In 1897 his fourth and fifth symphonies were performed in London 



under his own conducting. In 1900 he became professor at the 
St Petersburg conservatoire. His separate works, including' 
orchestral symphonies, dance music and songs, make a long 
list. Glazunov is a leading representative of the modern Russian 
school, and a master of orchestration; his tendency as compared 
with contemporary Russian composers is towards classical form, 
and he was much influenced by Brahms, though in " programme 
music " he is represented by such works as his symphonic poems 
The Forest, Stenka Razin, The Kremlin and his suite Aus dem 
Miltelalter. His ballet music, as in Raymonda, achieved much 
popularity. 

GLEBE (Lat. glaeba, gleba, clod or lump of earth, hence soil, 
land), in ecclesiastical law the land devoted to the maintenance 
of the incumbent of a church. Burn (Ecclesiastical Law, s.v. 
" Glebe Lands ") says: " Every church of common right is 
entitled to house and glebe, and the assigning of them at the 
first was of such absolute necessity that without them no church 
could be regularly consecrated. The house and glebe are both 
comprehended under the word manse, of which the rule of the 
canon law is, sancitum est ut unicuique ecclesiae unus mansus 
integer absque ullo servitio tribuatur." In the technical language 
of English law the fee-simple of the glebe is said to be in abeyance, 
that is, it exists " only in the remembrance, expectation and 
intendment of the law." But the freehold is in the parson, 
although at common law he could alienate the same only with 
proper consent, that is, in his case, with the consent of the bishop. 
The disabling statutes of Elizabeth (Alienation by Bishops, 
1559, and Dilapidations, &c., 1571) made void all alienations 
by ecclesiastical persons, except leases for the term of twenty- 
one years or three lives. By an act of 1842 (5 & 6 Viet. c. 27, 
Ecclesiastical Leases) glebe land and buildings may be let on 
lease for farming purposes for fourteen years or on an improving 
lease for twenty years. But the parsonage house and ten acres 
of glebe situate most conveniently for occupation must not be 
leased. By the Ecclesiastical Leasing Acts of 1842 1(s & 6 
Viet. c. 108) and 1858 glebe lands may be let on building leases 
for not more than ninety-nine years and on mining leases for 
not more than sixty years. The Tithe Act 1842, the Glebe 
Lands Act 1888 and various other acts make provision for the 
sale, purchase, exchange and gift of glebe lands. In Scots 
ecclesiastical law, the manse now signifies the minister's dwelling- 
house, the glebe being the land to which he is entitled in addition 
to his stipend. All parish ministers appear to be entitled to a 
glebe, except the ministers in royal burghs proper, who cannot 
claim a glebe unless there be a landowner's district annexed; 
and even in that case, when there are two ministers, it is only 
the first who has a claim. 

See Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law (2nd ed.); Cripps, Law of 
Church and Clergy; Leach, Tithe Acts (6th ed.); Dart, Vendors and 
Purchasers (7th ed.). 

GLEE, a musical term for a part-song of a particular kind. 
The word, as well as the thing, is essentially confined to England. 
The technical meaning has been explained in different ways; 
but there is little doubt of its derivation through the ordinary 
sense of the word (i.e. merriment, entertainment) from the A.S. 
gleov, gleo, corresponding to Lat. gaudium, delectamentum, hence 
ludus musicus; on the other hand, a musical " glee " is by no 
means necessarily a merry composition. Gleeman (A.S. " gleo- 
man ") is translated simply as " musicus " or " cantor," to which 
the less distinguished titles of " mimus, jocista, scurra," are 
frequently added in old dictionaries. The accomplishments 
and social position of the gleeman seem to have been as varied 
as those of the Provencal " joglar." There are early examples of 
the word " glee " being used as synonymous with harmony or 
concerted music. The former explanation, for instance, is 
given in the Promptorium parvulorum, a work of the 1 5th century. 
Glee in its present meaning signifies, broadly speaking, a piece 
of concerted vocal music, generally unaccompanied, and for 
male voices, though exceptions are found to the last two restric- 
tions. The number of voices ought not to be less than three. 
As regards musical form, the glee is little distinguished from the 
catch, the two terms being often used indiscriminately for the 



n8 



GLEICHEN GLEIM 



same song; but there is a distinct difference between it and the 
madrigal one of the earliest forms of concerted music known 
in England. While the madrigal does not show a distinction of 
contrasted movements, this feature is absolutely necessary in 
the glee. In the madrigal the movement of the voices is strictly 
contrapuntal, while the more modern form allows of freer treat- 
ment and more compact harmonies. Differences of tonality are 
fully explained by the development of the art, for while the 
madrigal reached its acme in Queen Elizabeth's time, the glee 
proper was little known before the Commonwealth; and its 
most famous representatives belong to the i8th century and the 
first quarter of the igth. Among the numerous collections of 
the innumerable pieces of this kind, only one of the earliest 
and most famous may be mentioned, Catch that Catch can, a 
Choice Collection of Catches, Rounds and Canons, for three and 
four voices, published by John Hilton in 1652. The name 
" glee," however, appears for the first time in John Playford's 
Musical Companion, published twenty-one years afterwards, 
and reprinted again and again, with additions by later composers 
Henry Purcell, William Croft and John Blow among the 
number. The originator of the glee in its modern form was 
Dr Arne, born in 1710. Among later English musicians famous 
for their glees, catches and part-songs, the following may be 
mentioned: Attwood, Boyce, Bishop, Crotch, Callcott, Shield, 
Stevens, Horsley, Webb and Knyvett. The convivial character 
of the glee led, in the i8th century, to the formation of various 
societies, which offered prizes and medals for the best composi- 
tions of the kind and assembled for social and artistic purposes. 
The most famous amongst these The Glee Club was founded 
in 1787, and at first used to meet at the house of Mr Robert 
Smith, in St Paul's churchyard. This club was dissolved in 
1857. A similar society The Catch Club was formed in 1761 
and is still in existence. 

GLEICHEN, two groups of castles in Germany, thus named 
from their resemblance to each other (Ger. gleich = \ik.e, or 
resembling). The first is a group of three, each situated on a 
hill in Thuringia between Gotha and Erfurt. One of these 
called Gleichen, the Wanderslebener Gleiche (1221 ft. above 
the sea), was besieged unsuccessfully by the emperor Henry IV. 
in 1088. It was the seat of a line of counts, one of whom, Ernest 
III., a crusader, is the subject of a romantic legend. Having 
been captured, he was released from his imprisonment by a 
Turkish woman, who returned with him to Germany and became 
his wife, a papal dispensation allowing him to live with two 
wives at the same time (see Reineck, Die Sage von der Doppelehe 
eines Graf en von Gleichen, 1891). After belonging to the elector 
of Mainz the castle became the property of Prussia in 1803. 
The second castle is called Miihlburg (1309 ft. above the sea). 
This existed as early as 704 and was besieged by Henry IV. 
in 1087. It came into the hands of Prussia in 1803. The third 
castle, Wachsenburg (1358 ft.), is still inhabited and contains 
a collection of weapons and pictures belonging to its owner, the 
duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, whose family obtained possession 
of it in 1368. It was built about 935 (see Beyer, Die drei Gleichen, 
Erfurt, 1898). The other group consists of two castles, Neuen- 
Gleichen and Alten-Gleichen. Both are in ruins and crown 
two hills about 2 m. S.E. from Gottingen. 

The name of Gleichen is taken by the family descended from 
Prince Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg through his marriage 
with Miss Laura Seymour, daughter of Admiral Sir George 
Francis Seymour, a branch of the Hohenlohe family having at 
one time owned part of the county of Gleichen. 

OLEIG, GEORGE (1753-1840), Scottish divine, was born at 
Boghall, Kincardineshire, on the I2th of May 1753, the son of a 
farmer. At the age of thirteen he entered King's College, 
Aberdeen, where the first prize in mathematics and physical and 
moral sciences fell to him. In his twenty-first year he took 
orders in the Scottish Episcopal Church, and was ordained to the 
pastoral charge of a congregation at Pittenweem, Fife, whence 
he removed in 1 790 to Stirling. He became a frequent contributor 
to the Monthly Review, the Gentleman's Magazine, the Anti- 
Jacobin Review and the British Critic. He also wrote several 



articles for the third edition of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica, and 
on the death of the editor, Colin Macfarquhar, in 1793, was 
engaged to edit the remaining volumes. Among his principal 
contributions to this work were articles on "Instinct," " Theology " 
and " Metaphysics." The two supplementary volumes were 
mainly his own work. He was twice chosen bishop of Dunkeld, 
but the opposition of Bishop Skinner, afterwards primus, rendered 
the election on both occasions ineffectual. In 1808 he was con- 
secrated assistant and successor to the bishop of Brechin, in 1810 
was preferred to the sole charge, and in 1816 was elected primus 
of the Episcopal Church of Scotland, in which capacity he greatly 
aided in the introduction of many useful reforms, in fostering a 
more catholic and tolerant spirit, and in cementing a firm 
alliance with the sister church of England. He died at Stirling 
on the gth of March 1840. 

Besides various sermons, Gleig was the author of Directions for the 
Study of Theology, in a series of letters from a bishop to his son on 
his admission to holy orders (1827); an edition of Stackhouse's 
History of the Bible (1817); and a life of Robertson the historian, 
prefixed to an edition of his works. See Life of Bishop Gleig, by 
the Rev. W. Walker (1879). Letters to Henderson of Edinburgh 
and John Douglas, bishop of Salisbury, are in the British Museum. 

His third and only surviving son, GEORGE ROBERT GLEIG ( 1 796- 
1888), was educated at Glasgow University, whence he passed with 
a Snell exhibition to Balliol College, Oxford. He abandoned his 
scholastic studies to enter the army, and served with distinction 
in the Peninsular War (1813-14), and- in the American War, in 
which he was thrice wounded. Resuming his work at Oxford, he 
proceeded B.A. in 1818, M.A. in 1821, and, having been ordained 
in 1820, held successively curacies at Westwell in Kent and Ash 
(to the latter the rectory of Ivy Church was added in 1822). He 
was subsequently appointed chaplain of Chelsea hospital (1824), 
chaplain-general of the forces (1844-1875) and inspector-general 
of military schools (1846-1857). From 1848 till his death on the 
9th of July 1888 he was prebend of Willesden in St Paul's 
cathedral. During the last sixty years of his life he was a prolific, 
if not very scientific, writer; he wrote for Black-wood's Magazine 
and Fraser's Magazine, and produced a large number of historical 
works. 

Among the latter were (besides histories of the campaigns in which 
he served), Life of Sir Thomas Munro (3 vols., 1830); History of 
India (4 vols., 1830-1835); The Leipsic Campaign and Lives of 
Military Commanders (1831); Story of the Battle of Waterloo (1847); 
Sketch of the Military History of Great Britain (1845) ; Sale's Brigade 
in Afghanistan (1847); biographies of Lord Clive (1848), the duke 
of Wellington (1862), and Warren Hastings (1848; the subject of 
Macaulay's essay, in which it is described as " -three big bad volumes 
full of undigested correspondence and undiscerning panegyric "). 

GLEIM, JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG (1719-1803), German 
poet, was born on the 2nd of April 1719 at Ermsleben, near 
Halberstadt. Having studied law at the university of Halle he 
became secretary to Prince William of Brandenburg-Schwedt 
at Berlin, where he made the acquaintance of Ewald von Kleist, 
whose devoted friend he became. When the prince fell at the 
battle of Prague, Gleim became secretary to Prince Leopold of 
Dessau; but he soon gave up his position, not being able to bear 
the roughness of the " Old Dessauer." After residing a few 
years in Berlin he was appointed, in 1747, secretary of the 
cathedral chapter at Halberstadt. " Father Gleim " was the title 
accorded to him throughout all literary Germany on account of 
his kind-hearted though inconsiderate and undiscriminating 
patronage alike of the poets and poetasters of the period. He 
wrote a large number of feeble imitations of Anacreon, Horace and 
the minnesingers, a dull didactic poem entitled Halladat oder das 
rote Buck (1774), and collections of fables and romances. Of higher 
merit are his Preussische Kriegslieder von einem Grenadier (1758). 
These, which were inspired by the campaigns of Frederick II., 
are often distinguished by genuine feeling and vigorous force of 
expression. They are also noteworthy as being the first of that 
long series of noble political songs in which later German litera- 
ture is so rich. With this exception, Gleim's writings are for the 
most part tamely commonplace in thought and expression. He 
died at Halberstadt on the i8th of February 1803. 

Gleim's Sdmtliche Werke appeared in 7 vols. in the years 1811- 
1813; a reprint of the Lieder eines Grenadiers was published by 



GLEIWITZ GLENCORSE 



119 



A. Sauer in 1882. A good selection of Gleim's poetry will be found 
in F. Muncker, Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische Lyriker 
(1894). See VV. Korte, Gleims Leben aus seinen Briefen und Schriften 
(1811). His correspondence with Heinse was published in 2 vols. 
(1894-1896), with Uz (1889), in both cases edited by C. Schiiddelcopf. 

GLEIWITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Silesia, dh the Klodnitz, and the railway between Oppeln and 
Cracow, 40 m. S.E. of the former town. Pop. (1875) 14,156; 
(1905) 61,324. It possesses two Protestant and four Roman 
Catholic churches, a synagogue, a mining school, a convent, a 
hospital, two orphanages, and barracks. Gleiwitz is the centre of 
the mining industry of Upper Silesia. Besides the royal foundry, 
with which are connected machine manufactories and boiler- 
works, there are other foundries, meal mills and manufactories 
of wire, gas pipes, cement and paper. 

See B. Nietsche, Geschichle der Stadt Gleiwitz (1886); and Seidel, 
Die konigliche Eisengiesserei zu Gleiwitz (Berlin, 1896). 

GLENALMOND, a glen of Perthshire, Scotland, situated to the 
S.E. of Loch Tay. It comprises the upper two-thirds of the 
course of the Almond, or a distance of 20 m. For the greater 
part it follows a direction east by south, but at Newton Bridge 
it inclines sharply to the south-east for 3 m., and narrows to such 
a degree that this portion is known as the Small (or Sma') Glen. 
At the end of this pass the glen expands and runs eastwards as 
far as the well-known public school of Trinity College, where it 
may be considered to terminate. The most interesting spot in 
the glen is that traditionally known as the grave of Ossian. The 
district east of Buchanty, near which are the remains of a Roman 
camp, is said to be the Drumtochty of Ian Maclaren's stories. 
The mountainous region at the head of the glen is dominated by 
Ben y Hone or Ben Chonzie (3048 ft. high). 

GLENCAIRN, EARLS OF. The ist earl of Glencairn in the 
Scottish peerage was ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM (d. 1488), a son 
of Sir Robert Cunningham of Kilmaurs in Ayrshire. Made a lord 
of the Scottish parliament as Lord Kilmaurs not later than 1469, 
Cunningham was created earl of Glencairn in 1488; and a few 
weeks later he was killed at the battle of Sauchieburn whilst 
fighting for King James III. against his rebellious son, afterwards 
James IV. His son and successor, ROBERT (d. c. 1490), was 
deprived of his earldom by James IV., but before 1505 this had 
been revived in favour of Robert's son, CUTHBERT (d. c. 1540), 
who became 3rd earl of Glencairn, and whose son WILLIAM 
(c. 1490-1 547) was the 4th earl. This noble, an early adherent of 
the Reformation, was during his public life frequently in the 
pay and service of England, although he fought on the Scottish 
side at the battle of Solway Moss (1542), where he was taken 
prisoner. Upon his release early in 1543 he promised to adhere 
to Henry VIII., who was anxious to bring Scotland under his 
rule, and in 1 544 he entered into other engagements with Henry, 
undertaking inter alia to deliver Mary queen of Scots to the 
English king. However, he was defeated by James Hamilton, 
earl of Arran, and the project failed; Glencairn then deserted 
his fellow-conspirator, Matthew Stewart, earl of Lennox, and 
came to terms with the queen-mother, Mary of Guise, and her 
party. 

William's son, ALEXANDER, the 5th earl (d. 1574), was a more 
pronounced reformer than his father, whose English sympathies 
he shared, and was among the intimate friends of John Knox. 
In March 1557 he signed the letter asking Knox to return to 
Scotland; in the following December he subscribed the first 
" band " of the Scottish reformers; and he anticipated Lord 
James Stewart, afterwards the regent Murray, in taking up arms 
against the regent, Mary of Guise, in 1558. Then, joined by 
Stewart and the lords of the congregation, he fought against 
the regent, and took part in the attendant negotiations with 
Elizabeth of England, whom he visited in London in December 
1560. When in August 1561 Mary queen of Scots returned to 
Scotland, Glencairn was made a member of her council; he 
remained loyal to her after she had been deserted by Murray, 
but in a few weeks rejoined Murray and the other Protestant 
lords, returning to Mary's side in 1566. After the queen had 
married the earl of Bothwell she was again forsaken by Glen- 
cairn, who fought against her at Carberry Hill and at Langside. 



The earl, who was always to the fore in destroying churches, 
abbeys and other " monuments of idolatry," died on the 23rd of 
November 1 574. His short satirical poem against the Grey Friars 
is printed by Knox in his History of the Reformation. 

JAMES, the 7th earl (d. c. 1622), took part in the seizure of 
James VI., called the raid of Ruthven in 1582. WILLIAM, the 
9th earl (c. 1610-1664), a somewhat lukewarm Royalist during 
the Civil War, was a party to the " engagement " between the 
king and the Scots in 1647; for this proceeding the Scottish 
parliament deprived him of his office as lord justice-general, 
and nominally of his earldom. In March 1653 Charles II. 
commissioned the earl to command the Royalist forces in Scotland, 
pending the arrival of General John Middleton, and the insurrec- 
tion of this year is generally known as Glencairn's rising. After 
its failure he was betrayed and imprisoned, but although excepted 
from pardon he was not executed; and when Charles II. was 
restored he became lord chancellor of Scotland. After a dispute 
with his former friend, James Sharp, archbishop of St Andrews, 
he died at Belton in Haddingtonshire on the 3oth of May 1664. 
This earl's son JOHN (d. 1703), who followed his brother Alexander 
as nth earl in 1670, was a supporter of the Revolution of 1688. 
His descendant, JAMES, the I4th earl (1749-1791), is known as 
the friend and patron of Robert Burns. He performed several 
useful services for the poet; and when he died on the 3oth of 
January 1791 Burns wrote a Lament beginning, "The wind 
blew hollow frae the hills," and ending with the lines, " But 
I'll remember thee, Glencairn, and a' that thou hast done for me." 
The I4th earl was never married, and when his brother and 
successor, John, died childless in September 1796 the earldom 
became extinct, although it was claimed by Sir Adam Fergusson, 
Bart., a descendant of the loth earl. 

GLENCOE, a glen in Scotland, situated in the north of Argyll- 
shire. Beginning at the north-eastern base jf Buchaille Etive, 
it takes a gentle north-westerly trend for 10 m. to its mouth 
on Loch Leven, a salt-water arm of Loch Linnhe. On both sides 
it is shut in by wild and precipitous mountains and its bed is 
swept by the Coe Ossian's " dark Cona," which rises in the 
hills at its eastern end. About half-way down the glen the 
stream forms the tiny Loch Triochatan. Towards Invercoe 
the landscape acquires a softer beauty. Here Lord Strathcona, 
who, in 1894, purchased the heritage of the Macdonalds of 
Glencoe, built his stately mansion of Mount Royal. The principal 
mountains on the south side are the various peaks of Buachaille 
Etive, Stob Dearg (3345 ft.), Bidean nam Bian (3756 ft.) and 
Meall Mor (2215 ft.), and on the northern side the Pap of Glencoe 
(2430 ft.), Sgor nam Fiannaidh (3168 ft.) and Meall Dearg 
(3118 ft.). Points of interest are the Devil's Staircase, a steep, 
boulder-strewn " cut " (1754 ft. high) across the hills to Fort 
William; the Study; the cave of Ossian, where tradition says 
that he was born, and the lona cross erected in 1883 by a 
Macdonald in memory of his clansmen who perished in the 
massacre of 1692. About i m. beyond the head of the glen is 
Kingshouse, a relic of the old coaching days, when it was 
customary for tourists to drive from Ballachulish via Tyndrum 
to Loch Lomond. Now the Glencoe excursion is usually made 
from Oban by rail to Achnacloich, steamer up Loch Etive, 
coach up Glen Etive and down Glencoe and steamer at 
Ballachulish to Oban. One mile to the west of the Glen lies the 
village of BALLACHULISH (pop. 1143). It is celebrated for its 
slate quarries, which have been worked since 1 760. The industry 
provides employment for 600 men and the annual output 
averages 30,000 tons. The slate is of excellent quality and is 
used throughout the United Kingdom. Ballachulish is a station 
on the Callander and Oban extension line to Fort William 
(Caledonian railway). The pier and ferry are some 2 m. W. of 
the village. 

GLENCORSE, JOHN INGLIS, LORD (xSio-iSpi), Scottish 
judge, son of a minister, was born at Edinburgh on the 2ist of 
August 1810. From Glasgow University he went to Balliol 
College, Oxford. He was admitted a member of the Faculty 
of Advocates, and soon became known as an eloquent and 
successful pleader. In 1852 he was made solicitor-general for 



I2O 



GLENDALOUGH GLENDOWER, OWEN 



Scotland in Lord Derby's first ministry, three months later 
becoming Lord Advocate. In 1858 he resumed this office in 
Lord Derby's second administration, being returned to the 
House of Commons as member for Stamford. He was responsible 
for the Universities of Scotland Act of 1858, and in the same 
year he was elevated to the bench as lord justice clerk. In 1867 
he was made lord justice general of Scotland and lord president 
of the court of session, taking the title of Lord Glencorse. 
Outside his judicial duties he was responsible for much useful 
public work, particularly in the department of higher education. 
In 1869 he was elected chancellor of Edinburgh University, 
having already been rector of the university of Glasgow. He 
died on the zoth August 1891. 

GLENDALOUGH, VALE OF, a mountain glen of Co. 
Wicklow, Ireland, celebrated and frequently visited both on 
account of its scenic beauty and, more especially, because of the 
collection of ecclesiastical remains situated in it. Fortunately 
for its appearance, it is not approached by any railway, but 
services of cars are maintained to several points, of which 
Rathdrum, 8 m. S.E., is the nearest railway station, on the 
Dublin & South-Eastern. The glen is traversed by the stream 
of Glenealo, a tributary of the Avonmore, expanding into small 
loughs, the Upper and the Lower. The former of these is 
walled by the abrupt heights of Camaderry (2296 ft.) and 
Lugduff (2176 ft.), and here the extreme narrowness of the valley 
adds to its grandeur; while lower down, where it widens, the 
romantic character of the scenery is enhanced by the scattered 
ruins of the former monastic settlement. These ruins have 
the collective name of the " Seven Churches." The settlement 
owed its foundation to the hermit St Kevin, who is reputed to 
have died on the 3rd of June 618; and it rapidly became a seat 
of learning of wide fame, but suffered much at the hands of the 
Danes and the Anglo-Normans. In close proximity to an hotel, 
and to one another, in an enclosure, are a round tower, one of the 
finest in Ireland, no ft. high and 52 in circumference; St Kevin's 
kitchen or church (closely resembling the house of St Columba at 
Kells), which measures 25 ft. by 15, with a high-pitched roof and 
round belfry supposed to be the earliest example of its type; 
and the cathedral, about 73 ft. in total length by 51 in width. 
This possesses a good square-headed doorway, and an east 
window of ornate character (the chancel being of later date 
than the nave), and there are also some early tombs, but the 
whole is in a decayed condition. In the enclosure are also a 
Lady chapel, chiefly remarkable for its doorway of wrought 
granite, in a style of architecture resembling Greek; a priest's 
house (restored), and slight remains of St Chiaran's church. 
Here is also St Kevin's cross, a granite monolith never completed; 
and the enclosure is entered by a fine though dilapidated gateway. 
Other neighbouring remains are Trinity or the Ivy Church, 
towards Laragh, with beautiful detailed work; St Saviour's 
monastery, carefully restored under the direction of the Board 
of Works, with a chancel arch of three orders (re-erected); 
while on the shores of the upper lough are Reefert Church, 
the burial-place of the O'Toole family, and Teampull-na-skellig, 
the church of the rock. St Kevin's bed is a cave approachable 
with difficulty, above the lough, probably a natural cavity 
artificially enlarged, to which attaches the legend of St Kevin's 
hermitage. Along the valley there are a number of monuments 
and stone crosses of various sizes and styles. The whole collec- 
tion forms, with the possible exception of Clonmacnoise in King's 
county, the most striking monument of monasticism in Ireland. 

GLENDOWER, OWEN (c. 1350-1415), the last to claim the 
title of an independent prince of Wales, more correctly described 
as Owain ab Gruffydd, lord of Glyndyvrdwy in Merioneth, was 
a man of good family, with two great houses, Sycharth and 
Glyndyvrdwy in the north, besides smaller estates in south 
Wales. His father was called Gruffydd Vychan, and his mother 
Helen; on both sides he had pretensions to be descended from 
the old Welsh princes. Owen was probably born about 1359, 
studied law at Westminster, was squire to the earl of Arundel, 
and a witness for Grosvenor in the famous Scrope and Grosvenor 
lawsuit in 1386. Afterwards he was in the service of Henry of 



Bolingbroke, the future king, though by an error it has been 
commonly stated that he was squire to Richard II. Welsh 
sympathies were, however, on Richard's side, and combined 
with a personal quarrel to make Owen the leader of a national 
revolt. 

The lords of Glyndyvrdwy had an ancient feud with their 
English neighbours, the Greys of Ruthin. Reginald Grey 
neglected to summon Owen, as was his duty, for the Scottish 
expedition of 1400, and then charged him with treason for 
failing to appear. Owen thereupon took up arms, and when 
Henry IV. returned from Scotland in September he found north 
Wales ablaze. A hurried campaign under the king's personal 
command was ineffectual. Owen's estates were declared forfeit 
and vigorous measures threatened by the English government. 
Still the revolt gathered strength. In the spring of 1401 Owen 
was raiding in south Wales, and credited with the intention of 
invading England. A second campaign by the king in the 
autumn was defeated, like that of the previous year, through 
bad weather and the Fabian tactics of the Welsh. Owen had 
already been intriguing with Henry Percy (Hotspur), who 
during 1401 held command in north Wales, and with Percy's 
brother-in-law, Sir Edmund Mortimer. During the winter of 
1401-1402 his plans were further extended to negotiations with 
the rebel Irish, the Scots and the French. In the spring he had 
grown so strong that he attacked Ruthin, and took Grey prisoner. 
In the summer he defeated the men of Hereford under Edmund 
Mortimer at Pilleth, near Brynglas, in Radnorshire. Mortimer 
was taken prisoner and treated with such friendliness as to 
make the English doubt his loyalty; within a few months he 
married Owen's daughter. In the autumn the English king 
was for the third time driven " bootless home and weather- 
beaten back." The few English strongholds left in Wales were 
now hard pressed, and Owen boasted that he would meet his 
enemy in the field. Nevertheless, in May 1403 Henry of Mon- 
mouth was allowed to sack Sycharth and Glyndyvrdwy un- 
opposed. Owen had a greater plot in hand. The Percies were 
to rise in arms, and meeting Owen at Shrewsbury, overwhelm 
the prince before help could arrive. But Owen's share in the 
undertaking miscarried through his own defeat near Carmarthen 
on the 1 2th of July, and Percy was crushed at Shrewsbury ten 
days later. Still the Welsh revolt was never so formidable. 
Owen styled himself openly prince of Wales, established a regular 
government, and called a parliament at Machynlleth. As a 
result of a formal alliance the French sent troops to his aid, and 
in the course of 1404 the great castles of Harlech and Aberystwith 
fell into his hands. 

In the spring of 1405 Owen was at the height of his power; 
but the tide turned suddenly. Prince Henry defeated the Welsh 
at Grosmont in March, and twice again in May, when Owen's 
son Griffith and his chancellor were made prisoners. Scrope's 
rebellion in the North prevented the English from following 
up their success. The earl of Northumberland took refuge in 
Wales, and the tripartite alliance of Owen with Percy and 
Mortimer (transferred by Shakespeare to an earlier occasion) 
threatened a renewal of danger. But Northumberland's plots 
and the active help of the French proved ineffective. The 
English under Prince Henry gained ground steadily, and the 
recovery of Aberystwith, after a long siege, in the autumn of 
1408 marked the end of serious warfare. In February 1409 
Harlech was also recaptured, and Owen's wife, daughter and 
grandchildren were taken prisoners. Owen himself still held 
out and even continued to intrigue with the French. In July 
1415 Gilbert Talbot had power to treat with Owen and his 
supporters and admit them to pardon. Owen's name does not 
occur in the document renewing Talbot's powers in February 
1416; according to Adam of Usk he died in 1415. Later English 
writers allege that he died of starvation in the mountains; but 
Welsh legend represents him as spending a peaceful old age with 
his sons-in-law at Ewyas and Monington in Herefordshire, till 
his death and burial at the latter place. The dream of an 
independent and united Wales was never nearer realization than 
under Owen's leadership. The disturbed state of England 



4iol 



GLENELG GLEYRE 



121 



helped him, but he was indeed a remarkable personality, and 
has not undeservedly become a national hero. Sentiment and 
tradition have magnified his achievements, and confused his 
career with tales of portents and magical powers. Owen left 
many bastard children; his legitimate representative in 1433 
was his daughter Alice, wife of Sir John Scudamore of Ewyas. 

The facts of Owen's life must be pieced together from scattered 
references in contemporary chronicles and documents; perhaps the 
most important are Adam of Usk's Chronicle and Ellis s Ongtnal 
Letters. On the Welsh side something is given by the bards lolo 
Goch and Lewis Glyn Cothi. For modern accounts consult J. H. 
Wy lie's History of England under Henry IV. (4 vols., 1884-1898); 
A. C. Bradley 's popular biography ; and Professor Tout's article m the 
Dictionary of National Biography. (<-. L. K..J 

GLENELG, CHARLES GRANT, BARON (1778-1866), eldest 
son of Charles Grant (q.v.), chairman of the directors of the 
East India Company, was born in India on the 26th of October 
1778, and was educated at Magdalene College, Cambridge, of 
which he became a fellow in 1802. Called to the bar in 1807, 
he was elected member of parliament for the Inverness burghs 
in 1807, and having gained some reputation as a speaker in the 
House of Commons, he was made a lord of the treasury in 
December 1813, an office which he held until August 1819, when 
he became secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland and a 
privy councillor. In 1823 he was appointed vice-president of 
the board of trade; from September 1827 to June 1828 he was 
president of the board and treasurer of the navy; then joining 
the Whigs, he was president of the board of control under Earl 
Grey and Lord Melbourne from November 1830 to November 
1834. At the board of control Grant was primarily responsible 
for the act of 1833, which altered the constitution of the govern- 
ment of India. In April 1835 he became secretary for war and 
the colonies, and was created Baron Glenelg. His term of office 
was a stormy one. " His differences with Sir Benjamin d'Urban 
{q.v.), governor of Cape Colony, were serious; but more so were 
those with King William IV. and others over the administration 
of Canada. He was still secretary when the Canadian rebellion 
broke out in 1837; his wavering and feeble policy was fiercely 
attacked in parliament; he became involved in disputes with 
the earl of Durham, and the movement for his supercession found 
supporters even among his colleagues in the cabinet. In February 
1839 he resigned, receiving consolation in the shape of a pension 
of 2000 a year. From 1818 until he was made a peer Grant 
represented the county of Inverness in parliament, and he has 
been called " the last of the Canningites." Living mainly 
abroad during the concluding years of his life, he died unmarried 
at Cannes on the 23rd of April 1866 when his title became 
extinct. 

Glenelg's brother, SIR ROBERT GRANT (1770-1838), who was 
third wrangler in 1801 , was, like his brother, a fellow of Magdalene 
College, Cambridge, and a barrister. From 1818 to 1834 he 
represented various constituencies in parliament, where he was 
chiefly prominent for his persistent efforts to relieve the dis- 
abilities of the Jews. 1 In June 1834 he was appointed governor 
of Bombay, and he died in India on the gth of July 1838. Grant 
wrote a Sketch of the History of the East India Co. (1813), and is 
also known as a writer of hymns. 

GLENELG, a municipal town and watering place of Adelaide 
county, South Australia, on Holdfast Bay, 6$ m. by rail S.S.W. 
of the city of Adelaide. Pop. (1901) 3949. It is a popular 
summer resort, connected with Adelaide by two lines of railway. 
In the vicinity is the " Old Gum Tree " under which South 
Australia was proclaimed British territory by Governor Hind- 
marsh in 1836. 

GLENGARRIFF, or GLENGARIFF (" Rough Glen "), a celebrated 
resort of tourists in summer and invalids in winter, in the west 
riding of county Cork, Ireland, on Glengarriff Harbour, an inlet 
on the northern side of Bantry Bay, n m. by coach road from 
Bantry on the Cork, Bandon & South Coast railway. Beyond 
its hotels, Glengarriff is only a small village, but the island- 
studded harbour, the narrow glen at its head and the surrounding 

1 Sir S. Walpole (History of England, vol. v.) is wrong in stating 
that Charles Grant introduced bills to remove Jewish disabilities in 
1833 and 1834. They were introduced by his brother Robert. 



of mountains, afford most attractive views, and its situation on 
the " Prince of Wales' " route travelled by King Edward VII. 
in 1848, and on a fine mountain coach road from Macroom, 
brings it into the knowledge of many travellers to Killarney. 
Thackeray wrote enthusiastically of the harbour. The glaciated 
rocks of the glen are clothed with vegetation of peculiar luxuri- 
ance, flourishing in the mild climate which has given Glengarriff 
its high reputation as a health resort for those suffering from 
pulmonary complaints. 

GLEN GREY, a division of the Cape province south of the 
Stormberg, adjoining on the east the Transkeian Territories. Pop. 
(1904) 55,107. Chief town Lady Frere, 32 m. N.E. of Queens- 
town. The district is well watered and fertile, and large quantities 
of cereals are grown. Over 96% of the inhabitants are of the 
Zulu-Xosa (Kaffir) race, and a considerable part of the district 
was settled during the Kaffir wars of Cape Colony by Tembu 
(Tambookies) who were granted a location by the colonial 
government in recognition of their loyalty to the British. 
Act No. 25 of 1894 of the Cape parliament, passed at the instance 
of Cecil Rhodes, which laid down the basis upon which is effected 
the change of land tenure by natives from communal to individual 
holdings, and also dealt with native local self-government and 
the labour question, applied in the first instance to this division, 
and is known as the Glen Grey Act (see CAPE COLONY: History). 
The provisions of the act respecting individual land tenure and 
local self-government were in 1898 applied, with certain modifica- 
tions, to the Transkeian Territories. The division is named 
after Sir George Grey, governor of Cape Colony 1854-1861. 

GLENS FALLS, a village of Warren county, New York, U.S.A., 
55 m. N. of Troy, on the Hudson river. Pop. (1890) 9509; 
(1900) 12,613, of whom 1762 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 
15,243. Glens Falls is served by the Delaware & Hudson and 
the Hudson Valley (electric) railways. The village contains a 
state armoury, the Crandall free public library, a Y.M.C.A. 
building, the Park hospital, an old ladies' home, and St Mary's 
(Roman Catholic) and Glens Falls (non-sectarian) academies. 
There are two private parks, open to the public, and a water- 
works system is maintained by the village. An iron bridge 
crosses the river just below the falls, connecting Glens Falls and 
South Glens Falls (pop. in 1910, 2247). The falls of the Hudson 
here furnish a fine water-power, which is utilized, in connexion 
with steam and electricity, in the manufacture of lumber, paper 
and wood pulp, women's clothing, shirts, collars and cuffs, &c. 
In 1905 the village's factory products were valued at $4,780,331. 
About 1 2 m. above Glens Falls, on the Hudson, a massive stone 
dam has been erected; here electric power, distributed to a large 
area, is generated. In the neighbourhood of Glens Falls are 
valuable quarries of black marble and limestone, and lime, 
plaster and Portland cement works. Glens Falls was settled 
about the close of the French and Indian War (1763), and was 
incorporated as a village in 1839. 

GLENTILT, a glen in the extreme north of Perthshire, Scotland. 
Beginning at the confines of Aberdeenshire, it follows a north- 
westerly direction excepting for the last 4 m., when it runs 
due S. to Blair Atholl. It is watered throughout by the Tilt, 
which enters the Garry after a course of 14 m., and receives on 
its right the Tarff , which forms some beautiful falls just above 
the confluence, and on the left the Fender, which has some 
fine falls also. The attempt of the 6th duke of Atholl (1814- 
1864) to close the glen to the public was successfully contested 
by the Scottish Rights of Way Society. The group of mountains- 
Cam nan Gabhar (3505 ft.), Ben y Gloe (3671) and Cam Liath 
( 3I03 ) on its left side dominate the lower half of the glen. 
Marble of good quality is occasionally quarried in the glen, and 
the rock formation has attracted the attention of geologists 
from the time of James Hutton. 

GLEYRE, MARC CHARLES GABRIEL (1806-1874), French 
painter, of Swiss origin, was born at Chevilly in the canton of 
Vaud on the 2nd of May 1806. His father and mother died 
while he was yet a boy of some eight or nine years of age; and 
he was brought up by an uncle at Lyons, who sent him to the 
industrial school of that city. Going up to Paris a lad of 



122 



GLIDDON GLINKA, M. I. 



seventeen or nineteen, he spent four years in close artistic study 
in Hersent's studio, in Suisse's academy, in the galleries of the 
Louvre. To this period of laborious application succeeded 
four years of meditative inactivity in Italy, where he became 
acquainted with Horace Vernet and Leopold Robert; and six 
years more were consumed in adventurous wanderings in Greece, 
Egypt, Nubia and Syria. At Cairo he was attacked with 
ophthalmia, and in the Lebanon he was struck down by fever; 
and he returned to Lyons in shattered health. On his recovery 
he proceeded to Paris, and, fixing his modest studio in the rue 
de Universite, began carefully to work out the conceptions which 
had been slowly shaping themselves in his mind. Mention is 
made of two decorative panels " Diana leaving the Bath," and 
a "Young Nubian" as almost the first fruits of his genius; 
but these did not attract public attention till long after, and the 
painting by which he practically opened his aitistic career was 
the " Apocalyptic Vision of St John," sent to the Salon of 1840. 
This was followed in 1843 by " Evening," which at the time 
received a medal of the second class, and afterwards became 
widely popular under the title of the Lost Illusions. It represents 
a poet seated on the bank of a river, with drooping head and 
wearied frame, letting his lyre slip from a careless hand, and 
gazing sadly at a bright company of maidens whose song is 
slowly dying from his ear as their boat is borne slowly from his 
sight. 

In spite of the success which attended these first ventures, 
Gleyre retired from public competition, and spent the rest of 
his life in quiet devotion to his own artistic ideals, neither seeking 
the easy applause of the crowd, nor turning his art into a means 
of aggrandizement and wealth. After 1845, when he exhibited 
the " Separation of the Apostles," he contributed nothing to 
the Salon except the " Dance of the Bacchantes " in 1849. Yet 
he laboured steadily and was abundantly productive. He had 
an " infinite capacity of taking pains," and when asked by what 
method he attained to such marvellous perfection of workman- 
ship, he would reply, " En y pensant toujours." A long series 
of years often intervened between the first conception of a piece 
and its embodiment, and years not unfrequently between the 
first and the final stage of the embodiment itself. A landscape 
was apparently finished; even his fellow artists would consider 
it done; Gleyre alone was conscious that he had not " found 
his sky." Happily for French art this high-toned laboriousness 
became influential on a large number of Gleyre's younger 
contemporaries; for when Delaroche gave up his studio of 
instruction he recommended his pupils to apply to Gleyre, who 
at once agreed to give them lessons twice a week, and character- 
istically refused to take any fee or reward. By instinct and 
principle he was a confirmed celibate: " Fortune, talent, health, 
he had everything; but he was married," was his lamentation 
over a friend. Though he lived in almost complete retirement 
from public life, he took a keen interest in politics, and was a 
voracious reader of political journals. For a time, indeed, under 
Louis Philippe, his studio had been the rendezvous of a sort 
of liberal club. To the last amid all the disasters that befell 
his country he was hopeful of the future, " la raison finira bien 
par avoir raison." It was while on a visit to the Retrospective 
Exhibition, opened on behalf of the exiles from Alsace and 
Lorraine, that he died suddenly on the 5th of May 1874. He 
left unfinished the " Earthly Paradise," a noble picture, which 
Taine has described as " a dream of innocence, of happiness 
and of beauty Adam and Eve standing in the sublime and 
joyous landscape of a paradise enclosed in mountains," a 
worthy counterpart to the " Evening." Among the other 
productions of his genius are the " Deluge," which represents 
two angels speeding above the desolate earth, from which the 
destroying waters have just begun to retire, leaving visible 
behind them the ruin they have wrought; the "Battle of the 
Lemanus," a piece of elaborate design, crowded but not cumbered 
with figures, and giving fine expression to the movements of 
the various bands of combatants and fugitives; the " Prodigal 
Son," in which the artist has ventured to add to the parable 
the new element of mother's love, greeting the repentant youth 



with a welcome that shows that the mother's heart thinks less 
of the repentance than of the return; "Ruth and Boaz"; 
" Ulysses and Nausicaa "; " Hercules at the feet of Omphale "; 
the " Young Athenian," or, as it is popularly called, " Sappho "; 
"Minerva and the Nymphs"; " Venus iravdr/nos "; " Daphnis 
and Chloe"; and "Love and the Parcae." Nor must it be 
omitted that he left a considerable number of drawings and water- 
colours, and that we are indebted to him for a number of portraits, 
among which is the sad face of Heine, engraved in the Revue des 
deux mondes for April 1852. In Clement's catalogue of his 
works there are 683 entries, including sketches and studies. 

See Fritz Berthoud in Bibliothegue universelle de Genkve (1874); 
Albert de Montet, Diet, biographtque des Geneyois et des Vaudois 
(1877); and Vie de Charles Gleyre (1877), written by his friend, 
Charles Clement, and illustrated by 30 plates from his works. 

GLIDDON, GEORGE ROBINS (1800-1857), British Egyptolo- 
gist, was born in Devonshire in 1809. His father, a merchant, 
was United States consul at Alexandria, and there Gliddon 
was taken at an early age. He became United States vice- 
consul, and took a great interest in Egyptian antiquities. Sub- 
sequently he lectured in the United States and succeeded in 
rousing considerable attention to the subject of Egyptology 
generally. He died at Panama in 1857. His chief work was 
Ancient Egypt (1850, ed. 1853). He wrote also Memoir on the 
Cotton of Egypt (1841); Appeal to the Antiquaries of Europe 
on the Destruction of the Monuments of Egypt (1841); Discourses 
on Egyptian Archaeology (1841); Types of Mankind (1854), 
in conjunction with J. C. Nott and others; Indigenous Races 
of the Earth (1857), also in conjunction with Nott and others. 

GLINKA, FEDOR NIKOLAEVICH (1788-1849), Russian poet 
and author, was born at Smolensk in 1788, and was specially 
educated for the army. In 1803 he obtained a commission 
as an officer, and two years later took part in the Austrian cam- 
paign. His tastes for literary pursuits, however, soon induced 
him to leave the service, whereupon he withdrew to his estates 
in the government of Smolensk, and subsequently devoted 
most of his time to study or travelling about Russia. Upon the 
invasion of the French in 1812, he re-entered the Russian army, 
and remained in active service until the end of the campaign 
in 1 8 14. Upon the elevation of Count Milarodovich to the military 
governorship of St Petersburg, Glinka was appointed colonel 
under his command. On account of his suspected revolutionary 
tendencies he was, in 1826, banished to Petrozavodsk, but he 
nevertheless retained his honorary post of president of the 
Society of the Friends of Russian Literature, and was after a 
time allowed to return to St Petersburg. Soon afterwards he 
retired completely from public life, and died on his estates in 
1849. 

Glinka's martial songs have special reference to the Russian 
military campaigns of his time. He is known also as the author of 
the descriptive poem Kareliya, &c. (Carelia, or the Captivity of 
Martha Joanovna) (1830), and of a metrical paraphrase of the book 
of Job. His fame as a military author is chiefly due to his Pisma 
Russkago Ofitsera (Letters of a Russian Officer) (8 vols., 1815-1816). 

GLINKA, MICHAEL IVANOVICH (1803-1857), Russian 
musical composer, was born at Novospassky, a village in the 
Smolensk government, on the 2nd of June 1803. His early 
life he spent at home, but at the age of thirteen we find him 
at the Blagorodrey Pension, St Petersburg, where he studied 
music under Carl Maier and John Field, the Irish composer and 
pianist, who had settled in Russia. We are told that in his 
seventeenth year he had already begun to compose romances 
and other minor vocal pieces; but of these nothing now is known. 
His thorough musical training did not begin till the year 1830, 
when he went abroad and stayed for three years in Italy, to study 
the works of old and modern Italian masters. His thorough 
knowledge of the requirements of the voice may be connected 
with this course of study. His training as a composer was 
finished under the contrapuntist Dehn, with whom Glinka 
stayed for several months at Berlin. In 1833 he returned to 
Russia, and devoted himself to operatic composition. On the 
27th of September (gth of October) 1836, took place the first 
representation of his opera Life for the Tsar (the libretto by Baron 






GLINKA, S. N. GLOCKENSPIEL 



de Rosen). This was the turning-point in Glinka's life, for 
the work was not only a great success, but in a manner became 
the origin and basis of a Russian school of national music. 
The story is taken from the invasion of Russia by the Poles 
early in the i7th century, and the hero is a peasant who sacrifices 
his life for the tsar. Glinka has wedded this patriotic theme 
to inspiring music. His melodies, moreover, show distinct 
affinity to the popular songs of the Russians, so that the term 
" national " may justly be applied to them. His appointment 
as imperial chapelmaster and conductor of the opera of St Peters- 
burg was the reward of his dramatic successes. His second opera 
Russian and Lyudmila, founded on Pushkin's poem, did not 
appear till 1842; it was an advance upon Life for the Tsar 
in its musical aspect, but made no impression upon the public. 
In the meantime Glinka wrote an overture and four entre-actes 
to Kukolnik's drama Prince Kholmsky. In 1844 he went to 
Paris, and his Jota Arragonesa (1847), and the symphonic work 
on Spanish themes, Une Nuit a Madrid, reflect the musical results 
of two years' sojourn in Spain. On his return to St Petersburg 
he wrote and arranged several pieces for the orchestra, amongst 
which the so-called Kamarinskaya achieved popularity beyond 
the limits of Russia. He also composed numerous songs and 
romances. In 1857 he went abroad for the third time; he now 
wrote his autobiography, orchestrated Weber's Invitation d la 
valse, and began to consider a plan for a musical version of 
Gogol's Tarass-Boulba. Abandoning the idea and becoming 
absorbed in a passion for ecclesiastical music he went to Berlin 
to study the ancient church modes. Here he died suddenly 
on the 2nd of February 1857. 

GLINKA, SERGY NIKOLAEVICH (1774-1847), Russian 
author, the elder brother of Fedor N. Glinka, was born at 
Smolensk in 1774. In 1796 he entered the Russian army, but 
after three years' service retired with the rank of major. He 
afterwards employed himself in the education of youth and in 
literary pursuits, first in the Ukraine, and subsequently at 
Moscow, where he died in 1847. His poems are spirited and 
patriotic; he wrote also several dramatic pieces, and translated 
Young's Night Thoughts. 

Among his numerous prose works the most important from an 
historical point of view are: Russkoe Chtenie (Russian Reading: 
Historical Memorials of Russia in the i8th and igth Centuries) (2 
vols., 1845); Istoriya Rossii, &c. (History of Russia for the use of 
Youth) (10 vols., 1817-1819, 2nd ed. 1822, 3rd ed. 1824); Istoriya 
Armyan, &c. (History of the Migration of the Armenians of Azerbijar. 
from Turkey to Russia) (1831); and his contributions to the Russky 
Vyestnik (Russian Messenger), a monthly periodical, edited by him 
from 1808 to 1820. 

GLOBE-FISH, or SEA-HEDGEHOG, the names by which some 
sea-fishes are known, which have the remarkable faculty of 
inflating their stomachs with air. They belong to the families 
Diodontidae and Tetrodontidae. Their jaws resemble the sharp 
beak of a parrot, the bones and teeth being coalesced into one 
mass with a sharp edge. In the Diodonts there is no mesial 
division of the jaws, whilst in the Tetrodonts such a division 
exists, so that they appear to have two teeth above and two 




FIG. i. Diodon maculatus. 

below. By means of these jaws they are able to break off 
branches of corals, and to masticate other hard substances 
on which they feed. Usually they are of a short, thick, cylindrical 
shape, with powerful fins (fig. i). Their body is covered with 
thick skin, without scales, but provided with variously formed 
spines, the size and extent of which vary in the different species. 
When they inflate their capacious stomachs with air, they assume 
a globular form, and the spines protrude, forming a more or less 
formidable defensive armour (fig. 2). A fish thus blown out 



123 

turns over and floats belly upwards, driving before the wind 
and waves. Many of these fishes are highly poisonous when 
eaten, and fatal accidents have occurred from this cause. It 
appears that they acquire poisonous qualities from their food, 
which frequently consists of decomposing or poisonous animal 
matter, such as would impart, and often does impart, similar 




FIG. 2. Diodon maculatus (inflated). 



deleterious qualities to other fish. They are most numerous 
between the tropics and in the seas contiguous to them, but a 
few species live in large rivers, as, for instance, the Tetrodon 
fahaka, a fish well known to all travellers on the Nile. Nearly 
100 different species are known. 

GLOBIGERINA, A. d'Orbigny, a genus of Perforate Fora- 
minifera (q.v.) of pelagic habit, and formed of a conical spiral 
aggregate of spheroidal chambers with a crescentic mouth. The 
shells accumulate at the bottom of moderately deep seas to form 
" Globigerina ooze " and are preserved thus in the chalk. 
Hastigerina only differs in the " flat " or nautiloid spiral. 

GLOCKENSPIEL, or ORCHESTRAL BELLS (Fr. carillon; Ger. 
Glockenspiel, Stahlharmonika; Ital. campanelli; Med. Lat. 
tintinnabulum, cymbalum, bombulum), an instrument of percussion 
of definite musical pitch, used in the orchestra, and made in 
two or three different styles. The oldest form of glockenspiel, 
seen in illuminated MSS. of the middle ages, consists of a set 
of bells mounted on a frame and played by one performer by 
means of steel hammers. The name " bell " is now generally 
a misnomer, other forms of metal or wood having been found 
more convenient. The pyramid-shaped glockenspiel, formerly 
used in the orchestra for simple rhythmical effects, consists 
of an octave of semitone, hemispherical bells, placed one above 
the other and fastened to an iron rod which passes through the 
centre of each, the bells being of graduated sizes and diminishing 
in diameter as the pitch rises. The lyre-shaped glockenspiel, 
or steel harmonica (Stahlharmonika), is a newer model, which has 
instead of bells twelve or more bars of steel, graduating in size 
according to their pitch. These bars are fastened horizontally 
across two bars of steel set perpendicularly in a steel frame in 
the shape of a lyre. The bars are struck by little steel hammers 
attached to whalebone sticks. 

Wagner has used the glockenspiel with exquisite judgment in the 
fire scene of the last act of Die Walkiire and in the peasants' waltz 
in the last scene of Die Meister singer. When chords are written for 
the glockenspiel, as in Mozart's Magic Flute, the keyed harmonica 1 
is used. It consists of a keyboard having a little hammer attached 
to each key, which strikes a bar of glass or steel when the key is 
depressed. The performer, being able to use both hands, can play 
a melody with full harmonies, scale and arpeggio passages in single 
and double notes. A peal of hemispherical bells was specially 
constructed for Sir Arthur Sullivan's Golden Legend. It consists of 
four bells constructed of bell-metal about I in. thick, the largest 
measuring 27 in. in diameter, the smallest 23. They are fixed on a 
stand one above the other, with a clearance of about J in. between 
them; the rim of the lowest and largest bell is 15 in. from the foot 
of the stand. The bells are struck by mallets, which are of two 
kinds a pair of hard wood for forte passages, and a pair covered 

1 See " The Keyed Harmonica improved by H. Klein of Pressburg," 
article in the Allg. musik. Ztg., Bd. i. pp. 675-699 (Leipzig, 1798): 
also Becker, p. 254, Bartel. 



124 



GLOGAU GLOSS, GLOSSARY 



with wash-leather for piano effects. The peal was unique at the 
time it was made for the Golden Legend, but a smaller bell of the same 
shape, 1 in. thick, with a diameter measuring about 16 in., specially 
made for the performance of Liszt's St Elizabeth, when conducted 
by the composer in London, evidently suggested the idea for the 
peal. (K. S.) 

GLOGAU, a fortified town of Germany, in the Prussian province 
of Silesia, 59 m. N.W. from Breslau, on the railway to Frankfort- 
on-Oder. Pop. (1905) 23,461. It is built partly on an island 
and partly on the left bank of the Oder; and owing to the 
fortified enceinte having been pushed farther afield, new quarters 
have been opened up. Among its most important buildings 
are the cathedral, in the Gothic, and a castle (now used as a 
courthouse), in the Renaissance style, two other Roman Catholic 
and three Protestant churches, a new town-hall, a synagogue, 
a military hospital, two classical schools (Gymnasien) and 
several libraries. Owing to its situation on a navigable river 
and at the junction of several lines of railway, Glogau carries 
on an extensive trade, which is fostered by a variety of local 
industries, embracing machinery-building, tobacco, beer, oil, 
sugar and vinegar. It has also extensive lithographic works, 
and its wool market is celebrated. 

In the beginning of the nth century Glogau, even then a 
populous and fortified town, was able to withstand a regular 
siege by the emperor Henry V.; but in 1157 the duke of Silesia, 
finding he could not hold out against Frederick Barbarossa, 
set it on fire. In 1252 the town, which had been raised from its 
ashes by Henry I., the Bearded, became the capital of a princi- 
pality of Glogau, and in 1482 town and district were united to 
the Bohemian crown. In the course of the Thirty Years' War 
Glogau suffered greatly. The inhabitants, who had become 
Protestants soon after the Reformation, were dragooned into 
conformity by Wallenstein's soldiery; and the Jesuits received 
permission to build themselves a church and a college. Captured 
by the Protestants in 1632, and recovered by the Imperialists 
in 1633, the town was again captured by the Swedes in 1642, 
and continued in Protestant hands till the peace of Westphalia 
in 1648, when the emperor recovered it. In 1741 the Prussians 
took the place by storm, and during the Seven Years' War it 
formed an important centre of operations for the Prussian forces. 
After the battle of Jena (1806) it fell into the hands of the French ; 
and was gallantly held by Laplane, against the Russian and 
Prussian besiegers, after the battle of Katzbach in August 1813 
until the 1 7th of the following April. 

See Minsberg, Geschichte der Stadt und Festung Glogau's (2 vols., 
Glogau, 1853); and H. von Below, Zur Geschichte des Jahres 1806. 
Glogau's Belagerung und Verteidigung (Berlin, 1893). 

GLORIOSA, in botany, a small genus of plants belonging to 
the natural order Liliaceae, native of tropical Asia and Africa. 
They are bulbous plants, the slender stems of which support 
themselves by tendril-like prolongations of the tips of some 
of the narrow generally lanceolate leaves. The flowers, which 
are borne in the leaf-axils at the ends of the stem, are very 
handsome, the six, generally narrow, petals are bent back and 
stand erect, and are a rich orange yellow or red in colour; the 
six stamens project more or less horizontally from the place 
of insertion of the petals. They are generally grown in cultiva- 
tion as stove-plants. 

GLORY (through the 0. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. 
gloria, cognate with Gr. xXtos, K\vtiv), a synonym for fame, 
renown, honour, and thus used of anything which reflects honour 
and renown on its possessor. In the phrase " glory of God " 
the word implies both the honour due to the Creator, and His 
majesty and effulgence. In liturgies of the Christian Church 
are the Gloria Patri, the doxology beginning " Glory be to the 
Father," the response Gloria libi, Domine, " Glory be to Thee, 
O Lord," sung or said after the giving out of the Gospel for 
the day, and the Gloria in excelsis, " Glory be to God on 
high," sung during the Mass and Communion service. A 
" glory " is the term often used as synonymous with halo, 
nimbus or aureola (q.v.) for the ring of light encircling the 
head or figure in a pictorial or other representation of sacred 
persons. 



GLOSS, GLOSSARY, &c. The Greek word y\Sxr(ra (whence; 
our " gloss "), meaning originally a tongue, then a language or 
dialect, gradually came to denote any obsolete, foreign, provincial, 
technical or otherwise peculiar word or use of a word (see Arist. 
Rhet. iii. 3. 2). The making of collections and explanations 1 of 
such 7Xaxrerat was at a comparatively early date a well-recognized 
form of literary activity. Even in the 5th century B.C., among 
the many writings of Abdera was included a treatise entitled 
Ilepi 'Ojuijpou ft bpOoeirdi)* /ecu ytwaaiuv. It was not, however, 
until the Alexandrian period that the "faaaavy pa0ot, glosso- 
graphers (writers of glosses), or glossators, became numerous. 
Of many of these perhaps even the names have perished; but 
Athenaeus the grammarian alone (c. A.D. 250) alludes to no 
fewer than thirty-five. Among the earliest was Philetas of Cos 
(d. c. 290 B.C.), the elegiac poet, to whom Aristarchus dedicated 
the treatise IIpos $iX7rrav; he was the compiler of a lexico- 
graphical work, arranged probably according to subjects, and 
entitled "AraKTa or Ty&ffffat. (sometimes "AraiCTOi 7Xcocrcr<u). 
Next came his disciple Zenodotus of Ephesus (c. 280 B.C.), one of 
the earliest of the Homeric critics and the compiler of FXcSacrai 
'O/M/pi/ceu; Zenodotus in turn was succeeded by his greater pupil 
Aristophanes of Byzantium (c. 200 B.C.), whose great compilation 
Iltpi Xe^eco? (still partially preserved in that of Pollux), is known 
to have included 'ArriKai Xests, Aa/acpi/cal 7Xcocrcrcu, and the 
like. From the school of Aristophanes issued more than one 
glossographer of name, Diodorus, Artemidorus (FXcocrcrat, and 
a collection of Xeeis 6\f/a.pTvriKai) , Nicander of Colophon 
(rXcocrcrcu, of which some twenty-six fragments still survive), 
and Aristarchus (c. 210 B.C.), the famous critic, whose numerous 
labours included an arrangement of the Homeric vocabulary 
(Xs) in the order of the books. Contemporary with the 
last named was Crates of Mallus, who, besides making some 
new contributions to Greek lexicography and dialectology, 
was the first to create at Rome a taste for similar investigations 
in connexion with the Latin idioms. From his school proceeded 
Zenodotus of Mallus, the compiler of 'E0w/u Xes or 7Xu>crcrai, 
a work said to have been designed chiefly to support the views 
of the school of Pergamum as to the allegorical interpretation of 
Homer. 2 Of later date were Didymus (Chalcenterus, c. 50 B.C.), 
who made collections of Xeeis rpayuSov^vai /aojii/cai, &c.; Apol- 
lonius Sophista (c. 20 B.C.), whose Homeric Lexicon has come 
down to modern times; and Neoptolemus, known distinctively as 
6 y\tiXfcroypA.<j>oi. In the beginning of the ist century of the 
Christian era Apion, a grammarian and rhetorician at Rome 
during the reigns of Tiberius and Claudius, followed up the labours 
of Aristarchus and other predecessors with rXoio-crcu 'O/njpi/cai, 
and a treatise Hepl TTJS 'Pco/wu/^s 5iaXe/CTOi>; Heliodorus or 
Herodorus was another almost contemporary glossographer; 
Erotian also, during the reign of Nero, prepared a special glossary 
for the writings of Hippocrates, still preserved. To this period 
also Pamphilus, the author of the Aeijuuii', from which Diogenian 
and Julius Vestinus afterwards drew so largely, most probably 
belonged. In the following century one of the most prominent 
workers in this department oMiterature was Aelius Herodianus, 
whose treatise Ilepl tioviipovs Xos has been edited in modern 
times, and whose 'Eiri/i6pr^ot we still possess in an abridgment; 
also Pollux, Diogenian (MS-vs iravToSairfi) , Julius Vestinus 
('EiriTo/ii) T&V Ha.n<t>'t\ov "fiMtrauiv) and especially Phrynichus, 
who flourished towards the close of the 2nd century, and whose 
Eclogae nominum et verborum Atticorum has frequently been 
edited. To the 4th century belongs Ammonius of Alexandria 
(c. 389) , who wrote Ilepi 6/xoiwi' KO.I dia<]>6puv Xtfi', a dictionary 
of words used in senses different from those in which they had 

,' * The history of the literary gloss in its proper sense has given 
rise to the common English use ofthe word to mean an interpretation, 
especially in a disingenuous, sinister or false way; the form " j*loze," 
more particularly associated with explaining away, palliating or 
talking speciously, is simply an alternative spelling. The word has 
thus to some extent influenced, or been influenced by, the meaning 
of the etymologically different " gloss " = lustrous surface (from the 
same root as " glass "; cf. " glow "), in its extended sense of " out- 
ward fair seeming." 
2 See Matthaei, Glossaria Graeca (Moscow, 1774/5). 



GLOSS, GLOSSARY 






been employed by older and approved writers. Of somewhat 
later date is the well-known Hesychius, whose often-edited 
tiil-iK&v superseded all previous works of the kind; Cyril, the 
celebrated patriarch of Alexandria, also contributed somewhat 
to the advancement of glossography by his Zvvaywyfi rSiv Trpds 
8io.<t>opov <rnnaoiav Sia<6po>s rovovfjiivuv Mi-tup; while Orus, 
Orion, Philoxenus and the two Philemons also belong to this 
period. The works of Photius, Suidas and Zonaras, as also the 
Etymologicum magnum, to which might be added the Lexica 
Sangermania and the Lexica Segueriana, are referred to in the 
article DICTIONARY. 

To a special category of technical glossaries belongs a large 
and important class of works relating to the law-compilations of 
Justinian. Although the emperor forbade under severe penalties 
all commentaries (wro/w^juaTa) on his legislation (Const. Deo 
Auctore, sec. 12; Const. Tanta, sec. 21), yet indices (ivdtKts) 
and references (irapdnrXa), as well as translations (ipni\vtia.i 
Kara, iroda.) and paraphrases (^p/wjmac els irXaros), were 
expressly permitted, and lavishly produced. Among the 
numerous compilers of alphabetically arranged XeJ 'Pcojuai'Kai 
or AartiviKai, and yXoxwu VOIUKCU. (glossae nomicae), 
Cyril and Philoxenus are particularly noted; but the authors 
of ira.paypa<t>ai, or <rrnj,eiwaeis, whether t^uBev or eauOtv 
wi/iecat, are too numerous to mention. A collection of these 
irapa.ypa<t>al TUV ira\<uuiv, combined with viai irapa.ypa<i>ai on 
the revised code called TO. /SacriXt/ci, was made about the middle 
of the 1 2th century by a disciple of Michael Hagiotheodorita. 
This work is known as the Glossa ordinaria TUV /3cwiXuca>j'. 1 

In Italy also, during the period of the Byzantine ascendancy, 
various glossae (glosae) and scholia on the Justinian code were 
produced 2 ; particularly the Turin gloss (reprinted by Savigny), 
to which, apart from later additions, a date prior to 1000 is 
usually assigned. After the total extinction of the Byzantine 
authority in the West the study of law became one of the free 
arts, and numerous schools for its cultivation were instituted. 
Among the earliest of these was that of Bologna, where Pepo 
(1075) and Irnerius (1100-1118) began to give their expositions. 
They had a numerous following, who, besides delivering exegetical 
lectures (" ordinariae " on the Digest and Code, " extraordin- 
ariae " on the rest of the Corpus juris civilis), also wrote 
Glossae, first interlinear, afterwards marginal. 3 The series 
of these glossators was closed by Accursius (q.v.) with the com- 
pilation known as the Glossa ordinaria or magistralis, the 
authority of which soon became very great, so that ultimately 
it came to be a recognized maxim, " Quod non agnoscit glossa, 
non agnoscit curia." 4 For some account of the glossators on 
the canon law, see CANON LAW. 

In late classical and medieval Latin, glosa was the vulgar and 
romanic (e.g. in the early 8th century Corpus Glossary, and the 
late 8th century Leiden Glossary), glossa the learned form 
(Varro, De ling. Lat.vu. 10; Auson. Epigr. 127. 2 (86. 2), written 
in Greek, Quint, i. i. 34). The diminutive glossula occurs in 
Diom. 426. 26 and elsewhere. The same meaning has glossarium 
(Cell, xviii. 7. 3 glosaria = y\wj<iapu>v), which also occurs in the 
modern sense of " glossary " (Papias, " unde glossarium dictum 
quod omnium fere partium glossas contineat "), as do the words 
glossa, glossae, glossulae, glossemata (Steinmeyer, Alth. Gloss, iv. 
408, 410), expressed in later times by dictionarium, dictionarius, 
vocabularium, vocabularius (see DICTIONARY). Glossa and 

1 See Labbe 1 , Veteres glossae verborum juris quae passim in Basilicis 
reperiuntur (1606); Otto, Thesaurus juris Romani, iii. (1697); 
Stephens, Thesaurus linguae Graecae, viii. (1825). 

1 See Biener, Geschichte der Novetten, p. 229 sqq. 

1 Irnerius himself is with some probability believed to have been 
the author of the Brachylogus (g.v.). 

4 Thus Fil. Villani (De origine civitatis Florentiae.ed. 1847, p. 23), 
speaking of the Glossator Accursius, says of the Glossae thac " tantae 
auctoritatis gratiaeque fuere, ut omnium consensu publice appro- 
barentur, et reiectis aliis, quibuscumque penitus abolitis, solae 
juxta textum legum adpositae sunt et ubique terrarum sine contro- 
versia pro legibus celebrantur, ita ut nefas sit, non secus quam 
textui, Glpssis Accursii contraire." For similar testimonies see 
Bayle's Dictionnaire, s.v. " Accursius," and Rudorff, Ro'm. Rechts- 
geschichte, i. 338 (1857). 



glossema (Varro vii. 34. 107; Asinius Gallus, ap. Suet. De gramm. 
22; Fest. i66 b . 8, 181". 18; Quint, i. 8. 15, &c.) are synonyms, 
signifying (a) the word which requires explanation; or (6) 
such a word (called lemma) together with the interpretation 
(interpretamentum) ; or (c) the interpretation alone (so first 
in the Anecd. Heh.). 

Latin, like Greek glossography, had its origin chiefly in the 
practical wants of students and teachers, of whose names we 
only know a few. No doubt even in classical times collections 
of glosses (" glossaries ") were compiled, to which allusion seems 
to be made by Varro (De ling. Lai. vii. 10, " tesca, aiunt sancta esse 
qui glossas scripserunt ") and Verrius-Festus (i66 b . 6, " naucum 
. . . glossematorum . . . scriptores fabae grani quod haereat in 
fabulo "), but it is not known to what extent Varro, for instance, 
used them, or retained their original forms. The scriptores 
glossematorum were distinguished from the learned glossographers 
like Aurelius Opilius (cf. his Musae, ap. Suet. De gramm. 6; 
Cell. i. 25. 17; Varro vii. 50, 65, 67, 70, 79, 106), Servius Clodius 
(Varro vii. 70. 106), Aelius Stilo, L. Ateius Philol., whose liber 
glossematorum Festus mentions (181 a . 18). 

Verrius Flaccus and his epitomists, Festus and Paulus, have 
preserved many treasures of early glossographers who are now lost to 
us. He copied Aelius Stilo (Reitzenstein, Verr. Forsch.," in vol. i. 
of Breslauer philol. Abhandl., p. 88; Kriegshammer, Comm. phil. 
len. vii. i. 74 sqq.), Aurelius Opilius, Ateius Philol., the treatise 
De obscuris Catonis (Reitzenstein, ib. 56. 92). He often made use of 
Varro (Willers, De Verrio Flacco, Halle, 1898), though not of his 
ling. lot. (Kriegshammer, 74 sqq.); and was also acquainted with 
later glossographers. Perhaps we owe to him the glossae asbestos 
(Goetz, Corpus, iv. ; id., Rhein.- Mus. xl. 328). Festus was used by 
Ps.-Philoxenus (Dammann, " De Festo Ps.-Philoxeni auctore," 
Comm. len. v. 26 sqq.), as appears from the glossae ab absens (Goetz, 
" De Astrabae PI. fragmentis," Ind. len., 1893, iii. sqq.). The 
distinct connexions with Nonius need not be ascribed to borrowing, 
as Plinius and Caper may have been used (P. Schmidt, De Non. Marc, 
auctt. gramm. 145; Nettleship, Led. and Ess. 229; Frohde, De Non. 
Marc, et Verrio Flacco, 2; W. M. Lindsay, " Non. Marc.," Diet, of 
Repub. Latin, 100, &c.). 

The bilingual (Gr.-Lat., Lat.-Gr.) glossaries also point to an early 
period, and were used by the grammarians (i) to explain the peculi- 
arities (idiomata) of the Latin language by comparison with the 
Greek, and (2) for instruction in the two languages (Charis. 254. 
9, 291. 7, 292. 16 sqq. ; Marschall, De Q. Remmii P. libris gramm. 22 ; 
Goetz, Corp. gloss, lat. ii. 6). 

For the purposesof grammatical instruction (Greek for the Romans,. 
Latin for the Hellenistic world), we have systematic works, a trans- 
lation of Dositheus and the so-called Hermeneutica, parts of which 
may be dated as early as the 3rd century A.D., and lexica (cf. 
Schoenemann, De lexicts ant. 122; Knaack, in Phil. Rundsch., 1884,. 
372; Traube, in Byzant. Ztschr. iii. 605; David, Comment. len. v. 
197 sqq.). 

The most important remains of bilingual glossaries are two well- 
known lexica; one (Latin-Greek), formerly attributed (but wrongly ^ 
see Rudorff, in Abh. Akad. Berl., 1865, 220 sq.; Loewe, Prodr. 183, 
190; Mommsen, C.I.L. v. 8120; A. Dammann, De Festo Pseudo- 
philoxeni auctore, 12 sqq.; Goetz, Corp. ii. 1-212) to Philoxenus 
(consul A.D. 525), clearly consists of two closely allied glossaries 
(containing glosses to Latin authors, as Horace, Cicero, Juvenal, 
Virgil, the Jurists, and excerpts from Festus), worked into one by 
some Greek grammarian, or a person who worked under Greek 
influence (his alphabet runs A, B, G, D, E, &c.) ; the other (Greek- 
Latin) is ascribed to Cyril (Stephanus says it was found at the end 
of some of his writings), and is considered to be a compilation of 
not later than the 6th century (Macrobius is used, and the Cod. 
Harl., which is the source of all the other MSS., belongs to the 7th 
century); cf. Goetz, Corp. ii. 215-483, 487-506, praef. ibid. p. 
xx. sqq. Furthermore, the bilingual medico-botanic glossaries had 
their origin in old lists of plants, as Ps.-Apuleius in the treatise 
De herbarum virtutibus, and Ps.-Dioscorides (cf. M. Wellmann, 
Hermes, xxxiii. 360 sqq., who thinks that the latter work is based on 
Pamphilus, q.v.; Goetz, Corp. iii.); the glossary, entitled Herme- 
neuma, printed from the Cod. Vatic, reg. Christ. 1260, contains names 
of diseases. 

Just as grammar developed, so we see the original form of the 
glosses extend. If massucum edacem in Placidus indicates the 
original form, the allied gloss of Festus (masucium edacem a man- 
dendo scilicet) shows an etymological addition. Another extension 
consists in adding special references to the original source, as e.g. 
at the gloss Ocrem (Fest. l8l. 17), which is taken from Ateius 
Philol. In this way collections arose like the priscorum verborum 
cum exemplis, a title given by Fest. (218". 10) to a particular work. 
Further the glossae veterum (Charis. 242. 10) ; the glossae antiquitatum 
(id. 229. 30); the idonei vocum antiquarum enarralores (Cell, xviii. 
6. 8) ; the libri rerum verborumque veterum (id. xiii. 24. 25). L. 



126 



GLOSS, GLOSSARY 



Cincius, according to Festus (33O b . 2), wrote De verbis prtscis ; Santra, 
De antiquitate verborum (Festus 277". 2). 

Of Latin glossaries of the first four centuries of the Roman emperors 
few traces are left, if we except Verrius-Festus. Charis, 229. 30, 
speaks of glossae antiquitatum and 242. 10 of glossae veterum, but it 
is not known whether these glosses are identic, or in what relation 
they stand to the glossemata per litteras Latinas ordine composita, 
which were incorporated with the works of this grammarian according 
to the index in Keil, p. 6. Latin glosses occur in Ps.-Philoxenus, 
and Nonius must have used Latin glossaries; there exists a glos- 
sarium Plautinum (Ritschl, Op. ii. 234 sqq.), and the bilingual 
glossaries have been used by the later grammarian Martyrius; but 
of this early period we know by name only Fulgentius and Placidus, 
who is sometimes called Luctatius Placidus, by confusion with 
the Statius scholiast, with whom the glossae Placidi have no con- 
nexion. All that we know of him tends to show that he lived in 
North Africa (like Fulgentius and Nonius and perhaps Charisius) 
in the 6th century, from whence his glosses came to Spain, and were 
used by Isidore and the compiler of the Liber glossarum (see below). 
These glosses we know from (i) Codices Romani (isth and i6th 
century); (2) the Liber glossarum ; (3) the Cod. Paris, nov. acquis. 
1298 (saec. xi.), a collection of glossaries, in which the Placidus- 
glosses are kept separate from the others, and still retain traces of 
their original order (cf. the editions published by A. Mai, Class, 
auct. iii. 427-503, and Deuerling, 1875; Goetz, Corp. v. ; P. Karl, 
" De Placidi glossis," Comm. len. vii. 2. 99, 103 sqq. ; Loewe, 
Gloss. Nom. 86; F. Biicheler, in Thesaur. gloss, emend.). His 
collection includes glosses from Plautus and Lucilius. 

(Fabius Planciades) Fulgentius (c. A. p. 468-533) wrote Expositio 
sermonum antiquorurn (ed. Rud. Helm, Lips. 1898; cf. Wessner, Com- 
ment, len. vi. 2. 135 sqq.) in sixty-two paragraphs, each containing a 
lemma (sometimes twoor three) with anexplanation givingquotations 
and names of authors. Next to him come the glossae Nonianae, which 
arose ^from the contents of the various paragraphs in Nonius Mar- 
cellus' work being written in the margin without the words of the 
text; these epitomized glosses were alphabetized and afterwards 
copied for other collections (see Goetz, Corp. v. 637 sqq., id. v. 
Praef. xxxv. ; Onions and Lindsay, Harvard Stud. ix. 67 sqq. ; 
Lindsay, Nonii praef. xxi.). In a similar way arose the glossae 
Eucherii or glossae spiritales secundum Eucherium episcopum found 
in many MSS. (cf. K. Wotke, Sitz. Ber. Akad. Wien, cxv. 425 sqq.; 
= the Corpus Glossary, first part), which are an alphabetical extract 
from the formulae spiritalis intelligence of St Eucherius, bishop of 
Lyons, c. 434-450.' 

Other sources were the Differentiae, already known to Placidus and 
much used in the medieval glossaries ; and the Synonyma Ciceronis ; 
cf. Goetz, " Der Liber glossarum," in Abhandl. der philol.-hist. Cl. 
der sacks. Gesellsch. a. Wiss., 1893, p. 215; id. in Berl. philol. 
Wochenschr., 1890, p. 195 sqq.; Beck, in Wochenschr., p. 297 sqq., 
and Sittls, ibid. p. 267; Archiv f. lat. Lex. vi. 594; W. L. Mahne, 
(Leid. 1850, 1851); also various collections of scholia. By the side 
of the scholiasts come the grammarians, as Charisius, or an ars similar 
to that ascribed to him; further, treatises de dubiis generibus, the 
scriptores orlhographici (especially Caper and Beda), and Priscianus, 
the chief grammarian of the middle ages (cf. Goetz in Melanges 
Boissier, 224). 

During the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries glossography developed in 
various ways; old glossaries were worked up into new forms, or 
amalgamated with more recent ones. It ceased, moreover, to be 
exclusively Latin-Latin, and interpretations in Germanic (Old High 
German, Anglo-Saxon) and Romanic dialects took the place of or 
were used side by side with earlier Latin ones. The origin and 
development of the late classic and medieval glossaries preserved 



1 The so-called Malberg glosses, found in various texts of the Lex 
Salica, are not glosses in the ordinary sense of the word, but precious 
remains of the parent of the present literary Dutch, namely, the Low 
German dialect spoken by the Salian Franks who conquered Gaul 
from the Romans at the end of the th century. It is supposed that 
the conquerors brought their Prankish law with them, either written 
down, or by oral tradition; that they translated it into Latin for 
the sake of the Romans settled in the country, and that the trans- 
lators, not always knowing a proper Latin equivalent for certain 
things or actions, retained in their translations the Prankish technical 
names or phrases which they had attempted to translate into Latin. 
E.g. in chapter ii., by the side of " porcellus lactans " (a sucking-pig), 
we find the Frankish " chramnechaltio," lit. a stye-porker. The 
person who stole such a pig (still kept in an enclosed place, in a stye) 
was fined three times as much as one who stole a " porcellus de campo 
qui sine matre vivere possit," as the Latin text has it, for which the 
Malberg technical expression appears to have been ingymus, that is, 
a one year (winter) old animal, i.e. a yearling. Nearly all these 
glosses are preceded by " mal " or " malb," which is thought to be 
a contraction for " malberg," the Frankish for " forum." The 
antiquity and importance of these glosses for philology may be 
realized from the fact that the Latin translation of the Lex Salica 




Salica. 



to us can be traced with certainty. While reading the manuscript 
texts of classical authors, the Bible or early Christian and profane 
writers, students and teachers, on meeting with any obscure or out- 
of-the-way words which they considered difficult to remember or to 
require elucidation, wrote above them, or in the margins, interpreta- 
tions or explanations in more easy or better-known words. The 
interpretations _ written above the line are called " interlinear," 
those written in the margins of the MSS. " marginal glosses." 
Again, MSS. of the Bible or portions of the Bible were often provided 
with literal translations in the vernacular written above the lines of 
the Latin version (interlinear versions). 

Of such glossed MSS. or translated texts, photographs may be 
seen in the various palaeographical works published in recent years; 
cf. The Palaeogr. Society, 1st ser. vol. ii. pis. q (Terentius MS. of 
4th or 5th century, interlinear glosses) and 24 (Augustine's epistles, 
6th or 7th century, marginal glosses); see further, plates 10, 12, 
33. 4. 50-54, 57, 58, 63, 73, 75, 80; vol. iii. plates 10, 24, 31, 39, 
44, 54- 80. 

From these glossed or annotated MSS. and interlinear versions 
glossaries were compiled; that is, the obscure and difficult Latin 
words, together with the interpretations, were excerpted and 
collected in separate lists, in the order in which they appeared, one 
after the other, in the MSS., without any alphabetical arrangement, 
but with the names of the authors or the titles of the books whence 
they were taken, placed at the head of each separate collection or 
chapter. In this arrangement each article by itself is called a gloss; 
when reference is made only to the word explained it is called the 
lemma, while the explanation is termed the interpretamentum. 
In most cases the form of the lemma was retained just as it stood 
in its source, and explained by a single word (tesca: sancta, 
Varro vii. 10; clucidatus: suavis, id. vii. 107; cf. Isid. Etym. i. 
30. I, " quid enim illud sit in uno verbo positum declarat [sett. 
glossa] ut conticescere est tacere "), so that we meet with lemmata 
in the accusative, dative and genitive, likewise explained by words 
in the same cases; the forms of verbs being treated in the same way. 
Of this first stage in the making of glossaries, many traces are 
preserved, for instance, in the late 8th century Leiden Glossary 
(Voss. 69, ed. J. H. Hessels), where chapter iii. contains words or 
glosses excerpted from the Life of St Martin by Sulpicius Severus ; 
chs. iv., v. and_xxxv. glosses from Rufinus; chs. vi. and xl. from 
Gildas; chs. vii. to xxv. from books of the Bible (Paralipomenon; 
Proverbs, &c., &c.); chs. xxvi. to xlviii. from Isidore, the Vita S. 
Anthonii, Cassiodorus, St Jerome, Cassianus, Orosius, St Augustine, 
St Clement, Eucherius, St Gregory, the grammarians Donatus, 
Phocas, &c. (See also Goetz, Corp. v. 546. 23-547. 6. and i. 5-40 
from Ovid's Metam. ; v. 657 from Apuleius, De deo Socratis; cf. 
Landgraf, in Arch. ix. 174). 

By a second operation the glosses came to be arranged in alpha- 
betical order according to the first letter of the lemma, but still re- 
tained in separate chapters under the names of authors or the titles 
of books. Of this second stage the Leiden Glossary contains traces 
also: ch. i. (Verba de Canonibus) and ii. (Sermones de Regulis); see 
Goetz, Corp. v. 529 sqq. (from Terentius), iv. <j.27 sqq. (Virgil). 

The third operation collected all the accessible glosses in alpha- 
betical order, in the first instance according to the first letters of the 
lemmata. In this arrangement the names of the authors or the titles 
of the books could no longer be preserved, and consequently the 
sources whence the glosses were excerpted became uncertain, 
especially if the grammatical forms of the lemmata had been 
normalized. 

A fourth arrangement collected the glosses according to the first 
two letters of the lemmata, as in the Corpus Glossary and in the still 
earlier Cod. Vat. 3321 (Goetz, Corp. iv. I sqq.), where even many 
attempts were made to arrange them according to the first three 
letters of the alphabet. A peculiar arrangement is seen in the 
Glossae affatim (Goetz, Corp. iv. 471 sqq.), where all words are 
alphabetized, first according to the initial letter of the word (a, b, c, 
&c.), and then further according to the first vowel in the word 
(a, e, i, o, u). 

No date or period can be assigned to any of the above stages or 
arrangements. For instance, the first and second are both found in 
the Leiden Glossary, which dates from the end of the 8th century, 
whereas the Corpus Glossary, written in the beginning of the same 
century, represents already the fourth stage. 

For the purpose of identification titles have of late years been 
given to the various nameless collections of glosses, derived partly 
From their first lemma, partly from other characteristics, as glossae 
abstrusae glossae abavus major and minor ; g. affatim ; g. ab absens ; 
g. abactor; g. Abba Pater; g. a, a; g. Vergttianae; g. nominum 
(Goetz, Corp. ii. 563, iv.); g. Sangallenses (Warren, Transact. 
Amer. Philol. Assoc. xv., 1885, p. 141 sqq.). 

A chief landmark in glossography is represented by the Origines 
(Etymologiae) of Isidore (d. 636), an encyclopedia in which he, like 
Cassiodorus, mixed human and divine subjects together. In many 
places we can trace his sources, but he also used glossaries. His work 
became a great mine for later glossographers. In the tenth book he 
deals with the etymology of many substantives and adjectives 
arranged alphabetically according to the first letter of the words, 
perhaps by himself from various sources. His principal source 
is Servius, then the fathers of the Church (Augustine, Jerome, 



GLOSS, GLOSSARY 



127 



Lactantius) and Donatus the grammarian. This tenth book was 
also copied and used separately, and mixed up with other works 
(cf. Loewe, Prodr. 167. 21). Isidore's Differentiae have also had a 
great reputation. 

Next comes the Liber glossarum, chiefly compiled from Isidore, 
but all articles arranged alphabetically; its author lived in Spain 
c. A.D. 690-750; he has been called Ansileubus, but not in any of 
the MSS., some of which belong to the 8th century; hence this name 
is suspected to be merely that of some owner of a copy of the book 
(cf. Goetz, " Der Liber Glossarum," in AbKandl. der philol.-hist. 
Class, der kon. sacks. Ges. xiii., 1893; id., Corp. v., praef. xx. 161). 

Here come, in regard to time, some Latin glossaries already largely 
mixed with Germanic, more especially Anglo-Saxon interpretations : 

(1) the Corpus Glossary (ed. J. H. Hessels), written in the beginning 
of the 8th century, preserved in the library of Corpus Christi College, 
Cambridge; (2) the Leiden Glossary (end of 8th century, ed. Hessels; 
another edition by Plac. Glogger), preserved in the Leiden MS. Voss. 
Q- 69: (3) the Epinal Glossary, written in the beginning of the 9th 
century 1 and published in facsimile by the London Philol. Society 
from a MS. in the town library at Epinal; (4) the Glossae Amplo- 
nianae, i.e. three glossaries preserved in the Amplonian library at 
Erfurt, known as Erfurt 1 , Erfurt 2 and Erfurt'. The first, published 
by Goetz (Corp. v. 337-401; cf. also Loewe, Prodr. 114 sqq.) with 
the various readings of the kindred Epinal, consists, like the latter, 
of different collections of glosses (also some from Aldhelm), some 
arranged alphabetically according to the first letter of the lemma, 
others according to the first two letters. The title of Erfurt 2 (incipit 
II. conscriptio glosarum in unam) shows that it is also a combination 
of various glossaries; it is arranged alphabetically according to the 
first two letters of the lemmata, and contains the affatim and abavus 
maior glosses, also a collection from Aldhelm; Erfurt 3 are the 
Glossae nominunt, mixed also with Anglo-Saxon interpretations 
(Goetz, Corp. ii. 563). The form in which the three Erfurt glossaries 
have come down to us points back to the 8th century. 

The first great glossary or collection of various glosses and glossaries 
is that of Salomon, bishop of Constance, formerly abbot of St Gall, 
who died A.D. 919. An edition of it in two parts was printed c. 1475 
at Augsburg, with the headline Salemonis ecclesie Constantiensis 
episcopi glosse ex illustrissimis collecte auctoribus. The oldest MSS. 
of this work date from the nth century. Its sources are the Liber 
glossarum (Loewe, Prodr. 234 sqq.), the glossary preserved in the 
9th-century MS. Lat. Monac. 14429 (Goetz, " Lib. Gloss." 35 sqq.), 
and the great Abavus Gloss (id., ibid. p. 37; id., Corp. iv. praef. 
xxxvii.). 

The Lib. glossarum has also been the chief source for the important 
(but not original) glossary of Papias, of A.D. 1053 (cf. Goetz in Sitz. 
Ber. Akad. Munch., 1903, p. 267 sqq., who enumerates eighty-seven 
M SS. ofthei2thtothel5th centuries) , of whom we only know that he 
lived among clerics and dedicated his work to his two sons. An 
edition of it was published at Milan " per Dominicum de Vespolate " 
on the I2th of December 1476; other editions followed in 1485, 
1491, 1496 (at Venice). He also wrote a grammar, chiefly compiled 
from Priscianus (Hagen, Anecd. Helv. clxxix. sqq.). 

The same Lib. gloss, is the source (i) for the Abba Pater Glossary 
(cf. Goetz, ibid. p. 39), published by G. M. Thomas (Sitz. Ber. Akad. 
Munch., 1868, ii. 369 sqq.); (2) the Greek glossary Absida lucida 
(Goetz, ib. p. 41); and (3) the Lat.-Arab. glossary in the Cod. Leid. 
Seal. Orient. No. 231 (published by Seybold in Semit. Studien, Heft 
xv.-xvii., Berlin, 1900). 

The Paulus-Glossary (cf. Goetz, " Der Liber Glossarum," p. 215) is 
compiled from the second Salomon-Glossary (abacti magistratus), 
the Abavus major and the Liber glossarum, with a mixture of 
Hebraica. Many of his glosses appear again in other compilations, 
as in the Cod. Vatic. 1469 (cf. Goetz, Corp. v. 520 sqq.), mixed up 
with glosses from Beda, Placidus, &c. (cf. a glossary published by 
Ellis in Amer. Journ. of Philol. vi. 4, vii. 3, containing besides 
Paulus glosses, also excerpts from Isidore; Cambridge Journ. of 
Philol. viii. 71 sqq., xiv. 81 sqq.). 

Osbern of Gloucester (c. 1 123-1200) compiled the glossary entitled 
Panormia (published by Angelo Mai as Thesaurus novus Latinitatis, 
from Cod. Vatic, reg. Christ. 1392; cf. W. Meyer, Rhein. Mus. 
xxix., 1874; Goetz in Sitzungsber. sacks. Ges. d. Wiss., 1903, p. 133 
sqq.; Berichte lib. die Verhandl. der kon. sacks. Gesellsch. der Wiss., 
Leipzig, 1902); giving derivations, etymologies, testimonia collected 
from Paulus, Priscianus, Plautus, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Mart. 
Capella, Macrobius, Ambrose, Sidonius, Prudentius, Josephus, 
Jerome, &c., &c. Osbern's material was also used by Hugucio, 
whose compendium was still more extensively used (cf. Goetz, I.e., 
p. 121 sqq., who enumerates one hundred and three MSS. of his 
treatise), and contains many biblical glosses, especially Hebraica, 
some treatises on Latin numerals, &c. (cf. Hamann, Weitere Mitteil. 
aus dem BrevUoquus Benthemianus, Hamburg, 1882; A. Thomas, 
"Glosses provengales in<$d." in Romania, xxxiv. p. 177 sqq; P. 
Toynbee, ibid. xxv. p. 537 sqq.). 

The great work of Johannes de Janua, entitled Summa quae 
vocatur catholicon, dates from the year 1286, and treats of (i) accent, 

(2) etymology, (3) syntax, and (4) so-called prosody, i.e. a lexicon, 

1 Anglo-Saxon scholars ascribe an earlier date to the text of the 
MS. on account of certain archaisms in its Anglo-Saxon words. 



which also deals with quantity. It mostly uses Hugucio and Papias ; 
its classical quotations are limited, except from Horace ; it quotes the 
Vulgate by preference, frequently independently from Hugucio; 
it excerpts Priscianus, Donatus, Isidore, the fathers of the Church, 
especially Jerome, Gregory, Augustine, Ambrose; it borrows 
many Hebrew glosses, mostly from Jerome and the other collections 
then in use; it mentions the Graecismus of Eberhardus Bethuniensis, 
the works of Hrabanus Maurus, the Doctrinale of Alexander de Villa 
Dei, and the Aurora of Petrus de Riga. Many quotations from the 
Catholicon in Du Cange are really from Hugucio, and may be traced 
to Osbern. There exist many MSS. of this work, and the Mainz 
edition of 1460 is well known (cf. Goetz in Berichte rib. die Verhandl. 
der kon. sdchs. Gesellsch. der Wiss., Leipzig, 1902). 

The gloss MSS. of the gth and loth centuries are numerous, but a 
diminution becomes visible towards the nth. We then find gram- 
matical treatises arise, for which also glossaries were used. The chief 
material was (i) the Liber glossarum; (2) the Paulus glosses; (3) 
the A bavus major ; (4) excerpts from Priscian and glosses to Priscian ; 
(5) Hebrew-biblical collections of proper names (chiefly from Jerome). 
After these comes medieval material, as the derivationes which are 
found in many MSS. (cf. Goetz in Sitzungsber. sdchs. Ges. d. Wiss., 
I93. P- 136 sqq.; Traube in Archiv f. lat. Lex. vi. 264), containing 
quotations from Plautus, Ovid, Juvenal, Persius, Terence, occasion- 
ally from Priscian, Eutyches, and other grammarians, with etymo- 
logical explanations. These derivationes were the basis for the 
grammatical works of Osbern, Hugucio and Joannes of Janua. 

A peculiar feature of the late middle ages are the medico-botanic 
glossaries based on the earlier ones (see Goetz, Corp. iii.). The 
additions consisted in Arabic words with Latin explanations, while 
Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Arabic, interchange with English, French, 
Italian and German forms. Of glossaries of this kind we have (i) 
the Glossae alphita (published by S. de Renzi in the 3rd vol. of the 
Collect. Salernitana, Naples, 1854, from two Paris MSS. of the I4th 
and I5th centuries, but some of the glosses occur already in earlier 
MSS.); (2) Sinonoma Bartholomei, collected by John Mirfeld, 
towards the end of the I4th century, ed. J. L. G. Mowat (Anecd. 
Oxon. i. I, 1882, cf. Loewe, Gloss. Nom. 116 sqq.); it seems to have 
used the same or some similar source as No. i ; (3) the compilations 
of Simon de Janua (Clavis sanationis, end of I3th century), and of 
Matthaeus Silvaticus (Pandectae medicinae, I4th century; cf. 
H. Stadler, " Dioscor. Longob." in Roman. Forsch. x. 3. 371 ; 
Steinmeyer, Althochd. Gloss, iii.). 

Of biblical glossaries we have a large number, mostly mixed with 
glosses on other, even profane, subjects, as Hebrew and other 
biblical proper names, and explanations of the text of the Vulgate 
in general, and the prologues of Hieronymus. So we have the 
Glossae veteris ac novi testamenti (beginning " Prologus graece latine 
praelocutio sive praefatio ") in numerous MSS. of the gth to I4th 
centuries, mostly retaining the various books under separate headings 
(cf. Arevalo, Jsid. vii. 407 sqq.; Loewe, Prodr. 141; Steinmeyer 
iv. 459; S. Berger, De compendiis exegeticis quibusdam medii aevi, 
Paris, 1879). Special mention should be made of Guil. Brito,. who 
lived about 1250, and compiled a Summa (beginning "difficiles studeo 
partes quas Biblia gestat Pandere "), contained in many MSS. especi- 
ally in French libraries. This Summa gave rise to the Mammotrectus 
of Joh. Marchesinus, about 1300, of which we have editions printed 
in 1470, 1476, 1479, &c. 

Finally we may mention such compilations as the Summa Heinrici; 
theworkof Johannes de Garlandia, which he himself calls dictionarius 
(cf. Scheler in Jahrb. f. rom. u. engl. Philol. vi., 1865, p. 142 sqq.); 
and that of Alexander Neckam (ib. vii. p. 60 sqq.), cf. R. Ellis, in 
Amer. Journ. of Phil. x. 2); which are, strictly speaking, not glosso- 
graphic. The BrevUoquus drew its chief material from Papias, 
Hugucio, Brito, &c. (K. Hamann, Mitteil. aus dem BrevUoquus 
Benthemianus, Hamburg, 1879; id., Weitere Mitteil., &c., Hamburg, 
1882); so also the Vocabularium Ex quo; the various Gemmae; 
Vocabularia rerum (cf. Diefenbach, Glossar. Latino-Germanicum). 

After the revival of learning, J. Scaliger (1540-1609) was the first 
to impart to glossaries that importance which they deserve (cf. 
Goetz, in Sitzungsber. sdchs. Ger. d. Wiss., 1888, p. 219 sqq.), and in 
his edition of Festus made great use of Ps.-Philoxenus, which enabled 
O. Miiller, the later editor of Festus, to follow in his footsteps. 
Scaliger also planned the publication of a Corpus glossarum, and left 
behind a collection of glosses known as glossae Istdori (Goetz, Corp. 
v. p. 589 sqq. ; id. in Sitzungsber. sacks. Ges., 1888, p. 224 sqq. ; Loewe, 
Prodr. 23 sqq.), which occurs also in old glossaries, clearly in reference 
to the tenth book of the Etymologiae. 

The study of glosses spread through the publication, in 1573, 
of the bilingual glossaries by H. Stephanus (Estienne), containing, 
besides the two great glossaries, also the Hermeneumata Stephani, 
which is a recension of the Ps.-Dositheana (republished Goetz, 
Corp. iii. 438-474), and the glossae Stephani, excerpted from a 
collection of the Hermeneumata (ib. iii. 438-474). 

In 1600 Bonav. Vulcanius republished the same glossaries, adding 
(i) the glossae Isidori, which now appeared for the first time; (2) 
the Onomasticon; (3) notae and castigationes, derived from Scaliger 
(Loewe, Prodr. 183). 

In 1606 Carolus and Petrus Labbaeus published, with the effective 
help of Scaliger, another collection of glossaries, republished, in 1679, 
by Du Cange, after which the I7th and 1 8th centuries produced no 



i 2 8 GLOSSOP GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF 



further glossaries (Erasm. Nyerup published extracts from the 
Leiden Glossary, Voss. 69, in 1787, Symbolae ad Literal. Teut.), 
though glosses were constantly used or referred to by Salmasius, 
Meursius, Heraldus, Earth, Fabricius and Burman at Leiden, where 
a rich collection of glossaries had been obtained by the acquisition 
of the Vossius library (cf. Loewe, Prodr. 168). In the igth century 
came Osann's Glossarii Latini specimen (1826); the glpssographic 
publications of Angelo Mai (Classici auctores, vols. iii., vi., vu., viii., 
Rome, 1831-1836, containing Osbern's Panormia, Placidus and 
various glosses from Vatican MSS.); Fr. Oehler's treatise (1847) 
on the Cod. Amplonianus of Osbern, and his edition of the three 
Erfurt glossaries, so important for Anglo-Saxon philology; in 1854 
G. F. Hildebrand's Glossarium Latinum (an extract from Abavus 
minor), preserved in a Cod. Paris, lat. 7690; 1857, Thomas Wright's 
vol. of Anglo-Saxon glosses, which were republished with others in 
1884 by R. Paul Wulcker under the title Anglo-Saxon and Old English 
Vocabularies (London, 2 vols., 1857); L. Diefenbach's supplement 
to Du Cange, entitled Glossarium Latino-Germanicum mediae et 
infimae aetatis, containing mostly glosses collected from glossaries, 
vocabularies, &c., enumerated in the preface; Ritschl's treatise 
(1870) on Placidus, which called forth an edition (1875) of Placidus 
by Deuerling; G. Loewe's Prodromus (1876), and other treatises 
by him, published after his death by G. Goetz (Leipzig, 1884); 
1888, the second volume of Goetz's own great Corpus glossariorum 
Latinorum, of which seven volumes (except the first) had seen the 
light by 1907, the last two being separately entitled Thesaurus 
glossarum emendatarum, containing many emendations and correc- 
tions of earlier glossaries by the author and other scholars; 1900, 
Arthur S. Napier, Old English Glosses (Oxford), collected chiefly from 
Aldhelm MSS., but also from Augustine, Avianus, Beda, Boethius, 
Gregory, Isidore, Juvencus, Phocas, Prudentius, &c. 

There are a very great number of gjossaries still in MS. scattered in 
various libraries of Europe, especially in the Vatican.at Monte Cassino, 
Paris, Munich, Bern, the British Museum, Leiden, Oxford, Cambridge, 
&c. Much has already been done to make the material contained in 
these MSS. accessible in print, and much may yet be done with what 
is still unpublished, though we may find that the differences between 
the glossaries which often present themselves at first sight are mere 
differences in form introduced by successive more or less qualified 
copyists. 

Some Celtic (Breton, Cornish, Welsh, Irish) glossaries have been 
preserved to us, the particulars of which may be learnt from the 
publications of Whitley Stokes, Sir John Rhys, Kuno Meyer, L. C. 
Stern, G. I. Ascoli, Heinr. Zimmer, Ernst Windisch, Nigra, and many 
others; these are published separately as books or in Zeuss's Gram- 
matica Celtica, A. Kiihn's Beitrdge zur vergleich. Sprachforschung, 
Zeitschr. fur celtische Philologie, Archiv fur Celtische Lexicographie, 
the Revue celtique. Transactions of the London Philological Society, &c. 

The first Hebrew author known to have used glosses was R. 
Gershom of Metz (1000) in his commentaries on the Talmud. But 
he and other Hebrew writers after him mostly used the Old French 
language (though sometimes also Italian, Slavonic, German) of which 
an example has been published by Lambert and Brandin, in their 
Glossaire hebreu-franc,ais du XIII' siecle: recueil de mots hebreux 
bibliques avec traduction franfaise (Paris, 1905). See further The 
Jewish Encyclopedia (New York and London, 1903), article "Gloss." 

AUTHORITIES. For a great part of what has been said above, the 
writer is indebted to G. Goetz's article on " Latein. Glossographie " 
in Pauly's Realencyklopddie. By the side of Goetz's Corpus stands 
the great collection of Steinmeyer and Sievers, Die allhochdeutschen 
Classen (in 4 vols., 1879-1898), containing a vast number of (also 
Anglo-Saxon) glosses culled from Bible MSS. and MSS. of classical 
Christian authors, enumerated and described in the 4th vol. Besides 
the works of the editors of, or writers on, glosses, already mentioned, 
we refer here to a few others, whose writings may be consulted: 
Hugo Bltimner; Catholicon Anglicum (ed. Hertage); De-Vit (at 
end of Forcellini's Lexicon); F. Deycks; Du Cange; Funck; 
J. H. Gallee (Altsdchs. Sprachdenkm., 1894); Grober; K. Gruber 
(Hauptquellen des Corpus, pin. u. Erfurt Gloss., Erlangen, 1904) ; 
Hattemer; W. Heraeus (Die Sprache des Petronius und die Classen, 
Leipzig, 1899); Kettner; Kluge; Krumbacher; Lagarde; Land- 
graf ; Marx; W. Meyer-Lubke (" Zu den latein. Glossen " in 
Wiener Stud. xxv. 90 sqq.); Henry Nettleship; Niedermann, 
Notes d'etymol. lat. (Macon, 1902), Contribut. d la critique des glosses 
latines (Neuchatel, 1905); Pokrowskii; Quicherat; Otto B. 
Schlutter (many important articles in Anglia, Englische Studien, 
Archiv f. latein. Lexicographie, &c.); Scholl; Scnuchardt; Leo 
Sommer; Stadler; Stowasser; Strachan; H. Sweet; Usener 
(Rhein. Mus. xxiii. 496, xxiv. 382) ; A. Way, Promptorium parvulorum 
sive clericorum (3 vols., London, 1843-1865) ; Weyman; Wilmanns (in 
Rhein. Mus. xxiv. 363) ; Wolfflin in Arch, fur lat.Lexicogr.; Zupitza. 
Cf. further, the various volumes of the following periodicals: 
Romania; Zeitschr. fiir deutsches Alterthum; Anglia; Englische 
Studien; Journal of English and German Philology (ed. Cook and 
Karsten); Archiv fiir latein. Lexicogr., and others treating of philo- 
logy, lexicography, grammar, &c. (J. H. H.) 

GLOSSOP, a market town and municipal borough, in the 
High Peak parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, on 
the extreme northern border of the county; 13 m. E. by S. of 



Manchester by the Great Central railway. Pop. (1901) 21,526. 
It is the chief seat of the cotton manufacture in Derbyshire, 
and it has also woollen and paper mills, dye and print works, 
and bleaching greens. The town consists of three main divisions, 
the Old Town (or Glossop proper), Howard Town (or Glossop 
Dale) and Mill Town. An older parish church was replaced by 
that of All Saints in 1830; there is also a very fine Roman 
Catholic church. In the immediate neighbourhood is Glossop 
Hall, the seat of Lord Howard, lord of the manor, a picturesque 
old building with extensive terraced gardens. On a hill near the 
town is Melandra Castle, the site of a Roman fort guarding 
Longdendale and the way into the hills of the Peak District. 
In the neighbourhood also a great railway viaduct spans the 
Dinting valley with sixteen arches. To the north, in Longden- 
dale, there are five lakes belonging to the water-supply system 
of Manchester, formed by damming the Etherow, a stream which 
descends from the high moors north-east of Glossop. The town 
is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 
3052 acres. 

Glossop was granted by Henry I. to William Peverel, on the 
attainder of whose son it reverted to the crown. In 1157 it 
was gifted by Henry II. to the abbey of Basingwerk. Henry 
VIII. bestowed it on the earl of Shrewsbury. It was made a 
municipal borough in 1866. 

GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The English 
earldom of Gloucester was held by several members of the royal 
family, including Robert, a natural son of Henry I., and John, 
afterwards king, and others, until 1218, when Gilbert de Clare 
was recognized as earl of Gloucester. It remained in the family 
of Clare (q.v.) until 1314, when another Earl Gilbert was killed 
at Bannockburn; and after this date it was claimed by various 
relatives of the Clares, among them by the younger Hugh le 
Despenser (d. 1326) and by Hugh Audley (d. 1347), both of whom 
had married sisterspf Earl Gilbert. In 1397 Thomas le Despenser 
( I 373- 1 4) a descendant of the Clares, was created earl of 
Gloucester; but in 1399 he was degraded from his earldom 
and in January 1400 was beheaded. 

The dukedom dates from 1385, when Thomas of Woodstock, 
a younger son of Edward III., was created duke of Gloucester, 
but his honours were forfeited when he was found guilty of 
treason in 1397. The next holder of the title was Humphrey, 
a son of Henry IV., who was created duke of Gloucester in 1414. 
He died without sons in 1447, and in 1461 the title was revived 
in favour of Richard, brother of Edward IV., who became king 
as Richard III. in 1483. 

In 1659 Henry (1639-1660), a brother of Charles II., was 
formally created duke of Gloucester, a title which he had borne 
since infancy. This prince, sharing the exile of the Stuarts, had 
incensed his mother, Queen Henrietta Maria, by his firm ad- 
herence to the Protestant religion, and had fought among the 
Spaniards at Dunkirk in 1658. Having returned to England 
with Charles II., he died unmarried in London on the i3th of 
September 1660. The next duke was William (1680-1700), 
son of the princess Anne, who was, after his mother, the heir to 
the English throne, and who was declared duke of Gloucester by 
his uncle, William III., in 1689, but no patent for this creation 
was ever passed. William died on the 3oth of July 1700, and 
again the title became extinct. 

Frederick Louis, the eldest son of George II., was known 
for some time as duke of Gloucester, but when he was raised to 
the peerage in 1726 it was as duke of Edinburgh only. In 1764 
Frederick's third son, William Henry (1743-1805), was created 
duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh by his brother, George III. 
This duke's secret marriage with Maria (d. 1807), an illegitimate 
daughter of Sir Edward Walpole and widow of James, 2nd 
Earl Waldegrave, in 1766, greatly incensed his royal relatives 
and led to his banishment from court. Gloucester died on the 
25th of August 1805, leaving an only son, William Frederick 
(17 76-1834), who now became duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh. 
The duke, who served with the British army in Flanders, married 
his cousin Mary (1776-1857), a daughter of George III. He 
died on the 3Oth of November 1834, leaving no children, and his 




GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF 



widow, the last survivor of the family of George III., died on the 
3Oth of April 1857. 

GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE, EARL OF (1243-1295), 
was a son of Richard de Clare, 7th earl of Gloucester and 8th 
earl of Clare, and was born at Christchurch, Hampshire, on the 
2nd of September 1243. Having married Alice of Angouleme, 
half-sister of king Henry III., he became earl of Gloucester 
and Clare on his father's death in July 1262, and almost at once 
joined the baronial party led by Simon de Montfort, earl of 
Leicester. With Simon Gloucester was at the battle of Lewes 
in May 1264, when the king himself surrendered to him, and 
after this victory he was one of the three persons selected to 
nominate a council. Soon, however, he quarrelled with Leicester. 
Leaving London for his lands on the Welsh border he met 
Prince Edward, afterwards king Edward I., at Ludlow, just 
after his escape from captivity, and by his skill contributed 
largely to the prince's victory at Evesham in August 1265. But 
this alliance was as transitory as the one with Leicester. Glou- 
cester took up the cudgels on behalf of the barons who had 
surrendered at Kenilworth in November and December 1266, 
and after putting his demands before the king, secured possession 
of London. This happened in April 1267, but the earl quickly 
made his peace with Henry III. and with Prince Edward, and, 
having evaded an obligation to go on the Crusade, he helped 
to secure the peaceful accession of Edward I. to the throne 
in 1272. Gloucester then passed several years in fighting in 
Wales, or on the Welsh border; in 1289 when the barons were 
asked for a subsidy he replied on their behalf that they would 
grant nothing until they saw the king in person (nisi prius 
pcrsonaliter videreiil in Anglia Jaciem regis), and in 1291 he was 
fined and imprisoned on account of his violent quarrel with 
Humphrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford. Having divorced his 
wife Alice, he married in 1290 Edward's daughter Joan, or 
Johanna (d. 1307). Earl Gilbert, who is sometimes called the 
" Red," died at Monmouth on the 7th of December 1295, 
leaving in addition to three daughters a son, Gilbert, earl of 
Gloucester and Clare, who was killed at Bannockburn. 

See C. Bdmont, Simon de Montfort, comte de Leicester (1884), and 
G. W. Prothero, Simon de Montfort (1877). 

GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY, DUKE OF (1391-1447), fourth 
son of Henry IV. by Mary de Bohun, was born in 1391. He was 
knighted at his father's coronation on the nth of October 
1399, and created duke of Gloucester by Henry V. at Leicester 
on the i6th of May 1414. He served in the war next year, 
and was wounded at Agincourt, where he owed his life to his 
brother's valour. In April 1416 Humphrey received the emperor 
Sigismund at Dover and, according to a 16th-century story, 
did not let him land till he had disclaimed all title to imperial 
authority in England. In the second invasion of France 
Humphrey commanded the force which during 1418 reduced 
the Cotentin and captured Cherbourg. Afterwards he joined 
the main army before Rouen, and took part in subsequent 
campaigns till January 1420. He then went home to replace 
Bedford as regent in England, and held office till Henry's 
own return in February 1421. He was again regent for his 
brother from May to September 1422. 

Henry V. measured Humphrey's capacity, and by his will 
named him merely deputy for Bedford in England. Humphrey 
at once claimed the full position of regent, but the parliament 
and council allowed him only the title of protector during 
Bedford's absence, with limited powers. His lack of discretion 
soon justified this caution. In the autumn of 1422 he married 
Jacqueline of Bavaria, heiress of Holland, to whose lands 
Philip of Burgundy had claims. Bedford, in the interest of so 
important an ally, endeavoured vainly to restrain his brother. 
Finally in October 1424 Humphrey took up arms in his wife's 
behalf, but after a short campaign in Hainault went home, 
and left Jacqueline to be overwhelmed by Burgundy. Return- 
ing to England in April 1425 he soon entangled himself in a 
quarrel with the council and his uncle Henry Beaufort, and 
stirred up a tumult in London. Open war was averted only by 
Beaufort's prudence, and Bedford's hurried return. Humphrey 
xii. 5 



129 

had charged his uncle with disloyalty to the late and present 
kings. With some difficulty Bedford effected a formal reconcilia- 
tion at Leicester in March 1426, and forced Humphrey to accept 
Beaufort's disavowal. When Bedford left England next year 
Humphrey renewed his intrigues. But one complication was 
removed by the annulling in 1428 of his marriage with Jacqueline. 
His open adultery with his mistress, Eleanor Cobham, also made 
him unpopular. To check his indiscretion the council, in 
November 1429, had the king crowned, and so put an end to 
Humphrey's protectorate. However, when Henry VI. was soon 
afterwards taken to be crowned in France, Humphrey was made 
lieutenant and warden of the kingdom, and thus ruled England 
for nearly two years. His jealousy of Bedford and Beaufort 
still continued, and when the former died in 1435 there was no 
one to whom he would defer. The defection of Burgundy roused 
English feeling, and Humphrey won popularity as leader of the 
war party. In 1436 he commanded in a short invasion of 
Flanders. But he had no real power, and his political im- 
portance lay in his persistent opposition to Beaufort and the 
councillors of his party. In 1439 he renewed his charges against 
his uncle without effect. His position was further damaged by 
his connexion with Eleanor Cobham, whom he had now married. 
In 1441 Eleanor was charged with practising sorcery against 
the king, and Humphrey had to submit to see her condemned, 
and her accomplices executed. Nevertheless, he continued 
his political opposition, and endeavoured to thwart Suffolk, 
who was now taking Beaufort's place in the council, by opposing 
the king's marriage to Margaret of Anjou. Under Suffolk's 
influence Henry VI. grew to distrust his uncle altogether. The 
crisis came in the parliament of Bury St Edmunds in February 
1447. Immediately on his arrival there Humphrey was arrested, 
and four days later, on the 23rd of February, he died. Rumour 
attributed his death to foul play. But his health had been long 
undermined by excesses, and his end was probably only hastened 
by the shock of his arrest. 

Humphrey was buried at St Albans Abbey, in a fine tomb, 
which still exists. He was ambitious and self-seeking, but 
unstable and unprincipled, and, lacking the fine qualities of his 
brothers, excelled neither in war nor in peace. Still he was a 
cultured and courtly prince, who could win popularity. He 
was long remembered as the good Duke Humphrey, and in his 
lifetime was a liberal patron of letters. He had been a great 
collector of books, many of which he presented to the university 
of Oxford. He contributed also to the building of the Divinity 
School, and of the room still called Duke Humphrey's library. 
His books were dispersed at the Reformation and only three 
volumes of his donation now remain in the Bodleian library. 
Titus Livius, an Italian in Humphrey's service, wrote a life 
of Henry V. at his patron's bidding. Other Italian scholars, 
as Leonardo Aretino, benefited by his patronage. Amongst 
English men of letters he befriended Reginald Pecock, Whet- 
hamstead of St Albans, Capgrave the historian, Lydgate, and 
Gilbert Kymer, who was his physician and chancellor of Oxford 
university. A popular error found Humphrey a fictitious tomb 
in St Paul's Cathedral. The adjoining aisle, called Duke 
Humphrey's Walk, was frequented by beggars and needy 
adventurers. Hence the 16th-century proverb " to dine with 
Duke Humphrey," used of those who loitered there dinner- 
less. 

The most important contemporary sources are Stevenson's Wars 
of the English in France, Whethamstead's Register, and Beckington's 
Letters (all in Rolls Sen), with the various London Chronicles, and 
the works of Waurin and Monstrelet. For his relations with 
Jacqueline see F. von Loher's Jacobda von Bayern und ihre Zeit 
('2 vols., Nordlingen, 1869). For other modern authorities consult 
W. Stubbs's Constitutional History; ]. H. Ramsay's Lancaster and 
York ; Political History of England, vol. iv. ; R. Pauli, Pictures of 
Old England, pp. 373-401 (1861); and K. H. Viekers, Humphrey, 
Duke oj Gloucester (1907). For Humphrey's correspondence with 
Piero Candido Decembrio see the English Historical Review, vols. 
x., xix., xx. (C. L. K.) 

GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE, EARL OF (1222-1262), 
was a son of Gilbert de Clare, 6th earl of Gloucester and 7th 
earl of Clare, and was born on the 4th of August 1222, succeeding 



GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF 



130 

to his father's earldoms on the death of the latter in October 
1 230. His first wife was Margaret, daughter of Hubert de Burgh, 
and after her death in 1237 he married Maud, daughter of John de 
Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and passed his early years in tournaments 
and pilgrimages, taking for a time a secondary and undecided 
part in politics. He refused to help Henry III. on the French 
expedition of 1250, but was afterwards with' the king at Paris; 
then he went on a diplomatic errand to Scotland, and was sent 
to Germany to work among the princes for the election of his 
stepfather, Richard, earl of Cornwall, as king of the Romans. 
About 1258 Gloucester took up his position as a leader of the 
barons in their resistance to the king, and he was prominent 
during the proceedings which followed the Mad Parliament at 
Oxford in 1258. In 1259, however, he quarrelled with Simon dc 
Montfort, earl of Leicester; the dispute, begun in England, 
was renewed in France and he was again in the confidence and 
company of the king. This attitude, too, was only temporary, 
and in 1261 Gloucester and Leicester were again working in 
concord. The earl died at his residence near Canterbury on the 
1 5th of July 1 262. A large landholder like his son and successor, 
Gilbert, Gloucester was the most powerful English baron of his 
time; he was avaricious and extravagant, but educated and able. 
He left several children in addition to Earl Gilbert. 

GLOUCESTER, ROBERT, EARL OF (d. 1147), was a natural 
son of Henry I. of England. He was born, before his father's 
accession, at Caen in Normandy; but the exact date of his birth, 
and his mother's name are unknown. He received from his 
father the hand of a wealthy heiress, Mabel of Gloucester, 
daughter of Robert Fitz Hamon, and with her the lordships 
of Gloucester and Glamorgan. About 1121 the earldom of 
Gloucester was created for his benefit. His rank and territorial 
influence made him the natural leader of the western baronage. 
Hence, at his father's death, he was sedulously courted by the 
rival parties of his half-sister the empress Matilda and of Stephen. 
After some hesitation he declared for the latter, but tendered 
his homage upon strict conditions, the breach of which should be 
held to invalidate the contract. Robert afterwards alleged that 
he had merely feigned submission to Stephen with the object 
of secretly furthering his half-sister's cause among the English 
barons. The truth appears to be that he was mortified at finding 
himself excluded from the inner councils of the king, and so 
resolved to sell his services elsewhere. Robert left England for 
Normandy in 1137, renewed his relations with the Angevin 
party, and in 1 138 sent a formal defiance to the king. Returning 
to England in the following year, he raised the standard of 
rebellion in his own earldom with such success that the greater 
part of western England and the south Welsh marches were 
soon in the possession of the empress. By the battle of Lincoln 
(Feb. 2, 1141), in which Stephen was taken prisoner, the earl 
made good Matilda's claim to the whole kingdom. He accom- 
panied her triumphal progress to Winchester and London; but 
was unable to moderate the arrogance of her behaviour. Con- 
sequently she was soon expelled from London and deserted by 
the bishop Henry of Winchester who, as legate, controlled the 
policy of the English church. With Matilda the earl besieged 
the legate at Winchester, but was forced by the royalists to beat 
a hasty retreat, and in covering Matilda's flight fell into the 
hands of the pursuers. So great was his importance that his 
party purchased his freedom by the release of Stephen. The earl 
renewed the struggle for the crown and continued it until his 
death (Oct. 31, 1147); but the personal unpopularity of Matilda, 
and the estrangement of the Church from her cause, made his 
efforts unavailing. His loyalty to a lost cause must be allowed 
to weigh in the scale against his earlier double-dealing. But he 
hardly deserves the extravagant praise which is lavished upon 
him by William of Malmesbury. The sympathies of the chronicler 
are too obviously influenced by the earl's munificence towards 
literary men. 

See the Historia novella by William of Malmesbury (Rolls edition) ; 
the Historia Anglorum by Henry of Huntingdon (Rolls edition); 
J. H. Round's Geoffrey de Mandeville (1892) ; and O. RSssler's 
Kaiserin Mathilde (Berlin, 1897). (H. W. C. D.) 



GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, DUKE OF (1355- 
i397)> seventh and youngest son of the English king Edward III., 
was born at Woodstock on the 7th of January 1355. Having 
married Eleanor (d. 1399), daughter and co-heiress of Humphrey 
de Bohun, earl of Hereford, Essex and Northampton (d. 1373), 
Thomas obtained the office of constable of England, a position 
previously held by the Bohuns, and was made earl of Buckingham 
by his nephew, Richard II., at the coronation in July 1377. 
He took part in defending the English coasts against the attacks 
of the French and Castilians, after which he led an army through 
northern and central France, and besieged Nantes, which town, 
however, he failed to take. 

Returning to England early in 1381, Buckingham found that 
his brother, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, had married 
his wife's sister, Mary Bohun, to his own son, Henry, afterwards 
King Henry IV. The relations between the brothers, hitherto 
somewhat strained, were not improved by this proceeding, as 
Thomas, doubtless, was hoping to retain possession of Mary's 
estates. Having taken some part in crushing the rising of the 
peasants in 1381, Buckingham became more friendly with 
Lancaster; and while marching with the king into Scotland in 
1385 was created duke of Gloucester, a mark of favour, however, 
which did not prevent him from taking up an attitude of hostility 
to Richard. Lancaster having left the country, Gloucester 
placed himself at the head of the party which disliked the royal 
advisers, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk and Robert de Vere, 
earl of Oxford, whose recent elevation to the dignity of duke of 
Ireland had aroused profound discontent. The moment was 
propitious for interference, and supported by those who were 
indignant at the extravagance and incompetence, real or alleged, 
of the king, Gloucester was soon in a position of authority. He 
forced on the dismissal and impeachment of Suffolk; was a 
member of the commission appointed in 1386 to reform the 
kingdom and the royal household; and took up arms when 
Richard began proceedings against the commissioners. Having 
defeated Vere at Radcot in December 1387 the duke and his 
associates entered London to find the king powerless in their 
hands. Gloucester, who had previously threatened his uncle 
with deposition, was only restrained from taking this extreme 
step by the influence of his colleagues; but, as the leader of the 
" lords appellant " in the " Merciless Parliament," which met 
in February 1388 and was packed with his supporters, he took 
a savage revenge upon his enemies, while not neglecting to add 
to his own possessions. 

He was not seriously punished when Richard regained his 
power in May 1389, but he remained in the background, although 
employed occasionally on public business, and accompanying the 
king to Ireland in 1394. In 1396, however, uncle and nephew were 
again at variance. Gloucester disliked the peace with France and 
Richard's second marriage with Isabella, daughter of King 
Charles VI. ; other causes of difference were not wanting, and it 
has been asserted that the duke was plotting to seize the king. At 
all events Richard decided to arrest him. By refusing an invita- 
tion to dinner the duke frustrated the first attempt, but on the 
nth of July 1397 he was arrested by the king himself at his 
residence, Pleshey castle in Essex. He was taken at once to 
Calais, and it is probable that he was murdered by order of the 
king on the gth of September following. The facts seem to be as 
follows. At the beginning of September it was reported that he 
was dead. The rumour, probably a deliberate one, was false, and 
about the same time a justice, Sir William Rickhill (d. 1407), 
was sent to Calais with instructions dated the I7th of August to 
obtain a confession from Gloucester. On the 8th of September 
the duke confessed that he had been guilty of treason, and his 
death immediately followed this avowal. Unwilling to meet his 
parliament so soon after his uncle's death, Richard's purpose was 
doubtless to antedate this occurrence, and to foster the impression 
that the duke had died from natural causes in August. When 
parliament met in September he was declared guilty of treason 
and his estates forfeited. Gloucester had one son, Humphrey 
(c. 1381-1399), who died unmarried, and four daughters, the 
most notable of whom was Anne (c. 1380-1438), who was 




GLOUCESTER 



successively the wife of Thomas, 3rd earl of Stafford, Edmund, sth 
earl of Stafford, and William Bourchier, count of Eu. Gloucester 
is supposed to have written L'Ordonnance d'Anglelerre pour le 
camp a I'outrance, ou gaige de bataille. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. See T. Walsingham, Historic. Anglicana, edited 
by H. T. Riley (London, 1863-1864); The Monk of Evesham, 
Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II., edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 
1729); Chronique de la traison et mart de Richard II, edited by B. 
Williams (London, 1846); J. Froissart, Chroniques, edited by S. 
Luce and G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897); W. Stubbs, Constitutional 
History, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896); J. Tait in Owens College Historical 
Essays and S. Armitage-Smith, John of Gaunt (London, 1904). 

GLOUCESTER (abbreviated as pronounced Glo'sler), a city, 
county of a city, municipal and parliamentary borough and port, 
and the county town of Gloucestershire, England, on the left 
(east) bank of the river Severn, 1 14 m. W.N.W. of London. Pop. 
(1901) 47,9SS- It is served by the Great Western railway and 
the west-and-north branch of the Midland railway; while the 
Berkeley Ship Canal runs S.W. to Sharpness Docks in the Severn 
estuary (i6| m.). Gloucester is situated on a gentle eminence 
overlooking the Severn and sheltered by the Cotteswolds on the 
east, while the Malverns and the hills of the Forest of Dean rise 
prominently to the west and north-west. 

The cathedral, in the north of the city near the river, originates 
in the foundation of an abbey of St Peter in 681, the foundations 
of the present church having been laid by Abbot Serlo (1072- 
1104); and Walter Froucester (d. 1412) its historian, became its 
first mitred abbot in 1381. Until 1541, Gloucester lay in the see 
of Worcester, but the separate see was then constituted, with 
John Wakeman, last abbot of Tewkesbury, for its first bishop. 
The diocese covers the greater part of Gloucestershire, with small 
parts of Herefordshire and Wiltshire. The cathedral may be 
succinctly described as consisting of a Norman nucleus, with 
additions in every style of Gothic architecture. It is 420 ft. long, 
and 144 ft. broad, with a beautiful central tower of the isth 
century rising to the height of 225 ft. and topped by four graceful 
pinnacles. The nave is massive Norman with Early English 
roof; the crypt also, under the choir, aisles and chapels, is 
Norman, as is the chapter-house. The crypt is one of the four 
apsidal cathedral crypts in England, theothersbeingat Worcester, 
Winchester and Canterbury. The south porch is Perpendicular, 
with fan-tracery roof, as also is the north transept, the south 
being transitional Decorated. The choir ;has Perpendicular 
tracery over Norman work, with an apsidal chapel on each side. 
The choir-vaulting is particularly rich, and the modern scheme 
of colouring is judicious. The splendid late Decorated east 
window is partly filled with ancient glass. Between the apsidal 
chapels is a cross Lady chapel, and north of the nave are the 
cloisters, with very early example of fan-tracery, the carols or 
stalls for the monks' study and writing lying to the south. The 
finest monument is the canopied shrine of Edward II. who was 
brought hither from Berkeley. By the visits of pilgrims to this 
the building and sanctuary were enriched. In a side-chapel, too, 
is a monument in coloured bog oak of Robert Curthose, a great 
benefactor to the abbey, the eldest son of the Conqueror, who was 
interred there; and those of Bishop Warburton and Dr Edward 
Jenner are also worthy of special mention. A musical festival 
(the Festival of the Three Choirs) is held annually in this cathedral 
and those of Worcester and Hereford in turn. Between 1873 
and 1890 and in 1897 the cathedral was extensively restored, 
principally by Sir Gilbert Scott. Attached to the deanery is the 
Norman prior's chapel. In St Mary's Square outside the Abbey 
gate, Bishop Hooper suffered martyrdom under Queen Mary in 

1555- 

Quaint gabled and timbered houses preserve the ancient aspect 
of the city. At the point of intersection of the four principal 
streets stood the Tolsey or town hall, replaced by a modern 
building in 1894. None of the old public buildings, in fact, isleft, 
but the New Inn in Northgate Street is a beautiful timbered 
house, strong and massive, with external galleries and courtyards, 
built in 1450 for the pilgrims to Edward II. 's shrine, by Abbot 
Sebroke, a traditional subterranean passage leading thence to the 
cathedral. The timber is principally chestnut. There are a large 



number of churches and dissenting chapels, and it may have 
been the old proverb, " as sure as God's in Gloucester," which 
provoked Oliver Cromwell to declare that the city had " more 
churches than godliness." Of the churches four are of special 
interest: St Mary de Lode, with a Norman tower and chancel, 
and a monument of Bishop Hooper, on the site of a Roman 
temple which became the first Christian church in Britain; St 
Mary de Crypt, a cruciform structure of the 1 2th century, with 
later additions and a beautiful and lofty tower; the church of 
St Michael, said to have been connected with the ancient abbey of 
St Peter; and St Nicholas church, originally of Norman erection, 
and possessing a tower and other portions of later date. In the 
neighbourhood of St Mary de Crypt are slight remains of Grey- 
friars and Blackfriars monasteries, and also of the city wall. 
Early vaulted cellars remain under the Fleece and Saracen's 
Head inns. 

There are three endowed schools: the College school, refounded 
by Henry VIII. as part of the cathedral establishment; the 
school of St Mary de Crypt, founded by Dame Joan Cooke in the 
same reign; and Sir Thomas Rich's Blue Coat hospital for 34 
boys (1666). At the Crypt school the famous preacher George 
Whitefield (1714-1770) was educated, and he preached his first 
sermon in the church. The first Sunday school was held in 
Gloucester, being originated by Robert Raikes, in 1780. 

The noteworthy modern buildings include the museum and 
school of art and science, the county gaol (on the site of a Saxon 
and Norman castle), the Shire Hall and the Whitefield memorial 
church. A park in the south of the city contains a spa, a chaly- 
beate spring having been discovered in 1814. West of this, 
across the canal, are the remains (a gateway and some walls) of 
Llanthony Priory, a cell of the mother abbey in the vale of 
Ewyas, Monmouthshire, which in the reign of Edward IV. became 
the secondary establishment. 

Gloucester possesses match works, foundries, marble and 
slate works, saw-mills, chemical works, rope works, flour-mills, 
manufactories of railway wagons, engines and agricultural 
implements, and boat and ship-building yards. Gloucester 
was declared a port in 1882. The Berkeley canal was opened in 
1827. The Gloucester canal-harbour and that at Sharpness on 
the Severn are managed by a board. Principal imports are 
timber and grain; and exports, coal, salt, iron and bricks. 
The salmon and lamprey fisheries in the Severn are valuable. 
The tidal bore in the river attains its extreme height just below 
the city, and sometimes surmounts the weir in the western 
branch of the river, affecting the stream up to Tewkesbury lock. 
The parliamentary borough returns one member. The city is 
governed by a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 
23 1 5 acres. 

History. The traditional existence of a British settlement 
at Gloucester (Caer Glow, Gleawecastre, Gleucestre) is not 
confirmed by any direct evidence, but Gloucester was the Roman 
municipality or colonia of Glevum, founded by Nerva (A.D. 96-98) . 
Parts of the walls can be traced, and many remains and coins 
have been found, though inscriptions (as is frequently the case 
in Britain) are somewhat scarce. Its situation on a navigable 
river, and the foundation in 68 1 of the abbey of St Peter by 
^Ethelred favoured trie growth of the town; and before the 
Conquest Gloucester was a borough governed by a portreeve, 
with a castle which was frequently a royal residence, and a mint. 
The first overlord, Earl Godwine, was succeeded nearly a century 
later by Robert, earl of Gloucester. Henry II. granted the first 
charter in 1155 which gave the burgesses the same liberties 
as the citizens of London and Winchester, and a second charter 
of Henry II. gave them freedom of passage on the Severn. The 
first charter was confirmed in 1 194 by Richard I. The privileges 
of the borough were greatly extended by the charter of John 
(1200) which gave freedom from toll throughout the kingdom 
and from pleading outside the borough. Subsequent charters 
were numerous. Gloucester was incorporated by Richard III. 
in 1483, the town being made a county in itself. This charter 
was confirmed in 1489 and 1510, and other charters of incorpora- 
tion were received by Gloucester from Elizabeth in 1 560, James I. 



132 



GLOUCESTER, U.S.A. GLOUCESTERSHIRE 



in 1604, Charles I. in 1626 and Charles II. in 1672. The 
chartered port of Gloucester dates from 1580. Gloucester 
returned two members to parliament from 1275 to 1885, since 
when it has been represented by one member. A seven days' 
fair from the 24th of June was granted by Edward I. in 1302, 
and James I. licensed fairs on the 25th of March and the I7th 
of November, and fairs under these grants are still held on the 
first Saturday in April and July and the last Saturday in 
November. The fair now held on the 28th of September was 
granted to the abbey of St Peter in 1227. A market on Wednes- 
day existed in the reign of John, was confirmed by charter in 
1227 and is still held. The iron trade of Gloucester dates from 
before the Conquest, tanning was carried on before the reign of 
Richard III., pin-making and bell-founding were introduced 
in the i6th, and the long-existing coal trade became important 
in the i8th century. The cloth trade flourished from the i2th 
to the 1 6th century. The sea-borne trade in corn and wine 
existed before the reign of Richard I. 

See W. H. Stevenson, Records of the Corporation of Gloucester 
(Gloucester, 1893) ; Victoria County History, Gloucestershire. 

GLOUCESTER, a city and port of entry of Essex county, 
Massachusetts, U.S.A., beautifully situated on Cape Ann. 
Pop. (1890) 24,651; (1900) 26,121, of whom 8768 were foreign- 
born, including 4388 English Canadians, 800 French Canadians, 
665 Irish, 653 Finns and 594 Portuguese; (1910 census) 
24,398. Area, 53-6 sq. m. It is served by the Boston & Maine 
railway and by a steamboat line to Boston. The surface is 
sterile, naked and rugged, with bold, rocky ledges, and a most 
picturesque shore, the beauties of which have made it a favourite 
summer resort, much frequented by artists. Included within 
the city borders are several villages, of which the principal one, 
also known as Gloucester, has a deep and commodious harbour. 
Among the other villages, all summer resorts, are Annisquam, 
Bay View and Magnolia (so called from the Magnolia glauca, 
which grows wild there, this being probably its most northerly 
habitat) ; near Magnolia are Rafe's Chasm (60 ft. deep and 6-10 ft. 
wide) and Norman's Woe,the scene of the wreck of the "Hesperus " 
(which has only tradition as a basis), celebrated in Longfellow's 
poem. There is some slight general commerce in 1909 the 
imports were valued at $130,098; the exports at $7853 
but the principal business is fishing, and has been since early 
colonial days. The pursuit of cod, mackerel, herring and 
halibut fills up, with a winter coasting trade, the round of 
the year. In this industry Gloucester is the most important 
place in the United States; and is, indeed, one of the greatest 
fishing ports of the world. Most of the adult males are engaged 
in it. The " catch " was valued in 1895 at $3,212,985 and in 
1905 at $3,377,330. The organization of the industry has 
undergone many transformations, but a notable feature is the 
general practice especially since modern methods have necessi- 
tated larger vessels and more costly gear, and correspondingly 
greater capital of profit-sharing; all the crew entering on that 
basis and not independently. There are some manufactures, 
chiefly connected with the fisheries. The total factory product 
in 1905 was valued at $6,920,984, of which the canning and 
preserving of fish represented $4,068,571, and glue represented 
$752,003. An industry of considerable importance is the 
quarrying of the beautiful, dark Cape Ann granite that underlies 
the city and all the environs. 

Gloucester harbour was probably noted by Champlain (as 
La Beauport), and a temporary settlement was made by English 
fishermen sent out by the Dorchester Company of " merchant 
adventurers " in 1623-1625; some of these settlers returned 
to England in 1625, and others, with Roger Conant, the governor, 
removed to what is now Salem. 1 Permanent settlement ante- 
dated 1639 at least, and in 1642 the township was incorporated. 
From Gosnold's voyages onward the extraordinary abundance 
of cod about Cape Ann was well known, and though the first 

1 According to some authorities (e.g. Pringle) a few settlers 
remained on the site of Gloucester, the permanent settlement thus 
dating from 1623 to 1625; of this, however, there is no proof, and 
the contrary opinion is the one generally held. 



settlers characteristically enough tried to live by farming, they 
speedily became perforce a sea-faring folk. The active pursuit of 
fishing as an industry may be dated as beginning about 1700, 
for then began voyages beyond Cape Sable. Voyages to the 
Grand Banks began about 1741. Mackerel was a relatively 
unimportant catch until about 1821, and since then has been 
an important but unstable return; halibut fishing has been 
vigorously pursued since about 1836 and herring since about 
1856. At the opening of the War of Independence Gloucester, 
whose fisheries then employed about 600 men, was second to 
Marblehead as a fishing-port. The war destroyed the fisheries, 
which steadily declined, reaching their lowest ebb from 1820 to 
1840. Meanwhile foreign commerce had greatly expanded. 
The cod take had supported in the i8th century an extensive 
trade with Bilbao, Lisbon and the West Indies, and though 
changed in nature with the decline of the Bank fisheries after 
the War of Independence, it continued large through the first 
quarter of the igth century. Throughout more than half of 
the same century also Gloucester carried on a varied and 
valuable trade with Surinam, hake being the chief article of 
export and molasses and sugar the principal imports. " India 
Square " remains, a memento of a bygone day. About 1850 the 
fisheries revived, especially after 1860, under the influence of 
better prices, improved methods and the discovery of new 
grounds, becoming again the chief economic interest; and since 
that time the village of Gloucester has changed from a picturesque 
hamlet to a fairly modern, though still quaint and somewhat 
foreign, settlement. Gasoline boats were introduced in 1900. 
Ship-building is another industry of the past. The first " schooner " 
was launched at Gloucester in 1713. From 1830 to 1907, 776 
vessels and 5242 lives were lost in the fisheries; but the loss of 
life has been greatly reduced by the use of better vessels and by 
improved methods of fishing. Gloucester became, a city in 1874. 

Gloucester life has been celebrated in many books ; among others 
in Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward's Singular Life and Old Maid's 
Paradise, in Rudyard Kipling's Captains Courageous, and in James 
B. Connolly's Out of Gloucester (1902), The Deep Sea's Toll (1905), 
and The Crested Seas (1907). 

See J. J. Babson, History of the Town of Gloucester (Gloucester, 
1860; with Notes and Additions, on genealogy, 1876, 1891); and 
|. R. Pringle, History of the Town and City of Gloucester (Gloucester, 
1892). 

GLOUCESTER CITY, a city of Camden county, New Jersey, 
U.S.A., on the Delaware river, opposite Philadelphia. Pop. 
(1890) 6564; (1900) 6840, of whom 1094 were foreign-born; 
(1905) 8055; (1910) 9462. The city is served by the West 
Jersey & Seashore and the Atlantic City railways, and by ferry 
to Philadelphia, of which it is a residential suburb. Among 
its manufactures are incandescent gas-burners, rugs, cotton 
yarns, boats and drills. The municipality owns and operates 
the water works. It was near the site of Gloucester City that 
the Dutch in 1623 planted the short-lived colony of Fort Nassau, 
the first European settlement on the Delaware river, but it was 
not until after the arrival of English Quakers on the Delaware, 
in 1677, that a permanent settlement, at first called Axwamus, 
was established on the site of the present city. This was surveyed 
and laid out as a town in 1689. During the War of Independence 
the place was frequently occupied by troops, and a number of 
skirmishes were fought in its vicinity. The most noted of these 
was a successful attack upon a detachment of Hessians on the 
25th of November 1777 by American troops under the command 
of General Lafayette. In 1868 Gloucester City was chartered 
as a city. In Camden county there is a township named 
GLOUCESTER (pop. in 1905, 2300), incorporated in 1798, and 
originally including the present township of Clementon and parts 
of the present townships of Waterford, Union and Winslow. 

GLOUCESTERSHIRE, a county of the west midlands of 
England, bounded N. by Worcestershire, N.E. by Warwickshire, 
E. by Oxfordshire, S.E. by Berkshire and Wiltshire, S. by 
Somerset, and W. by Monmouth and Herefordshire. Its area 
is 1 243-3 sq. m. The outline is very irregular, but three physical 
divisions are well marked the hills, the vale and the forest, 
(i) The first (the eastern part of the county) lies among the 






GLOUCESTERSHIRE 



uplands of the Cotteswold Hills (?..), whose westward face is 
a line of heights of an average elevation of 700 ft., but exceeding 
1000 ft. at some points. This line bisects the county from 
S.W. to N.E. The watershed between the Thames and Severn 
valleys lies close to it, so that Gloucestershire includes Thames 
Head itself, in the south-east near Cirencester, and most of the 
upper feeders of the Thames which join the main stream, from 
narrow and picturesque valleys on the north. (2) The western 
Cotteswold line overlooks a rich valley, that of the lower Severn, 
usually spoken of as " The Vale," or, in two divisions, as the 
vale of Gloucester and the vale of Berkeley. This great river 
receives three famous tributaries during its course through 
Gloucestershire. Near Tewkesbury, on the northern border, 
the Avon joins it on the left and forms the county boundary 
for 4 m. This is the river known variously as the Upper, 
Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Stratford or Shakespeare's Avon, 
which descends a lovely pastoral valley through the counties 
named. It is to be distinguished from the Bristol Avon, which 
rises as an eastward flowing stream of the Cotteswolds, in the 
south-east of Gloucestershire, sweeps southward and westward 
through Wiltshire, pierces the hills through a narrow valley 
which becomes a wooded gorge where the Clifton suspension 
bridge crosses it below Bristol, and enters the Severn estuary 
at Avonmouth. For 1 7 m. from its mouth it forms the boundary 
between Gloucestershire and Somersetshire, and for 8 m. it is 
one of the most important commercial waterways in the kingdom, 
connecting the port of Bristol with the sea. The third great 
tributary of the Severn is the Wye. From its mouth in the 
estuary, 8 m. N. of that of the Bristol Avon, it forms the county 
boundary for 16 m. northward, and above this, over two short 
reaches of its beautiful winding course, it is again the boundary. 
(3) Between the Wye and the Severn lies a beautiful and historic 
tract, the forest of Dean, which, unlike the majority of English 
forests, maintains its ancient character. Gloucestershire has 
thus a share in the courses of five of the most famous of English 
rivers, and covers two of the most interesting physical districts 
in the country. The minor rivers of the county are never long. 
The vale is at no point within the county wider than 24 m., and 
so does not permit the formation of any considerable tributary 
to the Severn from the Dean Hills on the one hand or the 
Cotteswolds on the other. The Leadon rises east of Hereford, 
forms part of the north-western boundary, and joins the Severn 
near Gloucester, watering the vale of Gloucester, the northern 
part of the vale. In the southern part, the vale of Berkeley, 
the Stroudwater traverses a narrow, picturesque and populous 
valley, and 'the Little Avon flows past the town of Berkeley, 
joining the Severn estuary on the left. The Frome runs south- 
ward to the Bristol Avon at Bristol. The principal northern 
feeders of the Thames are the Churn (regarded by some as 
properly the headwater of the main river) rising in the Seven 
Springs, in the hills above Cheltenham, and forming the southern 
county boundary near its junction with the Thames at Cricklade; 
the Coin, a noteworthy trout-stream, joining above Lechlade, 
and the Lech (forming part of the eastern county boundary) 
joining below the same town; while from the east of the county 
there pass into Oxfordshire the Windrush and the Evenlode, 
much larger streams, rising among the bare uplands of the 
northern Cotteswolds. 

Geology. No county in England has a greater variety of geological 
formations. The pre-Cambnan is represented by the gneissic rocks 
at the south end of the Malvern Hills and by grits at Huntley. 
At Damory, Charfield and Woodford is a patch of greenstone, the 
cause of the upheaval of the Upper Silurian basin ofTortworth, in 
which are the oldest stratified rocks of the county. Of these the Upper 
Llandovery is the dominant stratum, exposed near Damory mill, 
Micklewood chase and Purton passage, wrapping round the base of 
May and Huntley hills, and reappearing in the vale of Woolhope. 
The Wenlock limestone is exposed at Falfield mill and Whitfield, 
and quarried for burning at May hill. The Lower Ludlow shales or 
mudstones are seen at Berkeley and Purton, where the upper part 
is probably Aymestry limestone. The series of sandy shales and 
sandstones which, as Downton sandstones and Ledbury shales, 
form a transition to the Old Red Sandstone are quarried at Dymock. 
The " Old Red " itself occurs at Berkeley, Tortworth Green, Thorn- 
bury, and several places in the Bristol coal-field, in anticlinal folds 



forming hills. It forms also the great basin extending from Ross to 
Monmouth and from Dymock to Mitcheldean, Abenhall, Blakeney, 
&c., within which is the Carboniferous basin of the forest. It is cut 
through by the Wye from Monmouth to Woolaston. This formation 
is over 8000 ft. thick in the forest of Dean. The Bristol and Forest 
Carboniferous basins lie within the synclinal folds of the Old Red 
Sandstone ; and though the seams of coal have not yet been corre- 
lated, they must have been once continuous, as further appears from 
the existence of an intermediate basin, recently pierced, under the 
Severn. The lower limestone shales are 500 ft. thick in the Bristol 
area and only 165 in the forest, richly fossiliferous and famous for 
their bone bed. The great marine series known as the Mountain 
Limestone, forming the walls of the grand gorges of the Wye and 
Avon, is over 2000 ft. thick in the latter district, but only 480 in the 
former, where it yields the brown hematite in pockets so largely 
worked for iron even from Roman times. It is much used too for 
lime and road metal. Above this comes the Millstone Grit, well seen 
at Brandon hill, where it is 1000 ft. in thickness, though but 455 
in the forest. On this rest the Coal Measures, consisting in the 
Bristol field of two great series, the lower 2000 ft. thick with 36 
seams, the upper 3000 ft. with 22 seams, 9 of which reach 2 ft. in 
thickness. These two series are separated by over 1700 ft. of hard 
sandstone (Pennant Grit), containing only 5 coal-seams. In the 
Forest coal-field the whole series is not 3000 ft. thick, with but 15 
seams. At Durdham Down a dolomitic conglomerate, of the age 
known as Keuper or Upper Trias, rests unconformably on the edges 
of the Palaeozoic rocks, and is evidently a shore deposit, yielding 
dinosaurian remains. Above the Keuper clays come the Penarth 
beds, of which classical sections occur at Westbury, Aust, &c. The 
series consists of grey marls, black paper shales containing much 
pyrites and a celebrated bone bed, the Gotham landscape marble, 
and the White Lias limestone, yielding Oslrea Liass-ica and Cardium 
Rhaeticum. The district of Over Severn is mainly of Keuper marls. 
The whole vale of Gloucester is occupied by the next formation, the 
Lias, a warm sea deposit of clays and clayey limestones, characterized 
by ammonites, belemnites and gigantic saurians. At its base is 
the insect-bearing limestone bed. The pastures producing Gloucester 
cheese are on the clays of the Lower Lias. The more calcareous 
Middle Lias or marlstone forms hillocks flanking the Oolite escarp- 
ment of the Cotteswolds, as at Wotton-under-Edge and Churchdown. 
The Cotteswolds consist of the great limestone series of the Lower 
Oolite. At the base is a transition series of sands, 30 to 40 ft. thick, 
well developed at Nailsworth and Frocester. Leckhampton hill is 
a typical section of the Lower Oolite, where the sands are capped by 
40 ft. of a remarkable pea grit. Above this are 147 ft. of freestone, 
j ft. of polite marl, 34 ft. of upper freestone and 38 ft. of ragstone. 
The Painswick stone belongs to lower freestone. Resting on the 
Inferior Oolite, and dipping with it to S.E., is the " fuller's earth," 
a rubbly limestone about 100 ft. thick, throwing out many of the 
springs which form the head waters of the Thames. Next comes 
the Great or Bath Oolite, at the base of which are the Stonesfield 
" slate " beds, quarried for roofing, paling, &c., at Sevenhampton and 
elsewhere. From the Great Oolite Minchinhampton stone is obtained, 
and at its top is about 40 ft. of flaggy Oolite with bands of clay 
known as the Forest Marble. Ripple marks are abundant on the 
flags; in fact all the Oolites seem to have been near shore or in 
shallow water, much of the limestone being merely comminuted 
coral. The highest bed of the Lower Oolite is the Cornbrash, about 
40 ft. of rubble, productive in corn, forming a narrow belt from 
Siddington to Fairford. Near the latter town and Lechlade is a 
small tract of blue Oxford Clay of the Middle Oolite. The county has 
no higher Secondary or Tertiary rocks; but the Quaternary series 
is represented by much northern drift gravel in the vale and Over 
Severn, by accumulations of Oolitic detritus, including post-Glacial 
extinct mammalian remains on the flanks of the Cotteswolds, and by 
submerged forests extending from Sharpness to Gloucester. 

Agriculture. The climate is mild. Between three-quarters and 
seven-eighths of the total area is under cultivation, and of this some 
four-sevenths is in permanent pasture. Wheat is the chief grain 
crop. In the vale the deep rich black and red loamy soil is well 
adapted for pasturage, and a moist mild climate favours the growth 
of grasses and root crops. The cattle, save on the frontier of Here- 
fordshire, are mostly shorthorns, of which many are fed for distant 
markets, and many reared and kept for dairy purposes. The rich 
grazing tract of the vale of Berkeley produces the famous " double 
Gloucester " cheeses, and the vale in general has long been celebrated 
for cheese and butter. The vale of Gloucester is the chief grain- 
growing district. Turnips, &c., occupy about three-fourths of the 
green crop acreage, potatoes occupying only about a twelfth. A 
feature of the county is its apple and pear orchards, chiefly for the 
manufacture of cider and perry, which are attached to nearly every 
farm. The Cotteswold district is comparatively barren except in 
the valleys, but it has been famous since the isth century for the 
breed of sheep named after it. Oats and barley are here the chief 
crops. 

Other Industries. The manufacture of woollen cloth followed upon 
the early success in sheep-farming among the Cotteswolds. This 
industry is not confined to the hill country or even to Gloucestershire 
itself in the west of England. The description of cloth principally 
manufactured is broadcloth, dressed with teazles to produce a short 



134 



GLOUCESTERSHIRE 



close nap on the face, and made of all shades of colour, but chiefly 
black, blue and scarlet. The principal centre of the industry lies 
in and at the foot of the south-western Cotteswolds. Stroud is the 
centre for a number of manufacturing villages, and south-west of 
this are Wotton-under-Edge, North Nibley and others. .Machinery 
and tools, paper, furniture, pottery and glass are also produced. 
Ironstone, clay, limestone and sandstone are worked, and the 
coal-fields in the forest of Dean are important. Of less extent is the 
field in the south of the county, N.E. of Bristol. Strontium sulphate 
is dug from shallow pits in the red marl of Gloucestershire and 
Somersetshire. 

Communications. Railway communications are provided princi- 
pally by the Great Western and Midland companies. Of the Great 
Western lines, the main line serves Bristol from London. It divides 
at Bristol, one section serving the south-western counties, another 
South Wales, crossing beneath the Severn by the Severn Tunnel, 
4$ m. in length, a remarkable engineering work. A more direct 
route, by this tunnel, between London and South Wales, is provided 
by a line from Wootton Bassett on the main line, running north of 
Bristol by Badminton and Chipping Sodbury. Other Great Western 
lines are that from Swindon on the main line, by the Stroud valley 
to Gloucester, crossing the Severn there, and continuing by the right 
bank of the river into Wales, with branches north-west into Hereford- 
shire; the Oxford and Worcester trunk line, crossing the north-east 
of the county, connected with Cheltenham and Gloucester by a 
branch through the Cotteswolds from Chipping Norton junction; 
and the line from Cheltenham by Broadway to Honeybourne. 
The west-and-north line of the Midland railway follows the vale 
from Bristol by Gloucester and Cheltenham with a branch into the 
forest of Dean by Berkeley, crossing the Severn at Sharpness by a 
great bridge 1387 yds. in length, with 22 arches. The coal-fields of 
the forest of Dean are served by several branch lines. In the north, 
Tewkesbury is served by a Midland branch from Ashchurch to 
Malvern. The Midland and South-western Junction railway runs 
east and south from Cheltenham by Cirencester, affording com- 
munication with the south of England. The East Gloucester line 
of the Great Western from Oxford terminates at Fairford. The 
Thames and Severn canal, rising to a summit level in the tunnel 
through the Cotteswolds at Sapperton, is continued from Wallbridge 
(Stroud) by the Stroudwater canal, and gives communication between 
the two great rivers. The Berkeley Ship Canal (i6J m.) connects 
the port of Gloucester with its outport of Sharpness on Severn. 

Population and Administration. The area of the ancient county is 
795,709 acres, with a population in 1891 of 599,947 and in 1901 of 
634,729. The area of the administrative county is 805,482 acres. The 
county contains 28 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Bristol, 
a city and county borough (pop. 328,945) ; Cheltenham (49,439) ; 
Gloucester, a city and county borough (47,955) ; Tewkesbury 
(5419). The other urban districts are Awre (1096), Charlton Kings 
(3806), Circenester (7536), Coleford (254 i),Kingswood, on the eastern 
outskirts of Bristol (11,961), Nailsworth (3028), Newnham (1184), 
Stow-on-the-Wold (1386), Stroud (9153), Tetbury (1989), Westbury- 
on-Severn (1866). The number of small ancient market towns is 
large, especially in the southern part of the vale, on the outskirts 
of the forest, and among the foot hills of the wolds. Those in the 
forest district are mostly connected with the coal trade, such as 
Lydney (3559), besides Awre and Coleford; and, to the north, 
besides Newnham, Cinderford and Mitcheldean. South from Stroud 
there are Minchinhampton (3737) and Nailsworth ; near the south- 
eastern boundary Tetbury and Marshfield; Stonehouse (2183), 
Dursley (2372), Wotton-under-Edge (2992) and Chipping Sodbury 
along the western line of the hills; and between them and the 
Severn, Berkeley and Thornbury (2594). Among the uplands of the 
Cotteswolds there are no towns, and villages are few, but in the east of 
the county, in the upper Thames basin, there are, besides Cirencester, 
Fairford on the Coin and Lechlade, close to the head of the naviga- 
tion on the Thames itself. Far up in the Lech valley, remote from 
railway communication, is Northleach, once a great posting station 
on the Oxford and Cheltenham road. In the north-east are Stow-on- 
the-Wold, standing high, and Moreton-in-the-Marsh near the head- 
waters of the Evenlode. In a northern prolongation of the county, 
almost detached, is Chipping Campden. Winchcomb (2699) lies 
6 m. N.E. of Cheltenham. In the north-west, Newent (2485) is the 
only considerable town. Gloucestershire is in the Oxford circuit, and 
assizes are held at Gloucester. It has one court of quarter sessions, 
and is divided into 24 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs 
of Bristol, Gloucester and Tewkesbury have separate commissions 
of the peace and courts of quarter sessions. There are 359 civil 
parishes. Gloucestershire is principally in the diocese of Gloucester, 
but part is in that of Bristol, and small parts in those of Worcester 
and Oxford. There are 408 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly 
or in part within the county. There are five parliamentary divisions, 
namely, Tewkesbury or northern, Cirencester or eastern, Stroud or 
mid, Thornbury or southern, and Forest of Dean, each returning 
one member. The county also includes the boroughs of Gloucester 
and Cheltenham, each returning one member; and the greater part 
of the borough of Bristol, which returns four members. 

History. The English conquest of the Severn valley began in 
577 with the victory of Ceawlin at Deorham, followed by the 



capture of Cirencester, Gloucester and Bath. The Hwiccas who 
occupied the district were a West Saxon tribe, but their territory 
had become a dependency of Mercia in the 7th century, and 
was not brought under West Saxon dominion until the gth 
century. No important settlements were made by the Danes 
in the district. Gloucestershire probably originated as a shire 
in the loth century, and is mentioned by name in the Anglo- 
Saxon Chronicle in 1016. Towards the close of the nth century 
the boundaries were readjusted to include Winchcomb, hitherto 
a county by itself, and at the same time the forest district between 
the Wye and the Severn was added to Gloucestershire. The 
divisions of the county for a long time remained very unsettled, 
and the thirty-nine hundreds mentioned in the Domesday Survey 
and the thirty-one hundreds of the Hundred Rolls of 1274 differ 
very widely in name and extent both from each other and from 
the twenty-eight hundreds of the present day. 

Gloucestershire formed part of Harold's earldom at the time 
of the Norman invasion, but it offered slight resistance to the 
Conqueror. In the wars of Stephen's reign the cause of the 
empress Maud was supported by Robert of Gloucester who had 
rebuilt the castle at Bristol, and the castles at Gloucester and 
Cirencester were also garrisoned on her behalf. In the barons' 
war of the reign of Henry III. Gloucester was garrisoned for 
Simon de Montfort, but was captured by Prince Edward in 1265, 
in which year de Montfort was slain at Evesham. Bristol and 
Gloucester actively supported the Yorkist cause during the Wars 
of the Roses. In the religious struggles of the i6th century 
Gloucester showed strong Protestant sympathy, and in the 
reign of Mary Bishop Hooper was sent to Gloucester to be burnt 
as a warning to the county, while the same Puritan leanings 
induced the county to support the Parliamentary cause in the 
civil war of the i7th century. In 1643 Bristol and Cirencester 
were captured by the Royalists, but the latter was recovered 
in the same year and Bristol in 1645. Gloucester was garrisoned 
for the parliament throughout the struggle. 

On the subdivision of the Mercian diocese in 680 the greater 
part of modern Gloucestershire was included in the diocese of 
Worcester, and shortly after the Conquest constituted the arch- 
deaconry of Gloucester, which in 1290 comprised the deaneries 
of Campden, Stow, Cirencester, Fairford, Winchcombe, Stone- 
house, Hawkesbury, Bitton, Bristol, Dursley and Gloucester. 
The district west of the Severn, with the exception of a few 
parishes in the deaneries of Ross and Staunton, constituted the 
deanery of the forest within the archdeaconry and diocese of 
Hereford. In 1535 the deanery of Bitton had been absorbed 
in that of Hawkesbury. In 1541 the diocese of Gloucester was 
created, its boundaries being identical with those of the county. 
On the erection of Bristol to a see in 1542 the deanery of Bristol 
was transferred from Gloucester to that diocese. In 1836 the 
sees of Gloucester and Bristol were united; the archdeaconry of 
Bristol was created out of the deaneries of Bristol, Cirencester, 
Fairford and Hawkesbury; and the deanery of the forest was 
transferred to the archdeaconry of Gloucester. In 1882 the 
archdeaconry of Cirencester was constituted to include the 
deaneries of Campden, Stow, Northleach north and south, 
Fairford and Cirencester. In 1897 the diocese of Bristol was 
recreated, and included the deaneries of Bristol, Stapleton and 
Bitton. 

After the Conquest very extensive lands and privileges in the 
county were acquired by the church, the abbey of Cirencester 
alone holding seven hundreds at fee-farm, and the estates of the 
principal lay-tenants were for the most part outlying parcels 
of baronies having their " caput " in other counties. The large 
estates held by William Fitz Osbern, earl of Hereford, escheated 
to the crown on the rebellion of his son Earl Roger in 1074- 
1075. The Berkeleys have held lands in Gloucestershire from 
the time of the Domesday Survey, and the families of Basset, 
Tracy, Clifton, Dennis and Poyntz have figured prominently 
in the annals of the county. Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, 
and Richard of Cornwall claimed extensive lands and privileges 
in the shire in the I3th century, and Simon de Montfort owned 
Minsterworth and Rodley. 




GLOVE 



Bristol was made a county in 1425, and in 1483 Richard III. 
created Gloucester an independent county, adding to it the 
hundreds of Dudston and King's Barton. The latter were 
reunited to Gloucestershire in 1673, but the cities oi Bristol and 
Gloucester continued to rank as independent counties, with 
separate jurisdiction, county rate and assizes. The chief officer 
of the forest of Dean was the warden, who was generally also 
constable of St Briavel Castle. The first justice-seat for the 
forest was held at Gloucester Castle in 1282, the last in 1635. 
The hundred of the duchy of Lancaster is within the jurisdiction 
of the duchy of Lancaster for certain purposes. 

The physical characteristics of the three natural divisions of 
Gloucestershire have given rise in each to a special industry, 
as already indicated. The forest district, until the development 
of the Sussex mines in the i6th century, was the chief iron- 
producing area of the kingdom, the mines having been worked 
in Roman times, while the abundance of timber gave rise to 
numerous tanneries and to an important ship-building trade. 
The hill district, besides fostering agricultural pursuits, gradually 
absorbed the woollen trade from the big towns, which now 
devoted themselves almost entirely to foreign commerce. Silk- 
weaving was introduced in the i;th century, and was especially 
prosperous in the Stroud valley. The abundance of clay and 
building-stone in the county gave rise to considerable manu- 
factures of brick, tiles and pottery. Numerous minor industries 
sprang up in the i;th and i8th centuries, such as flax-growing 
and the manufacture of pins, buttons, lace, stockings, rope and 
sailcloth. 

Gloucestershire was first represented in parliament in 1290, 
when it returned two members. Bristol and Gloucester acquired 
representation in 1295, Cirencester in 1572 and Tewkesbury 
in 1620. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned 
four members in two divisions; Bristol, Gloucester, Cirencester, 
Stroud and Tewkesbury returned two members each, and 
Cheltenham returned one member. The act of 1868 reduced the 
representation of Cirencester andTewkesbury to one member each. 

Antiquities. The cathedrals of Gloucester and Bristol, the 
magnificent abbey church of Tewkesbury, and the church of 
Cirencester with its great Perpendicular porch, are described 
under their separate headings. Of the abbey of Hayles near 
Winchcomb, founded by Richard, earl of Cornwall, in 1246, 
little more than the foundations are left, but these have been 
excavated with great care, and interesting fragments have been 
brought to light. Most of the old market towns have fine parish 
churches. At Deerhurst near Tewkesbury, and Cleeve near 
Cheltenham, there are churches of special interest on account 
of the pre-Norman work they retain. The Perpendicular church 
at Lechlade is unusually perfect; and that at Fairford was 
built (c. 1500), according to tradition, to contain the remarkable 
series of stained-glass windows which are said to have been 
brought from the Netherlands. These are, however, adjudged 
to be of English workmanship, and are one of the finest series 
in the country. The great Decorated Calcot Barn is an interesting 
relic of the monastery of Kingswood near Tetbury. The castle 
at Berkeley is a splendid example of a feudal stronghold. Thorn- 
bury Castle, in the same district, is a fine Tudor ruin, the pre- 
tensions of which evoked the jealousy of Cardinal Wolsey against 
its builder, Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, who was 
beheaded in 1521. Near Cheltenham is the fine isth-century 
mansion of Southam de la Bere, of timber and stone. Memorials 
of the de la Bere family appear in the church at Cleeve. The 
mansion contains a tiled floor from Hayles Abbey. Near 
Winchcomb is Sudeley Castle, dating from the isth century, 
but the inhabited portion is chiefly Elizabethan. The chapel is 
the burial place of Queen Catherine Parr. At Great Badminton 
is the mansion and vast domain of the Beauforts (formerly of 
the Botelers and others), on the south-eastern boundary of the 
county. 

See Victoria County History, Gloucestershire; Sir R. Atkyns, 
The Ancient and Present State of Gloucestershire (London, 1712; 2nd 
ed., London, 1768) ; Samuel Rudder, A New History of Gloucestershire 
(Cirencester, 1779); Ralph Bigland, Historical, Monumental and 



Genealogical Collections relative to the County of Gloucester (2 vols., 
London, 1 79 1 ); Thomas Rudge, The History of the County of Gloucester 
(2 vols., Gloucester, 1803); T. D. Fosbroke Abstract of Records and 
Manuscripts respecting the County of Gloucestershire formed into a 
History (2 vols., Gloucester, 1807); Legends, Tales and Songs in 
the Dialect of the Peasantry of Gloucestershire (London, 1876) ; J. D. 
Robertson, Glossary of Dialect and Archaic Words of Gloucester 
(London, 1890); W. Bazeley and F. A. Hyett, Bibliographers' 
Manual of Gloucestershire (3 vols., London, 1895-1897); W. H. 
Hutton, By Thames and Cotswold (London, 1903). See also Trans- 
actions of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society. 

GLOVE (O. Eng. glof, perhaps connected with Gothic lofa, the 
palm of the hand), a covering for the hand, commonly with a 
separate sheath for each finger. 

The use of gloves is of high antiquity, and apparently was 
known even to the pre-historic cave dwellers. In Homer 
Laertes is described as wearing gloves (xpi5cu eiri xtpai) 
while walking in his garden (Od. xxiv. 230). Herodotus (vi. 
72) tells how Leotychides filled a glove (xpis) with the money 
he received as a bribe, and Xenophon (Cyrop. viii. 8. 17) records 
that the Persians wore fur gloves having separate sheaths for 
the fingers (xpT6as Sacreias /ecu daxrvMiOpas). Among the 
Romans also there are occasional references to the use of gloves. 
According to the younger Pliny (Ep. iii. 5. 15) the secretary 
whom his uncle had with him when ascending Vesuvius wore 
gloves (manicae) so that he might not be impeded in his work 
by the cold, and Varro (R.R. i. 55.1) remarks that olives gathered 
with the bare fingers are better than those gathered with gloves 
(digilabula or digitalia). In the northern countries the general 
use of gloves would be more natural than in the south, and it 
is not without significance that the most common medieval 
Latin word for glove (guanlus or wantus, Mod. Fr. gant) is of 
Teutonic origin (O. H. Ger. want) . Thus in the life of Columbanus 
by Jonas, abbot of Bobbio (d. c. 665), gloves for protecting the 
hands in doing manual labour are spoken of as tegumenta manuum 
quae Galli wantos vacant. Among the Germans and Scandi- 
navians, in the 8th and gth centuries, the use of gloves, fingerless 
at first, would seem to have been all but universal; and in the 
case of kings, prelates and nobles they were often elaborately 
embroidered and bejewelled. This was more particularly the case 
with the gloves which formed part of the pontifical vestments(see 
below). In war and in the chase gloves of leather, or with the 
backs armoured with articulated iron plates, were early worn; yet 
in the Bayeux tapestry the warriors on either side fight ungloved. 
The fact that gloves are not represented by contemporary artists 
does not prove their non-existence, since this might easily be 
an omission due to lack of observation or of skill; but, so far 
as the records go, there is no evidence to prove that gloves were 
in general use in England until the I3th century. It was in 
this century that ladies began to wear gloves as ornaments; 
they were of linen and sometimes reached to the elbow. It 
was, however, not till the i6th century that they reached their 
greatest elaboration, when Queen Elizabeth set the fashion for 
wearing them richly embroidered and jewelled. 

The symbolic sense of the middle ages early gave to the use 
of gloves a special significance. Their liturgical use by the 
Church is dealt with below (Pontifical gloves); this was imitated 
from the usage of civil life. Embroidered and jewelled gloves 
formed part of the insignia of the emperors, and also, and that 
quite early, of the kings of England. Thus Matthew of Paris, 
in recording the burial of Henry II. in 1189, mentions that he 
was buried in his coronation robes, with a golden crown on his 
head and gloves on his hands. Gloves were also found on the 
hands of King John when his tomb was opened in 1797, and on 
those of King Edward I. when his tomb was opened in 1774. 

See W. B. Redfern, Royal and Historic Gloves and Shoes, with 
numerous examples. 

Gages. Of the symbolical uses of the glove one of the most 
widespread and important during the middle ages was the 
practice of tendering a folded glove as a gage for waging one's 
law. The origin of this custom is probably not far to seek. The 
promise to fulfil a judgment of a court of law, a promise secured 
by the delivery of a wed or gage, is one of the oldest, if not the 
very oldest, of all enforceable contracts. This gage was originally 



136 



GLOVE 



a chattel of value, which had to be deposited at once by the 
defendant as security into his adversary's hand; and that the 
glove became the formal symbol of such deposit is doubtless 
due to its being the most convenient loose object for the purpose. 
The custom survived after the contract with the vadium, wed 
or gage had been superseded by the contract with pledges (per- 
sonal sureties). In the rules of procedure of a baronial court 
of the i4th century we find: " He shall wage his law with his 
folded glove (de son gaunt plyee) and shall deliver it into the hand 
of the other, and then take his glove back and find pledges for 
his law." The delivery of the glove had, in fact, become a mere 
ceremony, because the defendant had his sureties close at hand. 1 

Associated with this custom was the use of the glove in the 
wager of battle (vadium in duello). The glove here was thrown 
down by the defendant in open court as security that he would 
defend his cause in arms; the accuser by picking it up accepted 
the challenge (see WAGER). This form is still prescribed for the 
challenge of the king's champion at the coronation of English 
sovereigns, and was actually followed at that of George IV. 
(see CHAMPION). The phrase " to throw down the gauntlet " 
is still in common use of any challenge. 

Pledges of Service. The use of the glove as a pledge of fulfilment 
is exemplified also by the not infrequent practice of enfeoffing 
vassals by investing them with the glove; similarly the emperors 
symbolized by the bestowal of a glove the concession of the right 
to found a town or to establish markets, mints and the like; 
the " hands " in the armorial bearings of certain German towns 
are really gloves, reminiscent of this investiture. Conversely, 
fiefs were held by the render of presenting gloves to the sovereign. 
Thus the manor of Little Holland in Essex was held in Queen 
Elizabeth's time by the service of one knight's fee and the rent of 
a pair of gloves turned .up with hare's skin (Blount's Tenures, 
ed. Beckwith, p. 130). The most notable instance in England, 
however, is the grand serjeanty of finding for the king a glove 
for his right hand on coronation day, and supporting his right 
arm as long as he holds the sceptre. The right to perform 
this " honourable service " was originally granted by William the 
Conqueror to Bertram de Verdun, together with the manor of 
Fernham (Farnham Royal) in Buckinghamshire. The male 
descendants of Bertram performed this serjeanty at the corona- 
tions until the death of Theobald de Verdun in 1316, when the 
right passed, with the manor of Farnham, to Thomas Lord 
Furnival by his marriage with the heiress Joan. His son William 
Lord Furnival performed the ceremony at the coronation of 
Richard II. He died in 1383, and his daughter and heiress Jean 
de Furnival having married Sir Thomas Nevill, Lord Furnival 
in her right, the latter performed the ceremony at the coronation 
of Henry IV. His heiress Maud married Sir John Talbot (ist 
earl of Shrewsbury) who, as Lord Furnival, presented the glove 
embroidered with the arms of Verdun at the coronation of 
Henry V. When in 1541 Francis earl of Shrewsbury exchanged 
the manor of Farnham with King Henry VIII. for the site and 
precincts of the priory of Worksop in Nottinghamshire he 
stipulated that the right to perform this serjeanty should be 
reserved to him, and the king accordingly transferred the 
obligation from Farnham to Worksop. On the 3rd of April 
1838 the manor of Worksop was sold to the duke of Newcastle 
and with it the right to perform the service, which had hitherto 
always been carried out by a descendant of Bertram de Verdun. 
At the coronation of King Edward VII. the earl of Shrewsbury 
disputed the duke of Newcastle's right, on the ground that the 
serjeanty was attached not to the manor but to the priory lands 
at Worksop, and that the latter had been subdivided by sale 
so that no single person was entitled to perform the ceremony 
and the right had therefore lapsed. His petition for a regrant 
to himself as lineal heir of Bertram de Verdun, however, was 

1 F. W. Maitland and W. P. Baildon, The Court Baron (Selden 
Society, London, 1891), p. 17. Maitland wrongly translates gaunt 
plyee as " twisted " glove, adding " why it should be twisted I cannot 
say." An earlier instance of the delivery of a folded glove as gage 
is quoted from the 13th-century Anglo- Norman poem known as The 
Song of Dermott ana the Earl (ed. G. H. Orpen, Oxford, 1892) in 
J. H. Round's Commune of London, p. 153. 



disallowed by the court of claims, and the serjeanty was declared 
to be attached to the manor of Worksop (G. Woods Wollaston, 
Coronation Claims, London, 1903, p. 133). 

Presentations. From the ceremonial and symbolic use of 
gloves the transition was easy to the custom which grew up of 
presenting them to persons of distinction on special occasions. 
When Queen Elizabeth visited Cambridge in 1578 the vice- 
chancellor offered her a " paire of gloves, perfumed and garnished 
with embroiderie and goldsmithe's wourke, price 6os.," and at 
the visit of James I. there in 1615 the mayor and corporation 
of the town " delivered His Majesty a fair pair of perfumed 
gloves with gold laces." It was formerly the custom in England 
for bishops at their consecrations to make presents of gloves to 
those who came to their consecration dinners and others, but this 
gift became such a burden to them that by an order in council 
in 1678 it was commuted for the payment of a sum of 50 towards 
the rebuilding of St Paul's. Serjeants at law, on their appoint- 
ment, were given a pair of gloves containing a sum of money 
which was termed " regards "; this custom is recorded as early 
as 1495, when according to the Black Book of Lincoln's Inn 
each of the new Serjeants received 6, 135. 4d. and a pair of 
gloves costing 4d., and it persisted to a late period. At one time 
it was the practice for a prisoner who pleaded the king's pardon 
on his discharge to present the judges with gloves by way of a 
fee. Glove-silver, according to Jacob's Law Dictionary, was a 
name used of extraordinary rewards formerly given to officers of 
courts, &c., or of money given by the sheriff of a county in which 
no offenders were left for execution to the clerk of assize and 
judge's officers; the explanation of the term is that the glove 
given as a perquisite or fee was in some cases lined with money 
to increase its value, and thus came to stand for money osten- 
sibly given in lieu of gloves. It is still the custom in the United 
Kingdom to present a pair of white gloves to a judge or magis- 
trate who when he takes his seat for criminal business at the 
appointed time finds no cases for trial. By ancient custom 
judges are not allowed to wear gloves while actually sitting on 
the bench, and a witness taking the oath must remove the glove 
from the hand that holds the book. (See J. W. Norton-Kyshe, 
The Law and Customs relating to Gloves, London, 1901.) 

Pontifical gloves (Lat. chirothecae) are liturgical ornaments 
peculiar to the Western Church and proper only to the pope, the 
cardinals and bishops, though the right to wear them is often 
granted by the Holy See to abbots, cathedral dignitaries and 
other prelates, as in the case of the other episcopal insignia. 
According to the present use the gloves are of silk and of the 
liturgical colour of the day, the edge of the opening ornamented 
with a narrow band of embroidery or the like, and the middle of 
the back with a cross. They may be worn only at the celebra- 
tion of mass (except masses for the dead). In vesting, the 
gloves are put on the 1 bishop immediately after the dalmatic, the 
right hand one by the deacon, the other by the subdeacon. They 
are worn only until the ablution before the canon of the mass, 
after which they may not again be put on. 

At the consecration of a bishop the consecrating prelate puts 
the gloves on the new bishop immediately after the mitre, with 
a prayer that his hands may be kept pure, so that the sacrifice he 
offers may be as acceptable as the gift of venison which Jacob, 
his hands wrapped in the skin of kids, brought to Isaac. This 
symbolism (as in the case of the other vestments) is, however, of 
late growth. The liturgical use of gloves itself cannot, according 
to Father Braun, be traced beyond the beginning of the icth 
century, and their introduction was due, perhaps to the simple 
desire to keep the hands clean for the holy mysteries, but more 
probably merely as part of the increasing pomp with which the 
Carolingian bishops were surrounding themselves. From the 
Prankish kingdom the custom spread to Rome, where liturgical 
gloves are first heard of in the earlier half of the nth century. 
The earliest authentic instance of the right to wear them being 
granted to a non-bishop is a bull of Alexander IV. in 1070, con- 
ceding this to the abbot of S. Pietro in Cielo d' Oro. 

During the middle ages the occasions on which pontifical gloves 
(often wanti, guanti, and sometimes manicae in the inventories) 




GLOVER, SIRJ. H. GLOVERSVILLE 



were worn were not so carefully defined as now, the use varying in 
different churches. Nor were the liturgical colours prescribed. 
The most characteristic feature of the medieval pontifical glove 
was the ornament (tasellus, fibula, monile, paralura) set in the 
middle of the back of the glove. This was usually a small plaque 
of metal, enamelled or jewelled, generally round, but sometimes 
square or irregular in shape. Sometimes embroidery was substi- 
tuted; still more rarely the whole glove was covered, even to the 
fingers, with elaborate needlework designs. 

Liturgical gloves have not been worn by Anglican bishops since 
the Reformation, though they are occasionally represented as 
wearing them on their effigies. 

See J. Braun,S.J.,/)Je liturgische Gewandung (Freiburg; im Breisgau, 
I9 o 7)i PP- 359-382, where many beautiful examples are illustrated. 

Manufacture of Gloves. Three countries, according to an old 
proverb, contribute to the making of a good glove Spain 
dressing the leather, France cutting it and England sewing it. 
But the manufacture of gloves was not introduced into Great 
Britain till the loth or nth century. The incorporation of 
glovers of Perth was chartered in 1165, and in 1190 a glove- 
makers' gild was formed in France, with the object of regulating 
the trade and ensuring good workmanship. The glovers of 
London in 1349 framed their ordinances and had them approved 
by the corporation, the city regulations at that time fixing the 
price of a pair of common sheepskin gloves at id. In 1464, when 
the gild received armorial bearings, they do not seem to have 
been very strong, but apparently their position improved sub- 
sequently and in 1638 they were incorporated as a new company. 
In 1 580 it is recorded that both French and Spanish gloves were 
on sale in London shops, and in 1661 a company of glovers was 
incorporated at Worcester, which still remains an important seat 
of the English glove industry. In America the manufacture of 
gloves dates from about 1 760, when Sir William Johnson brought 
over several families of glove makers from Perth; these settled 
in Fulton county, New York, which is now the largest seat of the 
glove trade in the United States. 

Gloves may be divided into two distinct categories, according as 
these are made of leather or are woven or knitted from fibres such as 
silk, wool or cotton. The manufacture of the latter kinds is a branch 
of the hosiery industry. For leather gloves skins of various animals 
are employed deer, calves, sheep and lambs, goats and kids, &c. 
but kids have had nothing to do with the production of many of 
the " kid gloves " of commerce. The skins are prepared and dressed 
by special processes (see LEATHER) before going to the glove-maker 
to be cut. Owing to the elastic character of the material the cutting 
is a delicate operation, and long practice is required before a man 
becomes expert at it. Formerly it was done by shears, the workmen 
following an outline marked on the leather, but now steel dies are 
universally employed not only for the bodies of the gloves but also 
for the thumb-pieces and fourchettes or sides of the fingers. When 
hand sewing is employed the pieces to be sewn together are placed 
between a pair of jaws, the holding edges of which are serrated with 
fine saw-teeth, and the sewer by passing the needle forwards and 
backwards between each of these teeth secures neat uniform stitching. 
But sewing machines are now widely employed on the work. The 
labour of making a glove is much subdivided, different operators 
sewing different pieces, and others again embroidering the back, 
forming the button-holes, attaching the buttons, &c. After the gloves 
are completed, they undergo the process of " laying off," in which 
they are drawn over metal forms, shaped like a hand and heated 
internally by steam; in this way they are finally smoothed and 
shaped before being wrapped in paper and packed in boxes. 

Gloves made of thin indiarubber or of white cotton are worn by 
some surgeons while performing operations, on account of the ease 
with which they can be thoroughly sterilized. 

GLOVER, SIR JOHN HAWLEY (1820-1885), captain in the 
British navy, entered the service in 1841 and passed his examina- 
tion as lieutenant in 1849, but did not receive a commission till 
May 1851. He served on various stations, and was wounded 
severely in an action with the Burmese at Donabew (4th 
February 1853). But his reputation was not gained at sea and 
as a naval officer, but on shore and as an administrative official 
in the colonies. During his years of service as lieutenant in the 
navy he had had considerable experience of the coast of Africa, 
and had taken part in the expedition of Dr W. B. Baikie (1824- 
1864) up the Niger. On the 2ist of April 1863 he was appointed 
administrator of the government of Lagos, and in that capacity, 
or as colonial secretary, he remained there till 1872. During this 



137 

period he had been much employed in repelling the marauding 
incursions of the Ashantis. When the Ashanti war broke out 
in 1873, Captain Glover undertook the hazardous and doubtful 
task of organizing the native tribes, whom hatred of the Ashantis 
might be expected to make favourable to the British authorities 
to the extent at least to which their fears would allow them to act. 
His services were accepted, and in September of 1873 he landed at 
Cape Coast, and, after forming a small trustworthy force of 
Hausa, marched to Accra. His influence sufficed to gather a 
numerous native force, but neither he nor anybody else could 
overcome their abject terror of the ferocious Ashantis to the 
extent of making them fight. In January 1874 Captain Glover 
was able to render some assistance in the taking of Kumasi, 
but it was at the head of a Hausa force. His services were 
acknowledged by the thanks of parliament and by his creation 
as G.C.M.G. In 1875 he was appointed governor of Newfound- 
land and held the post till 1881, when he was transferred to the 
Leeward Islands. He returned to Newfoundland in 1883, and 
died in London on the 3Oth September 1885. 

Lady Glover's Life of her husband appeared in 1897. 

GLOVER, RICHARD (1712-1785), English poet, son of Richard 
Glover, a Hamburg merchant, was born in London in 1712. He 
was educated at Cheam in Surrey. While there he wrote in his 
sixteenth year a poem to the memory of Sir Isaac Newton, which 
was prefixed by Dr Pemberton to hisView of Newton's Philosophy, 
published in 1728. In 1737 he published an epic poem in praise 
of liberty, Leonidas, which was thought to have a special reference 
to the politics of the time; and being warmly commended by the 
prince of Wales and his court, it soon passed through several 
editions. In 1739 Glover published a poem entitled London, or 
the Progress of Commerce; and in the same year, with a view to 
exciting the nation against the Spaniards, he wrote a spirited 
ballad, Hosier's Ghost, very popular in its day. He was also the 
author of two tragedies, Boadicea (1753) and Medea (1761), 
written in close imitation of Greek models. The success of 
Glover's Leonidas led him to take considerable interest in politics, 
and in 1761 he entered parliament as member for Weymouth. 
He died on the 25th of November 1 785. The Alhenaid, an epic in 
thirty books, was published in 1787, and his diary, entitled 
Memoirs of a distinguished literary and political Character from 
1742 to 1757, appeared in 1813. Glover was one of the reputed 
authors of Junius; but his claims which were advocated in an 
Inquiry concerning the author of the Letters of Junius (1815), by 
R. Duppa rest on very slight grounds. 

GLOVERSVILLE, a city of Fulton county, New York, 
U.S.A., at the foot-hills of the Adirondacks, about 55 m. N.W. 
of Albany. Pop. (1890) 13,864; (1000) 18,349, of whom 2542 
were foreign-born; (1910 census) 20,642. It is served by 
the Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville railway (connecting 
at Fonda, about 9 m. distant, with the New York Central), 
and by electric lines connecting with Johnstown, Amsterdam 
and Schenectady. The city has a public library (26,000 
volumes in 1908), the Nathan Littauer memorial hospital, 
a state armoury and a fine government building. Gloversville 
is the principal glove-manufacturing centre in the United 
States. In 1900 Fulton county produced more than 57%, 
and Gloversville 38-8%, of all the leather gloves and mittens 
made in the United States; in 1905 Gloversville produced 29-9% 
of the leather gloves and mittens made in the United States, 
its products being valued at $5,302,196. Gloversville has more 
than a score of tanneries and leather-finishing factories, and 
manufactures fur goods. In 1905 the city's total factory product 
was valued at $9,340,763. The extraordinary localization of the 
glove-making industry in Gloversville, Johnstown and other 
parts of Fulton county, is an incident of much interest in the 
economic history of the United States. The industry seems to 
have had its origin among a colony of Perthshire families, 
including many glove-makers, who were settled in this region by 
Sir William Johnson about 1760. For many years the entire 
product seems to have been disposed of in the neighbourhood, 
but about 1809 the goods began to find more distant markets, 
and by 1825 the industry was firmly established on a prosperous 



GLOW-WORM GLUCK 



basis, the trade being handed down from father to son. An 
interesting phase of the development is that, in addition to the 
factory work, a large amount of the industry is in the hands of 
" home workers " both in the town and country districts. 
Gloversville, settled originally about 1770, was known for some 
time as Stump City, its present name being adopted in 1832. 
It was incorporated as a village in 1851 and was chartered as a 
city in 1890. 

GLOW- WORM, the popular name of the wingless female of 
the beetle Lampyris noctiluca, whose power of emitting light has 
been familiar for many centuries. The luminous organs of the 
glow-worm consist of cells similar to those of the fat-body, 
grouped into paired masses in the ventral region of the hinder 
abdominal segments. The light given out by the wingless 
female insect is believed to serve as an attraction to the flying 
male, whose luminous organs remain in a rudimentary condition. 
The common glow-worm is a widespread European and Siberian 
insect, generally distributed in England and ranging in Scotland 
northwards to the Tay, but unknown in Ireland. Exotic species 
of Lampyris are similarly luminous, and light-giving organs are 
present in many genera of the family Lampyridae from various 
parts of the world. Frequently as in the south European Luciola 
italica both sexes of the beetle are provided with wings, and both 
male and female emit light. These luminous, winged Lampyrids 
are generally known as " fire-flies. " In correspondence with their 
power of emitting light, the insects are nocturnal in habit. 

Elongate centipedes of the family Geophilidae, certain species 
of which are luminous, are sometimes mistaken for the true 
glow-worm. 

GLOXINIA, a charming decorative plant, botanically a species 
of Sinningia (S. speciosd), a member of the natural order Ges- 
neraceae and a native of Brazil. The species has given rise under 
cultivation to numerous forms showing a wonderful variety of 
colour, and hybrid forms have also been obtained between these 
and other species of Sinningia. A good strain of seed will 
produce many superb and charmingly coloured varieties, and 
if sown early in spring, in a temperature of 65 at night, they 
may be shifted on into 6-in. pots, and in these may be flowered 
during the summer. The bulbs are kept at rest through the 
winter in dry sand, in a temperature of 50, and to yield a succession 
should be started at intervals, say at the end of February and 
the beginning of April. To prolong the blooming season, use 
weak manure water when the flower-buds show themselves. 

GLUCINUM, an alternative name for Beryllium (q.v.). When 
L. N. Vauquelin in 1798 published in the Annales de chimie an 
account of a new earth obtained by him from beryl he refrained 
from giving the substance a name, but in a note to his paper 
the editors suggested glucine, from y\vKvs, sweet, in reference 
to the taste of its salts, whence the name Glucinum or Glucinium 
(symbol Gl. or sometimes G). The name beryllium was given 
to the metal by German chemists and was generally used until 
recently, when the earlier name was adopted. 

GLUCK, 1 CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD (1714-1787), operatic 
composer, German by his nationality, French by his place in art, 
was born at Weidenwang, near Neumarkt, in the upper 
Palatinate, on the and of July 1714. He belonged to the lower 
middle class, his father being gamekeeper to Prince Lobkowitz; 
but the boy's education was not neglected on that account. 
From his twelfth to his eighteenth year he frequented the 
Jesuit school of Kommotau in the neighbourhood of Prince 
Lobkowitz's estate in Bohemia, where he not only received a 
good general education, but also had lessons in music. At the 
age of eighteen Gluck went to Prague, where he continued his 
musical studies under Czernohorsky, and maintained himself 
by the exercise of his art, sometimes in the very humble capacity 
of fiddler at village fairs and dances. Through the introductions 
of Prince Lobkowitz, however, he soon gained access to the best 
families of the Austrian nobility; and when in 1736 he proceeded 
to Vienna he was hospitably received at his protector's palace. 
Here he met Prince Melzi, an ardent lover of music, whom he 
accompanied to Milan, continuing his education under Giovanni 
1 Not, as frequently spelt, Gluck. 



Battista San Martini, a great musical historian and contra- 
puntist, who was also famous in his own day as a composer of 
church and chamber music. We soon find Gluck producing 
operas at the rapid rate necessitated by the omnivorous taste 
of the Italian public in those days. Nine of these works were 
produced at various Italian theatres between i?4r and 1745. 
Although their artistic value was small, they were so favourably 
received that in 1745 Gluck was invited to London to compose 
for the Haymarket. The first opera produced there was called 
La Caduta dei giganti; it was followed by a revised version of 
one of his earlier operas. Gluck also appeared in London as a 
performer on the musical glasses (see HARMONICA). 

The success of his two operas, as well as that of a pasticcio 
(i.e. a collection of favourite arias set to a new libretto) entitled 
Piramo e Tisbe, was anything but brilliant, and he accordingly 
left London. But his stay in England was not without important 
consequences for his subsequent career. Gluck at this time was 
rather less than an ordinary producer of Italian opera. Handel's 
well-known saying that Gluck " knew no more counterpoint 
than his cook " must be taken in connexion with the less well- 
known fact that that cook was an excellent bass singer who 
performed in many of Handel's own operas. But it indicates 
the musical reason of Gluck's failure, while Gluck himself learnt 
the dramatic reason through his surprise at finding that arias 
which in their original setting had been much applauded lost 
all effect when adapted to new words in the pasticcio. Irrelevant 
as Handel's criticism appears, it was not without bearing on 
Gluck's difficulties. The use of counterpoint has very little 
necessary connexion with contrapuntal display; its real and 
final cause is a certain depth of harmonic expression which Gluck 
attained only in his most dramatic moments, and for want of 
which he, even in his finest works, sometimes moved very lamely. 
And in later years his own mature view of the importance of 
harmony, which he upheld in long arguments with Gretry, who 
believed only in melody, shows that he knew that the dramatic 
expression of music must strike below the surface. At this 
early period he was simply producing Handelian opera in an 
amateurish style, suggesting an unsuccessful imitation of Hasse; 
but the failure of his pasticcio is as significant to us as it was to 
him, since it shows that already the effect of his music depended 
upon its characteristic treatment of dramatic situations. This 
characterizing power was as yet not directly evident, and it 
needed all the influence of the new instrumental resources of 
the rising sonata-forms before music could pass out of what we 
may call its architectural and decorative period and enter into 
dramatic regions at all. 

It is highly probable that the chamber music of his master, 
San Martini, had already indicated to Gluck a new direction 
which was more or less incompatible with the older art; and 
there is nothing discreditable either to Gluck or to his con- 
temporaries in the failure of his earlier works. Had the young 
composer been successful in the ordinary opera seria, there is 
reason to fear that the great dramatic reform, initiated by him, 
might not have taken place. The critical temper of the London 
public fortunately averted this calamity. It may also be assumed 
that the musical atmosphere of the English capital, and especially 
the great works of Handel, were not without beneficial influence 
upon the young composer. But of still greater importance in 
this respect was a short trip to Paris, where Gluck became for 
the first time acquainted with the classic traditions and the 
declamatory style of the French opera a sphere of music in 
which his own greatest, triumphs were to be achieved. Of 
these great issues little trace, however, is to be found in the works 
produced by Gluck during the fifteen years after his return from 
England. In this period Gluck, in a long course of works by 
no means free from the futile old traditions, gained technical 
experience and important patronage, though his success was 
not uniform. His first opera written for Vienna, La Semiramide 
riconosciuta, is again an ordinary opera seria, and little more 
can be said of Telemacco, although thirty years later Gluck was 
able to use most of its overture and an energetic duet in one of 
his greatest works, Armide. 



GLUCK 



139 



Gluck settled permanently at Vienna in 1756, having two 
years previously been appointed court chapel-master, with a 
salary of 2000 florins, by the empress Maria Theresa. He had 
already received the order of knighthood from the pope in conse- 
quence of the successful production of two of his works in Rome. 
During the long interval from 1756 to 1762 Gluck seems to have 
matured his plans for the reform of the opera; and, barring a 
ballet named Don Giovanni, and some airs nouveaux to French 
words with pianoforte accompaniment, no compositions of any 
importance have to be recorded. Several later pieces d'occasion, 
such as // Trionfo di Clelia (1763), are still written in the old 
manner, though already in 1762 Orfeo ed Euridice shows that the 
composer had entered upon a new career. Gluck had for the 
first time deserted Metastasio for Raniero Calzabigi, who, as 
Vernon Lee suggests, was in all probability the immediate cause 
of the formation of Gluck's new ideas, as he was a hot-headed 
dramatic theorist with a violent dislike for Metastasio, who had 
hitherto dominated the whole sphere of operatic libretto. 

Quite apart from its significance in the history of dramatic 
music, Orpheus is a work which, by its intrinsic beauty, commands 
the highest admiration. Orpheus's air, Che faro, is known to 
every one; but still finer is the great scena in which the poet's 
song softens even the ombre sdegnose of Tartarus. The ascending 
passion of the entries of the solo (Deht placatevi; Mille pene; 
Men tiranne), interrupted by the harsh but gradually softening 
exclamations of the Furies, is of the highest dramatic effect. 
These melodies, moreover, as well as every declamatory passage 
assigned to Orpheus, are made subservient to the purposes of 
dramatic characterization; that is, they could not possibly 
be assigned to any other person in the drama, any more than 
Hamlet's monologue could be spoken by Polonius. It is in this 
power of musically realizing a character a power all but un- 
known in the serious opera of his day that Gluck's genius 
as a dramatic composer is chiefly shown. After a short relapse 
into his earlier manner, Gluck followed up his Orpheus by a 
second classical music-drama (1767) named Alceste. In his 
dedication of the score to the grand-duke of Tuscany, he fully 
expressed his aims, as well as the reasons for his total breach with 
the old traditions. " I shall try," he wrote, " to reduce music 
to its real function, that of seconding poetry by intensifying 
the expression of sentiments and the interest of situations 
without interrupting the action by needless ornament. I have 
accordingly taken care not to interrupt the singer in the heat of 
the dialogue, to wait for a tedious ritornel, nor do I allow him to 
stop on a sonorous vowel, in the middle of a phrase, in order to 
show the nimbleness of a beautiful voice in a long cadenza." 
Such theories, and the stern consistency with which they were 
carried out, were little to the taste of the pleasure-loving 
Viennese; and the success of Alceste, as well as that of Paris 
and Helena, which followed two years later, was not such as 
Gluck had desired and expected. He therefore eagerly accepted 
the chance of finding a home for his art in the centre of intellectual 
and more especially dramatic life, Paris. Such a chance was 
opened to him through the bailli Le Blanc du Roullet, attache of 
the French embassy at Vienna, and a musical amateur who 
entered into Gluck's ideas with enthusiasm. A classic opera 
for the Paris stage was accordingly projected, and the friends 
fixed upon Racine's Iphiginie en Aulide. After some difficulties, 
overcome chiefly by the intervention of Gluck's former pupil 
the dauphiness Marie Antoinette, the opera was at last accepted 
and performed at the Academic de Musique, on the igth of 
April 1774. 

The great importance of the new work was at once perceived 
by the musical amateurs of the French capital, and a hot con- 
troversy on the merits of Iphigenie ensued, in which some of the 
leading literary men of France took part. Amongst the opponents 
of Gluck were not only the admirers of Italian vocalization and 
sweetness, but also the adherents of the earlier French school, who 
refused to see in the new composer the legitimate successor of 
Lulli and Rameau. Marmontel, Laharpe and D'Alembert were 
his opponents, the Abbe Arnaud and others his enthusiastic 
friends. Rousseau took a peculiar position in the struggle. 



In his early writings he is a violent partisan of Italian music, 
but when Gluck himself appeared as the French champion 
Rousseau acknowledged the great composer's genius; although 
he did not always understand it, as for example when he suggested 
that in Alceste, " Divinites du Styx," perhaps the most majestic 
of all Gluck's arias, ought to have been set as a rondo. Neverthe- 
less in a letter to Dr Burney, written shortly before his death, 
Rousseau gives a close and appreciative analysis of Alceste, 
the first Italian version of which Gluck had submitted to him 
for suggestions; and when, on the first performance of the 
piece not being received favourably by the Parisian audience, 
the composer exclaimed, " Alceste est torribee," Rousseau is said 
to have comforted him with the flattering bonmot, " Oui, mats 
elle est tombie du del." The contest received a still more personal 
character when Piccinni, a celebrated and by no means incapable 
composer, came to Paris as the champion of the Italian party 
at the invitation of Madame du Barry, who held a rival court to 
that of the young princess (see OPERA). As a dramatic contro- 
versy it suggests a parallel with the Wagnerian and anti- 
Wagnerian warfare of a later age; but there is no such radical 
difference between Gluck's and Piccinni's musical methods as 
the comparison would suggest. Gluck was by far the better 
musician, but his deficiencies in musical technique were of a 
kind which contemporaries could perceive as easily as they could 
perceive Piccinni's. Both composers were remarkable inventors 
of melody, and both had the gift of making incorrect music 
sound agreeable. Gluck's indisputable dramatic power might 
be plausibly dismissed as irrelevant by upholders of music for 
music's sake, even if Piccinni himself had not chosen, as he 
did, to assimilate every feature in Gluck's style that he could 
understand. The rivalry between the two composers was soon 
developed into a quarrel by the skilful engineering of Gluck's 
enemies. In 1777 Piccinni was given a libretto by Marmontel 
on the subject of Roland, to Gluck's intense disgust, as he had 
already begun an opera on that subject himself. This, and the 
failure of an attempt to show his command of a lighter style by 
furbishing up some earlier works at the instigation of Marie 
Antoinette, inspired Gluck to produce his Armide, which appeared 
four months before Piccinni's Roland was ready, and raised a 
storm of controversy, admiration and abuse. Gluck did not 
anticipate Wagner more clearly in his dramatic reforms than in 
his caustic temper; and, as in Gluck's own estimation the 
difference between Armide and Alceste is that " I'un (Alceste) 
doitfaire.pleurer et I'autrefaire iprouver une wluptueuse sensation," 
it was extremely annoying for him to be told by Laharpe that 
he had made Armide a sorceress instead of an enchantress, and 
that her part was " ttne criaillerie monotone et fatiguante." He 
replied to Laharpe in a long public letter worthy of Wagner in 
its venomous sarcasm and its tremendous value as an advertise- 
ment for its recipient. 

Gluck's next work was Iphiginie en Tauride, the success 
of which finally disposed of Piccinni, who produced a work 
on the same subject at the same time and who is said to have 
acknowledged Gluck's superiority. Gluck's next work was 
clw et Narcisse, the comparative failure of which greatly 
disappointed him; and during the composition of another opera, 
Les Danaides, an attack of apoplexy compelled him to give up 
work. He left Paris for Vienna, where he lived for several 
years in dignified leisure, disturbed only by his declining health. 
He died on the isth of November 1787. (F. H.; D. F. T.) 

The great interest of the dramatic aspect of Gluck's reforms 
is apt to overshadow his merit as a musician, and yet in some 
ways to idealize it. One is tempted to regard him as condoning 
for technical musical deficiencies by sheer dramatic power, 
whereas unprejudiced study of his work shows that where his 
dramatic power asserts itself there is no lack of musical technique. 
Indeed only a great musician could so reform opera as to give it 
scope for dramatic power at all. Where Gluck differs from the 
greatest musicians is in his absolute dependence on literature 
for his inspiration. Where his librettist failed him (as in his 
last complete work, cho et Narcisse), he could hardly write 
tolerably good music; and, even in the finest works of his French 



140 



GLUCK 



period, the less emotional situations are sometimes set to music 
which has little interest except as a document in the history of 
the art. This must not be taken to mean merely that Gluck 
could not, like Mozart and nearly all the great song-writers, 
set good music to a bad text. Such inability would prove 
Gluck 's superior literary taste without casting a slur on his 
musicianship. But it points to a certain weakness as a musician 
that Gluck could not be inspired except by the more thrilling 
portions of his libretti. When he was inspired there was no 
question that he was the first and greatest writer of dramatic 
music before Mozart. To begin with, he could invent sublime 
melodies; and his power of producing great musical effects by 
the simplest means was nothing short of Handelian. Moreover, 
in his peculiar sphere he deserves the title generally accorded 
to Haydn of " father of modem orchestration." It is misleading 
to say that he was the first to use the timbre of instruments 
with a sense of emotional effect, for Bach and Handel well knew 
how to give a whole aria or whole chorus peculiar tone by means 
of a definite scheme of instrumentation. But Gluck did not treat 
instruments as part of a decorative design, any more than he so 
treated musical forms. Just as his sense of musical form is that 
of Philipp Emmanuel Bach and of Mozart, so is his treatment 
of instrumental tone-colour a thing that changes with every 
shade of feeling in the dramatic situation, and not in accordance 
with any purely decorative scheme. To accompany an aria 
with strings, oboes and flutes, was, for example, a perfectly 
ordinary procedure; nor was there anything unusual in making 
the wind instruments play in unison with the strings for the 
first part of the aria, and writing a passage for one or more of 
them in the middle section. But it was ah unheard-of thing to 
make this passage consist of long appoggiaturas once every two 
bars in rising sequence on the first oboe, answered by deep 
pizzicato bass notes, while Agamemnon in despair cries: 
" J'entends retentir dans man sein le cri plaintif de la nature." 
Some of Gluck's most forcible effects are of great subtlety, as, 
for instance, in Iphigenie en Tauride, where Orestes tries to 
reassure himself by saying: " Le calnte rentre dans man casur," 
while the intensely agitated accompaniment of the strings 
belies him. Again, the sense of orchestral climax shown in the 
oracle scene in Alceste was a thing inconceivable in older music, 
and unsurpassed in artistic and dramatic spirit by any modern 
composer. Its influence in Mozart's Idomeneo is obvious at a 
first glance. 

The capacity for broad melody always implies a true sense 
of form, whether that be developed by skill or not; and thus 
Gluck, in rejecting the convenient formalities of older styles 
of opera, was not, like some reformers, without something 
better to substitute for them. Moreover he, in consultation with 
his librettist, achieved great skill in holding together entire 
scenes, or even entire acts, by dramatically apposite repetitions 
of short arias and choruses. And thus in large portions of his 
finest works the music, in spite of frequent full closes, seems to 
move pari passu with the drama in a manner which for natural- 
ness and continuity is surpassed only by the finales of Mozart 
and the entire operas of Wagner. This is perhaps most noticeable 
in the second act of Orfeo. In its original Italian version both 
scenes, that in Hades and that in Elysium, are indivisible wholes, 
and the division into single movements, though technically 
obvious, is aesthetically only a natural means of articulating 
the structure. The unity of the scene in Hades extends, in the 
original version, even to the key-system. This was damaged 
when Gluck had to transpose the part of Orpheus from an alto 
to a tenor in the French version. And here we have one of 
many instances in which the improvements his French experience 
enabled him to make in his great Italian works were not alto- 
gether unmixed. Little harm, however, was done to Orfeo 
which has not been easily remedied by transposing Orpheus's 
part back again; and in a suitable compromise between the 
two versions Orfeo remains Gluck's most perfect and inspired 
work. The emotional power of the music is such that the 
inevitable spoiling of the story by a happy ending has not the 
aspect of mere conventionality which it had in cases where the 



music produced no more than the normal effect upon i8th- 
century audiences. Moreover Gluck's genius was of too high 
an order for him to be less successful in portraying a sufficiently 
intense happiness than hi portraying grief. He failed only in 
what may be called the business capacities of artistic technique; 
and there is less " business " in Orfeo than in almost any other 
music-drama. It was Gluck's first great inspiration, and his 
theories had not had time to take action in paper warfare. 
Alceste contains his grandest music and is also very free from 
weak pages; but in its original Italian version the third act 
did not give Gluck scope for an adequate ch'max. This difficulty 
so accentuated itself in the French version that after continual 
retouchings a part for Hercules was, in Gluck's absence, added 
by Gossec; and three pages of Gluck's music, dealing with the 
supreme crisis where Alceste is rescued from Hades (either by 
Apollo or by Hercules) were no longer required in performance 
and have been lost. The Italian version is so different from the 
French that it cannot help us to restore this passage, in which 
Gluck's music now stops short just at the point where we realize 
the full height of his power. The comparison between the 
Italian and French Alceste is one of the most interesting that can 
be made in the study of a musician's development. It would have 
been far easier for Gluck to write a new opera if he had not 
been so justly attached to his second Italian masterpiece. So 
radical are the differences that hi retranslating the French 
libretto into Italian for performance with the French music 
not one line of Calzabigi's original text can be retained. 

In Iphigenie en Aulide and Iphigenie en Tauride, Gluck 
shows signs that the controversies aroused by his methods 
began to interfere with his musical spontaneity. He had not, 
in Orfeo, gone out of his way to avoid rondos, or we should have 
had no " Che faro senza Euridice." We read with a respectful 
smile Gluck's assurance to the bailli Le Blanc du Roullet that 
" you would not believe Armide to be by the same composer " 
as Alceste. But there is no question that Armide is a very great 
work, full of melody, colour and dramatic point; and that Gluck 
has availed himself of every suggestion that his libretto afforded 
for orchestral and emotional effects of an entirely different type 
from any that he had attempted before. And it is hardly 
relevant to blame him for his inability to write erotic music. 
In the first place, the libretto is not erotic, though the subject 
would no doubt become so if treated by a modern poet. In the 
second place a conflict of passions (as, for instance, where Armide 
summons the demons of Hate to exorcise love from her heart, 
and her courage fails her as soon as they begin) has never, even 
in Alceste, been treated with more dramatic musical force. 
The work as a whole is unequal, partly because there is a little 
too much action in it to suit Gluck's methods; but it shows, 
as does no other opera until Mozart's Don Giovanni, a sense of 
the development of characters, as distinguished from the mere 
presentation of them as already fixed. 

In Iphigenie en Aulide and Iphigf.nie en Tauride, the very 
subtlety of the finest features indicates a certain self-conscious- 
ness which, when inspiration is lacking, becomes mannerism. 
Moreover, in both cases the libretti, though skilfully managed, 
tell a rather more complicated story than those which Gluck 
had hitherto so successfully treated; and, where inspiration 
fails, the musical technique becomes curiously amateurish 
without any corresponding naivete. Still these works are 
immortal, and their finest passages are equal to anything in 
Alceste and Orfeo. cho et Narcisse we must, like Gluck's 
contemporaries, regard as a failure. As in Orfeo, the pathetic 
story is ruined by a violent happy ending, but here this artistic 
disaster takes place before the pathos has had time to assert 
itself. Gluck had no opportunities in this work for any higher 
qualities, musical or dramatic, than prettiness; and with him 
beauty, without visible emotion, was indeed skin-deep. It is 
a pity that the plan of the great Pelletan-Damcke critical 
edition de luxe of Gluck's French operas forbids the inclusion 
of his Italian Paride e Elena, his third opera to Calzabigi's 
libretto, which was never given in a French version; for there 
can be no question that, whatever he owed to France, the 



nprif 



GLUCKSBURG GLUCOSE 



141 



period of his greatness began with hii collaboration with 
Calzabigi. (D. F. T.) 

GLUCKSBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province 
of Schleswig-Holstein, romantically situated among pine woods 
on the Flensburg Fjord off the Baltic, 6 m. N.E. from Flensburg 
byrail. Pop. (1905) 1551. It has a Protestant church and some 
small manufactures and is a favourite sea-bathing resort. The 
castle, which occupies the site of a former Cistercian monastery, 
was, from 1622 to 1779, the residence of the dukes of Holstein- 
Sonderburg-Glucksburg, passing then to the king of Denmark 
and in 1866 to Prussia. King Frederick VII. of Denmark died 
here on the isth of November 1863. 

GLUCKSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province 
of Schleswig-Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe, at the 
confluence of the small river Rhin, and 28 m. N.W. of Altona, 
on the railway from Itzehoe to Elmshorn. Pop. (1905) 6586. 
It has a Protestant and a Roman Catholic church, a handsome 
town-hall (restored in 1873-1874), a gymnasium, a provincial 
prison and a penitentiary. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged 
in commerce and fishing; but the frequent losses from inunda- 
tions have greatly retarded the prosperity of the town. Gltick- 
stadt was founded by Christian IV. of Denmark in 1617, and 
fortified in r6ao. It soon became an important trading centre. 
In 1627-28 it was besieged for fifteen weeks by the imperialists 
under Tilly, without success. In 1814 it was blockaded by the 
allies and capitulated, whereupon its fortifications were de- 
molished. In 1830 it was made a free port. It came into the 
possession of Prussia together with the rest of Schleswig-Holstein 
in 1866. 

See Lucht, Cliickstadl. Beitrdge zur Geschichte dieser Stadt (Kiel, 
I854)- 

GLUCOSE (from Gr. 7\tiKvs, sweet), a carbohydrate of the 
formula CsH^Oe; it may be regarded as the aldehyde of sorbite. 
The name is applied in commerce to a complex mixture of 
carbohydrates obtained by. boiling starch with dilute mineral 
acids'; in chemistry, it denotes, with the prefixes d, I and 
d-\-l (or i), the dextro-rotatory, laevo-rotatory and inactive 
forms of the definite chemical compound defined above. The 
d modification is of the commonest occurrence, the other forms 
being only known as synthetic products; for this reason it is 
usually termed glucose, simply; alternative names are dextrose, 
grape sugar and diabetic sugar, in allusion to its right-handed 
optical rotation, its occurrence in large quantity in grapes, and 
in the urine of diabetic patients respectively. In the vegetable 
kingdom glucose occurs, always in admixture with fructose, 
in many fruits, especially grapes, cherries, bananas, &c.; and 
in combination, generally with phenolsand aldehydes belonging 
to the aromatic series, it forms an extensive class of compounds 
termed glucosides. It appears to be synthesized in the plant 
tissues from carbon dioxide and water, formaldehyde being an 
intermediate product; or it may be a hydrolytic product of a 
glucoside or of a polysaccharose, such as cane sugar, starch, 
cellulose, &c. In the plant it is freely converted into more 
complex sugars, poly-saccharoses and also proteids. In the 
animal kingdom, also, it is very widely distributed, being some- 
times a normal and sometimes a pathological constituent of 
the fluids and tissues; in particular, it is present in large 
amount in the urine of those suffering from diabetes, and 
may be present in nearly all the body fluids. It also occurs in 
honey, the white appearance of candied honey being due to 
its separation. 

Pure d-glucose, which may be obtained synthetically (see 
SUGAR) or by adding crystallized cane sugar to a mixture of 
80% alcohol and jV volume of fuming hydrochloric acid so 
long as it dissolves on shaking, crystallizes from water or alcohol 
at ordinary temperatures in nodular masses, composed of minute 
six-sided plates, and containing one molecule of water of crystal- 
lization. This product melts at 86 C., and becomes anhydrous 
when heated to 110 C. The anhydrous compound can also be 
prepared, as hard crusts melting at 146, by crystallizing con- 
centrated aqueous solutions at 30 to 35. It is very soluble 
in water, but only slightly soluble in strong alcohol. Its taste 



is somewhat sweet, its sweetening power being estimated at 
from J to $ that of cane sugar. When heated to above 200 it 
turns brown and produces caramel, a substance possessing a 
bitter taste, and used, in its aqueous solution or otherwise, 
under various trade names, for colouring confectionery, spirits, 
&c. The specific rotation of the plane of polarized light by 
glucose solutions is characteristic. The specific rotation of a 
freshly prepared solution is 105, but this value gradually 
diminishes to 52-5, 24 hours sufficing for the transition in the 
cold, and a few minutes when the solution is boiled. This 
phenomenon has been called mutarotation by T. M. Lowry. 
The specific rotation also varies with the concentration; this 
is due to the dissociation of complex molecules into simpler 
ones, a view confirmed by cryoscopic measurements. 

Glucose may be estimated by means of the polarimeter, i.e. 
by determining the rotation of the plane of polarization of a 
solution, or, chemically, by taking advantage of its property of 
reducing alkaline copper solutions. If a glucose solution be 
added to copper sulphate and much alkali added, a yellowish-red 
precipitate of cuprous hydrate separates, slowly in the cold, 
but immediately when the liquid is heated; this precipitate 
rapidly turns red owing to the formation of cuprous oxide. In 
1846 L. C. A. Barreswil found that a strongly alkaline solution 
of copper sulphate and potassium sodium tartrate (Rochelle 
salt) remained unchanged on boiling, but yielded an immediate 
precipitate of red cuprous oxide when a solution of glucose was 
added. He suggested that the method was applicable for quanti- 
tatively estimating glucose, but its acceptance only followed 
after H. von Fehling's investigation. " Fehling's solution " 
is prepared by dissolving separately 34-639 grammes of copper 
sulphate, 173 grammes of Rochelle salt, and 71 grammes of 
caustic soda in water, mixing and making up to 1000 ccs.; 
10 ccs. of this solution is completely reduced by 0-05 grammes of 
hexose. Volumetric methods are used, but the uncertainty of 
the end of the reaction has led to the suggestion of special 
indicators, or of determining the amount of cuprous oxide 
gravimetrically. 

Chemistry. In its chemical properties glucose is a typical oxyalde- 
hyde or aldose. The aldehyde group reacts with hydrocyanic acid 
to produce two stereo-isomeric cyanhydrins; this isomensm is due 
to the conversion of an originally non-asymmetric carbon atom into 
an asymmetric one. The cyanhydrin is hydrolysable to an acid, 
the lactone of which may be reduced by sodium amalgam to a 
glucoheptose, a non-fermentable sugar containing seven carbon 
atoms. By repeating the process a non-fermentable gluco-octose 
and a fermentable glucononose may be prepared. The aldehyde 
group also reacts with phenyl hydrazine to form two phenylhydra- 
zones; under certain conditions a hydroxyl group adjacent to the 
aldehyde group is oxidized and glucosazone is produced; this 
glucosazone is decomposed by hydrochloric acid into phenyl 
hydrazine and the keto-aldehyde elucosone. These transformations 
are fully discussed in the article SUGAR. On reduction glucose 
appears to yield the hexahydric alcohol d!-sorbite, and on oxidation 
d-gluconic and <Z-saccharic acids. Alkalis partially convert it into 
<f-mannose and d-fructose. Baryta and lime yield saccharates, 
e.g. CeHi 2 O 6 -BaO, precipitable by alcohol. 

The constitution of glucose was established by H. Kiliani in 1885- 
1887, who showed it to be CH 2 OH-(CH-OH) 4 -CHO. The subject 
was taken up by Emil Fischer, who succeeded in synthesizing 
glucose, and also several of its stereo-isomers, there being 16 accord- 
ing to the Le Bel-van't Hoff theory (see STEREO-!SOMERISM and 
SUGAR). This open chain structure is challenged in the views put 
forward by T. M. Lowry and E. F. Armstrong. In 1895 C. Tanret 
showed that glucose existed in more than one form, and he isolated 
a, /8 and y varieties with specific rotations of 105, 52-5 and 22. 
It is now agreed that the variety is a mixture of the a and y. 
This discovery explained the mutarotation of glucose. In a fresh 
solution o-glucose only exists, but on standing it is slowly trans- 
formed into ^-glucose, equilibrium 
being reached when the a and y 
forms are present in the ratio 
0-368:0-632 (Tanret, Zeit. physikal. 
Chem., 1905, 53, p. 692). It is 
convenient to refer to these two 
forms as a and ft. Lowry and Arm- 
strong represent these compounds 
by the following spatial formulae 
which postulate a -y-oxidic structure, 

atoms, i.e. one more than in the Fischer formulae. These formulae 
are supported by many considerations, especially by the selective 



CH 2 OH 
CH-OH 
CH 



CHjOH 
CH-OH 
CH 



HC-OH 

o-glucose 



HO-CH 
0-glucose 

and 5 asymmetric carbon 



GLUCOSIDE 



action of enzymes, which follows similar lines with the a- and 
/3-glucosides, i.e. the compounds formed by the interaction of 
glucose with substances generally containing hydroxyl groups (see 
GLUCOSIDE). 

Fermentation of Glucose. Glucose is readily fermentable. Of 
the greatest importance is the alcoholic fermentation brought about 
by yeast cells (Saccharomyces cerevisiae sen vini) ; this follows the 
equation C 8 Hi 2 O 6 = 2C 2 H 6 O + 2CO 2) Pasteur considering 94 to 95 % of 
the sugar to be so changed. This character is the base of the plan of 
adding glucose to wine and beer wort before fermenting, the alcohol 
content of the liquid after fermentation being increased. Some 
fusel oil, glycerin and succinic acid appear to be formed simultane- 
ously, but in small amount. Glucose also undergoes fermentation 
into lactic acid (q.v.) in the presence of the lactic acid bacillus, and 
into butyric acid if the action of the preceding ferment be continued, 
or by other bacilli. It also yields, by the so-called mucous fermenta- 
tion, a mucous, gummy mass, mixed with mannitol and lactic 
acid. 

We may here notice the frequent production of glucose by the action 
of enzymes upon other carbohydrates. Of especial note is the 
transformation of maltose by maltase into glucose, and of cane sugar 
by invertase into a mixture of glucose and fructose (invert sugar) ; 
other instances are: lactose by lactase into galactose and glucose; 
trehalose by trehalase into glucose; melibiose by melibiase into 
galactose and glucose ; and of melizitose by melizitase into touranose 
and glucose, touranose yielding glucose also when acted upon by the 
enzyme touranase. 

Commercial Glucose. The glucose of commerce, which may be 
regarded as a mixture of grape sugar, maltose and dextrins, is pre- 
pared by hydrolysing starch by boiling with a dilute mineral acid. 
In Europe, potato starch is generally employed; in America, corn 
starch. The acid employed may be hydrochloric, which gives the 
best results, or sulphuric, which is used in Germany; sulphuric acid 
is more readily separated from the product than hydrochloric, since 
the addition of powdered chalk precipitates it as calcium sulphate, 
which may be removed by a filter press. The processes of manu- 
facture have much in common, although varying in detail. The 
following is an outline of the process when hydrochloric acid is used : 
Starch (" green " starch in America) is made into a " milk " with 
water, and the milk pumped into boiling dilute acid contained in 
a closed " converter," generally made of copper or cast iron; steam 
is led in at the same time, and the pressure is kept up to about 25 ft 
to the sq. in. When the converter is full the pressure is raised some- 
what, and the heating continued until the conversion is complete. 
The liquid is now run into neutralizing tanks containing sodium 
carbonate, and, after settling, the supernatant liquid, termed 
" light liquor," is run through bag filters and then on to bone-char 
filters, which have been previously used for the " heavy liquor." 
The colourless or amber-coloured filtrate is concentrated to 27 to 
28 B., when it forms the "heavy liquor," just mentioned. This is 
filtered through fresh bone-char filters, from which it is discharged 
as a practically colourless liquid. This liquid is concentrated in 
vacuum pans to a specific gravity of 40 to 44 B., a small quantity 
of sodium bisulphite solution being added to bleach it, to prevent 
fermentation, and to inhibit browning. " Syrup glucose ' is the 
commercial name of the product; by continuing the concentration 
further solid glucose or grape sugar is obtained. 

Several brands are recognized: " Mixing glucose" is used by 
syrup and molasses manufacturers, " jelly glucose " by makers of 
jellies, " confectioners' glucose " in confectionery, " brewers' glucose" 
in brewing, &c. 

GLUCOSIDE, in chemistry, the generic name of an extensive 
group of substances characterized by the property of yielding 
a sugar, more commonly glucose, when hydrolysed by purely 
chemical means, or decomposed by a ferment or enzyme. The 
name was originally given to vegetable products of this nature, 
in which the other part of the molecule was, in the greater 
number of cases, an aromatic aldehydic or phenolic compound 
(exceptions are sinigrin and jalapin or scammonin). It has now 
been extended to include synthetic ethers, such as those obtained 
by acting on alcoholic glucose solutions with hydrochloric acid, 
and also the polysaccharoses, e.g. cane sugar, which appear 
to be ethers also. Although glucose is the commonest sugar 
present in glucosides, many are known which yield rhamnose 
or iso-dulcite; these may be termed pentosides. Much attention 
has been given to the non-sugar parts of the molecules; the 
constitutions of many have been determined, and the compounds 
synthesized; and in some cases the preparation of the synthetic 
glucoside effected. 

The simplest glucosides are the alkyl esters which E. Fischer 
(Ber., 28, pp. 1151, 3081) obtained by acting with hydrochloric 
acid on alcoholic glucose solutions. A better method of pre- 
paration is due to E. F. Armstrong and S. L. Courtauld (Proc. 



CH 2 OH 
CHOH 



CH 2 OH 
CHOH 



' 



"' 



Phys. Soc., 1005, July i), who dissolve solid anhydrous glucose 
in methyl alcohol containing hydrochloric acid. A mixture 
of a- and /3-glucose result, which are then etherified, and if the 
solution be neutralized before the p"-form isomerizes and the 
solvent removed, a mixture of the a- and /3-methyl ethers is 
obtained. These may be separated by the action of suitable 
ferments. Fischer found that these ethers did not reduce 
Fehling's solution, neither did they combine with phenyl hydra- 
zine at 100; they appear to be stereo-isomeric -y-oxidic com : 
pounds of the formulae I., II. : The difference between the a- and 
/3-forms is best shown by the 
selective action of enzymes. 
Fischer found that maltase, . ( 

an enzyme occurring in yeast O<^ / 

cells, hydrolysed a-glucosides ^> n<-u r*u r f* u 

but not the j3; while emulsin, 
an enzyme occurring in bitter 
almonds, hydrolyses the ft 
but not the a. The ethers of non-fermentable sugars are them- 
selves non-fermentable. By acting with these enzymes on the 
natural glucosides, it is found that the majority are of the 
j3-form; e.g. emulsin hydrolyses salicin, helicin, aesculin, coni- 
ferin, syringin, &c. 

Classification of the glucosides is a matter of some difficulty. 
One based on the chemical constitution of the non-glucose part 
of the molecules has been proposed by Umney, who framed four 
groups: (i) ethylene derivatives, (2) benzene derivatives, 
(3) styrolene derivatives, (4) anthracene derivatives. A group 
may also be made to include the cyanogenetic glucosides, i.e. 
those containing prussic acid. J. J. L. van Rijn (Die Glyko- 
side, 1900) follows a botanical classification, which has several 
advantages; in particular, plants of allied genera contain similar 
compounds. In this article the chemical classification will be 
followed. Only the more important compounds will be noticed, 
the reader being referred to van Rijn (loc. cit.) and to Beilstein's 
Handbuch der organischen Chemie for further details. 

i. Ethylene Derivatives. These are generally mustard oils, and 
are characterized by a burning taste ; their principal occurrence is in 
mustard and Tropaeolum seeds. Sinigrin or the potassium salt of 
myronic acid, CioHieNSjKOs-HjO, occurs in black pepper and in 
horse-radish root. Hydrolysis with baryta, or decomposition by 
the ferment myrosin, gives glucose, allyl mustard oil and potassium 
bisulphate. Sinalbin, C 30 H4 2 N 2 S 2 Oi 6 , occurs in white pepper; 
it decomposes to the mustard oil HO-C 6 H4-CH 2 -NCS, glucose and 
sinapin, a compound of choline and sinapinic acid. Jalapin or 
scammonin, C it HwOit, occurs in scammony; it hydrolyses to glucose 
and jalapinolic acid. The formulae of sinigrin, sinalbin, sinapin and 
jalapinolic acid are: 
^u r, C( ~^NC 3 H 5 rw n qr^ N-CH 2 C e H,-OH 

C 6 H U U6SL^Q. S Q 2 .Q K " \OSp 2 -OCieH 2 4O 5 N 

Sinigrin Sinalbin 



Sinapin 



Jalapinolic acid (Kramer) 

2. Benzene Derivatives. These are generally oxy and oxyaldehydic 
compounds. Arbutin, CizHuA, which occurs in bearberry along 
with methyl arbutin, hydrolyses to hydroquinone and glucose. 
Pharmacologically it acts as a urinary antiseptic and diuretic; 
the benzoyl derivative, cellotropin, has been used for tuberculosis. 
Salicin, also termed " saligenin ' and " glucose," C^H^Cy, occurs in 
the willow. The enzymes ptyalin and emulsin convert it into glucose 
and saligenin, ortho-oxybenzylalcohol, HO-C e H4-CH 2 OH. Oxida- 
tion gives the aldehyde helicin. Populin, C W H K O S , which occurs 
in the leaves and bark of Populus tremula, is benzoyl salicin. 

3. Styrolene Derivatives. This group contains a benzene and also 
an ethylene group, being derived from styrolene C 6 H 5 -CH:CHj. 
Coniferin, CieHzA,, occurs in the cambium of coniferous woods. 
Emulsin converts it into glucose and coniferyl alcohol, while oxida- 
tion gives glycovanilliri, which yields with emulsin glucose and 
vanillin (see EUGENOL and VANILLA). Syringin, which occurs in the 
bark of Syringa vulgaris, is methoxyconiferin. Phloridzin, C 2 iH 2 4Oio, 
occurs in the root-bark of various fruit trees; it hydrolyses to 
glucose and phloretin, which is the phloroglucin ester of para- 
oxyhydratropic acid. It is related to the pentosides naringm, 
C 2 iH2 6 On, which hydrolyses to rhamnose and naringenin, the 
phloroglucin ester of para-oxycinnamic acid, and hespendin, 



GLUE 



C M H6oO M (?), which hydrolyses to rhamnose and hesperetin, CuHuOo, 
the phloroglucin ester of meta-oxy-para-methoxycinnamic acid or 
isoferulic acid, CioHi O4. We may here include various coumarin 
and benzo-7-pyrone derivatives. Aesculin, CuH le O, occurring in 
horse-chestnut, and daphnin, occurring in Daphne alpina, are iso- 
meric; the former hydrolyses to glucose and aesculetin (4'5-dioxy- 
coumarin), the latter to glucose and daphnetin (3-4-dioxycoumarin). 
Fraxin, CmHigOio, occurring in Fraxinus excelsior, and with aesculin 
in horse-chestnut, hydrolyses to glucose and fraxetin, the mono- 
methyl ester of a trioxycoumarin. Flavone or benzo--y-pyrone 
derivatives are very numerous; in many cases they (or the non- 
sugar part of the molecule) are vegetable dyestuffs. Quercitrin, 
C:iHOi2, is a yellow dyestuff found in Quercus tinctoria\ it hydro- 
lyses to rhamnose and quercetin, a dioxy-/3-phenyl-trioxybenzo- 
y-pyrone. Rhamnetin, a splitting product of the glucosides of 
Rhamnus, is monomethyl quercetin; fisetin, from Rhus cotinus, 
is monoxyquercetin ; chrysin is phenyl-dioxybenzo-7-pyrone. 
Saponarin, a glucoside found in Saponaria officinalis, is a related 
compound. Strophanthin is the name given to three different 
compounds, two obtained from Slrophanthus Kombe and one from 
S. hispidus. 

4. Anthracene Derivatives. These are generally substituted 
anthraquinones; many have medicinal applications, being used 
as purgatives, while one, ruberythric acid, yields the valuable dye- 
stuff madder, the base of which is alizarin (q.v.). Chryspphanic 
acid, a dioxymethylanthraquinone, occurs in rhubarb, which also 
contains emodin, a trioxymethylanthraquinone; this substance 
occurs in combination with rhamnose in frangula bark. 

The most important cyanogenetic glucoside is amygdalin, which 
occurs in bitter almonds. The enzyme maltase decomposes it into 
glucose and mandelic nitrile glucoside; the latter is broken down 
"by emulsin into glucose, benzaldehyde and prussic acid. Emulsin 
also decomposes amygdalin directly into these compounds without 
the intermediate formation of mandelic nitrile glucoside. Several 
other glucosides of this nature have been isolated. The saponins are 
a group of substances characterized by forming a lather with water; 
they occur in soap-bark (q.v.). Mention may also be made.of indican, 
the glucoside of the indigo plant; this is hydrolysed by the indigo 
ferment, indimulsin, to indoxyl and indiglucin. 

GLUE (from the O. Fr. glu, bird-lime, from the Late Lat. 
gliitem, glus, glue), a valuable agglutinant, consisting of impure 
gelatin and widely used as an adhesive medium for wood, leather, 
paper and similar substances. Glues and gelatins merge into 
one another by imperceptible degrees. The difference is con- 
ditioned by the degree of purity: the more impure form is termed 
glue and is only used as an adhesive, the purer forms, termed 
gelatin, have other applications, especially in culinary operations 
and confectionery. Referring to the article GELATIN for a 
general account of this substance, it is only necessary to state 
here that gelatigenous or glue-forming tissues occur in the bones, 
skins and intestines of all animals, and that by extraction with 
hot water these agglutinating materials are removed, and the 
solution on evaporating and cooling yields a jelly-like substance 
gelatin or glue. 

Glues may be most conveniently classified according to their 
sources: bone glue, skin glue and fish glue; these may be 
regarded severally as impure forms of bone gelatin, skin gelatin 
and isinglass. 

Bone Glue. For the manufacture of glue the bones are supplied 
fresh or after having been used for making soups; Indian and 
South American bones are unsuitable, since, by reason of their 
previous treatment with steam, both their fatty and glue-forming 
constituents have been already removed (to a great extent). 
On the average, fresh bones contain about 50% f mineral 
matter, mainly calcium and magnesium phosphates, about 
12% each of moisture and fat, the remainder being other 
organic matter. The mineral matter reappears in commerce 
chiefly as artificial manure; the fat is employed in the candle, 
soap and glycerin industries, while the other organic matter 
supplies glue. 

The separation of the fat, or " de-greasing of the bones " 
is effected (i) by boiling the bones with water in open vessels; 
(2) by treatment with steam under pressure; or (3) by means 
of solvents. The last process is superseding the first two, which 
give a poor return of fat a valuable consideration and also 
involve the loss of a certain amount of glue. Many sol/ents 
have been proposed; the greatest commercial success appears 
to attend Scottish shale oil and natural petroleum (Russian or 
American) boiling at about 100 C. The vessels in which the 



extraction is carried out consist of upright cylindrical boilers, 
provided with manholes for charging, a false bottom on which 
the bones rest, and with two steam coils one for heating only, 
the other for leading in " live " steam. There is a pipe from 
the top of the vessel leading to a condensing plant. The vessels 
are arranged in batteries. In the actual operation the boiler 
is charged with bones, solvent is run in, and the mixture gradually 
heated by means of the dry coil ; the spirit distils over, carrying 
with it the water present in the bones; and after a time the 
extracted fat is run off from discharge cocks in the bottom of the 
extractor. 1 A fresh charge of solvent is introduced, and the cycle 
repeated; this is repeated a third and fourth time, after which 
the bones contain only about 0-2% of fat, and a little of the 
solvent, which is removed by blowing in live steam under 70 to 
80 Ib pressure. The de-greased bones are now cleansed from 
all dirt and flesh by rotation in a horizontal cylindrical drum 
covered with stout wire gauze. The attrition accompanying 
this motion suffices to remove the loosely adherent matter, 
which falls through the meshes of the gauze; this meal contains 
a certain amount of glue-forming matter, and is generally 
passed through a finer mesh, the residuum being worked up in 
the glue-house, and the flour which passes through being sold 
as a bone-meal, or used as a manure. 

The bones, which now contain 5 to 6% of glue-forming 
nitrogen and about 60% of calcium phosphate, are next treated 
for glue. The most economical process consists in steaming 
the bones under pressure (15 Ib to start with, afterwards 5 Ib) 
in upright cylindrical boilers fitted with false bottoms. The 
glue-liquors collect beneath the false bottoms, and when of a 
strength equal to about 20% dry glue they are run off to the 
clarifiers. The first runnings contain about 65 to 70% of the 
total glue; a second steaming extracts another 25 to 30%. For 
clarifying the solutions, ordinary alum is used, one part being 
used for 200 parts of dry glue. The alum is added to the hot 
liquors , and the temperature raised to 100; it is then allowed 
to settle, and. the surface scum removed by filtering through 
coarse calico or fine wire filters. 

The clear liquors are now concentrated to a strength of about 
32 % dry glue in winter and 35 % in summer. This is invariably 
effected in vacuum pans open boiling yields a dark-coloured 
and inferior product. Many types of vacuum plant are in use; 
the Yaryan form, invented by H. T. Yaryan, is perhaps the best, 
and the double effect system is the most efficient. After con- 
centration the liquors are bleached by blowing in sulphur 
dioxide, manufactured by burning sulphur; by this means the 
colour can be lightened to any desired degree. The liquors are 
now run into galvanized sheet-iron troughs, 2 ft. long, 6 in. 
wide and 5 in. deep, where they congeal to a firm jelly, which is 
subsequently removed by cutting round the edges, or by warming 
with hot water, and turning the cake out. The cake is sliced 
to sheets of convenient thickness, generally by means of a wire 
knife, i.e. a piece of wire placed in a frame. Mechanical slicers 
acting on this principle are in use. Instead of allowing the 
solution to congeal in troughs, it may be " cast " on sheets of 
glass, the bottoms of which are cooled by running water. After 
congealing, the tremulous jelly is dried; this is an operation 
of great nicety: the desiccation must be slow and is generally 
effected by circulating a rapid current of air about the cakes 
supported on nets set in frames; it occupies from four to five 
days, and the cake contains on the average from 10 to 13% of 
water. 

Skin . Clue. In the preparation of skin glue the materials 
used are the parings and cuttings of hides from tan-yards, the 
ears of oxen and sheep, the skins of rabbits, hares, cats, dogs 
and other animals, the parings of tawed leather, parchment 
and old gloves, and many other miscellaneous scraps of animal 
matter. Much experience is needed in order to prepare a good 

1 This fat contains a small quantity of solvent, which is removed 
by heating with steam, when the solvent distils off. Hot water is 
then run in to melt the fat, which rises to the surface of the water 
and is floated off. Another boiling with water, and again floating 
off, frees the fat from dirt and mineral matter, and the product is 
ready for casking. 



144 



GLUTARIC ACID 



glue from such heterogeneous materials; one blending may be 
a success and another a failure. The raw material has been 
divided into three great divisions: (i) sheep pieces and fleshings 
(ears, &c.); (2) ox fleshings and trimmings; (3) ox hides and 
pieces; the best glue is obtained from a mixture of the hide, 
ear and face clippings of the ox and calf. The raw material 
or " stock " is first steeped for from two to ten weeks, according 
to its nature, in wooden vats or pits with lime water, and after- 
wards carefully dried and stored. The object of the lime steeping 
is to remove any blood and flesh which may be attached to the 
skin, and to form a lime soap with the fatty matter present. 
The " scrows " or glue pieces, which may be kept a long time 
without undergoing change, are washed with a dilute hydro- 
chloric acid to remove all lime, and then very thoroughly with 
water; they are now allowed to drain and dry. The skins 
are then placed in hemp nets and introduced into an open boiler 
which has a false bottom,, and a tap by which liquid may be run 
off. As the boiling proceeds test quantities of liquid are from 
time to time examined, and when a sample is found on cooling 
to form a stiff jelly, which happens when it contains about 32% 
dry glue, it is ready to draw off. The solution is then run to a 
clarifier, in which a temperature sufficient to keep it fluid is 
maintained, and in this way any impurity is permitted to subside. 
The glue solution is then run into wooden troughs or coolers in 
which it sets to a firm jelly. The cakes are removed as in the 
case of bone glue (see above), and, having been placed on nets, 
are, in the Scottish practice, dried by exposure to open air. 
This primitive method has many disadvantages: on a hot 
day the cake may become unshapely, or melt and slip through 
the net, or dry so rapidly as to crack; a frost may produce 
fissures, while a fog or mist may precipitate moisture on the 
surface and occasion a mouldy appearance. The surface of the 
cake, which is generally dull after drying, is polished by washing 
with water. The practice of boiling, clarification, cooling and 
drying, which has been already described in the case of bone glue, 
has been also applied to the separation of skin glue. 

Fish Glue. Whereas isinglass, a very pure gelatin, is yielded 
by the sounds of a limited number of fish, it is found that all 
fish offals yield a glue possessing considerable adhesive properties. 
The manufacture consists in thoroughly washing the offal with 
water, and then discharging it into extractors with live steam. 
After digestion, the liquid is run off, allowed to stand, the 
upper oily layer removed, and the lower gluey solution clarified 
with alum. The liquid is then filtered, concentrated in open vats, 
and bleached with sulphur dioxide. 1 Fish glue is a light-brown 
viscous liquid which has a distinctly disagreeable odour and 
an acrid taste; these disadvantages to its use are avoided if it 
be boiled with a little water and i % of sodium phosphate, and 
0-025% of saccharine added. 

Properties of Glue. A good quality of glue should be free from 
all specks and grit, have a uniform, light brownish-yellow, 
transparent appearance, and should break with a glassy fracture. 
Steeped for some time in cold water it softens and swells up 
without dissolving, and when again dried it ought to resume its 
original properties. Under the influence of heat it entirely 
dissolves in water, forming a thin syrupy fluid with a not 
disagreeable smell. The adhesiveness of different qualities of 
glue varies considerably; the best adhesive is formed by steeping 
the glue, broken in small pieces, in water until they are quite 
soft, and then placing them with just sufficient water to effect 
solution in the glue-pot. The hotter the glue, the better the 
joint; remelted glue is not so strong as the freshly prepared; 
and newly manufactured glue is inferior to that which has been 
long in stock. It is therefore seen that many factors enter into 
the determination of the cohesive power of glue; a well-prepared 
joint may, under favourable conditions, withstand a pull of 
about 700 Ib per sq. in. The following table, after Kilmarsch, 
shows the holding power of glued joints with various kinds of 
woods. 

1 The residue in the extractors is usually dried in steam-heated 
vessels, and mixed with potassium and magnesium salts; the product 
is then put on the market as fish-potash guano. 



Wood. 


Ib per sq. in. 


With grain. 


Across grain. 


Beech . . . 
Maple . 
Oak ... 
Fir .... 


852 
484 
704 
605 


434-5 
346 
302 
132 



Special Kinds of Clues, Cements, &c. By virtue of the fact that 
the word " glue " is frequently used to denote many adhesives, which 
may or may not contain gelatin, there will now be given an account 
of some special preparations. These may be conveniently divided 
into: (i) liquid glues, mixtures containing gelatin which do not 
jelly at ordinary temperatures but still possess adhesive properties; 
(2) water-proof glues, including mixtures containing gelatin, and 
also the " marine glues," which contain no glue; (3) glues or cements 
for special purposes, e.g. for cementing glass, pottery, leather, &c., 
for cementing dissimilar materials, such as paper or leather to iron. 

Liquid Glues. The demand for liquid glues is mainly due to the 
disadvantages the necessity of dissolving and using while hot 
of ordinary glue. They are generally prepared by adding to a warm 
glue solution some reagent which destroys the property of gelatinizing. 
The reagents in common use are acetic acid ; magnesium chloride, 
used for a glue employed by printers; hydrochloric acid and zinc 
sulphate; nitric acid and lead sulphate; and phosphoric acid and 
ammonium carbonate. 

Water-proof Glues. Numerous recipes for water-proof glues have 
been published; glue, having been swollen by soaking in water, 
dissolved in four-fifths its weight of linseed oil, furnishes a good 
water-proof adhesive; linseed oil varnish and litharge, added to. 
a glue solution, is also >used; resin added to a hot glue solu- 
tion in water, and afterwards diluted with turpentine, is another 
recipe; the best glue is said to be obtained by dissolving one 
part of glue in one and a half parts of water, and then adding 
one-fiftieth part of potassium bichromate. Alcoholic solutions of 
various gums, and also tannic acid, confer the same property on 
glue solutions. The " marine glues " are solutions of india-rubber, 
shellac or asphaltum, or mixtures of these substances, in benzene or 
naphtha. Jeffrey's marine glue is formed by dissolving india-rubber 
in four parts of benzene and adding two parts of shellac; it is 
extensively used, being easily applied and drying rapidly and hard. 
Another water-proof glue which contains no gelatin is obtained by 
heating linseed oil with five parts of quicklime; when cold it forms 
a hard mass, which melts on heating like ordinary glue. 

Special Glues. There are innumerable recipes for adhesives 
specially applicable to certain substances and under certain con- 
ditions. For repairing glass, ivory, &c. isinglass (q.v .), which may be 
replaced by fine glue, yields valuable cements; bookbinders employ 
an elastic glue obtained from an ordinary glue solution and glycerin, 
the water being expelled by heating ; an efficient cement for mounting 
photographs is obtained by dissolving glue in ten parts of alcohol 
and adding one part of glycerin; portable or mouth glue so named 
because it melts in the mouth is prepared by dissolving one part of 
sugar in a solution of four parts of glue. An india-rubber substitute 
is obtained by adding sodium tungstate and hydrochloric acid to a 
strong glue solution; this preparation may be rolled out when 
heated to 60. 

For further details see Thomas Lambert, Glue, Gelatine and their 
Allied Products (London, 1905) ; R. L. Fernbach, Glues and Gelatine 
(1907); H. C. Standage, Agglutinants of all Kinds for all Purposes 
(1907). 

GLUTARIC ACID, or NORMAL PYROTARTARIC ACID, 
HO 2 C-CH2-CH2-CH 2 -CO 2 H, an organic acid prepared by the 
reduction of a-oxyglutaric acid with hydriodic acid, by reducing 
glutaconic acid, HO 2 C- CH 2 - CH :CH- CO 2 H, with sodium amalgam, 
by conversion of trimethylene bromide into the cyanide 
and hydrolysis of this compound, or from acetoacetic ester, 
which, in the form of its sodium derivative, condenses 
with /3-iodopropionic ester to form acetoglutaric ester, 
CH 3 -CO-CH(CO 2 C 2 H 6 )-CH 2 -CH 2 -CO 2 C 2 H 6 , from which glutaric 
acid is obtained by hydrolysis. It is also obtained when sebacic, 
stearic and oleic acids are oxidized with nitric acid. It crystal- 
lizes in large monoclinic prisms which melt at 97-5 C., and 
distils between 302 and 304 C., practically without decomposi- 
tion. It is soluble in water, alcohol and ether. By long heating the 
acid is converted into its anhydride, which, however, is obtained 
more readily by heating the silver salt of the acid with acetyl 
chloride. By distillation of the ammonium salt glutarimide, 
CH 2 (CH 2 -CP) 2 NH, is obtained; it forms small crystals melting 
at 151 to 152 C. and sublimes unchanged. 

On the alkyl glutaric acids, see C. Hell (Ber., 1889, 22, pp. 48, 60), 
C. A. Bischoff (Ber., 1891, 24, p. 1041), K. Auwers (Ber., 1891, 24, 
p. 1923) and W. H. Perkin, junr. (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1896, 69, p. 268). 



GLUTEN GLYCAS 



GLUTEN, a tough, tenacious, ductile, somewhat elastic, 
nearly tasteless and greyish-yellow albuminous substance, 
obtained from the flour of wheat by washing in water, in which 
it is insoluble. Gluten, when dried, loses about two-thirds of 
its weight, becoming brittle and semi-transparent; when strongly 
heated it crackles and swells, and burns like feather or horn. 
It is soluble in strong acetic acid, and in caustic alkalis, which 
latter may be used for the purification of starch in which it is 
present. When treated with -i to -2% solution of hydrochloric 
acid it swells up, and at length forms a liquid resembling a 
solution of albumin, and laevorotatory as regards polarized 
light. Moistened with water and exposed to the air gluten 
putrefies, and evolves carbon dioxide, hydrogen and sulphuretted 
hydrogen, and in the end is almost entirely resolved into a liquid, 
which contains leucin and ammonium phosphate and acetate. On 
analysis gluten shows a composition of about S3 % of carbon, 7 % 
of hydrogen, and nitrogen 15 to 18%, besides oxygen, and about 
i % of sulphur, and a small quantity of inorganic matter. Accord- 
ing to H. Ritthausen it is a mixture of glutencasein (Liebig's 
vegetable fibrin), glutenfibrin^'^iiadin (Pflanzenleim), glutin or 
vegetable gelatin, and mucedin, which are all closely allied to one 
another in chemical composition. It is the gliadin which confers 
upon gluten its capacity of cohering to form elastic masses, and 
of separating readily from associated starch. In the so-called 
gluten of the flour of barley, rye and maize, this body is absent 
(H. Ritthausen and U. Kreusler). The gluten yielded by wheat 
which has undergone fermentation or has begun to sprout is 
devoid of toughness and elasticity. These qualities can be 
restored to it by kneading with salt, lime-water or alum. Gluten 
is employed in the manufacture of gluten bread and biscuits 
for the diabetic, and of chocolate, and also in the adulteration 
of tea and coffee. For making bread it must be used fresh, as 
otherwise it decomposes, and does not knead well. Granulated 
gluten is a kind of vermicelli, made in some starch manufactories 
by mixing fresh gluten with twice its weight of flour, and granu- 
lating by means of a cylinder and contained stirrer, each armed 
with spikes, and revolving in opposite directions. The process 
is completed by the drying and sifting of the granules. 

GLUTTON, or WOLVERINE (Gtdo luscus), a carnivorous 
mammal belonging to the Mustelidae, or weasel family, and the 
sole representative of its genus. The legs are short and stout, 
with large feet, the toes of which terminate in strong, sharp 
claws considerably curved. The mode of progression is semi- 
plantigrade. In size and form the glutton is something like the 
badger, measuring from 2 to 3 ft. in length, exclusive of the thick 
bushy tail, which is about 8 in. long. The head is broad, the 
eyes are small and the back arched. The fur consists of an under- 
growth of short woolly hair, mixed with long straight hairs, 
to the abundance and length of which on the sides and tail 
the creature owes its shaggy appearance. The colour of the fur 
is blackish-brown, with a broad band of chestnut stretching 
from the shoulders along each side of the body, the two meeting 
near the root of the tail. Unlike the majority of arctic animals, 
the fur of the glutton in winter grows darker. Like other 
Mustelidae, the glutton is provided with anal glands, which 
secrete a yellowish fluid possessing a highly foetid odour. It 
is a boreal animal, inhabiting the northern regions of both 
hemispheres, but most abundant in the circumpolar area of the 
New World, where it occurs throughout the British provinces 
and Alaska, being specially numerous in the neighbourhood 
of the Mackenzie river, and extending southwards as far as New 
York and the Rocky Mountains. The wolverine is a voracious 
animal, and also one with an inquisitive disposition. It feeds 
on grouse, the smaller rodents and foxes, which it digs from 
their burrows during the breeding-season; but want of activity 
renders it dependent for most of its food on dead carcases, which 
it frequently obtains by methods that have made it peculiarly 
obnoxious to the hunter and trapper. Should the hunter, 
after succeeding in killing his game, leave the carcase insufficiently 
protected for more than a single night, the glutton, whose fear 
of snares is sufficient to prevent him from touching it during 
the first night, will, if possible, get at and devour what he can 



on the second, hiding the remainder beneath the snow. It 
annoys the trapper by following up his lines of marten-traps, 
often extending to a length of 40 to 50 m., each of which it enters 
from behind, extracting the bait, pulling up the traps, and devour- 
ing or concealing the entrapped martens. So persistent is the 
glutton in this practice, when once it discovers a line of traps, 
that its extermination along the trapper's route is a necessary 
preliminary to the success of his business. This is no easy task, 
as the glutton is too cunning to be caught by the methods success- 
fully employed on the other members of the weasel family. 
The trap generally used for this purpose is made to resemble 
a cache, or hidden store of food, such as the Indians and hunters 
are in the habit of forming, the discovery and rifling of which 
is one of the glutton's most congenial occupations the bait, 
instead of being paraded as in most traps, being carefully con- 
cealed, to lull the knowing beast's suspicions. One of the most 
prominent characteristics of the wolverine is its propensity 
to steal and hide things, not merely food which it might after- 
wards need, or traps which it regards as enemies, but articles 
which cannot possibly have any interest except that of curiosity. 
The following instance of this is quoted by Dr E. Coues in his 
work on the Fur-bearing Animals of North America: "A 
hunter and his family having left their lodge unguarded during 




The Glutton, or Wolverine (Gulo luscus). 

their absence, on their return found it completely gutted the 
walls were there, but nothing else. Blankets, guns, kettles, 
axes, cans, knives and all the other paraphernalia of a trapper's 
tent had vanished, and the tracks left by the beast showed 
who had been the thief. The family set to work, and, by carefully 
following up all his paths, recovered, with some trifling|exceptions, 
the whole of the lost property." The cunning displayed by the 
glutton in unravelling the snares set for it forms at once the 
admiration and despair of every trapper, while its great strength 
and ferocity render it a dangerous antagonist to animals larger 
than itself, occasionally including man. The rutting-season 
occurs in March, and the female, secure in her burrow, produces 
her young four or five at a birth in June or July. In defence 
of these she is exceedingly bold, and the Indians, according to 
Dr Coues, " have been heard to say that they would sooner 
encounter a she-bear with 'her cubs than a carcajou (the Indian 
name of the glutton) under the same circumstances." On 
catching sight of its enemy, man, the wolverine before finally 
determining on flight, is said to sit on its haunches, and, in order 
to get a clearer view of the danger, shade its eyes with one of 
its fore-paws. When pressed for food it becomes fearless, and 
has been known to come on board an ice-bound vessel, and in 
presence of the crew seize a can of meat. The glutton is valuable 
for its fur, which, when several skins are sewn together, forms 
elegant hearth and carriage rugs. (R. L.*) 

GLYCAS, MICHAEL, Byzantine historian (according to some 
a Sicilian, according to others a Corfiote), flourished during the 
i ath century A.D. His chief work is his Chronicle of events 



146 



GLYCERIN 



from the creation of the world to the death of Alexius I. Com- 
nenus (1118). It is extremely brief and written in a popular 
style, but too much space is devoted to theological and scientific 
matters. Glycas was also the author of a theological treatise 
and a number of letters on theological questions. A poem of 
some 600 " political " verses, written during his imprisonment 
on a charge of slandering a neighbour and containing an appeal 
to the emperor Manuel, is still extant. The exact nature of his 
offence is not known, but the answer to his appeal was that he 
was deprived of his eyesight by the emperor's orders. 

Editions: " Chronicle and Letters," in J. P. Migne, Patrologia 
Graeca, clviii. ; poem in E. Legrand, Bibliotheque grecque vulgaire, 
i.; see also F. Hirsch, Byzantinische Studien (1876); C. Krumbacher 
in Sitzungsberichte buyer. Acad., 1894; C. F. Bahr in Ersch and 
Gruber's Allgemeine Encyklopddie. 

GLYCERIN, GLYCERINE or GLYCEROL (in pharmacy Gly- 
cerinuni) (from Gr. -yXuici*, sweet), a trihydric alcohol, 
trihydroxypropane, CsH^OHJs. It is obtainable from most 
natural fatty bodies by the action of alkalis and similar reagents, 
whereby the fats are decomposed, water being taken up, and 
glycerin being formed together with the alkaline salt of some 
particular acid (varying with the nature of the fat). Owing to 
their possession of this common property, these natural fatty 
bodies and various artificial derivatives of glycerin, which 
behave in the same way when treated with alkalis, are known 
as glycerides. In the ordinary process of soap-making the 
glycerin remains dissolved in the aqueous liquors from which the 
soap is separated. 

Glycerin was discovered in 1779 by K. W. Scheele and named 
Olsiiss (principe doux des huiles sweet principle of oils), and 
more fully investigated subsequently by M. E. Chevreul, who 
named it glycerin, M. P. E. Berthelot, and many other chemists, 
from whose researches it results that glycerin is a trihydric 
alcohol indicated by the formula C 3 H 6 (OH)3, the natural fats 
and oils, and the glycerides generally, being substances of the 
nature of compound esters formed from glycerin by the replace- 
ment of the hydrogen of the OH groups by the radicals of 
certain acids, called for that reason " fatty acids." The relation- 
ship of these glycerides to glycerin is shown by the series of bodies 
formed from glycerin by replacement of hydrogen by " stearyl " 
(Ci 8 H 36 O), the radical of stearic acid (Ci 8 H 35 0-OH): 
Glycerin. Monostearin. Distearin. Tristearin. 

CH 2 -OH CH 2 -O(C ]8 H 36 O) CH 2 -O(C ]8 H 36 0) CH 2 -0(Ci 8 H 3S O) 

CH-OH CH-OH CH-O(C, 8 H 36 O) CH-O(Ci 8 H 36 O) 

CHj-OH CH 2 -OH CH 2 -OH CH 2 -O(C 18 H 3 5O) 

The prpcess of saponification may be viewed as the gradual 
progressive transformation of tristearin, or some analogously 
constituted substance, into distearin, monostearin and glycerin, 
or as the similar transformation of a substance analogous to 
distearin or to monostearin into glycerin. If the reaction is 
brought about in presence of an alkali, the acid set free becomes 
transformed into the corresponding alkaline salt; but if the 
decomposition is effected without the presence of an alkali 
(i.e. by means of water alone or by an acid), the acid set free 
and the glycerin are obtained together in a form which usually 
admits of their ready separation. It is noticeable that with 
few exceptions the fatty and oily matters occurring in nature 
are substances analogous to tristearin, i.e. they are trebly 
replaced glycerins. Amongst these glycerides may be mentioned 
the following : 

Tristearin C 3 Hj(0-Ci 8 H 36 O) 3 . The chief constituent of hard 
animal fats, such as beef and mutton tallow, &c. ; also con- 
tained in many vegetable fats in smaller quantity. 
Triolein C 3 H i (O-Ci 8 H 33 O) 3 . Largely present in olive oil and 
other saponifiable vegetable oils and soft fats; also present 
in animal fats, especially hog's lard. 

Tripalmitin C 3 Hs(O-Ci6H 3 iO) 3 . The chief constituent of palm 
oil; also contained in greater or less quantities in human 
fat, olive oil, and other animal and vegetable fats. 
Triricinolein C 3 H 6 (O-Ci 8 H j 3 O 2 ) 3 . The main constituent of castor 
oil. 

Other analogous glycerides are apparently contained in 
greater or smaller quantity in certain other oils. Thus in cows' 



butter, tributyrin, C 3 H 5 (O-C4H 7 O)s, and the analogous glycerides 
of other readily volatile acids closely resembling butyric acid, 
are present in small quanjtity; the production of these acids 
on saponification and distillation with dilute sulphuric acid is 
utilized as a -test of a purity of butter as sold. Triacetin, 
C 3 H 6 (O-C2H 3 O)3, is apparently contained in cod-liver oil. Some 
other glycerides isolated from natural sources are analogous 
in composition to tristearin, but with this difference, that the 
three radicals which replace hydrogen in glycerin are not all 
identical; thus kephalin, myelin and lecithin are glycerides 
in which two hydrogens are replaced by fatty acid radicals, 
and the third by a complex phosphoric acid derivative. 

Glycerin is also a product of certain kinds of fermentation, 
especially of the alcoholic fermentation of sugar; consequently 
it is a constituent of many wines and other fermented liquors. 
According to Louis Pasteur, about -fath of the sugar transformed 
under ordinary conditions in the fermentation of grape juice 
and similar saccharine liquids into alcohol and other products 
becomes converted into glycerin. In certain natural fatty 
substances, e.g. palm oil, it exibCs'-la the free state, so that it can 
be separated by washing with boiling water, which dissolves 
the glycerin but not the fatty glycerides. 

Properties. Glycerin is a viscid, colourless liquid of sp. gr. 
1-265 at 15 C., possessing a somewhat sweet taste; below o C. 
it solidifies to a white crystalline mass, which melts at 17 C. 
When heated alone it partially volatilizes, but the greater part 
decomposes; under a pressure of 12 mm. of mercury it boils 
at 170 C. In an atmosphere of steam it distils without decom- 
position under ordinary barometric pressure. It dissolves 
readily in water and alcohol in all proportions, but is insoluble 
in ether. It possesses considerable solvent powers, whence it is 
employed for numerous purposes in pharmacy and the arts. 
Its viscid character, and its non-liability to dry and harden by 
exposure to air, also fit it for various other uses, such as lubrica- 
tion, &c., whilst its peculiar physical characters, enabling it to 
blend with either aqueous or oily matters under certain circum- 
stances, render it a useful ingredient in a large number of products 
of varied kinds. 

Manufacture. The simplest modes of preparing pure glycerin are 
based on the saponification of fats, either by alkalis or by superheated 
steam, and on the circumstance that, although glycerin cannot be 
distilled by itself under the ordinary pressure without decomposition, 
it can be readily volatilized in a current of superheated steam. 
Commercial glycerin is mostly obtained from the " spent lyes '* 
of the soap-maker. In the van Ruymbeke process the spent lyes 
are allowed to settle, and then treated with " persulphate of iron," 
the exact composition of which is a trade secret, but it is possibly a 
mixture of ferric and ferrous sulphates. Ferric hydrate, iron soaps 
and all insoluble impurities are precipitated. The liquid is filter- 
pressed, and any excess of iron in the filtrate is precipitated by the 
careful addition of caustic soda and then removed. The liquid is then 
evaporated under a vacuum of 27 to 28 in. of mercury, and, when of 
specific gravity 1-295 (corresponding to about 80% of glycerin), 
it is distilled under a vacuum of 28 to 29 in. In the Glatz process the 
lye is treated with a little milk of lime, the liquid then neutralized 
with hydrochloric acid, and the liquid filtered. Evaporation and 
subsequent distillation under a high vacuum gives crude glycerin. 
The impure glycerin obtained as above is purified by redistillation 
in steam and evaporation in vacuum pans. 

Technical Uses. Besides its use as a starting-point in the produc- 
tion of " nitroglycerin " (q.v.) and other chemical products, glycerin 
is largely employed for a number of purposes in the arts, its applica- 
tion thereto being due to its peculiar physical properties. Thus its 
non-liability to freeze (when not absolutely anhydrous, which it 
practically never is when freely exposed to the air) and its non- 
volatility at ordinary temperatures, combined with its power of 
always keeping fluid and not drying up and hardening, render it 
valuable as a lubricating agent for clockwork, watches, &c., as a 
substitute for water in wet gas-meters, and as an ingredient in 
cataplasms, plasters, modelling clay, pasty colouring matters, 
dyeing materials, moist colours for artists, and numerous other 
analogous substances which are required to be kept in a permanently 
soft condition. Glycerin acts as a preservative against decomposition, 
owing to its antiseptic qualities, which also led to its being employed 
to preserve untanned leather (especially during transit when ex- 
ported, the hides being, moreover, kept soft and supple); to make 
solutions of gelatin, albumen, gum, paste, cements, &c. which will 
keep without decomposition; to preserve meat and other edibles; 
to mount anatomical preparations; to preserve vaccine lymph un- 
changed ; and for many similar purposes. Its solvent power is also 



GLYCOLS GLYPTOTHEK 



utilized in the production of various colouring fluids, where the 
colouring matter would not dissolve in water alone; thus aniline 
violet, the tinctorial constituents of madder, and various allied 
colouring matters dissolve in glycerin, forming liquids which remain 
coloured even when diluted with water, the colouring matters being 
either retained in suspension or dissolved by the glycerin present 
in the diluted fluid. Glycerin is also employed in the manufacture 
of formic acid (q.v.). Certain kinds of copying inks are greatly 
improved by the substitution of glycerin, in part or entirely, for the 
sugar or honey usually added. 

In its medicinal use glycerin is an excellent solvent for such sub- 
stances as iodine, alkaloids, alkalis, &c., and is therefore used for 
applying them to diseased surfaces, especially as it aids in their 
absorption. It does not evaporate or turn rancid, whilst its marked 
hygroscopic action ensures the moistness and softness of any surface 
that it covers. Given by the mouth glycerin produces purging if 
large doses are administered, and has the same action if only a small 
quantity be introduced into the rectum. For this purpose it is 
very largely used either as a suppository or in the fluid form (one 
or two drachms). The result is prompt, safe and painless. Glycerin 
is useless as a food and is not in any sense a substitute for cod-liver 
oil. Very large doses in animals cause lethargy, collapse and death. 

GLYCOLS, 5n organic chemistry, the generic name given 
to the aliphatic dihydric alcohols. These compounds may be 
obtained by heating the alkylen iodides or bromides (e.g. ethylene 
dibromide) with silver acetate or with potassium acetate and 
alcohol, the esters so produced being then hydrolysed with 
caustic alkalis, thus: 

C 2 H,Br 2 -|-2C 2 H 3 2 -Ag->C 2 H4(O-C 2 H 3 O) 2 -C 2 H4(OH) 2 +2K-C 2 H30 2 ; 
by the direct union of water with the alkylen oxides; by oxida- 
tion of the defines with cold potassium permanganate solution 
(G. Wagner, Ber., 1888, 21, p. 1231), or by the action of nitrous 
acid on the diamines. 

Glycols may be classified as primary, containing two CHOH 
groups; primary-secondary, containing the grouping CH(OH)- 
CH 2 OH; secondary, with the grouping - CH(OH) CH(OH) - ; and 
tertiary, with the grouping >C(OH)-(OH)C<. The secondary 
glycols are prepared by the action of alcoholic potash on alde- 
hydes, thus: 
3(CH 3 ) 2 CH-CHO + KHO = (CH a ) 2 CHCO 2 K + 

(CH 3 ) 2 CH-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CH(CH 3 ) 2 . 

The tertiary glycols are known as pinacones and are formed 
on the reduction of ketones with sodium amalgam. 

The glycols are somewhat thick liquids, of high boiling point, 
the pinacones only being crystalline solids; they are readily 
soluble in water and alcohol, but are insoluble in ether. By the 
action of dehydrating agents they are converted into aldehydes 
or ketones. In their general behaviour towards oxidizing agents 
the primary glycols behave very similarly to the ordinary 
primary alcohols (q.v.), but the secondary and tertiary glycols 
break down, yielding compounds with a smaller carbon content. 

Ethylene glycol, QH 4 (OH) 2 , was first prepared by A. VVurtz 
(Ann. chim., 1859 [3], 55, p. 400) from ethylene dibromide and 
silver acetate. It is a somewhat pleasant smelling liquid, boiling 
at 197 to 197-5 C.. and having a specific gravity 0(1-125 (o). On 
fusion with solid potash at 250 C. it completely decomposes, giving 
potassium oxalate and hydrogen, 

C 2 H 6 2 +2KHO = K 2 C 2 O 4 +4H 2 . 

Two propylene glycols, C 3 H 8 O 2 , are known, viz. o-propvlene 
glycol, CH 3 -CH(OH)-CH 2 OH, a liquid boiling at 188 to 189" and 
obtained by heating glycerin with sodium hydroxide and distilling 
the mixture; and trimethylene glycol, CH 2 OH-CH 2 -CH 2 OH, a 
liquid boiling at 214 C. and prepared by boiling trimethylene bro- 
mide with potash solution (A. Zander, Ann., 1882, 214, p. 178). 

GLYCONIC (from Glycon, a Greek lyric poet), a form of verse, 
best known in Catullus and Horace (usually in the catalectic 
variety ^-_^_,,-), with three feet a spondee and two dac- 
tyls; or four three trochees and a dactyl, or a dactyl and three 
chorees. Sir R. Jebb pointed out that the last form might be 
varied by placing the dactyl second or third, and according to its 
place this verse was called a First, Second or Third Glyconic 

Cf. J. W. White, in Classical Quarterly (Oct. 1909). 

GLYPH (from Gr. y\v<t>iv, to carve), in architecture, a vertical 
channel in a frieze (see TRIGLYPH). 

GLYPTODON (Greek for " fluted-tooth ") , a name applied 
by Sir R. Owen to the typical representative of a group of 
gigantic, armadillo-like, South American, extinct Edentata, 




characterized by having the carapace composed of a solid piece 
(formed by the union of a multitude of bony dermal plates) 
without any movable rings. The facial portion of the skull is 
very short; a long process of the maxillary bone descends 
from the anterior part of the zygomatic arch; and the ascending 
ramus of the mandible is remarkably high. The teeth, $ in the 
later species, are much alike, having two deep grooves or flutings 
on each side, so as to divide them into three distinct lobes (fig.). 
They are very tall and grew throughout 
life. The vertebral column is almost 
entirely welded into a solid tube, but 
there is a complex joint at the base of the 
neck, to allow the head being retracted 
within the carapace. The limbs are very 
strong, and the feet short and broad, re- 
sembling externally those of an elephant 
or tortoise. 

Glyptodonts constitute a family, the Glypto- 
dontidae, whose position is next to the 
armadillos (Dasypodidae) ; the group being 
represented by a number of generic types. 
The Pleistocene forms, whose remains occur 
abundantly in the silt of the Buenos Aires 
pampas, are by far the largest, the skull and 
tail-sheath in some instances having a length 
of from 12 to 16 ft. In Glyptodon (with 
which Schistopleurum is identical) the tail- 
sheath consists of a series of coronet-like 
rings, gradually diminishing in diameter from 
base to tip. Daedicurus, in which the tail- 
sheath is in the form of a huge solid club, is 
the largest member of the family; in Pano- 
chthus and Sclerocalyptus (Hoplophorus) the 
tail-sheath consists basally of a small number 
of smooth rings, and terminally of a tube. 
In some specimens of these genera the horny 
shields covering the bony scutes of the cara- 
pace have been preserved, and since the Two views of the 
foramina, which often pierce the latter, stop tooth of a Glyptodon', 
short of the former, it is evident that these the upper figure show- 
were for the passage of blood-vessels and ing one side, and the 
not receptacles for bristles. In the earlv lower the crown. 
Pleistocene epoch, when South America 

became connected with North America, some of the glyptodonts 
found their way into the latter continent. Among these northern 
forms some from Texas and Florida have been referred to 
Glyptodon. One large species from Texas has, however, been 
made the type of a separate genus, under the name of Glyplo- 
therium texanum. In some respects it shows affinity with Pano- 
chthus, although in the simple structure of the tail-sheath it 
recalls the undermentioned Propalaeohoplophorus. All the above 
are of Pleistocene and perhaps Pliocene age, but in the Santa Cruz 
beds of Patagonia there occur the two curious genera Propalaeohoplo- 
phorus and Peltephilus, the former of which is a primitive and 
generalized type of glyptodont, while the latter seems to come 
nearer to the armadillos. Both are represented by species of com- 
paratively small size. In Propalaeohoplophorus the scutes of the 
carapace, which are less deeply sculptured than in the larger glypto- 
donts, are arranged in distinct transverse rows, in three of which 
they partially overlap near the border of the carapace after the 
fashion of the armadillos. The skull and limb-bones exhibit several 
features met with in the latter, and the vertebrae of the back are not 
welded into a continuous tube. There are eight pairs of teeth, the 
first four of which are simpler than the rest, and may perhaps there- 
fore be regarded as premolars. More remarkable is Peltephilus, on 
account of the fact that the teeth, which are simple, with a chevron- 
shaped section, form a continuous series from the front of the jaw 
backwards, the number of pairs being seven. Accordingly, a 
modification of the character, even of the true Edentata, as given 
in the earlier article, is rendered necessary. The head bears a pair 
of horn-like scutes, and the scutes of the carapace and tail, which 
are loosely opposed or slightly overlapping, form a number of trans- 
verse rows. 

LITERATURE. R. Lydekker, " The Extinct Edentates of Ar- 
gentina," An. Mus. La Plata Pal. Argent, vol. iii. p. 2 (1904); 
H. F. Osbprn, " ' Glyptotherium texanum,' a Glyptodont from the 
Lower Pleistocene of Texas," Bull. Amer. Mus., vol. xvii. p. 491 
(1903) ; W. B. Scott, " Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds Edentata," 
Rep. Princeton Exped. to Patagonia, vol. v. (1903-1904). (R. L.*) 

GLYPTOTHEK (from Gr. y\VTrr6s, carved, and 0^, a place 
of storage), an architectural term given to a gallery for the 
exhibition of sculpture, and first employed at Munich, where it 
was built to exhibit the sculptures from the temple of Aegina. 



148 



GMELIN GNEISENAU 



GMELIN, the name of several distinguished German scientists, 
of a Tubingen family. Johann Georg Gmelin (1674-1728), 
an apothecary in Tubingen, and an accomplished chemist for 
the times in which he lived, had three sons. The first, Johann 
Conrad (1702-1759), was an apothecary and surgeon in Tubingen. 
The second, Johann Georg (1709-1755), was appointed professor 
of chemistry and natural history in St Petersburg in 1731, and 
from 1733 to 1743 was engaged in travelling through Siberia. 
The fruits of his journey were Flora Sibirica (4 vols., 1749- 
1750) and Reisen durch Sibirien (4 vols., 1753). He ended his 
days as professor of medicine at Tubingen, a post to which he 
was appointed in 1749. The third son, Philipp Friedrich (1721- 
1768), was extraordinary professor of medicine at Tubingen 
in 1750, and in 1755 became ordinary professor of botany and 
chemistry. In the second generation Samuel Gottlieb (1743- 
1774), the son of Johann Conrad, was appointed professor of 
natural history at St Petersburg in 1766, and in the following 
year started on a journey through south Russia and the regions 
round the Caspian Sea. On his way back he was captured by 
Usmey Khan, of the Kaitak tribe, and died from the ill-treatment 
he suffered, on the 27th of July 1774. One of his nephews, 
Ferdinand Gottlob von Gmelin (1782-1848), became professor of 
medicine and natural history at Tubingen in 1805, and another, 
Christian Gottlob (1792-1860), who in 1828 was one of the 
first to devise a process for the artificial manufacture of ultra- 
marine, was professor of chemistry and pharmacy in the same 
university. In the youngest branch of the family, Philipp 
Friedrich had a son, Johann Friedrich (1748-1804), who was 
appointed professor of medicine in Tubingen in 1772, and in 
1775 accepted the chair of medicine and chemistry at Gottingen. 
In 1788 he published the i3th edition of Linnaeus' Systema 
Naturae with many additions and alterations. His son Leopold 
(1788-1853), was the best-known member of the family. He 
studied medicine and chemistry at Gottingen, Tubingen and 
Vienna, and in 1813 began to lecture on chemistry at Heidelberg, 
where in 1814 he was appointed extraordinary, and in 1817 
ordinary, professor of chemistry and medicine. He was the 
discoverer of potassium ferricyanide (1822), and wrote the 
Handbuch der Chemie (ist ed. 1817-1819, 4th ed. 1843-1855), 
an important work in its day, which was translated into English 
for the Cavendish Society by H. Watts (1815-1884) in 1848- 
1859. He resigned his chair in 1852, and died on the i3th of 
April in the following year at Heidelberg. 

GMUND, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirttemberg, 1 
in a charming and fruitful valley on the Rems, here spanned by 
a beautiful bridge, 31 m. E.N.E. of Stuttgart on the railway 
to Nordlingen. Pop. (1905) 18,699. It is surrounded by old 
walls, flanked with towers, and has a considerable number of 
ancient buildings, among which are the fine church of the Holy 
Cross; St John's church, which dates from the time of the 
Hohenstaufen; and, situated on a height near the town, partly 
hewn out of the rock, the pilgrimage church of the Saviour. 
Among the modern buildings are the gymnasium, the drawing 
and trade schools, the Roman Catholic seminary, the town 
hall and the industrial art museum. Clocks and watches are 
manufactured here and also other articles of silver, while the 
town has a considerable trade in corn, hops and fruit. The 
scenery in the neighbourhood is very beautiful, near the town 
being the district called Little Switzerland. 

Gmund was surrounded by walls in the beginning of the 1 2th 
century by Duke Frederick of Swabia. It received town rights 
from Frederick Barbarossa, and after the extinction of the 
Hohenstaufen became a free imperial town. It retained its 
independence till 1803, when it came into the possession of 
Wiirttemberg. Gmund is the birth-place of the painter Hans 
Baldung (1475-1545) and of the architect Heinrich Arler or Parler 
(fl. 1350). In the middle ages the population was about 10,000. 

See Kaiser, Gmund und seine Umgebung (1888). 

1 There are two places of this name in Austria, (i) Gmiind, 
a town in Lower Austria, containing a palace belonging to the 
imperial family, (2) a town in Carinthia, with a beautiful Gothic 
church and some interesting ruins. 



GMUNDEN, a town and summer resort of Austria, in Upper 
Austria, 40 m. S.S.W. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 7126. It 
is situated at the efflux of the Traun river from the lake of the 
same name and is surrounded by high mountains, as the Traun- 
stein (5446 ft.), the Erlakogel (5150 ft.), the Wilde Kogel (6860 
ft.) and the Hollen Gebirge. It is much frequented as a health 
and summer resort, and has a variety of lake, brine, vegetable 
and pine-cone baths, a hydropathic establishment, inhalation 
chambers, whey cure, &c. There are a great number of ex- 
cursions and points of interest round Gmunden, specially worth 
mentioning being the Traun Fall, 10 m. N. of Gmunden. It is 
also an important centre of the salt industry in Salzkammergut. 
Gmunden was a town encircled with walls already in 1186. On 
the i4th of November 1626, Pappenheim completely defeated 
here the army of the rebellious peasants. 

See F. Krackowizer, Geschichte der Stadt Gmunden in OberSsterreich 
(Gmunden, 1898-1901, 3 vols.). 

GNAT (O. Eng. gnat), the common English name for the 
smaller dipterous flies (see DIPTERA) of the family Culicidae, 
which are now included among " mosquitoes " (see MOSQUITO). 
The distinctive term has no zoological significance, but in 
England the " mosquito " has commonly been distinguished 
from the " gnat " as a variety of larger size and more poisonous 
bite. 

GNATHOPODA, a term in zoological classification, suggested 
as an alternative name for the group Arthropoda (<?..). The 
word, which means " jaw-footed," refers to the fact that in the 
members of the group, some of the lateral appendages or " feet " 
in the region of the mouth act as jaws. 

GNATIA (also EGNATIA or IGNATIA, mod. Anazzo, near 
Fasano), an ancient city of the Peucetii, and their frontier town 
towards the Sallentini (i.e. of Apulia towards Calabria), in 
Roman times of importance for its trade, lying as it did on the 
sea, at the point where the Via Traiana joined the coast road, 2 
38 m. S.E. of Barium. The ancient city walls have been almost 
entirely destroyed in recent times to provide building material, 3 
and the place is famous for the discoveries made in its tombs. 
A considerable collection of antiquities from Gnatia is preserved 
at Fasano, though the best are in the museum at Bari. Gnatia 
was the scene of the prodigy at which Horace mocks (Sat. i. 
5. 97). Near Fasano are two small subterranean chapels with 
paintings of the nth century A.D. (E. Bertaux, L' 'Art dans 
I'llalie meridionals, Paris, 1904, 135). (T. As.) 

GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON, COUNT NEIT- 
HARDT VON (1760-1831), Prussian field marshal, was the son 
of a Saxon officer named Neithardt. Born in 1760 at Schildau, 
near Torgau, he was brought up in great poverty there, and 
subsequently at Wurzburg and Erfurt. In 1777 he entered 
Erfurt university; but two years later joined an Austrian 
regiment there quartered. In 1782 taking the additional name 
of Gneisenau from some lost estates of his family in Austria, 
he entered as an officer the service of the margrave of Baireuth- 
Anspach. With one of that prince's mercenary regiments in 
English pay he saw active service and gained valuable experi- 
ence in the War of American Independence, and returning 
in 1786, applied for Prussian service. Frederick the Great gave 
him a commission as first lieutenant in the infantry. Made 
Stabskapitan in 1790, Gneisenau served in Poland, 1793-1794, 
and, subsequently to this, ten years of quiet garrison life in 
Jauer enabled him to undertake a wide range of military studies. 
In 1796 he married Caroline von Kottwitz. In 1806 he was 
one of Hohenlohe's staff-officers, fought at Jena, and a little 
later commanded a provisional infantry brigade which fought 
under Lestocq in the Lithuanian campaign. Early in 1807 
Major von Gneisenau was sent as commandant to Colberg, which, 
small and ill-protected as it was, succeeded in holding out until 
the peace of Tilsit. The commandant received the much-prized 
order " pour le merite," and was promoted lieutenant-colonel. 

A wider sphere of work was now opened to him. As chief of 

1 There is no authority for calling the latter Via Egnatia. 
8 H. Swinburne, Travels in the Two Sicilies (London, 1790), ii. 15, 
mentions the walls as being 8 yds. thick and 16 courses high. 



GNEISS 



149 



engineers, and a member of the reorganizing committee, he 
played a great part, along with Scharnhorst, in the work of re- 
constructing the Prussian army. A colonel in 1809, he soon drew 
upon himself, by his energy, the suspicion of the dominant French, 
and Stein's fall was soon followed by Gneisenau's retirement. 
But, after visiting Russia, Sweden and England, he returned 

!to Berlin and resumed his place as a leader of the patriotic 
party. In open military work and secret machinations his 
energy and patriotism were equally tested, and with the out- 
break of the War of Liberation, Major-General Gneisenau 
became BlUcher's quartermaster-general. Thus began the 
connexion between these two soldiers which has furnished 
military history with its best example of the harmonious co- 
operation between the general and his chief-of-staff. With 
Bliicher, Gneisenau served to the capture of Paris; his military 
character was the exact complement of Bliicher's, and under 
this happy guidance the young troops of Prussia, often defeated 
but never discouraged, fought their way into the heart of France. 
The plan of the march on Paris, which led directly to the fall 
of Napoleon, was specifically the work of the chief-of-staff. 
In reward for his distinguished service he was in 1814, along 
with York, Kleist and Biilow, made count at the same time as 
Bliicher became prince of Wahlstatt; an annuity was also 
assigned to him. 

In 1815, once more chief of Bliicher's staff, Gneisenau played 
a very conspicuous part in the Waterloo campaign (q.v.). Senior 
generals, such as York and Kleist, had been set aside in order 
that the chief-of-staff should have the command in case of need, 
and when on the field of Ligny the old field marshal was disabled, 
Gneisenau at once assumed the control of the Prussian army. 
Even in the light of the evidence that many years' research 
has collected, the precise part taken by Gneisenau in the events 
which followed is much debated. It is known that Gneisenau 
had the deepest distrust of the British commander, who, he 
considered, had left the Prussians in the lurch at Ligny, and that 
to the hour of victory he had grave doubts as to whether he ought 
not to fall back on the Rhine. Bliicher, however, soon recovered 
from his injuries, and, with Grolmann, the quartermaster- 
general, he managed to convince Gneisenau. The relations of 
the two may be illustrated by Brigadier-General Hardinge's 
report. Bliicher burst into Hardinge's room at Wavre, saying 
" Gneisenau has given way, and we are to march at once to your 
chief." 

On the field of Waterloo, however, Gneisenau was quick to 
realize the magnitude of the victory, and he carried out the 
pursuit with a relentless vigour which has few parallels in 
history. His reward was further promotion and the insignia 
of the " Black Eagle " which had been taken in Napoleon's 
coach. In 1816 he was appointed to command the VIHth 
Prussian Corps, but soon retired from the service, both because 
of ill-health and for political reasons. For two years he lived in 
retirement on his estate, Erdmannsdorf in Silesia, but in 1818 
he was made governor of Berlin in succession to Kalkreuth, and 
member of the Staatsrath. In 1825 he became general field 
marshal. In 1831 he was appointed to the command of the 
Army of Observation on the Polish frontier, with Clausewitz 
as his chief-of-staff. At Posen he was struck down by 
cholera and died on the 24th of August 1831, soon followed 
by his chief-of-staff, who fell a victim to the same disease in 
November. 

As a soldier, Gneisenau was the greatest Prussian general 
since Frederick; as a man, his noble character and virtuous life 
secured him the affection and reverence, not only of his superiors 
and subordinates in the service, but of the whole Prussian 
nation. A statue by Rauch was erected in Berlin in 1855, and 
in memory of the siege of 1807 the Colberg grenadiers received 
his name in 1889. One of his sons led a brigade of the VIHth 
Army Corps in the war of 1870. 

See G. H. Pertz, Das Leben des Feldmarschalls Graf en Neithardt 
von Gneisenau, vols. 1-3 (Berlin, 1864-1869); vols. 4 and 5, 
G. Delbruck (ib. 1879, 1880), with numerous documents and letters; 
H. Delbruck, Das Leben des G. F. M. Grafen von Gneisenau (2 vols., 
2nd ed., Berlin, 1894), based on Pertz's work, but containing much 



new material; Frau von Beguelin, Denkwiirdigkeiten (Berlin, 1892); 
Hormayr, Lebensbilder aus den Befreiungskrieeen (Jena, 1841); 
Pick, A us dem brieflichen Nachlass Gneisenaus ; also the histories of 
the campaigns of 1807 and 1813-15. 

GNEISS, a term long used by the miners of the Harz Mountains 
to designate the country rock in which the mineral veins occur; 
it is believed to be a word of Slavonic origin meaning " rotted " 
or " decomposed." It has gradually passed into acceptance as a 
generic term signifying a large and varied series of metamorphic 
rocks, which mostly consist of quartz and felspar (orthoclase 
and plagioclase) with muscovite and biotite, hornblende or 
augite, iron oxides, zircon and apatite. There is also a long 
list of accessory minerals which are present in gneisses with more 
or less frequency, but not invariably, as garnet, sillimanite, 
cordierite, graphite and graphitoid, epidote, calcite, orthite, 
tourmaline and andalusite. The gneisses all possess a more 
or less marked parallel structure or foliation, which is the main 
feature by which many of them are separated from the granites, 
a group of rocks having nearly the same mineralogical composi- 
tion and closely allied to many gneisses. 

The felspars of the gneisses are predominantly orthoclase 
(often perthitic), but microcline is common in the more acid 
types and oligoclase occurs also very frequently, especially in 
certain sedimentary gneisses, while more basic varieties of 
plagioclase are rare. Quartz is very seldom absent and may be 
blue or milky and opalescent. Muscovite and biotite may both 
occur in the same rock; in other cases only one of them is present. 
The commonest and most important types of gneiss are the mica- 
gneisses. Hornblende is green, rarely brownish; augite pale 
green or -nearly colourless; enstatite appears in some granulite- 
gneisses. Epidote, often with enclosures of orthite, is by no 
means rare in gneisses from many different parts of the world. 
Sillimanite and andalusite are not infrequent ingredients of 
gneiss, and their presence has been accounted for in more than 
one way. Cordierite-gneisses are a special group of great interest 
and possessing many peculiarities; they are partly, if not 
entirely, foliated contact-altered sedimentary rocks. Kyanite 
and staurolite may also be mentioned as occasionally occurring. 

Many varieties of gneiss have received specific names according 
to the minerals they consist of and the structural peculiarities 
they exhibit. Muscovite-gneiss, biotite-gneiss and muscovite- 
biotite-gneiss, more common perhaps than all the others taken 
together, are grey or pinkish rocks according to the colour of 
their prevalent felspar, not unlike granites, but on the whole 
more often fine-grained (though coarse-grained types occur) and 
possessing a gneissose or foliated structure. The latter consists 
in the arrangement of the flakes of mica in such a way that 
their faces are parallel, and hence the rock has the property of 
splitting more readily in the direction in which the mica plates 
are disposed. This fissility, though usually marked, is not so 
great as in the schists or slates, and the split faces are not so 
smooth as in these latter rocks. The films of mica may be 
continuous and are usually not flat, but irregularly curved. 
In some gneisses the parallel flakes of mica are scattered through 
the quartz and felspar; in others these minerals form discrete 
bands, the quartz and felspar being grouped into lenticles 
separated by thin films of mica. When large felspars, of rounded 
or elliptical form, are visible in the gneiss, it is said to have 
augen structure (Ger. Augen = eyes). It should also be remarked 
that the essential component minerals of the rocks of this family 
are practically always determinable by naked eye inspection or 
with the aid of a simple lens. If the rock is too fine grained 
for this it is generally relegated to the schists. When the 
bands of folia are very fine and tortuous the structure is called 
helizitic. 

In mica-gneisses sillimanite, kyanite, andalusite and garnet 
may occur. The significance of these minerals is variously 
interpreted; they may indicate that the gneiss consists wholly 
or in part of sedimentary material which has been contact- 
altered, but they have also been regarded as having been 
developed by metamorphic action out of biotite or other primary 
ingredients of the rock. 



150 



GNEIST 



Hornblende-gneisses are usually darker in colour and less 
fissile than mica-gneisses; they contain more plagioclase, less 
orthoclase and microcline, and more sphene and epidote. Many 
of them are rich in hornblende and thus form transitions to 
amphibolites. Pyroxene-gneisses are less frequent but occur 
in many parts of both hemispheres. The " charnockite " series 
are very closely allied to the pyroxene-gneisses. Hypersthene 
and scapolite both may occur in these rocks and they are some- 
times garnetiferous. 

In every country where the lowest and oldest rocks have come to 
the surface and been exposed by the long continued action of denuda- 
tion in stripping away the overlying formations, gneisses are found in 
great abundance and of many different kinds. They are in fact the 
typical rocks of the Archean (Lewisian, Laurentian, &c.) series. 
In the Alps, Harz, Scotland, Norway and Sweden, Canada, South 
America, Peninsular India, Himalayas (to mention only a few 
localities) they occupy wide areas and exhibit a rich diversity of 
types. From this it has been inferred that they are of great geological 
age, and in fact this can be definitely proved in many cases, for the 
oldest known fossiliferous formations may be seen to rest uncon- 
formably en these gneisses and are made up of their debris. It was 
for a long time believed that they represented the primitive crust of 
the earth, and while this is no longer generally taught there are 
still geologists who hold that these gneisses are necessarily of pre- 
Cambrian age. Others, while admitting the general truth of this 
hypothesis, consider that there are localities in which typical gneisses 
can be shown to penetrate into rocks which may be as recent as the 
Tertiary period, or to pass into these rocks so gradually and in such 
a way as to make it certain that the gneisses are merely altered 
states of comparatively recent sedimentary or igneous rocks. Much 
controversy has arisen on these points; but this is certain, that 
gneisses are far the most common among Archean rocks, and where 
their age is not known the presumption is strong that they are at 
least pre-Cambrian. 

Many gneisses are undoubtedly sedimentary rocks that have been 
brought to their present state by such agents of metamorphism as 
heat, movement, crushing and recrystallization. This may be 
demonstrated partly by their mode of occurrence: they accompany 
limestones, graphitic schists, quartzites and other rocks of sedimentary 
type; some of them where least altered may even show remains of 
bedding or of original pebbly character (conglomerate gneisses). 
More conclusive, however, is the chemical composition of these rocks, 
which often is such as no igneous masses possess, but resembles that 
of many impure argillaceous sediments. These sedimentary gneisses 
(or paragneisses, as they are often called) are often rich in biotite 
and garnet and may contain kyanite and sillimanite.orlessfrequently 
calcite. Some of them, however, are rich in felspar and quartz, with 
muscovite and biotite; others may even contain hornblende and 
augite, and all these may bear so close a resemblance to gneisses of 
igneous origin that by no single character, chemical or mineralogical, 
can their original nature be definitely established. In these cases, 
however, a careful study of the relations of the rock in the field and 
of the different types which occur together will generally lead to some 
positive conclusion. 

Other gneisses are igneous (orthogneisses). These have very much 
the same composition as acid igneous rocks such as granite, aplite, 
hornblende granite, or intermediate rocks such as syenite and quartz 
diorite. Many of these orthogneisses are not equally well foliated 
throughout, but are massive or granitoid in places. They are some- 
times subdivided into granite gneiss, diorite gneiss, syenite gneiss 
and so on. The sedimentary schists into which these rocks have 
been intruded may show contact alteration by the development of 
such minerals as cordierite, andalusite and sillimanite. In many 
of these orthogneisses the foliation is primitive, being an original 
character of the rock which was produced either by fluxion move- 
ments in a highly viscous, semi-solid mass injected at great pressure 
into the surrounding strata, or by folding stresses acting immediately 
after consolidation. That the foliation in other orthogneisses is 
subsequent or superinduced, having been occasioned by pressure 
and deformation of the solid mass long after it had consolidated and 
cooled, admits of no doubt, but it is very difficult to establish criteria 
by which these types may be differentiated. Those gneisses in which 
the minerals have been crushed and broken by fluxion or injection 
movements have been called protoclastic, while those which have 
attained their gneissose state by crushing long after consolidation 
are distinguished as cataclastic. There are also many examples of 
gneisses of mixed or synthetic origin. They may be metamorphosed 
sediments (granulites and schists) into which tongues and thin 
veins of granitic character have been intruded, following the more 
or less parallel foliation planes already present in the country rock. 
These veinlets produce that alternation in mineral composition and 
banded structure which are essential in gneisses. This intermixture 
of igneous and sedimentary material may take place on the finest scale 
and in the most intricate manner. Often there has been resorption 
of the older rocks, whether sedimentary or igneous, by those which 
have invaded them, and movement has gone on both during injection 
and at a later period, so that the whole complex becomes amalgamated 



and its elements are so completely confused that the geologist can 
no longer disentangle them. 

When we remember that in the earlier stages of the earth's history, 
to which most gneisses belong, and in the relatively deep parts of 
the earth's crust, where they usually occur, there has been most 
igneous injection and greatest frequency of earth movements, it 
is not difficult to understand the geological distribution of gneissose 
rocks. All the factors which are required for their production, heat, 
movement, plutonic intrusions, contact alteration, interstitial 
moisture at high temperatures, are found at great depths and have 
acted most frequently and with greatest power on the older rock 
masses. But locally, where the conditions were favourable, the 
same processes may have gone on in comparatively recent times. 
Hence, though most gneisses are Archean, all gneisses are not 
necessarily so. (J. S. F.) 

GNEIST, HEINRICH RUDOLF HERMANN FRIEDRICH 
VON (1816-1895), German jurist and politician, was born at 
Berlin on the I3th of August 1816, the son of a judge attached 
to the " Kammergericht " (court of appeal) in that city. After 
receiving his school education at the gymnasium at Eisleben 
in Prussian Saxony, he entered the university of Berlin in 1833 
as a student of jurisprudence, and became a pupil of the famous 
Roman law teacher von Savigny. Proceeding to the degree 
of doctor juris in 1838, young Gneist immediately established 
himself as a Privaldozent in the faculty of law. He had, however, 
already chosen the judicial branch of the legal profession as a 
career, and having while yet a student acted as Auscultalor, 
was admitted Assessor in 1841. He soon found leisure and 
opportunity to fulfil a much-cherished wish, and spent the 
next few years on a lengthened tour in Italy, France and 
England. He utilized his Wanderjahre for the purposes of 
comparative study, and on his return in 1844 was appointed 
extraordinary professor of Roman law in Berlin university, 
and thus began a professorial connexion which ended only with 
his death. The first-fruits of his activity as a teacher were 
seen in his brilliant work, Die formellen Vertrage des heutigen 
romischen Obligationen-Rechtes (Berlin, 1845). Part passu 
with his academic labours he continued his judicial career, 
and became in due course successively assistant judge of the 
superior court and of the supreme tribunal. But to a mind 
constituted such as his, the want of elasticity in the procedure 
of the courts was galling. " Brought up," he tells, in the preface 
to his Englische V erjassungsgeschichte, " in the laborious and 
rigid school of Prussian judges, at a time when the duty of 
formulating the matter in litigation was entailed upon the judge 
who personally conducted the pleadings, I became acquainted 
both with the advantages possessed by the Prussian bureau 
system as also with its weak points." Feeling the necessity 
for fundamental reforms in legal procedure, he published, in 
1849, his Trial by Jury, in which, after pointing out that the 
origin of that institution was common to both Germany and 
England, and showing in a masterly way the benefits which had 
accrued to the latter country through its more extended applica- 
tion, he pleaded for its freer admission in the tribunals of his 
own country. 

The period of " storm and stress " in 1848 afforded Gneist an 
opportunity for which he had yearned, and he threw himself 
with ardour into the constitutional struggles of Prussia. Al- 
though his candidature for election to the National Assembly 
of that year was unsuccessful, he felt that " the die was cast," 
and deciding for a political career, retired in 1850 from his judicial 
position. Entering the ranks of the National Liberal party, 
he began both in writing and speeches actively to champion 
their cause, now busying himself pre-eminently with the study 
of constitutional law and history. In 1853 appeared his Adel 
und Ritterschafl in England, and in 1857 the Geschichte und 
heutige Geslalt der Amter in England, a pamphlet primarily 
written to combat the Prussian abuses of administration, but 
for which the author also claimed that it had not been without 
its effect in modifying certain views that had until then ruled 
in England itself. In 1858 Gneist was appointed ordinary 
professor of Roman law, and in the same year commenced his 
parliamentary career by his election for Stettin to the Abgeord- 
netenhaus (House of Deputies) of the Prussian Landtag, in which 
assembly he sat thenceforward uninterruptedly until 1893. 






GNESEN GNOME, AND GNOMIC POETRY 






Joining the Left, he at once became one of its leading spokesmen. 
His chief oratorical triumphs are associated with the early period 
of his membership of the House; two noteworthy occasions 
being his violent attack (September 1862) upon the government 
budget in connexion with the reorganization of the Prussian 
army, and his defence (1864) of the Polish chiefs of the (then) 
grand-duchy of Posen, who were accused of high treason. In 
1857-1863 was published Das heutige englische Verfassungs- 
und Venualtungsrecht, a work which, contrasting English and 
German constitutional law and administration, aimed at exercis- 
ing political pressure upon the government of the day. In 
1868 Gneist became a member of the North German parliament, 
and acted as a member of the commission for organizing the 
federal army, and also of that for the settlement of ecclesiastical 
controversial questions. On the establishment of German 
unity his mandate was renewed for the Reichstag, and in this 
he sat, an active and prominent member of the National Liberal 
party, until 1884. In the Kulturkampf he sided with the 
government against the attacks of the Clericals, whom he bitterly 
denounced, and whose implacable enemy he ever showed himself. 
In 1879, together with his colleague, von Hanel, he violently 
attacked the motion for the prosecution of certain Socialist 
members, which as a result of the vigour of his opposition was 
almost unanimously rejected. He was parliamentary reporter 
for the committees on all great financial and administrative 
questions, and his profound acquaintance with constitutional 
law caused his advice to be frequently sought, not only in his 
own but also in other countries. In Prussia he largely influenced 
legislation, the reform of the judicial and penal systems and the 
new constitution of the Evangelical Church being largely his 
work. He was also consulted by the Japanese government when 
a constitution was being introduced into that country. In 
1875 he was appointed a member of the supreme administrative 
court (Oberverwaltungsgerichl) of Prussia, but only held office 
for two years. In 1882 was published his Englische Verfassungs- 
gcschichte (trans. History of the English Constitution, London, 
1886), which may perhaps be described as his magnum opus. 
It placed the author at once on the level of such writers 
on English constitutional history as Hallam and Stubbs, and 
supplied English literature with a text-book almost unrivalled 
in point of historical research. In 1888 one of the first acts 
of the ill-fated emperor Frederick III., who had always, as 
crown prince, shown great admiration for him, was to ennoble 
Gneist, and attach him as instructor in constitutional law to his 
son, the emperor William II., a charge of which he worthily 
acquitted himself. The last years of his life were full of energy, 
and, in the possession of all his faculties, he continued his wonted 
academic labours until a short time before his death, which 
occurred at Berlin on the 22nd of July 1895. 

As a politician, Gneist's career cannot perhaps be said to have 
been entirely successful. In a country where parliamentary 
institutions are the living exponents of the popular will he might 
have risen to a foremost position in the state; as it was, the 
party to which he allied himself could never hope to become 
more than what it remained, a parliamentary faction, and the 
influence it for a time wielded in the counsels of the state waned 
as soon as the Social-Democratic party grew to be a force to be 
reckoned with. It is as a writer and a teacher that Gneist is 
best known to fame. He was a jurist of a special type. To him 
law was not mere theory, but living force; and this conception 
of its power animates all his schemes of practical reform. As 
a teacher he exercised a magnetic influence, not only by reason 
of the clearness and cogency of his exposition, but also because 
of the success with which he developed the talents and guided 
the aspirations of his pupils. He was a man of noble bearing, 
religious, and imbued with a stern sense of duty. He was proud 
of being a " Preussischer Junker " (a member of the Prussian 
squirearchy), and throughout his writings, despite their liberal 
tendencies, may be perceived the loyalty and affection with which 
he clung to monarchical institutions. A great admirer and a true 
friend of England, to which country he was attached by many 
personal ties, he surpassed all other Germans in his efforts to 



make her free institutions, in which he found his ideal, the 
common heritage of the two great nations of the Teutonic race. 

Gneist was a prolific writer, especially on the subject he had made 
peculiarly his own, that of constitutional law and history, and among 
his works, other than those above named, may be mentioned the 
following: Budget und Cesetz nach dent constitutionellen Staatsrecht 
Englands (Berlin, 1867); Freie Advocatur (ib., 1867); Der Rechts- 
staat (ib., 1872, and 2nd edition, 1879) ; Zur Verwallungsreform 
in Preussen (Leipzig, 1880); Das englische Parlament (Berlin, 1886); 
in English translation, The English Parliament (London, 1886; 3rd 
edition, 1889); Die Militar-Vorlage von 1892 und der preussische 
Verfassungsconflikt von 1862 bis 1866 (Berlin, 1893) ; Die nalionale 
Rechlsidee von den Stdnden und das preussische Dreiklassenwahl- 
system (ib., 1895); Die verfassungsmdssige Stettung des preussischen 
Gesamtministeriums (ib., 1895). See O. Gierke, Rudolph von 
Gneist, Geddchtnisrede (Berlin, 1895), an In Memoriam address 
delivered in Berlin. (P. A. A.) 

GNESEN (Polish, Gniezno), a town of Germany, in the Prussian 
province of Posen, in an undulating and fertile country, on the 
Wrzesnia, 30 m. E.N.E. of Posen by the railway to Thorn. 
Pop. (1905) 23,727. Besides the cathedral, a handsome Gothic 
edifice with twin towers, which contains the remains of St 
Adalbert, there are eight Roman Catholic churches, a Protestant 
church, a synagogue, a clerical seminary and a convent of the 
Franciscan nuns. Among the industries are cloth and linen 
weaving, brewing and distilling. A great horse and cattle 
market is held here annually. Gnesen is one of the oldest towns 
in the former kingdom of Poland. Its name, Gniezno, signifies 
" nest," and points to early Polish traditions. The cathedral is 
believed to have been founded towards the close of the gth 
century, and, having received the bones of St Adalbert, it was 
visited in 1000 by the emperor Otto III., who made it the seat 
of an archbishop. Here, until 1320, the kings of Poland were 
crowned; and the archbishop, since 1416 primate of Poland, 
acted as protector pending the appointment of a new king. 
In 1821 the see of Posen was founded and the archbishop 
removed his residence thither, though its cathedral chapter 
still remains at Gnesen. After a long period of decay the town 
revived after 1815, when it came under the rule of Prussia. 

See S. Karwowski, Gniezno (Posen, 1892). 

GNOME, AND GNOMIC POETRY. Sententious maxims, put 
into verse for the better aid of the memory, were known by the 
Greeks as gnomes, yv&nai, from yvu/jiTj, an opinion. A gnome 
is defined by the Elizabethan critic Henry Peacham (1576?- 
1643 ?) as " a saying pertaining to the manners and common 
practices of men, which declareth, with an apt brevity, what 
in this our life ought to be done, or not done." The Gnomic 
Poets of Greece, who flourished in the 6th century B.C., were 
those who arranged series of sententious maxims in verse. 
These were collected in the 4th century, by Lobon of Argos, 
an orator, but his collection has disappeared. The chief gnomic 
poets were Theognis, Solon, Phocylides, Simonides of Amorgos, 
Demodocus, Xenophanes and Euenus. With the exception of 
Theognis, whose gnomes were fortunately preserved by some 
schoolmaster about 300 B.C., only fragments of the Gnomic 
Poets have come down to us. The moral poem attributed to 
Phocylides, long supposed to be a masterpiece of the school, 
is now known to have been written by a Jew in Alexandria. 
Of the gnomic movement typified by the moral works of the 
poets named above, Prof. Gilbert Murray has remarked that 
it receives its special expression in the conception of the Seven 
Wise Men, to whom such proverbs as " Know thyself " and 
" Nothing too much " were popularly attributed, and whose 
names differed in different lists. These gnomes or maxims 
were extended and put into literary shape by the poets. 
Fragments of Solon, Euenus and Mimnermus have been pre- 
served, in a very confused state, from having been written, 
for purposes of comparison, on the margins of the MSS. of 
Theognis, whence they have often slipped into the text of that 
poet. Theognis enshrines his moral precepts in his elegies, and 
this was probably the custom of the rest; it is improbable 
that there ever existed a species of poetry made up entirely of 
successive gnomes. But the title " gnomic " came to be given 
to all poetry which dealt in a sententious way with questions 



152 



GNOMES GNOSTICISM 



of ethics. It was, unquestionably, the source from which moral 
philosophy was directly developed, and theorists upon life and 
infinity, such as Pythagoras and Xenophanes, seem to have 
begun their career as gnomic poets. By the very nature of 
things, gnomes, in their literary sense, belong exclusively to the 
dawn of literature; their naivet6 and their simplicity in moraliz- 
ing betray it. But it has been observed that many of the ethical 
reflections of the great dramatists, and in particular of Sophocles 
and Euripides, are gnomic distiches expanded. It would be an 
error to suppose that the ancient Greek gnomes are all of a 
solemn character; some are voluptuous and some chivalrous; 
those of Demodocus of Leros had the reputation of being droll. 
In modern times, the gnomic spirit has occasionally been dis- 
played by poets of a homely philosophy, such as Francis Quarles 
(1592-1644) in England and Gui de Pibrac (1529-1584) in 
France. The once-celebrated Quatrains of the latter, published 
in 1574, enjoyed an immense success throughout Europe; they 
were composed in deliberate imitation of the Greek gnomic 
writers of the 6th century B.C. These modern effusions are 
rarely literature and perhaps never poetry. With the gnomic 
writings of Pibrac it was long customary to bind up those of 
Antoine Favre (or Faber) (1557-1624) and of Pierre Mathieu 
(1563-1621). Gnomes are frequently to be found in the ancient 
literatures of Arabia, Persia and India, and in the Icelandic 
staves. The priamel, a brief, sententious kind of poem, which 
was in favour in Germany from the I2th to the i6th century, 
belonged to the true gnomic class, and was cultivated with 
particular success by Hans Rosenblut, the lyrical goldsmith 
of Nuremberg, in the isth century. (E. G.) 

GNOMES (Fr. gnomes, Ger. Gnomen), in folk-lore, the name 
now commonly given to the earth and mountain spirits who are 
supposed to watch over veins of precious metals and other 
hidden treasures. They are usually pictured as bearded dwarfs 
clad in brown close-fitting garments with hoods. * The word 
" gnome " as applied to these is of comparatively modern 
and somewhat uncertain origin. By some it is said to have 
been coined by Paracelsus (so Hatzfeld and Darmesteter, 
Dictionnaire) , who uses Gnomi as a synonym of Pygmaei, from 
the Greek fvia^i], intelligence. The New English Dictionary, 
however, suggests a derivation from genomus, i.e. a Greek type 
friv6fios, " earth-dweller," on the analogy of OdkaaaovoiMs, 
" dwelling in the sea," adding, however, that though there is 
no evidence that the term was not used before Paracelsus, 
it is possibly " a mere arbitrary invention, like so many others 
found in Paracelsus " (N.E.D. s.v.). 

GNOMON, the Greek word for the style of a sundial, or any 
object, commonly a vertical column, the shadow of which was 
observed in former times in order to learn 
8 the altitude of the sun, especially when on 
the meridian. The art of constructing a 
sundial is sometimes termed gnomonics. 
In geometry, a gnomon is a plane figure 
formed by removing a parallelogram from 
a corner of a larger parallelogram; in the 
figure ABCDEFA is a gnomon. Gnomonic projection is a pro- 
jection of a sphere in which the centre of sight is the centre of 
the sphere. 

GNOSTICISM (Gr. yv>(Hs, knowledge), the name generally 
applied to that spiritual movement existing side by side with 
genuine Christianity, as it gradually crystallized into the old 
Catholic Church, which may roughly be defined as a distinct religi- 
ous syncretism bearing the strong impress of Christian influences. 
I. The term " Gnosis " first appears in a technical sense in 
i Tim. vi. 20 (1^ \l/eudijivviios "fvaiais). It seems to have at first 
been applied exclusively, or at any rate principally, to a particular 
tendency within the movement as a whole, i.e. to those sections of 
(the Syrian) Gnostics otherwise generally known as Ophites or 
Naasseni (see Hippolytus, Philosophumena, v. 2: Naawrivol 
. . . oi lavrobs TVUOTIKOVS dTroKaXoOires ; Irenaeus i. n. i; 
Epiphanius, Haeres. xxvi. Cf. also the self-assumed name of the 
Carpocratiani, Iren. i. 25. 6). But in Irenaeus the term has 
already come to designate the whole movement. This first came 




into prominence in the opening decades of the 2nd century A.D., 
but is certainly older; it reached its height in the second third of 
the same century, and began to wane about the 3rd century, and 
from the second half of the 3rd century onwards was replaced by 
the closely-related and more powerful Manichaean movement. 
Offshoots of it, however, continued on into the 4th and sth 
centuries. Epiphanius still had the opportunity of making 
personal acquaintance with Gnostic sects. 

II. Of the actual writings of the Gnostics, which were extra- 
ordinarily numerous, 1 very little has survived; they were 
sacrificed to the destructive zeal of their ecclesiastical opponents. 
Numerous fragments and extracts from Gnostic writings are to be 
found in the works of the Fathers who attacked Gnosticism. 
Most valuable of all are the long extracts in the 5th and 6th books 
of the Philosophumena of Hippolytus. The most accessible and 
best critical edition of the fragments which have been preserved 
word for word is to be found in Hilgenfeld's Ketzergeschichte des 
Urchristentums. One of the most important of these fragments is 
the letter of Ptolemaeus to Flora, preserved in Epiphanius, Haeres. 
xxxiii. 3-7 (see on this point Harnack in the Sitzungsberichte der 
Berliner Akademie, 1902, pp. 507-545). Gnostic fragments are 
certainly also preserved for us in the Acts of Thomas. Here we 
should especially mention the beautiful and much-discussed 
Song of the Pearl, or Song of the Soul, which is generally, though 
without absolute clear proof, attributed to the Gnostic Bardesanes 
(till lately it was known only in the Syrian text; edited and 
translated by Bevan, Texts and Studies, 2 v. 3, 1897; Hofmann, 
Zeitschrift fur neutestamentliche Wissenschafl, iv.; for the 
newly-found Greek text see Ada apostolorum, ed. Bonnet, ii. 2, 
c. 108, p. 219). Generally also much Gnostic matter is contained 
in the apocryphal histories of the Apostles. To the school of 
Bardesanes belongs the " Book of the Laws of the Lands," which 
does not, however, contribute much to our knowledge of Gnos- 
ticism. Finally, we should mention in this connexion the text on 
which are based the pseudo-Clementine Homilies and Recogni- 
tiones (beginning of the 3rd century). It is, of course, already 
permeated with the Catholic spirit, but has drawn so largely upon 
sources of a Judaeo-Christian Gnostic character that it comes to 
a great extent within the category of sources for Gnosticism. 
Complete original Gnostic works have unfortunately survived to 
us only from the period of the decadence of Gnosticism. Of 
these we should mention the comprehensive work called the 
Pistis-Sophia, probably belonging to the second half of the 3rd 
century. 3 Further, the Coptic-Gnostic texts of the Codex 
Brucianus; both the books of leu, and an anonymous third 
work (edited and translated by C. Schmidt, Texte und Unter- 
suchungen, vol. viii., 1892; and a new translation by the same in 
Koplische-gnostische Schriften, i.) which, contrary to the opinion 
of their editor and translator, the present writer believes to 
represent, in their existing form, a stil! later period and a 
still more advanced stage in the decadence of Gnosticism. 
For other and older Coptic-Gnostic texts, in one of which is con- 
tained the source of Irenaeus's treatises on the Barbelognostics, 
but which have unfortunately not yet been made completely 
accessible, see C. Schmidt in Sitzungsberichte der Berl. Akad. 
(1896), p. 839 seq., and " Philotesia," dedicated to Paul Kleinert 
(1907), p. 315 seq. 

On the whole, then, for an exposition of Gnosticism we are 
thrown back upon the polemical writings of the Fathers in their 
controversy with heresy. The most ancient of these is Justin, 
who according to his Apol. i. 26 wrote a Syntagma against all 
heresies (c. A.D. 150), and also, probably, a special polemic against 

1 See the list of their titles in A. Harnack, Geschichle der altchrist- 
lichen Lileratur, Teil I. v. 171; ib. Teil II. Chronologic der altchristl. 
Literatur, i. 533 seq.; also Liechtenhahn, Die Offenbarung im 
Gnosticismus (1901). 

2 For the text see A. Mere, Bardesanes von Edessa (1863), and A. 
Hilgenfeld, Bardesanes der letzte Gnostiker (1864). 

3 Ed. Petermann-Schwartze; newly translated by C. Schmidt, 
Koptisch-gnostische Schriften, i. (1905), in the series Die griechischen 
christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte; see also 
A. Harnack, Texte und Untersuchungen, Bd. vii. Heft 2 (1891), and 
Chronologie der altchristlichen Literatur, ii. 193-195. 



GNOSTICISM 



153 






Marcion (fragment in Irenaeus iv. 6. 2) . Both these writings are 
lost. He was followed by Irenaeus, who, especially in the first 
book of his treatise Adversus haereses (i\iyxov Kai dvarpoir^s 
rfjs \l/tvdwviifu>v yviJiaeus /3i/3Xia irivrt, c. A.D. 180), gives a 
detailed account of the Gnostic heresies. He founds his work 
upon that of his master Justin, but adds from his own knowledge 
among many other things, notably the detailed account of 
Valentinianism at the beginning of the book. On Irenaeus, and 
probably also on Justin, Hippolytus drew for his Syntagma 
(beginning of the 3rd century), a work which is also lost, but can, 
with great certainty, be reconstructed from three recensions of it : 
in the Panarion of Epiphanius (after 3 74) , in Philaster of Brescia, 
Adversus haereses, and the Pseudo-Tertullian, Liber adversus 
omnes haereses. A second work of Hippolytus (Kara iraauiv 
tuv Xe7xs) is preserved in the so-called Philosophumena 
which survives under the name of Origen. Here Hippolytus 
gave a second exposition supplemented by fresh Gnostic original 
sources with which he had become acquainted in the meanwhile. 
These sources quoted in Hippolytus have lately met with very 
unfavourable criticisms. The opinion has been advanced that 
Hippolytus has here fallen a victim to the mystification of a 
forger. The truth of the matter must be that Hippolytus 
probably made use of a collection of Gnostic texts, put together 
by a Gnostic, in which were already represented various secondary 
developments of the genuine Gnostic schools. It is also possible 
that the compiler has himself attempted here and there to 
harmonize to a certain extent the various Gnostic doctrines, yet 
in no case is this collection of sources given by Hippolytus to be 
passed over; it should rather be considered as important evidence 
for the beginnings of the decay of Gnosticism. Very noteworthy 
references to Gnosticism are also to be found scattered up and 
down the Stromateis of Clement of Alexandria. Especially 
important are the Excerpta ex Theodoto, the author of which is 
certainly Clement, which are verbally extracted from Gnostic 
writings, and have almost the value of original sources. The 
writings of Origen also contain a wealth of material. In the 
first place should be mentioned the treatise Contra Celsum, in 
which the expositions of Gnosticism by both Origen and Celsus 
are of interest (see especially v. 61 seq. and vi. 25 seq.). Of 
Tertullian's works should be mentioned: De praescriptione 
haereticorum, especially Adversus Marcionem, Adversus Hermo- 
genem, and finally Adversus Valenlinianos (entirely founded on 
Irenaeus). Here must also be mentioned the dialogue of Ada- 
mantius with the Gnostics, De recta in deumfide (beginning of 4th 
century) . Among the followers of Hippolytus, Epiphanius in his 
Panarion gives much independent and valuable information 
from his own knowledge of contemporary Gnosticism. But 
Theodoret of Cyrus (d. 455) is already entirely dependent on 
previous works and has nothing new to add. With the 4th 
century both Gnosticism and the polemical literature directed 
against it die out. 1 

III. If we wish to grasp the peculiar character of the great 
Gnostic movement, we must take care not to be led astray by 
the catchword " Gnosis." It is a mistake to regard the Gnostics 
as pre-eminently therepresentativesof intellectamongChristians, 
and Gnosticism as an intellectual tendency chiefly concerned 
with philosophical speculation, the reconciliation of religion 
with philosophy and theology. It is true that when Gnosticism 
was at its height it numbered amongst its followers both theo- 
logians and men of science, but that is not its main characteristic. 
Among the majority of the followers of the movement " Gnosis " 
was understood not as meaning " knowledge " or " understand- 
ing," in our sense of the word, but " revelation." These little 
Gnostic sects and groups all lived in the conviction that they 

1 See R. A. Lipsius, Die Quellen der dltesten Ketzergcschichte (1875) ; 
A. Harnaek, Zur Quellenkritik der Geschichle des Gnosticismus (1873) ; 
A. Hilgenfeld, Ketzergeschichte, pp. 1-83; Harnaek, Geschichte der 
altchristlich. Literatur, i. 171 seq., ii. 533 sea., 712 seq.; J. Kunze, 
De historiae Gnostic, fontibus (1894). On the Philosophumena of 
Hippolytus see G. Salmon, the cross-references in the Philo- 
sophumena, Hermathena, vol. xi. (1885) p. 5389 seq.; H. Staehelin, 
Die gnostischen Quellen Hippolyts, Texte und Unters. Bd. vi. Hft. 
3 (1890). 



possessed a secret and mysterious knowledge, in no way accessible 
to those outside, which was not to be proved or propagated, 
but believed in by the initiated, and anxiously guarded as a 
secret. This knowledge of theirs was not based on reflection, 
on scientific inquiry and proof, but on revelation. It was 
derived directly from the times of primitive Christianity; from 
the Saviour himself and his disciples and friends, with whom 
they claimed to be connected by a secret tradition, or else from 
later prophets, of whom many sects boasted. It was laid down 
in wonderful mystic writings, which were in the possession of the 
various circles (Liechtenhahn, Die Ojfenbarung im Gnosticismus, 
1901). 

In short, Gnosticism, in all its various sections, its form and 
its character, falls under the great category of mystic religions, 
which were so characteristic of the religious life of decadent 
antiquity. In Gnosticism as in the other mystic religions we 
find the same contrast of the initiated and the uninitiated, the 
same loose organization, the same kind of petty sectarianism 
and mystery-mongering. All alike boast a mystic revelation 
and a deeply-veiled wisdom. As in many mystical religions, 
so in Gnosticism, the ultimate object is individual salvation, 
the assurance of a fortunate destiny for the soul after death. 
As in the others, so in this the central object of worship is a 
redeemer-deity who has already trodden the difficult way which 
the faithful have to follow. And finally, as in all mystical 
religions, so here too, holy rites and formulas, acts of initiation 
and consecration, all those things which we call sacraments, 
play a very prominent part. The Gnostic religion is full of such 
sacraments. In the accounts of the Fathers we find less about 
them; yet here Irenaeus' account of the Marcosians is of the 
highest significance (i. 21 seq.). Much more material is to be 
found in the original Gnostic writings, especially in the Pistis- 
Sophia and the two books of leu, and again in the Excerpta ex 
Theodoto, the Acts of Thomas, and here and there also in the 
pseudo-Clementine writings. Above all we can see from the 
original sources of the Mandaean religion, which also represents 
a branch of Gnosticism, how great a part the sacraments played 
in the Gnostic sects (Brandt, Manddische Religion, p. 96 seq.). 
Everywhere we are met with the most varied forms of holy rites 
the various baptisms, by water, by fire, by the spirit, the 
baptism for protection against demons, anointing with oil, 
sealing and stigmatizing, piercing the ears, leading into the 
bridal chamber, partaking of holy food and drink. Finally, 
sacred formulas, names and symbols are of the highest import- 
ance among the Gnostic sects. We constantly meet with the 
idea that the soul, on leaving the body, finds its path to the 
highest heaven opposed by the deities and demons of the lower 
realms of heaven, and only when it is in possession of the names 
of these demons, and can repeat the proper holy formula, or is 
prepared with the right symbol, or has been anointed with the 
holy oil, finds its way unhindered to the heavenly home. Hence 
the Gnostic must above all things learn the names of the demons, 
and equip himself with the sacred formulas and symbols, in 
order to be certain of a good destiny after death. The exposition 
of the system of the Ophites given by Celsus (in Origen vi. 25 seq.), 
and, in connexion with Celsus, by Origen, is particularly instruc- 
tive on this point. The two " Coptic leu " books unfold an 
immense system of names and symbols. This system again was 
simplified, and as the supreme secret was taught in a single 
name or a single formula, by means of which the happy possessor 
was able to penetrate through all the spaces of heaven (cf. the 
name " Caulacau " among the Basilidians; Irenaeus, Adv. haer. 
i. 24. 5, and among other sects). It was taught that even the 
redeemer-god, when he once descended on to this earth, to rise 
from it again, availed himself of these names and formulas on his 
descent and ascent through the world of demons. Traces of 
ideas of this kind are to be met with almost everywhere. They 
have been most carefully collected by Anz ( Ursprung des Gnosti- 
cismus, Texte und Unlersuchungen xv. 4 passim) who would see 
in them the central doctrine of Gnosticism. 

IV. All these investigations point clearly to the fact that 
Gnosticism belongs to the group of mystical religions. We must 



154 



GNOSTICISM 



now proceed to define more exactly the peculiar and distinctive 
character of the Gnostic system. The basis of the Gnostic 
religion and world-philosophy lies in a decided Oriental dualism. 
In sharp contrast are opposed the two worlds of the good and of 
the evil, the divine world and the material world (iiXij), the 
worlds of light and of darkness. In many systems there seems 
to be no attempt to derive the one world from the other. The 
true Basilides (<?.zO, perhaps also Satornil, Marcion and a part 
of his disciples, Bardesanes and others, were frankly dualists. 
In the case of other systems, owing to the inexactness of our 
information, we are unable to decide; the later systems of 
Mandaeism and Manichaeanism, so closely related to Gnosticism, 
are also based upon a decided dualism. And even when there 
is an attempt at reconciliation, it is still quite clear how strong 
was the original dualism which has to be overcome. Thus the 
Gnostic systems make great use of the idea of a fall of the Deity 
himself; by the fall of the Godhead into the world of matter, 
this matter, previously insensible, is animated into life and 
activity, and then arise the powers, both partly and wholly 
hostile, who hold sway over this world. Such figures of fallen 
divinities, sinking down into the world of matter are those of 
Sophia (i.e. Ahamoth) among the Gnostics (Ophites) in 
the narrower sense of the word, the Simoniani (the figure of 
Helena), the Barbelognostics, and in the system of the Pistis- 
Sophia or the Primal Man, among the Naasseni and the sect, 
related to them, as described byHippolytus. 1 A further weaken- 
ing of the dualism is indicated when, in the systems of the 
Valentinian school, the fall of Sophia takes place within the 
godhead, and Sophia, inflamed with love, plunges into the Bythos, 
the highest divinity, and when the attempt is thus made genetic- 
ally to derive the lower world from the sufferings and passions 
of fallen divinity. Another attempt at reconciliation is set 
forth in the so-called " system of emanations " in which it is 
assumed that from the supreme divinity emanated a somewhat 
lesser world, from this world a second, and so on, until the 
divine element (of life) became so far weakened and attenuated, 
that the genesis of a partly, or even wholly, evil world appears 
both possible and comprehensible. A system of emanations 
of this kind, in its purest form, is set forth in the expositions 
coming from the school of Basilides, which are handed down by 
Irenaeus, while the propositions which are set forth in the 
Philosophumena of Hippolytus as being doctrines of Basilides 
represent a still closer approach to a monistic philosophy. 
Occasionally, too, there is an attempt to establish at any rate a 
threefold division of the world, and to assume between the 
worlds of light and darkness a middle world connecting the two; 
this is clearest among the Sethiani mentioned by Hippolytus 
(and cf. the Gnostics in Irenaeus i. 30. i). Quite peculiar in 
this connexion are the accounts in Books xix. and xx. of the 
Clementine Homilies. After a preliminary examination of all 
possible different attempts at a solution of the problem of evil, 
the attempt is here made to represent the devil as an instrument 
of God. Christ and the devil are the two hands of God, Christ 
the right hand, and the devil the left, the devil having power 
over this world-epoch and Christ over the next. The devil here 
assumes very much the characteristics of the punishing and just 
God of the Old Testament, and the prospect is even held out of 
his ultimate pardon. All these efforts at reconciliation show 
how clearly the problem of evil was realized in these Gnostic 
and half-Gnostic sects, and how deeply they meditated on the 
subject; it was not altogether without reason that in the ranks 
of its opponents Gnosticism was judged to have arisen out of the 
question, ir&Btv TO KO.KOV; 

This dualism had not its origin in Hellenic soil, neither is it 
related to that dualism which to a certain extent existed also in 
late Greek religion. For the lower and imperfect world, which 
in that system too is conceived and assumed, is the .nebulous 
world of the non-existent and the formless, which is the 

1 Cf. the same idea of the fall of mankind in the pagan Gnosticism 
of "Poimandres"; see Reitzenstein, Poimandres (1904); and the 
position of the Primal Man (Urmensch) among the Manichaeans is 
similar. 



necessary accompaniment of that which exists, as shadow is of 
light. 

In Gnosticism, on the contrary, the world of evil is full of 
active energy and hostile powers. It is an Oriental (Iranian) 
dualism which here finds expression, though in one point, it is 
true, the mark of Greek influence is quite clear. When Gnosticism 
recognizes in this corporeal and material world the true seat of 
evil, consistently treating the bodily existence of mankind as 
essentially evil and the separation of the spiritual from the 
corporeal being as the object of salvation, this is an outcome 
of the contrast in Greek dualism between spirit and matter, soul 
and body. For in Oriental (Persian) dualism it is within this 
material world that the good and evil powers are at war, and this 
world beneath the stars is by no means conceived as entirely 
subject to the influence of evil. Gnosticism has combined the 
two, the Greek opposition between spirit and matter, and the 
sharp Zoroastrian dualism, which, where the Greek mind con- 
ceived of a higher and a lower world, saw instead two hostile 
worlds, standing in contrast to each other like light and darkness. 
And out of the combination of these two dualisms arose the 
teaching of Gnosticism, with its thoroughgoing pessimism and 
fundamental asceticism. 

Another characteristic feature of the Gnostic conception of 
the universe is the r61e played in almost all Gnostic systems 
by the seven world-creating powers. There are indeed certain 
exceptions; for instance, in the systems of the Valentinian schools 
there is the figure of the one Demiurge who takes the place of 
the Seven. But how widespread was the idea of seven powers, 
who created this lower material world and rule over it, has 
been clearly proved, especially by the systematic examination 
of the subject by Anz (Ursprung des Gnoslicismus) . These 
Seven, then, are in most systems half-evil, half-hostile powers; 
they are frequently characterized as " angels," and are reckoned 
as the last and lowest emanations of the Godhead; below them 
and frequently considered as derived from them comes the 
world of the actually devilish powers. On the other hand, among 
the speculations of the Mandaeans, we find a different and perhaps 
more primitive conception of the Seven, according to which 
they, together with their mother Namrus (Ruha) and their 
father (Ur), belong entirely to the world of darkness. They 
and their family are looked upon as captives of the god of light 
(Manda-d'hayye, Hibil-Ziva), who pardons them, sets them on 
chariots of light, and appoints them as rulers of the world 
(cf. chiefly Genza, in Traclat 6 and 8; W. Brandt, Mandaische 
Schriften, 125 seq. and 137 seq.; Mandaische Religion, 34 seq., 
&c.). In the Manichaean system it is related how the helper of 
the Primal Man, the spirit of life, captured the evil archontes, and 
fastened them to the firmament, or according to another account, 
flayed them, and formed the firmament from their skin (F. C. 
Baur, Dasmanichdische Religionssystem,v. 65), and this conception 
is closely related to the other, though in this tradition the number 
(seven) of the archontes is lost. Similarly, the last book of the 
Pislis-Sophia contains the myth of the capture of the rebellious 
archontes, whose leaders here appear as five in number (Schmidt, 
Koplisch-gnostische Schriften, p. 234 seq.). 2 There can scarcely 
be any doubt as to the origin of these seven (five) powers; they 
are the seven planetary divinities, the sun, moon and five planets. 

In the Mandaean speculations the Seven are introduced with 
the Babylonian names of the planets. The connexion of the 
Seven with the planets is also clearly established by the exposi- 
tions of Celsus and Origen (Contra Celsum, vi. 2 2 seq.) and similarly 
by the above-quoted passage in the Pislis-Sophia, where the 
archontes, who are here mentioned as five, are identified with 
the five planets (excluding the sun and moon). This collective 
grouping of the seven (five) planetary divinities is derived from 
the late Babylonian religion, which can definitely be indicated 
as the home of these ideas (Zimmern, Ketiinschriflen in dem 
alien Testament, ii. p. 620 seq.; cf. particularly Diodorus ii. 30). 
And if in the old sources it is only the first beginnings of this 
development that can be traced, we must assume that at a later 

* These ideas may possibly be traced still further back, and perhaps 
even underlie St Paul's exposition in Col. ii. 15. 



GNOSTICISM 



period the Babylonian religion centred in the adoration of the 
seven planetary deities. Very instructive in this connexion 
is the later (Arabian) account of the religion of the Mesopotamian 
Sabaeans. The religion of the Sabaeans, evidently a later 
offshoot from the stock of the old Babylonian religion, actually 
consists in the cult of the seven planets (cf. the great work of 
Daniel Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier u. der Ssabismus). But this 
reference to Babylonian religion does not solve the problem 
which is here in question. For in the Babylonian religion the 
planetary constellations are reckoned as the supreme deities. 
And here the question arises, how it came about that in the 
Gnostic systems the Seven appear as subordinate, half-daemonic 
powers, or even completely as powers of darkness. This can 
only be explained on the assumption that some religion hostile 
to, and stronger than the Babylonian, has superimposed itself 
upon this, and has degraded its principal deities into daemons. 
Which religion can this have been ? We are at first inclined to 
think of Christianity itself, but it is certainly most improbable 
that at the timeof the rise of Christianity the Babylonian teaching 
about the seven planet-deities governing the world should have 
played so great a part throughout all Syria, Asia Minor and 
Egypt, that the most varying sections of syncretic Christianity 
should over and over again adopt this doctrine and work it up 
into their system. It is far more probable that the combination 
which we meet with in Gnosticism is older than Christianity, 
and was found already in existence by Christianity and its sects. 
We must also reject the theory that this degradation of the 
planetary deities into daemons is due to the influence of Hebrew 
monotheism, for almost all the Gnostic sects take up a definitely 
hostile attitude towards the Jewish religion, and almost always 
the highest divinity among the Seven is actually the creator-God 
of the Old Testament. There remains, then, only one religion 
which can be used as an explanation, namely the Persian, which 
in fact fulfils all the necessary conditions. The Persian religion 
was at an early period brought into contact with the Babylonian, 
through the triumphant progress of Persian culture towards 
the West; at the time of Alexander the Great it was already the 
prevailing religion in the Babylonian plain (cf. F. Cumont, 
Textes el monuments rel. aux mysteres de Miihra, i. 5, 8-10, 14, 
223 seq., 233). It was characterized by a main belief, tending 
towards monotheism, in the Light-deity Ahuramazda and his 
satellites, who appeared in contrast with him as powers of the 
nature of angels. 

A combination of the Babylonian with the Persian religion 
could only be effected by the degradation of the Babylonian 
deities into half-divine, half-daemonic beings, infinitely remote 
from the supreme God of light and of heaven, or even into 
powers of darkness. Even the characteristic dualism of Gnostic- 
ism has already proved to be in part of Iranian origin; and now 
it becomes clear how from that mingling of late Greek and 
Persian dualism the idea could arise that these seven half- 
daemonic powers are the creators or rulers of this material 
world, which is separated infinitely from the light-world of the 
good God. Definite confirmation of this conjecture is afforded 
us by later sources of the Iranian religion, in which we likewise 
meet with the characteristic fundamental doctrine of Gnosticism. 
Thus the Bundahish (iii. 25, v. i) is able to inform us that in the 
primeval strife of Satan against the light-world, seven hostile 
powers were captured and set as constellations in the heavens, 
where they are guarded by good star-powers and prevented 
from doing harm. Five of the evil powers are the planets, 
while here the sun and moon are of course not reckoned among 
the evil powers for the obvious reason that in the Persian 
official religion they invariably appear as good divinities (cf. 
similar ideas in the Arabic treatise on Persian religion Ulema-i- 
Islam, Vullers, Fragmente iiber die Religion Zoroaslers, p. 49, 
and in other later sources for Persian religion, put together 
in Spiegel, Eranische Alter lumskunde, Bd. ii. p. 180). These 
Persian fancies can hardly be borrowed from the Christian 
Gnostic systems, their definiteness and much more strongly 
dualistic character recalling the exposition of the Mandaean 
(and Manichaean) system, are proofs to the contrary. They are 



derived from the same period in which the underlying idea 
of the Gnostic systems also originated, namely, the time at which 
the ideas of the Persian and Babylonian religions came into 
contact, the remarkable results of which have thus partly found 
their way into the official documents of Parsiism. 

With this fundamental doctrine of Gnosticism is connected, 
as Anz has shown in his book which we have so often quoted, 
a side of their religious practices to which we have already 
alluded. Gnosticism is to a great extent dominated by the idea 
that it is above all and in the highest degree important for the 
Gnostic's soul to be enabled to find its way back through the 
lower worlds and spheres of heaven ruled by the Seven to the 
kingdom of light of the supreme deity of heaven. Hence, a 
principal item in their religious practice consisted in communica- 
tions about the being, nature and names of the Seven (or of 
any other hostile daemons barring the way to heaven), the 
formulas with which they must be addressed, and the symbols 
which must be shown to them. But names, symbols and 
formulas are not efficacious by themselves: the Gnostic must 
lead a life having no part in the lower world ruled by these 
spirits, and by his knowledge he must raise himself above 
them to the God of the world of light. Throughout this mystic 
religious world it was above all the influence of the late Greek 
religion, derived from Plato, that also continued to operate; 
it is filled with the echo of the song, the first note of which was 
sounded by the Platonists, about the heavenly home of the 
soul and the homeward journey of the wise to the higher world 
of light. 

But the form in which the whole is set forth is Oriental, and 
it must be carefully noted that the Mithras mysteries, so closely 
connected with the Persian religion, are acquainted with this 
doctrine of the ascent of the soul through the planetary spheres 
(Origen, Contra Celsum, vi. 22). 

V. We cannot here undertake to set forth and explain in detail 
all the complex varieties of the Gnostic systems; but it will 
be useful to take a nearer view of certain principal figures which 
have had an influence upon at least one series of Gnostic systems, 
and to examine their origins in the history of religion. In 
almost all systems an important part is played by the Great 
Mother (/iijrTjp) who appears under the most varied forms (cf. 
GREAT MOTHER or THE GODS). At an early period, and notably 
in the older systems of the Ophites (a fairly exact account of 
which has been preserved for us by Epiphanius and Hippolytus) , 
among the Gnostics in the narrower sense of the word, the Archon- 
tici, the Sethites (there are also traces among the Naasseni, 
cf. the Philosophumena of Hippolytus), the nrjrrjp is the most 
prominent figure in the light-world, elevated above the /35o/ids, 
and the great mother of the faithful. The sect of the Barbelo- 
gnostics takes its name from the female figure of the Barbelo 
(perhaps a corruption of HapOivos; cf. the form Bapflevois for 
" virgin " in Epiphanius, Haer. xxvi. i). But Gnostic speculation 
gives various accounts of the descent or fall of this goddess of 
heaven. Thus the " Helena " of the Simoniani descends to this 
world in order by means of her beauty to provoke to sensual 
passion and mutual strife the angels who rule the world, and 
thus again to deprive them of the powers of light, stolen from 
heaven, by means of which they rule over the world. She is 
then held captive by them in extreme degradation. Similar 
ideas are to be found among the " Gnostics " of Epiphanius. 
The kindred idea of the light-maiden, who, by exciting the sensual 
passions of the rulers (apxoires), takes from them those powers 
of light which still remain to them, has also a central place 
in the Manichaean scheme of salvation (F. C. Baur, Das mani- 
chiiische Religionssyslem, pp. 219, 315, 321). The light-maiden 
also plays a prominent part in the Pistis-Sophia (cf. the index 
to the translation by C. Schmidt). With this figure of the mother- 
goddess who descends into the lower world seems to be closely 
connected the idea of the fallen Sophia, which is so widespread 
among the Gnostic systems. This Sophia then is certainly 
no longer the dominating figure of the light-world, she is a lower 
aeon at the extreme limit of the world of light, who sinks down 
into matter (Barbelognostics, the anonymous Gnostic of Irenaeus, 



J5 6 



GNOSTICISM 



Bardesanes, Pislis-Sophia) , or turns in presumptuous love to- 
wards the supreme God (BvOos), and thus brings the Fall into 
the world of the aeons (Valentinians). This Sophia then appears 
as the mother of the " seven " gods (see above). 

The origin of this figure is not far to seek. It is certainly 
not derived from the Persian religious system, to the spirit of 
which it is entirely opposed. Neither would it be correct to 
identify her entirely with the great goddess Ishtar of the old 
Babylonian religion. But there can hardly be any doubt that 
the figure of the great mother-goddess or goddess of heaven, 
who was worshipped throughout Asia under various forms and 
names (Astarte, Beltis, Atargatis, Cybele, the Syrian Aphrodite), 
was the prototype of the juijrrjp of the Gnostics (cf. GREAT 
MOTHER OF THE GODS). The character of the great* goddess of 
heaven is still in many places fairly exactly preserved in the 
Gnostic speculations. Hence we are able to understand how the 
Gnostic urirnp, the Sophia, appears as the mother of the Heb- 
domas (ej35o/ias). The great goddess of heaven is the mother of 
the stars. Particularly instructive in this connexion is the fact 
that in those very sects, in the systems of which the figure of the 
Wrrip plays a special part, unbridled prostitution appears as a 
distinct and essential part of the cult (cf. the accounts of par- 
ticular branches of the Gnostics, Nicolaitans, Philionites, Bor- 
borites, &c. in Epiphanius, Haer. xxv., xxvi.). The meaning of 
this cult is, of course, reinterpreted in the Gnostic sense: by this 
unbridled prostitution the Gnostic sects desired to prevent the 
sexual propagation of mankind, the origin of all evil. But the 
connexion is clear, and hence it also explained the curious Gnostic 
myth mentioned above, namely that the nijrrip (the light-maiden) 
by appearing to the archontes (apxocres), the lower powers of 
this world, inflames them to sexual lusts, in order to take from 
them that share of light which they have stolen from the upper 
world. This is a Gnostic interpretation of the various myths of 
the great mother-goddess's many loves and love-adventures with 
other gods and heroes. And when the pagan legend of the Syrian 
Astarte tells how she lived for ten years in Tyre as a prostitute, 
this directly recalls the Gnostic myth of how Simon found 
Helena in a brothel in Tyre (Epiphanius, Ancoralus, c. 104). 
From the same group of myths must be derived the idea of the 
goddess who descends to the under-world, and is there taken 
prisoner against her will by the lower powers; the direct proto- 
type of this myth is to be found, e.g. in Ishtar's journey to hell. 
And finally, just as the mother-goddess of south-western Asia 
stands in particularly intimate connexion with the youthful 
god of spring (Tammuz, Adonis, Attis), so we ought perhaps to 
compare here as a parallel the relation of Sophia with the Soter 
in certain Gnostic systems (see below). 

Another characteristic figure of Gnosticism is that of the 
Primal Man (wpuros avdponros). In many systems, certainly, 
it has already been forced quite into the background. But on 
closer examination we can clearly see that it has a wide influence 
on Gnosticism. Thus in the system of the Naasseni (see Hip- 
poly tus, Philosophumena), and in certain related sects there 
enumerated, the Primal Man has a central and predominant 
position. Again, in the text on which are based the pseudo- 
Clementine writings (Recognitions, i. 16, 32, 45-47, 52, ii. 47; and 
Homilies, Hi. 17 seq. xviii. 14), as in the closely related system 
of the Ebionites in Epiphanius (Haer. xxx. 3-16; cf. liii. i), we 
meet with the man who existed before the world, the prophet 
who goes through the world in various forms, and finally reveals 
himself in Christ. Among the Barbelognostics (Irenaeus i. 
29. 3), the Primal Man (Adamas, homo perfectus et verus) and 
Gnosis appear as a pair of aeons, occupying a prominent place 
in the whole series. In the Valentinian systems the pair of 
aeons, Anthropos and Ekklesia, occupy the third or fourth 
place within the Oydods, but incidentally we learn that with 
some representatives of this school the Anthropos took a still 
more prominent place (first or second; Hilgenfeld, Ketzer- 
geschichte, p. 294 seq.). And even in the Pistis-Sophia the 
Primal Man " leu " is frequently alluded to as the King of the 
Luminaries (cf. index to C. Schmidt's translation). We also 
meet with speculations of this kind about man in the circles 



of non-Christian Gnosis. Thus in the Poimandres of Hermes 
man is the most prominent figure in the speculation; numerous 
pagan and half-pagan parallels (the " Gnostics " of Plotinus, 
Zosimus, Bitys) have been collected by Reitzenstein in his 
work Poimandres (pp. 81-116). Reitzenstein has shown (p. 
81 seq.) that very probably the system of the Naasseni described 
by Hippolytus was originally derived from purely pagan circles, 
which are probably connected in some way with the mysteries 
of the Attis cult. The figure in the Mandaean system most 
closely corresponding to the Primal Man, though this figure 
also actually occurs in another part of the system (cf. the figure 
of Adakas Mana; Brandt, Mandaische Religion, p. 36 seq.) is 
that of Manda d'hayye (yvuxns rr\s fo?s; cf. the pair of aeons, 
Adamas and Gnosis, among the Barbelognostics, in Irenaeus 
i. 29. 3). Finally, in the Manichaean system, as is well known, 
the Primal Man again assumes the predominant place (Baur, 
Manich. Religionssystem, 49 seq.). 

This figure of the Primal Man can particularly be compared 
with that of the Gnostic Sophia. Wherever this figure has not 
become quite obscure, it represents that divine power which, 
whether simply owing to a fall, or as the hero who makes war 
on, and is partly vanquished by darkness, descends into the 
darkness of the material world, and with whose descent begins 
the great drama of the world's development. From this power 
are derived those portions of light existing and held prisoner 
in this lower world. And as he has raised himself again out of 
the material world, or has been set free by higher powers, so 
shall also the members of the Primal Man, the portions of 
light still imprisoned in matter, be set free. 

The question of the derivation of the myth of the Primal 
Man is still one of the unsolved problems of religious history. 
It is worthy of notice that according to the old Persian myth 
also, the development of the world begins with the slaying of 
the primal man Gayomart by Angra-Mainyu (Ahriman); 
further, that the Primal Man ("son of man " = man) also 
plays a part in Jewish apocalyptic literature (Daniel, Enoch, 
iv. Ezra), whence this figure passes into the Gospels; and again, 
that the dogma of Christ's descent into hell is directly connected 
with this myth. But these parallels do not carry us much further. 
Even the Persian myth is entirely obscure, and has hitherto 
defied interpretation. It is certainly true that in some way 
an essential part in the formation of the myth has been played 
by the sun-god, who daily descends into darkness, to rise from 
it again victoriously. But how to explain the combination of 
.the figure of the sun-god with that of the Primal Man is an 
unsolved riddle. The meaning of this figure in the Gnostic 
speculations is, however, clear. It answers the question: how 
did the portions of light to be found in this lower world, among 
which certainly belong the souls of the Gnostics, enter into it? 

A parallel myth to that of the Primal Man are the accounts 
to be found in most of the Gnostic systems of the creation of 
the first man. In all these accounts the idea is expressed that 
so far as his body is concerned man is the work of the angels 
who created the world. So e.g. Satornil relates (Irenaeus i. 
24. i) that a brilliant vision appeared from above to the world- 
creating angels; they were unable to hold it fast, but formed 
man after its image. And as the man thus formed was unable 
to move, but could only crawl like a worm, the supreme Power 
put into him a spark of life, and man came into existence. 
Imaginations of the same sort are also to be found, e.g. in the 
genuine fragments of Valentinus (Hilgenfeld, Ketzergeschichte, 
p. 293), the Gnostics of Irenaeus i. 30. 6, the Mandaeans 
(Brandt, Religion der Mandaer, p. 36), and the Manichaeans 
(Baur, Religionssystem, p. 118 seq.). The Naasseni (Hippolytus, 
Philosophumena, v. 7) expressly characterize the myth as 
Chaldean (cf. the passage from Zosimus, in Reitzenstein's 
Poimandres, p. 104). Clearly then the question which the myth 
of the Primal Man is intended to answer in relation to the 
whole universe is answered in relation to the nature of man by 
this account of the coming into being of the first man, which 
may, moreover, have been influenced by the account in the Old 
Testament. That question is: how does it happen that in this 



GNOSTICISM 



157 



inferior body of man, fallen a prey to corruption, there dwells 
a higher spark of the divine Being, or in other words, how are 
we to explain the double nature of man? 

VI. Of all the fundamental ideas of Gnosticism of which we 
have so far treated, it can with some certainty be assumed that 
they were in existence before the rise of Christianity and the 
influence of Christian ideas on the development of Gnosticism. 
The main question with which we have now to deal is that of 
whether the dominant figure of the Saviour (Sorri^p) in Gnosticism 
is of specifically Christian derivation, or whether this can also 
be explained apart from the assumption of Christian influence. 
And here it must be premised that, intimately as the conception 
of salvation is bound up with the Gnostic religion, the idea of 
salvation accomplished in a definite historical moment to a 
certain extent remained foreign to it. Indeed, nearly all the 
Christian Gnostic systems clearly exhibit the great difficulty 
with which they had to contend in order to reconcile the idea 
of an historical redeemer, actually occurring in the form of a 
definite person, with their conceptions of salvation. In Gnosticism 
salvation always lies at the root of all existence and all history. 
The fundamental conception varies greatly. At one time the 
Primal Man, who sank down into matter, has freed himself 
and risen out of it again, and like him his members will rise out 
of darkness into the light (Poimandres); at another time the 
Primal Man who was conquered by the powers of darkness 
has been saved by the powers of light, and thus too all his race 
will be saved (Manichaeism) ; at another time the fallen Sophia 
is purified by her passions and sorrows and has found her Syzygos, 
the Soter, and wedded him, and thus all the souls of the Gnostics 
who still languish in matter will become the brides of the angels 
of the Soter (Valentin us). In fact salvation, as conceived in 
Gnosticism, is always a myth, a history of bygone events, an 
allegory or figure, but not an historical event. And this decision 
is not affected by the fact that in certain Gnostic sects figured 
historical personages such as Simon Magus and Menander. 
The Gnostic ideas of salvation were in the later schools and sects 
transferred to these persons whom we must consider as rather 
obscure charlatans and miracle-mongers, just as in other cases 
they were transferred to the person of Christ. The " Helena " 
of the Simonian system was certainly not an historical but a 
mythical figure. This explains the laborious and artificial way 
in which the person of Jesus is connected in many Gnostic systems 
with the original Gnostic conception of redemption. In this 
patchwork the joins are everywhere still clearly to be recognized. 
Thus, e.g. in the Valentinian system, the myth of the fallen 
Sophia and the Soter, of their ultimate union, their marriage 
and their 70 sons (Irenaeus i. 4. 5; Hippolytus, Philos. vi. 
34), has absolutely nothing to do with the Christian conceptions 
of salvation. The subject is here that of a high goddess of heaven 
(she has 70 sons) whose friend and lover finds her in the misery 
of deepest degradation, frees her, and bears her home as his 
bride. To this myth the idea of salvation through the earthly 
Christ can only be attached with difficulty. And it was openly 
maintained that the Soter only existed for the Gnostic, the 
Saviour Jesus who appeared on earth only for the " Psychicus " 
(Irenaeus i. 6. i). 

VII. Thus the essential part of most of the conceptions of 
what we call Gnosticism was already in existence and fully 
developed before the rise of Christianity. But the fundamental 
ideas 'of Gnosticism and of early Christianity had a kind of 
magnetic attraction for each other. What drew these two 
forces together was the energy exerted by the universal idea of 
salvation in both systems. Christian Gnosticism actually 
introduced only one new figure into the already existing Gnostic 
theories, namely that of the historical Saviour Jesus Christ. 
This figure afforded, as it were, a new point of crystallization 
for the existing Gnostic ideas, which now grouped themselves 
round this point in all their manifold diversity. Thus there 
came into the fluctuating mass a strong movement and formative 
impulse, and the individual systems and sects sprang up like 
mushrooms from this soil. 

It must now be our task to make plain the position of Gnosti- 



cism within the Christian religion, and its significance for the 
development of the latter. Above all the Gnostics represented 
and developed the distinctly anti-Jewish tendency in Christianity. 
Paul was the apostle whom they reverenced, and his spiritual 
influence on them is quite unmistakable. The Gnostic Marcion 
has been rightly characterized as a direct disciple of Paul. 
Paul's battle against the law and the narrow national conception 
of Christianity found a willing following in a movement, the 
syncretic origin of which directed it towards a universal religion. 
St Paul's ideas were here developed to their extremest conse- 
quences, and in an entirely one-sided fashion such as was far 
from being in his intention. In nearly all the Gnostic systems 
the doctrine of the seven world-creating spirits is given an 
anti- Jewish tendency, the god of the Jews and of the Old 
Testament appearing as the highest of the seven. The demiurge 
of the Valentinians always clearly bears the features of the Old 
Testament creator-God. 

The Old Testament was absolutely rejected by most 
of the Gnostics. Even the so-called Judaeo-Christian Gnostics 
(Cerinthus), the Ebionite (Essenian) sect of the Pseudo- 
Clementine writings (the Elkesaites), take up an inconsistent 
attitude towards Jewish antiquity and the Old Testament. 
In this repect the opposition to Gnosticism led to a reactionary 
movement. If the growing Christian Church, in quite a different 
fashion from Paul, laid stress on the literal authority of the Old 
Testament, interpreted, it is true, allegorically; if it took up a 
much more friendly and definite attitude towards the Old 
Testament, and gave wider scope to the legal conception of 
religion, this must be in part ascribed to the involuntary reaction 
upon it of Gnosticism. 

The attitude of Gnosticism to the Old Testament and to the 
creator-god proclaimed in it had its deeper roots, as we have 
already seen, in the dualism by which it was dominated. With 
this dualism and the recognition of the worthlessness and 
absolutely vicious nature of the material world is combined a 
decided spiritualism. The conception of a resurrection of the 
body, of a further existence for the body after death, was unattain- 
able by almost all of the Gnostics, with the possible exception of 
a few Gnostic sects dominated by Judaeo-Christian tendencies. 
With the dualistic philosophy is further connected an attitude 
of absolute indifference towards this lower and material world, 
and the practice of asceticism. Marriage and sexual propagation 
are considered either as absolute Evil or as altogether worthless, 
and carnal pleasure is frequently looked upon as forbidden. 
Then again asceticism sometimes changes into wild libertinism. 
Here again Gnosticism has exercised an influence on the develop- 
ment of the Church by way of contrast and opposition. If here 
a return was made to the old material -view of the resurrection 
(the apostolic dpaoracriJ TI}S crap/ais), entirely abandoning the 
more spiritual conception which had been arrived at as a com- 
promise by Paul, this is probably the result of a reaction from 
the views of Gnosticism. It was just at this point, too, that 
Gnosticism started a development which was followed later by 
the Catholic Church. In spite of the rejection of the ascetic 
attitude of the Gnostics, as a blasphemy against the Creator, 
a part of this ascetic principle became at a later date dominant 
throughout all Christendom. And it is interesting to observe 
how, e.g., St Augustine, though desperately combating the 
dualism of the Manichaeans, yet afterwards introduced a number 
of dualistic ideas into Christianity, which are distinguishable 
from those of Manichaeism only by a very keen eye, and even 
then with difficulty. 

The Gnostic religion also anticipated other tendencies. As 
we have seen, it is above all things a religion of sacraments and 
mysteries. Through its syncretic origin Gnosticism introduced 
for the first time into Christianity a whole mass of sacramental, 
mystical ideas, which had hitherto existed in it only in its 
earliest phases. But in the long run even genuine Christianity 
has been unable to free itself from the magic of the sacraments; 
and the Eastern Church especially has taken the same direction 
as Gnosticism. Gnosticism was also the pioneer of the Christian 
Church in the strong emphasis laid on the idea of salvation in 



i S 8 



GNOSTICISM 



religion. And since the Gnostics were compelled to draw the 
figure of the Saviour into a world of quite alien myths, their 
Christology became so complicated in character that it frequently 
recalls the Christology of the later dogmatic of the Greek Fathers. 

Finally, it was Gnosticism which gave the most decided 
impulse to the consolidation of the Christian Church as a church. 
Gnosticism itself is a free, naturally-growing religion, the religion 
of isolated minds, of separate little circles and minute sects. 
The homogeneity of wide circles, the sense of responsibility 
engendered by it, and continuity with the past are almost 
entirely lacking in it. It is based upon revelation, which even 
at the present time is imparted to the individual, upon the more 
or less convincing force of the religious imagination and specula- 
tions of a few leaders, upon the voluntary and unstable grouping 
of the schools round the master. Its adherents feel themselves 
to be the isolated, the few, the free and the enlightened, as 
opposed to the sluggish and inert masses of mankind degraded 
into matter, or the initiated as opposed to the uninitiated, the 
Gnostics as opposed to the " Hylici " (v\iKoi); at most in the 
later and more moderate schools a middle place was given to 
the adherents of the Church as Psychici (^uxiwi). 

This freely-growing Gnostic religiosity aroused in the Church 
an increasingly strong movement towards unity and a firm 
and inelastic organization, towards authority and tradition. An 
organized hierarchy, a definitive canon of the Holy Scriptures, 
a confession of faith and rule of faith, and unbending doctrinal 
discipline, these were the means employed. A part was also 
played in this movement by a free theology which arose within 
the Church, itself a kind of Gnosticism which aimed at holding 
fast whatever was good in the Gnostic movement, and obtaining 
its recognition within the limits of the Church (Clement of 
Alexandria, Origen). But the mightiest forces, to which in the 
end this theology too had absolutely to give way, were outward 
organization and tradition. 

It must be considered as an unqualified advantage for the 
further development of Christianity, as a universal religion, that 
at its very outset it prevailed against the great movement of 
Gnosticism. In spite of the fact that in a few of its later repre- 
sentatives Gnosticism assumed a more refined and spiritual 
aspect, and even produced blossoms of a true and beautiful piety, 
it is fundamentally and essentially an unstable religious syn- 
cretism, a religion in which the determining forces were a fantastic 
oriental imagination and a sacramentalism which degenerated 
into the wildest superstitions, a weak dualism fluctuating 
unsteadily between asceticism and libertinism. Indirectly, how- 
ever, Gnosticism was certainly one of the most powerful factors 
in the development of Christianity in the ist century. 

VIII. This sketch may be completed by a short review of the 
various separate sects and their probable connexion with each 
other. As a point of departure for the history of the develop- 
ment of Gnosticism may be taken the numerous little sects 
which were apparently first included under the name of " Gnos- 
tics " in the narrower sense. Among these probably belong the 
Ophites of Celsus (in Origen), the many little sects included by 
Epiphanius under the name of Nicolaitans and Gnostics (Haer. 
25. 26); the Archontici (Epiphanius, Haer. xl.), Sethites (Cain- 
ites) should also here be mentioned, and finally the Carpocratians. 
Common to all these is the dominant position assumed by the 
"Seven" (headed by laldabaoth); the heavenly world lying 
above the spheres of the Seven is occupied by comparatively 
few figures, among which the most important part is played by 
the firj-njp, who is sometimes enthroned as the supreme 
goddess in heaven, but in a few systems has already descended 
from there into matter, been taken prisoner, &c. Numerous 
little groups are distinguished from the mass, sometimes by one 
peculiarity, sometimes by another. On the one hand we have 
sects with a strongly ascetic tendency, on the other we find some 
characterized by unbridled libertinism; in some the most 
abandoned prostitution has come to be the most sacred mystery; 
in others again appears the worship of serpents, which here 
appears to be connected in various and often very loose ways 
with the other ideas of these Gnostics hence the names of the 



" Ophites," " Naasseni." To this class also fundamentally 
belong the Simoniani, who have included the probably historical 
figure of Simon Magus in a system which seems to be closely 
connected with those we have mentioned, especially if we look 
upon the " Helena " of this system as a mythical figure. A 
particular branch of the " Gnostic " sects is represented by those 
systems in which the figure of Sophia sinking down into matter 
already appears. To these belong the Barbelognostics (in the 
description given by Irenaeus the figure of the Spirit takes the 
place of that of Sophia), and the Gnostics whom Irenaeus (i. 30) 
describes (cf. Epiphanius, Haer. xxvi.). And here may best be 
included Bardesanes, a famous leader of a Gnostic school of 
the end of the 2nd century. Most scholars, it is true, following 
an old tradition, reckon Bardesanes among the Valentinians. 
But from the little we know of Bardesanes, his system bears no 
trace of relationship with the complicated Valentinian system, 
but is rather completely derived from the ordinary Gnosticism, 
and is distinguished from it apparently only by its more strongly 
dualistic character. The systems of Valentinus and his disciples 
must be considered as a further development of what we have 
just characterized as the popular Gnosticism, and especially of 
that branch of it to which the figure of Sophia is already known. 
In them above all the world of the higher aeons is further ex- 
tended and filled with a throng of varied figures. They also 
exhibit a variation from the characteristic dualism of Gnosticism 
into monism, in their conception of the fall of Sophia and their 
derivation of matter from the passions of the fallen Sophia. The 
figures of the Seven have here entirely disappeared, the remem- 
brance of them being merely preserved in the name of the 
AT^IOUPYOS ()35o/ids). In general, Valentinianism displays a 
particular resemblance to the dominant ideas of the Church, 
both in its complicated Christology, its triple division of mankind 
into irvevfia.Ti.Koi, \f/vxtKol and iiXixot, and its far-fetched 
interpretation of texts. 1 A quite different position from those 
mentioned above is taken by Basilides (?..). From what little 
we know of him he was an uncompromising dualist. Both the 
systems which are handed down under his name by Irenaeus and 
Hippolytus, that of emanations and the monistic-evolutionary 
system, represent further developments of his ideas with a 
tendency away from dualism towards monism. Characteristic- 
ally, in these Basilidian systems the figure of the " Mother " or 
of Sophia does not appear. This peculiarity the Basilidian 
system shares with that of Satornil of Antioch, which has only 
come down to us in a very fragmentary state, and in other 
respects recalls in many ways the popular Gnosticism. By 
itself, on the other hand, stands the system preserved for us by 
Hippolytus in the Philosophumena under the name of the 
Naasseni, with its central figure of " the Man," which, as we 
have seen, is very closely related with certain specifically pagan 
Gnostic speculations which have come down to us (in the Poi- 
mandres, in Zosimus and Plotinus, Ennead ii. 9). With the 
Naasseni, moreover, are related also the other sects of which 
Hippolytus alone gives us a notice in his Philosophumena 
(Docetae, Perates, Sethiani, the adherents of Justin, the Gnostic 
of Monoimos). Finally, apart from all other Gnostics stands 
Marcion. With him, as far as we are able to conclude from the 
scanty notices of him, the manifold Gnostic speculations are 
reduced essentially to the one problem of the good and the just 
God, the God of the Christians and the God of the Old Testament. 
Between these two powers Marcion affirms a sharp and, as it 
appears, originally irreconcilable dualism which with him rests 
moreover on a speculative basis. Thanks to the noble simplicity 
and specifically religious character of his ideas, Marcion was 
able to found not only schools, but a community, a church of 
his own, which gave trouble to the Church longer than any 
other Gnostic sect. Among his disciples the speculative and 
fantastic element of Gnosticism again became more apparent. 
As we have already intimated, Gnosticism had such a power 

1 For the disciples of Valentinus, especially Marcus, after whom 
was named a separate sect, the Marcosians, with their Pythagorean 
theories of numbers and their strong tincture of the mystical, magic, 
and sacramental, see VALENTINUS AND VALENTINIANS. 



GNU GOA 



J 59 



of attraction that it now drew within its limits even Judaeo- 
Christian sects. Among these we must mention the Judaeo- 
Christian Gnostic Cerinthus, also the Gnostic Ebionites, ol 
whom Epiphanius (Haer.) gives us an account, and whose writings 
are to be found in a recension in the collected works of the 
Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions and Homilies; to the same class 
belong the Elkesaites with their mystical scripture, the Elxai 
extracts of which are given by Hippolytus in the Philos. (ix. 13). 
Later evidence of the decadence of Gnosticism occurs in the 
Pistis-Sophia and the Coptic Gnostic writings discovered and 
edited by Schmidt. In these confused records of human imagina- 
tion gone mad, we possess a veritable herbarium of all possible 
Gnostic ideas, which were once active and now rest peacefully 
side by side. None the less, the stream of the Gnostic religion 
is not yet dried up, but continues on its way; and it is beyond 
a doubt that the later Mandaeanism and the great religious 
movement of Mani are most closely connected with Gnosticism. 
These manifestations are all the more characteristic since in 
them we meet with a Gnosticism which remained essentially 
more untouched by Christian influences than the Gnostic 
systems of the 2nd century A.D. Thus these systems throw an 
important light on the past, and a true perception of the nature 
and purpose of Gnosticism is not to be obtained without taking 
them into consideration. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. A. Neander, Genetische Entwicklung d. vornehm- 
slen gnostischen Systeme (Berlin, 1818); F. Chr. Baur, Die christl. 
Gnosis in ihrer geschichtl. Entwicklung (Tubingen, 1835); E. W. 
M oiler, Gesch. der Kosmologie in der griechischen Kirche bis Origenes 
(Halle, 1860); R. A. Lipsius, Der Gnosticismus (Leipzig, 1860; 
originally in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclopddie) ; H. L. Mansel, 
The Gnostic Heresies of the ist and 2nd Centuries (London, 1875); 
K. Kepler, Uber Gnosis und altbabylonische Religion, a lecture 
delivered at the Congress of Orientalists (Berlin, 1881); A. Hilgen- 
feld, Ketzergeschichte des Urchristentums (Leipzig, 188.4); an d in 
Ztschr. fur wissenschafli. Theol, 1890, i. "Der Gnosticismus"; 
A. Harnack, Dogmengeschichte, i. 271 seq. (cf. the corresponding 
sections of the Dogmengeschichten of Loofs and Seeberg); W. Anz, 
" Zur Frage nach dem Ursprung des Gnosticismus," Texte u. Unter- 
suchungen, xv. 4 (Leipzig, 1897); R. Liechtenhahn, Die Offenbarung 
im Gnosticismus (Gottingen, 1901); C. Schmidt, " Plotins Stellung 
zum Gnosticismus u. kirchl. Christentum " Texte u. Untersuch. 
xx. 4 (1902) ; E. de Faye, Introduction a I' etude du Gnosticisme (Paris, 
1903); R. Reitzenstem, Poimandres (Leipzig, 1904); G. Kriiger, 
article " Gnosticismus " in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie (3rd 
ed.) vi. 728 ff. ; Bousset, " Hauptprobleme der Gnosis," Forschungen 
z. Relig. u. Lit. d. alien u. neuen Testaments, 10 (1907) ; T. Wendland, 
Hellenistisch-romische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu Judentum 
und Christentum (1907), p. 161 seq. See further among important 
monographs on the individual Gnostic systems, R. A. Lipsius, 
" Die pphitischen Systeme," Ztschr. f. wissensch. Theologie (1863); 
G. Heinrici, Die valentinianische Gnosis u. d. Heilige Schrift (Berlin, 
1871); A. Merx, Bardesanes von Edessa (Halle, 1863); A. Hilgenfeld, 
Bardesanes, der letzte Gnostiker (Leipzig, 1864); A. Harnack, " Cber 
das gnostische Buch Pistis-Sophia," Texte u. Untersuch. vii. 2; 
C. Schmidt, " Gnostische Schriften," Texte u. Untersuch. viii. I, 2; 
and also the works mentioned under II. of this article. (W. Bo.) 




White-tailed Gnu, or Black Wildebeest (Connochaetes gnu). 



GNU, the Hottentot name for the large white-tailed South 
African antelope (q.v.), now nearly extinct, know to the Boers 
as the black wildebeest, and to naturalists as Connochaetes (or 
Catoblepas) gnu. A second and larger species is the brindled 
gnu or blue wildebeest (C. taurinus or Catoblepas gorgon), also 
known by the Bechuana name kokon or kokoon; and there are 
several East African forms more or less closely related to the 
latter which have received distinct names. 

GO, or GO-BANG (Jap. Go-ban, board for playing Go), a popular 
table game. It is of great antiquity, having been invented in 
Japan, according to tradition, by the emperor Yao, 2350 B.C., 
but it is probably of Chinese origin. According to Falkener the 
first historical mention of it was made about the year 300 B.C., 
but there is abundant evidence that it was a popular game 
long before that period. The original Japanese Go is played on 
a board divided into squares by 19 horizontal and 19 vertical 
lines, making 361 intersections, upon which the flat round men, 
181 white and 181 black, are placed one by one as the game 
proceeds. The men are placed by the two players on any inter- 
sections (me) that may seem advantageous, the object being to 
surround with one's men as many unoccupied intersections as 
possible, the player enclosing the greater number of vacant 
points being the winner. Completely surrounded men are 
captured and removed from the board. This game is played in 
England upon a board divided into 361 squares, the men being 
placed upon these instead of upon the intersections. 

A much simpler variety of Go, mostly played by foreigners, 
has for its object to get five men into line. This may have been 
the earliest form of the game, as the word go means five. Except 
in Japan it is often played on an ordinary draughts-board, and 
the winner is he who first gets five men into line, either vertically, 
horizontally or diagonally. 

See Go-Bang, by A. Howard Cady, in Spalding's Home Library 
(New York, i8g6);Games Ancient and Oriental, by Edward Falkener 
(London, 1892); Das japan.-chinesische Spiel Go, by O. Korschelt 
(Yokohama, 1881); Das Nationalspiel der Japanesen, by G. Schurie 
(Leipzig, 1888). 

GOA, the name of the past and present capitals of Portuguese 
India, and of the surrounding territory more exactly described 
as Goa settlement, which is situated on the western coast of 
India, between 15 44' and 14 53' N., and between 73 45' and 
74 26' E. Pop. (1900) 475,513, area 1301 sq. m. 

Goa Settlement. With Damaun (q.v.) and Diu (q.v.) Goa 
settlement forms a single administrative province ruled by a 
governor-general, and a single ecclesiastical province subject 
to the archbishop of Goa; for judicial purposes the province 
includes Macao in China, and Timor in the Malay Archipelago. 
It is bounded on the N. by the river Terakhul or Araundem, 
which divides it from the Sawantwari state, E. by the Western 
Ghats, S. by Kanara district, and W. by the Arabian Sea. It 
comprises the three districts of Ilhas, Bardez and Salsette, 
conquered early in the i6th century and therefore known as the 
Velhas Conquistas (Old Conquests), seven districts acquired 
later and known as the Novas Conquistas, and the island of 
Anjidiv or Anjadiva. The settlement, which has a coast-line 
of 62 m., is a hilly region, especially the Novas Conquistas; its 
distinguishing features are the Western Ghats, though the highest 
summits nowhere reach an altitude of 4000 ft., and the island 
of Goa. Numerous short but navigable rivers water the lowlands 
skirting the coast. The two largest rivers are the Mandavi and 
:he Juari, which together encircle the island of Goa (Ilhas), 
icing connected on the landward side by a creek. The island 
[native name TisvadI, Tissuvaddy, Tissuary) is a triangular 
;erritory, the apex of which, called the cabo or cape, is a rocky 
icadland separating the harbour of Goa into two anchorages 
Agoada or Aguada at the mouth of the Mandavi, on the north, 
and Mormugao or Marmagao at the mouth of the Juari, on the 
south. The northern haven is exposed to the full force of the 
south-west monsoon, and is liable to silt up during the rains. 
The southern, sheltered by the promontory of Salsette, is always 
open, but is less used, owing to its greater distance from the city 
of Goa, which is built on the island. A railway connects Mor- 
magao, south of the Juari estuary, with Castle Rock on the 



i6o 



GOA 



Western Ghats. Goa imports textiles and foodstuffs, and exports 
coco-nuts, areca-nuts, spices, fish, poultry and timber. Its 
trade is carried on almost entirely with Bombay, Madras, 
Kathiawar and Portugal. Manganese is'mined in large quantities, 
some iron is obtained, and other products are salt, palm-spirit, 
betel and bananas. 

Cities of Goa. i. The ancient Hindu city of Goa, of which 
hardly a fragment survives, was built at the southernmost point 
of the island, and was famous in early Hindu legend and history 
for its learning, wealth and beauty. In the Puranas and certain 
inscriptions its name appears as Gove, Govapurl, Gomant, &c. ; 
the medieval Arabian geographers knew it as Sindabur or Sanda- 
bur, and the Portuguese as Goa Velha. It was ruled by the 
Kadamba dynasty from the 2nd century A.D. to 1312, and by 
Mahommedan invaders of the Deccan from 1312 until about 
1370, during which period it was visited and described by Ibn 
Batuta. It was then annexed to the Hindu kingdom of 
Vijayanagar, of which, according to Ferishta, it still formed part 
in 1469, when it was conquered by the Bahmani sultan of the 
Deccan; but two of the best Portuguese chroniclers state that 
it became independent in 1440, when the second city (Old Goa) 
was founded. 

2. Old Goa is, for the most part, a city of ruins without 
inhabitants other than ecclesiastics and their dependents. The 
chief surviving buildings are the cathedral, founded by Albu- 
querque in 1511 to commemorate his entry into Goa on St 
Catherine's day 1510, and rebuilt in 1623, and still used for 
public worship; the convent of St Francis (1517), a converted 
mosque rebuilt in 1661, with a portal of carved black stone, 
which is the only relic of Portuguese architecture in India dating 
from the first quarter of the i6th century; the chapel of St 
Catherine (1551); the church of Bom Jesus (1594-1603), a 
superb example of Renaissance architecture as developed by the 
Jesuits, containing the magnificent shrine and tomb of St 
Francis Xavier (see XAVIER, FRANCISCO DE) ; and the 1 7th-century 
convents of St Monica and St Cajetan. The college of St Paul 
(see below) is in ruins. 

3. Panjim, Pangim or New Goa originally a suburb of Old 
Goa, is, like the parent city, built on the left bank of the Mandavi 
estuary, in 15 30' N. and 73 33' E. Pop. (1901) 9500. It is 
a modern port with few pretensions to architectural beauty. 
Ships of the largest size can anchor in the river, but only small 
vessels can load or discharge at the quay. Panjim became the 
residence of the viceroy in 1759 and the capital of Portuguese 
India in 1843. It possesses a lyceum, a school for teachers, a 
seminary, a technical school and an experimental agricultural 
station. 

Political History. With the subdivision of the Bahmani 
kingdom, after 1482, Goa passed into the power of Yusuf Adil 
Shah, king of Bijapur, who was its ruler when the Portuguese 
first reached India. At this time Goa was important as the 
starting-point of pilgrims from India to Mecca, as a mart with 
no rival except Calicut on the west coast, and especially as the 
centre of the import trade in horses (Gulf Arabs) from Hormuz, 
the control of which was a vital matter to the kingdoms warring 
in the Deccan. It was easily defensible by any power with 
command of the sea, as the encircling rivers could only be forded 
at one spot, and had been deliberately stocked with crocodiles. 
It was attacked on the loth of February 1510 by the Portuguese 
under Albuquerque. As a Hindu ascetic had foretold its downfall 
and the garrison of Ottoman mercenaries was outnumbered, 
the city surrendered without a struggle, and Albuquerque entered 
it in triumph, while the Hindu townsfolk strewed filagree flowers 
of gold and silver before his feet. Three months later Yusuf 
Adil Shah returned with 60,000 troops, forced the passage of the 
ford, and blockaded the Portuguese in their ships from May to 
August, when the cessation of the monsoon enabled them to put 
to sea. In November Albuquerque returned with a larger force, 
and after overcoming a desperate resistance, recaptured the city, 
permitted his soldiers to plunder it for three days, and massacred 
the entire Mahommedan population. 

Goa was the first territorial possession of the Portuguese in 



Asia. Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base, 
as distinct from the fortified factories which had been established 
in certain Indian seaports. He encouraged his men to marry 
native women, and to settle in Goa as farmers, retail traders or 
artisans. These married men soon became a privileged caste, 
and Goa acquired a large Eurasian population. Albuquerque 
and his successors left almost untouched the customs and con- 
stitutions of the 30 village communities on the island, only 
abolishing the rite of suttee. A register of these customs (Foral 
de usos e costumes) was published in 1526, and is an historical 
document of much value; an abstract of it is given in R. S. 
Whiteway's Rise of the Portuguese Empire in India (London, 
1898). 

Goa became the capital of the whole Portuguese empire in the 
East. It was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. Its 
senate or municipal chamber maintained direct communications 
with the king and paid a special representative to attend to its 
interests at court. In 1563 the governor even proposed to make 
Goa the seat of a parliament, in which all parts of the Portuguese 
east were to be represented; this was vetoed by the king. 

In 1542 St Francis Xavier mentions the architectural splendour 
of the city; but it reached the climax of its prosperity between 
1575 and 1625. Goa Dourada, or Golden Goa, was then the 
wonder of all travellers, and there was a Portuguese proverb, 
" He who has seen Goa need not see Lisbon." Merchandise from 
all parts of the East was displayed in its bazaar, and separate 
streets were set aside for the sale of different classes of goods 
Bahrein pearls and coral, Chinese porcelain and silk, Portuguese 
velvet and piece-goods, drugs and spices from the Malay Archi- 
pelago. In the main street slaves were sold by auction. The 
houses of the rich were surrounded by gardens, and palm groves; 
they were built of stone and painted red or white. Instead of 
glass, their balconied windows had thin polished oyster-shells set 
in lattice-work. 

The social life of Goa was brilliant, as befitted the headquarters 
of the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church; but 
the luxury and ostentation of all classes had become a byword 
before the end of the i6th century. Almost all manual labour was 
done by slaves; common soldiers assumed high-sounding titles, 
and it was even customary for the poor noblemen who congregated 
together in boarding-houses to subscribe for a few silken cloaks, a 
silken umbrella and a common man-servant, so that each could 
take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably attired and 
with a proper escort. There were huge gambling saloons, 
licensed by the municipality, where determined players lodged 
for weeks together; and every form of vice, except drunkenness, 
was practised by both sexes, although European women were 
forced to lead a kind of zenana life, and never ventured unveiled 
into the streets; they even attended at church in their palanquins, 
so as to avoid observation. 

The appearance of the Dutch in Indian waters was followed by 
the gradual ruin of Goa. In 1603 and 1639 the city was blockaded 
by Dutch fleets, though never captured, and in 1635 it was 
ravaged by an epidemic. Its trade was gradually monopolized 
by the Jesuits. Thevenot in 1666, Baldaeus in 1672, Fryer in 
1675 describe its ever-increasing poverty and decay. In 1683 only 
the timely appearance of a Mogul army saved it from capture by 
a horde of Mahratta raiders, and in 1739 the whole territory was 
attacked by the same enemies, and only saved by the unexpected 
arrival of a new viceroy with a fleet. This peril was always 
imminent until 1759, when a peace with the Mahrattas was con- 
cluded. In the same year the proposal to remove the seat of 
government to Panjim was carried out ; it had been discussed as 
early as 1684. Between 1695 and 1775 the population dwindled 
from 20,000 to 1600, and in 1835 Goa was only inhabited by a few 
priests, monks and nuns. 

Ecclesiastical History. Some Dominican friars came out to 
Goa in 1510, but no large missionary enterprise was undertaken 
before the arrival of the Franciscans in 1517. From their head- 
quarters in Goa the Franciscan preachers visited many parts of 
western India, and even journeyed to Ceylon, Pegu and the 
Malay Archipelago. For nearly twenty-five years they carried on 



GOAL GOAT 



161 



the work of evangelization almost alone, with such success that in 
1 534 Pope Paul III. made Goa a bishopric, with spiritual jurisdic- 
tion over all Portuguese possessions between China and the Cape 
of Good Hope, though itself suffragan to the archbishopric of 
Funchal in Madeira. A Franciscan friar, Joao de Albuquerque, 
came to Goa as its first bishop in 1538. In 1542 St Francis 
Xavier came to Goa, and took over the Franciscan college of 
Santa Fe, for the training of native missionaries; this was re- 
named the College of St Paul, and became the headquarters of all 
Jesuit missions in the East, where the Jesuits were commonly 
styled Paulislas. By a Bull dated the 4th of February 1557 
Goa was made an archbishopric, with jurisdiction over the sees of 
Malacca and Cochin, to which were added Macao (1575)1 Japan 
(1588), Angamale or Cranganore (1600), Meliapur (Mylapur) 
(1606), Peking and Nanking (1610), together with the bishopric of 
Mozambique, which included the entire coast of East Africa. In 
1606 the archbishop received the title of Primate of the East, and 
the king of Portugal was named Patron of the Catholic Missions 
in the East ; his right of patronage was limited by the Concordat 
of 1857 to Goa, Malacca, Macao and certain parts of British India. 
The Inquisition was introduced into Goa in 1560: a vivid 
account of its proceedings is given by C. Dellon, Relation de 
['inquisition de Goa (1688). Five ecclesiastical councils, which 
dealt with matters of discipline, were held at Goa in 1567, 
1575, 1585, 1592 and 1606; the archbishop of Goa also presided 
over the more important synod of Diamper (Udayamperur, 
about 12 m. S.E. of Cochin), which in 1599 condemned as 
heretical the tenets and liturgy of the Indian Nestorians, or 
Christians of St Thomas (?..). In 1675 Fryer described Goa as 
" a Rome in India, both for absoluteness and fabrics," and 
Hamilton states that early in the i8th century the number of 
ecclesiastics in the settlement had reached the extraordinary 
total of 30,000. But the Jesuits were expelled in 1759 , and by 
1800 Goa had lost much even of its ecclesiastical importance. 
The Inquisition was abolished in 1814 and the religious orders 
were secularized in 1835. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. N. da Fonseca, An Historical and Archaeo- 
logical Sketch of Goa (Bombay, 1878) is a minute study of the city 
from the earliest times, illustrated. For the early history of Portu- 
guese rule the chief authorities are The Commentaries . . . of 
Dalboquerque (Hakluyt Society's translation, London, 1877), the 
Cartas of Albuquerque (Lisbon, 1884), the Historic. . . . da India 
of F. L. de Castanheda (Lisbon, 1833, written before 1552), the 
Lendas da India of G. Correa (Lisbon, 1860, written 1514-1566), 
and the Decadas da India of Joao de Barros and D. do Couto (Lisbon, 
1778-1788, written about 1530-1616). Couto's Soldado pratico 
(Lisbon, 1790) and S. Botelho's Cartasand Tombo, written 1547-1554, 
published in "Subsidies " of the Lisbon Academy (1868), are valuable 
studies of military life and administration. The Archive Portuguez 
oriental (6 parts, New Goa, 1857-1877) is a most useful collection 
of documents dating from 1515; part 2 contains the privileges, &c. 
of the city of Goa, and part 4 contains the minutes of the ecclesiasti- 
cal councils and of the synod of Diamper. The social life of Goa has 
been graphically described by many writers; see especially the 
travels of Varthema (c. 1505), Linschoten (c. 1580), Pyrard (1608) 
in the Hakluyt Society's translations; J. Mocquet, Voyages (Paris, 
1830, written 1608-1610); P. Baldaeus, in Churchill's Voyages, 
vol. 3 (London, 1732); J. Fryer, A New Account of East India 
and Persia (London, 1698); A. de Mandelslo, Voyages (London, 
1669) ; Les Voyages de M. de Thevenot aux Indes Orientates (Amster- 
dam, 1779), and A. Hamilton, A New Account of the East Indies 
(London, 1774). For Goa in the 2oth century see The Imperial 
Gazetteer of India. (K. G. J.) 

GOAL, originally an object set up as the place where a race 
ends, the winning-post, and so used figuratively of the end to 
which any effort is directed. It is thus used to translate the 
Lat. mela, the boundary pillar, set one at each end of the circus 
to mark the turning-point. The word was quite early used in 
various games for the two posts, with or without a cross-bar, 
through or over which the ball has to be driven to score a point 
towards winning the game. The New English Dictionary quotes 
the use in Richard Stanyhurst's Description of Ireland (1577); 
but the word gol in the sense of a boundary appears as early as the 
beginning of the I4th century in the religious poems of William de 
Shoreham (c. 1315). The origin of the word is obscure. It is 
usually taken to be derived from a French word gaule, meaning a 
pole or stick, but this meaning does not appear in the English 

xii. 6 



usage, nor does the usual English meaning appear in the French. 
There is an O. Eng. gailan, to hinder, which may point to a lost 
gal, barrier, but there is no evidence in other Teutonic languages 
for such a word. 

GOALPARA, a town and district of British India, in the 
Brahmaputra valley division of eastern Bengal and Assam. 
The town (pop. 6287) overlooks the Brahmaputra. It was the 
frontier outpost of the Mahommedan power, and has long been a 
flourishing seat of river trade. The civil station is built on the 
summit of a small hill commanding a magnificent view of the 
valley of the Brahmaputra, bounded on the north by the snowy 
ranges of the Himalayas and on the south by the Garo hills. 
The native town is built on the western slope of the hill, and the 
lower portion is subject to inundation from the marshy land 
which extends in every direction. It has declined in importance 
since the district headquarters were removed to Dhubri in 1879, 
and it suffered severely from the earthquake of the i2th of June 
1897. 

The DISTRICT comprises an area of 3961 sq. m. It is situated 
along the Brahmaputra, at the corner where the river takes its 
southerly course from Assam into Bengal. The scenery is 
striking. Along the banks of the river grow clumps of cane and 
reed; farther back stretch fields of rice cultivation, broken only 
by the fruit trees surrounding the villages, and in the background 
rise the forest-clad hills overtopped by the white peaks of the 
Himalayas. The soil of the hills is of a red ochreous earth, 
with blocks of granite and sandstone interspersed; that of the 
plains is of alluvial formation. Earthquakes are common and 
occasionally severe shocks have been experienced. The Brahma- 
putra annually inundates vast tracts of country. Numerous 
extensive forests yield valuable timber. Wild animals of all 
kinds are found. In 1901 the population was 462,083, showing 
an increase of 2% in the decade. Rice forms the staple crop. 
Mustard and jute are also largely grown. The manufactures 
consist of the making of brass and iron utensils and of gold and 
silver ornaments, weaving of silk cloth, basket-work and pottery. 
The cultivation of tea has been introduced but does not flourish 
anywhere in the district. Local trade is in the hands of Marwari 
merchants, and is carried on at the bazars, weekly hats or markets 
and periodical fairs. The chief exports are mustard-seed, jute, 
cotton, timber, lac, silk cloth, india-rubber and tea; the imports, 
Bengal rice, European piece goods, salt, hardware, oil and 
tobacco. 

Dhubri (pop. 3737), the administrative headquarters of the 
district, stands on the Brahmaputra where that river takes its 
great bend south. It is the termination of the emigration road 
from North Bengal and of the river steamers that connect with 
the North Bengal railway. It is also served by the eastern 
Bengal State railway. 

GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gat, Goth, gaits, Mod. 
Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid), properly the name of 
the well-known domesticated European ruminant (Capra hircus), 
which has for all time been regarded as the emblem of everything 
that is evil, in contradistinction to the sheep, which is the symbol 
of excellence and purity. Although the more typical goats are 
markedly distinct from sheep, there is, both as regards wild and 
domesticated forms, an almost complete gradation from goats 
to sheep, so that it is exceedingly difficult to define either group. 
The position of the genus Capra (to all the members of which, 
as well as some allied species, the name " goat " in its wider sense 
is applicable) in the family Bovidae is indicated in the article 
BOVIDAE, and some of the distinctions between goats and sheep 
are mentioned in the article SHEEP. Here then it will suffice 
to mention that goats are characterized by the strong and offen- 
sive odour of the males, which are furnished with a beard on 
the chin; while as a general rule glands are present between the 
middle toes of the fore feet only. 

Goats, in the wild state, are an exclusively old-world group, 
of which the more typical forms are confined to Europe and 
south-western and central Asia, although there are two outlying 
species in northern Africa. The wild goat, or pasang, is repre- 
sented in Europe in the Cyclades and Crete by rather small races, 



GOAT 



more or less mingled with domesticated breeds, the Cretan 
animal being distinguished as Capra hircus creticus; but the 
large typical race C. h. aegagrus is met with in the mountains of 
Asia Minor and Persia, whence it extends to Sind, where it is 
represented by a somewhat different race known as C. h. blylhi. 
The horns of the old bucks are of great length and beauty, and 
characterized by their bold scimitar-like backward sweep and 
sharp front edge, interrupted at irregular intervals by knots or 
bosses. Domesticated goats have run wild in many islands, 
such as the Hebrides, Shetland, Canaries, Azores, Ascension and 
Juan Fernandez. Some of these reverted breeds have developed 
horns of considerable size, although not showing that regularity 
of curve distinctive of the wild race. In the Azores the horns are 
remarkably upright and straight, whence the name of " antelope- 
goat " which has been given to these animals. The concretions 
known as bezoar-stones, formerly much used in medicine and as 
antidotes of poison, are obtained from the stomach of the wild 
goat. 

Although there have in all probability been more or less 
important local crosses with other wild species, there can be 
no doubt that domesticated goats generally are descended from 
the wild goat. It is true that many tame goats show spirally 
twisted horns recalling those of the under-mentioned Asiatic 
markhor; but in nearly all such instances it will be found that 
the spiral twists in the opposite direction. Among the domesti- 
cated breeds the following are some of the more "important. 

Firstly, we have the common or European goats, of which 
there are several more or less well-marked breeds, differing 
from each other in length of hair, in colour and slightly in the 
configuration of the horns. The ears are more or less upright, 
sometimes horizontal, but never actually pendent, as in some 
Asiatic breeds. The horns are rather flat at the base and not 
unfrequently corrugated; they rise vertically from the head, 
curving to the rear, and are more or less laterally inclined. 
The colour varies from dirty white to dark-brown, but when 
pure-bred is never black, which indicates eastern blood. Most 
European countries possess more than one description of the 
common goat. In the British Islts there are two distinct types, 
one short and the other long haired. In the former the hair is 
thick and close, with frequently an under-coat resembling wool. 
The horns are large in the male, and of moderate size in the female, 
flat at the base and inclining outwards. The head is short and 
tapering, the forehead flat and wide, and the nose small; while 
the legs are strong, thick and well covered with hair. The colour 
varies from white or grey to black, but is frequently fawn, with 
a dark line down the spine and another across the shoulders. 
The other variety has a shaggy coat, generally reddish-black, 
though sometimes grey or pied and occasionally white. The head 
is long, heavy and ugly, the nose coarse and prominent, with the 
horns situated close together, often continuing parallel almost 
to the extremities, being also large, corrugated and pointed. 
The legs are long and the sides flat, the animal itself being gener- 
ally gaunt and thin. This breed is peculiar to Ireland, the 
Welsh being of a similar type, but more often white. The short- 
haired goat is the English goat proper. Both British breeds, 
as well as those from abroad, are frequently ornamented with 
two tassel-like appendages, hanging near together under the 
throat. It has been supposed by many that these are traceable 
to foreign blood; but although there are foreign breeds that 
possess them, they appear to pertain quite as much to the English 
native breeds as to those of distant countries, the peculiarity 
being mentioned in very old works on the goats of the British 
Islands. The milk-produce in the common goat as well as other 
kinds varies greatly with individuals. Irish goats often yield a 
quantity of milk, but the quality is poor. The goats of France 
are similar to those of Britain, varying in length of hair, colour 
and character of horns. The Norway breed is frequently white 
with long hair; it is rather small in size, with small bones, a 
short rounded body, head small with a prominent forehead, and 
short, straight, corrugated horns. The facial line is concave. 
The horns of the males are very large, and curve round after the 
manner of the wild goat, with a tuft of hair between and in front. 



The Maltese goat has the ears long, wide and hanging down . 
below the jaw. The hair is long and cream-coloured. The breed 
is usually hornless. 

The Syrian goat is met with in various parts of the East, in 
Lower Egypt, on the shores of the Indian Ocean and in Mada- 
gascar. The hair and ears are excessively long, the latter so 
much so that they are sometimes clipped to prevent their being 
torn by stones or thorny shrubs. The horns are somewhat erect 
and spiral, with an outward bend. 

The Angora goat is often confounded with the Kashmir, but 
is in reality quite distinct. The principal feature of this breed, 
of which there are two or three varieties, is the length and 
quantity of the hair, which has a particularly soft and silky 
texture, covering the whole body and a great part of the legs 
with close matted ringlets. The horns of the male differ from 
those of the female, being directed vertically and in shape spiral, 
whilst in the female they have a horizontal tendency, somewhat 
like those of a ram. The coat is composed of two kinds of hair, 
the one short and coarse and of the character of hair, which lies 
close to the skin, the other long and curly and of the nature of 
wool, forming the outer covering. Both are used by the manu- 
facturer, but the exterior portion, which makes up by far the 
greater bulk, is much the more valuable. The process of shearing 
takes place in early spring, the average amount of wool yielded 




FIG. i. Male Angora Goat. 

by each animal being about 25 Ib. The best quality comes 
from castrated males, females producing the next best. 

The breed was introduced at the Cape about 1864. The 
Angora is a bad milker and an indifferent mother, but its flesh 
is better than that of any other breed, and in its native country 
is preferred to mutton. The kids are born small, but grow fast, 
and arrive early at maturity. The Kashmir, or rather Tibet, 
goat has a delicate head, with semi-pendulous ears, which are 
both long and wide. The hair varies in length, and is coarse 
and of different colours according to the individual. The horns 
are very erect, and sometimes slightly spiral, inclining inwards 
and to such an extent in some cases as to cross. The coat is 
composed, as in the Angora, of two materials; but in this 
breed it is the under-coat that partakes of the nature of wool and 
is valued as an article of commerce. This under-coat, or pushm, 
which is of a uniform greyish-white tint, whatever the colour 
of the hair may be, is beautifully soft and silky, and of a fluffy 
description resembling down. It makes its appearance in the 
autumn, and continues to grow until the following spring, when, 
if not removed, it falls off naturally; its collection then 
commences, occupying from eight to ten days. The animal 
undergoes during that time a process of combing by which all 
the wool and a portion of the hair, which of necessity comes 
with it, is removed. The latter is afterwards carefully separated, 
when the fleece in a good specimen weighs about half a pound. 
This is the material of which the far-famed and costly shawls 
are made, which at one time had such a demand that, it is stated, 
16,000 looms were kept in constant woik at Kashmir in their 
manufacture. Those goats having a short, neat head, long, thin, 
ears, a delicate skin, small bones, and a long heavy coat, are 
for this purpose deemed the best. There are several varieties 




GOATSUCKER 



163 



possessing this valuable quality, but those of Kashmir, Tibet 
and Mongolia are the most esteemed. 

The Nubian goat, which is met with in Nubia, Upper Egypt 
and Abyssinia, differs greatly in appearance from those previously 
described. The coat of the female is extremely short, almost 
like that of a race-horse, and the legs are long. This breed 
therefore stands considerably higher than the common goat. 
One of its peculiarities is the convex profile of the face, the 
forehead being prominent and the nostrils sunk in, the nose itself 
extremely small, and the lower lip projecting from the upper. 
The ears are long, broad and thin, and hang down by the side 




FIG. 2. Nubian Goat. 

of the head like a lop-eared rabbit. The horns are black, slightly 
twisted and very short, flat at the base, pointed at the tips, 
and recumbent on the head. Among goats met with in England 
a good many show signs of a more or less remote cross with this 
breed, derived probably from specimens brought from the East 
on board ships for supplying milk during the voyage. 

The Theban goat, of the Sudan, which is hornless, displays 
the characteristic features of the last in an exaggerated degree, 
and in the form of the head and skull is very sheep-like. 

The Nepal goat appears to be a variety of the Nubian breed, 
having the same arched facial line, pendulous ears and long 
legs. The horns, however, are more spiral. The colour of the 
hair, which is longer than in the Nubian, is black, grey or white, 
with black blotches. 

Lastly the Guinea goat is a dwarf breed originally from the 
coast whence its name is derived. There are three varieties. 
Besides the commonest Capra recuna, there is a rarer breed, 
Capra depressa, inhabiting the Mauritius and the islands of 
Bourbon and Madagascar. The other variety is met with along 
the White Nile, in Lower Egypt, and at various points on the 
African coast of the Mediterranean. 

As regards wild goats other than the representatives of Capra 
hircus, the members of the ibex-group are noticed under IBEX, 
while another distinctive type receives mention under MARKHOR. 
The ibex are connected with the wild goat by means of Capra 
nubiana, in which the front edge of the horns is thinner than in 
either the European C. ibex or the Asiatic C. sibirica; while 
the Spanish C. pyrenaica shows how the ibex-type of horn may 
pass into the spirally twisted one distinctive of the markhor, 
C./alconeri. In the article IBEX mention is made of the Caucasus 
ibex, or tur, C. caucasica, as an aberrant member of that group; 
but beside this animal the Caucasus is the home of another very 
remarkable goat, or tur, known as C. pallasi. In this ruminant, 
which is of a dark-brown colour, the relatively smooth black 
horns diverge outwards in a manner resembling those of the 
bharal among the sheep rather than in goat-fashion; and, in 
fact, this tur, which has only a very short beard, is so bharal-like 
that it is commonly called by sportsmen the Caucasian bharal. 



It is one of the species which render it so difficult to give a precise 
definition of either sheep or goats. 

The short-horned Asiatic goats of the genus Hemitragus 
receive mention in the article TAHR; but it may be added that 
fossil species of the same genus are known from the Lower 
Pliocene formations of India, which have also yielded remains 
of a goat allied to the markhor of the Himalayas. The Rocky 
Mountain goat (q.v.) of America has no claim to be regarded as a 
member of the goat-group. 

For full descriptions of the various wild species, see R. Lydekker, 
Wild Oxen, Sheep, and Goats (London, 1898). (R. L.*) 

GOATSUCKER, a bird from very ancient times absurdly 
believed to have the habit implied by the common name it bears 
in many European tongues besides English as testified by 
the Gr. a.iyo6r]\a.s, the Lat. caprimulgus, Ital. succiacapre, 
Span, chotacabras, Fr. teltechevre, and Ger. Zeigenmelker : 
The common goatsucker (Caprimulgus europaeus, Linn.), is 
admittedly the type of a very peculiar and distinct family, 
Caprimulgidae, a group remarkable for the flat head, enormously 
wide mouth, large eyes, and soft, pencilled plumage of its members, 
which vary in size from a lark to a crow. Its position has been 
variously assigned by systematists. Though now judiciously 
removed from the Passeres, in which Linnaeus placed all the 
species known to him, Huxley considered it to form, with two 
other families the swifts (Cypselidae) and humming-birds 
(Trochttidae) the division Cypselomorphae of his larger group 
Aegithognathae, which is equivalent in the main to the Linnaean 
Passeres. There are two ways of regarding the Caprimulgidae- 
one including the genus Podargus and its allies, the other recogniz- 
ing them as a distinct family, Podargidae. As a matter of 
convenience we shall here comprehend these last in the Capri 
mulgidat, which will then contain two subfamilies, Caprimulginae 
and Podarginae; for what, according to older authors, constitutes 
a third, though represented only by Steatornis, the singular 
oil-bird, or guacharo, certainly seems to require separation as an 
independent family (see GUACHARO). 

Some of the differences between the Caprimulginae and 
Podarginae have been pointed out by Sclater (Pi-oc. Zool. Soc., 
1 866, p. 1 23) , and are very obvious. In the former, the outer toes 
have four phalanges only, thus presenting a very uncommon 
character among birds, and the middle claws are pectinated; 
while in the latter the normal number of five phalanges is found, 




Common Goatsucker. 

and the claws are smooth, and other distinctions more recondite 
have also been indicated by him (torn. cit. p. 582). The Capri- 
mulginae may be further divided into those having the gape 
thickly beset by strong bristles, and those in which there are few 
such bristles or none the former containing the genera Capri- 
mulgus, Antrostomus, Nyctidromus and others, and the latter 
Podargus, Chordiles, Lyncornis and a few more. 

The common goatsucker of Europe (C. europaeus) arrives 
late in spring from its winter-retreat in Africa, and its presence 
is soon made known by its habit of chasing its prey, consisting 
chiefly of moths and cockchafers, in the evening-twilight. As 



164 



GOATSUCKER 



the season advances the song of the cock, from its singularity, 
attracts attention amid all rural sounds. This song seems to be 
always uttered when the bird is at rest, though the contrary has 
been asserted, and is the continuous repetition of a single burring 
note, as of a thin lath fixed at one end and in a state of vibration 
at the other, and loud enough to reach in still weather a distance 
of half-a-mile or more. On the wing, while toying with its mate, 
or performing its rapid evolutions round the trees where it 
finds its food, it has the habit of occasionally producing another 
and equally extraordinary sound, sudden and short, but some- 
what resembling that made by swinging a thong in the air, 
though whether this noise proceeds from its mouth is not ascer- 
tained. In general its flight is silent, but at times when disturbed 
from its repose, its wings may be heard to smite together. The 
goatsucker, or, to use perhaps its commoner English name, 
nightjar, 1 passes the day in slumber, crouching on the ground 
or perching on a tree in the latter case sitting not across the 
branch but lengthways, with its head lower than its body. In 
hot weather, however, its song may sometimes be heard by day 
and even at noontide, but it is then uttered, as it were, drowsily, 
and without the vigour that characterizes its crepuscular or 
nocturnal performance. Towards evening the bird becomes 
active, and it seems to pursue its prey throughout the night 
uninterruptedly, or only occasionally pausing for a few seconds 
to alight on a bare spot a pathway or road and then resuming 
its career. It is one of the few birds that absolutely make no 
nest, but lays its pair of beautifully-marbled eggs on the ground, 
generally where the herbage is short, and often actually on the 
soil. So light is it that the act of brooding, even where there is 
some vegetable growth, produces no visible depression of the 
grass, moss or lichens on which the eggs rest, and the finest 
sand equally fails to exhibit a trace of the parental act. Yet 
scarcely any bird shows greater local attachment, and the 
precise site chosen one year is almost certain to be occupied 
the next. The young, covered when hatched with dark-spotted 
down, are not easily found, nor are they more easily discovered 
on becoming fledged, for their plumage almost entirely resembles 
that of the adults, being a mixture of reddish-brown, grey and 
black, blended and mottled in a manner that passes description. 
They soon attain their full size and power of flight, and then take 
to the same manner of life as their parents. In autumn all 
leave their summer haunts for the south, but the exact time of 
their departure has hardly been ascertained. The habits of the 
nightjar, as thus described, seem to be more or less essentially 
those of the whole subfamily the differences observable being 
apparently less than are found in other groups of birds.of similar 
extent. 

A second species of goatsucker (C. ruficollis), which is some- 
what larger, and has the neck distinctly marked with rufous, 
is a summer visitant to the south-western parts of Europe, and 
especially to Spain and Portugal. The occurrence of a single 
example of this bird at Killingworth, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
in October 1856, has been recorded by Mr Hancock (Ibis, 1862, 
p. 39) ; but the season of its appearance argues the probability of 
its being but a casual straggler from its proper home. Many other 
species of Caprimulgus inhabit Africa, Asia and their islands, 
while one (C. macrurus] is found in Australia. Very nearly allied 
to this genus is Anlroslomus, an American group containing 
many species, of which the chuck-will's- widow (4. carolinensis) 
and the whip-poor-will (A. vociferus) of the eastern United States 
(the latter also reaching Canada) are familiar examples. Both 
these birds take their common name from the cry they utter, 
and their habits seem to be almost identical with those of the 
old world goatsuckers. Passing over some other forms which 
need not here be mentioned, the genus Nyctidromus, though 
consisting of only one species (N. albicollis) which inhabits 
Central and part of South America, requires remark, since it has 
tarsi of sufficient length to enable it to run swiftly on the ground, 
while the legs of most birds of the family are so short that they can 

1 Other English namjs of the bird are evejar, fern-owl, churn-owl 
and wheel-bird the last from the bird's song resembling the noise 
made by a spinning-wheel in motion. 



make but a shuffling progress. Heleothreptes, with the unique 
form of wing possessed by the male, needs mention. Notice 
must also be taken of two African species, referred by some 
ornithologists to as many genera (Macrodipteryx and Cos- 
metornis), though probably one genus would suffice for both. 
The males of each of them are characterized by the wonderful 
development of the ninth primary in either wing, which reaches 
in fully adult specimens the extraordinary length of 17 in. or 
more. The former of these birds, the Caprimulgus macrodipterus 
of Adam Afzelius, is considered to belong to the west coast of 
Africa, and the shaft of the elongated remiges is bare for the 
greater part of its length, retaining the web, in a spatulate form, 
only near the tip. The latter, to which the specific name of 
vexillarius was given by John Gould, has been found on the 
east coast of that continent, and is reported to have occurred in 
Madagascar and Socotra. In this the remigial streamers do 
not lose their barbs, and as a few of the next quills are also to 
some extent elongated, the bird, when flying, is said to look as 
though it had four wings. Specimens of both are rare in collec- 
tions, and no traveller seems to have had the opportunity of 
studying the habits of either so as to suggest a reason for this 
marvellous sexual development. 

The second group of Caprimulginae, those which are but 
poorly or not at all furnished with rictal bristles, contains about 
five genera, of which we may particularize Lyncornis of the old 
world and Chordiles of the new. The species of the former are 
remarkable for the tuft of feathers which springs from each side 
of the head, above and behind the ears, so as to give the bird an 
appearance like some of the " horned " owls those of the genus 
Scops, for example; and remarkable as it is to find certain forms 
of two families, so distinct as are the Strigidae and the Capri- 
mulgidae, resembling each other in this singular external feature, 
it is yet more remarkable to note that in some groups of the 
latter, as in some of the former, a very curious kind of dimorphism 
takes place. In either case this has been frequently asserted 
to be sexual, but on that point doubt may fairly be entertained. 
Certain it is that in some groups of goatsuckers, as in some groups 
of owls, individuals of the same species are found in plumage of 
two entirely different hues rufous and grey. The only explana- 
tion as yet offered of this fact is that the difference is sexual, 
but evidence to that effect is conflicting. It must not, however, 
be supposed that this common feature, any more than that of 
the existence of tufted forms in each group, indicates any close 
relationship between them. The resemblances may be due to 
the same causes, concerning which future observers may possibly 
enlighten us, but at present we must regard them as analogies, 
not homologies. The species of Lyncornis inhabit the Malay 
Archipelago, one, however, occurring also in China. Of Chordiles 
the best-known species is the night-hawk of North America 
(C. virginianus or C. popetue), which has a wide range from 
Canada to Brazil. Others are found in the Antilles and in South 
America. The general habits of all these birds agree with those 
of the typical goatsuckers. 

We have next to consider the birds forming the genus Podargus 
and those allied to it, whether they be regarded as a distinct 
family, or as a subfamily of Caprimulgidae. As above stated, 
they have feet constructed as those of birds normally are, and 
their sternum seems to present the constant though compara- 
tively trivial difference of having its posterior margin elongated 
into two pairs of processes, while only one pair is found in the 
true goatsuckers. Podargus includes the bird (P. cuvieri) known 
from its cry as morepork to the Tasmanians, 2 and several other 
species, the number of which is doubtful, from Australia and 
New Guinea. They have comparatively powerful bills, and it 
would seem feed to some extent on fruits and berries, though they 
mainly subsist on insects, chiefly Cicadae and Phasmidae. They 
also differ from the true goatsuckers in having the outer toes 
partially reversible, and they build a flat nest on the horizontal 
branch of a tree for the reception of their eggs, which are of a 
spotless white. Apparently allied to Podargus, but differing 

* In New Zealand, however, this name is given to an owl (Sceloglaux 

novae-zclandiae) . 



GOBAT GOBI 



165 



among other respects in its mode of nidification, is Aegotheks, 
which belongs also to the Australian sub-region; and farther 
to the northward, extending throughout the Malay Archipelago 
and into India, comes Batrachostomus, wherein we again meet 
with species having aural tufts somewhat like Lyncornis. The 
Podarginae are thought by some to be represented in the new 
world by the genus Nyctibius, of which several species occur 
from the Antilles and Central America to Brazil. Finally, it may 
be stated that none of the Caprimulgidae seem to occur in 
Polynesia or in New Zealand, though there is scarcely any other 
part of the world suited to their habits in which members of the 
family are not found. (A. N.) 

GOBAT, SAMUEL (1799-1879), bishop of Jerusalem, was born 
at Cremine, Bern, Switzerland, on the 26th of January 1799. 
After serving in the mission house at Basel from 1823 to 1826, 
he went to Paris and London, whence, having acquired some 
knowledge of Arabic and Ethiopic, he went out to Abyssinia 
under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society. The 
unsettled state of the country and his own ill health prevented 
his making much headway; he returned to Europe in 1835 and 
from 1839 to 1842 lived in Malta, where he supervised an Arabic 
translation of the Bible. In 1846 he was consecrated Protestant 
bishop of Jerusalem, under the agreement between the British 
and Prussian governments (1841) for the establishment of a 
joint bishopric for Lutherans and Anglicans in the Holy Land. 
He carried on a vigorous mission as bishop for over thirty years, 
his diocesan school and orphanage on Mount Zion being specially 
noteworthy. He died on the nth of May 1879. 

A record of his life, largely autobiographical, was published at 
Basel in 1884, and an English translation at London in the same year. 

60BEL, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1727-1794), French 
ecclesiastic and politician, was born at Thann, in Alsace, on the 
ist of September 1727. He studied theology in the German 
College at Rome, and then became successively a member of 
the chapter of Porrentruy, bishop in partibus of Lydda, and 
finally suffragan of Basel for that part of the diocese situated 
in French territory. His political life began when he was elected 
deputy to the states-general of 1789 by the clergy of the bailliage 
of Huningue. The turning-point of his life was his action in 
taking the oath of the civil constitution of the clergy (Jan. 3rd, 
1791); in favour of which he had declared himself since the sth 
of May 1790. The civil constitution of the clergy gave the 
appointment of priests to the electoral assemblies, and since 
taking the oath Gobel had become so popular that he was elected 
bishop in several dioceses. He chose Paris, and in spite of the 
difficulties which he had to encounter before he could enter into 
possession, was consecrated on the 27th of March 1791 by eight 
bishops, including Talleyrand. On the Sth of November 1792, 
Gobel was appointed administrator of Paris. He was careful 
to flatter the politicians by professing anti-clerical opinions, 
declaring himself, among other things, opposed to the celibacy 
of the clergy; and on the I7th Brumaire in the year II. (7th 
November 1793), he came before the bar of the Convention, and, 
in a famous scene, resigned his episcopal functions, proclaiming 
that he did so for love of the people, and through respect for 
their wishes. The followers of Hebert, who were then pursuing 
their anti-Christian policy, claimed Gobel as one of themselves; 
while, on the other hand, Robespierre looked upon him as an 
atheist, though apostasy cannot strictly speaking be laid to the 
charge of the ex-bishop, nor did he ever make any actual pro- 
fession of atheism. Robespierre, however, found him an obstacle 
to his religious schemes, and involved him in the fate of the 
Hebertists. Gobel was condemned to death, with Chaumette, 
Hebert and Anacharsis Cloots, and was guillotined on the I2th 
of April 1794. 

See E. Charavay, Assembtee electorate de Paris (Paris, 1890) ; 
H. Monin, La Chanson el l'glise sous la Revolution (Paris, 1892); 
A. Aulard, " La Culte de la raison " in the review, La Revolution 
Frangaise (1891). For a bibliography of documents relating to 
his episcopate see " Episcopal de Gobel " in vol. iii. (1900) of 
M. Tourneux's Bibliographie de I'histoire de Paris pendant la Rev. Fr. 

GOBELIN, the name of a family of dyers, who in all probability 
came originally from Reims, and who in the middle of the 



century established themselves in the Faubourg Saint Marcel, 
Paris, on the banks of the Bievre. The first head of the firm 
was named Jehan (d. 1476). He discovered a peculiar kind of 
scarlet dyestuff, and he expended so much money on his 
establishment that it was named by the common people la folie 
Gobelin. To the dye-works there was added in the i6th century 
a manufactory of tapestry (?..). So rapidly did the wealth 
of the family increase, that in the third or fourth generation 
some of them forsook their trade and purchased titles of nobility. 
More than one of their number held offices of state, among 
others Balthasar, who became successively treasurer general of 
artillery, treasurer extraordinary of war, councillor secretary of 
the king, chancellor of the exchequer, councillor of state and 
president of the chamber of accounts, and who in 1601 received 
from Henry IV. the lands and lordship of Briecomte-Robert. 
He died in 1603. The name of the Gobelins as dyers cannot be 
found later than the end of the i7th century. In 1662 the works 
in the Faubourg Saint Marcel, with the adjoining grounds, were 
purchased by Colbert on behalf of Louis XIV., and transformed 
into a general upholstery manufactory, in which designs both 
in tapestry and in all kinds of furniture were executed under the 
superintendence of the royal painter, Le Brun. On account of 
the pecuniary embarrassments of Louis XIV., the establishment 
was closed in 1694, but it was reopened in 1697 for the manu- 
facture of tapestry, chiefly for royal use and for presentation. 
During the Revolution and the reign of Napoleon the manufacture 
was suspended, but it was revived by the Bourbons, and in 1826 
the manufacture of carpets was added to that of tapestry. In 
1871 the building was partly burned by the Communists. The 
manufacture is still carried on under the state. 

See Lacordaire, Notice historique sur les manufactures imperiales 
de tapisserie des Gobelin et de tapis de la Savonnerie, prefedee du cata- 
logue des tapisseries qui y sent exposes (Paris, 1853); Genspach, 
Repertoire detaille des tapisseries executees aux Gobelins, 1662-1892 
(Paris, 1893); Guiffrey, Histoire de la tapisserie en France (Paris, 
1878-1885). The two last-named authors were directors of the 
manufactory. 

GOBI (for which alternative Chinese names are SHA-MO, 
" sand desert," and HAN-HAI, " dry sea "), a term which in its 
widest significance means the long stretch of desert country that 
extends from the foot of the Pamirs, in about 77 E., eastward 
to the Great Khingan Mountains, in ii6-ii8 E., on the border 
of Manchuria, and from the foothills of the Altai, the Sayan 
and the Yablonoi Mountains on the N. to the Astin-tagh or 
Altyn-tagh and the Nan-shan, the northernmost constituent 
ranges of the Kuen-lun Mountains, on the south. By conven- 
tional usage a relatively small area on the east side of the Great 
Khingan, between the upper waters of the Sungari and the upper 
waters of the Liao-ho, is also reckoned to belong to the Gobi. 
On the other hand, geographers and Asiatic explorers prefer to 
regard the W. extremity of the Gobi region (as defined above), 
namely, the basin of the Tarim in E. Turkestan, as forming a 
separate and independent desert, to which they have given the 
name of Takla-makan. The latter restriction governs the present 
article, which accordingly excludes the Takla-makan, leaving it 
for separate treatment. The desert of Gobi as a whole is only 
very imperfectly known, information being confined to the 
observations which individual travellers have made from their 
respective itineraries across the desert. Amongst the explorers 
to whom we owe such knowledge as we possess about the Gobi, 
the most important have been Marco Polo (1273-1275), Gerbillon 
(1688-1698), Ijsbrand Ides (1692-1694), Lange (1727-1728 and 
1736), Fuss and Bunge (1830-1831), Fritsche (1868-1873), 
Pavlinov and Matusovski (1870), Ney Elias (1872-1873), N. M. 
Przhevalsky (1870-1872 and 1876-1877), Zosnovsky (1875), 
M. V. Pjevtsov (1878), G. N. Potanin (1877 and 1884-1886), 
Count Szechenyi and L. von Loczy (1870-1880), the brothers 
Grum-Grzhimailo (1889-1890), P. K. Kozlov (1893-1894 and 
1899-1900), V. I. Roborovsky (1894), V. A. Obruchev (1894- 
1896), Futterer and Holderer (1896), C. E. Bonin (1896 and 1899), 
Sven Hedin (1897 and 1900-1901), K. Bogdanovich (1898), 
Ladyghin (1899-1900) and Katsnakov (1899-1900). 

Geographically the Gobi (a Mongol word meaning " desert ") 



1 66 



GOBI 



is the deeper part of the gigantic depression which fills the 
interior of the lower terrace of the vast Mongolian plateau, and 
measures over 1000 m. from S.W. to N.E. and 450 to 600 m. 
from N. to S., being widest in the west, along the line joining 
the Baghrash-kol and the Lop-nor (87-89 E.). Owing to the 
immense area covered, and the piecemeal character of the 
information, no general description can be made applicable to 
the whole of the Gobi. It will be more convenient, therefore, to 
describe its principal distinctive sections seriatim, beginning in 
the west. 

Ghashiun-Gobi and Kuruk-tagh. The Yulduz valley or valley of 
the Khaidyk-gol (83-86 E., 43 N.) is enclosed by two prominent 
members of the Tian-shan system, namely the Chol-tagh and the 
Kuruk-tagh, running parallel and close to one another. As they pro- 
ceed eastward they diverge, sweeping back on N. and S. respectively 
so as to leave room for the Baghrash-kol. These two ranges mark 
the northern and the southern edges respectively of a great swelling, 
which extends eastward for nearly twenty degrees of longitude. On 
its northern side the Chol-tagh descends steeply, anditsfootisfringed 
by a string of deep depressions, ranging from Lukchun (425 ft. below 
the level of the sea) to Hami (2800 ft. above sea-level). To the south 
of the Kuruk-tagh lie the desert of Lop, the desert of Kum-tagh, and 
the valley of the Bulunzir-gol. To this great swelling, which arches 
up between the two border-ranges of the Chol-tagh and Kuruk-tagh, 
the Mongols give the name of Ghashiun-Gobi or Salt Desert. It is 
some 80 to 100 m. across from N. to S., and is traversed by a number 
of minor parallel ranges, ridges and chains of hills, and down its 
middle runs a broad stony valley, 25 to 50 m. wide, at an elevation of 
3000 to 4500 ft. The Chol-tagh, which reaches an average altitude 
of 6000 ft., is absolutely sterile, and its northern foot rests upon a 
narrow belt of barren sand, which leads down to the depressions 
mentioned above. 

The Kuruk-tagh is the greatly disintegrated, denuded and wasted 
relic of a mountain range which formerly was of incomparably 
greater magnitude. In the west, between Baghrash-kol and the 
Tarim, it consists of two, possibly of three, principal ranges, which, 
although broken in continuity, run generally parallel to one another, 
and embrace between them numerous minor chains of heights. 
These minor ranges, together with the principal ranges, divide the 
region into a series of long, narrow valleys, mostly parallel to one 
another and to the enclosing mountain chains, which descend like 
terraced steps, on the one side towards the depression of Lukchun 
and on the other towards the desert of Lop. In many cases these 
latitudinal valleys are barred transversely by ridges or spurs, 
generally elevations en masse of the bottom of the valley. Where 
such elevations exist, there is generally found, on the E. side of the 
transverse ridge, a cauldron-shaped depression, which some time 
or other has been the bottom of a former lake, but is now nearly a 
dry salt-basin. The surface configuration is in fact markedly 
similar to that which occurs in the inter-mont latitudinal valleys of 
the Kuen-lun. The hydrography of the Ghashiun-Gobi and the 
Kuruk-tagh is determined by these chequered arrangements of the 
latitudinal valleys. Most of the principal streams, instead of flowing 
straight down these valleys, cross them diagonally and only turn 
west after they have cut their way through one or more of the trans- 
verse barrier ranges. 1 To the highest range on the great swelling 
Grum-Grzhimailo gives the name of Tuge-tau, its altitude being 
9000 ft. above the level of the sea and some 4000 ft. above the crown 
of the swelling itself. This range he considers to belong to the Chol- 
tagh system, whereas Sven Hedin would assign it to the Kuruk-tagh. 
This last, which is pretty certainly identical with the range of Khara- 
teken-ula (also known as the Kyzyl-sanghir, Sinir, and Singher 
Mountains), that overlooks the southern shore of the Baghrash-kol, 
though parted from it by the drift-sand desert of Ak-bel-kum (White 
Pass Sands), has at first a W.N.W. to E.S.E. strike, but it gradually 
curves round like a scimitar towards the E.N.E. and at the same 
time gradually decreases in elevation. In 91 E., while the principal 
range of the Kuruk-tagh system wheels to the E.N.E., four of its 
subsidiary ranges terminate, or rather die away somewhat suddenly, 
on the brink of a long narrow depression (in which Sven Hedin sees 
aN.E. bay of the former great Central Asian lake of Lop-nor), having 
over against them the Echeloned terminals of similar subordinate 
ranges of the Pe-shan (Bey-san) system (see below). The Kuruk-tagh 
is throughout a relatively low, but almost completely barren range, 
being entirely destitute of animal life, save for hares, antelopes and 
wild camels, which frequent its few small, widely scattered oases. 
The vegetation, which is confined to these same relatively favoured 
spots, is of the scantiest and is mainly confined to bushes of saxaul 
(Anabasis A m modendron) , reeds (kamish), tamarisks, poplars, 
Kalidium and Ephedra. 

Desert of Lop. This section of the Gobi extends south-eastward 
from the foot of the Kuruk-tagh as far as the present terminal basin 
of the Tarim, namely Kara-koshun (Przhevalsky's Lop-nor), and is an 
almost perfectly horizontal expanse, for, while the Baghrash-kol 
in the N. lies at an altitude of 2940 ft., the Kara-koshun, over 200 m. 



1 Cf. G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, Opisaniye Puteshestviya, i. 381-417. 



to the S., is only 300 ft. lower. The characteristic features of this 
almost dead level or but slightly undulating region are: (i.) broad, 
unbroken expanses of clay intermingled with sand, the clay (shor) 
being indurated and saliferous and often arranged in terraces; (ii.) 
hard, level, clay expanses, more or less thickly sprinkled with fine 
gravel (say), the clay being mostly of a yellow or yellow-grey colour; 
(iii.) benches, flattened ridges and tabular masses of consolidated 
clay (jardangs'), arranged in distinctly defined laminae, three stories 
being sometimes superimposed one upon the other, and their vertical 
faces being abraded, and often undercut, by the wind, while the 
formations themselves are separated by parallel gullies or wind- 
furrows, 6 to 20 ft. deep, all sculptured in the direction of the pre- 
vailing wind, that is, from N.E. to S.W. ; and (iv.) the absence of 
drift-sand and sand-dunes, except in the south, towards the out- 
lying foothills of the Astin-tagh. Perhaps the most striking character- 
istic, after the jardangs or clay terraces, is the fact that the whole 
of this region is not only swept bare of sand by the terrific sand- 
storms (burans) of the spring months, the particles of sand with 
which the wind is laden acting like a sand-blast, but the actual 
substantive materials of the desert itself are abraded, filed, eroded 
and carried bodily away into the network of lakes in which the Tarin, 
loses itself, or are even blown across the lower, constantly shifting 
watercourses of that river and deposited on or among the gigantic 
dunes which choke the eastern end of the desert of Takla-makan. 
Numerous indications, such as salt-stained depressions of a lacustrine 
appearance, traces of former lacustrine shore-lines, more or less 
parallel and concentric, the presence in places of vast quantities of 
fresh-water mollusc shells (species of Limnaea and Planorbis), the 
existence of belts of dead poplars, patches of dead tamarisks and 
extensive beds of withered reeds, all these always on top of the 
jardangs, never in the wind-etched furrows, together with a few 
scrubby poplars and Elaeagnus, still struggling hard not to die, the 
presence of ripple marks of aqueous origin on the leeward sides of the 
clay terraces and in other wind-sheltered situations, all testify to 
the former existence in this region of more or less extensive fresh- 
water lakes, now of course completely desiccated. During the 
prevalence of the spring storms the atmosphere that overhangs 
the immediate surface ofthe desert is so heavily charged with dust 
as to be a veritable pall of desolation. Except for the wild camel 
which frequents the reed oases on the N. edge of the desert, animal 
life is even less abundant than in the Ghashiun-Gobi, and the same 
is true as regards the vegetation. 

Desert of Kum-tagh. This section lies E.S.E. of the desert of Lop, 
on the other side of the Kara-koshun and its more or less temporary 
continuations, and reaches north-eastwards as far as the vicinity of 
the town of Sa-chow and the lake of Kara-nor or Kala-chi. Its 
southern rim is marked by a labyrinth of hills, dotted in groups and 
irregular clusters, but evidently survivals of two parallel ranges 
which are now worn down as it were to mere fragments of their 
former skeletal structure. Between these and the Astin-tagh inter- 
venes a broad latitudinal valley, seamed with watercourses which 
come down from the foothills of the Astin-tagh and beside which 
scrubby desert plants of the usual character maintain a precarious 
existence, water reaching them in some instances at intervals of years 
only. This part of the desert has a general slope N.W. towards the 
relative depression of the Kara-koshun. A noticeable feature of the 
Kum-tagh is the presence of large accumulations of drift-sand, 
especially along the foot of the crumbling desert ranges, where it 
rises into dunes sometimes as much as 250 ft. in height and climbs 
half-way up the flanks of ranges themselves. The prevailing winds 
in this region would appear to blow from the W. and N.W. during 
the summer, winter and autumn, though in spring, when they certainly 
are more violent, they no doubt come from the N.E., as in the desert 
of Lop. Anyway, the arrangement of the sand here " agrees per- 
fectly with the law laid down by Potanin, that in the basins of Central 
Asia the sand is heaped up in greater mass on the south, all along 
the bordering mountain ranges where the floor of the depressions 
lies at the highest level." 2 The country to the north of the desert 
ranges is thus summarily described by Sven Hedin : 3 " The first zone 
of drift-sand is succeeded by a region which exhibits proofs of wind- 
modelling on an extraordinarily energetic and well developed scale, 
the results corresponding to the jardangs and the wind-eroded 
gullies of the desert of Lop. Both sets of phenomena lie parallel 
to one another; from this we may infer that the winds which prevail 
in the two deserts are the same. Next comes, sharply demarcated 
from the zone just described, a more or less thin kamish steppe 
growing on level ground ; and this in turn is followed by another very 

narrow belt of sand, immediately south of Achik-kuduk 

Finally in the extreme north we have the characteristic and sharply 
defined belt of kamish steppe, stretching from E.N.E. to W.S.W. 
and bounded on N. and S. by high, sharp-cut clay terraces. . . . 
At the points where we measured them the northern terrace was 
113 ft. high and the southern 85! ft. ... Both terraces belong to 
the same level, and would appear to correspond to the shore lines of a 
big bay of the last surviving remnant of the Central Asian Mediter- 
ranean. At the point where I crossed it the depression was 6 to 7 m. 
wide, and thus resembled a flat valley or immense river-bed." 

1 Quoted in Sven Hedin, Scientific Results, ii. 499. 
3 Op. cit. ii. 499-500. 



GOBI 



167 



Desert of Hami and the Pe-shan Mountains. This section occupies 
the space between the Tian-shan system on the N. and the Nan-shan 
Mountains on the S., and is connected on the W. with the desert of 
Lop. The classic account is that of Przhevalsky, who crossed the 
desert from Hami (or Khami) to Su-chow (not Sa-chow) in the summer 
of 1879. In the middle this desert rises into a vast swelling, 80 m. 
across, which reaches an average elevation of 5000 ft. and a maximum 
elevation of 5500 ft. On its northern and southern borders it is 
overtopped by two divisions of the Bey-san ( = Pe-shan) Mountains, 
neither of which attains any great relative altitude. Between the 
northern division and the Karlyk-tagh range or E. Tian-shan 
intervenes a somewhat undulating barren plain, 3900 ft. in altitude 
and 40 m. from N. to S., sloping downwards from both N. and S. 
towards the middle, where lies the oasis of Hami (2800 ft.). Similarly 
from the southern division of the Bey-san a second plain slopes down 
for looo ft. to the valley of the river Bulunzir or Su-lai-ho, which 
comes out of China, from the south side of the Great Wall, and finally 
empties itself into the lake of Kalachi or Kara-nor. From the 
Bulunzir the same plain continues southwards at a level of 3700 ft. 
to the foot of the Nan-shan Mountains. The total breadth of the 
desert from N. to S. is here 200 m. Its general character is that of an 
undulating plain, dotted over with occasional elevations of clay, 
which present the appearance of walls, table-topped mounds and 
broken towers (jardangs), the surface of the plain being strewn with 
gravel and absolutely destitute of vegetation. Generally speaking, 
the Bey-san ranges consist of isolated hills or groups of hills, of low 
relative elevation (100 to 300 ft.), scattered without any regard to 
order over the arch of the swelling. They nowhere rise into well- 
defined peaks. Their axis runs from W.S.W. to E.N.E. But whereas 
Przhevalsky and Sven Hedin consider them to be a continuation of 
the Kuruk-tagh, though the latter regards them as separated from 
the Kuruk-tagh by a well-marked bay of the former Central Asian 
Mediterranean (Lop-nor), Futterer declares they are a continuation 
of the Chol-tagh. The swelling or undulating plain between these 
two ranges of the Bey-san measures about 70 m. across and is 
traversed by several stretches of high ground having generally an 
east-west direction. 1 Futterer, who crossed the same desert twenty 
years after Przhevalsky, agrees generally in his description of it, 
but supplements the account of the latter explorer with several 
particulars. He observes that the ranges in this part of the Gobi 
are much worn down and wasted, like the Kuruk-tagh farther west 
and the tablelands of S.E. Mongolia farther east, through the effects 
of century-long insolation, wind erosion, great and sudden changes 
of temperature, chemical action and occasional water erosion. 
Vast areas towards the N. consist of expanses of gently sloping (at 
a mean slope of 3) clay, intermingled with gravel. He points out 
also that the greatest accumulations of sand and other products of 
aerial denudation do not occur in the deepest parts of the depressions 
but at the outlets of the valleys and glens, and along the foot of the 
ranges which flank the depressions on the S. Wherever water has 
been, desert scrub is found, such as tamarisks, Dodartia orientalis, 
Agriophyllum gobicum, Calligonium sinnex, and Lycium ruthenicum, 
but all with their roots elevated on little mounds in the same way 
as the tamarisks grow in the Takla-makan and desert of Lop. 

Farther east, towards central Mongolia, the relations, says Futterer, 
are the same as along the Hami-Su-chow route, except that the ranges 
have lower and broader crests, and the detached hills are more 
denuded and more disintegrated. Between the ranges occur broad, 
flat, cauldron-shaped valleys and basins, almost destitute of life 
except for a few hares and a few birds, such as the crow and the 
pheasant, and with scanty vegetation, but no great accumulations 
of drift-sand. The rocks are severely weathered on the surface, a 
thick layer of the coarser products of denudation covers the flat parts 
and climbs a good way up the flanks of the mountain ranges, but all 
the finer material, sand and clay has been blown away partly S.E. into 
Ordos, partly into the Chinese provinces of Shen-si and Shan-si, where 
it is deposited as loess, and partly W., where it chokes all the southern 
parts of the basin of the Tarim. In these central parts of the Gobi, 
as indeed in all other parts except the desert of Lop and Ordos, the 
prevailing winds blow from the W. and N.W. These winds are warm 
in summer, and it is they which in the desert of Hami bring the fierce 
sandstorms or burans. The wind does blow also from the N.E., but 
it is then cold and often brings snow, though it speedily clears the 
air of the everlasting dust haze. In summer great heat is encountered 
here on the relatively low (3000-4600 ft.), gravelly expanses (say) 
on the N. and on those of the S. (4000-5000 ft.) ; but on the higher 
swelling between, which in the Pe-shan ranges ascends to 7550 ft., 
there is great cold even in summer, and a wide daily range of tempera- 
ture. Above the broad and deep accumulations of the products of 
denudation which have been brought down by the rivers from the 
Tian-shan ranges (e.g. the Karlyk-tagh) on the N. and from the Nan- 
shan on the S., and have filled up the cauldron-shaped valleys, there 
rises a broad swelling, built up of granitic rocks, crystalline schists 
and metamorphosed sedimentary rocks of both Archaic and Palaeo- 
zoic age, all greatly folded and tilted up, and shot through with 
numerous irruptions of volcanic rocks, predominantly porphyritic 
anddioritic. On this swelling rise four more or less parallel mountain 

1 Przhevalsky, Iz Zayana cherez Hami v Tibet na Vershovya 
Sholtoy Reki, pp. 84-91. 



ranges of the Pe-shan system, together with a fifth chain of hills 
farther S., all having a strike from W.N.W. to E.N.E. The range 
farthest N. rises to 1000 ft. above the desert and 7550 ft. above 
sea-level, the next two ranges reach 1300 ft. above the general level 
of the desert, and the range farthest south 1475 ft. or an absolute 
altitude of 7200 ft., while the fifth chain of hills does not exceed 
650 ft. in relative elevation. AH these ranges decrease in altitude 
from W. to E. In the depressions which border the Pe-shan swelling 
on N. and S. are found the sedimentary deposits of the Tertiary 
sea of the Han-hai; but no traces of those deposits have been found 
on the swelling itself at altitudes of 5600 to 5700 ft. Hence, Futterer 
infers, in recent geological times no large sea has occupied the central 
part of the Gobi. Beyond an occasional visit from a band of nomad 
Mongols, this region of the Pe-shan swelling is entirely uninhabited. 2 
And yet it was from this very region, avers G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, 
that the Yue-chi, a nomad race akin to the Tibetans, proceeded 
when, towards the middle of the 2nd century B.C., they moved 
westwards and settled near Lake Issyk-kul ; and from here proceeded 
also the Shanshani, or people who some two thousand years ago 
founded the state of Shanshan or Lou-Ian, ruins of the chief town of 
which Sven Hedin discovered in the desert of Lop in 1901. Here, 
says the Russian explorer, the Huns gathered strength, as also did 
the Tukiu (Turks) in the 6th century, and the Uighur tribes and the 
rulers of the Tangut kingdom. But after Jenghiz Khan in the I2th 
century drew away the peoples of this region, and no others came 
to take their place, the country went put of cultivation and eventu- 
ally became the barren desert it now is. 8 

Ala-shan. This division of the great desert, known also as the 
Hsi-tau and the Little Gobi, fills the space between the great N. 
loop of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river on the E., the Edzin-gol on 
the W.,and the Nan-shan Mountains on theS.W., where it is separated 
from the Chinese province of Kan-suh by the narrow ro,cky chain 
of Lung-shan (Ala-shan), 10,500 to 11,600 ft. in altitude. It belongs 
to the middle basin of the three great depressions into which Potanin 
divides the Gobi as a whole. " Topographically," says Przhevalsky, 
" it is a perfectly level plain, which in all probability once formed the 
bed of a huge lake or inland sea." The data upon which he bases this 
conclusion are the level area of the region as a whole, the hard saline 
clay and the sand-strewn surface, and lastly the salt lakes which 
occupy its lowest parts. For hundreds of miles there is nothing to be 
seen but bare sands; in some places they continue so far without 
a break that the Mongols call them Tyngheri (i.e. sky). These vast 
expanses are absolutely waterless, nor do any oases relieve the un- 
broken stretches of yellow sand which alternate with equally vast 
areas of saline clay or, nearer the foot of the mountains, with barren 
shingle. Although on the whole a level country with a general 
altitude of 3300 to 5000 ft., this section, like most other parts of the 
Gobi, is crowned by a chequered network of hills and broken ranges 
going up 1000 ft. higher. The vegetation is confined to a few 
varieties of bushes and a dozen kinds of grasses, the most conspicuous 
being saxaul and Agriophyllum gobicum* (a grass). The others 
include prickly convolvulus, field wormwood, acacia, Inula ammo- 
phila, Sophora flavescens, Convolvulus Ammani, Peganum and 
Astragalus, but all dwarfed, deformed and starved. The fauna 
consists of little else except antelopes, the wolf, fox, hare, hedge- 
hog, marten, numerous lizards and a few birds, e.g. the sand- 
grouse, lark, stonechat, sparrow, crane, Podoces Hendersoni, Otocorys 
albigula and Galerita crislata." The only human inhabitants of 
Ala-shan are the Torgod Mongols. 

Ordos. East of the desert of Ala-shan, and only separated from 
it by the Hwang-ho, is the desert of Ordos or Ho-tau, " a level 
steppe, partly bordered by low hills. The soil is altogether sandy 
or a mixture of clay and sand, ill adapted for agriculture. The 
absolute height of this country is between 3000 and 3500 ft., so that 
Ordos forms an intermediate step in the descent to China from the 
Gobi, separated from the latter by the mountain ranges lying on 
the N. and E. of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river."* Towards the 
south Ordos rises to an altitude of over 5000 ft., and in the W., along 
the right bank of the Hwang-ho, the Arbus or Arbiso Mountains, 
which overtop the steppe by some 3000 ft., serve to link the Ala-shan 
Mountains with the In-shan. The northern part of the great loop 
of the river is filled with the sands of Kuzupchi, a succession of dunes, 
40 to 50 ft. high. Amongst them in scattered patches grow the shrub 
Hedysarum and the trees Calligonium Tragopyrum and Pugionium 
cornutum. In some places these sand-dunes approach close to the 
great river, in others they are parted from it by a belt of sand, 
intermingled with clay, which terminates in a steep escarpment, 
50 ft. and in some localities loo ft. above the river. This belt is 
studded with little mounds (7 to 10 ft. high), mostly overgrown with 
wormwood (Artemisia campestris) and the Siberian pea-tree (Cara- 
gana) ; and here too grows one of the most characteristic plants 
of Ordos, the liquorice root (Glycyrrhiza uralensis). Eventually 



* Futterer, Durch Asien, i. pp. 206-211. 

' G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, Opisanie Pttleshestviya v Sapadniy 
Kitai, ii. p. 127. 

4 Its seeds are pounded by the Mongols to flour and mixed with 
their tea. 

5 Przhevalsky, Mongolia(Eng. trans, ed. by Sir H. Yule). 

* Przhevalsky, op. cit. p. 183. 



i68 



GOBI 



the sand-dunes cross over to the left bank of the Hwang-ho, and 
are threaded by the beds of dry watercourses, while the level spaces 
amongst them are studded with little mounds (3 to 6 ft. high), 
on which grow stunted Nitraria Scoberi and Zygophyllum. Ordos, 
which was anciently known as Ho-nan (" the country south of the 
river ") and still farther back in time as Ho-tau, was occupied by the 
Hiong-nu in the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D., but was almost de- 
populated during and after the Dungan revolt of 1869. North of the 
big loop of the Hwang-ho Ordos is separated from the central Gobi 
by a succession of mountain chains, the Kara-naryn-ula, the Sheiten- 
ula, and the In-shan Mountains, which link on to the south end of the 
Great Khingan Mountains. The In-shan Mountains, which stretch 
from 108 to 1 12 E., have a wild Alpine character and are dis- 
tinguished from other mountains in the S.E. of Mongolia by an 
abundance of both water and vegetation. In one of their constituent 
ranges, the bold Munni-ula, 70 m. long and nearly 20 m. wide, they 
attain elevations of 7500 to 8500 ft., and have steep flanks, slashed 
with rugged gorges and narrow glens. Forests begin on them at 
5300 ft. and wild flowers grow in great profusion and variety in 
summer, though with a striking lack of brilliancy in colouring. 
In this same border range there is also a much greater abundance 
and variety of animal life, especially amongst the avifauna. 

Eastern Gobi. Here the surface is extremely diversified, although 
there are no great differences in vertical elevation. Between Urga 
(48N. and io7E.) and the little lake of Iren-dubasu-nor (i 1 1 "50' E. 
and 43 45' N.) the surface is greatly eroded, and consists of broad 
flat depressions and basins separated by groups of flat-topped 
mountains of relatively low elevation (500 to 600 ft.), through 
which archaic rocks crop out as crags and isolated rugged masses. 
The floors of the depressions lie mostly between 2900 and 3200 ft. 
above sea-level. Farther south, between Iren-dubasu-nor and the 
Hwang-ho comes a region of broad tablelands alternating with 
flat plains, the latter ranging at altitudes of 3300 to 3600 ft. and 
the former at 3500 to 4000 ft. The slopes of the plateaus are more 
or less steep, and are sometimes penetrated by " bays " of the low- 
lands. As the border-range of the Khingan is approached the 
country steadily rises up to 4500 ft. and then to 5350 ft. Here 
small lakes frequently fill the depressions, though the water in them 
is generally salt or brackish. And both here, and for 200 m. south 
of Urga, streams are frequent, and grassgrowsmoreorlessabundantly. 
There is, however, through all the central parts, until the bordering 
mountains are reached, an utter absence of trees and shrubs. Clay 
and sand are the predominant formations, the watercourses, especi- 
ally in the north, being frequently excavated 6 to 8 ft. deep, and in 
many places in the flat, dry valleys or depressions farther south 
beds of loess, 15 to 20 ft. thick, are exposed. West of the route 
from Urga to Kalgan the country presents approximately the same 
general features, except that the mountains are not so irregularly 
scattered in groups but have more strongly defined strikes, mostly 
E. to W., W.N.W. to E.S.E., and W.S.W. to E.N.E. The altitudes 
too are higher, those of the lowlands ranging from 3300 to 5600 ft., 
and those of the ranges from 650 to 1650 ft. higher, though in a few 
cases they reach altitudes of 8000 ft. above sea-level. The elevations 
do not, however, as a rule form continuous chains, but make up a 
congeries of short ridges and groups rising from a common base and 
intersected by a labyrinth of ravines, gullies, glens and basins. 
But the tablelands, built up of the horizontal red deposits of the 
Han-hai (Obruchev's Gobi formation) which are characteristic of 
the southern parts of eastern Mongolia, are absent here or occur 
only in one locality, near the Shara-muren river, and are then greatly 
intersected by gullies or dry watercourses. 1 Here there is, however, 
a great dearth of water, no streams, no lakes, no wells, and precipita- 
tion falls but seldom. The prevailing winds blow from the W. and 
N.W. and the pall of dust overhangs the country as in the Takla- 
makan and the desert of Lop. Characteristic of the flora are wild 
garlic, Kalidium gracile, wormwood, saxaul, Nitraria Scoberi, 
Caragana, Eptie.dra, saltwort and dirisun (Lasiagrostis splendens). 

This great dtsert country of Gobi is crossed by several trade routes, 
some of which have been in use for thousands of years. Among the 
most important are those from Kalgan on the frontier of China to 
Urga (600 m.), from Su-chow (in Kan-suh) to Hami (420 m.) from 
Hami to Peking (1300 m.), from Kwei-hwa-cheng (or Kuku-khoto) 
to Hami and Barkul, and from Lanchow (in Kan-suh) to Hami. 

Climate The climate of the Gobi is one of great extremes, com- 
bined with rapid changes of temperature, not only at all seasons of 
the year but even within 24 hours (as much as 58F.). For instance, 
at Urga (3770 ft.) the annual mean is 27>5F., the January mean 
-15-7 , and the July mean 63-5, the extremes being 100-5 ar >d 
-44-5; while at Sivantse (3905 ft.) the annual mean is 37, the 
January mean 2-3, and the July mean 66-3, the range being from 
a recorded maximum of 93 to a recorded minimum 01-53. Even 
in southern Mongolia the thermometer goes down as low as 27, 
and in Ala-shanit rises day after day in July as high 3399. Although 
the south-east monsoons reach the S.E. parts of the Gobi, the air 
generally throughout this region is characterized by extreme dryness, 
especially during the winter. Hence the icy sandstorms and snow- 
storms of spring and early summer. The rainfall at Urga for the year 
amounts to only 9-7 in. 

1 Obruchev, in Izvestia of Russ. Geogr. Soc. (1895). 



Sands of the Gobi Deserts. With regard to the origin of the masses 
of sand out of which the dunes and chains of dunes (barkhans) are 
built up in the several deserts of the Gobi, opinions differ. While 
some explorers consider them to be the product of marine, or at any 
rate lacustrine, denudation (the Central Asian Mediterranean), 
others and this is not only the more reasonable view, but it is the 
view which is gaining most ground consider that they are the pro- 
ducts of the aerial denudation of the border ranges (e.g. Nan-shan, 
Karlyk-tagh, &c.), and more especially of the terribly wasted ranges 
and chains of hills, which, like the gaunt fragments of montane 
skeletal remains, lie littered all over the swelling uplands and 
tablelands of the Gobi, and that they have been transported by the 
prevailing winds to the localities in which they are now accumulated, 
the winds obeying similar transportation laws to the rivers and 
streams which carry down sediment in moister parts of the world. 
Potanin points out 2 that " there is a certain amount of regularity 
observable in the distribution of the sandy deserts over the vast 
uplands of central Asia. Two agencies are represented in the dis- 
tribution of the sands, though what they really are is not quite clear; 
and of these two agencies one prevails in the north-west, the other 
in the south-east, so that the whole of Central Asia may be divided 
into two regions, the dividing line between them being drawn from 
north-east to south-west, from Urga via the eastern end of the 
Tian-shan to the city of Kashgar. North-west of this line the sandy 
masses are broken up into detached and disconnected areas, and are 
almost without exception heaped up around the lakes, and con- 
sequently in the lowest parts of the several districts in which they 
exist. Moreover, we find also that these sandy tracts always occur 
on the western or south-western shores of the lakes; this is the case 
with the lakes of Balkash, Ala-kul, Ebi-nor, Ayar-nor (or Telli-nor), 
Orku-nor, Zaisan-nor, Ulungur-nor, Ubsa-nor, Durga-nor and 
Kara-nor lying E. of Kirghiz-nor. South-east of the line the arrange- 
ment of the sand is quite different. In that part of Asia we have 
three gigantic but disconnected basins. The first, lying farthest east, 
is embraced on the one side by the ramifications of the Kentei and 
Khangai Mountains and on the other by the In-shan Mountains. 
The seco.id or middle division is contained between the Altai of the 
Gobi and the Ala-shan. The third basin, in the west, lies between 
the Tian-shan and the border ranges of western Tibet. . . . The 
deepest parts of each of these three depressions occur near their 
northern borders; towards their southern boundaries they are all 
alike very much higher. . . . However, the sandy deserts are not 
found in the low-lying tracts but occur on the higher uplands which 
foot the southern mountain ranges, the In-shan and the Nan-shan. 
Our maps show an immense expanse of sand south of the Tarim 
in the western basin; beginning in the neighbourhood of the city 
of Yarkent (Yarkand), it extends eastwards past the towns of Khotan, 
Keriya and Cherchen to Sa-chow. Along this stretch there is only 
one locality which forms an exception to the rule we have indicated, 
namely, the region round the lake of Lop-nor. In the middle basin the 
widest expanse of sand occurs between the Edzin-gol and the range 
of Ala-shan. On the south it extends nearly as far as a line drawn 
through the towns of Lian-chow, Kan-chow and Kao-tai at the foot 
of the Nan-shan; but on the south it does not approach anything 
like so far as the latitude (42 N.) of the lake of Ghashiun-nor. Still 
farther east come the sandy deserts of Ordos, extending south- 
eastward as far as the mountain range which separates Ordos 
from the (Chinese) provinces of Shan-si and Shen-si. In th&eastern 
basin drift-sand is encountered between the district of tide in the 
north (44 30' N.) and the foot of the In-shan in the south." In 
two regions, if not in three, the sands have overwhelmed large 
tracts of once cultivated country, and even buried the cities in 
which men formerly dwelt. These regions are the southern parts 
of the desert of Takla-makan (where Sven Hedin and M. A. Stein 5 
have discovered the ruins under the desert sands), along the N. 
foot of the Nan-shan, and probably in part (other agencies having 
helped) in the north of the desert of Lop, where Sven Hedin 
discovered the ruins of Lou-Ian and of other towns or villages. 
For these vast accumulations of sand are constantly in movement ; 
though the movement is slow, it has nevertheless been calcu- 
lated that in the south of the Takla-makan the sand-dunes travel 
bodily at the rate of roughly something like 160 ft. in the course of a 
year. The shape and arrangement of the individual sand-dunes, 
and of the barkhans, generally indicate from which direction the 
predominant winds blow. On the windward side of the dune the 
slope is long and gentle, while the leeward side is steep and in outline 
concave like a horse-shoe. The dunes vary in height from 30 up to 
300 ft., and in some places mount as it were upon one another's 
shoulders, and in some localities it is even said that a third tier is 
sometimes superimposed. 

AUTHORITIES. See N. M. Przhevalsky, Mongolia, the Tangut 
Country, &c. (Eng. trans., ed. by Sir H. Yule, London, 1876)', and 
From Kulja across the Tian Shan to Lob Nor (Eng. trans, by Delmar 
Morgan, London, 1879); G. N. Potanin, Tangutsko-Tibetskaya 
Okraina Kitaya i Centralnaya Mongoliya, 1884-1886 (1893, &c.); 
M. V. Pjevtsov, Sketch of a Journey to Mongolia (in Russian, Omsk, 

2 In Tangutsko-Tibetskaya Okraina Kitaya i Centralnaya Mon- 
goliya, i. pp. 96, &c. 

3 See Sand-buried Cities of Khotan (London, 1902). 




GOBLET GODALMING 



169 



1883); G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, Opisanie Puteshestviya v Sapadniy 
Kitai (1898-1899); V. A. Obruchev, Centralnaya Asiya, Severniy 
Kitai i Nan-schan, 1802-1894 (1900-1901); V. I. Roborovsky and 
P. K. Kozlov, Trudy Ekspeditsiy Imp. Russ. Geog. Obshchestva Po 
Centralnoy Asiy, 1803-1895 (1900, &c.); Roborovsky, Trudy 
Tibetskoi Ekspeditsiy, 1889-1890; Sven Hedin, Scientific Results 
of a Journey in Central Asia, 1809-1902 (6 vols., 1905-1907) ; 
Futterer, Dvrch Asien (1901, &c.); K. Bogdanovich, Geologicheskiya 
Isledovaniya v Vostochnom Turkestane and Trudiy Tibetskoy Ekspe- 
ditsiy, 1809-1890; L. von Loczy, Die wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse 
der Reise des Grafen Szechenyi vn Ostasien, 1877-1880 (1883); Ney 
Elias, in Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc. (1873) ; C. W. Campbell's " Journeys 
in Mongolia," in Geographical Journal (Nov. 1903) ; Pozdnievym, 
Mongolia, and the Mongols (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1897 &c.) ; 
Deniker's summary of Kozlov's latest journeys in La Geographic 
(1901, &c.) ; F. von Richthofen, China (1877). (J. T. BE.) 

GOBLET, REN (1828-1905), French politician, was born at 
Aire-sur-la-Lys, in the Pas de Calais, on the 26th of November 
1828, and was educated for the law. Under the Second Empire, 
he helped to found a Liberal journal, Le Progr'es de la Somme, 
and in July 1871 was sent by the department of the Somme to 
the National Assembly, where he took his place on the extreme 
left. He failed to secure election in 1876, but next year was 
returned for Amiens. He held a minor government office in 
1879, and in 1882 became minister of the interior in the Freycinet 
cabinet. He was minister of education, fine arts and religion in 
Henri Brisson's first cabinet in 1885, and again under Freycinet 
in 1886, when he greatly increased his reputation by an able 
defence of the government's education proposals. Meanwhile 
his extreme independence and excessive candour had alienated 
him from many of his party, and all through his life he was 
frequently in conflict with his political associates, from Gambetta 
downwards. On the fall of the Freycinet cabinet in December 
he formed a cabinet in which he reserved for himself the portfolios 
of the interior and of religion. The Goblet cabinet was unpopular 
from the outset, and it was with difficulty that anybody could 
be found to accept the ministry of foreign affairs, which was 
finally given to M. Flourens. Then came what is known as the 
Schnaebele incident, the arrest on the German frontier of a 
French official named Schnaebele, which caused immense excite- 
ment in France. For some days Goblet took no definite decision, 
but left Flourens, who stood for peace, to fight it out with 
General Boulanger, then minister of war, who was for the 
despatch of an ultimatum. Although he finally intervened on 
the side of Flourens, and peace was preserved, his weakness in 
face of the Boulangist propaganda became a national danger. 
Defeated on the budget in May 1887, his government resigned; 
but he returned to office next year as foreign minister in the 
radical administration of Charles Floquet. He was defeated at 
the polls by a Boulangist candidate in 1889, and sat in the senate 
from 1891 to 1893, when he returned to the popular chamber. 
In association with MM. E. Lockroy, Ferdinand Sarrien and 
P. L. Peytral he drew up a republican programme which they 
put forward in the Petite Republique fran$aise. At the elections 
of 1898 he was defeated, and thenceforward took little part in 
public affairs. He died in Paris on the I3th of September 
1905- 

GOBLET, a large type of drinking-vessel, particularly one 
shaped like a cup, without handles, and mounted on a shank 
with a foot. The word is derived from the O. Fr. gobelel, diminu- 
tive of gobel, gobeau, which Skeat takes to be formed from Low 
Lat. cupellus, cup, diminutive of cupa, tub, cask (see DRINKING- 
VESSELS). 

GOBY. The gobies (Gobius) are small fishes readily recognized 
by their ventrals (the fins on the lower surface of the chest) being 
united into one fin, forming a suctorial disk, by which these fishes 
are enabled to attach themselves in every possible position to a 
rock or other firm substances. They are essentially coast-fishes, 
inhabiting nearly all seas, but disappearing towards the Arctic 
and Antarctic Oceans. Many enter, or live exclusively in, such 
fresh waters as are at no great distance from the sea. Nearly 500 
different kinds are known. The largest British species, Gobius 
capita, occurring in the rock-pools of Cornwall, measures 10 
in. Gobius alcocki, from brackish and fresh waters of Lower 
Bengal, is one of the very smallest of fishes, not measuring over 



1 6 millimetres ( = 7 lines). The males are usually more brilliantly 
coloured than the females, and guard the eggs, which are often 
placed in a sort of nest made of the shell of some bivalve or of the 
carapace of a crab, with the convexity turned upwards and 





FIG. i. Gobius lentiginosus. FIG. 2. United 

Ventrals of Goby. 

covered with sand, the eggs being stuck to the inner surface of 
this roof. 

Close allies of the gobies are the walking fish or jumping fish 
(Periophthalmus), of which various species are found in great 




FIG. 3. Periophthalmus koelreuteri. 

numbers on the mud flats at the mouths of rivers in the tropics, 
skipping about by means of the muscular, scaly base of their 
pectoral fins, with the head raised and bearing a pair of strongly 
projecting versatile eyes close together. 

GOCH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on 
the Niers, 8 m. S. of Cleves at the junction of the railways Cologne- 
Zevenaar and Boxtel-Wesel. Pop. (1905) 10,232. It has a 
Protestant and a Roman Catholic church and manufactures of 
brushes, plush goods, cigars and margarine. In the middle ages 
it was the seat of a large trade in linen. Goch became a town in 
1231 and belonged to the dukes of Gelderland and later to the 
dukes of Cleves. 

GOD, the common Teutonic word for a personal object pf 
religious worship. It is thus, like the Gr. 6tos and Lat. dens, 
applied to all those superhuman beings of the heathen mythologies 
who exercise power over nature and man and are often identified 
with some particular sphere of activity; and also to the visible 
material objects, whether an image of the supernatural being or a 
tree, pillar, &c. used as a symbol, an idol. The word " god," on 
the conversion of the Teutonic races to Christianity, was 
adopted as the name of the one Supreme Being, the Creator of the 
universe, and of the Persons of the Trinity. The New English 
Dictionary points out that whereas the old Teutonic type of the 
word is neuter, corresponding to the Latin numen, in the Christian 
applications it becomes masculine, and that even where the 
earlier neuter form is still kept, as in Gothic and Old Norwegian, 
the construction is masculine. Popular etymology has connected 
the word with " good "; this is exemplified by the corruption of 
" God be with you " into " good-bye." " God " is a word 
common to all Teutonic languages. In Gothic it is Gulh; Dutch 
has the same form as English; Danish and Swedish have Gud, 
German Gott. According to the New English Dictionary, the 
original may be found in two Aryan roots, both of the form gheu, 
one of which means " to invoke," the other " to pour " (cf. Gr. 
X&w) ; the last is used of sacrificial offerings. The word would 
thus mean the object either of religious invocation or of religious 
worship by sacrifice. It has been also suggested that the word 
might mean a " molten image " from the sense of " pour." 

See RELIGION; HEBREW RELIGION; THEISM, &c. 

GODALMING, a market-town and municipal borough in the 
Guildford parliamentary division of Surrey, England, 34 m. S.W. 
of London by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 
8748. It is beautifully situated on the right bank of the Wey, 



170 

which is navigable thence to the Thames, and on the high road 
between London and Portsmouth. Steep hills, finely wooded, 
enclose the valley. The chief public buildings are the church of 
SS. Peter and Paul, a cruciform building of mixed architecture, 
but principally Early English and Perpendicular; the town-hall, 
Victoria hall, and market-house, and a technical institute and 
school of science and art. Charterhouse School, one of the 
principal English public schools, originally founded in 1611, was 
transferred from Charterhouse Square, London, to Godalming in 
1872. It stands within grounds 92 acres in extent, half a mile 
north of Godalming, and consists of spacious buildings in Gothic 
style, with a chapel, library and hall, besides boarding-houses, 
masters' houses and sanatoria. (See CHARTERHOUSE.) Godalming 
has manufactures of paper, leather, parchment and hosiery, and 
some trade in corn, malt, bark, hoops and timber; and the 
Bargate stone, of which the parish church is built, is still quarried. 
The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. 
Area, 812 acres. 

Godalming (Godelminge) belonged to King Alfred, and was a 
royal manor at the time of Domesday. The manor belonged to 
the see of Salisbury in the middle ages, but reverted to the crown 
in the time of Henry VIII. Godalming was incorporated by 
Elizabeth in 1574, when the borough originated. The charter 
was confirmed by James 1. in 1620, and a fresh charter was 
granted by Charles II. in 1666. The borough was never repre- 
sented in parliament. The bishopof Salisbury in 1300 received the 
grant of a weekly market to be held on Mondays: the day was 
altered to Wednesday by Elizabeth's charter. The bishop's 
grant included a fair at the feast of St Peter and St Paul (29th of 
June). Another fair at Candlemas (2nd of February) was granted 
by Elizabeth. The market is still held. The making of cloth, 
particularly Hampshire kerseys, was the staple industry of 
Godalming in the middle ages, but it began to decay early in the 
1 7th century and by 1850 was practically extinct. As in other 
cases, dyeing was subsidiary to the cloth industry. Tanning, 
introduced in the isth century, survives. The present manu- 
facture of fleecy hosiery dates from the end of the i8th century. 

GODARD, BENJAMIN LOUIS PAUL (1849-1895), French 
composer, was born in Paris, on the i8th of August 1849. He 
studied at the Conservatoire, and competed for the Prix de 
Rome without success in 1866 and 1867. He began by publishing 
a number of songs, many of which are charming, such as " Je 
ne veux pas d'autres choses," " Ninon," " Chanson de Florian," 
also a quantity of piano pieces, some chamber music, including 
several violin sonatas, a trio for piano and strings, a quartet for 
strings, a violin concerto and a second work of the same kind 
entitled " Concerto Romantique." Godard's chance arrived in 
the year 1878, when with his dramatic cantata, Le Tasse, he shared 
with M. Theodore Dubois the honour of winning the musical 
competition instituted by the city of Paris. From that time 
until his death Godard composed a surprisingly large number of 
works, including four operas, Pedro de Zalamea, produced at 
Antwerp in 1884; Jocelyn, given in Paris at the Theatre du 
Chateau d'Eau, in 1888; Dante, played at the Opera Comique 
two years later; and La Vivandiere, left unfinished and partly 
scored by another hand. This last work was heard at the Opera 
Comique in 1895, and has been played in England by the Carl 
Rosa Opera Company. His other works include the " Symphonic 
legendaire," " Symphonic gothique," " Diane " and various 
orchestral works. Godard's productivity was enormous, and his 
compositions are, for this reason only, decidedly unequal. He 
was at his best in works of smaller dimensions, and has left many 
exquisite songs. Among his more ambitious works the " Sym- 
phonic legendaire " may be singled out as being one of the most 
distinctive. He had a decided individuality, and his premature 
death at Cannes on the xoth of January 1895 was a loss to 
French art. 

GODAVARI, a river of central and western India. It flows 
across the Deccan from the Western to the Eastern Ghats; its 
total length is 900 m.; the estimated area of its drainage basin, 
112,200 sq. m. Its traditional source is on the side of a hill 
behind the village of Trimbak in Nasik district, Bombay, where 



GODARD GODAVARI 



the water runs into a reservoir from the lips of an image. But 
according to popular legend it proceeds from the same ultimate 
source as the Ganges, though underground. Its course is gener- 
ally south-easterly. After passing through Nasik district, it 
crosses into the dominions of the nizam of Hyderabad. When 
it again strikes British territory it is joined by the Pranhita, 
with its tributaries the Wardha, the Penganga and Wainganga. 
For some distance it flows between the nizam's dominions and 
the Upper Godavari district, and receives the Indravati, the Tal 
and the Sabari. The stream has here a channel varying from 
i to 2 m. in breadth, occasionally broken by alluvial islands. 
Parallel to the river stretch long ranges of hills. Below the 
junction of the Sabari the channel begins to contract. The 
flanking hills gradually close in on both sides, and the result is 
a magnificent gorge only 200 yds. wide through which the water 
flows into the plain of the delta, about 60 m. from the sea. The 
head of the delta is at the village of Dowlaishweram, where the 
main stream is crossed by the irrigation anicut. The river has 
seven mouths, the largest being the Gautami Godavari. The 
Godavari is regarded as peculiarly sacred, and once every twelve 
years the great bathing festival called Pushkaram is held on its 
banks at Rajahmundry. 

The upper waters of the Godavari are scarcely utilized for 
irrigation, but the entire delta has been turned into a garden of 
perennial crops by means of the anicut at Dowlaishweram, 
constructed by Sir Arthur Cotton, from which three main canals 
are drawn off. The river channel here is 3! m. wide. The anicut 
is a substantial mass of stone, bedded in lime cement, about 
2j m. long, 130 ft. broad at the base, and 12 ft. high. The 
stream is thus pent back so as to supply a volume of 3000 cubic ft. 
of water per second during its low season, and 1 2,000 cubic ft. 
at time of flood. The main canals have a total length of 493 m., 
irrigating 662,000 acres, and all navigable; and there are 1929 m. 
of distributary channels. In 1864 water-communication was 
opened between the deltas of the Godavari and Kistna. Rocky 
barriers and rapids obstruct navigation in the upper portion of 
the Godavari. Attempts have been made to construct canals 
round these barriers with little success, and the undertaking has 
been abandoned. 

GODAVARI, a district of British India, in the north-east 
of the Madras presidency. It was remodelled in 1907-1908, 
when part of it was transferred to Kistna district. Its present 
area is 5634 sq. m. Its territory now lies mainly east of 
the Godavari river, including the entire delta, with a long 
narrow strip extending up its valley. The apex of the delta 
is at Dowlaishweram, where a great dam renders the waters 
available for irrigation. Between this point and the coast 
there is a vast extent of rice fields. Farther inland, and 
enclosing the valley of the great river, are low hills, steep and 
forest-clad. The north-eastern part, known as the Agency 
tract, is occupied by spurs of the Eastern Ghats. The coast is 
low, sandy and swampy, the sea very shallow, so that vessels 
must lie nearly 5 m. from Cocanada, the chief port. The Sabari 
is the principal tributary of the Godavari within the district. 
The Godavari often rises in destructive floods. The population 
of the present area in 1901 was 1,445,961. In the old district 
the increase during the last decade was 1 1 %. The chief towns 
are Cocanada and Rajahmundry. The forests are of great value; 
coal is known, and graphite is worked. The population is 
principally occupied in agriculture, the principal crops being 
rice, oil-seeds, tobacco and sugar. The cigars known in England 
as Lunkas are partly made from tobacco grown on lankas or 
islands in the river Godavari. Sugar (from the juice of the 
palmyra palm) and rum are made by European processes at 
Samalkot. The administrative headquarters are now at Coca- 
nada, the chief seaport; but Rajahmundry, at the head of the 
delta, is the old capital. A large but decreasing trade is conducted 
at Cocanada, rice being shipped to Mauritius and Ceylon, and 
cotton and oil-seeds to Europe. Rice-cleaning mills have been 
established here and at other places. The district is traversed 
by the main line of the East Coast railway, with a branch to 
Cocanada; the iron girder bridge of forty-two spans over the 



GODEFROY GODET 






Godavari river near Rajahmundry was opened in 1900. There 
is a government college at Rajahmundry, with a training college 
attached, and an aided college at Cocanada. 

The Godavari district formed part of the Andhra division of 
Dravida, the north-west portion being subject to the Orissa 
kings, and the south-western belonging to the Vengi kingdom. 
For centuries it was the battlefield on which various chiefs 
fought for independence with varying success till the beginning 
of the i6th century, when the whole country may be said to have 
passed under Mahommedan power. At the conclusion of the 
struggle with the French in the Carnatic, Godavari with the 
Northern Circars was conquered by the English, and finally 
ceded by imperial sanad in 1765. The district was constituted 
in 1859, by the redistribution of the territory comprising the 
former districts of Guntur, Rajahmundry and Masulipatam, 
into what are now the Kistna and Godavari districts. 

See H. Morris, District Manual (1878) ; District Gazetteer (1906). 

GODEFROY (GOTHOFREDUS), a French noble family, which 
numbered among its members several distinguished jurists and 
historians. The family claimed descent from Symon Godefroy, 
who was born at Mons about 1320 and was lord of Sapigneulx 
near Berry-au-bac, now in the department of Aisne. 

DENIS GODEFROY (Dionysius Gothofredus) (1549-1622), 
jurist, son of Leon Godefroy, lord of Guignecourt, was born in 
Paris on the lyth of October 1549. He was educated at the 
College de Navarre, and studied law at Louvain, Cologne and 
Heidelberg, returning to Paris in 1573. He embraced the 
reformed religion, and in 1579 left Paris, where his abilities and 
connexions promised a brilliant career, to establish himself at 
Geneva. He became professor of law there, received the freedom 
of the city in 1580, and in 1587 became a member of the Council 
of the Two Hundred. Henry IV. induced him to return to France 
by making him grand bailli of Gex,but no sooner had he installed 
himself than the town was sacked and his library burnt by the 
troops of the duke of Savoy. In 1591 he became professor of 
Roman law at Strassburg, where he remained until April 1600, 
when in response to an invitation from Frederick IV., elector 
palatine, he removed to Heidelberg. The difficulties of his 
position led to his return to Strassburg for a short time, but in 
November 1604 he definitely settled at Heidelberg. He was 
made head of the faculty of law in the university, and was from 
time to time employed on missions to the French court. His 
repeated refusal of offers of advancement in his own country 
was due to his Calvinism. He died at Strassburg on the 7th of 
September 1622, having left Heidelberg before the city was 
sacked by the imperial troops in 1621. His most important work 
was the "Corpus juris civilis, originally published at Geneva in 
1583, which went through some twenty editions, the most 
valuable of them being that printed by the Elzevirs at Amster- 
dam in 1633 and the Leipzig edition of 1740. 

Lists of his other learned works may be found in Senebier's Hist, 
lilt, de Geneve, vol. ii., and in NiceVon's Memoires, vol. xvii. Some of 
his correspondence with his learned friends, with his kinsman 
President de Thou, Isaac Casaubon, Jean Jacques Grynaeus and 
others, is preserved in the libraries of the British Museum, of Basel 
and Paris. 

His eldest son, THEODORE GODEFROY (1580-1649), was born 
at Geneva on the uth of July 1580. He abjured Calvinism, 
and was called to the bar in Paris. He became historiographer 
of France in 1613, and was employed from time to time on 
diplomatic missions. He was employed at the congress of 
Miinster, where he remained after the signing of peace in 1648 
as charg6 d'affaires until his death on the sth of October of the 
next year. His most important work is Le Ceremonial de France 
. . . (1619), a work which became a classic on the subject of 
royal ceremonial, and was re-edited by his son in an enlarged 
edition in 1649. 

Besides his printed works he made vast collections of historical 
material which remains in MS. and fills the greater part of the 
Godefroy collection of over five hundred portfolios in the Library 
of the Institute in Paris. These were catalogued by Ludovic 
Lalanne in the Annuaire Bulletin (1865-1866 and 1892) of the 
SocMe de I'histoire de France. 



The second son of Denis, JACQUES GODEFROY (1587-1652), 
jurist, was born at Geneva on the I3th of September 1587. He 
was sent to France in 1611, and studied law and history at 
Bourges and Paris. He remained faithful to the Calvinist 
persuasion, and soon returned to Geneva, where he became active 
in public affairs. He was secretary of state from 1632 to 1636, 
and syndic or chief magistrate in 1637, 1641, 1645 and 1649. 
He died on the 23rd of June 1652. In addition to his civic and 
political work he lectured on law, and produced, after thirty 
years of labour, his edition of the Codex Theodosianus. This 
code formed the principal, though not the only, source of the 
legal systems of the countries formed from the Western Empire. 
Godefroy's edition was enriched with a multitude of important 
notes and historical comments, and became a standard authority 
on the decadent period of the Western Empire. It was only 
printed thirteen years after his death under the care of his 
friend Antoine Marville at Lyons(4vols. 1665), and was reprinted 
at Leipzig (6 vols.) in 1736-1745. Of his numerous other works 
the most important was the reconstruction of the twelve tables 
of early Roman law. 

See also the dictionary of Moreri, Nic6ron's M6moires (vol. 17) 
and a notice in the Bibliothkqut universelle de Geneve (Dec. 1837). 

DENIS GODEFROY (1615-1681), eldest son of Th6odore, 
succeeded his father as historiographer of France, and re-edited 
various chronicles which had been published by him. He was 
entrusted by Colbert with the care and investigation of the 
records concerning the Low Countries preserved at Lille, where 
great part of his life was spent. He was also the historian of 
the reigns of Charles VII. and Charles VIII. 

Other members of the family who attained distinction in the 
same branch of learning were the two sons of Denis Godefroi 
Denis (1653-1719), also an historian, and Jean, sieur d'Aumont 
(1656-1732), who edited the letters of Louis XII., the memoirs 
of Marguerite de Valois, of Castelnau and Pierre de 1'Estoile, 
and left some useful material for the history of the Low Countries; 
Jean Baptiste Achille Godefroy, sieur de Maillart (1697-1759), 
and Denis Joseph Godefroy, sieur de Maillart (1740-1819), son 
and grandson of Jean Godefroy, who were both officials at 
Lille, and left valuable historical documents which have remained 
in MS. 

For further details see Les Savants Godefroy (Paris, 1873) by the 
marquis de Godefroy-M6nilglaise, son of Denis Joseph Godefroy. 

GODESBERG, a spa of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, 
on the left bank of the Rhine, almost opposite Konigswinter, 
and 4 m. S. of Bonn, on the railway to Coblenz. It is a fashion- 
able summer resort, and contains numerous pretty villas, the 
residences of merchants from Cologne, Elberfeld, Crefeld and 
other Rhenish manufacturing centres. It has an Evangelical 
and three Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue and several 
educational establishments. Its chalybeate springs annually 
attract a large number of visitors, and the pump-room, baths 
and public grounds are arranged on a sumptuous scale. On a 
conical basalt hill, close by, are the ruins, surmounted by a 
picturesque round tower, of Godesberg castle. Built by Arch- 
bishop Dietrich I. of Cologne in the I3th century, it was destroyed 
by the Bavarians in 1583. 

See Dennert, Godesberg, eine Perle des Rheins (Godesberg, 1900). 

GODET, FREDERIC LOUIS (1812-1900), Swiss Protestant 
theologian, was born at Neuchatel on the 25th of October 1812. 
After studying theology at Neuchatel, Bonn and Berlin, he was 
in 1850 appointed professor of theology at Neuchatel. From 
1851 to 1866 he also held a pastorate. In 1873 he became one 
of the founders of the free Evangelical Church of Neuchatel, and 
professor in its theological faculty. He died there on the 29th of 
October 1900. A conservative scholar, Godet was the author 
of some of the most noteworthy French commentaries published 
in recent times. 

His commentaries are on the Gospel of St John (2 vols., 1863-1865; 
3rd ed., 1881-1888; Eng. trans. 1886, &c.); St Luke (2 vols., 1871; 
3rd ed., 1888; Eng. trans. 1875, &c.); the Epistle to the Romans (2 
vols., 1879-1880; 2nd ed., 1883-1890; Eng. trans., 1880, &c.); 
Corinthians (2 vols., 1886-1887; Eng. trans. 1886, &c.). His other 



172 GODFREY, SIR E. B. GODFREY OF BOUILLON 



works include .tudes bibliques (2 vols., 1873-1874; 4th ed., 1889 
Eng. trans. 1875 f-). and Introduction au Nouveau Testament (1893 (. 
Eng. trans., 1894, &c.); Lectures in Defence of the Christian Faith 
(Eng. trans. 4th ed., 1900). 

GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY (1621-1678), English 
magistrate and politician, younger son of Thomas Godfrey 
(1586-1664), a member of an old Kentish family, was born on 
the 23rd of December 1621. He was educated at Westminster 
school and at Christ Church, Oxford, and after entering Gray's 
Inn became a dealer in wood. His business prospered. He was 
made a justice of the peace for the city of Westminster, and in 
September 1666 was knighted as a reward for his services as 
magistrate and citizen during the great plague in London; but 
in 1669 he was imprisoned for a few days for instituting the 
arrest of the king's physician, Sir Alexander Fraizer (d. 1681), 
who owed him money. The tragic events in Godfrey's life began 
in September 1678 when Titus Gates and two other men appeared 
before him with written Information about the Popish Plot, and 
swore to the truth of their statements. During the intense 
excitement which followed the magistrate expressed a fear that 
his life was in danger, but took no extra precautions for safety. 
On the 1 2th of October he did not return home as usual, and on 
the 1 7th his body was found on Primrose Hill, Hampstead. 
Medical and other evidence made it certain that he had been 
murdered, and the excited populace regarded the deed as the 
work of the Roman Catholics. Two committees investigated 
the occurrence without definite result, but in December 1678 
a certain Miles Prance, who had been arrested for conspiracy, 
confessed that he had shared in the murder. According to 
Prance the deed was instigated by some Roman Catholic priests, 
three of whom witnessed the murder, and was committed in the 
courtyard of Somerset House, where Godfrey was strangled by 
Robert Green, Lawrence Hill and Henry Berry, the body being 
afterwards taken to Hampstead. The three men were promptly 
arrested; the evidence of the informer William Bedloe, although 
contradictory, was similar on a few points to that of Prance, and 
in February 1679 they were hanged. Soon afterwards, however, 
some doubt was cast upon this story; a war of words ensued 
between Prance and others, and it was freely asserted that 
Godfrey had committed suicide. Later the falsehood of Prance's 
confession was proved and Prance pleaded guilty to perjury; 
but the fact remains that Godfrey was murdered. Godfrey 
was an excellent magistrate, and was very charitable both in 
public and in private life. Mr John Pollock, in the Popish Plot 
(London, 1903), confirms the view that the three men, Green, 
Hill and Berry, were wrongfully executed, and thinks the 
murder was committed by some Jesuits aided by Prance. 
Godfrey was feared by the Jesuits because he knew, through 
Gates, that on the 24th of April 1678 a Jesuit congregation had 
met at the residence of the duke of York to concert plans for the 
king's murder. He concludes thus: " The success of Godfrey's 
murder as a political move is indubitable. The duke of York 
was the pivot of the Roman Catholic scheme in England, and 
Godfrey's death saved both from utter ruin." On the other hand 
Mr Alfred Marks in his Who killed Sir E. B. Godfrey? (1905) 
maintains that suicide was the cause of Godfrey's death. 

See the article GATES, TITUS, also R. Tuke, Memoirs of the Life 
and Death of Sir Edmondbury Godfrey (London, 1682); and G. 
Burnet, History of my Own Time; The Reign of Charles II., edited by 
O. Airy (Oxford, 1900). 

GODFREY OF BOUILLON (c. 1060-1100), a leader in the First 
Crusade, was the second son of Eustace II., count of Boulogne, 
by his marriage with Ida, daughter of Duke Godfrey II. of 
Lower Lorraine. He was designated by Duke Godfrey as his 
successor; but the emperor Henry IV. gave him only the mark 
of Antwerp, in which the lordship of Bouillon was included 
(1076). He fought for Henry, however, both on the Elster and 
in the siege of Rome; and he was invested in 1082 with the duchy 
of Lower Lorraine. Lorraine had been penetrated by Cluniac 
influences, and Godfrey would seem to have been a man of 
notable piety. Accordingly, though he had himself served as 
an imperialist, and though the Germans in general had little 
' sympathy with the Crusaders (subsannabant . . . quasi delirantes), 



Godfrey, nevertheless, when the call came " to follow Christ," 
almost literally sold all that he had, and foHowed. Along with 
his brothers Eustace and Baldwin (the future Baldwin I. of 
Jerusalem) he led a German contingent, some 40,000 strong, 
along'"Charlemagne's road," through Hungary to Constantinople' 
starting in August 1096, and arriving at Constantinople, after 
some difficulties in Hungary, in November. He was the first 
of the crusading princes to arrive, and on him fell the duty of 
deciding what the relations of the princes to the eastern emperor 
Alexius were to be. Eventually, after several disputes and 
some fighting, he did homage to Alexius in January 1097; and 
his example was followed by the other princes. From this time 
until the beginning of 1099 Godfrey appears as one of the 
minor princes, plodding onwards, and steadily fighting, while 
men like Bohemund and Raymund, Baldwin and Tancred were 
determining the course of events. 

In 1099 he came once more to the front. The mass of the 
crusaders became weary of the political factions which divided 
some of their leaders; and Godfrey, who was more of a pilgrim 
than a politician, becomes the natural representative of this 
feeling. He was thus able to force the reluctant Raymund to 
march southward to Jerusalem; and he took a prominent 
part in the siege, his division being the first to enter when the 
city was captured. It was natural therefore that, when Raymund 
of Provence refused the offered dignity, Godfrey should be elected 
ruler of Jerusalem (July 22, 1099). He assumed the title not of 
king, but of " advocate " 1 of the Holy Sepulchre. The new 
dignity proved still more onerous than honourable; and during 
his short reign of a year Godfrey had to combat the Arabs of 
Egypt, and the opposition of Raymund and the patriarch 
Dagobert. He was successful in repelling the Egyptian attack 
at the battle of Ascalon (August 1099); but he failed, owing to 
Raymund's obstinacy and greed, to acquire the town of Ascalon 
after the battle. Left alone, at the end of the autumn, with an 
army of some 2000 men, Godfrey was yet able, in the spring of 
1 100, probably with the aid of new pilgrims, to exact tribute 
from towns like Acre, Ascalon, Arsuf and Caesarea. But already, 
at the end of 1099 Dagobert, archbishop of Pisa, had been 
substituted as patriarch for Arnulf (who had been acting as vicar) 
by the influence of Bohemund; and Dagobert, whose vassal 
Godfrey had at once piously acknowledged himself, seems to 
have forced him to an agreement in April 1 100, by which he 
promised Jerusalem and Jaffa to the patriarch, in case he should 
acquire in their place Cairo or some other town, or should die 
without issue. Thus were the foundations of a theocracy laid 
in Jerusalem; and when Godfrey died (July uoo) he left the 
question to be decided, whether a theocracy or a monarchy 
should be the government of the Holy Land. 

Because he had been the first ruler in Jerusalem Godfrey 
was idolized in later saga. He was depicted as the leader of 
the crusades, the king of Jerusalem, the legislator who laid 
down the assizes of Jerusalem. He was none of these things. 
Bohemund was the leader of the crusades; Baldwin was first 
king; the assizes were the result of a gradual development. 
In still other ways was the figure of Godfrey idealized by the 
grateful tradition of later days; but in reality he would seem to 
have been a quiet, pious, hard-fighting knight, who was chosen 
to rule in Jerusalem because he had no dangerous qualities, 
and no obvious defects. 

LITERATURE. The narrative of Albert of Aix may be regarded 
as presenting the Lotharingian point of view, as the Gesta presents 
the Norman, and Raymund of Agiles the Provencal. The career 
of Godfrey has been discussed in modern times by R. Rohricht, 
Die Deutschen im heiligen Lande, Band ii., and Geschichte des ersten 
Kreuzzuges, passim (Innsbruck, 1901). (E. BR.) 

Romances. Godfrey was the principal hero of two French 
chansons de geste dealing with the Crusade, theChansond'Antioche 
>d. P. Paris, 2 vols., 1848) and the Chanson de Jerusalem (ed. 
C. Hippeau, 1868), and other poems, containing less historical 

1 An " advocate " was a layman who had been invested with part 
of an ecclesiastic estate, on condition that he defended the rest, and 
exercised the blood-ban in lieu of the ecclesiastical owner (see 
ADVOCATE, sec. Advocatus ecclesiae). 






GODFREY OF VITERBO GODIVA 



material, were subsequently added. In addition the parentage 
and early exploits of Godfrey were made the subject of legend. 
His grandfather was said to be Helias, knight of the Swan, one 
of the brothers whose adventures are well known, though with 
some variation, in the familiar fairytale of "The Seven Swans." 
Helias, drawn by the swan, one day disembarked at Nijmwegen, 
and reconquered her territory for the duchess of Bouillon. 
Marrying her daughter he exacted a promise that his wife should 
not inquire into his origin. The tale, which is almost identical 
with the Lohengrin legend, belongs to the class of the Cupid and 
Psyche narratives. See LOHENGRIN. 

See also C. Hippeau, Le Chevalier au cygne (Paris, 2 vols., 1874- 
1877); H. Pigeonneau, Le Cycle de la croisade et de la famille de 
BoMi'Won(i877); W.Golther, " Lohengrin," in Roman. Forsch. (vol. v., 
1889); Hist. IM. de la France, vol. xxii. pp. 350-402; the English 
romance of Helyas, Knyghte of the Swanne was printed by W. Copland 
about 1550. 

GODFREY OF VITERBO (c. II2O-C. 1196), chronicler, was 
probably an Italian by birth, although some authorities assert 
that he was a Saxon. He evidently passed some of his early life 
at Viterbo, where also he spent his concluding days, but he was 
educated at Bamberg, gaining a good knowledge of Latin. 
About 1 140 he became chaplain to the German king, Conrad III. ; 
but the greater part of his life was spent as secretary (notarius) 
in the service of the emperor Frederick I., who appears to have 
thoroughly trusted him, and who employed him on many 
diplomatic errands. Incessantly occupied, he visited Sicily, 
France and Spain, in addition to many of the German cities, in 
the emperor's interests, and was by his side during several of 
the Italian campaigns. Both before and after Frederick's death 
in 1190 he enjoyed the favour of his son, the emperor Henry VI., 
for whom he wrote his Speculum regum, a work of very little 
value. Godfrey also wrote Memoria seculorum, or Liber memo- 
rialis, a chronicle dedicated to Henry VI., which professes to 
record the history of the world from the creation until 1185. 
It is written partly in prose and partly in verse. A revision of 
this work was drawn up by Godfrey himself as Pantheon, or 
Universitatis libri qui chronici appellantur. The author borrowed 
from Otto of Freising, but the earlier part of his chronicle is full 
of imaginary occurrences. Pantheon was first printed in 1559, 
and extracts from it are published by L. A. Muratori in the 
Rerum Italicaium scriptores, tome vii. (Milan, 1725). The only 
part of Godfrey's work which is valuable is the Gesta Friderici I., 
verses relating events in the emperor's career from 1155 to 1180. 
Concerned mainly with affairs in Italy, the poem tells of the sieges 
of Milan, of Frederick's flight to Pavia in 1167, of the treaty with 
Pope Alexander III. at Venice, and of other stirring episodes 
with which the author was intimately acquainted, and many of 
which he had witnessed. Attached to the Gesta Friderici is the 
Gesta Heinrici VI., a shorter poem which is often attributed to 
Godfrey, although W. Wattenbach and other authorities think 
it was not written by him. The Memoria seculorum was very 
popular during the middle ages, and has been continued by 
several writers. 

Godfrey's works are found in the Monumenta Germaniae historica, 
Band xxii. (Hanover, 1872). The Gesta Friderici I. et Heinrici VI. 
is published separately with an introduction by G. Waitz (Hanover, 
1872). See also H. Ulmann, Gotfried von Viterbo (Gottingen, 1863), 
and W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, Band ii. 
(Berlin, 1894). (A. W. H.*) 

GODHRA, a town of British India, administrative head- 
quarters of the Panch Mahals district of Bombay, and also of 
the Rewa Kantha political agency; situated 52 m. N.E. of 
Baroda on the railway from Anand to Ratlam. Pop. (1901) 
20,915. It has a trade in timber from the neighbouring forests. 

GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRfi (1817-1888), French 
socialist, was born on the 26th of January 1817 at Esqueheries 
(Aisne). The son of an artisan, he entered an iron- works at an 
early age, and at seventeen made a tour of France as journeyman. 
Returning to Esqueheries in 1837, he started a small factory for 
the manufacture of castings for heating-stoves. The business 
increased rapidly, and for the purpose of railway facilities was 
transferred to Guise in 1846. At the time of Godin's death in 
1 888 the annual output was over four millions of francs ( 1 60,000) , 



and in 1908 the employees numbered over 2000 and the output 
was over 280,000. An ardent disciple of Fourier, he advanced 
a considerable sum of money towards the disastrous Fourierist 
experiment of V. P. Considerant (q.v.) in Texas. He profited, 
however, by its failure, and in 1859 started the familistere or 
community settlement of Guise on more carefully laid plans. 
It comprises, in addition to the workshops, three large buildings, 
four storeys high, capable of housing all the work-people, each 
family having two or three rooms. Attached to each building 
is a vast central court, covered with a glass roof, under which the 
children can play in all weathers. There are also creches, 
nurseries, hospital, refreshment rooms and recreation rooms of 
various kinds, stores for the purchase 1 of groceries, drapery and 
every necessity, and a large theatre for concerts and dramatic 
entertainments. In 1880 the whole was turned into a co-opera- 
tive society, with provision by which it eventually became the 
property of the workers. In 1871 Godin was elected deputy for 
Aisne, but retired in 1876 to devote himself to the management 
of the familistere. In 1882 he was created a knight of the legion 
of honour. 

Godin was the author of Solutions sociales (1871); Les Socialistes 
et les droits du travail (1874); Mutualite sociale (1880); La Re- 
publique du travail et la reforme parlementaire (1889). See Bernardot, 
Le Familistere de Guise et son fondateur (Paris, 1887); Fischer, 
Die Familistere Godin's (Berlin, 1890); Lestelle, Etude sur le familis- 
tere de Guise (Paris, 1904); D. F. P., Le Familistere illustre, resultats 
de vingt ans d' association, 1880-1900 (Eng. trans., Twenty-eight years 
of co-partnership at Guise, by A. Williams, 1908). 

GODIVA, a Saxon lady, who, according to the legend, rode 
naked through the streets of Coventry to gain from her husband 
a remission of the oppressive toll imposed on his tenants. The 
story is that she was the beautiful wife of Leofric, earl of Mercia 
and lord of Coventry. The people of that city suffering griev- 
ously under the earl's oppressive taxation, Lady Godiva appealed 
again and again to her husband, who obstinately refused to remit 
the tolls. At last, weary of her entreaties, he said he would grant 
her request if she would ride naked through the streets of the 
town. Lady Godiva took him at his word, and after issuing a 
proclamation that all persons should keep within doors or shut 
their windows, she rode through, clothed only in her long hair. 
One person disobeyed her proclamation, a tailor, ever afterwards 
known as Peeping Tom. He bored a hole in his shutters that he 
might see Godiva pass, and is said to have been struck blind. 
Her husband kept his word and abolished the obnoxious taxes. 

The oldest form of the legend makes Godiva pass through 
Coventry market from one end to the other when the people 
were assembled, attended only by two soldiers, her long hair 
down so that none saw her, " apparentibus cruribus tamen 
candidissimis." This version is given in Flares historiarum by 
Roger of Wendover, who quoted from an earlier writer. The 
later story, with its episode of Peeping Tom, has been evolved 
by later chroniclers. Whether the lady Godiva of this story is 
the Godiva or Godgifu of history is undecided. That a lady of 
this name existed in the early part of the nth century is certain, 
as evidenced by several ancient documents, such as the Stow 
charter, the Spalding charter and the Domesday survey, though 
the spelling of the name varies considerably. It would appear 
from Liber Eliensis (end of i2th century) that she was a widow 
when Leofric married her in 1040. In or about that year she 
aided in the founding of a monastery at Stow, Lincolnshire. 
In 1043 she persuaded her husband to build and endow a Bene- 
dictine monastery at Coventry. Her mark, " J Ego Godiva 
Comitissa diu istud desideravi," was found on the charter given 
by her brother, Thorold of Bucknall sheriff of Lincolnshire 
to the Benedictine monastery of Spalding in 1051; and she is 
commemorated as benefactress of other monasteries at Leo- 
minster, Chester, Wenlock, Worcester and Evesham. She 
probably died a few years before the Domesday survey (1085- 
1086), and was buried in one of the porches of the abbey church. 
Dugdale (1656) says that a window, with representations of 
Leofric and Godiva, was placed in Trinity Church, Coventry, 
about the time of Richard II. The Godiva procession, a com- 
memoration of the legendary ride instituted on the 3ist of May 



174 



GODKIN GODOLPHIN 



1678 as part of Coventry fair, was celebrated at intervals until 
1826. From 1848 to 1887 it was revived, and recently further 
attempts have been made to popularize the pageant. The 
wooden effigy of Peeping Tom which, since 1812, has looked 
out on the world from a house at the north-west corner of 
Hertford Street, Coventry, represents a man in armour, and 
was probably an image of St George. It was removed from 
another part of tHe town to its present position. 

GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE (1831-1902), American 
publicist, was born in Moyne, county Wicklow, Ireland, on the 
2nd of October 1831. His father, James Godkin, was a Presby- 
terian minister and a journalist, and the son, after graduating 
in 1851 at Queen's College, Belfast, and studying law in London, 
was in 1853-1855 war correspondent for the London Daily News 
in Turkey and Russia, being present at the capture of Sevastopol, 
and late in 1856 went to America and wrote letters to the same 
journal, giving his impressions of a tour of the southern states of 
the American Union. He studied law in New York City, was 
admitted to the bar in 1859, travelled in Europe in 1860-1862, 
wrote for the London News and the New York Times in 1862- 
1865, and in 1865 founded in New York City the Nation, a 
weekly projected by him long before, for which Charles Eliot 
Norton gained friends in Boston and James Miller McKim (1810- 
1874) in Philadelphia, and which Godkin edited until the end of 
the year 1899. In 1881 he sold the Nation to the New York 
Evening Post, and became an associate editor of the Post, of 
which he was editor-in-chief in 1883-1899, succeeding Carl 
Schurz. In the 'eighties he engaged in a controversy with 
Goldwin Smith over the Irish question. Under his leadership the 
Post broke with the Republican party in the presidential cam- 
paign of 1884, when Godkin's opposition to Elaine did much to 
create the so-called Mugwump party (see MUGWUMP), and his 
organ became thoroughly independent, as was seen when it 
attacked the Venezuelan policy of President Cleveland, who had 
in so many ways approximated the ideal of the Post and Nation. 
He consistently advocated currency reform, the gold basis, a tariff 
for revenue only, and civil service reform, rendering the greatest 
aid to the last cause. His attacks on Tammany Hall were 
so frequent and so virulent that in 1894 he was sued for libel 
because of biographical sketches of certain leaders in that 
organization cases which never came up for trial. His opposi- 
tion to the war with Spain and to imperialism was able and 
forcible. He retired from his editorial duties on the 3oth of 
December 1899, and sketched his career in the Evening Post 
of that date. Although he recovered from a severe apoplectic 
stroke early in 1900, his health was shattered, and he died in 
Greenway, Devonshire, England, on the 2ist of May 1902. 
Godkin shaped the lofty and independent policy of the Post 
and the Nation, which had a small but influential and intellectual 
class of readers. But as editor he had none of the personal 
magnetism of Greeley, for instance, and his superiority to the 
influence of popular feeling made Charles Dudley Warner style 
the Nation the " weekly judgment day." He was an economist 
of the school of Mill, urged the necessity of the abstraction 
called " economic man," and insisted that socialism put in 
practice would not improve social and economic conditions 
in general. In politics he was an enemy of sentimentalism and 
loose theories in government. He published A History of 
Hungary, A.D. 300-1850 (1856), Government (1871, in the 
American Science Series), Reflections and Comments (1895), 
Problems of Modern Democracy (1896) and Unforeseen Tendencies 
of Democracy (1898). 

See Life and Letters of E. L. Godkin, edited by Rollo Ogden (2 vols., 
New York, 1907). 

GODMANCHESTER, a muriicipal borough in the southern 
parliamentary division of Huntingdonshire, England, on the 
right bank of the Ouse, i m. S.S.E. of Huntingdon, on a branch 
of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2017. It has a 
beautiful Perpendicular church (St Mary's) and an agricultural 
trade, with flour mills. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 
aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 4907 acres. 

A Romano-British village occupied the site of Godmanchester. 



The town (Gumencestre, Gomecestre) belonged to the king before 
the Conquest and at the time of the Domesday survey. In 1213 
King John granted the manor to the men of the town at a fee- 
farm of 120 yearly, and confirmation charters were granted 
by several succeeding kings, Richard II. in 1391-1392 adding 
exemption from toll, pannage, &c. James I. granted an in- 
corporation charter in 1605 under the title of bailiffs, assistants 
and commonalty, but under the Municipal Reform Act of 1835 
the corporation was changed to a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 
councillors. Godmanchester was formerly included for parlia- 
mentary purposes in the borough of Huntingdon, which has 
ceased to be separately represented since 1885. The incorpora- 
tion charter of 1605 recites that the burgesses are chiefly engaged 
in agriculture, and grants them a fair, which still continues 
every year on Tuesday in Easter week. 

See Victoria County History, Huntingdon; Robert Fox, The 
History of Godmanchester (1831). 

GODOLLO, a market town of Hungary, in the county of Pest- 
Pilis-Solt-Kiskun, 23 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 
5875. Godollo is the summer residence of the Hungarian royal 
family, and the royal castle, built in the second half of the i8th 
century by Prince Anton Grassalkovich, was, with the beautiful 
domain, presented by the Hungarian nation to King Francis 
Joseph I. after the coronation in 1867. In its park there are a 
great number of stags and wild boars. Godollo is a favourite 
summer resort of the inhabitants of Budapest. In its vicinity 
is the famous place of pilgrimage Maria-Besnyo, with a fine 
Franciscan monastery, which contains the tombs of the Grassal- 
kovich family. 

GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY GODOLPHIN, EARL or (c. 1645- 
1712), was a cadet of an ancient family of Cornwall. At the 
Restoration he was introduced into the royal household by 
Charles II., with whom he had previously become a favourite, 
and he also at the same period entered the House of Commons as 
member for Helston. Although he very seldom addressed the 
House, and, when he did so, only in the briefest manner, he 
gradually acquired a reputation as its chief if not its only financial 
authority. In March 1679 he was appointed a member of the 
privy council, and in the September following he was promoted, 
along with Viscount Hyde (afterwards earl of Rochester) and 
the earl of Sunderland, to the chief management of affairs. 
Though he voted for the Exclusion Bill in 1680, he was continued 
in office after the dismissal of Sunderland, and in September 
1684 he was created Baron Godolphin of Rialton, and succeeded 
Rochester as first lord of the treasury. After the accession of 
James II. he was made chamberlain to the queen, and, along 
with Rochester and Sunderland, enjoyed the king's special 
confidence. In 1687 he was named commissioner of the treasury. 
He was one of the council of five appointed by King James to 
represent him in London, when he went to join the army after 
the landing of William, prince of Orange, in England, and, along 
with Halifax and Nottingham, he was afterwards appointed a 
commissioner to treat with the prince. On the accession of 
William, though he only obtained the third seat at the treasury 
board, he had virtually the chief control of affairs. He retired 
in March 1690, but was recalled on the November following 
and appointed first lord. While holding this office he for several 
years continued, in conjunction with Marlborough, a treacherous 
intercourse with James II., and is said even to have anticipated 
Marlborough in disclosing to James intelligence regarding the 
intended expedition against Brest. Godolphin was not only a 
Tory by inheritance, but had a romantic admiration for the wife 
of James II. He also wished to be safe whatever happened, 
and his treachery in this case was mostly due to caution. After 
Fenwick's confession in 1696 regarding the attempted assassina- 
tion of William III., Godolphin, who was compromised, was in- 
duced to tender his resignation; but when the Tories came into 
power in 1700, he was again appointed lord treasurer and 
retained office for about a year. Though not a favourite with 
Queen Anne, he was, after her accession, appointed to his old 
office, on the strong recommendation of Marlborough. He also 
in 1704 received the honour of knighthood, and in December 












GODOY 



175 



706 he was created Viscount Rialton and earl of Godolphin. 
Though a Tory he had an active share in the intrigues which 
gradually led to the predominance of the Whigs in alliance 
with Marlborough. The influence of the Marlboroughs with the 
qusen was, however, gradually supplanted by that of Mrs 
Masham and Harley, earl of Oxford, and with the fortunes of 
the Marlboroughs those of Godolphin were indissolubly united. 
The services of both were so appreciated by the nation that 
they were able for a time to regard the loss of the queen's favour 
with indifference, and even in 1708 to procure the expulsion of 
Harley from office; but after the Tory reaction which followed 
the impeachment of Dr Sacheverel, who abused Godolphin under 
the name of Volpone, the queen made use of the opportunity 
to take the initiatory step towards delivering herself from 
the irksome thraldom of Marlborough by abruptly dismissing 
Godolphin from office on the 7th of August 1710. He died on 
the isth of September 1712. 

Godolphin owed his rise to power and his continuance in it 
under four sovereigns chiefly to his exceptional mastery of financial 
matters; for if latterly he was in some degree indebted for his 
promotion to the support of Marlborough' he received that 
support mainly because Marlborough recognized that for the 
prosecution of England's foreign wars his financial abilities were 
an indispensable necessity. He was cool, reserved and cautious, 
but his prudence was less associated with high sagacity than 
traceable to the weakness of his personal antipathies and pre- 
judices, and his freedom from political predilections. Perhaps 
it was his unlikeness to Marlborough in that moral characteristic 
which so tainted Marlborough's greatness that rendered possible 
between them a friendship so intimate and undisturbed: he 
was, it would appear, exceptionally devoid of the passion of 
avarice; and so little advantage did he take of his opportunities 
of aggrandizement that, though his style of living was un- 
ostentatious, and in connexion with his favourite pastimes 
of horse-racing, card-playing and cock-fighting he gained 
perhaps more than he lost, all that he left behind him did not, 
according to the duchess of Marlborough, amount to more than 

jl 2,000. 

Godolpnin married Margaret Blagge, the pious lady whose 
life was written by Evelyn, on the 1 6th of May 1 67 5, and married 
again after her death in 1678. His son and successor, Francis 
(1678-1766), held various offices at court, and was lord privy 
seal from 1735 to 1740. He married Henrietta Churchill (d. 
1 733L daughter of the duke of Marlborough, who in 1722 became 
in her own right duchess of Marlborough. He died without male 
issue in January 1766, when the earldom became extinct, and 
the estates passed to Thomas Osborne, 4th duke of Leeds, the 
husband of the earl's daughter Mary, whose descendant is the 
present representative of the Godolphins. 

A life of Godolphin was published in 1888 in London by the Hon. 
H. Elliot. 

GODOY, ALVAREZ DE FARIA, RIOS SANCHEZ Y ZARZOSA, 

MANUEL DE (1767-1851), duke of El Alcudia and prince of the 
Peace, Spanish royal favourite and minister, was born at Badajoz 
on the 1 2th of May 1767. His father, Don Jose de Godoy, was 
the head of a very ancient but impoverished family of nobles 
in Estremadura. His mother, whose maiden name was Maria 
Antonia Alvarez de Faria, belonged to a Portuguese noble family. 
Manuel boasts in his memoirs that he had the best masters, but 
it is certain that he received only the very slight education 
usually given at that time to the sons of provincial nobles. 
In 1784 he entered the Guardia de Corps, a body of gentlemen 
who acted as the immediate body-guard of the king. His well- 
built and stalwart person, his handsome foolish face, together 
with a certain geniality of character which he must have 
possessed, earned him the favour of Maria Luisa of Parma, the 
princess of Asturias, a coarse, passionate woman who was much 
neglected by her husband, who on his part cared for nothing but 
hunting. 

When King Charles III. died in 1788, Godoy 's fortune was 
soon made. The princess of Asturias, now queen, understood 
how to manage her husband Charles IV. Godoy says in his 



memoirs that the king, who had been carefully kept apart from 
affairs during his father's life, and who disliked his father's 
favourite minister Floridablanca, wished to have a creature of 
his own. This statement is no doubt true as far as it goes. But 
it requires to be completed by the further detail that the queen 
put her lover in her husband's way, and that the king was guided 
by them, when he thought he was ruling for himself through 
a subservient minister. In some respects King Charles was 
obstinate, and Godoy is probably right in saying that he never 
was an absolute " viceroy," and that he could not always secure 
the removal of colleagues whom he knew to be his enemies. 
He could only rule by obeying. Godoy adopted without scruple 
this method of pushing his fortunes. When the king was set on a 
particular course, he followed it; the execution was left to him 
and the queen. His pliability endeared him to his master, 
whose lasting affection he earned. In practice he commonly 
succeeded in inspiring the wishes which he then proceeded to 
gratify. From the very beginning of the new reign he was 
promoted in the army with scandalous rapidity, made duke of 
El Alcudia, and in 1792 minister under the premiership of 
Aranda, whom he succeeded in displacing by the close of the 
year. 

His official life is fairly divided by himself into three periods. 
From 1792 to 1798 he was premier. In the latter year his un- 
popularity and the intrigues of the French government, which 
had taken a dislike to him, led to his temporary retirement, 
without, however, any diminution of the king's personal favour. 
He asserts that he had no wish to return to office, but letters 
sent by him to the queen show that he begged for employment. 
They are written in a very unpleasant mixture of gush and 
vulgar familiarity. In 1801 he returned to office, and until 
1807 he was the executant of the disastrous policy of the court. 
The third period of his public life is the last year, 1807-1808, 
when he was desperately striving for his place between the 
aggressive intervention of Napoleon on the one hand, and the 
growing hatred of the nation, organized behind, and about, the 
prince of Asturias, Ferdinand. On the i7th of March i8o a 
popular outbreak at Aranjuez drove him into hiding. When 
driven out by hunger and thirst he was recognized and arrested. 
By Ferdinand's order he was kept in prison, till Napoleon 
demanded that he should be sent to Bayonne. Here he rejoined 
his master and mistress. He remained with them till Charles IV. 
died at Rome in 1819, having survived his queen. The rest of 
Godoy's life was spent in poverty and obscurity. After the 
death of Ferdinand VII., in 1833, he returned to Madrid, and 
endeavoured to secure the restoration of his property confiscated 
in 1808. Part of it was the estate of the Soto de Roma, granted 
by the cortes to the duke of Wellington. He failed, and during 
his last years lived on a small pension granted him by Louis 
Philippe. He died in Paris on the 4th of October 1851. 

As a favourite Godoy is remarkable for the length of his 
hold on the affection of his sovereigns, and for its completeness. 
Latterly he was supported rather by the husband than by the 
wife. He got rid of Aranda by adopting, in order to please the 
king, a policy which tended to bring on war with France. When 
the war proved disastrous, he made the peace of Basel, and was 
created prince of the Peace for his services. Then he helped to 
make war with England, and the disasters which followed only 
made him dearer to the king. Indeed it became a main object 
with Charles IV. to protect " Manuelito " from popular hatred, 
and if possible secure him a principality. The queen endured 
his infidelities to her, which were flagrant. The king arranged 
a marriage for him with Dona Teresa de Bourbon, daughter of the 
infante Don Luis by a morganatic marriage, though he was 
probably already married to Dona Josefa Tud6, and certainly 
continued to live with her. Godoy, in his memoirs, lays claim 
to have done much for Spanish agriculture and industry, but 
he did little more than issue proclamations and appoint officers. 
His intentions may have been good, but the policy of his govern- 
ment was financially ruinous. In his private life he was not 
only profligate and profuse, but childishly ostentatious. The 
best that can be said for him is that he was good-natured, and 



GODROON GODWIN, MARY 



did his best to restrain the Inquisition and the purely reactionary 
parties. 

AUTHORITIES. Godoy's Memoirs were published in Spanish, 
English and French in 1836. A general account of his career will 
be found in the Memoires sur la Revolution d'Espagne, by the Abb6 
de Pradt (1816). 

GODROON, or GADROON (Fr. godron, of unknown etymology), 
in architecture, a convex decoration (said to be derived from 
raised work on linen) applied in France to varieties of the bead 
and reel, in which the bead is often carved with ornament. 
In England the term is constantly used by auctioneers to describe 
the raised convex decorations under the bowl of stone or terra- 
cotta vases. The godroons radiate from the vertical support 
of the vase and rise half-way up the bowl. 

GODWIN, FRANCIS (1562-1633), English divine, son of 
Thomas Godwin, bishop of Bath and Wells, was born at Hanning- 
ton, Northamptonshire, in 1562. He was elected student of 
Christ Church, Oxford, in 1578, took his bachelor's degree in 
1580, and that of master in 1583. After holding two Somerset- 
shire livings he was in 1587 appointed subdean of Exeter. In 
1590 he accompanied William Camden on an antiquarian tour 
through Wales. He was created bachelor of divinity in 1 593 , and 
doctor in 1595. In 1601 he published his Catalogue of the Bishops 
of England since the first planting of the Christian Religion in this 
Island, a work which procured him in the same year the bishopric 
of Llandaff. A second edition appeared in 1615, and in 1616 he 
published an edition in Latin with a dedication to King James, 
who in the following year conferred upon him the bishopric of 
Hereford. The work was republished, with a continuation by 
William Richardson, in 1743. In 161 6 Godwin published Rerum 
Anglicarum, Henrico VIII., Edwardo VI. et Maria regnantibus, 
Annales, which was afterwards translated and published by his 
son Morgan under the title A nnales of England ( 1 630) . He is also 
the author of a somewhat remarkable story, published posthum- 
ously in 1638, and entitled The Man in the Moone, or a Discourse 
of a Voyage thither, by Domingo Consoles, written apparently 
some time between the years 1599 and 1603. In this production 
Godwin not only declares himself a believer in the Copernican 
system, but adopts so far the principles of the law of gravitation 
as to suppose that the earth's attraction diminishes with the 
distance. The work, which displays considerable fancy and wit, 
was translated into French, and was imitated in several important 
particulars by Cyrano de Bergerac, from whom (if not from 
Godwin direct) Swift obtained valuable hints in writing of 
Gulliver's voyage to Laputa. Another work of Godwin's, Nuncius 
inanimatus Utopiae, originally published in 1629 and again in 
1657, seems to have been the prototype of John Wilkins's 
Mercury, or the Secret and Swift Messenger, which appeared in 
1641. He died, after a lingering illness, in April 1633. 

GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1759-1797), English 
miscellaneous writer, was born at Hoxton, on the 27th of April 
1759. Her family was of Irish extraction, and Mary's grand- 
father, who was a respectable manufacturer in Spitalfields, 
realized the property which his son squandered. Her mother, 
Elizabeth Dixon, was Irish, and of good family. Her father, 
Edward John Wollstonecraft, after dissipating the greater part of 
his patrimony, tried to earn a living by farming, which only 
plunged him into deeper difficulties, and he led a wandering, 
shifty life. The family roamed from Hoxton to Edmonton, to 
Essex, to Beverley in Yorkshire, to Laugharne, Pembrokeshire, 
and back to London again. 

After Mrs Wollstonecraft 's death in 1780, soon followed by her 
husband's second marriage, the three daughters, Mary, Everina 
and Eliza, sought to earn their own livelihood. The sisters 
were all clever women Mary and Eliza far above the average 
but their opportunities of culture had been few. Mary, 
the eldest, went in the first instance to live with her friend 
Fanny Blood, a girl of her own age, whose father, like 
Wollstonecraft, was addicted to drink and dissipation. As long 
as she lived with the Bloods, Mary helped Mrs Blood to earn 
money by taking in needlework, while Fanny painted in water- 
colours. Everina went to live with her brother Edward, and 



Eliza made a hasty and, as it proved, unhappy marriage with a 
Mr Bishop. A legal separation was afterwards obtained, and the 
sisters, together with Fanny Blood, took a house, first at Islington, 
afterwards at Newington Green, and opened a school, which was 
carried on with indifferent success for nearly two years. During 
their residence at Newington Green, Mary was introduced to Dr 
Johnson, who, as Godwin tells us, " treated her with particular 
kindness and attention." 

In 1 785 Fanny Blood married Hugh Skeys, a merchant, and went 
with him to Lisbon, where she died in childbed after sending for 
Mary to nurse her. "The lossof Fanny, "as she said in a letter to 
Mrs Skeys's brother, George Blood, " was sufficient of itself to have 
cast a cloud over my brightest days. ... I have lost all relish for 
pleasure, and life seems a burden almost too heavy to be endured." 
Her first novel, Mary, a Fiction (1788), was intended to com- 
memorate her friendship with Fanny. After closing the school at 
Newington Green, Mary became governess in the family of Lord 
Kingsborough, in Ireland. Her pupils were much attached to her, 
especially Margaret King, afterwards Lady Mountcashel; and 
indeed, Lady Kingsborough gave the reason for dismissing her 
after one year's service that the children loved their governess 
better than their mother. Mary now resolved to devote herself 
to literary work, and she was encouraged by Johnson, the 
publisher in St Paul's churchyard, for whom she acted as literary 
adviser. She also undertook translations, chiefly from the French. 
The Elements of Morality (1790) from the German of Salzmann, 
illustrated by Blake, an old-fashioned book for children, and 
Lavater's Physiognomy were among her translations. Her 
Original Stories from Real Life were published in 1791, and, with 
illustrations by Blake, in 1796. In 1792 appeared A Vindication 
of the Rights of Woman, the work with which her name is always 
associated. 

It is not among the least oddities of this book that it is dedicated 
to M. Talleyrand Perigord, late bishop of Autun. Mary Wollstone- 
craft still believed him to be sincere, and working in the same 
direction as herself. In the dedication she states the " main 
argument " of the work, " built on this simple principle that, if 
woman be not prepared by education to become the companion 
of man, she will stop the progress of knowledge, for truth must 
be common to all, or it will be inefficacious with respect to its 
influence or general practice." In carrying out this argument she 
used great plainness of speech, and it was this that caused all, or 
nearly all, the outcry. For she did not attack the institution of 
marriage, nor assail orthodox religion; her book was really a plea 
for equality of education, passing into one for state education and 
for the joint education of the sexes. It was a protest against the 
assumption that woman was only the plaything of man, and she 
asserted that intellectual companionship was the chief, as it is 
the lasting, happiness of marriage. She thus directly opposed the 
teaching of Rousseau, of whom she was in other respects an 
ardent disciple. 

Mrs Wollstonecraft, as she now styled herself, desired to watch 
the progress of the Revolution in France, and went to Paris in 
1792. Godwin, in his memoir of his wife, considers that the 
change of residence may have been prompted by the discovery 
that she was becoming attached to Henry Fuseli, but there is 
little to confirm this surmise; indeed, it was first proposed that 
she should go to Paris in company with him and his wife, nor 
was there any subsequent breach in their friendship. She re- 
mained in Paris during the Reign of Terror, when communication 
with England was difficult or almost impossible. Some time in 
the spring or summer of 1 793 Captain Gilbert Imlay, an American, 
became acquainted with Mary an acquaintance which ended in 
a more intimate connexion. There was no legal ceremony of 
marriage, and it is doubtful whether such a marriage would have 
been valid at the time; but she passed as Imlay 's wife, and 
Imlay himself terms her in a legal document, " Mary Imlay, my 
best friend and wife." In August 1 793 Imlay was called to Havre 
on business, and was absent for some months, during which 
time most of the letters published after her death by Godwin 
were written. Towards the end of the year she joined Imlay at 
Havre, and there in the spring of 1 794 she gave birth to a girl, 



GODWIN, W. 



177 



who received the name of Fanny, in memory of the dear friend of 
her youth. In this year she published the first volume of a never 
completed Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution. 
Imlay became involved in a multitude of speculations, and his 
affection for Mary and their child was already waning. He left 
Mary for some months at Havre. In June 1795, after joining 
him in England, Mary left for Norway on business for Imlay. 
Her letters from Norway, divested of all personal details, were 
afterwards published. She returned to England late in 1795, 
and found letters awaiting her from Imlay, intimating his inten- 
tion to separate from her, and offering to settle an annuity on her 
and her child. For herself she rejected this offer with scorn: 
" From you," she wrote, " I will not receive anything more. I 
am not sufficiently humbled to depend on your beneficence." 
They met again, and for a short time lived together, until the 
discovery that he was carrying on an intrigue under her own 
roof drove her to despair, and she attempted to drown herself 
by leaping from Putney bridge, but was rescued by watermen. 
Imlay now completely deserted her, although she continued to 
bear his name. 

In 1796, when Mary Wollstonecraft was living in London, 
supporting herself and her child by working, as before, for Mr 
Johnson, she met William Godwin. A friendship sprang up 
between them, a friendship, as he himself says, which " melted 
into love." Godwin states that " ideas which he is now willing 
to denominate prejudices made him by no means willing to 
conform to the ceremony of marriage "; but these prejudices 
were overcome, and they were married at St Pancras church on 
the 29th of March 1797. And now Mary had a season of real 
calm in her stormy existence. Godwin, for once only in his life, 
was stirred by passion, and his admiration for his wife equalled 
his affection. But their happiness was of short duration. The 
birth of her daughter Mary, afterwards the wife of Percy Bysshe 
Shelley, on the 3oth of August 1797, proved fatal, and Mrs 
Godwin died on the icth of September following. She was 
buried in the churchyard of Old St Pancras, but her remains 
were afterwards removed -by Sir Percy Shelley to the churchyard 
of St Peter's, Bournemouth. 

Her principal published works are as follows: Thoughts on the 
Education of Daughters,. . . (1787) ; The Female Reader (selections) 
(1789); Original Stories from Real Life (1791); An Historical and 
Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution, and 
the effects it has produced in Europe, vol. i. (no more published) 
(1790); Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792); Vindication 
of the Rights of Man (1793); Mary, a Fiction (1788); Letters written 
during a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway and Denmark (1796); 
Posthumous Works (4 vols., 1798). It is impossible to trace the many 
articles contributed by her to periodical literature. 

A memoir of her life was published by Godwin in 1798. A large 
portion of C. Kegan Paul's work, William Godwin, his Friends and 
Contemporaries, was devoted to her, and an edition of the Letters to 
Imlay (1879), of which the first edition was published by Godwin, 
is prefaced by a somewhat fuller memoir. See also E. Dowden, 
The French Revolution and English Literature (1897) pp. 82 et seq.; 
E. R. Pennell, Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (1885), in the Eminent 
Women Series; E. R. Clough, A Study of Mary Wollstonecraft and 
the Rights of Woman (1898) ; an edition of her Original Stories (1906), 
with William Blake's illustrations and an introduction by E. V. 
Lucas; and the Love Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft to Gilbert Imlay 
(1908), with an introduction by Roger Ingpen. 

GODWIN, WILLIAM (1756-1836), English political and 
miscellaneous writer, son of a Nonconformist minister, was born 
on the 3rd of March 1756, at Wisbeach in Cambridgeshire. His 
family came on both sides of middle-class people, and it was 
probably only as a joke that Godwin, a stern political reformer 
and philosophical radical, attempted to trace his pedigree to a 
time before the Norman conquest and the great earl Godwine. 
Both parents were strict Calvinists. The father died young, and 
never inspired love or much regret in his son; but in spite of 
wide differences of opinion, tender affection always subsisted 
between William Godwin and his mother, until her death at an 
advanced age. 

William Godwin was educated for his father's profession at 
Hoxton Academy, where he was under Andrew Kippis the 
biographer and Dr Abraham Rees of the Cyclopaedia, and was 
at first more Calvinistic than his teachers, becoming a Sande- 



manian, or follower of John Glas (?..), whom he describes as 
" a celebrated north-country apostle who, after Calvin had 
damned ninety-nine in a hundred of mankind, has contrived a 
scheme for damning ninety-nine in a hundred of the followers 
of Calvin." He then acted as a minister at Ware, Stowmarket 
and Beaconsfield. At Stowmarket- the teachings of the French 
philosophers were brought before him by a friend, Joseph Fawcet, 
who held strong republican opinions. He came to London in 
1782, still nominally a minister, to regenerate society with his 
pen a real enthusiast, who shrank theoretically from no con- 
clusions from the premises which he laid down. He adopted 
the principles of the Encyclopaedists, and his own aim was the 
complete overthrow of all existing institutions, political, social 
and religious. He believed, however, that calm discussion was 
the only thing needful to carry every change, and from the 
beginning to the end of his career he deprecated every approach 
to violence. He was a philosophic radical in the strictest sense 
of the term. 

His first published work was an anonymous Life of Lord 
Chatham (1783). Under the inappropriate title Sketches of 
History (1784) he published under his own name six sermons 
on the characters of Aaron, Hazael and Jesus, in which, though 
writing in the character of an orthodox Calvinist, he enunciates 
the proposition " God Himself has no right to be a tyrant." 
Introduced by Andrew Kippis, he began to write in 1785 for the 
Annual Register and other periodicals, producing also three 
novels now forgotten. The " Sketches of English History " 
written for the Annual Register from 1785 onward still deserve 
study. He joined a club called the " Revolutionists," and 
associated much with Lord Stanhope, Home Tooke and Hoi- 
croft. His clerical character was now completely dropped. 

In 1793 Godwin published his great work on political science, 
The Inquiry concerning Political Justice, and its Influence on ' 
General Virtue and Happiness. Although this work is little 
known and less read now, it marks a phase in English thought. 
Godwin could never have been himself a worker on the active 
stage of life. But he was none the less a power behind the 
workers, and for its political effect, Political Justice takes its 
place with Milton's Areopagitica, with Locke's Essay on Educa- 
tion and with Rousseau's Emile. By the words " political 
justice " the author meant " the adoption of any principle of 
morality and truth into the practice of a community," and the 
work was therefore an inquiry into the principles of society, of 
government and of morals. For many years Godwin had been 
" satisfied that monarchy was a species of government unavoid- 
ably corrupt," and from desiring a government of the simplest 
construction, he gradually came to consider that "government 
.by its very nature counteracts the improvement of original 
mind." Believing in the perfectibility of the race, that there are 
no innate principles, and therefore no original propensity to evil, 
he considered that " our virtues and our vices may be traced 
to the incidents which make the history of our lives, and if these 
incidents could be divested of every improper tendency, vice 
would be extirpated from the world." All control of man by man 
was more or less intolerable, and the day would come when each 
man, doing what seems right in his own eyes, would also be 
doing what is in fact best for the community, because all will be 
guided by principles of pure reason. But all was to be done by 
discussion, and matured change resulting from discussion. 
Hence, while Godwin thoroughly approved of the philosophic 
schemes of the precursors of the Revolution, he was as far 
removed as Burke himself from agreeing with the way in which 
they were carried out. So logical and uncompromising a thinker 
as Godwin could not go far in the discussion of abstract questions 
without exciting the most lively opposition in matters of detailed 
opinion. An affectionate son, and ever ready to give of his 
hard-earned income, to more than one ne'er-do-well brother, he 
maintained that natural relationship 'had no claim on man, nor 
was gratitude to parents or benefactors any part of justice or 
virtue. In a day when the penal code was still extremely severe, 
he argued gravely against all punishments, not only that of 
death. Property was to belong to him who most wanted it; 



i 7 8 



GODWIN-AUSTEN 



accumulated property was a monstrous injustice. Hence 
marriage, which is law, is the worst of all laws, and as property 
the worst of all properties. A man so passionless as Godwin 
could venture thus to argue without suspicion that he did so only 
to gratify his wayward desires. Portions of this treatise, and 
only portions, found ready acceptance in those minds which were 
prepared to receive them. Perhaps no one received the whole 
teaching of the book. But it gave cohesion and voice to philo- 
sophic radicalism; it was the manifesto of a school without 
which liberalism of the present day had not been. Godwin 
himself in after days modified his communistic views, but his 
strong feeling for individualism, his hatred of all restrictions on 
liberty, his trust in man, his faith in the power of reason remained ; 
it was a manifesto which enunciated principles modifying action, 
even when not wholly ruling it. 

In May 1 794 Godwin published the novel of Caleb Williams, 
or Things as they are, a book of which the political object is 
overlooked by many readers in the strong interest of the story. 
The book was dramatized by the younger Colman as The Iron 
Chest. It is one of the few novels of that time which may be said 
still to live. 1 A theorist who lived mainly in his study, Godwin 
yet came forward boldly to stand by prisoners arraigned of high 
treason in that same year 1794. The danger to persons so 
charged was then great, and he deliberately put himself into 
this same danger for his friends. But when his own trial was 
discussed in the privy council, Pitt sensibly held that Political 
Justice, the work on which the charge could best have been 
founded, was priced at three guineas, and could never do much 
harm among those who had not three shillings to spare. 

From this time Godwin became a notable figure in London 
society, and there was scarcely an important person in politics, 
on the Liberal side, in literature, art or science, who does not 
appear familiarly in the pages of Godwin's singular diary. For 
forty-eight years, beginning in 1788, and continuing to the very 
end of his life, Godwin kept a record of every day, of the work 
he did, the books he read, the friends he saw. Condensed in the 
highest degree, the diary is yet easy to read when the style is 
once mastered, and it is a great help to the understanding of his 
cold, methodical, unimpassioned character. He carried his 
method into every detail of life, and lived on his earnings with 
extreme frugality. Until he made a large sum by the publication 
of Political Justice, he lived on an average of 120 a year. 

In 1797, the intervening years having been spent in strenuous 
literary labour, Godwin married Mary Wollstonecraft (see 
GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT). Since both held the same 
views regarding the slavery of marriage, and since they only 
married .at all for the sake of possible offspring, the marriage 
was concealed for some time, and the happiness of the avowed 
married life was very brief; his wife's death on the loth of 
September left Godwin prostrated by affliction, and with a 
charge for which he was wholly unfit his infant daughter Mary, 
and her stepsister, Fanny Imlay, who from that time bore the 
name of Godwin. His unfitness for the cares of a family, far 
more than love, led him to contract a second marriage with 
Mary Jane Clairmont in 1801. She was a widow with two 
children, one of whom, Clara Mary Jane Clairmont, became the 
mistress of Lord Byron. The second Mrs Godwin was energetic 
and painstaking, but a harsh stepmother; and it may be 
doubted whether the children were not worse off under her care 
than they would have been under Godwin's neglect. 

The second novel which proceeded from Godwin's pen was 
called Si Leon, and published in 1 799. It is chiefly remarkable 
for the beautiful portrait of Marguerite, the heroine, drawn from 
the character of his own wife. His opinions underwent a change 
in the direction of theism, influenced, he says, by his acquaintance 
with Coleridge. He also became known to Wordsworth and 
Lamb. Study of the Elizabethan dramatists led to the produc- 
tion in 1800 of the Tragedy of Antonio. Kemble brought it out 
at Drury Lane, but the failure of this attempt made him refuse 

1 For an analysis of Caleb Williams see the chapter on " Theorists 
of Revolution " in Professor E. Dowden's The French Revolution 
and English Literature (1897). 



Abbas, King of Persia, which Godwin offered him in the next 
year. He was more successful with his Life of Chaucer, for which 
he received 600. 

The events of Godwin's life were few. Under the advice of 
the second Mrs Godwin, and with her active co-operation, he 
carried on business as a bookseller under the pseudonym of 
Edward Baldwin, publishing several useful school books and 
books for children, among them Charles and Mary Lamb's Tales 
from Shakespeare. But the speculation was unsuccessful, and 
for many years Godwin struggled with constant pecuniary 
difficulties, for which more than one subscription was raised 
by the leaders of the Liberal party and by literary men. He 
became bankrupt in 1822, but during the following years he 
accomplished one of his best pieces of work, The History of the 
Commonwealth, founded on pamphlets and original documents, 
which still retains considerable value. In 1833 the government 
of Earl Grey conferred upon him the office known as yeoman 
usher of the exchequer, to which were attached apartments in 
Palace Yard, where he died on the 7th of April 1836. 

In his own time, by his writings and by his conversation, 
Godwin had a great power of influencing men, and especially 
young men. Though his character would seem, from much 
which is found in his writings, and from anecdotes told by those 
who still remember him, to have been unsympathetic, it was not 
so understood by enthusiastic young people, who hung on his 
words as those of a prophet. The most remarkable of these was 
Percy Bysshe Shelley, who in the glowing dawn of his genius 
turned to Godwin as his teacher and guide. The last of the long 
series of young men who sat at Godwin's feet was Edward Lytton 
Bulwer, afterwards Lord Lytton, whose early romances were 
formed after those of Godwin, and who, in Eugene Aram, suc- 
ceeded to the story as arranged, and the plan to a considerable 
extent sketched out, by Godwin, whose age and failing health 
prevented him from completing it. Godwin's character appears 
in the worst light in connexion with Shelley. His early corre- 
spondence with Shelley, which began in 1811, is remarkable for 
its genuine good sense and kindness; but when Shelley carried 
out the principles of the author of Political Justice in eloping 
with Mary Godwin, Godwin assumed a hostile attitude that 
would have been unjustifiable in a man of ordinary views, and 
was ridiculous in the light of his professions. He was not, more- 
over, too proud to accept 1000 from his son-in-law, and after 
the reconciliation following on Shelley's marriage in 1816, he 
continued to demand money until Shelley's death. His character 
had no doubt suffered under his long embarrassments and his 
unhappy marriage. 

Godwin's more important works are The Inquiry concerning 
Political Justice, and its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness 
(1793); Things as they are, or the Adventures of Caleb Williams 
(1794); The Inquirer, a series of Essays (1797); Memoirs of the 
A uthor of the Rights of Woman ( 1 798) ; St Leon, a Tale of the Sixteenth 
Century (1799); Antonio, a Tragedy (1800); The Life of Chaucer 
(1803); Fleetwood, a Novel (1805); Faulkner, a Tragedy (1807); 
Essay on Sepulchres (1809); Lives of Edward and John Philips, the 
Nephews of Milton (1815) ; Mandemlle, a Tale of the Times of Crom- 
well (1817); Of Population, an answer to Malthus (1820); History 
of the Commonwealth (1824-1828); Cloudesley, a Novel (1830); 
Thoughts on Man, a series of Essays (1831) ; Lives of the Necromancers 
(1834). A volume of essays was also collected from his papers and 
published in 1873, as left for publication by his daughter Mrs Shelley. 
Many other short and anonymous works proceeded from his ever 
busy pen, but many are irrecoverable, and all are forgotten. Godwin's 
life was published in 1876 in two volumes, under the title William 
Godwin, his Friends and Contemporaries, by C. Kegan Paul. The 
best estimate of his literary position is that given by Sir Leslie 
Stephen in his English Thought in the i8th Century (ii. 264-281 ; ed., 
1902). See also the article on William Godwin in W. Hailitt's 
The Spirit of the Age (1825), and " Godwin and Shelley " in Sir L. 
Stephen's Hours in a Library (vol. iii., ed. 1892). 

GODWIN-AUSTEN, ROBERT ALFRED CLOYNE (1808-1884), 
English geologist, the eldest son of Sir Henry E. Austen, was 
born on the i7th of March 1808. He was educated at Oriel 
College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in 1830. He 
afterwards entered Lincoln's Inn. In 1833 he married the only 
daughter and heiress of General Sir Henry T. Godwin, K.C.B., 
and he took the additional name of Godwin by Royal licence 






GODWINE GODWIT 



179 



in 1854. At Oxford as a pupil of William Buckland he became 
deeply interested in geology, and soon afterwards becoming 
acquainted with De la Beche, he was inspired by that great 
master, and assisted him by making a geological map of the 
neighbourhood of Newton Abbot, which was embodied in the 
Geological Survey map. He also published an elaborate memoir 
"On the Geology of the South-East of Devonshire" (Trans. 
Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. viii.). His attention was next directed to 
the Cretaceous rocks of Surrey, his home-county, his estates 
being situated at Chilworth and Shalford near Guildford. Later 
he dealt with the superficial accumulations bordering the English 
Channel, and with the erratic boulders of Selsea. In 1855 he 
brought before the Geological Society of London his celebrated 
paper " On the possible Extension of the Coal-Measures beneath 
the South-Eastern part of England," in which he pointed out 
on well-considered theoretical grounds the likelihood of coal- 
measures being some day reached in that area. In this article 
he also advocated the freshwater origin of the Old Red Sand- 
stone, and discussed the relations of that formation, and "of the 
Devonian, to the Silurian and Carboniferous. He was elected 
F.R.S. in 1849, and in 1862 he was awarded the Wollaston medal 
by the Geological Society of London, on which occasion he was 
styled by Sir R. I. Murchison " pre-eminently the physical 
geographer of bygone periods." He died at Shalford House 
near Guildford on the 25th of November 1884. 

His son, Lieut. -Colonel HENRY HAVERSHAM GODWIN-AUSTEN 
(b. 1834), entered the army in r8si, and served for many years 
on the Trigonometrical Survey of India, retiring in 1877. He 
gave much attention to geology, but is more especially dis- 
tinguished for his researches on the natural history of India 
and as the author of The Land and Freshwater Mollusca of India 
(1882-1887). 

GODWINE (d. 1053), son of Wulfnoth, earl of the West- 
Saxons, the leading Englishman in the first half of the nth 
century. His birth and origin are utterly uncertain; but he 
rose to power early in Canute's reign and was an earl in 1018. 
He received in marriage Gytha, a connexion of the king's, and 
in 1020 became earl of the West-Saxons. On the death of Canute 
in 1035 he joined with Queen Emma in supporting the claim 
of Hardicanute, the son of Canute and Emma, to the crown of 
his father, in opposition to Leofric and the northern party who 
supported Harold Harefoot (see HARDICANUTE). While together 
they held Wessex for Hardicanute, the anheling Alfred, son of 
Emma by her former husband ^Ethelred II., landed in England 
in the hope of winning back his father's crown; but falling into 
the hands of Godwine, he and his followers were cruelly done to 
death. On the death of Hardicanute in 1042 Godwine was 
foremost in promoting the election of Edward (the Confessor) 
to the vacant throne. He was now the first man in the kingdom, 
though his power was still balanced by that of the other great 
earls, Leofric of Mercia and Siward of Northumberland. His 
sons Sweyn and Harold were promoted to earldoms; and his 
daughter Eadgyth was married to the king (1045). His policy 
was strongly national in opposition to the marked Normanizing 
tendencies of the king. Between him and Edward's foreign 
favourites, particularly Robert of Jumieges, there was deadly 
feud. The appointment of Robert to the archbishopric of Canter- 
bury in 1051 marks the decline of Godwine's power; and in the 
same year a series of outrages committed by one of the king's 
foreign favourites led to a breach between the king and the earl, 
which culminated in the exile of the latter with all his family (see 
EDWARD THE CONFESSOR). But next year Godwine returned in 
triumph; and at a great meeting held outside London he and 
his family were restored to all their offices and possessions, 
and the archbishop and many other Normans were banished. 
In the following year Godwine was smitten with a fit at the 
king's table, and died three days later on the isth of April 1053. 

Godwine appears to have had seven sons, three of whom 
King Harold, Gyrth and Leofwine were killed at Hastings; 
two others, Wulfnoth and JEligur, are of little importance; 
another was Earl Tostig (?..). The eldest son was Sweyn, or 
Swegen (d. 1052), who was outlawed for seducing Eadgifu 



abbess of Leominster. After fighting for the king of Denmark 
he returned to England in 1049, when his murder of his cousin 
Beorn compelled him to leave England for the second time. 
In 1050, however, he regained his earldom, and in 1051 he shared 
his father's exile. To atone for the murder of Beorn, Sweyn 
went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and on the return journey 
he died on the 2pth of September 1052, meeting his death, 
according to one account, at the hands of the Saracens. 

GODWIT, a word of unknown origin, the name commonly 
applied to a marsh-bird in great repute, when fattened, for the 
table, and formerly abundant in the fens of Norfolk, the Isle 
of Ely and Lincolnshire. In Turner's days (1544) it was worth 
three times as much as a snipe, and at the same peroid Belon 
said of it " C'est vn Oyseau es delices des Franfoys." Casaubon, 
who Latinized its name " Dei ingenium (Ephemerides, igth 
September 1611), was told by the " ornitholrophaeus " he visited 
at Wisbech that in London it fetched twenty pence. Its fame 
as a delicacy is perpetuated by many later writers, Ben Jonson 
among them, and Pennant says that in his time (1766) it sold for 
half-a-crown or five shillings. Under the name godwit two 
perfectly distinct species of British birds were included, but that 
which seems to have been especially prized is known to modern 
ornithologists as the black-tailed godwit, Limosa aegocephala, 
formerly called, from its loud cry, a yarwhelp, 1 shrieker or 
barker, in the districts it inhabited. The practice of netting 
this bird in large numbers during the spring and summer, coupled 
with the gradual reclamation of the fens, to which it resorted, 
has now rendered it but a visitor in England; and it probably 
ceased from breeding regularly in England in 1824 or thereabouts, 
though under favourable conditions it may have occasionally 
laid its eggs for some thirty years later or more (Stevenson, 
Birds of Norfolk, ii. 250). This godwit is a species of wide 
range, reaching Iceland, where it is called Jardraeka ( = earth- 
raker), in summer, and occurring numerously in India in winter. 
Its chief breeding-quarters seem to extend from Holland east- 
wards to the south of Russia. The second British species is that 
which is known as the bar-tailed godwit, L. lapponica, and this 
seems to have never been more than a bird of double passage 
in the United Kingdom, arriving in large flocks on the south 
coast about the I2th of May, and, after staying a few days, 
proceeding to the north-eastward. It is known to breed in 
Lapland, but its eggs are of great rarity. Towards autumn 
the young visit the English coasts, and a few of them remain, 
together with some of the other species, in favourable situations 
throughout the winter. One of the local names by which the 
bar-tailed godwit is known to the Norfolk gunners is scamell, 
a word which, in the mouth of Caliban (Tempest, n. ii.), has been 
the cause of much perplexity to Shakespearian critics. 

The godwits belong to the group Limicolae, and are about as 
big as a tame pigeon, but possess long legs, and a long bill with 
a slight upward turn. It is believed that in the genus Limosa 
the female is larger than the male. While the winter plumage 
is of a sober greyish-brown, the breeding-dress is marked by a 
predominance of bright bay or chestnut, rendering the wearer 
a very beautiful object. The black-tailed godwit, though varying 
a good deal in size, is constantly larger than the bar-tailed, and 
especially longer in the legs. The species may be further distin- 
guished by the former having the proximal third of the tail-quills 
pure white, and the distal two-thirds black, with a narrow white 
margin, while the latter has the same feathers barred with 
black and white alternately for nearly their whole length. 

America possesses two species of the genus, the very large 
marbled godwit or marlin, L. fedoa, easily recognized by its size 
and the buff colour of its axillaries, and the smaller Hudsonian 
godwit, L. hudsonica, which has its axillaries of a deep black. 
This last, though less numerous than its congener, seems to 
range over the whole of the continent, breeding in the extreme 
north, while it has been obtained also in the Strait of Magellan 
and the Falkland Islands. The first seems not to go farther 
southward than the Antilles and the Isthmus of Panama. 

1 This name seems to have survived in Whelp Moor, near Brandon, 
in Suffolk. 



i8o 



GOEBEN GOES, D. DE 



From Asia, or at least its eastern part, two species have 
been described. One of- them, L. melanuroides, differs only 
from L. aegocephala in its smaller size, and is believed to breed 
in Amurland, wintering in the islands of the Pacific, New 
Zealand and Australia. The other, L. uropygialis, is closely 
allied to and often mistaken for L. lapponica, from which it 
chiefly differs by having the rump barred like the tail. This 
was found breeding in the extreme north of Siberia by Dr von 
Middendorff, and ranges to Australia, whence it was, like the 
last, first described by Gould. (A. N.) 

GOEBEN, AUGUST KARL VON (1816-1880), Prussian 
general of infantry, came of old Hanoverian stock. Born at 
Stade on the loth of December 1816, he aspired from his earliest 
years to the Prussian service rather than that of his own country, 
and at the age of seventeen obtained a commission in the 24th 
regiment of Prussian infantry. But there was little scope there 
for the activities of a young and energetic subaltern, and, leaving 
the service in 1836, he entered the Carlist army campaigning in 
Spain. In the five campaigns which he made in the service of 
Don Carlos he had many and various vicissitudes of fortune. 
He had not fought for two months when he fell, severely wounded, 
into the hands of the Spanish Royal troops. After eight months' 
detention he escaped, but it was not long before he was captured 
again. This time his imprisonment was long and painful, and 
on two occasions he was compelled to draw lots for his life with 
his fellow-captives. When released, he served till 1840 with 
distinction. In that year he made his way back, a beggar 
without means or clothing, to Prussia. The Carlist lieutenant- 
colonel was glad to be re-admitted into the Prussian service as a 
second lieutenant, but he was still young, and few subalterns 
could at the age of twenty-four claim five years' meritorious 
war service. In a few years we find him serving as captain on the 
Great General Staff, and in 1848 he had the good fortune to be 
transferred to the staff of the IV. army corps, his immediate 
superior being Major von Moltke. The two " coming men " 
became fast friends, and their mutual esteem was never disturbed. 
In the Baden insurrection Goeben served with distinction on the 
staff of Prince William, the future emperor. Staff and regimental 
duty (as usual in the Prussian service) alternated for some years 
after this, till in 1863 he became major-general commanding the 
26th infantry brigade. In 1860, it should be mentioned, he 
was present with the Spanish troops in Morocco, and took part 
in the battle of Tetuan. 

In the first of Prussia's great wars (1864) he distinguished 
himself at the head of his brigade at Rackebiill and Sonderburg. 
In the war of 1866 Lieutenant-General von Goeben commanded 
the i3th division, of which his old brigade formed part, and, 
in this higher sphere, once more displayed the qualities of a born 
leader and skilful tactician. He held almost independent 
command with conspicuous success in the actions of Dermbach, 
Laufach, Kissingen, Aschaffenburg, Gerchsheim, Tauber- 
Bischofsheim and Wiirzburg. The mobilization of 1870 placed 
him at the head of the VIII. (Rhineland) army corps, forming 
part of the First Army under Steinmetz. It was his resolute and 
energetic leading that contributed mainly to the victory of 
Spicheren (6th August), and won the only laurels gained on the 
Prussian right wing at Gravelotte ( 1 8th August) . Under Manteuffel 
the VIII. corps took part in the operations about Amiens and 
Bapaume, and on the 8th of January 1871 Goeben succeeded 
that general in the command of the First Army, with which he 
had served throughout the campaign as a corps commander. 
A fortnight later he had brought the war in northern France 
to a brilliant conclusion, by the decisive victory of St Quentin 
(i8th and ipth January 1871). The close of the Franco-German 
War left Goeben one of the most distinguished men in the 
victorious army. He was colonel of the 28th infantry, and had 
the grand cross of the Iron Cross. He commanded the VIII. 
corps at Coblenz until his death in 1880. 

General von Goeben left many writings. His memoirs are to 
be found in his works Vier Jahre in Spanien (Hanover, 1841), 
Reise-und Lagerbriefe aus Spanien und vom spanischen Heere in 
Marokko (Hanover, 1863) and in the Darmstadt Allgemeine 



Militaneitung. The former French port (Queuleu) at Metz was 
renamed Goeben after him, and the 28th infantry bears his name. 
A statue of Goeben by Schaper was erected at Coblenz in 1884. 

See G. Zernin, Das Leben des Generals August von Coeben (2 vols., 
Berlin, 1895-1897) ; H. Earth, A. von Goeben (Berlin, 1906) ; and, for 
his share in the war of 1870-71; H. Kunz, Der Feldzug im N, und 
N.W. Frankreichs 1870-1871 (Berlin, 1889), and the I4th Monograph 
of the Great General Staff (1891). 

GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE (1836-1909), Dutch orientalist, 
was born in Friesland in 1836. He devoted himself at an early 
age to the study of oriental languages and became especially 
proficient in Arabic, under the guidance of Dozy and Juynboll, 
to whom he was afterwards an intimate friend and colleague. 
He took his degree of doctor at Leiden in 1860, and then studied 
fora year in Oxford, where he examined and collated the Bodleian 
MSS. of IdrisI (part being published in 1866, in collaboration 
with R. P. Dozy, as Description de I'Afrique el de I'Espagne). 
About the same time he wrote Memoires de Vhistoire el de la 
geographic orientales, and edited Expugnatio regionum. 'In 
1883, on the death of Dozy, he became Arabic professor at Leiden, 
retiring in 1906. He died on the i7th of May 1909. Though 
perhaps not a teacher of the first order, he wielded a great 
influence during his long professoriate not only over his pupils, 
but over theologians and eastern administrators who attended 
his lectures, and his many editions of Arabic texts have been of 
the highest value to scholars, the most important being his great 
edition of Tabari. Though entirely averse from politics, he took 
a keen interest in the municipal affairs of Leiden and made a 
special study of elementary education. He took the leading part 
in the International Congress of Orientalists at Algiers in 1905. 
He was a member of the Institut de France, was awarded the 
German Order of Merit, and received an honorary doctorate of 
Cambridge University. At his death he was president of the 
newly formed International Association of Academies of Science. 
Among his chief works are Fragmenta historicorum Arabicorum 
(1869-1871); Diwan of Moslim ibn al-Walid (1875); Bibliotheca 
geographorum Arabicorum (1870-1894); Annals of Tabari 
(1879-1901); edition of Ibn Qutaiba's biographies (1904); 
of the travels of Ibn Jubaye (1907, 5th vol. of Gibb Memorial). 
He was also the chief editor of the Encyclopaedia of Islam (vols. 
i.-iii.), and contributed many articles to periodicals. He wrote 
for the gth' and the present edition of the Encyclopaedia 
Britannica. 

GOES, DAMIAO DE (1502-1574), Portuguese humanist, was 
born of a patrician family at Alemquer, in February 1502. 
Under King John III. he was employed abroad for many years 
from 1523 on diplomatic and commercial missions, and he 
travelled over the greater part of Europe. He was intimate 
with the leading scholars of the time, was acquainted with Luther 
and other Protestant divines, and in 1532 became the pupil and 
friend of Erasmus. Goes took his degree at Padua in 1538 after 
a four years' course. In 1 53 7 , at the instance of his friend Cardinal 
Sadoleto, he undertook to mediate between the Church and the 
Lutherans, but failed through the attitude of the Protestants, 
He married in Flanders a rich and noble Dutch lady, D. Joanna 
de Hargen, and settled at Louvain, then the literary centre of 
the Low Countries, where he was living in 1542 when the French 
besieged the town. He was given the command of the defending 
forces, and saved Louvain, but was taken prisoner and confined 
for nine months in France, till he obtained his freedom by a 
heavy ransom. He was rewarded, however, by a grant of arms 
from Charles V. He finally returned to Portugal in 1545, with 
a view of becoming tutor to the king's son, but he failed to 
obtain this post, owing to the denunciations of Father Simon 
Rodriguez, provincial of the Jesuits, who accused Goes of 
favouring the Lutheran doctrines and of being a disciple of 
Erasmus. Nevertheless in 1548 he was appointed chief keeper 
of the archives and royal chronicler, and at once introduced 
some much-needed reforms into the administration of his office. 

In 1558 he was given a commission to write a history of the 
reign of King Manoel, a task previously confided to Joao de 
Barros, but relinquished by him. It was an onerous undertaking 
for a conscientious historian, since it was necessary to expose 



GOES, H. VAN DER GOES 



181 



the miseries as well as relate the glories of the period, and so to 
offend some of the most powerful families. Goes had already 
written a Chronicle of Prince John (afterwards John II.), and 
when, after more than eight years' labour, he produced the First 
Part of his Chronicle of King Manoel (1566), a chorus of attacks 
greeted it, the edition was destroyed, and he was compelled to 
issue a revised version. He brought out the three other parts 
in 1566-1567, though chapters 23 to 27 of the Third Part were 
so mutilated by the censorship that the printed text differs 
'largely from the MS. Hitherto Goes, notwithstanding his Liberal- 
ism, had escaped the Inquisition, though in 1540 his Fides, 
religio, moresque Aethiopum had been prohibited by the chief 
inquisitor, Cardinal D. Henrique; but the denunciation of 
Father Rodriguez in 1545, which had been vainly renewed in 
1550, was now brought into action, and in 1571 he was arrested 
to stand his trial. There seems to be no doubt that the Inquisi- 
tion made itself on this occasion, as on others, the instrument of 
private enmity; for eighteen months Goes lay ill in prison, and 
then he was condemned, though he had lived for thirty years as 
a faithful Catholic, and the worst that could be proved against 
him was that in his youth he had spoken against Indulgences, 
disbelieved in auricular confession, and consorted with heretics. 
He was sentenced to a term of reclusion, and his property was 
confiscated to the crown. After he had abjured his errors in 
private, he was sent at the end of 1572 to do penance at the 
monastery of Batalha. Later he was allowed to return home 
to Alemquer, where he died on the 3oth of January 1574. He 
was buried in the church of Nossa Senhora da Varzea. 

Damiao de Goes was a man of wide culture and genial and 
courtly manners, a skilled musician and a good linguist. He 
wrote both Portuguese and Latin with classic strength and 
simplicity, and his style is free from affectation and rhetorical 
ornaments. His portrait by Albrecht Diirer shows an open, 
intelligent face, and the record of his life proves him to have 
been upright and fearless. His prosperity doubtless excited 
ill-will, but above all, his ideas, advanced for Portugal, his foreign 
ways, outspokenness and honesty contributed to the tragedy 
of his end, at a time when the forces of ignorant reaction held 
the ascendant. He had, it may be presumed, given some um- 
brage to the court by condemning, in the Chronicle of King 
Manoel, the royal ingratitude to distinguished public servants, 
though he received a pension and other rewards for that work, 
and he had certainly offended the nobility by his administration 
of the archive office and by exposing false genealogical claims 
in his Nobiliario. He paid the penalty for telling the truth, as 
he knew it, in an age when an historian had to choose between 
flattery of the great and silence. The Chronicle of King Manoel 
was the first official history of a Portuguese reign to be written 
in a critical spirit, and Damiao de Goes has the honour of having 
been the first Portuguese royal chronicler to deserve the name 
of an historian. 

His Portuguese works include Chronica do felicissimo rei Dom 
Emanuel (parts i. and ii., Lisbon, 1566, parts iii. and iv., ib. 
1567). Other editions appeared in Lisbon in 1619 and 1749 and in 
Coimbra in 1790. Chronica do principe Dom Joam (Lisbon, 1558), 
with subsequent editions in 1567 and 1724 in Lisbon and in 1790 in 
Coimbra. Lima de Marco Tullio Ciceram chamado Catam Mayor 
(Venice, 1538). This is a translation of Cicero's De senectute. His 
Latin works, published separately, comprise: (i) Legatio magni im- 
peratoris Presbileri Joannis, &c. (Antwerp, 1532) ; (2) Legatio Davidis 
Ethiopiae regis, &c. (Bologna, 1533) ; (3) Commentarii rerum gestarum 
in India (Louvain, 1539); (4) Fides, religio, moresque Aethiopum 
(Louvain, !54o),incorporatingNos.(i) and (2) ;(5)His/>az'a(Louvain, 
1542); (6) Aliquot epfstolae Sadoleti Bembi et aliorum darissimorum 
virorum, &c. (Louvain, 1544); (7) Damiani a Goes equitis Lusitani 
aliquot opuscula (Louvain, 1544) ; (8) U rbis Lovaniensis obsidia(L\sbon, 
I54 6 ) ; (9) De bellp Cambaico ultimo (Louvain, 1549) ; (10) Urbis Olisi- 
ponensis descriptio (E vora, 1 554) ; ( 1 1 ) Epistola ad Hieronymum Car do- 
sum (Lisbon, 1556). Most of the above went through several editions, 
and many were afterwards included with new works in such collections 
as No. (7), and seven sets of Opuscula appeared, all incomplete. 
Nos. (3), (4) and (5) suffered mutilation in subsequent editions, 
at the hands of the censors, because they offended against religious 
orthodoxy or family pride. 

AUTHORITIES. (A) Joaquim de Vasconcellos, Goesiana (5 vols.), 
with the following sub-titles: (i) O Retrato de Albrecht Diirer 
(Porto, 1879); (2) Bibliographia (Porto, 1879), which describes 67 



numbers of books by Goes; (3) As Variances das Chronicas Portu- 
guezas (Porto, 1881); (4) Damiao de Goes: Nonas Estudos (Porto, 
'897) ; (5) As Cartas Latinas in the press (1906). Snr. Vasconcellos 
only printed a very limited number of copies of these studies for 
distribution among friends, so that they are rare. (B) Guilherme 
J. C. Henriques, Ineditos Goesianos, vol. i. (Lisbon, 1896), vol. ii. 
(containing the proceedings at the trial by the Inquisition) (Lisbon, 
1898). (C) A. P. Lopes de Mendonca, Damiao de Goes e a Inquisifdo 
de Portugal (Lisbon, 1859). (D) Dr Sousa Viterbo, Damiao de Goes 
e D. Antonio Pinheiro (Coimbra, 1895). (E) Dr Theophilo Braga, 
Historia da Universidade de Coimbra (Lisbon, 1892), i. 374-380. 
(F) Menendez y Pelayo, Historia de los Heter. Espanoles, ii. 
129-143- (E. PR.) 

GOES, HUGO VAN DER (d. 1482), a painter of consider- 
able celebrity at Ghent, was known to Vasari, as he is known to 
us, by a single picture in a Florentine monastery. At a period 
when the family of the Medici had not yet risen from the rank 
of a great mercantile firm to that of a reigning dynasty, it em- 
ployed as an agent at the port of Bruges Tommaso Portinari, a 
lineal descendant, it was said, of Folco, the father of Dante's 
Beatrix. Tommaso, at that time patron of a chapel in the hospital 
of Santa Maria Nuova at Florence, ordered an altar-piece of 
Hugo van der Goes, and commanded him to illustrate the sacred 
theme of " Quem genuit adoravit." In the centre of a vast 
triptych, comprising numerous figures of life size, Hugo repre- 
sented the Virgin kneeling in adoration before the new-born 
Christ attended by Shepherds and Angels. On the wings he 
portrayed Tommaso and his two sons in prayer under the pro- 
tection of Saint Anthony and St Matthew, and Tommaso's 
wife and two daughters supported by St Margaret and St Mary 
Magdalen. The triptych, which has suffered much from decay 
and restoring, was for over 400 years at Santa Maria Nuova, 
and is now in the Uffizi Gallery. Imposing because composed 
of figures of unusual size, the altar-piece is more remarkable 
for portrait character than for charms of ideal beauty. 

There are also small pieces in public galleries which claim to 
have been executed by Van der Goes. One of these pictures in 
the National Gallery in London is more nearly allied to the school 
of Memling than to the triptych of Santa Maria Nuova; another, 
a small and very beautiful " John the Baptist," at the Pina- 
kothek of Munich, is really by Memling; whilst numerous frag- 
ments of an altarpiece in the Belvedere at Vienna, though 
assigned to Hugo, are by his more gifted countryman of Bruges. 
Van der Goes, however, was not habitually a painter of easel 
pieces. He made his reputation at Bruges by producing coloured 
hangings in distemper. After he settled at Ghent, and became a 
master of his gild in 1465, he designed cartoons for glass windows. 
He also made decorations for the wedding of Charles the Bold and 
Margaret of York in 1468, for the festivalsof the Rhetoricians and 
papal jubilees on repeated occasions, for the solemn entry of 
Charles the Bold into Ghent in 1470-1471, and for the funeral of 
Philip the Good in 1474. The labour which he expended on 
these occasions might well add to his fame without being the 
less ephemeral. About the year 1475 he retired to the monastery 
of Rouge Cloitre near Ghent, where he took the cowl. There, 
though he still clung to his profession, he seems to have 
taken to drinking, and at one time to have shown decided 
symptoms of insanity. But his superiors gradually cured him 
of his intemperance, and he died in the odour of sanctity in 
1482. 

GOES, a town in the province of Zeeland, Holland, on the island 
of South Beveland, nj m. by rail E. of Middelburg. Pop. (1900) 
6919. It is connected by a short canal with the East Scheldt, 
and has a good harbour (1819) defended by a fort. The principal 
buildings are the interesting Gothic church (1423) and the 
picturesque old town hall (restored 1771). There are various 
educational and charitable institutions. Goes has preserved 
for centuries its prosperous position as the market-town of the 
island. The chief industries are boat-building, brewing, book- 
binding and cigar-making. The town had its origin in the 
castle of Oostende, built here by the noble family of Borssele- 
It received a charter early in the isth century from the 
countess Jacoba of Holland, who frequently stayed at the 
castle. 



182 



GOETHE 



GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON (1749-1832), German 
poet, dramatist and philosopher, was born at Frankfort-on-Main 
on the zSth of August 1749. He came, on his father's side, of 
Thuringian stock, his great-grandfather, Hans Christian Goethe, 
having been a farrier at Artern-on-the-Unstrut, about the 
middle of the I7th century. Hans Christian's son, Friedrich 
Georg, was brought up to the trade of a tailor, and in this 
capacity settled in Frankfort in 1686. A second marriage, 
however, brought him into possession of the Frankfort inn, 
" Zum Weidenhof," and he ended his days as a well-to-do inn- 
keeper. His son, Johann Kaspar, the poet's father (1710-1782), 
studied law at Leipzig, and, after going through the prescribed 
courses of practical training at Wetzlar, travelled in Italy. 
He hoped, on his return to Frankfort, to obtain an official 
position in the government of the free city, but his personal 
influence with the authorities was not sufficiently strong. In 
his disappointment he resolved never again to offer his services 
to his native town, and retired into private life, a course which 
his ample means facilitated. In 1742 he acquired, as a consola- 
tion for the public career he had missed, the title of kaiserlicher 
Rat, and in 1748 married Katharina Elisabeth (1731-1808), 
daughter of the Schullheiss or Bur germeister of Frankfort, 
Johann Wolfgang Textor. The poet was the eldest son of this 
union. Of the later children only one, Cornelia, born in 1750, 
survived the years of childhood; she died as the wife of Goethe's 
friend, J. G. Schlosser, in 1777. The best elements in Goethe's 
genius came from his mother's side; of a lively, impulsive 
disposition, and gifted with remarkable imaginative power, 
Frau Rat was the ideal mother of a poet; moreover, being 
hardly eighteen at the time of her son's birth, she was herself 
able to be the companion of his childhood. From his father, 
whose stern, somewhat pedantic nature repelled warmer feelings 
on the part of the children, Goethe inherited that " holy earnest- 
ness " and stability of character which brought him unscathed 
through temptations and passions, and held the balance to his 
all too powerful imagination. 

Unforgettable is the picture which the poet subsequently 
drew of his childhood spent in the large house with its many 
nooks and crannies, in the Grosse Hirschgraben at Frankfort. 
Books, pictures, objects of art, antiquities, reminiscences of 
Rat Goethe's visit to Italy, above all a marionette theatre, 
kindled the child's quick intellect and imagination. His training 
was conducted in its early stages by his father, and was later 
supplemented by tutors. Meanwhile the varied and picturesque 
life of Frankfort was in itself an education. In 1759, during the 
Seven Years' War, the French, as Maria Theresa's allies, occupied 
the town, and, much to the irritation of Goethe's father, who 
was a stanch partisan of Frederick the Great, a French lieu- 
tenant, Count Thoranc, was quartered on the Goethe household. 
The foreign occupation also led to the establishment of a French 
troupe of actors, and to their performances the boy, through his 
grandfather's influence, had free access. Goethe has also recorded 
his memories of another picturesque event, the coronation of the 
emperor Joseph II. in the Frankfort Romer or town hall in 1764; 
but these memories were darkened by being associated in his 
mind with the tragic denouement of his first love affair. The 
object of this passion was a certain Gretchen, who seems to have 
taken advantage of the boy's interest in her to further the 
dishonest ends of one of her friends. The discovery of the affair 
and the investigation that followed cooled Goethe's ardour and 
caused him to turn his attention seriously to the studies which 
were to prepare him for the university. Meanwhile the literary 
instinct had begun to show itself; we hear of a novel in letters 
a kind of linguistic exercise, in which the characters carried on 
the correspondence in different languages of a prose epic on 
the subject of Joseph, and various religious poems of which one, 
Die Hollenfahrt Christi, found its way in a revised form into the 
poet's complete works. 

In October 1765, Goethe, then a little over sixteen, left Frank- 
fort for Leipzig, where a wider and, in many respects, less 
provincial life awaited him. He entered upon his university 
studies with zeal, but his own education in Frankfort had not 



been the best preparation for the scholastic methods which still 
dominated the German universities; of his professors, only 
Gellert seems to have won his interest, and that interest was soon 
exhausted. The literary beginnings he had made in Frankfort 
now seemed to him amateurish and trivial; he felt that he had 
to turn over a new leaf, and, under the guidance of E. W. Behrisch, 
a genial, original comrade, he learned the art of writing those 
light Anacreontic lyrics which harmonized with the tone of polite 
Leipzig society. Artificial as this poetry is, Goethe was, neverthe- 
less, inspired by a real passion in Leipzig, namely, for Anna 
Katharina Schonkopf, the daughter of a wine-merchant at whose 
house he dined. She is the " Annette " after whom the recently 
discovered collection of lyrics was named, although it must be 
added that neither these lyrics nor the Neue Lieder, published in 
1770, express very directly Goethe's feelings for Kathchen 
Schonkopf. To his Leipzig student-days belong also two small 
plays in Alexandrines, Die Laune des Verliebten, a pastoral 
comedy in one act, which reflects the lighter side of the poet's 
love affair, and Die Mitschuldigen (published in a revised form, 
1769), a more sombre picture, in which comedy is incongruously 
mingled with ragedy. In Leipzig Goethe also had time for what 
remained one of the abiding interests of his life, for art; he re- 
garded A. F. Oeser (1717-1799), the director of the academy of 
painting in the Pleissenburg, who had given him lessons in drawing, 
as the teacher who in Leipzig had influenced him most. His art 
studies were also furthered by a short visit to Dresden. His stay 
in Leipzig came, however, to an abrupt conclusion; the dis- 
tractions of student life proved too much for his strength; a 
sudden haemorrhage supervened, and he lay long ill, first in 
Leipzig, and, after it was possible to remove him, at home in 
Frankfort. These months of slow recovery were a time of serious 
introspection for Goethe. He still corresponded with his Leipzig 
friends, but the tone of his letters changed ; life had become 
graver and more earnest for him. He pored over books on occult 
philosophy; he busied himself with alchemy and astrology. A 
friend of his mother's, Susanne Katharina von Klettenberg, who 
belonged to pietist circles in Frankfort, turned the boy's thoughts 
to religious mysticism. On his recovery his father resolved that 
he should complete his legal studies at Strassburg, a city which, 
although then outside the German empire, was, in respect of 
language and culture, wholly German. From the first moment 
Goethe set foot in the narrow streets of the Alsatian capital, in 
April 1770, the whole current of his thought seemed to change. 
The Gothic architecture of the Strassburg minster became to 
him the symbol of a national and German ideal, directly anta- 
gonistic to the French tastes and the classical and rationalistic 
atmosphere that prevailed in Leipzig. The second moment of 
importance in Goethe's Strassburg period was his meeting with 
Herder, who spent some weeks in Strassburg undergoing an opera- 
tion of the eye. In this thinker, who was his senior by five years, 
Goethe found the master he sought; Herder taught him the 
significance of Gothic architecture, revealed to him the charm 
of nature's simplicity, and inspired him with enthusiasm for 
Shakespeare and the Volkslied. Meanwhile Goethe's legal studies 
were not neglected, and he found time to add to knowledge of 
other subjects, notably that of medicine. Another factor of 
importance in Goethe's Strassburg life was his love for Friederike 
Brion, the daughter of an Alsatian village pastor in Sesenheim. 
Even more than Herder's precept and example, this passion showed 
Goethe how trivial and artificial had been the Anacreontic and 
pastoral poetry with which he had occupied himself in Leipzig ; 
and the lyrics inspired by Friederike, such as Kleine Blumen, 
kleine Blatter and Wie herrlich leuchtet mir die Natur ! mark the 
beginning of a new epoch in German lyric poetry. The idyll of 
Sesenheim, as described in Dichlung und Wahrheit, is one of the 
most beautiful love-stories in the literature of the world. From 
the first, however, it was clear that Friederike Brion could never 
become the wife of the Frankfort patrician's son; an unhappy 
ending to the romance was unavoidable, and, as is to be seen in 
passionate outpourings like the Wanderers Sturmlied. and in the 
bitter self -accusations of Clavigo, it left deep wounds on the poet's 
sensitive soul. 



GOETHE 



183 



To Strassburg we owe Goethe's first important drama, Gotz 
von Berlichingen, or, as it was called in its earliest form, 
Geschichte Gotlfriedens von Berlichingen dramalisiert (not published 
until 1831). Revised under the now familiar title, it appeared in 
1773, after Goethe's return to Frankfort. In estimating this 
drama we must bear in mind Goethe's own Strassburg life, and 
the turbulent spirit of his own age, rather than the historical facts, 
which the poet found in the autobiography of his hero published 
in 1731. The latter supplied only the rough materials; the Gotz 
von Berlichingen whom Goethe drew, with his lofty ideals of 
right and wrong, and his enthusiasm for freedom, is a very 
different personage from the unscrupulous robber-knight of the 
i6th century, the rough friend of Franz von Sickingen and of the 
revolting peasants. Still less historical justification is to be found 
for the vacillating Weisslingen in whom Goethe executed poetic 
justice on himself as the lover of Friederike, or in the women of 
the play, the gentle Maria, the heartless Adelheid. But there is 
genial, creative power in the very subjectivity of these characters, 
and a vigorous dramatic life, which is irresistible in its appeal. 
With Gotz von Berlichingen, Shakespeare's art first triumphed on 
the German stage, and the literary movement known as Sturm 
und Drang was inaugurated. 

Having received his degree in Strassburg, Goethe returned 
home in August 1771, and began his initiation into the routine of 
an advocate's profession. In the following year, in order to gain 
insight into another side of his calling, he spent four months at 
Wetzlar, where the imperial law-courts were established. But 
Goethe's professional duties had only a small share in the eventful 
years which lay between his return from Strassburg and that visit 
to Weimar at the end of 1775, which turned the whole course of 
his career, and resulted in his permanent attachment to the 
Weimar court. Goethe's life in Frankfort was a round of stimulat- 
ing literary intercourse; in J. H. Merck (1741-1791), an army 
official in the neighbouring town of Darmstadt, he found a friend 
and mentor, whose irony and common-sense served as a corrective 
to his own exuberance of spirits. Wetzlar brought new friends 
and another passion, that for Charlotte Buff, the daughter of the 
A mtmann there a love-story which has been immortalized in 
Werthers Leiden and again the young poet's nature was obsessed 
by a love which was this time strong enough to bring him to 
the brink of that suicide with which the novel ends. A visit to 
the Rhine, where new interests and the attractions of Maximiliane 
von Laroche, a daughter of Wieland's friend, the novelist Sophie 
von Laroche, brought partial healing; his intense preoccupation 
with literary work on his return to Frankfort did the rest. In 
1775 Goethe was attracted by still another type of woman, Lili 
Schonemann, whose mother was the widow of a wealthy Frankfort 
banker. A formal betrothal took place, and the beauty of the 
lyrics which Lili inspired leaves no room for doubt that here was 
a passion no less genuine than that for Friederike or Charlotte. 
But Goethe more worldly wise than on former occasions felt 
instinctively that the gay, social world in which Lili moved was 
not really congenial to him. A visit to Switzerland in the 
summer of 1775 may not have weakened his interest in her, but it 
at least allowed him to regard her objectively; and, without tragic 
consequences on either side, the passion was ultimately allowed to 
yield to the dictates of common-sense. Goethe's departure for 
Weimar in November made the final break less difficult. 

The period from 1771 to 1775 was, in literary respects, the 
most productive of the poet's life. It had been inaugurated 
with Gotz von Berlichingen, and a few months later this tragedy 
was followed by another, Clavigo, hardly less convincing in its 
character-drawing, and reflecting even more faithfully than the 
former the experiences Goethe had gone through in Strassburg. 
Again poetic justice is effected on the unfortunate hero who 
has chosen his own personal advancement in preference to his 
duty to the woman he loves; more pointedly than in Golz is 
the moral enforced by Clavigo's worldly friend Carlos, that the 
ground of Clavigo's tragic end lies not so much in the defiance 
of a moral law as in the hero's vacillation and want of character. 
With Die Leiden des jungen Werlhers (1774), the literary 
precipitate of the author's own experiences in Wetzlar, Goethe 



succeeded in attracting, as no German had done before him, 
the attention of Europe. Once more it was the gospel that the 
world belongs to the strong, which lay beneath the surface of 
this romance. This, however, was not the lesson which was 
drawn from it by Goethe's contemporaries; they shed tears 
of sympathy over the lovelorn youth whose burden becomes 
too great for him to bear. While Gotz inaugurated the manlier 
side of the Sturm und Drang literature, Werther was responsible 
for its sentimental excesses. And to the sentimental rather 
than to the heroic side belongs also Stella, " a drama for lovers," 
in which the poet again reproduced, if with less fidelity than in 
Werther, certain aspects of his own love troubles. A lighter 
vein is to be observed in various dramatic satires written at this 
time, such as Cotter, Helden und Wieland (1774), Hanswursts 
Hochzeit, Fastnachtsspiel vom Paler Brey, Salyros, and in the 
Singspiele, Erwin und Elmire (1775) and Claudine von Villa 
Bella (1776); while in the Frankfurter Gelehrle Anzeiger (1772- 
I 773)> Goethe drove home the principles of the new movement 
of Sturm und Drang in terse and pointed criticism. The exuber- 
ance of the young poet's genius is also to be seen in the many 
unfinished fragments of this period; at one time we find him 
occupied with dramas on Caesar and Mahomet, at another with 
an epic on Der ewige Jude, and again with a tragedy on Prometheus, 
of which a magnificent fragment has passed into his works. 
Greatest of all the torsos of this period, however, was the drama- 
tization of Faust. Thanks to a manuscript copy of the play in 
its earliest form discovered as recently as 1887 we are now 
able to distinguish how much of this tragedy was the immediate 
product of the Sturm und Drang, and to understand the intentions 
with which the young poet began his masterpiece. Goethe's 
hero changed with the author's riper experience and with his new 
conceptions of man's place and duties in the world, but the 
Gretchen tragedy was taken over into the finished poem, practi- 
cally unaltered, from the earliest Faust of the Sturm und Drang. 
With these wonderful scenes, the most intensely tragic in all 
German literature, Goethe's poetry in this period reaches its 
climax. Still another important work, however, was conceived, 
and in large measure written at this time, the drama of Egmont, 
which was not published until 1788. This work may, to some 
extent, be regarded as supplementary to Faust; it presents the 
lighter, more cheerful and optimistic side of Goethe's philosophy 
in these years; Graf Egmont, the most winning and fascinating 
of the poet's heroes, is endowed with that " demonic " power 
over the sympathies of men and women, which Goethe himself 
possessed in so high a degree. But Egmont depends for its 
interest almost solely on two characters, Egmont himself and 
Klarchen, Gretchen's counterpart; regarded as a drama, it 
demonstrates the futility of that defiance of convention and 
rules with which the Sturm und Drang set out. It remained for 
Goethe, in the next period of his life, to construct on classic 
models a new vehicle for German dramatic poetry. 

In December 1774 the young " hereditary prince " of Weimar, 
Charles Augustus, passing through Frankfort on his way to Paris, 
came into personal touch with Goethe, and invited the poet to 
visit Weimar when, in the following year, he took up the reins 
of government. In October 1775 the invitation was repeated, 
and on the 7th of November of that year Goethe arrived in the 
little Saxon capital which was to remain his home for the rest of 
his life. During the first few months in Weimar the poet gave 
himself up to the pleasures of the moment as unreservedly as 
his patron; indeed, the Weimar court even looked upon him for 
a time as a tempter who led the young duke astray. But the 
latter, although himself a mere stripling, had implicit faith in 
Goethe, and a firm conviction that his genius could be utilized 
in other fields besides literature. Goethe was not long in Weimar 
before he was entrusted with responsible state duties, and events 
soon justified the duke's confidence. Goethe proved the soul 
of the Weimar government, and a minister of state of energy 
and foresight. He interested himself in agriculture, horticulture 
and mining, which were of paramount importance to the welfare 
of the duchy, and out of these interests sprang his own love for 
the natural sciences, which took up so much of his time in later 



184 



GOETHE 



years. The inevitable love-interest was also not wanting. As 
Friederike had fitted into the background of Goethe's Strassburg 
life, Lotte into that of Wetzlar, and Lili into the gaieties of 
Frankfort, so now Charlotte von Stein, the wife of a Weimar 
official, was the personification of the more aristocratic ideals of 
Weimar society. We possess only the poet's share of his corre- 
spondence with Frau von Stein, but it is possible to infer from 
it that, of all Goethe's loves, this was intellectually the most 
worthy of him. Frau von Stein was a woman of refined literary 
taste and culture, seven years older than he and the mother of 
seven children. There was something more spiritual, something 
that partook rather of the passionate friendships of the i8th 
century than of love in Goethe's relations with her. Frau von 
Stein dominated the poet's life for twelve years, until his journey 
to Italy in 1786-1788. Of other events of this period the most 
notable were two winter journeys, the first in 1777, to the Harz 
Mountains, the second, two years later, to Switzerland journeys 
which gave Goethe scope for that introspection and reflection 
for which his Weimar life left him little time. On the second of 
these journeys he revisited Friederike in Sesenheim, saw Lili, 
who had married and settled in Strassburg, and made the 
personal acquaintance of Lavater in Zurich. 

The literary results of these years cannot be compared with 
those of the preceding period; they are virtually limited to a 
few wonderful lyrics, such as Wanderers Nachtlied, An den Mond, 
Gesang der Geister ubcr den Wassern, or ballads, such as Der 
Erlkonig, a charming little drama, Die Geschwister (1776), in 
which the poet's relations to both Lili and Frau von Stein seem 
to be reflected, a dramatic satire, Der Triumph der Empfindsamkeit 
(1778), and a number of Singspiele, Lila (1777), Die Fischerin, 
Scherz, List und Rache, and Jery und Biitely (1780). But greater 
works were in preparation. A religious epic, Die Geheimnisse, and 
a tragedy Elpenor, did not, it is true, advance much further 
than plans; but in 1777, under the influence of the theatrical 
experiments at the Weimar court, Goethe conceived and in great 
measure wrote a novel of the theatre, which was to have borne 
the title Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung; and in 1779 
himself took part in a representation before the court at Etters- 
burg, of his drama Iphigenie auf Tauris. This Iphigenie was, 
however, in prose; in the following year Goethe remoulded it 
in iambics, but it was not until he went to Rome that the drama 
finally received the form in which we know it. 

In September, 1786 Goethe set out from Karlsbad secretly 
and stealthily, his plan known only to his servant on that 
memorable journey to Italy, to which he had looked forward 
with such intense longing; he could not cross the Alps quickly 
enough, so impatient was he to set foot in Italy. He travelled 
by way of Munich, the Brenner and Lago di Garda to Verona 
and Venice, and from thence to Rome, where he arrived on the 
29th of October 1786. Here he gave himself up unreservedly 
to the new impressions which crowded on him, and he was soon 
at home among the German artists in Rome, who welcomed him 
warmly. In the spring of 1787 he extended his journey as far 
as Naples and Sicily, returning to Rome in June 1787, where he 
remained until his final departure for Germany on the and of 
April 1788. It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of 
Goethe's Italian journey. He himself regarded it as a kind of 
climax to his life; never before had he attained such complete 
understanding of his genius and mission in the world ; it afforded 
him a vantage-ground from which he could renew the past and 
make plans for the future. In Weimar he had felt that he was no 
longer in sympathy with the Sturm und Drang, but it was Italy 
which first taught him clearly what might take the place of that 
movement in German poetry. To the modern reader, who 
may well be impressed by Goethe's extraordinary receptivity, 
it may seem strange that his interests in Italy were so limited; 
for, after all, he saw comparatively little of the art treasures of 
Italy. He went to Rome in Winckelmann's footsteps; it was 
the antique he sought, and his interest in the artists of the 
Renaissance was virtually restricted to their imitation of classic 
models. This search for the classic ideal is reflected in the works 
he completed or wrote under the Italian sky. The calm beauty 



of Greek tragedy is seen in the new iambic version of Iphigenie 
auf Tauris (1787); the classicism of the Renaissance gives the 
ground-tone to the wonderful drama of Torquato Tasso (1790), 
in which the conflict of poetic genius with the prosaic world is 
transmuted into imperishable poetry. Classic, too, in this 
sense, were the plans of a drama on Iphigenie auf Delphos and 
of an epic, Nausikaa. Most interesting of all, however, is the 
reflection of the classic spirit in works already begun in earlier 
days, such as Egmont and Faust. The former drama was finished 
in Italy and appeared in 1788, the latter was brought a step 
further forward, part of it being published as a Fragment in 1790. 

Disappointment in more senses than one awaited Goethe on 
his return to Weimar. He came back from Italy with a new 
philosophy of life, a philosophy at once classic and pagan, and 
with very definite ideas of what constituted literary excellence. 
But Germany had not advanced; in 1788 his countrymen were 
still under the influence of that Sturm und Drang from which 
the poet had fled. The times seemed to him more out of joint 
than ever, and he withdrew into himself. Even his relations to 
the old friends were changed. Frau von Stein had not known 
of his flight to Italy until she received a letter from Rome; but 
he looked forward to her welcome on his return. The months 
of absence, however, the change he had undergone, and doubtless 
those lighter loves of which the Romische Elegien bear evidence, 
weakened the Weimar memories; if he left Weimar as Frau von 
Stein's lover he returned only as her friend; and she naturally 
resented the change. Goethe, meanwhile, satisfied to continue 
the freer customs to which he had adapted himself in Rome, 
found a new mistress in Christiane Vulpius (1765-1816), the 
least interesting of all the women who attracted him. But 
Christiane gradually filled up a gap in the poet's life; she gave 
him, quietly, unobtrusively, without making demands on him, 
the comforts of a home. She was not accepted by court society; 
it did not matter to her that even Goethe's intimate friends 
ignored her; and she, who had suited the poet's whim when he 
desired to shut himself off from all that might dim the recollection 
of Italy, became with the years an indispensable helpmate to 
him. On the birth in 1789 of his son, Goethe had some thought 
of legalizing his relations with Christiane, but this intention was 
not realized until 1806, when the invasion of Weimar by the 
French made him fear for both life and property. 

The period of Goethe's life which succeeded his return from 
Italy was restless and unsettled; relieved of his state duties, 
he returned in 1790 to Venice, only to be disenchanted with the 
Italy he had loved so intensely a year or two before. A journey 
with the duke of Weimar to Breslau followed, and in 1792 he 
accompanied his master on that campaign against France which 
ended so ingloriously for the German arms at Valmy. In later 
years Goethe published his account both of this Campagne in 
Frankreich and of the Belagerung von Mainz, at which he was 
also present in 1793. His literary work naturally suffered under 
these distractions. Tasso, and the edition of the Schriften in 
which it was to appear, had still to be completed on his return 
from Italy; the Romische Elegien, perhaps the most Latin of all 
his works, were published in 1795, and the Venetianische Epi- 
gramme, the result of the second visit to Italy, in 1796. The 
French Revolution, in which all Europe was engrossed, was in 
Goethe's eyes only another proof that the passing of the old 
regime meant the abrogation of all law and order, and he gave 
voice to his antagonism to the new democratic principles in the 
dramas Der Grosskophta (1792), Der Biirgergeneral (1793), and 
in the unfinished fragments Die Aufgeregten and Das Madchen 
von Oberkirch. The spirited translation of the epic of Reinecke 
Fucks (1794) he took up as a relief and an antidote to the social 
disruption of the time. Two new interests, however, strengthened 
the ties between Goethe and Weimar, ties which the Italian 
journey had threatened to sever: his appointment in 1791 as 
director of the ducal theatre, a post which he occupied for 
twenty-two years, and his absorption in scientific studies. In 
1790 he published his important Versuch, die Metamorphose der 
Pflanzen zu erkldreh, which was an even more fundamental 
achievement for the new science of comparative morphology 






GOETHE 



185 



than his discovery some six years earlier of the existence of a 
formation in the human jaw-bone analogous to the intermaxillary 
bone in apes; and in 1791 and 1792 appeared two parts of his 
Beilrage zur Optik. 

Meanwhile, however, Goethe had again taken up the novel 
of the theatre which he had begun years before, with a view to 
finishing it and including it in the edition of his Neue Schrijlen 
(1792-1800). Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung became 
Wilhelm Meislers Lehrjahre; the novel of purely theatrical 
interests was widened out to embrace the history of a young 
man's apprenticeship to life. The change of plan explains, 
although it may not exculpate, the formlessness and loose 
construction of the work, its extremes of realistic detail and 
poetic allegory. A hero, who was probably originally intended 
to demonstrate the failure of the vacillating temperament when 
brought face to face with the problems of art, proved ill-adapted 
to demonstrate those precepts for the guidance of life with which 
the Lehrjahre closes; unstable of purpose, Wilhelm Meister is 
not so much an illustration of the author's life-philosophy as a 
lay-figure on which he demonstrates his views. Wilhelm Meister 
is a work of extraordinary variety, ranging from the commonplace 
realism of the troupe of strolling players to the poetic romanticism 
of Mignon and the harper; its flashes of intuitive criticism and 
its weighty apothegms add to its value as a Bildungsroman in 
the best sense of that word. Of all Goethe's works, this exerted 
the most immediate and lasting influence on German literature; 
it served as a model for the best fiction of the next thirty years. 

In completing Wilhelm Meister, Goethe found a sympathetic 
and encouraging critic in Schiller, to whom he owed in great 
measure his renewed interest in poetry. After years of tentative 
approaches on Schiller's part, years in which that poet concealed 
even from himself his desire for a friendly understanding with 
Goethe, the favourable moment arrived; it was in June 1794, 
when Schiller was seeking collaborators for his new periodical 
Die Horen; and his invitation addressed to Goethe was the 
beginning of a friendship which continued unbroken until the 
younger poet's death. The friendship of Goethe and Schiller, 
of which their correspondence is a priceless record, had its 
limitations; it was purely intellectual in character, a certain 
barrier of personal reserve being maintained to the last. But 
for the literary life of both poets the gain was incommensurable. 
As far as actual work was concerned, Goethe went his own way 
as he had always been accustomed to do; but the mere fact that 
he devoted himself with increasing interest to literature was due 
to Schiller's stimulus. It was Schiller, too, who induced him to 
undertake those studies on the nature of epic and dramatic 
poetry which resulted in the epic of Hermann und Dorothea 
and the fragment of the Achilleis; without the friendship there 
would have been no Xenien and no ballads, and it was his younger 
friend's encouragement which induced Goethe to betake himself 
once more to the "misty path" of Faust, and bring the first 
part of that drama to a conclusion. 

Goethe's share in the Xenien (1795; may be briefly dismissed. 
This collection of distichs, written in collaboration with Schiller, 
was prompted by the indifference and animosity of contemporary 
criticism, and its disregard for what the two poets regarded as 
the higher interests of German poetry. The Xenien succeeded 
as a retaliation on the critics, but the masterpieces which followed 
them proved in the long run much more effective weapons 
against the prevailing mediocrity. Prose works like the Unter- 
haUungcn deulschcr Ausgcwanderten (1795) were unworthy of 
the poet's genius, and the translation of Bcnvenuto Cellini's 
Life (1796-1797) was only a translation. But in 1798 appeared 
Hermann und Dorothea, one of Goethe's most perfect poems. 
It is indeed remarkable when we consider by how much re- 
flection and theoretic discussion the composition of the poem 
was preceded and accompanied that it should make upon the 
reader so simple and "naive" an impression; in this respect 
it is the triumph of an art that conceals art. Goethe has here 
taken a simple story of village life, mirrored in it the most 
pregnant ideas of his time, and presented it with a skill which 
may well be called Homeric; but he has discriminated with 



the insight of genius between the Homeric method of reproduc- 
ing the heroic life of primitive Greece and the same method 
as adapted to the commonplace happenings of 18th-century 
Germany. In this respect he was undoubtedly guided by a 
forerunner who has more right than he to the attribute "naive," 
by J. H. Voss, the author of Luise. Hardly less imposing in 
their calm, placid perfection are the poems with which, in 
friendly rivalry, Goethe seconded the more popular ballads 
of his friend; Der Zauberlehrling, Der Gott und die Bayadere, 
Die Braut von Korinth, Alexis und Dora, Der neue Pausias and 
Die schone Mullerin a cycle of poems in the style of the Volkslied 
are among the masterpieces of Goethe's poetry. On the other 
hand, even the friendship with Schiller did not help him 
to add to his reputation as a dramatist. Die natilrliche Tochtcr 
(1803), in which he began to embody his ideas of the Revolution 
on a wide canvas, proved impossible on the stage, and the 
remaining dramas, which were to have formed a trilogy, were 
never written. Goethe's classic principles, when applied to 
the swift, direct art of the theatre, were doomed to failure, and 
Die natilrliche Tochter, notwithstanding its good theoretic in- 
tention, remains the most lifeless and shadowy of all his dramas. 
Even less in touch with the living present were the various 
prologues and Festspiele, such as Palaophron und Neater pe (1800), 
Was wir bringen (1802), which in these years he composed for 
the Weimar theatre. 

Goethe's classicism brought him into inevitable antagonism 
with the new Romantic movement which had been inaugurated 
in 1798 by the Athenaeum, edited by the brothers Schlegel. 
The sharpness of the conflict was, however, blunted by the fact 
that, without exception, the young Romantic writers looked 
up to Goethe as its master; they modelled their fiction on 
Wilhelm Meister; they regarded his lyrics as the high-water 
mark of German poetry; Goethe, Novalis declared, was the 
" Statthalter of poetry on earth." With regard to painting and 
sculpture, however, Goethe felt that a protest was necessary,- 
if the insidious ideas propounded in works like Wackenroder's 
Herzensergiessungen were not to do irreparable harm, by bringing 
back the confusion of the Sturm und Drang; and, as a rejoinder 
to the Romantic theories, Goethe, in conjunction with his friend 
Heinrich Meyer (1760-1832), published from 1798 to 1800 an 
art review, Die Propylaen. Again, in Winckelmann und seine 
Zeit (1805) Goethe vigorously defended the classical ideals of 
which Winckelmann had been the founder. But in the end he 
proved himself the greatest enemy to the strict classic doctrine by 
the publication in 1808 of the completed first part of Faust, a 
work which was accepted by contemporaries as a triumph of 
Romantic art. Fawrfisapatchworkof many colours. With the 
aid of the vast body of Faust literature which has sprung up in 
recent years, and the many new documents bearing on its history 
above all, the so-called Urfaust, to which reference has already 
been made we are. able now to ascribe to their various periods 
the component parts of the work; it is possible to discriminate 
between the Sturm und Drang hero of the opening scenes and 
of the Gretchen tragedy the contemporary of Gotz and Clavigo 
and the superimposed Faust of calmer moral and intellectual 
ideals a Faust who corresponds to Hermann and Wilhelm 
Meister. In its original form the poem was the dramatization 
of a specific and individualized story; in the years of Goethe's 
friendship with Schiller it was extended to embody the higher 
strivings of iSth-century humanism; ultimately, as we shall see, 
it became, in the second part, a vast allegory of human life and 
activity. Thus the elements of which Faust is composed were 
even more difficult to blend than were those of Wilhelm Meister; 
but the very want of uniformity is one source of the perennial 
fascination of the tragedy, and has made it in a peculiar degree 
the national poem of the German people, the mirror which 
reflects the national life and poetry from the outburst of Sturm 
und Drang to the well-weighed and tranquil classicism of Goethe's 
old age. 

The third and final period of Goethe's long life may be said 
to have begun after Schiller's death. He never again lost touch 
with literature as he had done in the years which preceded his 



i86 



GOETHE 



friendship with Schiller; but he stood in no active or immediate 
connexion with the literary moTement of his day. His life 
moved on comparatively uneventfully. Even the Napoleonic 
regime of 1806-1813 disturbed but little his equanimity. Goethe, 
the cosmopolitan Weltburger of the i8th century, had himself no 
very intense feelings of patriotism, and, having seen Germany 
flourish as a group of small states under enlightened despotisms, 
he had little confidence in the dreamers of 1813 who hoped 
to see the glories of Barbarossa's empire revived. Napoleon, 
moreover, he regarded not as the scourge of Europe, but as the 
defender of civilization against the barbarism of the Slavs; 
and in the famous interview between the two men at Erfurt the 
poet's admiration was reciprocated by the French conqueror. 
Thus Goethe had no great sympathy for the war of liberation 
which kindled young hearts from one end of Germany to the 
other; and when the national enthusiasm rose to its highest 
pitch he buried himself in those optical and morphological 
studies, which, with increasing years, occupied more and more 
of his time and interest. 

The works and events of the last twenty-five years of Goethe's 
life may be briefly summarized. In 1805, as we have seen, he 
suffered an irreparable loss in the death of Schiller; in 1806, 
Christiane became his legal wife, and to the same year belongs 
the magnificent tribute to his dead friend, the Epilog zu Schillers 
Glocke. Two new friendships about this time kindled in the 
poet something of the juvenile fire and passion of younger days. 
Bettina von Arnim came into personal touch with Goethe in 
1807, and her Briefwechsel Gocthes mil einem Kinde (published 
in 1835) is, in its mingling of truth and fiction, one of the most 
delightful products of the Romantic mind; but the episode was 
of less importance for Goethe's life than Bettina would have us 
believe. On the other hand, his interest in Minna Herzlieb, 
foster-daughter of the publisher Frommann in Jena, was of a 
warmer nature, and has left its traces on his sonnets. 

In 1808, as we have seen, appeared the first part of Faust, and 
in 1809 it was followed by Die Wahlverwandtschaften. The novel, 
hardly less than the drama, effected a change in the public 
attitude towards the poet. Since the beginning of the century 
the conviction had been gaining ground that Goethe's mission 
was accomplished, that the day of his leadership was over; 
but here were two works which not merely re-established his 
ascendancy, but proved that the old poet was in sympathy with 
the movement of letters, and keenly alive to the change of ideas 
which the new century had brought in its train. The intimate 
psychological study of four minds, which forms the subject of 
the Wahlverwandtschaften, was an essay in a new type of fiction, 
and pointed out the way for developments of the German novel 
after the stimulus of Wilhelm Meisler had exhausted itself. 
Less important than Die Wahlverwandtschaften was Pandora 
(1810), the final product of Goethe's classicism, and the most 
uncompromisingly classical and allegorical of all his works. 
And in 1810, too, appeared his treatise on Farbenlehre. In the 
following year the first volume of his autobiography was pub- 
lished under the title Aus meinent Leben, Dichlung und Wahrheit. 
The second and third volumes of this work followed in 1812 and 
1814; the fourth, bringing the story of his life up to the close 
of the Frankfort period in 1833, after his death. Goethe felt, 
even late in life, too intimately bound up with Weimar to discuss 
in detail his early life there, and he shrank from carrying his 
biography beyond the year 1775. But a number of other 
publications descriptions of travel, such as the Italienische 
Reise (1816-1817), the materials for a continuation of Dichtung 
und Wahrheit collected in Tag- und Jahreshefle (1830) have also 
to be numbered among the writings which Goethe has left us as 
documents of his life. Meanwhile no less valuable biographical 
materials were accumulating in his diaries, his voluminous 
correspondence and his conversations, as recorded by J. P. 
Eckermann, the chancellor Miilier and F. Soret. Several 
periodical publications, Uber Kunst und Altertum (1816-1832), 
Zur Naturwissenschaft iiberhaupt (1817-1824), Zur Morphologic 
(1817-1824), bear witness to the extraordinary breadth of 
Goethe's interests in these years. Art, science, literature little 



escaped his ken and that not merely in Germany: English 
writers, Byron, Scott and Carlyle, Italians like Manzoni, French 
scientists and poets, could all depend on friendly words of 
appreciation and encouragement from Weimar. 

In West-ostlicher Diwan (1819), a collection of lyrics matchless 
in form and even more concentrated in expression than those 
of earlier days which were suggested by a German translation 
of Hafiz, Goethe had another surprise in store for his contem- 
poraries. And, again, it was an actual passion that for Marianne 
von Willemer, whom he met in 1814 and 1815 which rekindled 
in him the lyric fire. Meanwhile the years were thinning the 
ranks of Weimar society: Wieland, the last of Goethe's greater 
literary contemporaries, died in 1813, his wife in 1816, Charlotte 
von Stein in 1827 and Duke Charles Augustus in 1828. Goethe's 
retirement from the direction of the theatre in 1817 meant for 
him a break with the literary life of the day. In 1822 a passion 
for a young girl, Ulrike von Levetzow, whom he met at Marien- 
bad, inspired the fine Trilogie der Leidenschaft, and between 
1821 and 1829 appeared the long-expected and long-promised 
continuation of Wilhelm Meisler, Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre. 
The latter work, however, was a disappointment: perhaps it 
could not have been otherwise. Goethe had lost the thread of 
his romance and it was difficult for him to resume it. Problems 
of the relation of the individual to society and industrial questions 
were to have formed the theme of the Wanderjahre; but since 
the French Revolution these problems had themselves entered 
on a new phase and demanded a method of treatment which it 
was not easy for the old poet to learn. Thus his intentions were 
only partially carried out, and the volumes were filled out by 
irrelevant stories, which had been written at widely different 
periods. 

But the crowning achievement of Goethe's literary life was 
the completion of Faust. The poem had accompanied him from 
early manhood to the end and was the repository for the fullest 
" confession " of his life; it is the poetic epitome of his experience. 
The second part is, in form, far removed from the impressive 
realism of the Urfaust. It is a phantasmagory ; a drama the 
actors in which are not creatures of flesh and blood, but the 
shadows of an unreal world of allegory. The lover of Gretchen 
had, as far as poetic continuity is concerned, disappeared with 
the close of the first part. In the second part it is virtually a new 
Faust who, at the hands of a new Mephistopheles, goes out into 
a world that is not ours. Yet behind these unconvincing shadows 
of an imperial court with its financial difficulties, of the classical 
Walpurgisnacht, of the fantastic creation of the Homunculus, 
the noble Helena episode and the impressive mystery-scene 
of the close, where the centenarian Faust finally triumphs over 
the powers of evil, there lies a philosophy of life, a ripe wisdom 
born of experience, such as no European poet had given to the 
world since the Renaissance. Faust has been well called the 
" divine comedy " of 18th-century humanism. 

The second part of Faust forms a worthy close to the life of 
Germany's greatest man of letters, who died in Weimar on the 
22nd of March 1832. He was the last of those universal minds 
which have been able to compass all domains of human activity 
and knowledge; for he stood on the brink of an era of rapidly 
expanding knowledge which has made for ever impossible the 
universality of interest and sympathy which distinguished him. 
As a poet, his fame has undergone many vicissitudes since his 
death, ranging from the indifference of the " Young German " 
school to the enthusiastic admiration of the closing decades of 
the igth century an enthusiasm to which we owe the Weimar 
Goethe-Gesellschaft (founded in 1885) and a vast literature dealing 
with the poet's life and work; but the fact of his being Germany's 
greatest poet and the master of her classical literature has never 
been seriously put in question. The intrinsic value of his poetic 
work, regarded apart from his personality, is smaller in propor- 
tion to its bulk than is the case with many lesser German poets 
and with the greatest poets of other literatures. But Goethe 
was a type of literary man hitherto unrepresented among the 
leading writers of the world's literature; he was a poet whose 
supreme greatness lay in his subjectivity. Only a small fraction 



GOETHE 



187 



of Goethe's work was written in an impersonal and objective 
spirit, and sprang from what might be called a conscious artistic 
impulse; by far the larger and the better part is the im- 
mediate reflex of his feelings and experiences. 

It is as a lyric poet that Goethe's supremacy is least likely 
to be challenged; he has given his nation, whose highest literary 
expression has in all ages been essentially lyric, its greatest songs. 
No other German poet has succeeded in attuning feeling, senti- 
ment and thought so perfectly to the music of words as he; none 
has expressed so fully that spirituality in which the quintessence 
of German lyrism lies. Goethe's dramas, on the other hand, 
have not, in the eyes of his nation, succeeded in holding their 
own beside Schiller's; but the reason is rather because Goethe, 
from what might be called a wilful obstinacy, refused to be 
bound by the conventions of the theatre, than because he was 
deficient in the cunning of the dramatist. For, as an interpreter 
of human character in the drama, Goethe is without a rival 
among modern poets, and there is not one of his plays that does 
not contain a few scenes or characters which bear indisputable 
testimony to his mastery. Faust is Germany's most national 
drama, and it remains perhaps for the theatre of the future to 
prove itself capable of popularizing psychological masterpieces 
like Tasso and Iphigenie. It is as a novelist that Goethe has 
suffered most by the lapse of time. The Sorrows of Werlher no 
longer moves us to tears, and even WUhelm Meister and Die 
IVahlverwandtschaften require more understanding for the 
conditions under which they were written than do Faust or 
Egmont. Goethe could fill his prose with rich wisdom, but he 
was only the perfect artist in verse. 

Little attention is nowadays paid to Goethe's work in other 
fields, work which he himself in some cases prized more highly 
than his poetry. It is only as an illustration of his many-sidedness 
and his manifold activity that we now turn to his work as a 
statesman, as a theatre-director, as a practical political economist. 
His art-criticism is symptomatic of a phase of European taste 
which tried in vain to check the growing individualism of 
Romanticism. His scientific studies and discoveries awaken 
only an historical interest. We marvel at the obstinacy with 
which he, with inadequate mathematical knowledge, opposed 
the Newtonian theory of light and colour; and at his champion- 
ship of " Neptunism," the theory of aqueous origin, as opposed 
to " Vulcanism," that of igneous origin of the earth's crust. 
Of far-reaching importance was, on the other hand, his fore- 
shadowing of the Darwinian theory in his works on the meta- 
morphosis of plants and on animal morphology. Indeed, the 
deduction to be drawn from Goethe's contributions to botany 
and anatomy is that he, as no other of his contemporaries, 
possessed that type of scientific mind which, in the ipth century, 
has made for progress; he was Darwin's predecessor by virtue 
of his enunciation of what has now become one of the common- 
places of natural science organic evolution. Modern, too, was 
the outlook of the aging poet on the changing social conditions 
of the age, wonderfully sympathetic his attitude towards modern 
industry, which steam was just beginning to establish on a new 
basis, and towards modern democracy. The Europe of his later 
years was very _ different from the idyllic and enlightened 
autocracy of the i8th century, in which he had spent his best 
years and to which he had devoted his energies; yet Goethe 
was at home in it. 

From the philosophic movement, in which Schiller and the 
Romanticists were so deeply involved, Goethe stood apart. 
Comparatively early in life he had found in Spinoza the philo- 
sopher who responded to his needs; Spinoza taught him to see 
in nature the " living garment of God," and more he did not seek 
or need to know. As a convinced realist he took his standpoint 
on nature and experience, and could afford to look on objectively 
at the controversies of the metaphysicians. Kant he by no 
means ignored, and under Schiller's guidance he learned much 
from him; but of the younger thinkers, only Schelling, whose 
mystic ' nature-philosophy was a development of Spinoza's 
ideas, touched a sympathetic chord in his nature. As a moralist 
and a guide to the conduct of life an aspect of Goethe's work 



which Carlyle, viewing him through the coloured glasses of 
Fichtean idealism, emphasized and interpreted not always 
justly Goethe was a powerful force on German life in years of 
political and intellectual depression. It is difficult even still 
to get beyond the maxims of practical wisdom he scattered so 
liberally through his writings, the lessons to be learned from 
Meister and Faust, or even that calm, optimistic fatalism which 
never deserted Goethe, and was so completely justified by the 
tenor of his life. If the philosophy of Sprnoza provided the poet 
with a religion which made individual creeds and dogmas 
unnecessary and impossible, so Leibnitz's doctrine of pre- 
destinism supplied the foundations for his faith in the divine 
mission of human life. 

This many-sided activity is a tribute to the greatness of 
Goethe's mind and personality; we may regard him merely as 
the embodiment of his particular age, or as a poet " for all 
time"; but with one opinion all who have felt the power of 
Goethe's genius are in agreement the opinion which was con- 
densed in Napoleon's often cited words, uttered after the meeting 
at Erfurt: Voild un hommel Of all modern men, Goethe is 
the most universal type of genius. It is the full, rich humanity 
of his life and personality not the art behind which the artist 
disappears, or the definite pronouncements of the thinker or the 
teacher that constitutes his claim to a place in the front rank 
of men of letters. His life was his greatest work. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. (a) Collected Works, Diaries, Correspondence, 
Conversations. The following authorized editions of 'Goethe's 
writings appeared in the poet's lifetime: Schriften (8 vols., Leipzig, 
1787-1790); Neue Schriften (7 vols., Berlin, 1792-1800); Werke 
(13 vols., Stuttgart, 1806-1810); Werke (20 vols., Stuttgart, 1815- 
1819); to which six volumes were added in 1820-1822; Werke 
(Vollstiindige Ausgabe letzter Hand) (40 vols., Stuttgart, 1827-1830). 
Goethe's Nachgelassene Werke appeared as a continuation of this 
edition in 15 volumes (Stuttgart, 1832-1834), to which five volumes 
were added in 1842. These were followed by several editions of 
Goethe's SamtUche Werke, mostly in forty volumes, published by 
Cotta of Stuttgart. The first critical edition with notes was published 
by Hempel, Berlin, in thirty-six volumes, 1868-1879; that in 
Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vols. 82-117 (1882-1897) is 
also important. In 1887 the monumental Weimar edition, which 
is now approaching completion, began to appear; it is divided 
into four sections: I. Werke (c. 56 vols.); II. Naturwissenschaftliche 
Werke (12 vols.); III. Tagebiicher (13 vols.); IV. Briefe (.45 vols.). 
Of other recent editions the most noteworthy are: SamtUche Werke 
(Jubilaums-Ausgabe), edited byE. von der Hellenic vols., Stuttgart, 
1902 ff. ; Werke, edited by K. Heinemann (30 vols., Leipzig, 
1900 ff.), and the cheap edition of the SamtUche Werke, edited by 
L. Geiger (44 vols., Leipzig, 1901). There are also innumerable 
editions of selected works; reference need only be made here to the 
useful collection of the early writings and letters published by S. 
Hirzel with an introduction by M. Bernays, Derjunge Goethe (3 vols., 
Leipzig, 1875, 2nd ed., 1887). A French translation of Goethe's 
(Euvres completes, by J. Porchat, appeared in 9 vols., at Paris, in 
1 860-1 863. There is, as yet, no uniform English edition, but Goethe's 
chief works have all been frequently translated and a number of 
them will be found in Bohn's standard library. 

The definitive edition of Goethe's diaries and letters is that forming 
Sections III. and IV. of the Weimar edition. Collections of selected 
letters based on the Weimar edition have been published by E. von 
der Hellen (6 vols., 1901 ff.), and by P. Stein (8 vols., 1902 ff.). Of 
the many separate collections of Goethe's correspondence mention 
may be made of the Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe, edited 
by Goethe himself (1828-1829; 4th ed., 1881; also several cheap 
reprints. English translation by L. D. Schmitz, 1877-1879); 
Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Zelter (6 vols., 1833-1834; reprint 
in Reclam's Universalbibliothek, 1904; English translation by 
A. D. Coleridge, 1887); Bettina von Arnim, Goethes Briefwechsel 
mil einem Kinde (1835; 4th ed., 1890; English translation, 1838); 
Briefe von und an Goethe, edited by F. W. Riemer (1846); Goethes 
Briefe an Frau von Stein, edited by A. Scholl (1848-1851; 3rd ed. 
by J. Wahle, 1899-1900) ; Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und K. F. von 
Reinhard (1850); Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Knebel (2 vols., 
1851); Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Staatsrat Schullz (1853); 
Briefwechsel des Herzogs Karl August mil Goethe (2 vols., 1863); 
Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Kaspar Graf von Sternberg (1866): 
Goethes naturwissenschaftliche Korrespondenz, and Goethes Brief- 
wechsel mil den Gebrildern von Humboldt, edited by F. T. Bratranek 
(1874-1876); Goethes und Carlyles Briefwechsel (1887), also in 
English; Goethe und die Romanlik, edited by C. Schuddekopf and 
O. Walzel (2 vols., 1898-1899); Goethe und Lavater, edited by H. 
Funck (1901); Goethe und Osterreich, edited by A. Sauer (2 vols., 
1902-1903). Besides the correspondence with Schiller and Zelter, 
Bohn's library contains a translation of Early and Miscellaneous 



i88 



GOETHE 



Letters, by E. Bell (1884). The chief collections of Goethe's con- 
versations are: J. P. Eckermann, Gesprdche mil Goethe (1836; 
vol. iii., also containing conversations with Soret, 1848; 7th ed. by 
H. Diintzer, 1899; also new edition by L. Geiger, 1902; English 
translation by J. Oxenford, 1850). The complete conversations 
with Soret have been published in German translation by C. A. H. 
Burkhardt (1905) ; Goethes Unterhaltungen mil dent Kanzler F. von 
Mutter (1870). Goethe's collected Gesprdche were published by 
W. von Biedermann in 10 vols. (1889-1896). 

(b) Biography. Goethe's autobiography, Aus meinem Leben: 
Dichtung und Wahrheit, appeared in three parts between 1811 and 
1814, a fourth part, bringing the history of his life as far as his 
departure for Weimar in 1775, in 1833 (English translation by 
J. Oxenford, 1846) ; it is supplemented by other biographical writings, 
as the Italienische Reise, Aus einer Reise in die Schweiz im Jahre 
1797; Aus einer Reise am Rhein, Main und Neckar in den Jahren 
1814 und 1815, Tag- und Jahreshefle, &c., and especially by his 
diaries and correspondence. The following are the more important 
biographies: H. Doring, Goethes Leben (1828; subsequent editions, 
1833, 1849, 1856); H. Viehoff, Goethes Leben (4 vols., 1847-1854; 
5th ed., 1887); J. W. Schafer, Goethes Leben (2 vols., 1851 ; 3rd ed., 
1877); G. H. Lewes, The Life and Works of Goethe (2 vols., 1855; 
2nd ed., 1864; 3rd ed., 1875; cheap reprint, 1906; the German 
translation by J. Freseis in its 1 8th edition, 1900; a shorter biography 
was published by Lewes in 1873 under the title The Story of Goethe's 
Life); W. M6zieres, W. Goethe, les ceuvres expliquees par la vie 
(1872-1873); A. Bossert, Goethe (1872-1873); K. Goedeke, Goethes 
Leben und Schriften (1874; 2nd ed., 1877); H. Grimm, Goethe: 
Vorlesungen (1876; 8th ed., 1903; English translation, 1880); 
A. Hayward, Goethe (1878); H. H. Boyesen, Goethe and Schiller, 
their Lives and Works (1879); H. Diintzer, Goethes Leben (1880; 
2nd ed., 1883; English translation, 1883); A. Baumgartner, Goethe, 
sein Leben und seine Werke (1885); J. Sime, Life of Goethe (1888); 
K. Heinemann, Goethes Leben und Werke (1889; 3rd ed., 1903); 
R. M. Meyer, Goethe (1894; 3rd ed., 1904); A. Bielschowsky, 
Goethe, sein Leben und seine Werke (vol. i., 1895; 5th ed., 1904; 
vol. ii., 1903; English translation by W. A. Cooper, 1905 ff.); 
G. Witkowsky, Goethe (1899); H. G. Atkins, J. W. Goethe (1904); 
P. Hansen and R. Meyer, Goethe, hans Liv og Vaerker (1906). 

Of writings on special periods and aspects of Goethe's life the 
more important are as follows (the titles are arranged as far as 
possible in the chronological sequence of the poet's life) : H. Diintzer, 
Goethes Stammbaum (1894); K. Heinemann, Goethes Mutter (1891; 
6th ed., 1900); P. Bastier, La Mere de Goethe (1902); Briefe der 
Frau Rat (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1905); F. Ewart, Goethes Vater (1899); 
G. Witkowski, Cornelia die Schwester Goethes (1903); P. Besson, 
Goethe, sa S(eur et ses amies (1898); H. Diintzer, Frauenbilder aus 
Goethes Jugendzeit (1852); W. von Biedermann, Goethe und Leipzig 
(1865); P. F. Lucius, Friederike Brian (1878; 3rd ed., 1904); 
A. Bielschowsky, Friederike Brian (1880); F. E. von Durckheim, 
Lili's Bild geschichtlich entworfen (1879; 2nd ed., 1894); W. Herbst, 
Goethe in Wetzlar (1881); A. Diezmann, Goethe und die lustige Zeit 
in Weimar (1857; 2nd ed., 1901); H. Diintzer, Goethe und Karl 
August (1859-1864; 2nd ed., 1888); also, by the same author, 
Aus Goethes Freundeskreise (1868) and Charlotte von Stein (2 vols., 
1874); J. Haarhuus, Auf Goethes Spuren in Italien (1896-1898); 
O. Harnack, Zur Nachgeschichte der italienischen Reise (1890); H. 
Grimm, Schiller und Goethe (Essays, 1858; 3rd ed., 1884); G. 
Berlit, Goethe und Schiller im personlichen Verkehre, nach brieflichen 
Mitleilungen von H. Voss (1895); E. Pasqu<5, Goethes Theaterleitung 
in Weimar (2 vols., 1863); C. A. H. Burkhards, Das Repertoire des 
weimarischen Theaters unler Goethes Leitung (1891); J. Wahle, 
Das Weimarer Hof theater unter Goethes Leitung (1892); O. Harnack, 
Goethe in der Epoche seiner Vollendung (2nd ed., 1901); J. Barbey 
d'Aurevilly, Goethe et Diderot (1880) ; A Fischer, Goethe und Napoleon 
(1899; 2nd ed., 1900); R. Steig, Goethe und die Gebruder Grimm 
(1892). 

(c) Criticism. H. G. Graef, Goethe uber seine Dichtungen (1901 ff.) ; 
J. W. Braun, Goethe im Urteile seiner Zeitgenossen (3 vols., 1883- 
1885); T. Carlyle, Essays on Goethe (1828-1832); X. Marmier, 
Etudes sur Goethe (1835); W. von Biedermann, Goethe- For schungen 
'1879, 1886); J. Minor and A. Sauer, Sludien zur Goethe-Philologie 

1880); H. Diintzer, Abhandlungen zu Goethes Leben und Werken 
1881); A. Scholl, Goethe in Hauptziigen seines Lebens und Wirkens 
1882); V. Hehn, Gedanken uber Goethe (1884; 4th ed., 1900) ; 
W. Scherer, Aufsdtze uber Goethe (1886); J. R. Seeley, Goethe 
reviewed after Sixty Years (1894); E. Dowden, New Studies 
in Literature (1895); E. Rod, Essai sur Goethe (1898); A. Luther, 
Goethe, seeks Vortrdge (1905) ; R. Saitschik, Goethes Charakter 
(1898); W. Bode, Goethes Lebenskunst (1900; 2nd ed., 1902); by 
the same, Goethes Asthetik (1901); T. Vollbehr, Goethe und die 
bildende Kunst (1895); E. Lichtenberger, Etudes sur les poesies 
lyriques de Goethe (1878); T. Achelis, Grundzuge der Lyrik Goethes 
(1900); B. Litzmann, Goethes Lyrik (1903); R. Riemann, Goethes 
Romantechnik (1901); R. Virchow, Goethe ah Naturforscher (1861); 

E. Caro, La Philosophic de Goethe (1866; 2nd ed., 1870) ; R. Steiner, 
Goethes Weltanschauung (1897) ; F. Siebeck, Goethe als Denker (1902) ; 

F. Baldensperger, Goethe en France (1904); S. Waetzoldt, Goethe 
und die Romantik (1888). 

More special treatises dealing with individual works are the 



following: W. Scherer, Aus Goethes Fruhzeit (1879); R- Weissen- 
fels, Goethe in Sturm und Drang, vol. i. (1894); W. Wilmanns, 
Quellenstudien zu Goethes Gotz von Berlichingen (1874) ; J. Baechtold, 
Goethes Gotz von Berlichingen in dreifacher Gestalt (1882); J. W.' 
Appell, Werther und seine Zeit (1855; 4th ed., 1896); E. Schmidt, 
Richardson, Rousseau und Goethe (1875); M. Herrmann, Das Jahr- 
marktsfest zu Plunder sweilen (1900); E. Schmidt,. Goethes Faust 
in ursprunglicher Gestalt (1887; 5th ed., 1901); J. Collin, Goethes 
Faust in seiner dltesten Gestalt (1896); H. Hettner, Goethes Iphigenie 
in ihrem Verhdltnis zur Bildungsgeschichte des Dichtsrs (1861; in 
Kleine Schriften, 1884); K. Fischer, Goethes Iphigenie (1888); 
F. T. Bratranek, Goethes Egmont und Schillers Wallenstein (1862); 
C. Schuchardt, Goethes italienische Reise (1862); H. Diintzer, 
Iphigenie auf Tauris; die drei dltesten Bearbeitungen (1854); F. 
Kern, Goethes Tasso (1890); J. Schubart, Die philosophischen 
Grundgedanken in Goethes Wilhelm Meisler (1896); E. Boas, Schiller 
und Goethe in Xenienkampf (1851); E. Schmidt and B. Suphan, 
Xenien 1796, nach den Handschriften (1893); W. von Humboldt, 
Asthetische Versuche: Hermann und Dorothea (1799); V. Hthn, 
Uber Goethes Hermann und Dorothea (1893); A. Fries, Quellen und 
Komposition der Achilleis (1901); K. Alt, Studien zur Entstehungs- 
geschichte von Dichtung und Wahrheit (1898); A. Jung, Goethes 
Wanderjahre und die wichtigsten Fragen des I p. Jahrhunderts (1854); 
F. Kreyssig, Vorlesungen uber Goethes Faust (1866); the editions of 
Faust by G. vcn Loeper (2 vols., 1879), and K. J. Schroer (2 vols., 
3rd and 4th ed., 1898-1903); K. Fischer, Goethes Faust (3 vols., 
1893, 1902, 1903) ; O. Pniower, Goethes Faust, Zeugnisse und Excurse 
zu seiner Entstehungsgeschichte (1899); J. Minor, Goethes Faust, 
Entstehungsgeschichte und Erkldrung (2 vols., 1901). 

(d) Bibliographical Works, Goethe-Societies, &c. L. Unflad, Die 
Goethe-Liter atur in Deutschland (1878); S. Hirzel, Verzeichnis einer 
Goethe-Bibliothek (1884), to which G. von Loeper and W. von Bieder- 
mann have supplied supplements. F. Strehlke, Goethes Briefe: 
Verzeichnis unter Angabe der Quelle (1882-1884); British Museum 
Catalogue of Printed Books: Goethe (1888); Goedeke's Grundriss 
zur Geschichle der deutschen Dichtung (2nd ed., vol. iv. 1891); and 
the bibliographies in the Goethe- Jahrbuch (since 1880). Also K. 
Hoyer, Zur Einfiihrung in die Goethe- Literatur (1904). On Goethe in 
England see E. Oswald, jGoethe in England and America (1899; 
2nd ed., 1909) ; W. Heinemann, A Bibliographical List of the English 
Translations and Annotated Editions of Goethe's Faust (1886). 
Reference may also be made here to F. Zarncke's Verzeichnis der 
Originalaufnahmen von Goethes Bildnissen (1888). 

A Goethe-Gesellschaft was founded at Weimar in 1885, and numbers 
over 2800 members; its publications include the annual Goethe- 
Jahrbuch (since 1880), and a series of Goethe-Schriften. A Goelhe- 
Verein has existed in Vienna since 1887, and an English Goethe 
society, which has also issued several volumes of publications, since 
1886. (J. G. R.) 

Goethe's Descendants. Goethe's only son, AUGUST, born on 
the 25th of December 1789 at Weimar, married in 1817 Ottilie 
von Pogwisch (1796-1872), who had come as a child to Weimar 
with her mother (nee Countess Henckel von Donnersmarck). 
The marriage was a very unhappy one, the husband having no 
qualities that could appeal to a woman who, whatever the 
censorious might say of her moral character, was distinguished 
to the last by a lively intellect and a singular charm. August 
von Goethe, whose sole distinction was his birth and his position 
as grand-ducal chamberlain, died in Italy, on the 2;th of October 
1830, leaving three children: WALTHER WOLFGANG, born on 
April 9, 1818, died on April 15, 1885; WOLFGANG MAXIMILIAN, 
born on September 1 8, 1820, died on January 20, 1883; ALMA, 
born on October 22, 1827, died on September 29, 1844. 

Of Walther von Goethe little need be said. In youth he had 
musical ambitions, studied under Mendelssohn and Weinlig 
at Leipzig, under Loewe at Stettin, and afterwards at Vienna. 
He published a few songs of no great merit, and had at his 
death no more than the reputation among his friends of a kindly 
and accomplished man. 

Wolfgang or, as he was familiarly called, Wolf von Goethe, 
was by far the more gifted of the two brothers, and his gloomy 
destiny by so much the more tragic. A sensitive and highly 
imaginative boy, he was the favourite of his grandfather, who 
made him his constant companion. This fact, instead of being 
to the boy's advantage, was to prove his bane. The exalted 
atmosphere of the great man's ideas was too rarefied for the 
child's intellectual health, and a brain well fitted to do excellent 
work in the world was ruined by the effort to live up to an 
impossible ideal. To maintain himself on the same height as 
his grandfather, and to make the name of Goethe illustrious in 
his descendants also, became Wolfgang's ambition; and his 
incapacity to realize this, very soon borne in upon him, paralyzed 



GOETZ 



189 



his efforts and plunged him at last into bitter revolt against his 
fate and gloomy isolation from a world that seemed to have no 
tise for him but as a curiosity. From the first, too, he was 
hampered by wretched health; at the age of sixteen he was 
subjected to one of those terrible attacks of neuralgia which 
were to torment him to the last; physically and mentally alike 
he stood in tragic contrast with his grandfather, in whose 
gigantic personality the vigour of his race seems to have been 
exhausted. 

From 1839 to 1845 Wolfgang studied law at Bonn, Jena, 
Heidelberg and Berlin, taking his degree of doctor juris at Heidel- 
berg in 1845. During this period he had made his first literary 
efforts. His Studenten- Brief e (Jena, 1842), a medley of letters 
and lyrics, are wholly conventional. This was followed by Der 
Mensch und die elementarische Natur (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 
1845), in three parts (Beitrage) : (i) an historical and philosophical 
dissertation on the relations of mankind and the "soul of nature," 
largely influenced by Schelling, (2) a dissertation on the juridical 
side of the question, De fragmcnto Vegoiae, being the thesis 
presented for his degree, (3) a lyrical drama, Erlinde. In this 
last, as in his other poetic attempts, Wolfgang showed a consider- 
able measure of inherited or acquired ability, in his wealth of 
language and his easy mastery of the difficulties of rhythm and 
rhyme. But this was all. The work was characteristic of his 
self-centred isolation: ultra-romantic at a time when Romanti- 
cism was already an outworn fashion, remote alike from the 
spirit of the age and from that of Goethe. The cold reception 
it met with shattered at a blow the dream of Wolfgang's life; 
henceforth he realized that to the world he was interesting 
mainly as " Goethe's grandson," that anything he might achieve 
would be measured by that terrible standard, and he hated the 
legacy of his name. 

The next five years he spent in Italy and at Vienna, tormented 
by facial neuralgia. Returning to Weimar in 1850, he was made a 
chamberlain by the grand-duke, and in 1852, his health being 
now somewhat restored, he entered the Prussian diplomatic 
service and went as attache to Rome. The fruit of his long 
years of illness was a slender volume of lyrics, Gedichte (Stuttgart 
and Tubingen, 1851), good in form, but seldom inspired, and 
showing occasionally the influence of a morbid sensuality. In 
1854 he was appointed secretary of legation; but the aggressive 
ultramontanism of the Curia became increasingly intolerable 
to his overwrought nature, and in 1856 he was transferred, at his 
own request, as secretary of legation to Dresden. This post he 
resigned in 1859, in which year he was raised to the rank of 
Freihcrr (baron). In 1866 he received the title of councillor 
of legation; but he never again occupied any diplomatic post. 

The rest of his life he devoted to historical research, ultimately 
selecting as his special subject the Italian libraries up to the year 
1500. The outcome of all his labours was, however, only the 
first part of Studies and Researches in the Times and Life of 
Cardinal Bessarion, embracing the period of the council of 
Florence (privately printed at Jena, 1871), a catalogue of the 
MSS. in the monastery of Sancta Justina at Padua (Jena, 
1873), and a mass of undigested material, which he ultimately 
bequeathed to the university of Jena. 

In 1870 Ottilie von Goethe, who had resided mainly at Vienna, 
returned to Weimar and took up her residence with her two sons 
in the Goethehaus. So long as she lived, her small salon in the 
attic storey of the great house was a centre of attraction for 
many of the most illustrious personages in Europe. But after 
her death in 1872 the two brothers lived in almost complete 
isolation. The few old friends, including the grand-duke Charles 
Alexander, who continued regularly to visit the house, were 
entertained with kindly hospitality by Baron Walther; Wolf- 
gang refused to be drawn from his isolation even by the advent 
of royalty. "Tell the empress," he cried on one occasion 
" that I am not a wild beast to be stared at ! " In 1879, his 
increasing illness necessitating the constant presence of an 
attendant, he went to live at Leipzig, where he died. 

Goethe's grandsons have been so repeatedly accused of having 
displayed a dog-in-the-manger temper in closing the Goethehau 



o the public and the Goethe archives to research, that the 

harge has almost universally come to be regarded as proven. 

t is true that the house was closed and access to the archives only 
:ery sparingly allowed until Baron Walther's death in 1885. 
But the reason for this was not, as Herr Max Hecker rather 

,bsurdly suggests, Wolfgang's jealousy of his grandfather's 

ippressive fame, but one far more simple and natural. From 
one cause or another, principally Ottilie von Goethe's extrava- 
gance, the family was in very straitened circumstances; and the 

mothers, being thoroughly unbusinesslike, believed themselves 

o be poorer than they really were. 1 They closed the Goethehaus 
and the archives, because to have opened them would have 
needed an army of attendants. 2 If they deserve any blame it 

s for the pride, natural to their rank and their generation, which 

revented them from charging an entrance fee, an expedient 
which would not only have made it possible for them to give 
access to the house and collections, but would have enabled 

hem to save the fabric from falling into the lamentable state 
of disrepair in which it was found after their death. In any case, 

he accusation is ungenerous. With an almost exaggerated 
Pietdt Goethe's descendants preserved his house untouched, 
at great inconvenience to themselves, and left it, with all its 

reasures intact, to the nation. Had they been the selfish 
misers they are sometimes painted, they could have realized a 

'ortune by selling its contents. 
Wolf Goethe (Weimar, 1889) is a sympathetic appreciation by Otto 

Vlejer, formerly president of the Lutheran consistory in Hanover. 
See also Jenny v. Gerstenbergk, Ottilie von Goethe und ihre Sohne 

Walther und Wolf (Stuttgart, 1901), and the article on Maximilian 
Wolfgang von Goethe by Max F. Hecker in Allgem. deulsche Bio- 
graphie, Bd. 49, Nachtrage (Leipzig, 1904).. (W. A. P.) 

GOETZ, HERMANN (1840-1876), German musical composer, 
was born at Konigsberg in Prussia, on the i7th of December 1840, 
and began his regular musical studies at the comparatively 
advanced age of seventeen. He entered the music-school of 
Professor Stern at Berlin, and studied composition chiefly under 
Ulrich and Hans von Bulow. In 1863 he was appointed organist 
at Winterthur in Switzerland, where he lived in obscurity for 
a number of years, occupying himself with composition during 
his leisure hours. One of his works was an opera, The Taming 
of the Shrew, the libretto skilfully adapted from Shakespeare's 
play. After much delay it was produced at Mannheim (in 
October 1874), and its success was as instantaneous as it has up to 
the present proved lasting. It rapidly made the round of the 
great German theatres, and spread its composer's fame over all 
the land. But Goetz did not live to enjoy this happy result 
for long. In December 1876 he died at Zurich from overwork. 
A second opera, Francesca da Rimini, on which he was engaged, 
remained a fragment; but it was finished according to his 
directions, and was performed for the first time at Mannheim 
a few months after the composer's death on the 4th of December 
1876. Besides his dramatic work, Goetz also wrote various 
compositions for chamber-music, of which a trio (Op. i) and 
a quintet (Op. 16) have been given with great success at the 
London Monday Popular Concerts. Still more important is the 
Symphony in F. As a composer of comic opera Goetz lacks the 
sprightliness and artistic savoir faire so rarely found amongst 
Germanic nations. His was essentially a serious nature, and 
passion and pathos were to him more congenial than humour. 
The more serious sides of the subject are therefore insisted upon 
more successfully than Katherine's ravings and Petruchio's 
eccentricities. There are, however, very graceful passages, e.g. 
the singing lesson Bianca receives from her disguised lover. 
Goetz's style, although influenced by Wagner and other masters, 
shows signs of a distinct individuality. The design of his music 
is essentially of a polyphonic character, and the working out and 
interweaving of his themes betray the musician of high scholar- 
ship. But breadth and beautiful flow of melody also were his, 

1 After Walther's death upwards of 10,000 in bonds, &c., were 
discovered put away and forgotten in escritoires and odd corners. 

2 This was the reason given by Baron Walther himself to the 
writer's mother, an old friend of Frau von Goethe, who lived with 
her family in the Goethehaus for some years after 1871. 






GOFFE GOGOL 



as is seen in the symphony, and perhaps still more in the quintet 
for pianoforte and strings above referred to. The mosfcimportant 
of Goetz's posthumous works are a setting of the I37th Psalm 
for soprano solo, chorus and orchestra, a " Spring " overture 
(Op. 15), and a pianoforte sonata for four hands (Op. 17). 

GOFFE (or GOUGH), WILLIAM (fl. 1642-1660), English 
parliamentarian, son of Stephen Goffe, puritan rector of Stanmer 
in Essex, began life as an apprentice to a London salter, a zealous 
parliamentarian, but on the outbreak of the civil war he joined 
the army and became captain in Colonel Harley's regiment of the 
new model in 1645. He was imprisoned in 1642 for his share in 
the petition to give the control of the militia to the parliament. 
By his marriage with Frances, daughter of General Edward 
Whalley, he became connected with Oliver Cromwell's family 
and one of his most faithful followers. He was a member of 
the deputation which on the 6th of July 1647 brought up the 
charge against the eleven members. He was active in bringing 
the king to trial and signed the death warrant. In 1649 he 
received the honorary degree of M.A. at Oxford. He distin- 
guished himself at Dunbar, commanding a regiment there and at 
Worcester. He assisted in the expulsion of Barebone's parlia- 
ment in 1653, took an active part in the suppression of Pen- 
ruddock's rising in July 1654, and in October 1655 was appointed 
major-general for Berkshire, Sussex and Hampshire. Meanwhile 
he had been elected member for Yarmouth in the parliament of 
1654 and for Hampshire in that of 1656. He supported the 
proposal to bestow a royal title upon Cromwell, who greatly 
esteemed him, was included in the newly-constituted House of 
Lords, obtained Lambert's place as major-general of the Foot, 
and was even thought of as a fit successor to Cromwell. As a 
member of the committee of nine appointed in June 1658 on 
public affairs, he was witness to the protector's appointment 
of Richard Cromwell as his successor. He supported the latter 
during his brief tenure of power and his fall involved his own loss 
of influence. In November 1659 he took part in the futile mission 
sent by the army to Monk in Scotland, and at the Restoration 
escaped with his father-in-law General Edward Whalley to 
Massachusetts. Goffe's political aims appear not to have gone 
much beyond fighting " to pull down Charles and set up Oliver "; 
and he was no doubt a man of deep religious feeling, who acted 
throughout according to a strict sense of duty as he conceived it. 
He was destined to pass the rest of his life in exile, separated 
from his wife and children, dying, it is supposed, about 1679. 

GOFFER, to give a fluted or crimped appearance to anything, 
particularly to linen or lace frills or trimmings by means of 
heated irons of a special shape, called goffering-irons or tongs. 
" Goffering," or the French term gaufrage, is also used of the 
wavey or crimped edging in certain forms of porcelain, and also 
of the stamped or embossed decorations on the edges of the 
binding of books. The French word gaufre, from which the 
English form is adapted, means a thin cake marked with a 
pattern like a honeycomb, a " wafer," which is etymologically 
the same word. Waufre appears in the phrase un fer a waufres, 
an iron for baking cakes on (quotation of 1433 in J. B. Roque- 
fort's Glossaire de la langue romane). The word is Teutonic, 
cf. Dutch wafel, Ger. Wa/el, a form seen in " waffle," the name 
given to the well-known batter-cakes of America. The " wafer " 
was so called from its likeness to a honeycomb, Wabe, ultimately 
derived from the root wab-, to weave, the cells of the comb 
appearing to be woven together. 

GOG (possibly connected with the Gentilic Gagaya, " of the 
land of Gag," used in Amarna Letters i. 38, as a synonym for 
" barbarian," or with Ass. Gagu, a ruler of the land of Sahi, 
N. of Assyria, or with Gyges, Ass. Gugu, a king of Lydia), a 
Hebrew name found in Ezek. xxxviii.-xxxix. and in Rev. xx., 
and denoting an antitheocratic power that is to manifest itself 
in the world immediately before the final dispensation. In the 
later passage, Gog and Magog are spoken of as co-ordinate; in 
the earlier, Gog is given as the name of the person or people and 
Magog as that of the land of origin. Magog is perhaps a 
contracted form of Mat-gog, mat being the common Assyrian 
word for "land." The passages are, however, intimately related 



and both depend upon Gen. x. 2, though here Magog alone is 
mentioned. He is the second " son " of Japhet, and the order 
of the names here and in Ezekiel xxxviii. 2, indicates a locality' 
between Cappadocia and Media, i.e. in Armenia. According 
to Josephus, who is followed by Jerome, the Scythians were 
primarily intended by this designation; and this plausible 
opinion has been generally followed. The name SxWat, it is 
to be observed, however, is often but a vague word for any or all 
of the numerous and but partially known tribes of the north; 
and any attempt to assign a more definite locality to Magog can 
only be very hesitatingly made. According to some, the Maiotes 
about the Palus Maeotis are meant; according to others, the 
Massagetae; according to Kiepert, the inhabitants of the 
northern and eastern parts of Armenia. The imagery employed 
in Ezekiel's prophetic description was no doubt suggested by the 
Scythian invasion which about the time of Josiah, 630 B.C., 
had devastated Asia (Herodotus i.. 104-106; Jer. iv. 3-vi. 30). 
Following on this description, Gog figures largely in Jewish and 
Mahommedan as well as in Christian eschatology. In the 
district of Astrakhan a legend is still to be met with, to the effect 
that Gog and Magog were two great races, which Alexander the 
Great subdued and banished to the inmost recesses of the 
Caucasus, where they are meanwhile kept in by the terror of 
twelve trumpets blown by the winds, but whence they are 
destined ultimately to make their escape and destroy the world. 

The legends that attach themselves to the gigantic effigies 
(dating from 1708 and replacing those 1 destroyed in the Great 
Fire) of Gog and Magog in Guildhall, London, are connected 
only remotely, if at all, with the biblical notices. According to 
the Recuyell des histoires de Troye, Gog and Magog were the 
survivors of a race of giants descended from the thirty-three 
wicked daughters of Diocletian; after their brethren had been 
slain by Brute and his companions, Gog and Magog were brought 
to London (Troy-novant) and compelled to officiate as porters 
at the gate of the royal palace. It is known that effigies similar 
to the present existed in London as early as the time of Henry V.; 
but when this legend began to attach to them is uncertain. They 
may be compared with the giant images formerly kept at Antwerp 
(Antigomes) and Douai (Gayant). According to Geoffrey of 
Monmouth (Chronicles, i. 16), Goemot or Goemagot (either 
corrupted from or corrupted into " Gog and Magog ") was a 
giant who, along with his brother Corineus, tyrannized in the 
western horn of England until slain by foreign invaders. 

GOGO, or GOGHA, a town of British India in Ahmedabad 
district, Bombay, 193 m. N.W. of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 4798. 
About J m. east of the town is an excellent anchorage, in some 
measure sheltered by the island of Piram, which lies still farther 
east. The natives of this place are reckoned the best sailors in 
India; and ships touching here may procure water and supplies, 
or repair damages. The anchorage is a safe refuge during the 
south-west monsoon, the bottom being a bed of mud and the 
water always smooth. Gogo has lost its commercial importance 
and has steadily declined in population arid trade since the time 
of the American Civil War, when it was an important cotton- 
mart. 

GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH (1800-1852), Russian 
novelist, was born in the province of Poltava, in South Russia, 
on the 3ist of March 1809. Educated at the Niezhin gymnasium, 
he there started a manuscript periodical, " The Star," and wrote 
several pieces including a tragedy, The Brigands. Having 
completed his course at Niezhin, he went in 1829 to St Petersburg, 
where he tried the stage but failed. Next year he obtained a 
clerkship in the department of appanages, but he soon gave it up. 
In literature, however, he found his true vocation. In 1829 he 
published anonymously a poem called Italy, and, under the 
pseudonym of V. Alof, an idyll, Hans Kuchel Garten, which he 
had written while still at Niezhin. The idyll was so ridiculed by 
a reviewer that its author bought up all the copies he could 
secure, and burnt them in a room which he hired for the purpose 
at an inn. Gogol then fell back upon South Russian popular 
literature, and especially the tales of Cossackdom on which his 
boyish fancy had been nursed, his father having occupied the 



GOGRA GOITRE 



191 



post of " regimental secretary," one of the honorary officials in 
the Zaporogian Cossack forces. 

In 1830 he published in a periodical the first of the stories 
which appeared next year under the title of Evenings in a Farm 
near Dikanka: by Rudy Panko. This work, containing a series 
of attractive pictures of that Little-Russian life which lends 
itself to romance more readily than does the monotony of 
" Great-Russian " existence, immediately obtained a great 
success its light and colour, its freshness and originality being 
hailed with enthusiasm by the principal writers of the day in 
Russia. Whereupon Gogol planned, not only a history of Little- 
Russia, but also one of the middle ages, to be completed in eight 
or nine volumes. This plan he did not carry out, though it led 
to his being appointed to a professorship in the university of 
St Petersburg, a post in which he met with small success and 
which he resigned in 1835. Meanwhile he had published his 
Arabesques, a collection of essays and stories; his Taras Bulba, 
the chief of the Cossack Tales translated into English by George 
Tolstoy; and a number of novelettes, which mark his transition 
from the romantic to the realistic school of fiction, such as the 
admirable sketch of the tranquil life led in a quiet country 
house by two kindly specimens of Old-world Gentlefolks, or the 
description of the petty miseries endured by an ill-paid clerk 
in a government office, the great object of whose life is to secure 
the " cloak " from which his story takes its name. To the same 
period belongs his celebrated comedy, the Revizor, or government 
inspector. His aim in writing it was to drag into light " all that 
was bad in Russia," and to hold it up to contempt. And he 
succeeded in rendering contemptible and ludicrous the official 
life of Russia, the corruption universally prevailing throughout 
the civil service, the alternate arrogance and servility of men 
in office. The plot of the comedy is very simple. A traveller 
who arrives with an empty purse at a provincial town is taken 
for an inspector whose arrival is awaited with fear, and he 
receives all the attentions and bribes which are meant to pro- 
pitiate the dreaded investigator of abuses. The play appeared 
on the stage in the spring of 1836, and achieved a full success, 
in spite of the opposition attempted by the official classes whose 
malpractices it exposed. The aim which Gogol had in view 
when writing the Revizor he afterwards fully attained in his 
great novel, Mertvuiya Dushi, or Dead Souls, the first part of 
which appeared in 1842. The hero of the story is an adventurer 
who goes about Russia making fictitious purchases of " dead 
souls," i.e. of serfs who have died since the last census, with the 
view of pledging his imaginary property to the government. 
But his adventures are merely an excuse for drawing a series 
of pictures, of an unfavourable kind, of Russian provincial life, 
and of introducing on the scene a number of types of Russian 
society. Of the force and truth with which these delineations 
are executed the universal consent of Russian critics in their 
favour may be taken as a measure. From the French version 
of the story a general idea of its merits may be formed, and some 
knowledge of its plot and its principal characters may be gathered 
from the English adaptation published in 1854, as an original 
work, under the title of Home Life in Russia. But no one can 
fully appreciate Gogol's merits as a humorist who is not intimate 
with the language in which he wrote as well as with the society 
which he depicted. 

In 1836 Gogol for the first time went abroad. Subsequently 
he spent a considerable amount of time out of Russia, chiefly 
in Italy, where much of his Dead Souls was written. His 
residence there, especially at Rome, made a deep impression on 
his mind, which, during his later years, turned towards mysticism. 
The last works which he published, his Confession and Corre- 
spondence with Friends, offer a painful contrast to the light, bright, 
vigorous, realistic, humorous writings which had gained and have 
retained for him his immense popularity in his native land. 
Asceticism and mystical exaltation had told upon his nervous 
system, and its feeble condition showed itself in his literary 
compositions. In 1848 he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and 
on his return settled down at Moscow, where he died on the 3rd 
of March 1852. 



See Materials for the Biography of Gogol (in Russian) (1897), by 
Shenrok; " Illness and Death of Gogol," by N. Bazhenov, Russkaya 
Muisl, January 1902. (W. R. S.-R.) 

GOGRA, or GHAGRA, a river of northern India. It is an 
important tributary of the Ganges, bringing down to the plains 
more water than the Ganges itself. It rises in Tibet near Lake 
Manasarowar, not far from the sources of the Brahmaputra 
and the Sutlej, passes through Nepal where it is known as the 
Kauriala, and after entering British territory becomes the most 
important waterway in the United Provinces. It joins the Ganges 
at Chapra after a course of 600 m. Its tributary, the Rapti, 
also has considerable commercial importance. The Gogra has 
the alternative name of Sarju, and in its lower course is also 
known as the Deoha. 

GOHIER, LOUIS JER6ME (1746-1830), French politician, 
was born at Semblancay (Indre-et-Loire) on the 27th of February 
1 746, the son of a notary. He was called to the bar at Rennes, 
and practised there until he was sent to represent the town in 
the states-general. In the Legislative Assembly he represented 
Ille-et-Vilaine. He took a prominent part in the deliberations; 
he protested against the exaction of a new oath from priests 
(Nov. 22, 1 791), and demanded the sequestration of the emigrants' 
property (Feb. 7, 1792). He was minister of justice from March 
1793 to April 1794, and in June 1799 he succeeded Treilhard 
in the Directory, where he represented the republican interest. 
His wife was intimate with Josephine Bonaparte, and when 
Bonaparte suddenly returned from Egypt in October 1799 he 
repeatedly protested his friendship for Gohier, who was then 
president of the Directory, and tried in vain to gain him over. 
After the coup d'etat of the i8th Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799), he 
refused to abdicate his functions, and sought out Bonaparte 
at the Tuileries " to save the republic," as he boldly expressed 
it. He was escorted to the Luxembourg, and on his release 
he retired to his estate at Eaubonne. In 1802 Napoleon made 
him consul-general at Amsterdam, and on the union of the 
Netherlands with France he was offered a similar post in the 
United States. His health did not permit of his taking up a new 
appointment, and he died at Eaubonne on the 2gth of May 1830. 

His Memoires d'un veteran irreprochable de la Revolution was 
published in 1824, his report on the papers of the civil list preparatory 
to the trial of Louis XVI. is printed in Le Proces de Louis XVI 
(Paris, an III) and elsewhere, while others appear in the Moniteur. 

GOHRDE, a forest of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Hanover, immediately W. of the Elbe, between Wittenberg and 
Luneburg. It has an area of about 85 sq. m. and is famous for its 
oaks, beeches and game preserves. It is memorable for the 
victory gained here, on the i6th of September 1813, by the allies, 
under Wallmoden, over the French forces commanded by Pecheur. 
The hunting-box situated in the forest was built in 1689 and was 
restored by Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover. It is known to 
history on account of the constitution of Gohrde, promulgated 
here in 1719. 

GOITO, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Mantua, 
from which it is n m. N.W., on the road to Brescia. Pop. 
(village) 737; (commune) 5712. It is situated on the right bank 
of the Mincio near the bridge. Its position has given it a certain 
military importance in various campaigns and it has been 
repeatedly fortified as a bridge-head. The Piedmontese forces 
won two actions (8th of April and 3oth of May 1848) over the 
Austrians here. 

GOITRE (from Lat. guttur, the throat; synonyms, Bronchocele, 
Derbyshire Neck), a term applied to a swelling in the front of the 
neck caused by enlargement of the thyroid gland. This structure, 
which lies between the skin and the anterior surface of the wind- 
pipe, and in health is not large enough to give rise to any external 
prominence (except in the pictures of certain artists), is liable to 
variations in size, more especially in females, a temporary 
enlargement of the gland being not uncommon at the catamenial 
periods, as well as during pregnancy. In goitre the swelling is 
conspicuous and is not only unsightly but may occasion much 
discomfort from its pressure upon the windpipe and other 
important parts of the neck. J. L. Alibert recorded cases of 



192 



GOKAK GOLD 



goitre where the tumour hung down over the breast, or reached 
as low as the middle of the thigh. 

Goitre usually appears in early life, often from the eighth to the 
twelfth year; its growth is at first slow, but after several years of 
comparative quiescence a sudden increase is apt to occur. In the 
earlier stages the condition of the gland is simply an enlargement 
of its constituent parts, which retain their normal soft consistence; 
but in the course of time other changes supervene, and it may 
become cystic, or acquire hardness from increase of fibrous tissue 
or from calcareous deposits. Occasionally the enlargement is 
uniform, but more commonly one of the lobes, generally the right, 
is the larger. In rare instances the disease is limited to the 
isthmus which connects the two lobes of the gland. The growth 
is unattended with pain, and is not inconsistent with good health. 

Goitre is a marked example of an endemic disease. There are 
few parts of the world where it is not found prevailing in certain 
localities, these being for the most part valleys and elevated plains 
in mountainous districts(see CRETINISM). The malady is generally 
ascribed to the use of drinking water impregnated with the salts of 
lime and magnesia, in which ingredients the water of goitrous 
districts abounds. But in localities not far removed from those in 
which goitre prevails, and where the water is of the same chemical 
composition, the disease may be entirely unknown. The disease 
may be the result of a combination of causes, among which local 
telluric or malarial influences concur with those of the drinking 
water. Goitre is sometimes cured by removal of the individual 
from the district where it prevails, and it is apt to be acquired 
by previously healthy persons who settle in goitrous localities; 
and it is only in such places that the disease exhibits hereditary 
tendencies. 

In the early stages, change of air, especially to the seaside, is 
desirable, and small doses of iron and of iodine should be given; 
if this fails small doses of thyroid extract should be tried. If 
palliative measures prove unsuccessful, operation must be under- 
taken for the removal of one lateral lobe and the isthmus of the 
tumour. This may be done under chloroform or after the sub- 
cutaneous injection of cocaine. If chloroform is used, it must be 
given very sparingly, as the breathing is apt to become seriously 
embarrassed during the operation. After the successful per- 
formance of the operation great improvement takes place, the 
remaining part of the gland slowly decreasing in size. The whole 
of the gland must not be removed during the operation, lest the 
strange disease known as Myxoedema should be produced (see 
METABOLIC DISEASES). 

In exophthalmic goitre the bronchocele is but one of three 
phenomena, which together constitute the disease, viz. palpitation 
of the heart, elargement of the thyroid gland, and protrusion of 
the eyeballs. This group of symptoms is known by the name of 
" Graves's disease " or " Von Basedow's disease " the physicians 
by whom the malady was originally described. Although 
occasionally observed in men, this affection occurs chiefly in 
females, and in comparatively early life. It is generally preceded 
by impoverishment of blood, and by nervous or hysterical 
disorders, and it is occasionally seen in cases of organic heart 
disease. It has been suddenly developed as the effect of fright or 
of violent emotion. The first symptom is usually the palpitation 
of the heart, which is aggravated by slight exertion, and may be 
so severe as not only to shake the whole frame but even to be 
audible at some distance. A throbbing is felt throughout the 
body, and many of the larger blood-vessels are, like the heart, 
seen to pulsate strongly. The enlargement of the thyroid is 
gradual, and rarely increases to any great size, thus differing 
from the commoner form of goitre. The enlarged gland is of soft 
consistence, and communicates a thrill to the touch from its 
dilated and pulsating blood-vessels. Accompanying the goitre a 
remarkable change is observed in the eyes, which attract attention 
by their prominence, and by the startled expression thus given to 
the countenance. In extreme cases the eyes protrude from their 
sockets to such a degree that the eyelids cannot be closed, and 
injury may thus arise to the constantly exposed eyeballs. Apart 
from such risk, however, the vision is rarely affected. It occasion- 
ally happens that in undoubted cases of the disease one or other of 



the three above-named phenomena is absent, generally either th 
goitre or the exophthalmos. The palpitation of the heart is the 
most constant symptom. Sleeplessness, irritability, disorders of 
digestion, diarrhoea and uterine derangements, are frequent 
accompaniments. It is a serious disease and, if unchecked, may 
end fatally. Some cases are improved by general hygienic 
measures, others by electric treatment, or by the administration 
of animal extracts or of sera. Some cases, on the other hand, may 
be considered suitable for operative treatment. (E. O.*) 

GOKAK, a town of British India, in the Belgaum district of 
Bombay, 8 m. from a station on the Southern Mahratta railway. 
Pop. (1901) 9860. It contains old temples with inscriptions, 
and is known for a special industry of modelled toys. About 
4 m. N.W. are the Gokak Falls, where the Ghatprabha throws 
itself over a precipice 170 ft. high. Close by, the water has been 
impounded for a large reservoir, which supplies not only irrigation 
but also motive power for a cotton-mill employing 2000 hands. 

GOKCHA, (GoK-CnAi; Armenian Sevanga; ancient Haosra- 
vagha), the largest lake of Russian Transcaucasia, in the govern- 
ment of Erivan, in 40 9' to 40 38' N. and 45 i' to 45 40' E. 
Its altitude is 6345 ft., it is of triangular shape, and measures 
from north-west to south-east 45 m., its greatest width being 
25m., and its maximum depth 67 fathoms. Its area is 540 sq. m. 
It is surrounded by barren mountains of volcanic origin, 12,000 
ft. high. Its outflow is the Zanga, a left bank tributary of the 
Aras (Araxes) ; it never freezes, and its level undergoes periodical 
oscillations. It contains four species of Salmonidae, and two 
of Cyprinidae, which are only met with in the drainage area 
of this lake. A lava island in the middle is crowned by an 
Armenian monastery. 

60LCONDA, a fortress and ruined city of India, in the Nizam's 
Dominions, 5 m. W. of Hyderabad city. In former times 
Golconda was the capital of a large and powerful kingdom of 
the Deccan, ruled by the Kutb Shahi dynasty which was founded 
in 1512 by a Turkoman adventurer on the downfall of the 
Bahmani dynasty, but the city was subdued by Aurangzeb in 
1687, and annexed to the Delhi empire. The fortress of Golconda, 
situated on a rocky ridge of granite, is extensive, and contains 
many enclosures. It is strong and in good repair, but is com- 
manded by the summits of the enormous and massive mausolea 
of the ancient kings about 600 yds. distant. These buildings, 
which are now the chief characteristics of the place, form a vast 
group, situated in .an arid, rocky desert. They have suffered 
considerably from the ravages of time, but more from the hand 
of man, and nothing but the great solidity of their walls has 
preserved them from utter ruin. These tombs were erected at a 
great expense, some of them being said to have cost as much 
as i 50,000. Golconda fort is now used as the Nizam's treasury, 
and also as the state prison. Golconda has given its name in 
English literature to the diamonds which were found in other 
parts of the dominions of the Kutb Shahi dynasty, not near 
Golconda itself. 

GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195-7(11 = i), 197-2(0 =16)], 
a metallic chemical element, valued from the earliest ages on 
account of the permanency of its colour and lustre. Gold 
ornaments of great variety and elaborate workmanship have 
been discovered on sites belonging to the earliest known civiliza- 
tions, Minoan, Egyptian, Assyrian, Etruscan (see JEWELRY, 
PLATE, EGYPT, CRETE, AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, NUMISMATICS), 
and in ancient literature gold is the universal symbol of the 
highest purity and value (cf. passages in the Old Testament, 
e.g. Ps. xix. 10 " More to be desired are they than gold, yea, than 
much fine gold "). With regard to the history of the metallurgy 
of gold, it may be mentioned that, according to Pliny, mercury 
was employed in his time both as a means of separating the 
precious metals and for the purposes of gilding. Vitruvius also 
gives a detailed account of the means of recovering gold, by 
amalgamation, from cloth into which it had been woven. 

Physical Properties. Gold has a characteristic yellow colour, 
which is, however, notably affected by small quantities of other 
metals; thus the tint is sensibly lowered by small quantities 
of silver, and heightened by copper. When the gold is finely 



GOLD 



193 



divided, as in " purple of Cassius," or when it is precipitated 
from solutions, the colour is ruby-red, while in very thin leaves 
it transmits a greenish light. It is nearly as soft as lead and 
softer than silver. When pure, it is the most malleable of all 
metals (see GOLDBEATING). It is also extremely ductile; a 
single grain may be drawn into a wire 500 ft. in length, and an 
ounce of gold covering a silver wire is capable of being extended 
more than 1300 m. The presence of minute quantities of 
cadmium, lead, bismuth, antimony, arsenic, tin, tellurium and 
zinc renders gold brittle, TS^nrth part of one of the three metals 
first named being sufficient to produce that quality. Gold can 
be readily welded cold; the finely divided metal, in the state 
in which it is precipitated from solution, may be compressed 
between dies into disks or medals. The specific gravity of gold 
obtained by precipitation from solution by ferrous sulphate 
is from 10-55 to 20-72. The specific gravity of cast gold varies 
from 18-29 to 19-37, and by compression between dies the 
specific gravity may be raised from 19-37 to 19-41; by annealing, 
however, the previous density is to some extent recovered, as 
it is then found to be 19-40. The melting-point has been 
variously given, the early values ranging from 1425 C. to 103 5 C. 
Using improved methods, C. T. Heycock and F. H. Neville 
determined it to be 1061-7 C.; Daniel Berthelot gives 1064 C., 
while Jaquerod and Perrot give 1066-1-1067-4 C. At still 
higher temperatures it volatilizes, forming a reddish vapour. 
Macquer and Lavoisier showed that when gold is strongly heated, 
fumes arise which gild a piece of silver held in them. Its vola- 
tility has also been studied by L. Eisner, and, in the presence of 
other metals, by Napier and others. The volatility is barely 
appreciable at 1075; at 1250 it is four times as much as at 
1100. Copper and zinc increase the volatility far more than 
lead, while the greatest volatility is induced, according to T. 
Kirke Rose, by tellurium. It has also been shown that gold 
volatilizes when a gold-amalgam is distilled. Gold is dissipated 
by sending a. powerful charge of electricity through it when in the 
form of leaf or thin wire. The electric conductivity is given by 
A. Matthiessen as 73 at o C., pure silver being 100; the value 
of this coefficient depends greatly on the purity of the metal, 
the presence of a few thousandths of silver lowering it by 10%. 
Its conductivity for heat has been variously given as 103 (C. M. 
Despretz), 98 (F. Crace-Calvert and R. Johnson), and 60 (G. H. 
Wiedemann and R. Franz), pure silver being 100. Its specific 
heat is between 0-0298 (Dulong and Petit) and 0-03244 (Reg- 
nault). Its coefficient of expansion for each degree between 
o and 100 C. is 0-000014661, or for gold which has been 
annealed 0-000015136 (Laplace and Lavoisier). The spark 
spectrum of gold has been mapped by A. Kirchhoff, R. Thalen, 
Sir William Huggins and H. Kriiss; the brightest lines are 6277, 
5960, 5955 and 5836 in the orange and yellow, and 5230 and 
4792 in the green and blue. 

Chemical Properties. Gold is permanent in both dry and 
moist air at ordinary or high temperatures. It is insoluble in 
hydrochloric, nitric and sulphuric acids, but dissolves in aqua 
regia a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids and when 
very finely divided in a heated mixture of strong sulphuric 
acid and a little nitric acid; dilution with water, however, 
precipitates the metal as a violet or brown powder from this 
solution. The metal is soluble in solutions of chlorine, bromine, 
thiosulphates and cyanides; and also in solutions which 
generate chlorine, such as mixtures of hydrochloric acid with 
nitric acid, chromic acid, antimonious acid, peroxides and 
nitrates, and of nitric acid wjth a chloride. Gold is also attacked 
when strong sulphuric acid is submitted to electrolysis with a 
gold positive pole. W. Skey showed that in substances which 
contain small quantities of gold the precious metal may be 
removed by the solvent action of iodine or bromine in water. 
Filter paper soaked with the clear solution is burnt, and the 
presence of gold is indicated by the purple colour of the ash. In 
solution minute quantities of gold may be detected by the 
formation of " purple of Cassius," a bluish-purple precipitate 
thrown down by a mixture of ferric and stannous chlorides. 
?he atomic weight of gold was first determined with accuracy 
HI. 7 



by Berzelius, who deduced the value 195-7 (H=i) from the 
amount of mercury necessary to precipitate it from the chloride, 
and 195-2 from the ratio between gold and potassium chloride 
in potassium aurichloride, KAuCl 4 . Later determinations 
were made by Sir T. E. Thorpe and A. P. Laurie, Kriiss and 
J. W. Mallet. Thorpe and Laurie converted potassium auri- 
bromide into a mixture of metallic gold and potassium bromide 
by careful heating. The relation of the gold to the potassium 
bromide, as well as the amounts of silver and silver bromide 
which are equivalent to the potassium bromide, were determined. 
The mean value thus adduced was 195-86. Kriiss worked with 
the same salt, arid obtained the value 195-65; while Mallet, 
by analyses of gold chloride and bromide, and potassium auri- 
bromide, obtained the value 195-77. 

Occlusion of Gas by Gold. T. Graham showed that gold is 
capable of occluding by volume 0-48% of hydrogen, 0-20% 
of nitrogen, 0-29% of carbon monoxide, and 0-16% of carbon 
dioxide. Varrentrapp pointed out that " cornets " from the 
assay of gold may retain gas if they are not strongly heated. 

Occurrence and Distribution. Gold is found in nature chiefly 
in the metallic state, i.e. as " native gold," and less frequently 
in combination with tellurium, lead and silver. These are the 
only certain examples of natural combinations of the metal, 
the minute, though economically valuable, quantity often 
found in pyrites and other sulphides being probably only present 
in mechanical suspension. The native metal crystallizes in the 
cubic system, the octahedron being the commonest form, but 
other and complex combinations have been observed. Owing 
to the softness of the metal, large crystals are rarely well defined, 
the points being commonly rounded. In the irregular crystalline 
aggregates branching and moss-like forms are most common, 
and in Transylvania thin plates or sheets with diagonal structures 
are found. More characteristic, however, than the crystallized 
are the irregular forms, which, when large, are known as "nuggets" 
or " pepites," and when in pieces below i to ^ oz. weight as gold 
dust, the larger sizes being distinguished as coarse or nuggety 
gold, and the smaller as gold dust proper. Except in the larger 
nuggets, which may be more or less angular, or at times even 
masses of crystals, with or without associated quartz or other 
rock, gold is generally found bean-shaped or in some other 
flattened form, the smallest particles being scales of scarcely 
appreciable thickness, which, from their small bulk as compared 
with their surface, subside very slowly when suspended in water, 
and are therefore readily carried away by a rapid current. These 
form the " float gold " of the miner. The physical properties of 
native gold are generally similar to that of the melted metal. 

Of the minerals containing gold the most important are sylvanite or 
graphic tellurium (Ag, Au) Te 2 , with 24 to 26%; calaverite, AuTej, 
with 42 % ; nagyagite or foliate tellurium (Pb, Au)i 6 Sb 3 (S, Te) 24 , 
with 5 to 9% of gold; petzite, (Ag, Au) 2 Te, and white tellurium. 
These are confined to a few localities, the oldest and best known 
being those of Nagyag and Offenbanya in Transylvania ; they have 
also been found at Red Cloud, Colorado, in Calaveras county, Cali- 
fornia, and at Perth and Boulder, West Australia. The minerals 
of the second class, usually spoken of as " auriferous," are compara- 
tively numerous. Prominent among these are galena and iron pyrites, 
the former being almost invariably gold-bearing. Iron pyrites, 
however, is of greater practical importance, being in some districts 
exceedingly rich, and, next to the native metal, is the most prolific 
source of gold. Magnetic pyrites, copper pyrites, zinc blende and 
arsenical pyrites are other and less important examples, the last 
constituting the gold ore formerly worked in Silesia. A native gold 
amalgam is found as a rarity in California, and bismuth from 
South America is sometimes rich in gold. Native arsenic and 
antimony are also very frequently found to contain gold and silver. 

The association and distribution of gold may be considered under 
two different heads, namely, as it occurs in mineral veins "reef 
gold," and in alluvial or other superficial deposits which are derived 
from the waste of the former " alluvial gold." Four distinct 
types of reef gold deposits may be distinguished: (i) Gold may 
occur disseminated through metalliferous veins, generally with 
sulphides and more particularly with pyrites. These deposits seem 
to be the primary sources of native gold. (2) More common are the 
auriferous quartz-reefs veins or masses of quartz containing gold 
in flakes visible to the naked eye, or so finely divided as to be invisible. 
(3) The " banket " formation, which characterizes the goldfields of 
South Africa, consists of a quartzite conglomerate throughout 
which gold is very finely disseminated. (4) The siliceous sinter at 



GOLD 



Mount Morgan, Queensland, which is obviously associated with 
hydrothermal action, is also gold-bearing. The genesis of the last 
three types of deposit is generally assigned to the simultaneous 
percolation of solutions of gold and silica, the auriferous solution 
being formed during the disintegration of the gold-bearing metalli- 
ferous veins. But there is much uncertainty as to the mechanism 
of the process; some authors hold that the soluble chloride is first 
formed, while others postulate the intervention of a soluble aurate. 

In the alluvial deposits the associated minerals are chiefly those 
of great density and hardness, such as platinum, osmiridium and 
other metals of the platinum group, tinstone, chromic, magnetic 
and brown iron ores, diamond, ruby and sapphire, zircon, topaz, 
garnet, &c. which represent the more durable original constituents of 
the rocks whose distintegration has furnished the detritus. 

Statistics of Gold Production. The supply of gold, and also 
its relation to the supply of silver, has, among civilized nations, 
always been of paramount importance in the economic questions 
concerning money (see MONEY and BIMETALLISM); in this 
article a summary of the modern gold-producing areas will be 
given, and for further details reference should be made to the 
articles on the localities named. The chief sources of the 
European supply during the middle ages were the mines of 
Saxony and Austria, while Spain also contributed. The supplies 
from Mexico and Brazil were important during the i6th and i7th 
centuries. Russia became prominent in 1823, and for fourteen 
years contributed the bulk of the supply. The United States 
(California) after 1848, and Australia after 1851, were responsible 
for enormous increases in the total production, which has been 
subsequently enhanced by discoveries in Canada, South Africa, 
India, China and other countries. 

The average annual world's production for certain periods 
from 1801 to 1880 in ounces is given in Table I. The average 
TABLE I. 



Period. 


Oz. 


Period. 


Oz. 


1801-1810 
1811-1820 
1821-1830 
1831-1840 
1841-1850 
1851-1855 


590,750 
380,300 
472,400 
674,200 
1,819,600 
6,350,180 


1856-1860 
1861-1865 
1866-1870 
1871-1875 
1876-1880 


6,350,180 
5,951,770 
6,169,660 
5,487,400 
5,729,300 



production of the five years 1881-1885 was the smallest since the 
Australian and Calif ornian mines began to be worked in 1848- 
1849; the minimum 4,614,588 oz., occurred in 1882. It was 
not until after 1885 that the annual output of the world began 
to expand. Of the total production in 1876, 5,016,488 oz., 
almost the whole was derived from the United States, Australasia 
and Russia. Since then the proportion furnished by these 
countries has been greatly lowered by the supplies from South 
Africa, Canada, India and China. The increase of production 
has not been uniform, the greater part having occurred most 
notably since 1895. Among the regions not previously important 
as gold-producers which now contribute to the annual output, 
the most remarkable are the goldfields of South Africa (Transvaal 
and Rhodesia, the former of which were discovered in 1885). 
India likewise has been added to the list, its active production 
having begun at about the same time as that of South Africa. 
The average annual product of India for the period 1886 to 1899 
inclusive was 698,208, and its present annual product averages 
about 550,000 oz., or about 2,200,000, obtained almost wholly 
from the free-milling quartz veins of the Colar goldfields in 
Mysore, southern India. In 1900 the output was valued at 
1,891,804, in 1905 at 2,450,536, and in 1908 at 2,270,000. 
Canada, too, assumed an important rank, having contributed 
in 1900 5,583,300; but the output has since steadily declined 
to 1,973,000 in 1908. The great increase during the few years 
preceding 1899 was due to the development of the goldfields 
of the North-Western Territory, especially British Columbia. 
From the district of Yukon (Klondike, &c.) 2,800,000 was 
obtained in .1899, wholly from alluvial workings, but the progress 
made since has been slower than was expected by sanguine 
people. It is, however, probable that the North-Western 
Territory will continue to yield gold in important quantities 
for some time to come. 

The output of the United States increased from 7,050,000 



in 1881 to 16,085,567 in 1900, 17,916,000 in 1905, and to 
20,065,000 in 1908. This increase was chiefly due to the 
exploitation of new goldfields. The fall in the price of silver 
stimulated the discovery and development of gold deposits, 
and many states formerly regarded as characteristically silver 
districts have become important as gold producers. Colorado is 
a case in point, its output having increased from about 600,000 
in 1880 to 6,065,000 in 1900; it was 5,139,800 in 1905. Some- 
what more than one-half of the Colorado gold is obtained from 
the Cripple Creek district. Other states also showed a largely 
augmented product. On the other hand, the output of California, 
which was producing over 3,000,000 per annum in 1876, has 
fallen off, the average annual output from 1876 to 1000 
being 2,800,000; in 1905 the yield was 3,839,000. This 
decrease was largely caused by the practical suspension for 
many years of the hydraulic mining operations, in preparation 
for which millions of dollars had been expended in deep tunnels, 
flumes, &c., and the active continuance of which might have been 
expected to yield some 2,000,000 of gold annually. This inter- 
ruption, due to the practical prohibition of the industry by the 
United States courts, on the ground that it was injuring, through 
the deposit of tailings, agricultural lands and navigable streams, 
was lessened, though not entirely removed, by compromises and 
regulations which permit, under certain restrictions, the renewed 
exploitation of the ancient river-beds by the hydraulic method. 
On the other hand, the progressive reduction of mining and 
metallurgical costs effected by improved transportation and 
machinery, and the use of high explosives, compressed air, 
electric-power transmission, &c., resulted in California (as 
elsewhere) in a notable revival of deep mining. This was 
especially the caseonthe " Mother Lode," where highly promising 
results were obtained. Not only is vein-material formerly 
regarded as unremunerative now extracted at a profit, but in 
many instances increased gold-values have been encountered 
below zones of relative barrenness, and operators have been 
encouraged to make costly preparations for really deep mining 
more than 3000 ft. below the surface. The gold product of 
California, therefore, may be fairly expected to maintain itself, 
and, indeed, to show an advance. Alaska appeared in the list 
of gold-producing countries in 1886, and gradually increased its 
annual output until 1897, when the country attracted much atten- 
tion with a production valued at over 500,000; the opening up 
of new workings has increased this figure immensely, from about 
1,400,000 in 1901 to 3,006,500 in 1905. The Alaska gold 
was derived almost wholly from the large low-grade quartz mines 
of Douglas Island prior to 1899, but in that year an important 
district was discovered at Cape Nome, on the north-western 
coast. The result of a few months' working during that year 
was more than 500,000 of gold, and a very much larger annual 
output may reasonably be anticipated in the future; in 1905 it 
was about 900,000. The gold occurs in alluvial deposits 
designated as gulch-, bar-, beach-, tundra- and bench-placers. 
The tundra is a coastal plain, swampy and covered with under- 
growth and underlaid by gravel. The most interesting and, thus 
far, the most productive are the beach deposits, similar to those 
on the coast of Northern California. These occur in a strip of 
comparatively fine gravel and sand, 150 yds. wide, extending 
along the shore. The gold is found in stratified layers, with 
" ruby " and black sand. The " ruby " sand consists chiefly of 
fine garnets and magnetites, with a few rose-quartz grains. 
Further exploration of the interior will probably result in the 
discovery of additional gold district^. 

Mexico, from a gold production of 200,000 in 1891, advanced 
to about 1,881,800 in 1900 and to about 3,221,000 in 1905. Of 
this increase, a considerable part was derived from gold-quartz 
mining, though much was also obtained as a by-product in the 
working of the ores of other metals. The product of Colombia, 
Venezuela, the Guianas, Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, 
Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador amounted in 1900 to 2,481,000 and 
to 2,046,000 in 1905. 

In 1876 Australasia produced 7,364,000, of which Victoria 
contributed 3,984,000. The annual output of Victoria declined 



GOLD 



'95 



until the year 1892, when it began to increase rapidly, but not to 
its former level, the values for 1000 and 1905 being 3,142,000 
and 3,138,000. There has been an important increase in 
Queensland, which advanced from 1,696,000 in 1876 to 
2,843,000 in 1900, and subsequently declined to 2,489,000 
in '190 5. There has been no increase, and, indeed, no large 
fluctuation until quite recently in the output of New Zealand, 
which averaged 1,054,000 per 
annum from 1876 to 1898, but 
the production of the two years 
1900 and igosrose to 1,425,459 
and 2,070,407 respectively. By 
far the most important addition 
to the Australasian product has 
come fromWest Australia, which 
began its production in 1887 
about the time of the incep- 
tion of mining at Witwaters- 
rand ("the Rand") in South 
Africa and by continuous in- 
crease, which assumed large 
proportions towards the close of 
the igthcentury, was6,426,ooo 
in 1899, 6, 1 79,000 in 1900, and 
8,212,000 in 1905. The total 
Australasian production in 1908 
was valued at 14,708,000. 

Undoubtedly the greatest of 
the gold discoveries made in the 
latter half of the igth century 
was that of the Witwatersrand 
district in the Transvaal. By 
reason of its unusual geological 
character and great economic 
importance this district deserves 
a more extended description. The gold occurs in conglomerate 
beds, locally known as "banket." There are several series of 
parallel beds, interstratified with quartzite and schist, the most 
important being the "main reef" series. The gold in this con- 
glomerate reef is partly of detrital origin and partly of the genetic 
character of ordinary vein-gold. The formation is noted for its 
regularity as regards both the thickness and the gold-tenor of 
the ore-bearing reefs, in which respect it is unparalleled in the 
geology of the auriferous formations. The gold carries, on an 
average, 2 per ton, and is worked by ordinary methods of gold- 
mining, stamp-milling and cyaniding. In 1899, 5762 stamps 
were in operation, crushing 7,331,446 tons of ore, and yielding 
15,134,000, equivalent to 25-5% of the world's production. 
Of this, 80% came from within 12 m. of Johannesburg. After 
September 1899 operations were suspended, almost entirely 
owing to the Boer War, but on the 2nd of May 1901 they were 
started again. In 1905 the yield was valued at 20,802,074, 
and in 1909 at 30,925,788. So certain is the ore-bearing 
formation that engineers in estimating its auriferous contents 
feel justified in assuming, as a factor in their calculations, a 
vertical extension limited only by the lowest depths at which 
mining is feasible. On such a basis they arrived at more than 
600,000,000 as the available gold contained in the Witwaters- 
rand conglomerates. This was a conservative estimate, and was 
made before the full extent of the reefs was known; in 1904 
Lionel Phillips stated that the main reef series had been 
proved for 61 m., and he estimated the gold remaining to be 
mined to be worth 2,500,000,000. Deposits similar to the 
Witwatersrand banket occur in Zululand, and also on the 
Gold Coast of Africa. In Rhodesia, the country lying north 
of the Transvaal, where gold occurs in well-defined quartz- 
veins, there is unquestionable evidence of extensive ancient 
workings. The economic importance of the region generally 
has been fully proved. Rhodesia produced 386,148 in 1900 
and 722,656 in 1901, in spite of the South African War; the 
product for 1905 was valued at 1,480,449, and for 1908 at 
2,526,000. 



The gold production of Russia has been remarkably constant, 
averaging 4,899,262 per annum; the gold is derived chiefly 
from placer workings in Siberia. 

The gold production of China was estimated for 1899 at 
1,328,238 and for 1900 at 860,000; it increased in 1901 to 
about 1,700,000, to fall to 340,000 in 1905; in 1906 and 1907 
it recovered to about 1,000,000. 

TABLE II. Gold Production of Certain Countries, 1881-1908 (in oz.). 



Year. 


Australasia. 


Africa. 


Canada. 


India. 


Mexico. 


Russia. 


United 
States. 


Totals. 


1881 


,475,161 




52,483 




41,545 


,181,853 


,678,612 


4,976,980 


1882 


,438,067 




52,000 




45-289 


,154,613 


,572,187 


4,825,794 


1883 


,333,849 




46,150 




46,229 


,132,219 


,451,250 


4-614,588 


1884 


,352,761 




46,000 




57-227 


,055,642 


-489-950 


4,902,889 


* ""f 

1885 


,309,804 




53,987 




46,941 


,225,738 


-538,325 


5,002,584 


1886 


,257,670 




66,061 




29,702 


922,226 


,693,125 


5,044,363 


1887 


,290,202 


28,754 


59,884 


15,403 


39,861 


971,656 


,596,375 


5,061,490 


1888 


,344,002 


240,266 


53,150 


35,034 


47,"7 


,030,151 


,604,841 


5.175,623 


1889 


,540,607 


366,023 


62,658 


78,649 


33,862 


,154,076 


,587,000 


5-611,245 


1890 


,453,172 


497,817 


55,625 


107,273 


37,104 


,134,590 


,588,880 


5,726,966 


1891 


,518,690 


729,268 


45-022 


J3i,776 


48,375 


,168,764 


,604,840 


6,287,591 


1892 


1,638,238 


1,210,869 


43,905 


164,141 


54,625 


,199,809 


,597-098 


7,102,172 


1893 


1,711,892 


1,478,477 


44,853 


207,152 


63,144 


,345-224 


-739,323 


7,772,585 


1894 


2,020,180 


2,024,164 


50,411 


210,412 


217,688 


,167,455 


,910,813 


8,813,848 


1895 


2,170,505 


2,277,640 


92,440 


257,830 


290,250 


,397,767 


2,254,760 


9,814,505 


1896 


2,185,872 


2,280,892 


136,274 


323,501 


314,437 


,041,794 


2,568,132 


9,950,861 


1897 


2,547,704 


2,832,776 


294,582 


350,585 


362,812 


,124,511 


2,774-935 


11,420,068 


1898 


3,137,644 


3,876,216 


669,445 


37 6 ,43i 


411,187 


,231,791 


3,118,398 


13,877,806 


1899 


3,837,181 


3,532,488 


1,031,563 


418,869 


411,187 


,072,333 


3,437,210 


14,837-775 


1900 


3,555,506 


419,503 


1,348,720 


456,444 


435,375 


974,537 


3.829,897 


12,315,135 


1901 


3,719,080 


439,704 


1,167,216 


454,527 


497,527 


,105,412 


3,805,500 


12,698,089 


1902 


3,946,374 


1,887,773 


1,003,355 


463,824 


491,156 


,090,053 


3,870,000 


14,313,660 


1903 


4,315,538 


3,289,409 


911,118 


552,873 


516,524 


,191,582 


3,560,000 


15,852,620 


1904 


4,245,744 


4,156,084 


793,350 


556,097 


609,781 


,199-857 


3,892,480 


16,790,351 


1905 


4,159,220 


5,477,841 


700,863 


576,889 


779,181 


,063,883 


4-265,742 


18,360,945 


y 

1906 


3,984,538 


6,449,749 


581,709 


525,527 


896,615 


,087,056 


4,565,333 


19,620,272 


1907 


3,659,693 


7,270,464 


399,844 


495,965 


903,672 


,282,635 


4-374,827 


19,988,144 


1908 


3,557,705 


7,983,348 


462,467 


504,309 


1,182,445 


,497,076 


4,659,360 


21,529,300 



Alloys. Gold forms alloys with most metals, and of these many 
are of great importance in the arts. The alloy with mercury gold 
amalgam is so readily formed that mercury is one of the most 
powerful agents for extracting the precious metal. With 10% of 
gold present the amalgam is fluid, and with 12-5 % pasty, while with 
13 % it consists of yellowish-white crystals. Gold readily alloys with 
silver and copper to form substances in use from remote times for 
money, jewelry and plate. Other metals which find application in 
the metallurgy of gold by virtue of their property of extracting the 
gold as an alloy are lead, which combines very readily when molten, 
and which can afterwards be separated by cupellation, and copper, 
which is separated from the gold by solution in acids or by electro- 
lysis ; molten lead also extracts gold from the copper-gold alloys. 
The relative amount of gold in an alloy is expressed in two ways : 

(1) as " fineness," i.e. the amount of gold in 1000 parts of alloy; 

(2) as " carats," i.e. the amount of gold in 24 parts of alloy. Thus, 
pure gold is 1000 " fine " or 24 carat. In England the following 
standards are used for plate and jewelry: 375, 500, 625, 750 and 
916-6, corresponding to 9, 12, 15, 18 and 22 carats, the alloying 
metals being silver and copper in varying proportions. In France 
three alloys of the following standards are used for jewelry, 920, 
840 and 750. A greenish alloy used by goldsmiths contains 70 % of 
silver and 30 % of gold. " Blue gold is stated to contain 75 % 
of gold and 25 % of iron. The Japanese use for ornament an alloy 
of gold and silver, the standard of which varies from 350 to 500, 
the colour of the precious metal being developed by " pickling ' in 
a mixture of plum-juice, vinegar and copper sulphate. They may 
be said to possess a series of bronzes, in which ^old and silver replace 
tin and zinc, all these alloys being characterized by patina having 
a wonderful range of tint. The common alloy, Shi-ya-ku-Do, con- 
tains 70% of copper and 30% of gold; when exposed to air it 
becomes coated with a fine black patina, and is much used in Japan 
for sword ornaments. Gold wire may be drawn of any quality, but it 
is usual to add 5 to 9 dwts. of copper to the pound. The " solders " 
used for red gold contain I part of copper and 5 of gold; for light 
gold, i part of copper, I of silver and 4 of gold. 

Gold and Silver. Electrum is a natural alloy of gold and silver. 
Matthiessen observed that the density of alloys, the composition of 
which varies from AuAge to AuAg, is greater than that calculated 
from the densities of the constituent metals. These alloys are 
harder, more fusible and more sonorous than pure gold. The alloys 
of the formulae AuAg, AuAgj, AuAg 4 and AuAg M are perfectly 
homogeneous, and have been studied by Levol. Molten alloys con- 
taining more than 80 % of silver deposit on cooling the alloy AuAg, 
little gold remaining in the mother liquor. 

Gold and Zinc. When present in small quantities zinc renders gold 




196 



GOLD 



brittle, but it may be added to gold in larger quantities without 
destroying the ductility of the precious metal ; Pehgot proved that a 
triple alloy of gold, copper and zinc, which contains 5-8 % of the last- 
named, is perfectly ductile. The alloy of 1 1 parts gold and I part of 
zinc is, however, stated to be brittle. 

Gold and Tin. Alchorne showed that gold alloyed with j^th part 
of tin is sufficiently ductile to be rolled and stamped into coin, pro- 
vided the metal is not annealed at a high temperature. The alloys 
of tin and gold are hard and brittle, and the combination of the metals 
is attended with contraction; thus the alloy SnAu has a density 
14-243, instead of 14-828 indicated by calculation. Matthiessen and 
Bose obtained large crystals of the alloy Au 2 Sn 6 , having the colour 
of tin, which changed to a bronze tint by oxidation. 

Cold and Iron. Hatchett found that the alloy of n parts gold 
and I part of iron is easily rolled without annealing. In these pro- 
portions the density of the alloy is less than the mean of its con- 
stituent metals. 

Gold and Palladium. These metals are stated to alloy in all pro- 
portions. According to Chenevix, the alloy composed of equal parts 
of the two metals is grey, is less ductile than its constituent metals 
and has the specific gravity 1 1 -08. The alloy of 4 parts of gold and I 
part of palladium is white, hard and ductile. Graham showed that a 
wire of palladium alloyed with from 24 to 25 parts of gold does not 
exhibit the remarkable retraction which, in pure palladium, attends 
its loss of occluded hydrogen. 

Gold and Platinum. Clarke states that the alloy of equal parts 
of the two metals is ductile, and has almost the colour of gold. 

Gold and Rhodium. Gold alloyed with Jth or th of rhodium is, 
according to Wollaston.very ductile, infusible and of the colour of gold. 

Gold and Iridium. Small quantities of iridium do not destroy the 
ductility of gold, but this is probably because the metal is only dis- 
seminated through the mass, and not alloyed, as it falls to the bottom 
of the crucible in which the gold is fused. 

Gold and Nickel. Eleven parts of gold and I of nickel yield an 
alloy resembling brass. 

Gold and Cobalt. Eleven parts of gold and I of cobalt form a 
brittle alloy of a dull yellow colour. 

Compounds. Aurous oxide, AujO, is obtained by cautiously 
adding potash to a solution of aurous bromide, or by boiling 
mixed solutions of auric chloride and mercurous nitrate. It forms 
a dark-violet precipitate which dries to a greyish-violet powder. 
When freshly prepared it dissolves in cold water to form an indigo- 
coloured solution with a brownish fluorescence of colloidal aurous 
oxide; it is insoluble in hot water. This oxide is slightly basic. 
Auric oxide, Au 2 O 3 , is a brown powder, decomposed into its elements 
when heated to about 250 or on exposure to light. When a con- 
centrated solution of auric chloride is treated with caustic potash, 
a brown precipitate of auric hydrate, Au(OH) 3 , is obtained, which, 
on heating, loses water to form auryl hydrate, AuO(OH), and 
auric oxide, Au 2 O 3 . It functions chiefly as an acidic oxide, being 
less basic than aluminium oxide, and forming no stable oxy-salts. 
It dissolves in alkalis to form well-defined crystalline salts ; potassium 
aurate, KAuCVSHjO, is very soluble in water, and is used in electro- 
gilding. With concentrated ammonia auric oxide forms a black, 
highly explosive compound of the composition AuN2H 3 -3H 2 O, 
named " fulminating gold "; this substance is generally considered 
to be Au(NH 2 )NH-3H 2 O, but it may be an ammine of the formula 
[Au(NH 3 ) 2 (OH) 2 ]OH. Other oxides, e.g. Au 2 O 2 , have been.described. 

Aurous chloride, AuCl, is obtained as a lemon-yellow, amorphous 
powder, insoluble in water, by heating auric chloride to 185 . It 
begins to decompose into gold and chlorine at 185, the decomposition 
being complete at 230; water decomposes it into gold and auric 
chloride. Auric chloride, or gold trichloride, AuCl 3 , is a dark ruby- 
red or reddish-brown, crystalline, deliquescent powder obtained by 
dissolving the metal in aqua regia. It is also obtained by carefully 
evaporating a solution of the metal in chlorine water. The gold 
chloride of commerce, which is used in photography, is really a 
hydrochloride, chlorauric or aurichloric acid, HAuCU-Sr^O, and 
is obtained in long yellow needles by crystallizing the acid solution. 
Corresponding to this acid, a series of salts, named chloraurates or 
aurichlorides, are known. The potassium salt is obtained by crys- 
tallizing equivalent quantities of potassium and auric chlorides. 
Light-yellow monoclinic needles of 2KAuCU-H 2 O are deposited from 
warm, strongly acid solutions, and transparent rhombic tables of 
KAuCU-2H 2 O from neutral solutions. By crystallizing an aqueous 
solution, red crystals of AuQ 3 -2H 2 O are obtained. Auric chloride 
combines with the hydrochlorides of many organic bases amines, 
alkaloids, &c. to form characteristic compounds. Gold dichloride, 
probably Au 2 CU, =Au.AuCl<, aurous chloraurate, is said to be 
obtained as a dark-red mass by heating finely divided gold to 140- 
170 in chlorine. Water decomposes it into gold and auric chloride. 
The bromides and iodides resemble the chlorides. Aurous bromide, 
AuBr, is a yellowish-green powder obtained by heating the tri- 
bromide to 140; auric bromide, AuBr 3 , forms reddish-black or 
scarlet-red leafy crystals, which dissolye in water to form a reddish- 
brown solution.and combines with bromides to form bromauratescorre- 
sponding to the chloraurates. Aurous iodide, Aul, is a light-yellow, 
sparingly soluble powder obtained, together with free iodine, by 
adding potassium iodide to auric chloride; auric iodide, Auls, 
is formed as a dark-green powder at the same time, but it readily 



decomposes to aurous iodide and iodine. Aurous iodide is also 
obtained as a green solid by acting upon gold with iodine. The 
iodaurates correspond to the chlor- and bromaurates; the potassium 
salt, KAuI<, forms highly lustrous, intensely black, four-sided prisms. 

Aurous cyanide, AuCN, forms yellow, microscopic, hexagonal 
tables, insoluble in water, and is obtained by the addition of hydro- 
chloric acid to a solution of potassium aurocyanide, KAu(CN) 2 . 
This salt is prepared by precipitating a solution of gold in aqua regia 
by ammonia, and then introducing the well-washed precipitate into 
a boiling solution of potassium cyanide. The solution is filtered 
and allowed to cool, when colourless rhombic pyramids of the 
aurocyanide separate. It is also obtained in the action of potassium 
cyanide on gold in the presence of air, a reaction utilized in the 
MacArthur-Forrest process of gold extraction (see below). Auric 
cyanide, Au(CN) 3 , is not certainly known; its double sajts, how- 
ever, have been frequently described. Potassium auricyanide, 
2KAu(CN)4-3H 2 O, is obtained as large, colourless, efflorescent 
tablets by crystallizing concentrated solutions of auric chloride 
and potassium cyanide. The acid, auricyanic acid, 2HAu(CN)4-3H 2 O, 
is obtained by treating the silver salt (obtained by precipitating 
the potassium salt with silver nitrate) with hydrochloric acid; it 
forms tabular crystals, readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether. 

Gold forms three sulphides corresponding to the oxides; they 
readily decompose on heating. Aurous sulphide, Au 2 S, is a brownish- 
black powder formed by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a 
solution of potassium aurocyanide and then acidifying. Sodium 
aurosulphide, NaAuS-4H 2 O, is prepared by fusing gold with sodium 
sulphide and sulphur, the melt being extracted with water, filtered 
in an atmosphere of nitrogen, and evaporated in a vacuum over 
sulphuric acid. It forms colourless, monoclinic prisms, which turn 
brown on exposure to air. This method of bringing gold into 
solution is mentioned by Stahl in his Observations Chymico- 
Physico-Medicae; he there remarks that Moses probably destroyed 
the golden calf by burning it with sulphur and alkali (Ex. xxxii. 20). 
Auric sulphide, Au 2 S 3 , is an amorphous powder formed when lithium 
aurichlonde is treated with dry sulphuretted hydrogen at 10. 
It is very unstable, decomposing into gold and sulphur at 200. 

Oxy-salts of gold are almost unknown, but the sulphite and thio- 
sulphate form double salts. Thus by adding acid sodium sulphite 
to, or by passing sulphur dioxide at 50 into, a solution of sodium 
aurate, the salt, 3Na 2 SO3-Au 2 SO 3 -3H 2 O is obtained, which, when 
precipitated from its aqueous solution by alcohol, forms a purple 
powder, appearing yellow or green by reflected light. Sodium 
aurothiosutphate, 3Na 2 S 2 O 3 -Au 2 S 2 O3-4H 2 O, forms colourless needles; 
it is obtained in the direct action of sodium thiosulphatcongoldinthe 
presence of an oxidizing agent, or by the addition of a dilute solution 
of auric chloride to a sodium thiosulphate solution. 

Mining and Metallurgy. 

The various deposits of gold may be divided into two classes 
"veins "and "placers." The vein mining of gold does not 
greatly differ from that of similar deposits of metals (see MINERAL 
DEPOSITS). In the placer or alluvial deposits, the precious metal 
is found usually in a water-worn condition imbedded in earthy 
matter, and the method of working all such deposits is based on 
the disintegration of the earthy matter by the action of a stream 
of water, which washes away the lighter portions and leaves the 
denser gold. In alluvial deposits the richest ground is usually 
found in contact with the "bed rock"; and, when the overlying 
cover of gravel is very thick, or, as sometimes happens, when the 
older gravel is covered with a flow of basalt, regular mining by 
shafts and levels, as in what are known as tunnel-claims, may be 
required to reach the auriferous ground. 

The extraction of gold may be effected by several methods; 
we may distinguish the following leading types: 

1. By simple washing, i.e. dressing auriferoussands,gravels,&c.; 

2. By amalgamation, i.e. forming a gold amalgam, afterwards 
removing the mercury by distillation; 

3. By chlorination, i.e. forming the soluble gold chloride and 
then precipitating the metal; 

4. By the cyanide process, i.e. dissolving the gold in potassium 
cyanide solution, and then precipitating the metal; 

5. Electrolytically, generally applied to the solutions obtained 
in processes (3) and (4). 

I. Extraction of Gold by Washing. In the early days of gold- 
washing in California and Australia, when rich alluvial deposits 
were common at the surface, the most simple appliances sufficed. 
The most characteristic is the " pan," a circular dish of sheet- 
iron or " tin," with sloping sides about 13 or 14 in. in diameter. 
The pan, about two-thirds filled with the " pay dirt " to be washed, 
is held in the stream or in a hole filled with water. The larger 
stones having been removed by hand, gyratory motion is given 
to the pan by a combination of shaking and twisting movements 



GOLD 



197 



so as to keep its contents suspended in the stream of water, which 
carries away the bulk of the lighter material, leaving the heavy 
minerals, together with any gold which may have been present. The 
washing is repeated until enough of the enriched sand is collected, 
when the gold is finally recovered by careful washing or " panning 
out " in a smaller pan. In Mexico and South America, instead of the 
pan, a wooden dish or trough, known as " batea," is used. 

The " cradle " is a simple appliance for treating somewhat larger 
quantities, and consists essentially of a box, mounted on rockers, 
and provided with a perforated bottom of sheet iron in which the 
" pay dirt " is placed. Water is poured on the dirt, and the rocking 
motion imparted to the cradle causes the finer particles to pass through 
the perforated bottom on to a canvas screen, and thence to the base 
of the cradle, where the auriferous particles accumulate on transverse 
bars of wood, called " riffles." 

The " torn " is a sort of cradle with an extended sluice placed on 
an incline of about I in 12. The upper end contains a perforated 
riddle plate which is placed directly over the riffle box, and under 
certain circumstances mercury may be placed behind the riffles. 
Copper plates amalgamated with mercury are also used when the 
gold is very fine, and in some instances amalgamated silver coins have 
been used for the same purpose. Sometimes the stuff is disintegrated 
with water in a " puddling machine," which was used, especially in 
Australia, when the earthy matters are tenacious and water scarce. 
The machine frequently resembles a brickmaker's wash-mill, and is 
worked by horse or steam power. 

In workings on a larger scale, where the supply of water is abundant, 
as in California, sluices were generally employed. ' They are shallow 
troughs about 12 ft. long, about 1 6 to 20 in. wide and I ft. in depth. 
The troughs taper slightly so that they can be joined in series, the 
total length often reaching several hundred feet. The incline of the 
sluice varies with the conformation of the ground and the tenacity of 
the stuff to be washed, from I in 16 to I in 8. A rectangular trough 
of boards, whose dimensions depend chiefly on the size of the planks 
available, is set up on the higher part of the ground at one side of the 
claim to be worked, upon trestles or piers of rough stone-work, at such 
an inclination that the stream may carry off all but the largest stones, 
which are kept back by a grating of boards about 2 in. apart. The 
gravel is dug by hand and thrown in at the upper end, the stones 
kept back being removed at intervals by two men with four-pronged 
steel forks. The floor of the sluice is laid with riffles made of strips 
of wood 2 in. square laid parallel to the direction of the current, and 
at other points with boards having transverse notches filled with 
mercury. These were known originally as Hungarian riffles. 

In larger plant the upper ends of the sluices are often cut in rock 
or lined with stone blocks, the grating stopping the larger stones 
being known as a " grizzly." In order to save very fine and especially 
rusty particles of gold, so-called " under-current sluices " are used; 
these are shallow wooden tanks, 50 sq. yds. and upwards in area, 
which are placed somewhat below the main sluice, and communicate 
with it above and below, the entry being protected by a grating so 
that only the finer material is admitted. These are paved with stone 
blocks or lined with mercury riffles, so that from the greatly reduced 
velocity of flow, due to the sudden increase of surface, the finer 
particles of gold may collect. In order to save finely divided gold, 
amalgamated copper plates are sometimes placed in a nearly level 
position, at a considerable distance from the head of the sluice, the 
gold which is retained in it being removed from time to time. Sluices 
are often made double, and they are usually cleaned up that is, 
the deposit rich in gold is removed from them once a week. 

The " pan " is now only used by prospectors, while the " cradle " 
and " torn " are practically confined to the Chinese; the sluice is 
considered to be the best contrivance for washing gold gravels. 

2. The Amalgamation Process. This method is employed to 
extract gold from both alluvial and reef deposits: in the first 
case it is combined with " hydraulic mining," i.e. disintegrating 
auriferous gravels by powerful jets of water, and the sluice 
system described above; in the second case the vein stuff is 
prepared by crushing and the amalgamation is carried out in 
mills. 

Hydraulic mining has for the most part been confined to the country 
of its invention, California, and the western territories of America, 
where the conditions favourable for its use are more fully developed 
than elsewhere notably the presence of thick banks of gravel that 
cannot be utilized by other methods, and abundance of water, even 
though considerable work may be required at times to make it avail- 
able. The general conditions to be observed in such workings 
may be briefly stated as follows: (l) The whole of the auriferous 
gravel, down to the " bed rock," must be removed, that is, no 
selection of rich or poor parts is possible; (2) this must be accom- 

Clishcd by the aid of water alone, or at times by water supplemented 
y blasting ; (3) the conglomerate must be mechanically disintegrated 
without interrupting the whole system ; (4) the gold must be saved 
without interrupting the continuous flow of water; and (5) arrange- 
ments must be made for disposing of the vast masses of impoverished 
gravel. 

The water is brought from a ditch on the high ground, and through 
a line of pipes to the distributing box, whence the branch pipes 



supplying the jets diverge. The stream issues through a nozzle, 
termed a " monitor " or " giant," which is fitted with a ball and 
socket joint, so that the direction of the jet may be varied through 
considerable angles by simply moving a handle. The material of 
the bank being loosened by blasting and the cutting action of the 
water, crumbles into holes, and the superincumbent mass, often 
with large trees and stones, falls into the lower ground. The 
stream, laden with stones and gravel, passes into the sluices, where 
the gold is recovered in the manner already described. Under the 
most advantageous conditions the loss of gold may be estimated at 
15 or 20%, the amount recovered representing a value of about 
two shillings per ton of gravel treated. The loss of mercury is 
about the same, from 5 to 6 cwt. being in constant use per mile of 
sluice. 

In working auriferous river-beds, dredges have been used with 
considerable success in certain parts of New Zealand and on the 
Pacific slope in America. The dredges used in California are almost 
exclusively of the endless-chain bucket or steam-shovel pattern. 
Some dredges have a capacity under favourable conditions of over 
2000 cub. yds. of gravel daily. The gravel is excavated as in the 
ordinary form of endless-chain bucket dredge and dumped on to the 
deck of the dredge. It then passes through screens and grizzlies 
to retain the coarse gravel, the finer material passing on to sluice 
boxes provided with riffles, supplied with mercury. There are 
belt conveyers for discharging the gravel and tailings at the end of the 
vessel remote from the buckets. The water necessary to the process 
is pumped from the river; as much as 2000 gallons per minute is 
used on the larger dredges. 

The dressing or mechanical preparation of vein stuff containing gold 
is generally similar to that of other ores (see ORE-DRESSING), except 
that the precious metal should be removed from the waste substances 
as quickly as possible, even although other minerals of value that are 
subsequently recovered may be present. In all cases the quartz 
or other vein stuff must be reduced to a very fine powder as a pre- 
liminary to further operations. This may be done in several ways, 
e.g. either ( I ) by the Mexican crusher or arrastra, in which the grinding 
is effected upon a bed of stone, over which heavy blocks of stone 
attached to cross arms are dragged by the rotation of the arms about 
a central spindle, or (2) by the Chilean mill or trapiche, also known 
as the edge-runner, where the grinding stones roll upon the floor, 
at the same time turning about a central upright contrivances 
which are mainly used for the preparation of silver ores; but 
by far the largest proportion of the gold quartz of California, 
Australia and Africa is reduced by (3) the stamp mill, which is similar 
in principle to that used in Europe for the preparation of tin and other 
ores. 

The stamp mill was first used in California, and its use has since 
spread over the whole world. In the mills of the Californian type the 
stamp is a cylindrical iron pestle faced with a chilled cast iron shoe, 
removable so that it can be renewed when necessary, attached to 
a round iron rod or lifter, the whole weighing from 600 to 900 ft; 
stamps weighing 1320 ft are in use in the Transvaal. The lift is 
effected by cams acting on the under surface of tappets, and formed 
by cylindrical boxes keyed on to the stems of the lifter about one- 
fourth of their length from the top. As, however, the cams, unlike 
those of European stamp mills, are placed to one side of the stamp, the 
latter is not only lifted but turned partly round on its own axis, where- 
by the shoes are worn down uniformly. The height of lift may be 
between 4 and 18 in., and the number of blows from 30 to over 100 
per minute. The stamps are usually arranged in batteries of five; 
the order of working is usually I, 4, 2, 5, 3, but other arrangements, 
e.g. I, 3, 5, 2, 4, and I, 5, 2, 4, 3, are common. The stuff, previously 
broken to about 2-in. lumps in a rock-breaker, is fed in through an 
aperture at the back of the " battery box," a constant supply of 
water is admitted from above, and mercury in a finely divided state 
is added at frequent intervals. The discharge of the comminuted 
material takes place through an aperture, which is covered by a 
thin steel plate perforated with numerous slits about ^th in. broad 
and j in. long, a certain volume being discharged at every blow 
and carried forward by the flushing water over an apron or table 
in front, covered by copper plates filled with mercury. Similar 
plates are often used to catch any particles of gold that may be thrown 
back, while the main operation is so conducted that the bulk of the 
gold may be reduced to the state of amalgam by bringing the two 
metals into intimate contact under the stamp head, and remain in the 
battery. The tables in front are laid at an incline of about 8 and are 
about 13 ft. long; they collect from 10 to 15% of the whole gold; 
a further quantity is recovered by leading the sands through a gutter 
about 16 in. broad and 120 ft. long, also lined with amalgamated 
copper plates, after the pyritic and other heavy minerals have been 
separated by depositing in catch pits and other similar contrivances. 

When the ore does not contain any considerable amount of free gold 
mercury is not, as a rule, used during the crushing, but the amalgama- 
tion is carried out in a separate plant. Contrivances of the _most 
diverse constructions have been employed. The most primitive is 
the rubbing together of the concentrated crushings with mercury in 
iron mortars. Barrel amalgamation, i.e. mixing the crushings 
with mercury in rotating barrels, is rarely used, the process^being 
wasteful, since the mercury is specially apt to be " floured " (see 
below). 



198 



GOLD 



At Schemnitz, Kerpenyes, Kreuzberg and other localities in 
Hungary, quartz vein stuff containing a little gold, partly free and 
partly associated with pyrites and galena, is, after stamping in mills, 
similar to those described above, but without rotating stamps, 
passed through the so-called " Hungarian gold mill " or " quick-mill. 
This consists of a cast-iron pan having a shallow cylindrical bottom 
holding mercury, in which a wooden muller, nearly of the same 
shape as the inside of the pan, and armed below with several pro- 
jecting blades, is made to revolve by gearing wheels. The stuff 
from the stamps is conveyed to the middle of the muller, and is 
distributed over the mercury, when the gold subsides, while the 
quartz and lighter materials are guided by the blades to the cir- 
cumference and are discharged, usually into a second similar mill, 
and subsequently pass over blanket tables, i.e. boards covered 
with canvas or sacking, the gold and heavier particles becoming en- 
tangled in the fibres. The action of this mill is really more nearly 
analogous to that of a centrifugal pump, as no grinding action takes 
place in it. The amalgam is cleaned out periodically fortnightly or 
monthly and after filtering through linen bags to remove the excess 
of mercury, it is transferred to retorts for distillation (see below). 

Many other forms of pan-amalgamators have been devised. The 
Laszlo is an improved Hungarian mill, while the Piccard is of the 
same type. In the Knox and Boss mills, which are also employed 
for the amalgamation of silver ores, the grinding is effected between 
flat horizontal surfaces instead of conical or curved surfaces as in the 
previously described forms. 

One of the greatest difficulties in the treatment of gold by amalga- 
mation, and more particularly in the treatment of pyrites, arises from 
the so-called " sickening " or " flouring " of the mercury; that is, the 
particles, losing their bright metallic surfaces, are no longer capable 
of coalescing with or taking up other metals. Of the numerous 
remedies proposed the most efficacious is perhaps sodium amalgam. 
It appears that amalgamation is often impeded by the tarnish 
found on the surface of the gold when it is associated with sulphur, 
arsenic, bismuth, antimony or tellurium. Henry Wurtz in America 
(i 864) and Sir William Crookes in England (1865) made independently 
the discovery that, by the addition of a small quantity of sodium to 
the mercury, the operation is much facilitated. It is also stated that 
sodium prevents both the " sickening " and the " flouring " of the 
mercury which is produced by certain associated minerals. The 
addition of potassium cyanide has been suggested to assist the 
amalgamation and to prevent " flouring," but Skey has shown that 
its use is attended with loss of gold. 

Separation of Gold from the Amalgam. The amalgam is first 
pressed in wetted canvas or buckskin in order to remove excess of 
mercury. Lumps of the solid amalgam, about 2 in. in diameter, 
are introduced into an iron vessel provided with an iron tube that 
leads into a condenser containing water. The distillation is then 
effected by heating to dull redness. The amalgam yields about 
30 to 40% of gold. Horizontal cylindrical retorts, holding from 
200 to 1200 Ib of amalgam, are used in the larger Californian mills, 
pot retorts being used in the smaller mills. The bullion left in the 
retorts is then melted in black-lead crucibles, with the addition of 
small quantities of suitable fluxes, e.g. nitre, sodium carbonate, &c. 
The extraction of gold from auriferous minerals by fusion, except as 
an incident in their treatment for other metals, is very rarely practised. 
It was at one time proposed to treat the concentrated black iron 
obtained in the Ural gold washings, which consists chiefly of mag- 
netite, as an iron ore, by smelting it with charcoal for auriferous pig- 
iron, the latter metal possessing the property of dissolving gold in 
considerable quantity. By subsequent treatment with sulphuric acid 
the gold could be recovered. Experiments on this point were made 
by Anossow in 1835, but they have never been followed in practice. 
Gold in galena or other lead ores is invariably recovered in the 
refining or treatment of the lead and silver obtained. Pyritic ores 
containing copper are treated by methods analogous to those ol 
the copper smelter. In Colorado the pyritic ores containing golc 
and silver in association with copper are smelted in reverberatory 
furnaces for regulus, which, when desilverized by Ziervogel's method 
leaves a residue containing 20 or 30 oz. of gold per ton. This is 
smelted with rich gold ores, notably those containing tellurium, for 
white metal or regulus; and by a following process of partial reduc- 
tion analogous to that of selecting in copper smelting, " bottoms 
of impure copper are obtained in which practically all the gold is 
concentrated. By continuing the treatment of these in the ordinary 
way of refining, poling and granulating, all the foreign matters 
other than gold, copper and silver are removed, and, by exposing th* 
granulated metal to a high oxidizing heat for a considerable time th 
copper may be completely oxidized while the precious metals are 
unaltered. Subsequent treatment with sulphuric acid renders the 
copper soluble in water as sulphate, and the final residue contain 
only gold and silver, which is parted or refined in the ordinary way 
This method of separating gold from copper, by converting the latte 
into oxide and sulphate, is also used at Oker in the Harz. 

Extraction by Means of Aqueous Solutions. Many processe 
have been suggested in which the gold of auriferous deposits 
converted into products soluble in water, from which solution 
the gold may be precipitated. Of these processes, two only ar 



f special importance, viz. thechlorinationor Plattner process, in 
hich the metal is converted into the chloride, and the cyanide or 
VlacArthur-Forrest process, in which it is converted into potassium 
urocyanide. 

(3) Chlorination or Plattner Process. In this process moistened gold 
res are treated with chlorine gas, the resulting gold chloride dis- 
olved out with water, and the gold precipitated with ferrous sulphate, 
harcoal, sulphuretted hydrogen or otherwise. The process originated 
n 1848 with C. F. Plattner, who suggested that the residues from 
ertain mines at Reichenstein, in Silesia, should be treated with 
hlorine after the arsenical products had been extracted by roasting, 
t must be noticed, however, that Percy independently made the 
ame discovery, and stated his results at the meeting of the British 
Association (at Swansea) in 1849, but the Report was not published 
until 1852. The process was introduced in 1858 by Deetken at Grass 
Valley, California, where the waste minerals, principally pyrites from 
:ailings, had been worked for a considerable time by amalgamation. 
The process is rarely applied to ores direct; free-milling ores are 
generally amalgamated, and the tailings and slimes, after concentra- 
ion, operated upon. Three stages in the process are to be distin- 
guished: (i.) calcination, to convert all the metals, except gold 
ind silver, into oxides, which are unacted upon by chlorine; (ii.) 
:hlorinating the gold and lixiviating the product ; (iii.) precipitating 
he gold. 

The calcination, or roasting, is conducted at a low temperature in 
ome form of reverberatory furnace. Salt is added in the roasting 
o convert any lime, magnesia or lead which may be present, into 
.he corresponding chlorides. The auric chloride is, however, de- 
composed at the elevated temperature into finely divided metallic 
;old, which is then readily attacked by the chlorine gas. The high 
'olatility of gold in the presence of certain metals must also be 
considered. According to Egleston the loss may be from 40 to 90 % 
of the total gold present in cupriferous ores according to the tem- 
jerature and duration of calcination. The roasted mineral, slightly 
noistened, is introduced into a vat made of stoneware or pitched 
Blanks, and furnished with a double bottom. Chlorine, generally 
prepared by the interaction of pyrolusite, salt and sulphuric acid, 
s led from a suitable generator beneath the false bottom, and rises 
:hrough the moistened ore, which rests on a bed of broken quartz; 
:he gold is thus converted into a soluble chloride, which is afterwards 
removed by washing with water. Both fixed and rotating vats are 
employed, the chlorination proceeding more rapidly in the latter 
:ase; rotating barrels are sometimes used. There have also been 
.ntroduced processes in which the chlorine is generated in the 
chloridizing vat, the reagents used being dilute solutions of bleaching 
aowder and an acid. Munktell's process is of this type. In the 
Thies process, used in many districts in the United States, the vats 
are rotating barrels made, in the later forms, of iron lined with lead, 
and provided with a filter formed of a finely perforated leaden 
grating running from one end of the barrel to the other, and rigidly 
held in place by wooden frames. Chlorine is generated within the 
barrel from sulphuric acid and chloride of lime. After charging, 
the barrel is rotated, and when the chlorination is complete the 
contents are emptied on a filter of quartz or some similar material, 
and the filtrate led to settling tanks. 

After settling the solution is run into the precipitating tanks. The 
precipitants in use are: ferrous sulphate, charcoal ana sulphuretted 
hydrogen, either alone or mixed with sulphur dioxide; the use of 
copper and iron sulphides has been suggested, but apparently these 
substances have achieved no success. 

In the case of ferrous sulphate, prepared by dissolving iron in 
dilute sulphuric acid, the reaction follows the equation AuCl 3 +3FeSOt 
= FeCl s +Fe 2 (SO4)3+Au. At the same time any lead, calcium, 
barium and strontium present are precipitated as sulphates; it is 
therefore advantageous to remove these metals by the preliminary 
addition of sulphuric acid, which also serves to keep any basic iron 
salts in solution. The precipitation is carried out in tanks or vats 
made with wooden sides and a cement bottom. The solutions are 
well mixed by stirring with wooden poles, and the gold allowed to 
settle, the time allowed varying from 12 to 72 hours. The super- 
natant liquid is led into settling tanks, where a further amount 
of gold is deposited, and is then filtered through sawdust or 
sand, the sawdust being afterwards burnt and the gold separated 
from the ashes and the sand treated in the chloridizing vat. The 
precipitated gold is washed, treated with salt and sulphuric acid 
to remove iron salts, roughly dried by pressing in cloths or on filter 
paper, and then melted with salt, borax and nitre in graphite 
crucibles. Thus prepared it has a fineness of 800-960, the chief 
impurities usually being iron and lead. 

Charcoal is used as the precipitant at Mount Morgan, Australia. 
Its use was proposed as early as 1818 and 1819 by Hare and Henry; 
Percy advocated it in 1869, and Davis adopted it on the large scale 
at a works in Carolina in 1880. The action is not properly under- 
stood ; it may be due to the reducing gases (hydrogen, hydrocarbons, 
&c.) which are invariably present in wood charcoal. The process 
consists essentially in running the solution over layers of charcoal, 
the charcoal being afterwards burned. It has been found that the 
reaction proceeds faster when the solution is heated. 



GOLD 



199 



Precipitation with sulphur dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen 
proceeds much more rapidly, and has been adopted at many works. 
Sulphur dioxide, generated by burning sulphur, is forced into the 
solution under pressure, where it interacts with any free chlorine 
present to form hydrochloric and sulphuric acids. Sulphuretted 
hydrogen, obtained by treating iron sulphide or a coarse matte 
with dilute sulphuric acid, is forced in similarly. The gold is 
precipitated as the sulphide, together with any arsenic, antimony, 
copper, silver and lead which may be present. The precipitate 
is collected in a filter-press, and then roasted in muffle furnaces 
with nitre, borax and sodium carbonate. The fineness of the gold so 
obtained is 900 to 950. 

4. Cyanide Process. This process depends upon the solubility 
of gold in a dilute solution of potassium cyanide in the presence 
of air (or some other oxidizing agent), and the subsequent precipita- 
tion of the gold by metallic zinc or by electrolysis. The solubility 
of gold in cyanide solutions was known to K. W. Scheele in 1782; 
and M. Faraday applied it to the preparation of extremely thin 
films of the metal. L. Eisner recognized, in 1846, the part played 
by the atmosphere, and in 1879 Dixon showed that bleaching powder, 
manganese dioxide, and other oxidizing agents, facilitated the solution. 
S. B. Christy (Trans. A.I.M.E., 1896, vol. 26) has shown that the 
solution is hastened by many oxidizing agents, especially sodium and 
manganese dioxides and potassium ferricyanide. According to 
G. Bpdliindcr (Zeit. f. angew. hem., 1896, vol. 19) the rate of solu- 
tion in potassium cyanide depends upon the subdivision of the gold 
the finer the subdivision the quicker the solution, and on the 
concentration of the solution the rate increasing until the solution 
contains 0-25% of cyanide, and remaining fairly stationary with 
increasing concentration. The action proceeds in two stages; in 
the first hydrogen peroxide and potassium aurocyanide are formed, 
and in the second the hydrogen peroxide oxidizes a further quantity 
of gold and potassium cyanide to aurocyanide, thus (i) 2Au+4KCN 
+O 2 -F2H 2 O=2KAu(CN) 2 -HKOH-Hri 2 O 2 ;(2)2Au-|-4KCN-|-2H 2 O2= 
2KAu(CN) 2 +4KOH. Theendreactionmaybewritten4Au+8KCN + 
2H 2 O+O 2 = 4KAu(CN) 2 -t-4KOH. 

The commercial process was patented in 1890 by MacArthur and 
Forrest, and is now in use all over the world. It is best adapted for 
free-milling ores, especially after the bulk of the gold has been re- 
moved by amalgamation. It has been especially successful in the 
Transvaal. In the Witwatersrand the ore, which contains about 
9 dwts. of gold to the metric ton (2000 ft), is stamped and amalgam- 
ated, and the slimes and tailings, containing about 3! dwts. per ton, 
are cyanided, about 2 dwts. more being thus extracted. The total 
cost per ton of ore treated is about 6s., of which the cyaniding costs 
from 2s. to 45. 

The process embraces three operations: (l) Solution of the gold; 
(2) precipitation of the gold; (3) treatment of the precipitate. 

The ores, having been broken and ground, generally in tube mills, 
until they pass a 1 50 to 2OO-mesh sieve, are transferred to the leaching 
vats, which are constructed of wood, iron or masonry; steel vats, 
coated inside and out with pitch, of circular section and holding up to 
1000 tons, have come into use. The diameter is generally 26 ft., but 
may be greater; the best depth is considered to be a quarter of the 
diameter. The vats are fitted with filters made of coco-nut matting 
and jute cloth supported on wooden frames. The leaching is gener- 
ally carried out with a strong, medium, and with a weak liquor, in the 
order given; sometimes there is a preliminary leaching with a weak 
liquor. The strengths employed depend also upon the mode of 
precipitation adopted, stronger solutions (up to 0-25% KCN) being 
used when zinc is the precipitant. For electrolytic precipitation the 
solution may contain up to o-l % KCN. The liquors are run off 
from the vats to the electrolysing baths or precipitating tanks, and the 
leached ores are removed by means of doors in the sides of the vats 
into wagons. In the Transvaal the operation occupies 3j to 4 days 
for fine sands, and up to 14 days for coarse sands; the quantity of 
cyanide per ton of tailings varies from 0-26 to 0-28 Ib, for electrolytic 
precipitation, and 0-5 Ib for zinc precipitation. 

The precipitation is effected by zinc in the form of bright turnings, 
or coated with lead, or by electrolysis. According to Christy, the 
precipitation with zinc follows equations lor 2 according as potassium 
cyanide is present or not : 

(1) 4KAu(CN)2+4Zn+2H 2 O = 2Zn(CN) 2 + 

K 2 Zn(CN) 4 +Zn(OK) 2 +4H-f-4Au ; 

(2) 2KAu(CN) 2 +3Zn-(-4KCN+2H20 = 

2K 2 Zn(CN) 4 +Zn(OK)2+4H+2Au; 

one part of zinc precipitating 3-1 parts of gold in the first case, and 
2-06 in the second. It may be noticed that the potassium zinc 
cyanide is useless in gold extraction, for it neither dissolves gold nor 
can potassium cyanide be regenerated from it. 

The precipitating boxes, generally made of wood but sometimes of 
steel, and set on an incline, are divided by partitions into alternately 
wide and narrow compartments, so that the liquor travels upwards 
in its passage through the wide divisions and downwards through the 
narrow divisions. In the wider compartments are placed sieves 
having sixteen holes to the square inch and bearing zinc turnings. 
The gold and other metals are precipitated on the under surfaces of 
the turnings and fall to the bottom of the compartment as a black 
slime. The slime is cleaned out fortnightly or monthly, the zinc 



turnings being cleaned by rubbing and the supernatant liquor 
allowed to settle in the precipitating boxes or in separate vessels. 
The slime so obtained consists of finely divided gold and silver 
(5-50%), zinc (30-60%), lead (10%), carbon (10%), together with 
tin, copper, antimony, arsenic and other impurities of the zinc and 
ores. After well washing with water, the slimes are roughly dried in 
bag-filters or filter-presses, and then treated with dilute sulphuric 
acid, the solution being heated by steam. This dissolves out the 
zinc. Lime is added to bring down the gold, and the sediment, after 
washing and drying, is fused in graphite crucibles. 

5. Electrolytic Processes. The electrolytic separation of the gold 
from cyanide solutions was first practised in the Transvaal. The 
process, as elaborated by Messrs. Siemens and Halske, essentially 
consists in the electrolysis of weak solutions with iron or steel plate 
anodes, and lead cathodes, the latter, when coated with gold, being 
fused and cupelled. Itsadvantagesoverthe zinc process are that the 
deposited gold is purer and more readily extracted, and that weaker 
solutions can be employed, thereby effecting an economy in cyanide. 

In the process employed at the Worcester Works in the Transvaal, 
the liquors, containing about 150 grains of gold per ton and from 
0-08 to o-oi % of cyanide, are treated in rectangular vats in which is 
placed a series of iron and leaden plates at intervals of I in. The 
cathodes, which are sheets of thin lead foil weighing ij ft to the 
sq. yd., are removed monthly, their gold content being from 0-5 to 
10%, and after folding are melted in reyerberatory furnaces to 
ingots containing 2 to 4 % of gold. Cupellation brings up the gold to 
about 900 fine. Many variations of the electrolytic process as above 
outlined have been suggested. S. Cowper Coles has suggested 
aluminium cathodes; Andreoli has recommended cathodes of iron 
and anodes of lead coated with lead peroxide, the gold being removed 
from the iron cathodes by a brief immersion in molten lead; in the 
Pelatan-Cerici process the gold is amalgamated at a mercury cathode 
(see also below). 

Refining or Parting of Gold. Gold is almost always silver- 
bearing, and it may be also noticed that silver generally contains 
some gold. Consequently the separation of these two metals is 
one of the most important metallurgical processes. In addition 
to the separation of the silver the operation extends to the 
elimination of the last traces of lead, tin, arsenic, &c. which 
have resisted the preceding cupellation. 

The " parting " of gold and silver is of considerable antiquity. 
Thus Strabo states that in his time a process was employed for re- 
fining and purifying gold in large quantities by cementing or burning 
it with an aluminous earth, which, by destroying the silver, left the 
gold in a state of purity. Pliny shows that for this purpose the gold 
was placed on the fire in an earthen vessel with treble its weight of 
salt, and that it was afterwards again exposed to the fire with two 
parts of salt and one of argillaceous rock, which, in the presence of 
moisture, effected the decomposition of the salt ; by this means the 
silver became converted into chloride. 

The methods of parting can be classified into "dry," "wet" and 
electrolytic methods. In the " dry " methods the silver is converted 
into sulphide or chloride, the gold remaining unaltered; in the 
" wet " methods the silver is dissolved by nitric acid or boiling 
sulphuric acid ; and in the electrolytic processes advantage is taken 
of the fact that under certain current densities and other circum- 
stances silver passes from an anode composed of a gold-silver alloy 
to the cathode more readily than gold. Of the dry methods only 
F. B. Miller's chlorine process is of any importance, this method, and 
the wet process of refining by sulphuric acid, together with the 
electrolytic process, being the only ones now practised. 

The conversion of silver into the sulphide may be effected by 
heating with antimony sulphide, litharge and sulphur, pyrites, or with 
sulphur alone. The antimony, or Guss und Fluss, method was 
practised up till 1846 at the Dresden mint; it is only applicable to 
alloys containing more than 50% of gold. The fusion results in the 
formation of a gold-antimony alloy, from which the antimony is 
removed by an oxidizing fusion with nitre. The sulphur and 
litharge, or Pfannenschmied, process was used to concentrate the 
gold in an alloy in order to make it amenable to " quartation," or 
parting with nitric acid. Fusion with sulphur was used for the same 
purpose as the Pfannenschmied process. It was employed in 1797 
at the St Petersburg mint. 

The conversion of the silver into the chloride may be effected by 
means of salt the " cementation " process or other chlorides, or 
by free chlorine Miller's process. The first process consists essenti- 
ally in heating the alloy with salt and brickdust; the latter absorbs 
the chloride formed, while the gold is recovered by washing. It is no 
longer employed. The second process depends upon the fact that, if 
chlorine be led into the molten alloy, the base metals and the silver 
are converted into chlorides. It was proposed in 1838 by Lewis 
Thompson, but it was only applied commercially after Miller's im- 
provements in 1867, when it was adopted at the Sydney mint. Sir 
W. C. Roberts-Austen introduced it at the London mint; and it has 
also been used at Pretoria. It is especially suitable to gold containing 
little silver and base metals a character of Australian gold but it 
yields to the sulphuric acid and electrolytic methods in point of 
economy. 



2OO 



GOLD AND SILVER THREAD 



The separation of gold from silver in the wet way may be effected 
by nitric acid, sulphuric acid or by a mixture of sulphuric acid and 
aqua regia. 

Parting by nitric acid is of considerable antiquity, being mentioned 
by Albertus Magnus (i3th cent.), Biringuccio (1540) and Agricola 
(iSS^). It is now rarely practised, although in some refineries both 
the nitric acid and the sulphuric acid processes are combined, the 
alloy being first treated with nitric acid. It used to be called " quar- 
tation " or " inquartation," from the fact that the alloy best suited 
for the operation of refining contained 3 parts of silver to I of gold. 
The operation may be conducted in vessels of glass or platinum, and 
each pound of granulated metal is treated with a pound and a quarter 
of nitric acid of specific gravity 1-32. The method is sometimes 
employed in the assay of gold. 

Refining by sulphuric acid, the process usually adopted for 
separating gold from silver, was first employed on the large scale by 
d'Arcet in Paris in 1802, and was introduced into the Mint refinery, 
London, by Mathison in 1829. It is based upon the facts that con- 
centrated hot sulphuric acid converts silver and copper into soluble 
sulphates without attacking the gold, the silver sulphate being 
subsequently reduced to the metallic state by copper plates with the 
formation of copper sulphate. It is applicable to any alloy, and is 
the best method for parting gold with the exception of the electro- 
lytic method. 

The process embraces four operations: (i) the preparation of an 
alloy suitable for parting; (2) the treatment with sulphuric acid; 
(3) the treatment of the residue for gold; (4) the treatment of the 
solution for silver. 

It is necessary to remove as completely as possible any lead, tin, 
bismuth, antimony, arsenic and tellurium, impurities which impair 
the properties of jgold and silver, by an oxidizing fusion, e.g. with 
nitre. Over 10 % of copper makes the parting difficult ; conse- 
quently in such alloys -the percentage of copper is diminished by the 
addition of silver free from copper, or else the copper is removed by a 
chemical process. Other undesirable impurities are the platinum 
metals, special treatment being necessary' when these substances are 
present. The alloy, after the preliminary refining, is granulated by 
being poured, while molten, in a thin stream into cold water which is 
kept well agitated. 

The acid treatment is generally carried out in cast iron pots; 
platinum vessels used to be employed, while porcelain vessels are only 
used for small operations, e.g. for charges of 190 to 225 oz. as at Oker 
in the Harz. The pots, which are usually cylindrical with a hemi- 
spherical bottom, may hold as much as 13,000 to 16,000 oz. of alloy. 
They are provided with lids, made either of lead or of wood lined with 
lead, which have openings to serve for the introduction of the alloy 
and acid, and a vent tube to lead off the vapours evolved during the 
operation. The bullion with about twice its weight of sulphuric acid 
of 66 B6 is placed in the pot, and the whole gradually heated. 
Since the action is sometimes very violent, especially when the 
bullion is treated in the granulated form (it is steadier when thin 
plates are operated upon), it is found expedient to add the acid in 
several portions. The heating is continued for4to I2hoursaccording 
to the amount of silver present ; the end of the reaction is known 
by the absence of any hissing. Generally the reaction mixture is 
allowed to cool, and the residue, which settles to the bottom of the 
pot, consists of gold together with copper, lead and iron sulphates, 
which are insoluble in strong sulphuric acid; silver sulphate may 
also separate if present in sufficient quantity and the solution be 
sufficiently cooled. The solution is removed by ladles or by siphons, 
and the residue is leached out with boiling water; this removes the 
sulphates. A certain amount of silver is still present and, according 
to M. Pettenkofer, it is impossible to remove all the silver by means 
of sulphuric acid. Several methods are in use for removing the 
silver. Fusion withan alkaline bisulphate converts thesilyerintothe 
sulphate, which may be extracted by boiling with sulphuric acid and 
then with water. Another process consists in treating a mixture of 
the residue with one-quarter of its weight of calcined sodium sulphate 
with sulphuric acid, the residue being finally boiled with a large 
quantity of acid. Or the alloy is dissolved in aqua regia, the solution 
filtered from the insoluble silver chloride, and the gold precipitated 
by ferrous chloride. 

The silver present in the solution obtained in the sulphuric acid 
boiling is recovered by a variety of processes. The solution may be 
directly precipitated with copper, the copper passing into solution 
as copper sulphate, and the silver separating as a mud, termed 
" cement silver." Or the silver sulphate may be separated from the 
solution by cooling and dilution, and then mixed with iron clippings, 
the interaction being accompanied with a considerable evolution of 
heat. Or Gutzkow's method of precipitating the metal with ferrous 
sulphate may be employed. 

The electrolytic parting of gold and silver has been shown to be 
more economical and free from the objections such as the poisonous 
fumes of the sulphuric acid process. One process depends upon the 
fact that, with a suitable current density, if a very dilute solution of 
silver nitrate be electrolysed between an auriferous silver anode and a 
silver cathode, the silver of the anode is dissolved out and deposited 
at the cathode, the gold remaining at the anode. The silver is quite 
free from gold, and the gold after boiling with nitric acid has a fine- 
ness of over 999. 



Gold is left in the anode slime when copper or silver are refined by 
the usual processes, but if the gold preponderate in the anode these 
processes are inapplicable. A cyanide bath, as used inelectroplating, 
would dissolve the gold, but is not suitable for refining, because other 
metals (silver, copper, &c.) passing with gold into the solution would 
deposit with it. Bock, however, in 1880 (Berg- und kuttenmdnnische 
Zeitung, 1880, p. 41 1) described a process used at the North German 
Refinery in Hamburg for the refining of gold containing platinum 
with a small proportion of silver, lead or bismuth, and a subsequent 
patent specification (1896) and a paper by Wohlwill (Zeils. f. Elek- 
trochem., 1898, pp. 379, 402, 421) have thrown more light upon 
the process. The electrolyte is gold chloride (2-5-3 parts of pure gold 
per 100 of solution) mixed with from 2 to 6% of the strongest 
hydrochloric acid to render the gold anodes readily soluble, which 
they are not in the neutral chloride solution. The bath is used at 
65 to 70 C. (150 to 158 F.), and if free chlorine be evolved, which 
is known at once by its pungent smell, the temperature is raised, or 
more acid is added, to promote the solubility of the gold. The bath 
is used with a current-density of 100 amperes per sq. ft. at I volt 
(or higher), with electrodes- about 1-2 in. apart. In this process all 
the anode metals pass into solution except iridium and other re- 
fractory metals of that group, which remain as metals, and silver, 
which is converted into insoluble chloride; lead and bismuth form 
chloride and oxychloride respectively, and these dissolve until the 
bath is saturated with them, and then precipitate with the silver in 
the tank. But if the gold-strength of the bath be maintained, only 
gold is deposited at the cathode in a loose powdery condition from 
pure solutions, but in a smooth detachable deposit from impure 
liquors. Under good conditions the gold should contain 99-98 % of 
the pure metal. The tank is of porcelain or glazed earthenware, the 
electrodes for impure solutions are $ in. apart (or more with pure 
solutions), and are on the multiple system, and the potential differ- 
ence at the terminals of the bath is I volt. A high current-density 
being employed, the turn-over of gold is rapid an essential factor 
of success when the costliness of the metal is taken into account. 
Platinum and palladium dissolved from the anode accumulate in the 
solution, and are removed at intervals of, say, a few months by 
chemical precipitation. It is essential that the bath should not 
contain more than 5% of palladium, or some of this metal will 
deposit with the gold. The slimes are treated chemically for the 
separation of the metals contained in them. 

AUTHORITIES. Standard works on the metallurgy of gold are the 
treatises of T. Kirke Rose and of M. Eissler. The cyanide process 
is especially treated by M. Eissler, Cyanide Process for the Extraction 
of Gold, which pays particular attention to the Witwatersrand 
methods; Alfred James, Cyanide Practice; H. Forbes Julian and 
Edgar Smart, Cyaniding Gold and Silver Ores. Gold milling is treated 
by Henry Louis, A Handbook of Gold Milling; C. G. Warnford Lock, 
Gold Milling; T. A. Rickard, Stamp Milling of Gold Ores. Gold 
dredging is treated by Captain C. C. Longridge in Gold Dredging, and 
hydraulic mining is discussed by the same author in his Hydraulic 
Mining. For operations in special districts see J. M. Maclaren, Gold 
(1908); J. H. Curie, Gold Mines of the World; Africa: F. H. Hatch 
and J. A. Chalmers, Gold Mines of the Rand; S. J. Truscott,Witwaters- 
rand Goldfields Banket and Mining Practice; Australasia: D. Clark, 
Australian Mining and Metallurgy; Karl Schmeisser, Goldfields of 
Australasia; A. G. Charleton, Gold Mining and Milling in Western 
Australia; India: F. H. Hatch, The Kolar Gold-Field. 

GOLD AND SILVER THREAD. Under this heading some 
general account may be given of gold and silver strips, threads 
and gimp used in connexion with varieties of weaving, embroidery 
and twisting and plaiting or lace work. To this day, in many 
oriental centres where it seems that early traditions of the 
knowledge and the use of fabrics wholly or partly woven, orna- 
mented, and embroidered with gold and silver have been main- 
tained, the passion for such brilliant and costly textiles is still 
strong and prevalent. One of the earliest mentions of the use 
of gold in a woven fabric occurs in the description of the ephod 
made for Aaron (Exod. xxxix. 2, 3), " And he made the ephod 
of gold, blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen. 
And they did beat the gold into thin plates, and cut it into wires 
(strips), to work it in the blue, and in the purple, and in the 
scarlet, and in the fine linen, with cunning work." This is 
suggestive of early Syrian or Arabic in-darning or weaving with 
gold strips or tinsel. In both the Iliad and the Odyssey allusion 
is frequently made to inwoven and embroidered golden textiles. 
Assyrian sculpture gives an elaborately designed ornament upon 
the robe of King Assur-nasir-pal (884 B.C.) which was probably 
an interweaving of gold and coloured threads, and testifies 
to the consummate skill of Assyrian or Babylonian workers 
at that date. From Assyrian and Babylonian weavers the 
conquering Persians of the time of Darius derived their celebrity 
as weavers and users of splendid stuffs. Herodotus describes 



GOLDAST 



201 



the corselet given by Amasis king of Egypt to the Minerva of 
Lindus and how it was inwoven or embroidered with gold. Darius, 
we are told, wore a war mantle on which were figured (probably 
inwoven) two golden hawks as if pecking at each other. Alex- 
ander the Great is said to have found Eastern kings and princes 
arrayed in robes of gold and purple. More than two hundred 
years later than Alexander the Great was the king of Pergamos 
(the third bearing the name Attalus) who gave much attention 
to working in metals and is mentioned by Pliny as having 
invented weaving with gold, hence the historic Attalic cloths. 
There are several references in Roman writings to costumes 
and stuffs woven and embroidered with gold threads and the 
Graeco-Roman chryso-phrygium and the Roman auri-phrygium 
are evidences not only of Roman work with gold threads but 
also of its indebtedness to Phrygian sources. The famous 
tunics of Agrippina and those of Heliogabalus are said to have 
been of tissues made entirely with gold threads, whereas the 
robes which Marcus Aurelius found in the treasury of Hadrian, 
as well as the costumes sold at the dispersal of the wardrobe 
of Commodus, were different in character, being of fine linen 
and possibly even of silken stuffs inwoven or embroidered with 
gold threads. The same description is perhaps correct of the 
reputedly splendid hangings with which King Dagobert decorated 
the early medieval oratory of St Denis. Reference to these 
and many such stuffs is made by the respectively contemporary 
or almost contemporary writers; and a very full and interesting 
work by Monsieur Francisque Michel (Paris, 1852) is still a 
standard book for consultation in respect of the history of silk, 
gold and silver stuffs. 

From indication^ such as these, as well as those of later date, 
one sees broadly that the art of weaving and embroidering with 
gold and silver threads passed from one great city to another, 
travelling as a rule westward. Babylon, Tarsus, Bagdad, 
Damascus, the islands of Cyprus and Sicily, Constantinople, 
Venice and southern Spain appear successively in the process 
of time as famous centres of these much-prized manufactures. 
During the middle ages European royal personages and high 
ecclesiastical dignitaries used cloth and tissues of gold and silver 
for their state and ceremonial robes, as well as for costly hangings 
and decoration; and various names ciclatoun, tartarium, 
naques or nac, baudekin or baldachin (Bagdad) and tissue were 
applied to textiles in the making of which gold threads were 
almost always introduced in combination with others. The 
thin flimsy paper known as tissue paper is so called because it 
originally was placed between the folds of gold " tissue " (or 
weaving) to prevent the contiguous surfaces from fraying each 
other. Under the articles dealing with carpets, embroidery, 
lace and tapestry will be found notices of the occasional use in 
such productions of gold and silver threads. Of early date in 
the history of European weaving are rich stuffs produced in 
Southern Spain by Moors, as well as by Saracenic and Byzantine 
weavers at Palermo and Constantinople in the I2th century, 
in which metallic threads were freely used. Equally esteemed 
at about the same period were corresponding stuffs made in 
Cyprus, whilst for centuries later the merchants in such fabrics 
eagerly sought for and traded in Cyprus gold and silver threads. 
Later the actual manufacture of them was not confined to Cyprus, 
but was also carried on by Italian thread and trimming makers 
from the I4th century onwards. For the most part the gold 
threads referred to were of silver gilt. In rare instances of 
middle-age Moorish or Arabian fabrics the gold threads are 
made with strips of parchment or paper gilt and still rarer are 
instances of the use of real gold wire. 

In India the preparation of varieties of gold and silver threads 
is an ancient and important art. The " gold wire " of the 
manufacturer has been and is as a rule silver wire gilt, the silver 
wire being, of course, composed of pure silver. The wire is 
drawn by means of simple draw-plates, with rude and simple 
appliances, from rounded bars of silver, or gold-plated silver, as 
the case may be. The wire is flattened into strip, tinsel 
or ribbon-like form, by passing fourteen or fifteen strands 
simultaneously, over a fine, smooth, round-topped anvil and 



beating each as it passes with a heavy hammer having a slightly 
convex surface. Such strips or tinsel of wire so flattened are 
woven into Indian soniri, tissue or cloth of gold, the web or warp 
being composed entirely of golden strips, and ruperi, similar tissue 
of silver. Other gold and silver threads suitable for use in 
embroidery, pillow and needlepoint lace making, &c., consist of 
fine strips of flattened wire wound round cores of orange (in the 
case of silver, white) silk thread so as to completely cover them. 
Wires flattened or partially flattened are also twisted into 
exceedingly fine spirals and much used for heavy, embroideries. 
Spangles for embroideries, &c., are made from spirals of compara- 
tively stout wire, by cutting them down ring by ring, laying each 
C-like ring on an anvil, and by a smart blow with a hammer 
flattening it out into a thin round disk with a slit extending 
from the centre to one edge. The demand for many kinds of 
loom-woven and embroidered gold and silver work in India is 
immense, and the variety of textiles so ornamented is also very 
great, chief amongst which are the golden or silvery tinsel 
fabrics known as kincobs. 

Amongst Western communities the demand for gold and 
silver embroideries and braid lace now exists chiefly in connexion 
with naval, military and other uniforms, masonic insignia, 
court costumes, public and private liveries, ecclesiastical robes 
and draperies, theatrical dresses, &c. 

The proportions of gold and silver in the gold thread for the 
woven braid lace or ribbon trade varies, but in all cases the 
proportion of gold is exceedingly small. An ordinary gold braid 
wire is drawn from a bar containing 90 parts of silver and 7 
of copper, and plated with 3 of gold. On an average each ounce 
troy of a bar so plated is drawn into 1500 yds. of wire; and there- 
fore about 1 6 grains of gold cover i m. of wire. (A. S. C.) 

GOLDAST AB HAIMINSFELD, MELCHIOR (1576-1635), 
Swiss writer, an industrious though uncritical collector of 
documents relating to the medieval history and Constitution of 
Germany, was born on the 6th of January 1576 (some say 1578), 
of poor Protestant parents, near Bischofszell, in the Swiss Canton 
of Thurgau. His university career, first at Ingolstadt (1585- 
1586), then at Altdorf near Nuremberg (i 597-1 598), was cut short 
by his poverty, from which he suffered all his life, and which 
was the main cause of his wanderings. In 1598 he found a rich 
protector in the person of Bartholomaeus Schobinger, of St 
Gall, by whose liberality he was enabled to study at St Gall 
(where he first became interested in medieval documents, which 
abound in the conventual library) and elsewhere in Switzerland. 
Before his patrcn's death (1604) he became (1603) secretary to 
Henry, duke of Bouillon, with whom he went to Heidelberg and 
Frankfort. But in 1604 he entered the service of the Baron von 
Hohensax, then the possessor of the precious MS. volume of old 
German poems, returned from Paris to Heidelberg in 1888, and, 
partially published by Goldast. Soon he was back in Switzerland, 
and by 1606 in Frankfort, earning his living by preparing and 
correcting books for the press. In 1611 he was appointed 
councillor at the court of Saxe- Weimar, and in 1615 he entered 
the service of the count of Schaumburg at Biickeburg. In 1624 
he was forced by the war to retire to Bremen; there in 1625 he 
deposited his library in that of the town (his books were bought 
by the town in 1646, but many of his MSS. passed to Queen 
Christina of Sweden, and hence are now in the Vatican library), 
he himself returning to Frankfort. In 1627 he became councillor 
to the emperor and to the archbishop-elector of Treves, and in 
1633 passed to the service of the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt. 
He died at Giessen early in 1635. 

His immense industry is shown by the fact that his biographer, 
Senckenburg, gives a list of 65 works published or written by 
him, some extending to several substantial volumes. Among the 
more important are his Paraeneticorum veterum pars i. (1604), 
which contained the old German tales of Kunig Tyrol wn Schotten, 
the Winsbeke and the Winsbekin; Suevicarum rerum scriplores 
(Frankfort, 1605, new edition, 1727); Rerum Alamannicarum 
scriplores (Frankfort, 1606, new edition by Senckenburg, 1730); 
Constitutiones imperiales (Frankfort, 1607-1613, 4 vols.); Mon- 
archia s. Romani imperil (Hanover and Frankfort, 1612-1614, 



202 



GOLDBEATING GOLDBERG 



3 vols.) ; Commentarii de regni Bohemiae juribus (Frankfort 
1627, new edition by Schmink, 1719). He also edited De Thou's 
History (1609-1610) and Willibald Pirckheimer's works (1610) 
In 1688 a volume of letters addressed to him by his learned 
friends was published. 

Life by Senckenburg, prefixed tc his 1730 work. See also R. von 
Raumer's Geschichte d. germanischen Phttologie (Munich, 1870) 

(W. A. B. C.) 

GOLDBEATING. The art of goldbeating is of great antiquity, 
being referred- to by Homer; and Pliny (N.H. 33. 19) states 
that i oz. of gold was extended to 750 leaves, each leaf being 
four fingers (about 3 in.) square; such a leaf is three times 
as thick as the ordinary leaf gold of the present time. In all 
probability the art originated among the Eastern nations, where 
the working of gold and the use of gold ornaments have been 
distinguishing characteristics from the most remote periods. 
On Egyptian mummy cases specimens of original leaf-gilding 
are met with, where the gold is so thin that it resembles modern 
gilding (q.t!.). The minimum thickness to which gold can be 
beaten is not known with certainty. According to Mersenne 
(1621) i oz. was spread out over 105 sq. ft.; Reaumur (1711) 
obtained 1465 sq. ft.; other values are 189 sq. ft. and 300 sq. ft. 
Its malleability is greatly diminished by the presence of other 
metals, even in very minute quantity. In practice the average 
degree of tenuity to which the gold is reduced is not nearly so 
great as the last example quoted above. A " book of gold " 
containing 25 leaves measuring each 3j in., equal to an area of 
264 sq. in., generally weighs from 4 to 5 grains. 

The gold used by the goldbeater is variously alloyed, according 
to the colour required. Fine gold is commonly supposed to be 
incapable of being reduced to thin leaves. This, however, is 
not the case, although its use for ordinary purposes is undesirable 
on account of its greater cost. It also adheres on one part of a 
leaf touching another, thus causing a waste of labour by the 
leaves being spoiled; but for work exposed to the weather it is 
much preferable, as it is more durable, and does not tarnish or 
change colour. The external gilding on many pubh'c buildings, 
e.g. the Albert Memorial in Kensington Gardens, London, is done 
with pure gold. The following is a list of the principal classes of 
leaf recognized and ordinarily prepared by British beaters, with 
the proportions of alloy per oz. they contain. 



Name of Leaf. 


Proportion 
of Gold. 


Proportion 
of Silver. 


Proportion 
of Copper. 




Grains. 


Grains. 


Grains. 


Red 


456-460 




20-24 


Pale red .... 


464 




16 


Extra deep 


456 


12 


12 


Deep 


444 


24 


12 


Citron . 


440 


30 


10 


Yellow .... 


408 


72 




Pale yellow 


384 


96 




Lemon .... 


360 


I2O 




Green or pale . 


312 


168 




White 


240 


240 





The process of goldbeating is as follows: The gold, having been 
alloyed according to the colour desired, is melted in a crucible at a 
higher temperature than is simply necessary to fuse it, as its malle- 
ability is improved by exposure to a greater heat; sudden cooling 
does not interfere with its malleability, gold differing in this respect 
from some other metals. It is then cast into an ingot, and flattened, 
by rolling between a pair of powerful smooth steel rollers, into a 
ribbon of i| in. wide and 10 ft. in length to the oz. After being 
flattened it is annealed and cut into pieces of about 6\ grs. each, or 
about 75 per oz., and placed between the leaves of a " cutch," which 
is about J in. thick and 33 in. square, containing about 180 leaves of 
a tough paper. Formerly fine vellum was used for this purpose, and 
generally still it is interleaved in the proportion of about one of 
vellum to six of paper. The cutch is beaten on for about 20 minutes 
with a 17-ft hammer, which rebounds by the elasticity of the skin, 
and saves the labour of lifting, by which the gold is spread to the 
size of the cutch; each leaf is then taken out, and cut into four 
pieces, and put between the skins of a " shoder," 4^ in. square and 
i in. thick, containing about 720 skins, which have been worn out 
in the finishing or " mould " process. The shoder requires about 
two hours' beating upon with a 9-lb hammer. As the gold will 
spread unequally, the shoder is beaten upon after the larger leaves 
have reached the edges. The effect of this is that the margins of 



larger leaves come out of the edges in a state of dust. This allows 
time for the smaller leaves to reach the full size of the shoder, thus 
producing a general evenness of size in the leaves. Each leaf is again 
cut into four pieces, and placed between the leaves of a " mould,' 
composed of about 950 of the finest gold-beaters' skins, 5 in. square 
and } in. thick, the contents of one shoder filling three moulds 
The material has now reached the last and most difficult stage of the 
process; and on the fineness of the skin and judgment of the work- 
man the perfection and thinness of the leaf of gold depend. During 
the first hour the hammer is allowed to fall principally upon the centre 
of the mould. This causes gaping cracks upon the edges of the 
leaves, the sides of which readily coalesce and unite without leaving 
any trace of the union after being beaten upon. At the second hour 
when the gold is about the iso.oooth part of an inch in thickness, it 
for the first time permits the transmission of the rays of light. Pure 
gold, or gold but slightly alloyed, transmits green rays; gold highly 
alloyed with silver transmits pale violet rays. The mould requires 
in all about four hours' beating with a 7-lb hammer, when the 
ordinary thinness for the gold leaf of commerce will be reached. A 
single ounce of gold will at this stage be extended to 75X4X4 = 1200 
leaves, which will trim to squares of about 3 J in. each. The finished 
leaf is then taken out of the mould, and the rough edges are trimmed 
off by slips of the ratan fixed in parallel grooves of an instrument 
called a waggon, the leaf being laid upon a leathern cushion. The 
leaves thus prepared are placed into " books " capable of holding 
25 leaves each, which have been rubbed over with red ochre to 
prevent the gold clinging to the paper. Dentist gold is gold leaf 
carried no farther than the cutch stage, and should be perfectly pure 
gold. 

By the above process also silver is beaten, but not so thin, the 
inferior value of the metal not rendering it commercially desirable to 
bestow so much labour upon it. Copper, tin, zinc, palladium, lead, 
cadmium, platinum and aluminium can be beaten into thin leaves, 
but not to the same extent as gold or silver. 

The fine membrane called goldbeater's skin, used for making 
up the shoder and mould, is the outer coat of the caecum or blind 
gut of the ox. It is stripped off in lengths about 25 or 30 in., 
and freed from fat by dipping in a solution of caustic alkali and 
scraping with a blunt knife. It is afterwards stretched on a 
frame; two membranes are glued together, treated with a 
solution of aromatic substances or camphor in isinglass, and 
subsequently coated with white of egg. Finally they are cut 
into squares of 5 or s| in. ; and to make up a mould of 950 pieces 
the gut of about 380 oxen is required, about 2\ skins being got 
from each animal. A skin will endure about 200 beatings in 
the mould, after which it is fit for use in the shoder alone. 

The dryness of the cutch, shoder and mould is a matter of extreme 
delicacy. They require to be hot-pressed every time they are used, 
although they may be used daily, to remove the moisture which they 
acquire from the atmosphere, except in extremely frosty weather, 
when they acquire so little moisture that a difficulty arises from their 
over-dryness, whereby the brilliancy of the gold is diminished, and 

t spreads very slowly under the hammer. On the contrary, if the 
cutch or shoder be damp, the gold will become pierced with innumer- 
able microscopic holes; and in the moulds in its more attenuated 
state it will become reduced to a pulverulent state. This condition 

s more readily produced in alloyed golds than in fine gold. It is 
necessary that each skin of the mould should be rubbed over with 
calcined gypsum each time the mould may be used, in order to pre- 
vent the adhesion of the gold to the surface of the skin in beating. 

GOLDBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Silesia, 1 14 m. by rail S.W. of Liegnitz, on the Katzbach, an 
affluent of the Oder. Pop. (1905) 6804. The principal buildings 
are an old church dating from the beginning of the I3th century, 
he Schwabe-Priesemuth institution, completed in 1876, for the 
soard and education of orphans, and the classical school or 
gymnasium (founded in 1524 by Duke Frederick II. of Liegnitz), 
which in the 1 7th century enjoyed great prosperity, and numbered 
Wallenstein among its pupils. The chief manufactures are 
woollen cloth, flannel, gloves, stockings, leather and beer, and 
here is a considerable trade in corn and fruit. Goldberg 
owes its origin and name to a gold mine in the neighbourhood, 
which, however, has been wholly abandoned since the time of 
he Hussite wars. The town obtained civic rights in 1211. It 
suffered heavily from the Tatars in 1241, from the plague in 1334, 
rom the Hussites in 1428, and from the Saxon, Imperial and 
iwedish forces during the Thirty Years' War. On the 27th of 
May 1813 a battle took place near it between the French and the 

1 Goldberg is also the name of a small town in the grand-duchy of 
Mecklenburg- Schwerin. 



GOLD COAST 



203 



Russians; and on the 23rd and the 27th of August of the same 
year fights between the allies and the French. 

See Sturm, Geschichte der Stadt Goldberg in SMesien (1887). 

GOLD COAST, that portion of the Guinea Coast (West Africa) 
which extends from Assini upon the west to the river Volta on 
the east. It derives its name from the quantities of grains of 
gold mixed with the sand of the rivers traversing the district. 
The term Gold Coast is now generally identified with the British 
Gold Coast colony. This extends from 3 7' W. to i 14' E., the 
length of the coast-line being about 370 m. It is bounded W. by 
the Ivory Coast colony (French), E. by Togoland (German). On 
the north the British possessions, including Ashanti (q.v.) and the 
Northern Territories, extend to the nth degree of north latitude. 
The frontier separating the colony from Ashanti (fixed by order 



GOLD 
COAST 

and 

Hinterland 

Scale, 1:6,000,000 

English Miles 




gouty Walker K. 



in council, 22nd of October 1906) is in general 130 m. from the 
coast, but in the central portion of the colony the southern limits 
of Ashanti project wedge-like to the confluence of the rivers Ofin 
and Prah, which point is but 60 m. from the sea at Cape Coast. 
The combined area of the Gold Coast, Ashanti and the Northern 
Territories, is about 80,000 sq. m., with a total population 
officially estimated in 1908 at 2,700,000; the Gold Coast colony 
alone has an area of 24,200 sq. m., with a population of over a 
million, of whom about 2000 are Europeans. 

Physical features. Though the lagoons common to the West 
African coast are found both at the western and eastern extremities 
of the colony (Assini in the west and Kwitta in the east) the greater 
part of the coast-line is of a different character. Cape Three Points 
(4 44' 40" N. 2 5' 45* W.) juts boldly into the sea, forming the most 
southerly point of the colony. Thence the coast trends E. by N., and 
is but slightly indented. The usually low sandy beach is, however, 
diversified by bold, rocky headlands. The flat belt of country does 
not extend inland any considerable distance, the spurs of the great 
plateau which forms the major part of West Africa advancing in the 
east, in the Akwapim district, near to the coast. Here the hills reach 
an altitude of over 2000 ft. Out of the level plain rise many isolated 
peaks, generally of conical formation. Numerous rivers descend 



from the hills, but bars of sand block their mouths, and the Gold 
Coast possesses no harbours. Great Atlantic rollers break unceas- 
ingly upon the shore. The chief rivers are the Volta (q.v.), the 
Ankobra and the Prah. The Ankobra or Snake river traverses 
auriferous country, and reaches the sea some 20 m. west of Cape 
Three Points. It has a course of about 150 m., and is navigable in 
steam launches for about 80 m. The Prah (" Busum Prah,' sacred 
river) is regarded as a fetish stream by the Fanti and Ashanti. One 
of its sub-tributaries has its rise near Kumasi. The Prah rises in the 
N.E. of the colony and flows S.W. Some 60 m. from its mouth it is 
joined by the Ofin, which comes from the north-west. The united 
stream flows S. and reaches the sea in I 35' W. As a waterway the 
river, which has a course ol 400 m., is almost useless, owing to the 
many cataracts in its course. Another river is the Tano, which for 
some distance in its lower course forms the boundary between the 
colony and the Ivory Coast. 

Geology. Cretaceous rocks occur at intervals along the coast belt, 
but are mostly hidden under an extensive development of superficial 
deposits. Basalt occurs at Axim. Inland is a broad belt of sand- 
stone and marl with an occasional band of auriferous conglomerate, 
best known and most extensively worked for gold in the Wasaw 
district. Though the conglomerates bear some resemblance to the 
" Banket " of South Africa they are most probably of more recent 
date. The alluvial silts and gravels also carry gold. 

Climate. The climate on the coast is hot, moist and unhealthy, 
especially for Europeans. The mean temperature in the shade in the 
coast towns is 78 to 80 F. Fevers and dysentery are the diseases 
most to be dreaded by the European. The native inhabitants, 
although they enjoy tolerable health and live to an average age, are 
subject in the rainy season to numerous chest complaints. There are 
two wet seasons. From April to August are the greater rains, whilst 
in October and November occur the " smalls " or second rains. 
From the end of December to March the dry harmattan wind blows 
from the Sahara. In consequence of the prevalence of the sea- 
breeze from the south-west the western portion of the colony, up to 
the mouth of the Sekum river (a small stream to the .west of Accra), 
is called the windward district, the eastward portion being known 
as the leeward. The rainfall at Accra, in the leeward district, 
averages 27 in. in the year, but at places in the windward district is 
much greater, averaging 79 in. at Axim. 

Flora. The greater part (probably three-fourths) of the colony is 
covered with primeval forest. Here the vegetation is so luxuriant 
that for great distances the sky is shut out from view. As a result of 
the struggle to reach the sunlight the forest growths are almost 
entirely vertical. The chief trees are silk cottons, especially the 
bombax, and gigantic hard- wood trees, such as the African mahogany, 
ebony, odum and camwood. The bombax rises for over 100 ft., a 
straight column-like shaft, 25 to 30 ft. in circumference, and then 
throws out horizontally a large number of branches. The lowest 
growth in the forest consists of ferns and herbaceous plants. Of 
the ferns some are climbers reaching 30 to 40 ft. up the stems of the 
trees they entwine. Flowering plants are comparatively rare; they 
include orchids and a beautiful white lily. The " bush " or inter- 
mediate growth is made up of smaller trees, the rubber vine and 
other creepers, some as thick as hawsers, bamboos and sensitive 
mimosa, and has a height of from 30 to 60 ft. The creepers are found 
not only in the bush, but on the ground and hanging from the branches 
of the highest trees. West of the Prah the forest comes down to the 
edge of the Atlantic. East of that river the coast land is covered 
with bushes 5 to 12 ft. high, occasional large trees and groves of 
oil palms. Still farther east, by Accra, are numerous arborescent 
Euphorbias, and immediately west of the lower Volta forests of oil 
palms and grassy plains with fan palms. Behind all these eastern 
regions is a belt of thin forest country before the denser forest is 
reached. In the north-east are stretches of orchard-like country 
with wild plum, shea-butter and kola trees, baobabs, dwarf date 
and fan palms. The cotton and tobacco plants grow wild. At the 
mouths of the rivers and along the lagoons the mangrove is the 
characteristic tree. There are numerous coco-nut palms along the 
coast. The fuit trees and plants also include the orange, pineapple, 
mango, papaw, banana and avocado or alligator pear. 

Fauna. The fauna includes leopards, panthers, hyenas, Potto 
lemurs, jackals, antelopes, buffaloes, wild-nogs and many kinds of 
monkey, including the chimpanzee and the Colobus vellerosus, whose 
skin, with long black silky hair, is much prized in Europe. The 
elephant has been almost exterminated by ivory hunters. The 
snakes include pythons, cobras, horned and puff adders and the 
venomous water snake. Among the lesser denizens of the forest are 
the squirrel and porcupine. Crocodiles and in fewer numbers 
manatees and otters frequent the rivers and lagoons and hippopotami 
are found in the Volta. Lizards of brilliant hue, tortoises and great 
snails are common. Birds, which are not very numerous, include 
parrots and hornbills, kingfishers, ospreys, herons, crossbills, curlews, 
woodpeckers, doves, pigeons, storks, pelicans, swallows, vultures and 
the spur plover (the last-named rare). Shoals of herrings frequent 
the coast, and the other fish include mackerel, sole, skate, mullet, 
bonito, flying fish, fighting fish and shynose. Sharks abound at the 
mouths of all the rivers, edible turtle are fairly common, as are the 
sword fish, dolphin and sting ray (with poisonous caudal spine). 
Oysters are numerous on rocks running into the sea and on the 



204 



GOLD COAST 



exposed roots of mangrove trees. Insect life is multitudinous ; beetles, 
spiders, ants, fireflies, butterflies and jiggers abound. 'The earth- 
worm is rare. The mosquitos include the Culex or ordinary kind, 
the Anopheles, which carry malarial fever, and the Stegomyia, a 
striped white and black mosquito which carries yellow-fever. 

Inhabitants. The natives are all of the Negro race. The most 
important tribe is the Fanti (q.v.), an d the Fanti language is generally 
understood throughout the colony. The Fanti and Ashanti are 
believed to have a common origin. It is certain that the Fanti came 
originally from the north and conquered many of the coast tribes, 
who anciently had owned the rule of the king of Benin. The districts 
in general are named after the tribes inhabiting them. Those in the 
western part of the colony are mainly of Fanti stock; the Accra and 
allied tribes inhabit the eastern portion and are believed to be the 
aboriginal inhabitants. The Akim (Akem), who occupy the north- 
east portion of the colony, have engaged in gold-digging from time 
immemorial. The capital of their country is Kibbi. The Akwapim 
(Aquapem), southern neighbours of the Akim, are extensively en- 
gaged in agriculture and in trade. The Accra, a clever race, are to be 
found in all the towns of the West African coast as artisans and 
sailors. They are employed by the interior tribes as middlemen and 
interpreters. On the right bank of the Volta occupying the low 
marshy land near the sea are the Adangme. The Krobos live in 
little villages in the midst of the palm tree woods which grow round 
about the Kroboberg, an eminence about 1000 ft. high. Their 
country lies between that of the Akim and the Adangme. In the 
west of the colony is the Ahanta country, formerly an independent 
kingdom. The inhabitants were noted for their skill in war. They 
are one of the finest and most intelligent of the tribes of Accra stock. 
The Apollonia, a kindred race, occupy the coast region nearest the 
Ivory Coast. 

The Tshi, Tchwi or Chi language, 1 which is that spoken on the 
Gold Coast, belongs to the great prefix-pronominal group. It com- 
Natlve prises many dialects, which may, however, be reduced 
i an , to two classes or types. Akan dialects are spoken in 

ruazes Assini, Amanahia (Apollonia), Awini, Ahanta, Wasaw, 
Tshuforo (Juffer or Tufel), and Denkyera in the west, 
and in Asen, Akim, and Akwapim in the east, as well as in the 
different parts of Ashanti. Fanti dialects are spoken, not only in 
Fanti proper, but in Afutu or the country round Cape Coast, in 
Abora, Agymako, Akomfi, Gomoa and Agona. The difference 
between the two types is not very great ; a Fanti, for example, can 
converse without much difficulty with a native of Akwapim or 
Ashanti, his language being in fact a deteriorated form of the same 
original. Akim is considered the finest and purest of all the Akan 
dialects. The Akwapim, which is based on the Akim but has im- 
bibed Fanti influences, has been made the book-language by the 
Basel missionaries. They had reduced it to writing before 1850. 
About a million people in all, it is estimated, speak dialects of the 
Tshi. 

The south-eastern corner of the Gold Coast is occupied by another 
language known as the Ga or Accra, which comprises the Ga proper 
and the Adangme and Krobo dialects. Ga proper is spoken by about 
40,000 people, including the inhabitants of Ga a'nd Kinka (i.e. Accra, 
in Tshi, Nkran and Kankan), Osu (i.e. Christiansborg), La, Tessi, 
Ningua and numerous inland villages. It has been reduced to writing 
by the missionaries. The Adangme and Krobo dialects are spoken 
by about 80,000 people. They differ very considerably from Ga 
proper, but books printed in Ga can be used by both the Krobo and 
Adangme natives. Another language known as Guan is used in parts 
of Akwapim and in Anum beyond the Volta ; but not much is known 
either about it or the Obutu tongue spoken in a few towns in Agona, 
Gomoa and Akomfi. 

Fetishism (q.v .) is the prevailing religion of all the tribes. Belief 
in a God is universal, as also is a belief in a future state. Christi- 
Rellrloa an ' tv an d Mahommedanism are both making progress. 
an(j The natives professing Christianity number about 40,000. 

education. ^ Moravian mission was started at Christiansborg 
about 1736; the Basel mission (Evangelical) was begun 
in 1828, the missionaries combining manual training and farm 
labour with purely religious work; the Wesleyans started a 
mission among the Fanti in 1835, and the Anglican and Roman 
Catholic Churches are also represented, as well as the Bremen 
Missionary Society. Elementary education is chiefly in the hands of 
the Wesleyan, Basel, Bremen and Roman Catholic missions, who 
have schools at many towns along the coast and in the interior. 
There are also government and Mahommedan schools. The natives 
generally are extremely intelligent. They obtain easily the means of 
subsistence, and are disinclined to unaccustomed labour, such as 
working in mines. They are keen traders. The native custom of 
burying the dead under the floors of the houses prevailed until 1874, 
when it was prohibited by the British authorities. 

Towns. Unlike the other British possessions on the west coast of 
Africa, the colony has many towns along the shore, this being due to 
the multiplicity of traders of rival nations who went thither in quest 
of gold. Beginning at the west, Newtown, on the Assini or Eyi 
lagoon, is just within the British frontier. The first place of im- 

1 This name appears in a great variety of forms Kwi, Ekwi, 
Okwi, Oji, Odschi, Otsui, Tyi, Twi, Tschi, Chwee or Chee. 



portance reached is Axim (pop., 1901, 2189), the site of an old Dutch 
fort built near the mouth of the Axim river, and in the pre-railway 
days the port of the gold region. Rounding Cape Three Points, 
whose vicinity is marked by a line of breakers nearly 2j m. long, 
Dixcove is reached. Twenty miles farther east is Sekondi (q.v, 
(pop. about 5000), the starting-point of the railway to the gold-fields 
and Kumasi. Elmina (q.v.), formerly one of the most important 
posts of European settlement, is reached some distance after passing 
the mouth of the Prah. Eight miles east of Elmina is Cape Coast 
(q.v.), pop. (1901) 28,948. Anamabo is 9 m. farther east. Here, in 
1807, a handful of English soldiers made a heroic and successful 
defence of its fort against the whole Ashanti host. Saltpond, towards 
the end of the igth century, diverted to itself the trade formerly done 
by Anamabo, from which it is distant 9 m. Saltpond is a well-built, 
flourishing town, and is singular in possessing no ancient fort. 
Between Anamabo and Saltpond is Kormantine(Cormantyne), noted 
as the place whence the English first exported slaves from this coast. 
Hence the general name Coromantynes given in the West Indies to 
slaves from the Gold Coast. Eighty miles from Cape Coast is Accra 
(q.v.) (pop. 17,892), capital of the colony. (Winnebah is passed 
30 m. before Accra is reached. It is an old town noted for the manu- 
facture of canoes.) There is no station of much importance in the 
60 m. between Accra and the Volta, on the right bank of which river, 
near its mouth, is the town of Addah (pop. 13,240). Kwitta (pop. 
3018) lies beyond the Volta not far from the German frontier. Of 
the inland towns Akropong, the residence of the king of Akwapim, is 
one of the best known. It is 39 m. N.E. of Accra, stands on a ridge 
1400 ft. above sea-level, and is a healthy place for European residents. 
At Akropong are the headquarters of the Basel Missionary Society. 
Akuse is a large town on the banks of the Volta. Tarkwa is the 
centre of the gold mining industry in the Wasaw district. Its im- 
portance dates from the beginning of the 2Oth century. Accra, Cape 
Coast and Sekondi possess municipal government. 

Agriculture and Trade. The soil is everywhere very fertile and the 
needs of the people being few there is little incentive to work. The 
forests alone supply an inexhaustible source of wealth, notably in the 
oil palm. Among vegetable products cultivated are cocoa, cotton, 
Indian corn, yams, cassava, peas, peppers, onions, tomatoes, ground- 
nuts (Arachis hypogaea), Guinea corn (Sorghum vulgare) and Guinea 
grains (Amomum grana-paradisi) . The most common article of 
cultivation is, however, the kola nut (Sterculia acuminata), the 
favourite substitute in West Africa for the betel nut. In 1890 efforts 
were made by the establishment of a government botanical station at 
Aburi in the Accra district to induce the natives to improve their 
methods of cultivation and to enlarge the number of their crops. 
This resulted in the formation of hundreds of cocoa plantations, 
chiefly in the district immediately north of Accra. Subsequently the 
cultivation of the plant extended to every district of the colony. 
The industry had been founded in 1879 by a native of Accra, but it 
was not until 1901, as the result of the government's fostering care, 
that the export became of importance. In that year the quantity 
exported slightly exceeded 2,000,000 ft and fetched 42,000. In 
1907 the quantity exported was nearly 21,000,000 Ib and in value 
exceeded 515.000. I n 1 94 efforts were begun by the government 
and the British Cotton Growing Association in co-operation to foster 
the growing of cotton for export and by 1907 the cotton industry 
had become firmly established. Tobacco and coffee are grown at 
some of the Basel missionary stations. 

The chief exports are gold, palm oil and palm kernels, cocoa, 
rubber, timber (including mahogany) and kola nuts. Of these 
articles the gold and rubber are shipped chiefly, to England, whilst 
Germany, France and America, take the palm products and ground- 
nuts. The rubber comes chiefly from Ashanti. The imports consist 
of cotton goods, rum, gin and other spirits, rice, sugar, tobacco, beads, 
machinery, building materials and European goods generally. 

The value of the trade increased from 1,628,309 in 1896 to 
4,055,351 in 1906. In the last named year the imports were valued 
at 2,058,839 and the exports at 1,996,412. While the value of 
imports had remained nearly stationary since 1902 the value of 
exports had nearly trebled in that period. In the five years 1903- 
1907 the total trade increased from 3,063,486 to 5,007,869. Great 
Britain and British colonies take 66% of the exports and supply 
over 60% of the imports. In both import and export trade Germany 
is second, followed by France and the United States. Specie is in- 
cluded in these totals, over a quarter of a million being imported in 

1904- 

Fishing is carried on extensively along the coast, and salted and 
sun-dried fish from Addah and Kwitta districts find a ready sale 
inland. Cloths are woven by the natives from home-grown and 
imported yarn; the making of canoes, from the silk-cotton trees, 
is a flourishing industry, and salt from the lagoons near Addah is 
roughly prepared. There are also native artificers in gold and other 
metals, the workmanship in some cases being of conspicuous merit. 
Odum wood is largely used in building and for cabinet work. 

Gold Mining. Gold is found in almost every part of the colony, 
but only in a few districts in paying quantities. Although since the 
discovery of the coast gold had been continuously exported to 
Europe from its ports, it was not until the last twenty years of the 
igth century that efforts were made to extract gold according to 
modern methods. The richness of the Tarkwa main reef was first 



GOLD COAST 



205 



discovered by a French trader, M. J. Bennat, about 1880. During 
the period 1880 to 1900 the value of the gold exported varied from 
a minimum of 32,000 to a maximum (1889) of 103,000. The 
increased interest shown in the industry led to the construction of a 
railway (see below) to the chief gold-fields, whereby the difficulties of 
transport were largely overcome. Consequent upon the taking up of 
a number of concessions, a concessions ordinance was issued in 
August 1900. This was followed in 1901 by the grant of 2825 con- 
cessions, and a " boom " in the West African market on the London 
stock exchange. Many concessions were speedily abandoned, and in 
1901 the export of gold dropped to its lowest point, 6162 oz., worth 
22,186, but in 1902 a large company began crushing ore and the 
output of gold rose to 26,911 oz., valued at 96,880. In 1907 the 
export was 292, 125 oz., wotht 1,164,676. It should be noted that one 
of the principal gold mines is not in the colony proper, but at Obuassi 
in Ashanti. Underground labour is performed mainly by Basas and 
Krumen from Liberia. Of native tribes the Apollonia have proved 
the best for underground work, as they have mining traditions dating 
from Portuguese times. A good deal of alluvial gold is obtained by 
dredging apparatus. The use of dredging apparatus is modern, but 
the natives have worked the alluvial soil and the sand of the sea- 
shore for generations to get the gold they contain. 

Communications. The colony possesses a railway, built and 
owned by the government, which serves the gold mines, and has its 
sea terminus at Sekondi. Work was begun in August 1898, but 
owing to the disturbance caused by the Ashanti rising of 1900 the 
rails only reached Tarkwa (39 m.) in May 1901. Thence the line is 
carried to Kumasi, the distance to Obuassi (124 m.) being completed 
by December 1902, whilst the first train entered the Ashanti capital 
on the 1st of October 1903. The total length of the line is 168 m. 
The cost of construction was 1,820,000. The line has a gauge 
3 ft. 6 in. There is a branch line, 20 m. long, from Tarkwa N.W. to 
Prestea on the Ankobra river. Another railway, built 1907-10, 
35 m. in length, runs from Accra to Mangoase, in the centre of the 
chief cocoa plantations. An extension to Kumasi has been surveyed. 

Tortuous bush tracks are the usual means of internal communica- 
tion. These are kept in fair order in the neighbourhood of govern- 
ment stations. There is a well-constructed road 141 m. long from 
Cape Coast to Kumasi, and roads connecting neighbouring towns are 
maintained by the government. Systematic attempts to make use 
of the upper Volta as a means of conveying goods to the interior were 
first tried in 1900. The rapids about 60 m. from the mouth of the 
river effectually prevent boats of large size passing up the stream. 
Where railways or canoes are not available goods are generally 
carried on the heads of porters, 60 Ib being a full load. Telegraphs, 
introduced in 1882, connect all the important towns in the colony, 
and a line starting at Cape Coast stretches far inland, via Kumasi to 
Wa in the Northern Territories. Accra and Sekondi are in telegraphic 
communication with Europe, the Ivory Coast, Lagos and the Cape of 
Good Hope. There is regular and frequent steamship communica- 
tion with Europe by British, Belgian and German lines. 

Administration, Revenue, &c. The country is governed as a crown 
colony, the governor being assisted by a legislative council composed 
of officials and nominated unofficial members. Laws, called ordin- 
ances, are enacted by the governor with the advice and consent of 
this council. The law of the colony is the common law and statutes 
of general application in force in England in 1874, modified by local 
ordinances passed since that date. The governor is also governor of 
Ashanti and the Northern Territories, but in those dependencies the 
legislative council has no authority. 

Native laws and customs which are extremely elaborate and 
complicated are not interfered with " except when repugnant to 
natural justice." Those relating to land tenure and succession may 
be thus summarized. Individual tenure is not unknown, but most 
land is held by the tribe or by the family in common, each member 
having the right to select a part of the common land for his own use. 
Permanent alienation can only take place with the unanimous 
consent of the family and is uncommon, but long leases are granted. 
Succession is through the female, i.e. when a man dies his property 
goes to his sister's children. The government of the tribes is by their 
own kings and chiefs under the supervision of district commissioners. 
Slavery has been abolished in the colony. In the Northern Terri- 
tories the dealing in slaves is unlawful, neither can any person be 
put in pawn for debt ; nor will any court give effect to the relations 
between master and slave except m so far as those relations may be 
in accordance with the English laws relating to master and servant. 

For administrative purposes the colony is divided into three 
provinces under provincial commissioners, and each province is sub- 
divided into districts presided over by commissioners, who exercise 
judicial as well as executive functions. The supreme court consists 
of a chief justice and three puisne judges. The defence of the colony 
is entrusted to the Gold Coast regiment of the West African Frontier 
Force, a force of natives controlled by the Colonial Office but officered 
from the British army. There is also a corps of volunteers (formed 
1892). 

The chief source of revenue is the customs and (since 1902) railway 
receipts, whilst the heaviest items of expenditure are transport (in- 
cluding railways) and mine surveys, medical and sanitary services, 
and maintenance of the military force. The revenue, which in the 
period 1894-1898 averaged 244,559 yearly, rose in 1898-1903 to an 



average of 556,316 a year. For the five years 1903-1907 the 
average annual revenue was 647,557 and the average annual 
expenditure 615,696. Save for municipal purposes there is no 
direct taxation in the colony and no poor-houses exist. There is a 
public debt of (December 1907) 2,206,964. It should be noted that 
the expenditure on Ashanti and the Northern Territories is included 
in the Gold Coast budget. 

History. It is a debated question whether the Gold Coast was 
discovered by French or by Portuguese sailors. The evidence 
available is insufficient to prove the assertion, of which there is 
no contemporary record, that a company of Norman merchants 
established themselves about 1364 at a place they named La 
Mina (Elmina),and that they traded with the natives for nearly 
fifty years, when the enterprise was abandoned. It is well estab- 
lished that a Portuguese expedition under Diogo d'Azambuja, 
accompanied probably by Christopher Columbus, took possession 
of (or founded) Elmina in 1481-1482. By the Portuguese it was 
called variously Sao Jorge da Mina or Ora del Mina the mouth 
of the (gold) mines. That besides alluvial washings they also 
worked the gold mines was proved by discoveries in the latter 
part of the igth century. The Portuguese remained undisturbed 
in their trade until the Reformation, when the papal bull which 
had given the country, with many others, to Portugal ceased to 
have a binding power. English ships in 1 5 53 brought back from 
Guinea gold to the weight of 1 50 Ib. The fame of the Gold Coast 
thereafter attracted to it adventurers from almost every European 
nation. The English were followed by French, Danes, Branden- 
burgers, Dutch and Swedes. The most aggressive were the 
Dutch, who from the end of the i6th century sought to oust the 
Portuguese from the Gold Coast, and in whose favour the Portu- 
guese did finally withdraw in 1642, in return for the withdrawal 
on the part of the Dutch of their claims to Brazil. The Dutch 
henceforth made Elmina their headquarters on the coast. Traces 
of the Portuguese occupation, which lasted 160 years, are still to 
be found, notably in the language of the natives. Such familiar 
words as palaver, fetish, caboceer and dash (i.e. a gift) have all a 
Portuguese origin. 

An English company built a fort at Kormantine previously to 
165 1, and some ten years later Cape Coast Castle was built. The 
settlements made by the English provoked the hostility Appear- 
of the Dutch and led to war between England and aace of 
Holland, during which Admiral de Ruyter destroyed 
(1664-1665) all the English forts save Cape Coast 
castle. The treaty of Breda in 1667 confirmed the Dutch in the 
possession of their conquests, but the English speedily opened 
other trading stations. Charles II. in 1672 granted a charter to 
the Royal African Company, which built forts at Dixcove, 
Sekondi, Accra, Whydah and other places, besides repairing Cape 
Coast Castle. At this time the trade both in slaves and gold was 
very great, and at the beginning of the i8th century the value of 
the gold exported annually was estimated by Willem Bosman, the 
chief Dutch factor at Elmina, to be over 200,000. The various 
European traders were constantly quarrelling among themselves 
and exercised scarcely any controloverthenatives. Piracy was rife 
along the coast, and was not indeed finally stamped out until the 
middle of the i Qth century. The Royal African Company, which 
lost its monopoly of trade with England in 1 700, was succeeded 
by another, the African Company of Merchants, which was con- 
stituted in 1 7 50 by act of parliament and received an annual 
subsidy from government. The slave trade was then at its 
height and some 10,000 negroes were exported yearly. Many 
of the slaves were prisoners of war sold to the merchants by 
the Ashanti, who had become the chief native power. The aboli- 
tion of the slave trade (1807) crippled the company, which was 
dissolved in 1821, when the crown took possession of the forts. 

Since the beginning of the io,th century the British had begun 
to exercise territorial rights in the towns where they held forts, 
and in 181 7 the right of the British to control the natives living in 
the coast towns was recognized by Ashanti. In 1824 the first 
step towards the extension of British authority beyond the coast 
region was taken by Governor Sir Charles M'Carthy, who incited 
the Fanti to rise against their oppressors, the Ashanti. (The 
Fanti's country had been conquered by the Ashanti in 1807.) 



the 
English. 



2o6 



GOLD COAST 



torts 
purchased. 



Sir Charles and the Fanti army were defeated, the governor losing 
his life, but in 1826 the English gained a victory over the Ashanti 
at Dodowah. At this period, however, the home government, 
disgusted with the Gold Coast by reason of the perpetual dis- 
turbances in the protectorate and the trouble it occasioned, 
determined to abandon the settlements, and sent instructions for 
the forts to be destroyed and the Europeans brought home. The 
merchants, backed by Major Rickets, 2nd West India regiments, 
the administrator, protested, and as a compromise the forts were 
handed over to a committee of merchants (Sept. 1828), who were 
given a subsidy of 4000 a year. The merchants secured ( 1 830) 
as their administrator Mr George Maclean a gentleman with 
military experience on the Gold Coast and not engaged in trade. 
To Maclean is due the consolidation of British interests in the 
interior. He concluded, 1831, a treaty Iwith the Ashanti advantage- 
ous to the Fanti, whilst with very inadequate means he contrived 
to extend British influence over the whole region of the present 
colony. In the words of a Fanti trader Maclean understood the 
people, " he settled things quietly with them and the people also 
loved him." 1 Complaints that Maclean encouraged slavery 
reached England, but these were completely disproved, the 
governor being highly commended on his administration by the 
House of Commons Committee. It was decided, nevertheless, 
that the Colonial Office should resume direct control of the forts, 
which was done in 1843, Maclean continuing to direct native 
affairs until his death in 1847. The jurisdiction of England on 
the Gold Coast was defined by the bond of the 6th of March 1844, 
Danish an agreement with the native chiefs by which the 
and crown received the right of trying criminals, repressing 

Dutch human sacrifice, &c. The limits of the protectorate 
inland were not defined. The purchase of the Danish 
forts in 1850, and of the Dutch forts and territory in 
1871, led to the consolidation of the British power along the 
coast; and the Ashanti war of 1873-74 resulted in the extension 
of the area of British influence. Since that time the colony has 
been chiefly engaged in the development of its material resources, 
a development accompanied by a slow but substantial advance 
in civilization among the native population. (For further 
historical information see ASHANTI.) 

For a time the Gold Coast formed officially a limb of the 
" West African Settlements " and was virtually a dependency of 
Sierra Leone. In 1874 the settlements on the Gold Coast and 
Lagos were created a separate crown colony, this arrangement 
lasting until 1886 when Lagos was cut off from the Gold Coast 
administration. 

Northern Territories. 

The Northern Territories of the Gold Coast form a British 
protectorate to the north of Ashanti. They are bounded W. and 
N. where 1 1 N. is the frontier line except at the eastern 
extremity by the French colonies of the Ivory Coast and Upper 
Senegal and Niger, E. by the German colony of Togoland. The 
southern frontier, separating the protectorate from Ashanti, is 
the Black Volta to a point a little above its junction with the 
White Volta. Thence the frontier turns south and afterwards 
east so as to include the Brumasi district in the protectorate, 
the frontier gaining the main Volta below Yeji. The Territories 
include nearly all the country from the meridian of Greenwich 
to 3 W. and between 8 and 11 N., and cover an area of about 
33,000 sq. m. 

Lying north of the great belt of primeval forest which extends 
parallel to the Guinea coast, the greater part of the protectorate 
consists of open country, well timbered, and much of it presenting 
a park-like appearance. There are also large stretches of grassy 
plains, and in the south-east an area of treeless steppe. The flora 
and fauna resemble those of Ashanti. The country is well 
watered, the Black Volta forming the west and southern frontier 
for some distance, while the White Volta traverses its central 
regions. Both rivers, and also the united stream, contain rapids 
which impede but do not prevent navigation (see VOLTA). The 
climate is much healthier than that of the coast districts, and the 
1 Blue Book on Africa (Western Coast) (1865), p. 233. 



fever experienced is of a milder type. The rainfall is less than on 
the coast; the dry season lasts from November (when the 
harmattan begins to blow) to March. The mean temperature at 
Gambaga is 80 F., the mean annual rainfall 43 in. The inhabi- 
tants were officially estimated in 1907 to number " at least 
1,000,000." The Dagomba, Dagarti, Grunshi, Kangarga, Moshi 
and Zebarima, Negro or Negroid tribes, constitute the bulk of the 
people, and Fula, Hausa and Yoruba have settled as traders or 
cattle raisers. A large number of the natives are Moslems, the 
rest are fetish worshippers. The tribal organization is maintained 
by the British authorities, who found comparatively little 
difficulty in putting an end to slave-raiding and gaining the 
confidence of the chiefs. Trained by British officers, the natives 
make excellent soldiers. 

Agriculture and Trade. The chief crops are maize, guinea-corn, 
millet, yams, rice, beans, groundnuts, tobacco and cotton. Cotton is 
grown in most parts of the protectorate, the soil and climate in many 
districts being very suitable for its cultivation. Rubber is found in 
the north-western regions. When the protectorate was assumed by 
Great Britain the Territories were singularly destitute of fruit trees. 
The British have introduced the orange, citron, lime, guava, mango 
and soursop, and among plants the banana, pine-apple and papaw. 
A large number of vegetables and flowers have also been introduced 
by the administration. 

Stock-raising is carried on extensively, and besides oxen and sheep 
there are large numbers of horses and donkeys in the Territories. 
The chief exports are cattle, dawa-dawa (a favourite flavouring 
matter for soup among the Ashanti and other tribes) and shea- 
butter the latter used in cooking and as an illuminant. The 
principal imports are kola-nuts, salt and cotton goods. A large 
proportion of the European goods imported is German and conies 
through Togoland. The administration levies a tax on traders' 
caravans, and in return ensures the safety of the roads. This tax is 
the chief local source of revenue. The revenue and expenditure of the 
Territories, as well as statistics of trade, are included in those of the 
Gold Coast. 

Gold exists in quartz formation, chiefly in the valley of the Black 
Volta, and is found equally on the British and French sides of the 
frontier. 

Towns. The headquarters of the administration are at Tamale 
(or Tamari), a town in the centre of the Dagomba country east of the 
White Volta and 200 m. N.E. of Kumasi. Its inhabitants are keen 
traders, and it forms a distributing centre for the whole protectorate. 
Gambaga, an important commercial centre and from 1897 to 1907 
the seat of government, is in Mamprusi, the north-east corner of the 
protectorate and is 85 m. N.N.E. of Tamale. A hundred and forty 
miles due south of Gambaga is Salaga. This town is situated on the 
caravan route from the Hausa states to Ashanti, and has a consider- 
able trade in kola-nuts, shea-butter and salt. On the White Volta, 
midway between Gambaga and Salaga, is the thriving town of 
Daboya. On the western frontier are Bole (Baule) and Wa. They 
carry on an extensive trade with Bontuku, the capital of Jaman, and 
other places in the Ivory Coast colony. In all the towns the popula- 
tion largely consists of aliens Hausa, Ashanti, Mandin^os, &c. 

Communications. Lack of easy communication with the sea 
hinders the development of the country. The ancient caravan routes 
have been, however, supplemented by roads built by the British, 
who have further organized a service of boats on the Volta. Large 
cargo boats, chiefly laden with salt, ascend that river from Addah to 
Yeji and Daboya. From Yeji, the port of Salaga, a good road, 150 
m. long, has been made to Gambaga. There is also a river service 
from Yeji to Longoro on the Black Volta, the port of Kintampo, in 
northern Ashanti. There is a complete telegraphic system connect- 
ing the towns of the protectorate with Kumasi and the Gold Coast 
ports. 

History. It was not until the last quarter of the igth century 
that the country immediately north of Ashanti became known 
to Europeans. The first step forward was made by Monsieur 
M. J. Bonnat (one of the Kumasi captives, see ASHANTI) who, 
ascending the Volta, reached Salaga (1875-1876). In 1882 
Captain R. La Trobe Lonsdale, an officer in British colonial 
service, went farther, visiting Yendi in the north and Bontuku 
in the west. Two years later Captain Brandon Kirby made his 
way to Kintampo. In 1887-1889 Captain L. G. Binger, a French 
officer, traversed the country from north to south. Thereafter 
the whole region was visited by British, French and German 
political missions. Prominent among the British agents was 
Mr George E. Ferguson, a native of West Africa, who had 
previously explored northern Ashanti. Between 1892 and 1897 
Ferguson concluded several treaties guarding British interests. 
In 1897 Lieutenant Henderson and Ferguson occupied Wa, where 
they were attacked by the sofas of Samory (see SENEGAL, 3). 



GOLDEN GOLDEN BULL 



207 



lenderson, who had gone to the sofa camp to parley, was 
held prisoner for some time, while Ferguson was killed. Mean- 
time negotiations were opened in Europe to settle the spheres 
of influence of the respective countries. (The Anglo-French 
agreement of 1889 had fixed the boundaries of the hinterlands 
of the French colony of the Ivory Coast and the British colony 
of the Gold Coast as far as 9 N. only.) A period of considerable 
tension, arising from the proximity of British and French troops 
in the disputed territory, was ended by the signature of a conven- 
tion in Paris (i4th of June 1898), in which the western and 
northern boundaries were defined. The British abandoned 
their claim to the important town and district of Wagadugu 
in the north. In the following year (i4th of November 1899) 
an agreement defining the eastern frontier was concluded with 
Germany. Previously a square block of territory to the north 
of 8 N. had been regarded as neutral, both by Britain and 
Germany. This was in virtue of an arrangement made in 1888. 
By the 1899 convention the neutral zone was parcelled out 
between the two powers. The delimitation of the frontiers 
agreed upon took place during 1900-1904. 

In 1897 the Northern Territories were constituted a separate 
district of the Gold Coast hinterland, and were placed in charge 
of a chief commissioner. Colonel H. P. Northcott (killed in the 
Boer War, 1899-1902) was the first commissioner and com- 
mandant of the troops. He was succeeded by Col. A. H. Morris. 
In 1901 the Territories were made a distinct administration, 
under the jurisdiction of the governor of the Gold Coast colony. 
The government was at first of a semi-military character, but in 
1907 a civilian staff was appointed to carry on the administration, 
and a force of armed constabulary replaced the troops which 
had been stationed in the protectorate and which were then 
disbanded. The prosperity of the country under British ad- 
ministration has been marked. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. A good summary of the condition and history of 
the colony to the close of the igth century will be found in vol. 3, 
" West Africa," of the Historical Geography of the British Empire by 
C. P. Lucas (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900). For current information see 
the Gold Coast Civil Service List (London, yearly), the annual Blue 
Books published in the colony, and the annual Report issued by the 
Colonial Office, London. For fuller information consult the Report 
from the Select Committee on Africa (Western Coast) (London, 1865), 
a mine of valuable information ; The Gold Coast, Past and Present, 
by G. Macdonald (London, 1898); History of the Gold Coast and 
Ashanti, by C. C. Reindorf, a native pastor (Basel, 1895) ; A History 
of the Gold Coast, by Col. A. B. Ellis (London, 1893); Wanderings in 
West Africa (London, 1863) and To the Gold Coast for Gold (London, 
1883), both by Sir Richard Burton. Of the earlier books the most 
notable are The Golden Coast or a Description of Guinney together with 
a relation of such persons as got wonderful estates by their trade thither 
(London, 1665), and A New and Accurate Description of the Coast of 
Guinea written (in Dutch) by Willem Bosman, chief factor for the 
Dutch at Elmina (Eng. trans., 2nd ed., 1721). Fora complete survey 
of the Gold Coast under Dutch control see " Die Niederlandisch 
West-Indische Compagnie an der Gold-Kuste " by J. G. Doorman 
in Tijds Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenk, vol. 40 (1898). For 
ethnography, religion, law, &c., consult The Land of Fetish (London, 
1883) and The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the West Coast of Africa 
(London, 1887), both by Col. A. B. Ellis; Fanti Customary Law (2nd 
d., London, 1904) and Fanti Law Report (London, 1904), both by 
I. M. Sarbah. Tne Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa by Sir Alfred 
Moloney (London, 1887) contains a comprehensive list of economic 
plants. See also Report on Economic Agriculture on the Gold Coast 
(Colonial Office Reports, No. no, 1890), and Papers relating to the 
Construction of Railways in ... the Gold Coast (London, 1904). 
The best map is that of Major F. G. Guggisberg, over 70 sheets, 
scale i : 125,000 (London, 1907-1909). There is a War Office map on 
the scale I : 1 ,000,000 in one sheet. See also the works quoted under 
ASHANTI. 

For the Northern Territories see L. G. Binger, Du Niger au Golfe 
de Guinee (Paris, 1892), a standard authority; H. P. Northcott, 
Report on the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (War Office, 
London, 1899), a valuable compilation summarizing the then avail- 
able information. Annual Reports on the protectorate are issued by 
the British Colonial Office. A map on the scale of I : 1,000,000 is 
issued by the War Office. (F. R. C.) 

GOLDEN, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, 
Colorado, U.S.A., on Clear Creek (formerly called the Vasquez 
fork of the South Platte), about 14 m. W. by N. of Denver. 
Pop. (1900) 2152; (1910) 2477. Golden is a residential suburb 
of Denver, served by the Colorado & Southern, the Denver & 



Intermountain (electric), and the Denver & North-Western 
Electric railways. It is about 5700 ft. above sea-level. About 
600 ft. above the city is Castle Rock, with an amusement park, 
and W. of Golden is Lookout Mountain, a natural park of 3400 
acres. About i m. S. of the city is a state industrial school for 
boys, and in Golden is the Colorado State School of Mines 
(opened 1874), which offers courses in mining engineering and 
metallurgical engineering. The Independent Pyritic Smelter 
is at Golden, and among the city's manufactures are pottery, 
firebrick and tile, made from clays found near by, and flour. 
There are deposits of coal, copper and gold in the vicinity. 
Truck-farming and the growing of fruit are important industries 
in the neighbourhood. The first settlement here was a gold 
mining camp, established in 1859, and named in honour of 
Tom Golden, one of the pioneer prospectors. The village was 
laid out in 1860, and Golden was incorporated as a town in 1865 
and was chartered as a city in 1870. Golden was made the 
capital of Colorado Territory in 1862, and several sessions (or 
parts of sessions) of the Assembly were held here between 1864 
and 1868, when the seat of government was formally established 
at Denver; the territorial offices of Colorado, however, were 
at Golden only in 1866-1867. 

GOLDEN BULL (Lat. Bulla Awed), the general designation 
of any charter decorated with a golden seal or bulla, either owing 
to the intrinsic importance of its contents, or to the rank and 
dignity of the bestower or the recipient. The custom of thus 
giving distinction to certain documents is said to be of Byzantine 
origin, though if this be the case it is somewhat strange that the 
word employed as an equivalent for golden bull in Byzantine 
Greek should be the hybrid xpv<rbl3ov\\ov (cf. Codinus Curo- 
palates, 6 ittyas \oyoOerqs dtararret. TO. irapa. TOV /3a<nXitt 
aTrooreXXojLiei'a Trpoorcryjuara. KCU xpucro/SouXXa fl"p6s T ' PifraJ, 
SouXraj'as, KCU Toirdpxow; and Anna Comnena, Alexiad, lib. iii. 8ia 
Xpvo~ol3ov\iov Xoyou; lib. viii., x.pvaofiovk.ov \6yov). In Germany 
a Golden Bull is mentioned under the reign of Henry I. the Fowler 
in Chronica Cassin. ii. 31, and the oldest German example, if it 
be genuine, dates from 983. At first the golden seal was formed 
after the type of a solid coin, but at a later date, while the golden 
surface presented to the eye was greatly increased, the seal was 
really composed of two thin metal plates filled in with wax. 
The number of golden bulls issued by the imperial chancery 
must have been very large; the city of Frankfort, for example, 
preserves no fewer than eight. 

The name, however, has become practically restricted to a few 
documents of unusual political importance, the golden bull of 
the Empire, the golden bull of Brabant, the golden bull of 
Hungary and the golden bull of Milan and of these the first 
is undoubtedly the Golden Bull par excellence. The main object 
of the Golden Bull was to provide a set of rules for the election 
of the German kings, or kings of the Romans, as they are called 
in this document. Since the informal establishment of the 
electoral college about a century before (see ELECTORS) , various 
disputes had taken place about the right of certain princes to 
vote at the elections, these and other difficulties having arisen 
owing to the absence of any authoritative ruling. The spiritual 
electors, it is true, had exercised their votes without challenge, 
but far different was the case of the temporal electors. The 
families ruling in Saxony and in Bavaria had been divided into 
two main branches and, as the German states had not yet 
accepted the principles of primogeniture, it was uncertain which 
member of the divided family should vote. Thus, both the 
prince ruling in Saxe-Lauenburg and the prince ruling in Saxe- 
Wittenberg claimed the vote, and the two branches of the 
family of Wittelsbach, one settled in Bavaria and the other in 
the Rhenish palatinate, were similarly at variance, while the 
duke of Bavaria also claimed the vote at the expense of the 
king of Bohemia. Moreover, there had been several disputed 
and double elections to the German crown during the past 
century. In more than one instance a prince, chosen by a 
minority of the electors, had claimed to exercise the functions 
of king, and as often civil war had been the result. Under these 
circumstances the emperor Charles IV. determined by an 



208 



GOLDEN BULL 



authoritative pronouncement to makesuch proceedings impossible 
in the future, and at the same time to add to his own power 
and prestige, especially in his capacity as king of Bohemia. 

Having arranged various disputes in Germany, and having in 
April 1355 secured his coronation in Rome, Charles gave instruc- 
tions for the bull to be drawn up. It is uncertain who is respon- 
sible for its actual composition. The honour has been assigned 
to Bartolo of Sassoferrato, professor of law at Pisa and Perugia, 
to the imperial secretary, Rudolph of Friedberg, and even to 
the emperor himself, but there is no valid authority for giving 
it to any one of the three in preference to the others. In its 
first form the bull was promulgated at the diet of Nuremberg 
on the loth of January 1356, but it was not accepted by the 
princes until some modifications had been introduced, and in 
its final form it was issued at the diet of Metz on the 2$th of 
December following. 

The text of the Golden Bull consists of a prologue and of 
thirty-one chapters. Some lines of verse invoking the aid of 
Almighty God are followed by a rhetorical statement of the 
evils which arise from discord and division, illustrations being 
taken from Adam, who was divided from obedience and thus fell, 
and from Helen of Troy who was divided from her husband. 
The early chapters are mainly concerned with details of the 
elaborate ceremonies which are to be observed on the occasion 
of an election. The number of electors is fixed at seven, the duke 
of Saxe- Wittenberg, not the duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, receiving 
the Saxon vote, and the count palatine, not the duke of Bavaria, 
obtaining the vote of the Wittelsbachs. The electors were ar- 
ranged in order of precedence thus: the archbishops of Mainz, 
of Trier and of Cologne, the king of Bohemia, qui inter electores 
laicos ex regiae dignitalis fastigio jure et merito obtinet primaliam, 
the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony and the 
margrave of Brandenburg. The three archbishops were respec- 
tively arch-chancellors of the three principal divisions of the 
Empire, Germany, Aries and Italy, and the four secular electors 
each held an office in the imperial household, the functions of 
which they were expected to discharge on great occasions. 
The king of Bohemia was the arch-cupbearer, the count palatine 
was the arch-steward (dapifer), the duke of Saxony was arch- 
marshal, and the margrave of Brandenburg was arch-chamber- 
lain. The work of summoning the electors and of presiding over 
their deliberations fell to the archbishop of Mainz, but if he 
failed to discharge this duty the electors were to assemble without 
summons within three months of the death of a king. Elections 
were to be held at Frankfort; they were to be decided by a 
majority of votes, and the subsequent coronation at Aix-la- 
Chapelle was to be performed by the archbishop of Cologne. 
During a vacancy in the Empire the work of administering the 
greater part of Germany was entrusted to the count palatine 
of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony being responsible, however, 
for the government of Saxony, or rather for the districts ubi 
Saxonica jura servantur. 

The chief result of the bull was to add greatly to the power of 
the electors; for, to quote Bryce {Holy Roman Empire), it 
" confessed and legalized the independence of the electors and 
the powerlessness of tlje crown." To these princes were given 
sovereign rights in their dominions, which were declared in- 
divisible and were to pass according to the rule of primogeniture. 
Except in extreme cases, there was to be no appeal from the 
sentences of their tribunals, and they were confirmed in the right 
of coining money, of taking tolls, and in other privileges, while 
conspirators against their lives were to suffer the penalties of 
treason. One clause gave special rights and immunities to the 
king of Bohemia, who, it must be remembered, at this time was 
Charles himself, and others enjoined the observance of the public 
peace. Provision was made for an annual meeting of the electors, 
to be held at Metz four weeks after Easter, when matters pro 
bono et salute communi were to be discussed. This arrangement, 
however, was not carried out, although the electors met occasion- 
ally. Another clause forbade the cities to receive Pfahlbiirger, 
i.e. forbade them to take men dwelling outside their walls under 
their protection. It may be noted that there is no admission 



whatever that the election of a king needs confirmation from 
the pope. 

The Golden Bull was thus a great victory for the electors, but 
it weakened the position of the German king and was a distinct 
humiliation for the other princes and for the cities. The status 
of those rulers who did not obtain the electoral privilege was 
lowered by this very fact, and the regulations about the Pfahl- 
biirger, together with the prohibition of new leagues and associa- 
tions, struck a severe blow at the cities. The German kings were 
elected according to the conditions laid down in the bull until 
the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. At first the document 
was known simply as the Lex Carolina; but gradually the name 
of the Book with the Golden Bull came into use, and the present 
elliptical title was sufficiently established by 1417 to be officially 
employed in a charter by King Sigismund. The original auto- 
graph was committed to the care of the elector of Mainz, and it 
was preserved in the archives at Mainz till 1789. Official tran- 
scripts were probably furnished to each of the seven electors at 
the time of the promulgation, and before long many of the other 
members of the Empire secured copies for themselves. The 
transcript which belonged to the elector of Trier is preserved in 
the state archives at Stuttgart, that of the elector of Cologne in 
the court library at Darmstadt, and that of the king of Bohemia 
in the imperial archives at Vienna. Berlin, Munich and Dresden 
also boast the possession of an electoral transcript; and the 
town of Kitzingen has a contemporary copy in its municipal 
archives. There appears, however, to be good reason to doubt 
the genuineness of most of these so-called original transcripts. 
But perhaps the best known example is that of Frankfort-on- 
Main, which was procured from the imperial chancery in 1366, 
and is adorned with a golden seal like the original. Not only 
was it regularly quoted as the indubitable authority in regard 
to the election of the emperors in Frankfort itself, but it 
was from time to time officially consulted by members of the 
Empire. 

The manuscript consists of 43 leaves of parchment of medium 
quality, each measuring about loj in. in height by 7s in breadth. 
The seal is of the plate and wax type. On the obverse appears a 
figure of the emperor seated on his throne, with the sceptre in his 
right hand and the globe in his left; a shield, with the crowned 
imperial eagle, occupies the space on the one side of the throne, and 
a corresponding shield, with the crowned Bohemian lion with two 
tails, occupies the space on the other side; and round the margin 
runs the legend, Karolus quartus divina favente dementia, Romanorum 
imperator semper Augustus et Boemiae rex. On the reverse is a castle, 
with the words Aurea Roma on the gate, and the circumscription 
reads, Roma caput mundiregit orbisfrena rotundi. The original Latin 
text of the bull was printed at Nuremberg by Friedrich Creussner in 
1474, and a second edition by Anthonius Kpburger (d. 1532) appeared 
at the same place in 1477. Since that time it has been frequently 
reprinted from various manuscripts and collections. M. Goldast gave 
the Palatine text, compared with those of Bohemia and Frankfort, 
in his Collectio constitutionum et legum imperialium (Frankfort, 1613). 
Another is to be found in De comitiis imperil of O. Panvinius, and a 
third, of unknown history, is prefixed to the Codex recessuum 
Imperil (Mainz, 1599, and again 1615). The Frankfort text appeared 
in 1742 as Aurea Bulla secundum exemplar originale Frankfurtense, 
edited by W. C. Multz, and the text is also found in J. J. Schmauss, 
Corpus juris publici, edited by R. von Hommel (Leipzig, 1794), and 
in the Ausgewdhlte Urkunden zur Erlduterung der Verfassungs- 
geschichte Dentschlands im Mittelalter, edited by VV. Altmann and 
E. Bernheim (Berlin, 1891, and again 1895). German translations, 
none of which, however, had any official authority, were published 
at Nuremberg about 1474, at Venice in 1476, and at Strassburg in 
1485. _ Among the earlier commentators on the document are 
H.Canisiusand J. Limnaeus who wrote In Auream Bullam (Strassburg, 
1662). The student will find a good account of the older literature 
on the subject in C. G. Biener's Commentarii de origine et progressu 
legum junumque Germaniae (1787-1795). See also J. D. von 
OTenschlager, Neue Erlauterungen der Guldenen Bulle (Frankfort and 
Leipzig, 1766) ; H. G. von Thulemeyer, De Bulla Aurea, Argentea, &c. 
(Heidelberg, 1682); J. St Putter, Historische Entwickelung der 
heutigen Staatsverfassung des teutschen Reichs (Gottingen, 1786- 
1787), and O. Stobbe, Geschichte der deutschen Rechtsquetten (Bruns- 
wick, 1860-1864). Among the more modern works may be 
mentioned: E. Nerger, Die Goldne Bulle nach ihrem Ursprung 
(Gottingen, 1877), O. Hahn, Ursprung und Bedeutung der Goldnen 
Bulle (Breslau, 1903); and M. G. Schmidt, Die staatsrechlliche 
Anwendung der Goldnen Bulle (Halle, 1894). There is a valuable 
contribution to the subject in the Ouellensammlung zur Geschichte der 
deutschen Reichsverfassung, edited by K. Zeumer (Leipzig, 1904), and 



GOLDEN-EYEGOLDEN ROSE 



209 



another by O. Harnack in his Das Kurfursten Kolle^ium bis zur 
Mitte des I4ten Jahrhunderts (Giessen, 1 883). There is an English trans- 
lation of the bull in E. F. Henderson's Select Historical Documents of 
the Middle Ages (London, 1903). (A. W. H.*) 

GOLDEN-EYE, a name indiscriminately given in many parts 
of Britain to two very distinct species of ducks, from the rich 
yellow colour of their irides. The commonest of them the 
A nas fuligula of Linnaeus and Fuligula cristata of most modern 
ornithologists is, however, usually called by English writers 
the tufted duck, while " golden-eye " is reserved in books for 
the A. clangula and A. glaucion of Linnaeus, who did not know 
that the birds he so named were but examples of the same 
species, differing only in age or sex; and to this day many fowlers 
perpetuate a like mistake, deeming the " Morillon," which is the 
female or young male, distinct from the " Golden-eye " or 
" Rattle-wings " (as from its noisy flight they oftener call it), 
which is the adult male. This species belongs to the group known 
as diving ducks, and is the type of the very well-marked genus 
Clangula of later systematists, which, among other differences, 
has the posterior end of the sternum prolonged so as to extend 
considerably over, and, we may not unreasonably suppose, 
protect the belly a character possessed in a still greater degree 
by the mergansers (Merginae), while the males also exhibit in 
the extraordinarily developed bony labyrinth of their trachea 
and its midway enlargement another resemblance to the members 
of the same subfamily. The golden-eye, C. glaucion of modern 
writers, has its home in the northern parts of both hemispheres, 
whence in winter it migrates southward; but as it is one of the 
ducks that constantly resorts to hollow trees for the purpose 
of breeding it hardly transcends the limit of the Arctic forests 
on either continent. So well known is this habit to the people 
of the northern districts of Scandinavia, that they very commonly 
devise artificial nest-boxes for its accommodation and their own 
profit. Hollow logs of wood are prepared, the top and bottom 
closed, and a hole cut in the side. These are affixed to the trunks 
of living trees in suitable places, at a convenient distance from 
the ground, and, being readily occupied by the birds in the breed- 
ing-season, are regularly robbed, first of the numerous eggs, and 
finally of the down they contain, by those who have set them up. 

The adult male golden-eye is a very beautiful bird, mostly 
black above, but with the head, which is slightly crested, reflect- 
ing rich green lights, a large oval white patch under each eye 
and elongated white scapulars; the lower parts are wholly 
white and the feet bright orange, except the webs, which are 
dusky. In the female and young male, dark brown replaces the 
black, the cheek-spots are indistinct and the elongated white 
scapulars wanting. The golden-eye of North America has been 
by some authors deemed to differ, and has been named C. 
americana, but apparently on insufficient grounds. North 
America, however, has, in common with Iceland, a very distinct 
species, C. islandica, often called Barrow's duck, which is but 
a rare straggler to the continent of Europe, and never, so far 
as known, to Britain. In Iceland and Greenland it is the only 
habitual representative of the genus, and it occurs from thence 
to the Rocky Mountains. In breeding-habits it differs from the 
commoner species, not placing its eggs in tree-holes; but how 
far this difference is voluntary may be doubted, for in the 
countries it frequents trees are wanting. It is a larger and 
stouter bird, and in the male the white cheek-patches take a more 
crescentic form, while the head is glossed with purple rather 
than green, and the white scapulars are not elongated. The New 
World also possesses a third and still more beautiful species of 
the genus in C. albeola, known in books as the buff el-headed duck, 
and to American.fowlers as the " spirit-duck " and " butter-ball " 
the former name being applied from its rapidity in diving, and 
the latter from its exceeding fatness in autumn. This is of small 
size, but the lustre of the feathers in the male is most brilliant, 
exhibiting a deep plum-coloured gloss on the head. It breeds 
in trees, and is supposed to have occurred more than once in 
Britain. (A. N.) 

GOLDEN FLEECE, in Greek mythology, the fleece of the 
ram on which Phrixus and Helle escaped, for which see 



ARGONAUTS. For the modern order of the Golden Fleece, see 
KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY, section Orders of Knighthood. 

GOLDEN HORDE, the name of a body of Tatars who in the 
middle of the I3th century overran a great portion of eastern 
Europe and founded in Russia the Tatar empire of khanate 
known as the Empire of the Golden Horde or Western Kipchaks. 
They invaded Europe about 1237 under the leadership of BatG, 
Khan, a younger son of Juji, eldest son of Jenghiz Khan, passed 
over Russia with slaughter and destruction, and penetrated 
into Silesia, Poland and Hungary, finally defeating Henry II., 
duke of Silesia, at Liegnitz in the battle known as the Wahlstatt 
on the gth of April 1241. So costly was this victory, however, 
that Batu, finding he could not reduce Neustadt, retraced his 
steps and established himself in his magnificent tent (whence 
the name " golden" ) on the Volga. The new settlement was 
known as Sir Orda (" Golden Camp," whence " Golden Horde "). 
Very rapidly the powers of Batu extended over the Russian 
princes, and so long as the khanate remained in the direct 
descent from Batu nothing occurred to check the growth of the 
empire. The names of Batu's successors are Sartak (1256), 
Bereke (Baraka) (1256-1266), Mangu-Timur (1266-1280), Tuda 
Mangu (1280-1287), (?) Tula Bugha (1287-1290), Toktu (1290- 
1312), Uzbeg (1312-1340), Tin-Beg (1340), Janl-Beg (1340- 
I 3S7)- The death of Janl-Beg, however, threw the empire into 
confusion. Birdl-Beg (Berdi-Beg) only reigned for two years, 
after which two rulers, calling themselves sons of Janl-Beg 
occupied the throne during one year. From that time (1359) 
till 1378 no single ruler held the whole empire under control, 
various members of the other branches of the old house of Juji 
assuming the title. At last in 1378 Toktamish, of the Eastern 
Kipchaks, succeeded in ousting all rivals, and establishing 
himself as ruler of eastern and western Kipchak. For a short 
time the glory of the Golden Horde was renewed, until it was 
finally crushed by Timur in 1395. 

See further MONGOLS and RUSSIA; Sir Henry Howorth's History 
of the Mongols; S. Lane-Poole's Mohammadan Dynasties (1894), 
pp. 222-231 ; for the relations of the various descendants of Jenghiz, 
see Stockvis, Manuel d'histoire, vol. i. chap. ix. table 7. 

GOLDEN ROD, in botany, the popular name for Solidago 
nrgaurea (natural order Compositae), a native of Britain and 
widely distributed in the north temperate region. It is an old- 
fashioned border-plant flowering from July to September, with 
an erect, sparingly-branched stem and small bright-yellow 
clustered heads of flowers. It grows well in common soil and is 
readily propagated by division in the spring or autumn. 

GOLDEN ROSE (rosa aurea), an ornament made of wrought 
gold and set with gems, generally sapphires, which is blessed 
by the pope on the fourth (Laetare) Sunday of Lent, and usually 
afterwards sent as a mark of special favour to some distinguished 
individual, to a church, or a civil community. Formerly it 
was a single rose of wrought gold, coloured red, but the form 
finally adopted is a thorny branch with leaves and flowers, the 
petals of which are decked with gems, surmounted by one 
principal rose. The origin of the custom is obscure. From very 
early times popes have given away a rose on the fourth Sunday 
of Lent, whence the name Dominica Rosa, sometimes given to 
this feast. The practice of blessing and sending some such 
symbol (e.g. eulogiae) goes back to the earliest Christian antiquity, 
but the use of the rose itself does not seem to go farther back than 
the nth century. According to some authorities it was used 
by Leo IX. (1049-1054), but in any case Pope Urban II. sent one 
to Fulk of Anjou during the preparations for the first crusade. 
Pope Urban V., who sent a golden rose to Joanna of Naples in 
1366, is alleged to have been the first to determine that one 
should be consecrated annually. Beginning with the i6th 
.century there went regularly with the rose a letter relating the 
reasons why it was sent, and reciting the merits and virtues 
of the receiver. When the change was made from the form 
of the simple rose to the branch is uncertain. The rose sent 
by Innocent IV. in 1244 to Count Raymond Berengar IV. of 
Provence was a simple flower without any accessory ornamenta- 
tion, while the one given by Benedict XI. in 1303 or 1304 to the 



210 



GOLDEN RULE GOLDFINCH 



church of St Stephen at Perugia consisted of a branch garnished 
with five open and two closed roses enriched with a sapphire, 
the whole having a value of seventy ducats. The value of the 
gift varied according to the character or rank of the recipient. 
John XXII. gave away some weighing 12 oz., and worth 
from 250 to 325. Among the recipients of this honour have 
been Henry VI. of England, 1446; James III. of Scotland, on 
whom the rose (made by Jacopo Magnolio) was conferred by 
Innocent VIII.; James IV. of Scotland; Frederick the Wise, 
elector of Saxony, who received a rose from Leo X. in 1518; 
Henry VIII. of England, who received three, the last from Clement 
VII. in 1524 (each had nine branches, and rested on different 
forms of feet, one on oxen, the second on acorns, and the third on 
lions); Queen Mary, who received one in 1555 from Julius III.; 
the republic of Lucca, so favoured by Pius IV., in 1564; the 
Lateran Basilica by Pius V. three years later; the sanctuary 
of Loreto by Gregory XIII. in 1584; Maria Theresa, queen of 
France, who received it from Clement IX. in 1668; Mary 
Casimir, queen of Poland, from Innocent XI. in 1684 in recogni- 
tion of the deliverance of Vienna by her husband, John Sobieski; 
Benedict XIII. (1726) presented one to the cathedral of Capua, 
and in 1833 it was sent by Gregory XVI. to the church of St 
Mark's, Venice. In more recent times it was sent to Napoleon III. 
of France, the empress Eugenie, and the queens Isabella II., 
Christina (1886) and Victoria (1906) of Spain. The gift of the 
golden rose used almost invariably to accompany the coronation 
of the king of the Romans. If in any particular year no one is 
considered worthy of the rose, it is laid up in the Vatican. 

Some of the most famous Italian goldsmiths have been 
employed in making the earlier roses; and such intrinsically 
valuable objects have, in common with other priceless historical 
examples of the goldsmiths' art, found their way to the melting- 
pot. It is, therefore, not surprising that the number of existing 
historic specimens is very small. These include one of the I4th 
century in the Cluny Museum, Paris, believed to have been sent 
by Clement V. to the prince-bishop of Basel; another conferred 
in 1458 on his native city of Siena by Pope Pius II.; and the 
rose bestowed upon Siena by Alexander VII., a son of that city, 
which is depicted in a procession in a fresco in the Palazzo 
Pubblico at Siena. The surviving roses of more recent date 
include that presented by Benedict XIII. to Capua cathedral; 
the rose conferred on the empress Caroline by Pius VII., 1819, 
at Vienna; one of 1833 (Gregory XVI.) at St Mark's, Venice; 
and Pope Leo XIII. 's rose sent to Queen Christina of Spain, 
which is at Madrid. 

AUTHORITIES. Angelo Rocca, Aurea Rosa, &c. (1719); Busenelli, 
De Rosa Aurea. Epistola (1759); Girbal, La Rosa de oro (Madrid, 
1820) ; C. Joret, La Rose d'or dans I'antiquM et au moyen Age (Paris, 
1892), pp. 432-435; Eugene Muntz in Revue d'art Chretien (1901), 
series v. vol. 12 pp. l-ll; De F. Mely, Le Tresor de Chartres 
(1886); Marquis de Mac Swiney Mashanaglass, Le Portugal et le 
Saint Siege: Les Roses d'or envoyets par les Papes aux rots de 
Portugal au XVI' siecle (1904); Sir C. Young, Ornaments and Gift 
consecrated by the Roman Pontiffs: the Golden Rose, the Cap and 
Swords presented to Sovereigns of England and Scotland (1864). 

(J.T.S.*; E.A.J.) 

GOLDEN RULE, the term applied in all European languages 
to the rule of conduct laid down in the New Testament (Matthew 
vii. 12 and Luke vi. 31), " whatsoever ye would that men should 
do to you, do ye even so to them, for this is the law and the 
prophets." This principle has often been stated as the funda- 
mental precept of social morality. It is sometimes put negatively 
or passively, " do not that to another which thou wouldst not 
have done to thyself " (cf. Hobbes, Leviathan, xv. 79, xvii. 85), 
but it should be observed that in this form it implies merely 
abstention from evil doing. In either form the precept in ordinary 
application is part of a hedonistic system of ethics, the criterion 
of action being strictly utilitarian in character. 

See H. Sidgwick, History of Ethics (sth ed., 1902), p. 167; James 
Seth, Ethical Principles, p. 97 foil. 

GOLDFIELD, a town and the county-seat of Esmeralda 
county, Nevada, U.S.A., about 170 m. S.E. of Carson City. 
Pop. (1910, U. S. census) 4838. It is served by the Tonopah 
& Goldfield, Las Vegas & Tonopah, and Tonopah & Tidewater 



railways. The town lies in the midst of a desert abounding in 
high-grade gold ores, and is essentially a mining camp. The 
discovery of gold at Tonopah, about 28 m. N. of Goldfield, in 
1900 was followed by its discovery at Goldfield in 1902 and 1903; 
in 1904 the Goldfield district produced about 800 tons of ore, 
which yielded $2,300,000 worth of gold, or 30% of that of the 
state. This remarkable production caused Goldfield to grow 
rapidly, and it soon became the largest town in the state. In 
addition to the mines, there are large reduction works. In 1907 
Goldfield became the county-seat. The gold output in 1907 was 
$8,408,396; in 1908, $4,880,251. Soon after mining on an ex- 
tensive scale began-, the miners organized themselves as a local 
branch of the Western Federation of Miners, and in this branch 
were included many labourers in Goldfield other than miners. 
Between this branch and the mine-owners there arose a series of 
more or less serious differences, and there were several set strikes 
in December 1906 and January 1907, for higher wages; in 
March and April 1907, because the mine-owners refused to 
discharge carpenters who were members of the American Federa- 
tion of Labour, but did not belong to the Western Federation of 
Miners or to the Industrial Workers of the World affiliated with 
it, this last organization being, as a result of the strike, forced 
out of Goldfield; in August and September 1907, because a 
rule was introduced at some of the mines requiring miners to 
change their clothing before entering and after leaving the 
mines, a rule made necessary, according to the operators, by 
the wholesale stealing (in miners' parlance, " high-grading ") 
of the very valuable ore (some of it valued at as high as $20 a 
pound) ; and in November and December 1907, because some 
of the mine-owners, avowedly on account of the hard times, 
adopted a system of paying in cashier's checks. Excepting 
occasional attacks upon non-union workmen, or upon persons 
supposed not to be in sympathy with the miners' union, there 
had been no serious disturbance in Goldfield; but in December 
1907, Governor Sparks, at the instance of the mine-owners, 
appealed to President Roosevelt to send Federal troops to 
Goldfield, on the ground that the situation there was ominous, 
that destruction of life and property seemed probable, and that 
the state had no militia and would be powerless to maintain order. 
President Roosevelt thereupon (December 4th) ordered General 
Frederick Funston, commanding the Division of California, at 
San Francisco, to proceed with 300 Federal troops to Goldfield. 
The troops arrived in Goldfield on the 6th of December, and 
immediately afterwards the mine-owners reduced wages and 
announced that no members of the Western Federation of Miners 
would thereafter be employed in the mines. President Roosevelt, 
becoming convinced that conditions had not warranted Governor 
Sparks's appeal for Federal assistance, but that the immediate 
withdrawal of the troops might nevertheless lead to serious 
disorders, consented that they should remain for a short time 
on condition that the state should immediately organize an 
adequate militia or police force. Accordingly, a special meeting 
of the legislature was immediately called, a state police force 
was organized, and on the 7th of March 1908 the troops were 
withdrawn. Thereafter work was gradually resumed in the 
mines, the contest having been won by the mine-owners. 

GOLDFINCH (Ger. Goldfink 1 ), the Fringilla carduelis of 
Linnaeus and the Carduelis elegans of later authors, an extremely 
well-known bird found over the greater parts of Europe and 
North Africa, and eastwards to Persia and Turkestan. Its gay 
plumage is matched by its sprightly nature; and together they 
make it one of the most favourite cage-birds among all classes. 
As a songster it is indeed surpassed by many other species, 
but its docility and ready attachment to its master or mistress 
make up for any defect in its vocal powers. In some parts of 
England the trade in goldfinches is very considerable. In 1860 
Mr Hussey reported (ZooL, p. 7144) the average annual captures 
near Worthing to exceed 11,000 dozens nearly all being cock- 
birds; and a witness before a committee of the House of 
Commons in 1873 stated that, when a boy, he could take forty 

1 The more common German name, however, is Distelfink (Thistle- 
Finch) or Stieglitz. 



GOLDFISH GOLDIE 



211 



dozens in a morning near Brighton. In these districts and others 
the number has become much reduced, owing doubtless in part 
to the fatal practice of catching the birds just before or during 
the breeding-season; but perhaps the strongest cause of their 
growing scarcity is the constant breaking-up of waste lands, and 
the extirpation of weeds (particularly of the order Compositae) 
essential to the improved system of agriculture; for in many 
parts of Scotland, East Lothian for instance, where goldfinches 
were once as plentiful as sparrows, they are now only rare 
stragglers, and yet there they have not been thinned by netting. 
Though goldfinches may occasionally be observed in the coldest 
weather, incomparably the largest number leave Britain in 
autumn, returning in spring, and resorting to gardens and 
orchards to breed, when the lively song of the cock, and the 
bright yellow wings of both sexes, quickly attract notice. The 
nest is a beautifully neat structure, often placed at no great 
height from the ground, but generally so well hidden by the 
leafy bough on which it is built as not to be easily found, until, 
the young being hatched, the constant visits of the parents reveal 
its site. When the broods leave the nest they move into the 
more open country, and frequenting pastures, commons, heaths 
and downs, assemble in large flocks towards the end of summer. 
Eastward of the range of the present species its place is taken by 
its congener C. caniceps, which is easily recognized by wanting 
the black hood and white ear-coverts of the British bird. Its 
home seems to be in Central Asia, but it moves southward in 
winter, being common at that season in Cashmere, and is not 
unfrequently brought for sale to Calcutta. The position of the 
genus Carduelis in the family Fringillidae is not very clear. 
Structurally it would seem to have some relation to the siskins 
(Chrysomitris), though the members of the two groups have .very 
different habits, and perhaps its nearest kinship lies with the 
hawfinches (Coccothraustes) . See FINCH. (A.N.) 

GOLDFISH (Cyprinus or Carassius auralus), a small fish 
belonging to the Cyprinid family, a native of China but natur- 




Telescope-fish. 

alized in other countries. In the wild state its colours do not 
differ from those of a Crucian carp, and like that fish it is tenacious 
of life and easily domesticated. Albinos seem to be rather 
common; and as in other fishes (for instance, the tench, carp, 
eel, flounder), the colour of most of these albinos is a bright 
orange or golden yellow; occasionally even this shade of colour 
is lost, the fish being more or less pure white or silvery. The 
Chinese have domesticated these albinos for a long time, and 
by careful selection have succeeded in propagating all those 
strange varieties, and even monstrosities, which appear in every 
domestic animal. In some individuals the dorsal fin is only 
half its normal length, in others entirely absent; in others the 
anal fin has a double spine; in others all the fins are of nearly 
double the usual length. The snout is frequently malformed, 
giving the head of the fish an appearance similar to that of a 
bull-dog. The variety most highly prized has an extremely 
short snout, eyes which almost wholly project beyond the orbit, 
no dorsal fin, and a very long three- or four-lobed caudal fin 
(Telescope-fish). 



The domestication of the goldfish by the Chinese dates back 
from the highest antiquity, and they were introduced into Japan 
at the beginning of the i6th century; but the date of their 
importation into Europe is still uncertain. The great German 
ichthyologist, M. E. Bloch, thought he could trace it back in 
England to the reign of James I., whilst other authors fix the 
date at 1691. It appears certain that they were brought to 
France, only much later, as a present to Mme de Pompadour, 
although the de Goncourts, the historians of the mistresses of 
Louis XV., have failed to trace any records of this event. The 
fish has since spread over a considerable part of Europe, and in 
many places it has reverted to its wild condition. In many parts 
of south-eastern Asia, in Mauritius, in North and South Africa, 
in Madagascar, in the Azores, it has become thoroughly acclima- 
tized, and successfully competes with the indigenous fresh-water 
fishes. It will not thrive in rivers; in large ponds it readily 
reverts to the coloration of the original wild stock. It flourishes 
best in small tanks and ponds, in which the water is constantly 
changing and does not freeze; in such localities, and with a full 
supply of food, which consists of weeds, crumbs of bread, bran, 
worms, small crustaceans and insects, it attains to a length of 
from 6 to 12 in., breeding readily, sometimes at different times 
of the same year. 

GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST (1782-1848), German palaeon- 
tologist, born at Thurnau near Bayreuth on the i8th of April 
1782, was educated at Erlangen, where he graduated Ph.D. in 
1804 and became professor of zoology in 1818. He was sub- 
sequently appointed professor of zoology and mineralogy in the 
university of Bonn. Aided by Count G. Munster he issued the 
important Petrefacta Germaniae (1826-1844), a work which was 
intended to illustrate the invertebrate fossils of Germany, but it 
was left incomplete after the sponges, corals, crinoids, echinids 
and part of the mollusca had been figured. Goldf uss died at Bonn 
on the 2nd of October 1848. 

GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN (1846- ), 
English administrator, the founder of Nigeria, was born on the 
2oth of May 1846 at the Nunnery in the Isle of Man, being the 
youngest son of Lieut. -Colonel John Taubman Goldie-Taubman, 
speaker of the House of Keys, by his second wife Caroline, 
daughter of John E. Hoveden of Hemingford, Cambridgeshire. 
Sir George resumed his paternal name, Goldie, by royal licence in 
1887. He was educated at the Royal Military Academy, Wool- 
wich, and for about two years held a commission in the Royal 
Engineers. He travelled in all parts of Africa, gaining an ex- 
tensive knowledge of the continent, and first visited the country 
of the Niger in 1877. He conceived the idea of adding to the 
British empire the then little known regions of the lower and 
middle Niger, and for over twenty years his efforts were devoted 
to the realization of this conception. The method by which he 
determined to work was the revival of government by chartered 
companies within the empire a method supposed to be buried 
with the East India Company. The first step was to combine all 
British commercial interests in the Niger, and this he accomplished 
in 1879 when the United African Company was formed. In 1881 
Goldie sought a charter from the imperial government (the 2nd 
Gladstone ministry). Objections of various kinds were raised. 
To meet them the capital of the company (renamed the National 
African Company) was increased from i 25,000 to 1,000,000, and 
great energy was displayed in founding stations on the Niger. 
At this time French traders, encouraged by Gambetta, established 
themselves on the lower river, thus rendering it difficult for the 
company to obtain territorial rights; but the Frenchmen were 
bought out in 1884, so that at the Berlin conference on West 
Africa in 1885 Mr Goldie, present as an expert on matters relating 
to the river, was able to announce that on the lower Niger the 
British flag alone flew. Meantime the Niger coast line had been 
placed under British protection. Through Joseph Thomson, 
David Mclntosh, D. W. Sargent, J. Flint, William Wallace, 
E. Dangerfield and numerous other agents, over 400 political 
treaties drawn up by Goldie were made with the chiefs of the 
lower Niger and the Hausa states. The scruples of the British 
government being overcome, a charter was at length granted 



212 



GOLDING GOLDMARK 



(July 1886), the National African Company becoming the Royal 
Niger Company, with Lord Aberdare as governor and Goldie as 
vice-governor. In 1895, on Lord Aberdare's death, Goldie 
became governor of the company, whose destinies he had guided 
throughout. 

The building up of Nigeria as a British state had to be carried 
on in face of further difficulties raised by French travellers with 
political missions, and also in face of German opposition. From 
1884 to 1890, Prince Bismarck was a persistent antagonist, and 
the strenuous efforts he made to secure for Germany the basin of 
the lower Niger and Lake Chad were even more dangerous 
to Goldie's schemes of empire than the ambitions of France. 
Herr E. R. Flegel, who had travelled in Nigeria during 1882-1884 
under the auspices of the British company, was sent out in 1885 
by the newly-formed German Colonial Society to secure treaties 
for Germany, which had established itself at Cameroon. After 
Flegel 's death in 1886 his work was continued by his companion 
Dr Staudinger, while Herr Hoenigsberg was despatched to stir 
up trouble in the occupied portions of the Company's territory, 
or, as he expressed it, " to burst up the charter." He was finally 
arrested at Onitsha, and, after trial by the company's supreme 
court at Asaba, was expelled the country. Prince Bismarck then 
sent out his nephew, Herr von Puttkamer, as German consul- 
general to Nigeria, with orders to report on this affair, and when 
this report was published in a White Book, Bismarck demanded 
heavy damages from the company. Meanwhile Bismarck main- 
tained constant pressure on the British government to compel the 
Royal Niger Company to a division of spheres of influence, where- 
by Great Britain would have lost a third, and the most valuable 
part, of the company's territory. But he fell from power in 
March 1890, and in July following Lord Salisbury concluded the 
famous " Heligoland " agreement with Germany. After this 
event the aggressive action of Germany in Nigeria entirely ceased, 
and the door was opened for a final settlement of the Nigeria- 
Cameroon frontiers. These negotiations, which resulted in an 
agreement in 1893, were initiated by Goldie as a means of arresting 
the advance of France into Nigeria from the direction of the Congo. 
By conceding to Germany a long but narrow strip of territory 
between Adamawa and Lake Chad, to which she had no treaty 
claims, a barrier was raised against French expeditions, semi- 
military and semi-exploratory, which sought to enter Nigeria 
from the east. Later French efforts at aggression were made 
from the western or Dahomeyan side, despite an agreement 
concluded with France in 1890 respecting the northern frontier. 

The hostility of certain Fula princes led the company to 
despatch, in 1897, an expedition against the Mahommedan states 
of Nupe and Illorin. This expedition was organized and personally 
directed by Goldie and was completely successful. Internal peace 
was thus secured, but in the following year the differences with 
France in regard to the frontier line became acute, and compelled 
the intervention of the British government. In the negotiations 
which ensued Goldie was instrumental in preserving for Great 
Britain the whole of the navigable stretch of the lower Niger. It 
was, however, evidently impossible for a chartered company to 
hold its own against the state-supported protectorates of France 
and Germany, and in consequence, on the ist of January 1900, 
the Royal Niger Company transferred its territories to the British 
government for the sum of 865,000. The ceded territory 
together with the small Niger Coast Protectorate, already under 
imperial control, was formed into the two protectorates of 
northern and southern Nigeria (see further NIGERIA). 

In 1903-1904, at the request of the Chartered Company of 
South Africa, Goldie visited Rhodesia and examined the situation 
in connexion with the agitation for self-government by the 
Rhodesians. In 1902-1903 he was one of the royal commissioners 
who inquired into the military preparations for the war in South 
Africa (1899-1902) and into the operations up to the occupation 
of Pretoria, and in 1905-1906 was a member of the royal com- 
mission which investigated the methods of disposal of war stores 
after peace had been made. In 1905 he was elected president 
of the Royal Geographical" Society and held that office for three 
years. In 1908 he was chosen an alderman of the London County 



Council. Goldie was created K.C.M.G. in 1887, and a privy 
councillor in 1898. He became an F.R.S., honorary D.C.L. of 
Oxford University (1897) and honorary LL.D. of Cambridge 
(1897). He married in 1870 Matilda Catherine (d. 1898), daughter 
of John William Elliott of Wakefield. 

GOLDING, ARTHUR (c. 1536-0. 1605), English translator, son 
of John Golding of Belchamp St Paul and Halsted, Essex, one of 
the auditors of the exchequer, was born probably in London 
about 1536. His half-sister, Margaret, married John de Vere, 
1 6th earl of Oxford. In 1549 he was already in the service of 
Protector Somerset, and the statement that he was educated at 
Queen's College, Cambridge, lacks corroboration. He seems to 
have resided for some time in the house of Sir Wiiliam Cecil, in 
the Strand, with his nephew, the poet, the i7th earl of Oxford, 
whose receiver he was, for two of his dedications are dated from 
Cecil House. His chief work is his translation of Ovid. The 
Fyrst Power Bookes of P. Ovidius Nasos worke, entitled Meta- 
morphosis, translated oute of Latin into Englishe meter (1565), 
was supplemented in 1567 by a translation of the fifteen books. 
Strangely enough the translator of Ovid was a man of strong 
Puritan sympathies, and he translated many of the works of 
Calvin. To his version of the Metamorphoses he prefixed a long 
metrical explanation of his reasons for considering it a work 
of edification. He sets forth the moral which he supposes to 
underlie certain of the stories, and shows how the pagan 
machinery may be brought into line with Christian thought. 
It was from Golding's pages that many of the Elizabethans drew 
their knowledge of classical mythology, and there is little doubt 
that Shakespeare was well acquainted with the book. Golding 
translated also the Commentaries of Caesar (1565), Calvin's 
commentaries on the Psalms (1571), his sermons on the Galatians 
and Ephesians, on Deuteronomy and the book of Job, Theodore 
Beza's Tragedie of Abrahams Sacrifice (1577) andtheZte Beneficiis 
of Seneca (1578). He completed a translation begun by Sidney 
from Philippe de Mornay, A Worke concerning the Trewnesse of 
the Christian Religion (1604). His only original work is a prose 
Discourse on the earthquake of 1 580, in which he saw a judgment 
of God on the wickedness of his time. He inherited three con- 
siderable estates in Essex, the greater part of which he sold in 
1 595. The last trace we have of Golding is contained in an order 
dated the 25th of July 1605, giving him licence to print certain 
of his works. 

GOLDING EN (Lettish, Kuldiga), a town of Russia, in the 
government of Courland, 55 m. by rail N.E. of Libau, and on 
Windau river, in 56 58' N. and 22 E. Pop. (1897) 9733. It 
has woollen mills, needle and match factories, breweries and 
distilleries, a college for teachers, and ruins of a castle of the 
Teutonic Knights, built in 1248 and used in the i7th century as 
the residence of the dukes of Courland. 

GOLDMARK, KARL (1832- ), Hungarian composer, was 
born at Keszthely-am-Plattensee, in Hungary, on the i8th of 
May 1832. His father, a poor cantor in the local Jewish syna- 
gogue, was unable to assist to any extent financially in the 
development of his son's talents. Yet in the household much 
music was made, and on a cheap violin and home-made flute, 
constructed by Goldmark himself from reeds cut from the river- 
bank, the future composer gave rein to his musical ideas. His 
talent was fostered by the village schoolmaster, by whose aid 
he was able to enter the music-school of the Oedenburger Verein. 
Here he remained but a short time, his success at a school concert 
finally determining his parents to allow him to devote himself 
entirely to music. In 1844, then, he went to Vienna, where 
Jansa took up his cause and eventually obtained for him admis- 
sion to the conservatorium. For two years Goldmark worked 
under Jansa at the violin, and on the outbreak of the revolution, 
after studying all the orchestral instruments he obtained an 
engagement in the orchestra at Raab. There, on the capitulation 
of Raab, he was to have been shot for a spy, and was only saved 
at the eleventh hour by the happy arrival of a former colleague. 
In 1850 Goldmark left Raab for Vienna, where from his friend 
Mittrich he obtained his first real knowledge of the classics. 
There, too, he devoted himself to composition. In 1857 Goldmark, 



GOLDONI GOLDSCHMIDT 



213 



who was then engaged in the Karl-theater band, gave a 
concert of his own works with such success that his first quartet 
attracted very general attention. Then followed the " Sakun- 
tala " and " Penthesilea " overtures, which show how Wagner's 
influence had supervened upon his previous domination by 
Mendelssohn, and the delightful " Landliche Hochzeit " sym- 
phony, which carried his fame abroad. Goldmark's reputation 
was now made, and very largely increased by the production 
at Vienna in 1875 of his first and best opera, Die Konigin von 
Sato. Over this opera he spent seven years. Its popularity 
is still almost as great as ever. It was followed in November 
1886, also at Vienna, by Merlin, much of which has been re- 
written since then. A third opera, a version of Dickens's Cricket 
on the Hearth, was given by the Royal Carl Rosa Company 
in London in 1900. Goldmark's chamber music has not made 
much lasting impression, but the overtures " Im Friihling," 
" Prometheus Bound," and " Sapho " are fairly well known. 
A " programme " seems essential to him. In opera he is most 
certainly at his best, and as an orchestral colourist he ranks 
among the very highest. 

GOLDONI, CARLO (1707-1793), Italian dramatist, the real 
founder of modern Italian comedy, was born at Venice, on the 
25th of February 1707, in a fine house near St Thomas's church. 
His father Giulio was a native of Modena. The first playthings 
of the future writer were puppets which he made dance; the 
first books he read were plays, among others, the comedies of 
the Florentine Cicognini. Later he received a still stronger 
impression from the Mandragora of Machiavelli. At eight years 
old he had tried to sketch a play. His father, meanwhile, had 
taken his degree in medicine at Rome and fixed himself at 
Perugia, where he made his son join him; but, having soon 
quarrelled with his colleagues in medicine, he departed for 
Chioggia, leaving his son to the care of a philosopher, Professor 
Caldini of Rimini. The young Goldoni soon grew tired of his 
life at Rimini, and ran away with a Venetian company of players. 
He began to study law at Venice, then went to continue the 
same pursuit at Pavia, but at that time he was studying the 
Greek and Latin comic poets much more and much better than 
books about law. " I have read over again," he writes in his 
own Memoirs, " the Greek and Latin poets, and I have told to 
myself that I should like to imitate them in their style, their 
plots, their precision; but I would not be satisfied unless I 
succeeded in giving more interest to my works, happier issues 
to my plots, better drawn characters and more genuine comedy." 
For a satire entitled // Colosso, which attacked the honour of 
several families of Pavia, he was driven from that town, and 
went first to study with the jurisconsult Morelli at Udine, then 
to take his degree in law at Modena. After having worked 
some time as clerk in the chanceries of Chioggia and Feltre, 
his father being dead, he went to Venice, to exercise there his 
profession as a lawyer. But the wish to write for the stage 
was always strong in him, and he tried to do so; he made, 
however, a mistake in his choice, and began with a tragedy, 
Amalasunta, which was represented at Milan and proved a failure. 
In 1734 he wrote another tragedy, Belisario, which, though not 
much better, chanced nevertheless to please the public. This 
first success encouraged him to write other tragedies, some of 
which were well received; but the author himself saw clearly 
that he had not yet found his proper sphere, and that a radical 
dramatic reform was absolutely necessary for the stage. He 
wished to create a characteristic comedy in Italy, to follow the 
example of Moliere, and to delineate the realities of social life 
in as natural a manner as possible. His first essay of this kind 
was Momolo Cortesan (Momolo the Courtier), written in the 
Venetian dialect, and based on his own experience. Other 
plays followed some interesting from their subject, others 
from the characters; the best of that period are Le Trentadue 
Disgrazie d' Arlecchino, La Nolle crilica, La Bancarotta, La 
Donna di Carbo. Having, while consul of Genoa at Venice, 
been cheated by a captain of Ragusa, he founded on this his 
play L'Impostore. At Leghorn 'he made the acquaintance of the 
comedian Medebac, and followed him to Venice, with his company, 



for which he began to write his best plays. Once he promised 
to write sixteen comedies in a year, and kept his word ; among 
the sixteen are some of his very best, such as // Caffe, II Bugiardo, 
La Pamela. When he left the company of Medebac, he passed 
over to that maintained by the patrician Vendramin, continuing 
to write with the greatest facility. In 1761 he was called to 
Paris, and before leaving Venice he wrote Una delle ultime sere 
di Carnevale (One of the Last Nights of Carnival) , an allegorical 
comedy in which he said good-bye to his country. At the end 
of the representation of this play, the theatre resounded with 
applause, and with shouts expressive of good wishes. Goldoni, 
at this proof of public sympathy, wept as a child. At Paris, 
during two years, he wrote comedies for the Italian actors; then 
he taught Italian to the royal princesses; and for the wedding 
of Louis XVI. and of Marie Antoinette he wrote in French one 
of his best comedies, Le Bourru bienfaisant, which was a great 
success. When he retired from Paris to Versailles, the king 
made him a gift of 6000 francs, and fixed on him an annual 
pension of 1 200 francs. It was at Versailles he wrote his Memoirs, 
which occupied him till he reached his eightieth year. The 
Revolution deprived him all at once of his modest pension, and 
reduced him to extreme misery; he dragged on his unfortunate 
existence till 1793, and died on the 6th of February. The day 
after, on the proposal of Andre Chenier, the Convention agreed 
to give the pension back to the poet; and as he had already 
died, a reduced allowance was granted to his widow. 

The best comedies of Goldoni are : La Donna di Garbo, La Boltega 
di Caffe, Pamela nubile, Le Baruffe chiozzotte, I Rusteghi, Todero 
Bronlolon, Gli Innamorati, II Ventaglio, II Bugiardo, La Casa nova, 
II Burbero benefico, La Locandiera. A collected edition (Venice, 
1788) was republished at Florence in 1827. See P. G. Molmenti, 
Carlo Goldoni (Venice, 1875); Rabany, Carlo Goldoni (Paris, 1896). 
The Memoirs were translated into English by John Black (Boston, 
1877), with preface by W. D. Howells. 

GOLDS, a Mongolo-Tatar people, living on the Lower Amur 
in south-eastern Siberia. Their chief settlements are on the right 
bank of the Amur and along the Sungari and Usuri rivers. In 
physique they are typically Mongolic. Like the Chinese they 
wear a pigtail, and from them, too, have learnt the art of silk 
embroidery. The Golds live almost entirely on fish, and are 
excellent boatmen. They keep large herds of swine and dogs, 
which live, like themselves, on fish. Geese, wild duck, eagles, 
bears, wolves and foxes are also kept in menageries. There is 
much reverence paid to the eagles, and hence the Manchus call 
the Golds " Eaglets." Their religion is Shamanism. 

See L. Schrenck, Die Vo'lker des Amurlandes (St Petersburg, 1891) ; 
Laufer, " The Amoor Tribes," in American Anthropologist (New 
York, 1900); E. G. Ravenstein, The Russians on the Amur (1861). 

GOLDSBORO, a city and the County-seat of Wayne county, 
North Carolina, U.S.A., on the Neuse river, about 50 m. S.E. of 
Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 4017; (1900) 5877 (2520 negroes); (1910) 
6107. It is served by the Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line 
and the Norfolk & Southern railways. The surrounding country 
produces large quantities of tobacco, cotton and grain, and 
trucking is an important industry, the city being a distributing 
point for strawberries and various kinds of vegetables. The 
city's manufactures include cotton goods, knit goods, cotton- 
seed oil, agricultural implements, lumber and furniture. Golds- 
boro is the seat of the Eastern insane asylum (for negroes) and 
of an Odd Fellows' orphan home. The municipality owns and 
operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant. Goldsboro 
was settled in 1838, and was first incorporated in 1841. In the 
campaign of 1865 Goldsboro was the point of junction of the 
Union armies under generals Sherman and Schofield, previous 
to the final advance to Greensboro. 

GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN (1802-1866), German painter 
and astronomer, was the son of a Jewish merchant, and was born 
at Frankfort on the 1 7th of June 1802. He for ten years assisted 
his father in his business; but, his love of art having been 
awakened while journeying in Holland, he in 1832 began the 
study of painting at Munich under Cornelius and Schnorr, and 
in 1836 established himself at Paris, where he painted a number 
of pictures of more than average merit, among which may be 
mentioned the " Cumaean Sibyl" (1844); an "Offering to 



214 



GOLDSMID GOLDSMITH, OLIVER 



Venus " (1845); a " View of Rome " (1849); the " Death of 
Romeo and Juliet" (1857); and several Alpine landscapes. 
In 1847 he began to devote his attention to astronomy; and 
from 1852 to 1 86 1 he discovered fourteen asteroids between 
Mars and Jupiter, on which account he received the grand 
astronomical prize from the Academy of Sciences. His observa- 
tions of the protuberances on the sun, made during the total 
eclipse on the loth of July 1860, are included in the work of 
Madler on the eclipse, published in 1861. Goldschmidt died at 
Fontainebleau on the 26th of August 1866. 

G0LDSMI1, the name of a family of Anglo-Jewish bankers 
sprung from Aaron Goldsmid (d. 1782), a Dutch merchant who 
settled in England about 1763. Two of his sons, Benjamin 
Goldsmid (c, 1753-1808) and Abraham Goldsmid (c. 1756-1810), 
began business together about 1777 as bill-brokers in London, 
and soon became great powers in the money market, during the 
Napoleonic war, through their dealings with the government. 
Abraham Goldsmid was in 1810 joint contractor with the Barings 
for a government loan, but owing to a depreciation of the scrip 
he was forced into bankruptcy and committed suicide. His 
brother, in a fit of depression, had similarly taken his own life 
two years before. Both were noted for their public and private 
generosity, and Benjamin had a part in founding the Royal 
Naval Asylum. Benjamin left four sons, the youngest being 
Lionel Prager Goldsmid; Abraham a daughter, Isabel. 

Their nephew, Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, Bart. (1778-1859), 
was born in London, and began in business with a firm of bullion 
brokers to the Bank of England and the East India Company. 
He amassed a large fortune, and was made Baron da Palmeira 
by the Portuguese government in 1846 for services rendered in 
settling a monetary dispute between Portugal and Brazil, but 
he is chiefly known for his efforts to obtain the emancipation of 
the Jews in England and for his part in founding University 
College, London. The Jewish Disabilities Bill, first introduced 
in Parliament by Sir Robert Grant in 1830, owed its final passage 
to Goldsmid's energetic work. He helped to establish the 
University College hospital in 1834, serving as its treasurer for 
eighteen years, and also aided in the efforts to obtain reform in 
the English penal code. Moreover he assisted by his capital 
and his enterprise to build part of the English southern railways 
and also the London docks. In 1841 he became the first Jewish 
baronet, thehonour being conferred upon him by Lord Melbourne. 
He had married his cousin Isabel (see above), and their second 
son was Sir Francis Henry Goldsmid, Bart. (1808-1878), born in 
London, and called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1833 (the first 
Jew to become an English barrister; Q.C. 1858). After the 
passing of the Jewish Disabilities Bill, in which he had aided 
his father with a number of pamphlets that attracted great 
attention, he entered Parliament in 1860 (having succeeded to 
the baronetcy) as member for Reading, and represented that 
constituency until his death. He was strenuous on behalf of the 
Jewish religion, and the founder of the great Jews' Free School. 
He was a munificent contributor to charities and especially to 
the endowment of University College. He, like his father, 
married a cousin, and, dying without issue, was succeeded in the 
baronetcy by his nephew Sir Julian Goldsmid, Bart. (1838-1896), 
son of Frederick David Goldsmid (1812-1866), long M.P. for 
Honiton. Sir Julian was for many years in Parliament, and his 
wealth, ability and influence made him a personage of consider- 
able importance. He was eventually made a privy councillor. 
He had eight daughters, but no son, and his entailed property 
passed to his relation, Mr d'Avigdor, his house in Piccadilly 
being converted into the Isthmian Club. 

Another distinguished member of the same family, Sir 
Frederic John Goldsmid (1818-1908), son of Lionel Prager 
Goldsmid (see above), was educated at King's College, London, 
and entering the Madras army in 1839 served in the China War 
of 1840-41, with the Turkish troops in eastern Crimea in 1855-56, 
and was given political employment by the Indian government. 
He received the thanks of the commander-in-chief and of the 
war office for services during the Egyptian campaign, and was 
retired a major-general in 1875. Sir Frederic Goldsmid's name 



is, however, associated less with military service than with much 
valuable work in exploration and in surveying, for which he 
repeatedly received the thanks of government. From 1865 to 
1870 he was director-general of the Indo-European telegraph, 
and carried through the telegraph convention with Persia; and 
between 1870 and 1872, as commissioner, he settled with Persia 
the difficult questions of the Perso-Baluch and Perso-Afghan 
boundaries. In the course of his work he had to travel exten- 
sively, and he followed this up by various responsible missions 
connected with emigration questions. In 1881-1882 he was in 
Egypt, as controller of the Daira Sanieh, and doing other mis- 
cellaneous military work; and in 1883 he went to the Congo, 
on behalf of the king of the Belgians, as one of the organizers 
of the new state, but had to return on account of illness. From 
his early years he had made studies of several Eastern languages, 
and he ranked among the foremost Orientalists of his day. In 
1886 he was president of the geographical section of the British 
Association meeting held at Birmingham. He had married in 
1849, and had two sons and four daughters. In 1871 he was 
made a K.C.S.I. Besides important contributions to the gth 
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica and many periodicals, 
he wrote an excellent and authoritative biography of Sir James 
Outram (2 vols., 1880). 

A sister of the last-named married Henry Edward Goldsmid 
(1812-1855), an eminent Indian civil servant, son of Edward 
Goldsmid; his reform of the revenue system in Bombay, and 
introduction of a new system, established after his death, through 
his reports in 1840-1847, and his devoted labour in land-surveys, 
were of the highest importance to western India, and established 
his memory there as a public benefactor. 

GOLDSMITH, LEWIS (c. 1763-1846), Anglo-French publicist, 
of Ifortuguese-Jewish extraction, was born near London about 
1763. Having published in 1801 The Crimes of Cabinets, or a 
Review of the Plans and Aggressions for Annihilating the Liberties 
of France, and the Dismemberment of her Territories, an attack on 
the military policy of Pitt, he moved, in 1802, from England to 
Paris. Talleyrand introduced him to Napoleon, who arranged 
for him to establish in Paris an English tri- weekly, the Argus, 
which was to review English affairs from the French point of 
view. According to his own account, he was in 1803 entrusted 
with a mission to obtain from the head of the French royal 
family, afterwards Louis XVIII., a renunciation of his claims to 
the throne of France, in return for the throne of Poland. The 
offer was declined, and Goldsmith says that he then received 
instructions to kidnap Louis and kill him if he resisted, but, 
instead of executing these orders, he revealed the plot. He was, 
nevertheless, employed by Napoleon on various other secret 
service missions till 1807, when his Republican sympathies began 
to wane. In 1809 he returned to England, where he was at first 
imprisoned but soon released; and he became a notary in 
London. In 18 1 1, being now violently anti-republican, he founded 
a Sunday newspaper, the Anti-Gallican Monitor and Anti- 
Corsican Chronicle, subsequently known as the British Monitor, 
in which he denounced the French Revolution. In 1811 he 
proposed that a public subscription should be raised to put a 
price on Napoleon's head, but this suggestion was strongly repro- 
bated by the British government. In the same year he published 
Secret History of the Cabinet of Bonaparte and Recueil des mnni- 
festes, or a Collection of the Decrees of Napoleon Bonaparte, and in 
1812 Secret History of Bonaparte's Diplomacy. Goldsmith alleged 
that in the latter year he was offered 200,000 by Napoleon 
to discontinue his attacks. In 1815 he published An Appeal to 
the Governments of Europe on the Necessity of bringing Napoleon 
Bonaparte to a Public Trial. In 1825 he again settled down in 
Paris, and in 1832 published his Statistics of France. His only 
child, Georgiana, became, in 1837, the second wife of Lord 
Lyndhurst. He died in Paris on the 6th of January 1846. 

GOLDSMITH, OLIVER (1728-1774), English poet, playwright, 
novelist and man of letters, came of a Protestant and Saxon 
family which had long been settled in Ireland. He is 
usually said to have been born at Pallas or Pallasmore, Co. 
Longford; but recent investigators have contended, with much 



GOLDSMITH, OLIVER 



215 



show of probability, that his true birthplace was Smith-Hill 
House, Elphin, Roscommon, the residence of his mother's father, 
the Rev. Oliver Jones. His father, Charles Goldsmith, lived at 
Pallas, supporting with difficulty his wife and children on what 
he could earn, partly as a curate and partly as a farmer. 

While Oliver was still a child his father was presented to the 
living of Kilkenny West, in the county of West Meath. This 
was worth about 200 a year. The family accordingly quitted 
their cottage at Pallas for a spacious house on a frequented road, 
near the village of Lissoy. Here the boy was taught his letters by 
a relative and dependent, Elizabeth Delap, and was sent in his 
seventh year to a village school kept by an old quartermaster on 
half-pay, who professed to teach nothing but reading, writing 
and arithmetic, but who had an inexhaustible fund of stories 
about ghosts, banshees and fairies, about the great Rapparee 
chiefs, Baldearg O'Donnell and galloping Hogan, and about the 
exploits of Peterborough and Stanhope, the surprise of Monjuich 
and the glorious disaster of Brihuega. This man must have been 
of the Protestant religion; but he was of the aboriginal race, and 
not only spoke the Irish language, but could pour forth unpre- 
meditated Irish verses. Oliver early became, and through life 
continued to be, a passionate admirer of the Irish music, and 
especially of the compositions of Carolan, some of the last notes 
of whose harp he heard. It ought to be added that Oliver, though 
by birth one of the Englishry, and though connected by numerous 
ties with the Established Church, never showed the least sign of 
that contemptuous antipathy with which, in his days, the ruling 
minority in Ireland too generally regarded the subject majority. 
So far indeed was he from sharing in the opinions and feelings of 
the caste to which he belonged that he conceived an aversion to 
the Glorious and Immortal Memory, and, even when George III. 
was on the throne, maintained that nothing but the restoration 
of the banished dynasty could save the country. 

From the humble academy kept by the old soldier Goldsmith 
was removed in his ninth year. He went to several grammar- 
schools, and acquired some knowledge of the ancient languages. 
His life at this time seems to have been far from happy. He had, 
as appears from the admirable portrait of him by Reynolds at 
Knole, features harsh even to ugliness. The small-pox had set its 
mark on him with more than usual severity. His stature was 
small, and his limbs ill put together. Among boys little tender- 
ness is shown to personal defects; and the ridicule excited by 
poor Oliver's appearance was heightened by a peculiar simplicity 
and a disposition to blunder which he retained to the last. He 
became the common butt of boys and masters, was pointed at as 
a fright in the play-ground, and flogged as a dunce in the school- 
room. When he had risen to eminence, those who had once 
derided him ransacked their memory for the events of his early 
years, and recited repartees and couplets which had dropped 
from him, and which, though little noticed at the time, were 
supposed, a quarter of a century later, to indicate the powers 
which produced the Vicar of Wakefidd and the Deserted Village. 

On the nth of June 1744, being then in his sixteenth year, 
Oliver went up to Trinity College, Dublin, as a sizar. The sizars 
paid nothing for food and tuition, and very little for lodging; 
but they had to perform some menial services from which they 
have long been relieved. Goldsmith was quartered, not alone, in 
a garret of what was then No. 35 in a range of buildings which has 
long since disappeared. His name, scrawled by himself on one of 
its window-panes is still preserved in the college library. From 
such garrets many men of less parts than his have made their 
way to the woolsack or to the episcopal bench. But Goldsmith, 
while he suffered all the humiliations, threw away all the 
advantages of his situation. He neglected the studies of the 
place, stood low at the examinations, was turned down to the 
bottom of his class for playing the buffoon in the lecture-room, 
was severely reprimanded for pumping on a constable, and was 
caned by a brutal tutor for giving a ball in the attic storey of the 
college to some gay youths and damsels from the city. 

While Oliver was leading at Dublin a life divided between 
squalid distress and squalid dissipation, his father djeri. leaving 
a mere pittance. In February 1749 the youth obtained his 



bachelor's degree, and left the university. During some time 
the humble dwelling to which his widowed mother had retired 
was his home. He was now in his twenty-first year; it was 
necessary that he should do something; and his education 
seemed to have fitted him to do nothing but to dress himself 
in gaudy colours, of which he was as fond as a magpie, to take a 
hand at cards, to sing Irish airs, to play the flute, to angle in 
summer and to tell ghost stories by the fire in winter. He tried 
five or six professions in turn without success. He applied for 
ordination; but, as he applied in scarlet clothes, he was speedily 
turned out of the episcopal palace. He then became tutor in an 
opulent family, but soon quitted his situation in consequence of a 
dispute about pay. Then he determined to emigrate to America. 
His relations, with much satisfaction, saw him set out for Cork 
on a good horse, with 30 in his pocket. But in six weeks he 
came back on a miserable hack, without a penny, and informed 
his mother that the ship in which he had taken his passage, 
having got a fair wind while he was at a party of pleasure, had 
sailed without him. Then he resolved to study the law. A 
generous uncle, Mr Contarine, advanced 50. With this sum 
Goldsmith went to Dublin, was enticed into a gaming-house 
and lost every shilling. He then thought of medicine. A small 
purse was made up; and in his twenty-fourth year he was sent 
to Edinburgh. At Edinburgh he passed eighteen months in 
nominal attendance on lectures, and picked up some superficial 
information about chemistry and natural history. Thence he 
went to Leiden, still pretending to study physic. He left that 
celebrated university, the third university at which he had 
resided, in his twenty-seventh year, without a degree, with the 
merest smattering of medical knowledge, and with no property 
but his clothes and his flute. His flute, however, proved a useful 
friend. He rambled on foot through Flanders, France and 
Switzerland, playing tunes which everywhere set the peasantry 
dancing, and which often procured for him a supper and a bed. 
He wandered as far as Italy. His musical performances, indeed, 
were not to the taste of the Itah'ans; but he contrived to live on 
the alms which he obtained at the gates of convents. It should, 
however, be observed that the stories which he told about this 
part of his life ought to be received with great caution; for strict 
veracity was never one of his virtues; and a man who is ordinarily 
inaccurate in narration is likely to be more than ordinarily 
inaccurate when he talks about his own travels. Goldsmith, 
indeed, was so regardless of truth as to assert in print that he was 
present at a most interesting conversation between Voltaire and 
Fontenelle, and that this conversation took place at Paris. 
Now it is certain that Voltaire never was within a hundred 
leagues of Paris during the whole time which Goldsmith passed 
on the continent. 

In February 1756 the wanderer landed at Dover, without a 
shilling, without a friend and without a calling. He had indeed, 
if his own unsupported evidence may be trusted, obtained a 
doctor's degree on the continent; but this dignity proved 
utterly useless to him. In England his flute was not in request; 
there were no convents; and he was forced to have recourse to 
a series of desperate expedients. There is a tradition that he 
turned strolling player. He pounded drugs and ran about 
London with phials for charitable chemists. He asserted, upon 
one occasion, that he had lived "among the beggars in Axe Lane." 
He was for a time usher of a school, and felt the miseries and 
humiliations of this situation so keenly that he thought it a 
promotion to be permitted to earn his bread as a bookseller's 
hack; but he soon found the new yoke more galling than the 
old one, and was glad to become an usher again. He obtained a 
medical appointment in the service of the East India Company; 
but the appointment was speedily revoked. Why it was revoked 
we are not told. The subject was one on which he never liked 
to talk. It is probable that he was incompetent to perform 
the duties of the place. Then he presented himself at Surgeons' 
Hall for examination, as " mate to an hospital." Even to so 
humble a post he was found unequal. Nothing remained but to 
return to the lowest drudgery of literature. Goldsmith took a 
room in a tiny square off Ludgate Hill, to which he had to climb 



2l6 



GOLDSMITH, OLIVER 



from Sea-coal Lane by a dizzy ladder of flagstones called Break- 
neck Steps. Green Arbour Court and the ascent have long 
diasppeared. Here, at thirty, the unlucky adventurer sat 
down to toil like a galley slave. Already, in 1 758, during his first 
bondage to letters, he had translated Marteilhe's remarkable 
Memoirs of a Protestant, Condemned to the Galleys of France for his 
Religion. In the years that now succeeded h sent to the press 
some things which have survived, and many which have perished. 
He produced articles for reviews, magazines and newspapers; 
children's books, which, bound in gilt paper and adorned with 
hideous woodcuts, appeared in the window of Newbery's once 
far-famed shop at the corner of Saint Paul's churchyard; An 
Inquiry into the State of Polite Learning in Europe, which, though 
of little or no value, is still reprinted among his works; a volume 
of essays entitled The Bee; a Life of Beau Nash; a superficial 
and incorrect, but very readable, History of England, in a series 
of letters purporting to be addressed by a nobleman to his son; 
and some very lively and amusing sketches of London Society in 
another series of letters purporting to be addressed by a Chinese 
traveller to his friends. All these works were anonymous; 
but some of them were well known to be Goldsmith's; and he 
gradually rose in the estimation of the booksellers for whom he 
drudged. He was, indeed, emphatically a popular writer. For 
accurate research or grave disquisition he was not well qualified 
by nature or by education. He knew nothing accurately; his 
reading had been desultory; nor had he meditated deeply on 
what he had read. He had seen much of the world ; but he had 
noticed and retained little more of what he had seen than some 
grotesque incidents and characters which had happened to strike 
his fancy. But, though his mind was very scantily stored with 
materials, he used what materials he had in such a way as to 
produce a wonderful effect. There have been many greater 
writers; but perhaps no writer was ever more uniformly agree- 
able. His style was always pure and easy, and, on proper 
occasions, pointed and energetic. His narratives were always 
amusing, his descriptions always picturesque, his humour rich 
and joyous, yet not without an occasional tinge of amiable 
sadness. About everything that he wrote, serious or sportive, 
there was a certain natural grace and decorum, hardly to be 
expected from a man a great part of whose life had been passed 
among thieves and beggars, street-walkers and merryandrews, 
in those squalid dens which are the reproach of great capitals. 

As his name gradually became known, the circle of his acquaint- 
ance widened. He was introduced to Johnson, who was then 
considered as the first of living English writers; to Reynolds, 
the first of English painters; and to Burke, who had not yet 
entered parliament, but had distinguished himself greatly by his 
writings and by the eloquence of his conversation. With these 
eminent men Goldsmith became intimate. In 1763 he was one 
of the nine original members of that celebrated fraternity which 
has sometimes been called the Literary Club, but which has 
always disclaimed that epithet, and still glories in the simple 
name of the Club. 

By this date Goldsmith had quitted his miserable dwelling 
at the top of Breakneck Steps, and, after living for some time 
at No. 6 Wine Office Court, Fleet Street, had moved into the 
Temple. But he was still often reduced to pitiable shifts, the 
most popular of which is connected with the sale of his solitary 
novel, the Vicar of Wakefield. Towards the close of I764(?) 
his rent is alleged to have been so long in arrear that his landlady 
one morning called in the help of a sheriff's officer. The debtor, 
in great perplexity, despatched a messenger to Johnson; and 
Johnson, always friendly, though often surly, sent back the 
messenger with a guinea, and promised to follow speedily. 
He came, and found that Goldsmith had changed the guinea, 
and was railing at the landlady over a bottle of Madeira. Johnson 
put the cork into the bottle, and entreated his friend to consider 
calmly how money was to be procured. Goldsmith said that he 
had a novel ready for the press. Johnson glanced at the manu- 
script, saw that there were good things in it.took it to a bookseller, 
sold it for 60 and soon returned with the money. The rent 
was paid; and the sheriff's officer withdrew. (Unfortunately, 



| however, for this time-honoured version of the circumstances, 
it has of late years been discovered that as early as October 
1762 Goldsmith had already sold a third of the Vicar to one 
Benjamin Collins of Salisbury, a printer, by whom it was eventu- 
ally printed for F. Newbery, and it is difficult to reconcile this 
fact with Johnson's narrative.) 

But before the Vicar of Wakefield appeared in 1766, came the 
great crisis of Goldsmith's literary life. In Christmas week 1 764 
he published a poem, entitled the Traveller. It was the first 
work to which he had put his name, and it at once raised him 
to the rank of a legitimate English classic. The opinion of the 
most skilful critics was that nothing finer had appeared in verse 
since the fourth book of the Dunciad. In one respect the 
Traveller differs from all Goldsmith's other writings. In general 
his designs were bad, and his execution good. In the Traveller 
the execution, though deserving of much praise, is far inferior 
to the design. No philosophical poem, ancient or modern, has 
a plan so noble, and at the same time so simple. An English 
wanderer, seated on a crag among the Alps, near the point 
where three great countries meet, looks down on the boundless 
prospect, reviews his long pilgrimage, recalls the varieties of 
scenery, of climate, of government, of religion, of national 
character, which he has observed, and comes to the conclusion, 
just or unjust, that our happiness depends little on political 
institutions, and much on the temper arid regulation of our own 
minds. 

While the fourth edition of the Traveller was on the counters 
of the booksellers, the Vicar of Wakefield appeared, and rapidly 
obtained a popularity which has lasted down to our own time, 
and which is likely to last as long as our language. The fable 
is indeed one of the worst that ever was constructed. It wants, 
not merely that probability which ought to be found in a tale of 
common English life, but that consistency which ought to be 
found even in the wildest fiction about witches, giants and 
fairies. B ut the earlier chapters have all the sweetness of pastoral 
poetry, together with all the vivacity of comedy. Moses and his 
spectacles, the vicar and his monogamy, the sharper and his 
cosmogony, the squire proving from Aristotle that relatives are 
related, Olivia preparing herself for the arduous task of converting 
a rakish lover by studying the controversy between Robinson 
Crusoe and Friday, the great ladies with their scandal about Sir 
Tomkyn's amours and Dr Burdock's verses, and Mr Burchell 
with his " Fudge," have caused as much harmless mirth as has 
ever been caused by matter packed into so small a number of 
pages. The latter part of the tale is unworthy of the beginning. 
As we approach the catastrophe, the absurdities lie thicker and 
thicker, and the gleams of pleasantry become rarer and rarer. 

The success which had attended Goldsmith as a novelist 
emboldened him to try his fortune as a dramatist. He wrote 
the Good Natur'd Man, a piece which had a worse fate than it 
deserved. Garrick refused to produce it at Drury Lane. It was 
acted at Covent Garden in January 1768, but was coldly received. 
The Author, however, cleared by his benefit nights, and by the 
sale of the copyright, no less than 500, five times as much as he 
had made by the Traveller and the Vicar of Wakefield together. 
The plot of the Good Natur'd Man is, like almost all Goldsmith's 
plots, very ill constructed. But some passages are exquisitely 
ludicrous, much more ludicrous indeed than suited the taste 
of the town at that time. A canting, mawkish play, entitled 
False Delicacy, had just been produced, and sentimentality 
was all the mode. During some years more tears were shed at. 
comedies than at tragedies; and a pleasantry which moved the 
audience to anything more than a grave smile was reprobated 
as low. It is not strange, therefore, that the very best scene in 
the Good Nalur'd Man, that in which Miss Richland finds her 
lover attended by the bailiff and the bailiff's follower in full 
court dresses, should have been mercilessly hissed, and should 
have been omitted after the first night, not to be restored for 
several years. 

In May 1770 appeared the Deserted Village. In mere diction 
and versification this celebrated poem is fully equal, perhaps 
superior, to the Traveller; and it is generally preferred to the 



GOLDSMITH, OLIVER 



217 



Traveller by that large class of readers who think, with Bayes 
in the Rehearsal, that the only use of a plot is to bring in fine- 
things. More discerning judges, however, while they admire 
the beauty of the details, are shocked by one unpardonable fault 
which pervades the whole. The fault which we mean is not that 
theory about wealth and luxury which has so often been censured 
by political economists. The theory is indeed false; but the 
poem, considered merely as a poem, is not necessarily the worse 
on that account. The finest poem in the Latin language 
indeed, the finest didactic poem in any language was written 
in defence of the silliest and meanest of all systems of natural 
and moral philosophy. A poet may easily be pardoned for 
reasoning ill; but he cannot be pardoned for describing ill, for 
observing the world in which he lives so carelessly that his 
portraits bear no resemblance to the originals, for exhibiting as 
copies from real life monstrous combinations of things which 
never were and never could be found together. What would 
be thought of a painter who should mix August and January in 
one landscape, who should introduce a frozen river into a harvest 
scene ? Would it be a sufficient defence of such a picture to say 
that every part was exquisitely coloured, that the green hedges, 
the apple-trees loaded with fruit, the waggons reeling under the 
yellow sheaves, and the suruburned reapers wiping their fore- 
heads were very fine, and that the ice and the boys sliding were 
also very fine ? To such a picture the Deserted Village bears a 
great resemblance. It is made up of incongruous parts. The 
village in its happy days is a true English village. The village 
in its decay is an Irish village. The felicity and the misery 
which Goldsmith has brought close together belong to two 
different countries and to two different stages in the progress 
of society. He had assuredly never seen in his native island such 
a rural paradise, such a seat of plenty, content and tranquillity, 
as his Auburn. He had assuredly never seen in England all 
the inhabitants of such a paradise turned out of their homes in 
one day and -forced to emigrate in a body to America. The 
hamlet he had probably seen in Kent; the ejectment he had 
probably seen in Munster; but by joining the two, he has 
produced something which never was and never will be seen in 
any part of the world. 

In 1773 Goldsmith tried his chance at Covent Garden with a 
second play, She Stoops to Conquer. The manager was, not 
without great difficulty, induced to bring this piece out. The 
sentimental comedy'still reigned, and Goldsmith's comedies were 
not sentimental. The Good Natur'd Man had been too funny to 
succeed; yet the mirth of the Good Natur'd Man was sober when 
compared with the rich drollery of She Stoops to Conquer, which 
is, in truth, an incomparable farce in five acts. On this occasion, 
however, genius triumphed. Pit, boxes and galleries were in a 
constant roar of laughter. If any bigoted admirer of Kelly 
and Cumberland ventured to hiss or groan, he was speedily 
silenced by a general cry of " turn him out," or " throw him 
over." Later generations have confirmed the verdict which was 
pronounced on that night. 

While Goldsmith was writing the Deserted Village and She 
Sloops to Conquer, he was employed on works of a very different 
kind works from which he derived little reputation but much 
profit. He compiled for the use of schools a History of Rome, 
by which he made 250; a History of England, by which he 
made 500; a History of Greece, for which he received 250; 
a Natural History, for which the booksellers covenanted to pay 
him 800 guineas. These works he produced without any 
elaborate research, by merely selecting, abridging and translating 
into his own clear, pure and flowing language, what he found in 
books well known to the world, but too bulky or too dry for boys 
and girls. He committed some strange blunders, for he knew 
nothing with accuracy. Thus, in his History of England, he tells 
us that Naseby is in Yorkshire; nor did he correct this mistake 
when the book was reprinted. He was very nearly hoaxed into 
putting into the History of Greece an account of a battle between 
Alexander the Great and Montezuma. In his Animated Nature 
he relates, with faith and with perfect gravity, all the most 
absurd lies which he could find in books of travels about gigantic 



Patagonians, monkeys that preach sermons, nightingales that 
repeat long conversations. " If he can tell a horse from a cow," 
said Johnson, " that is the extent of his knowledge of zoology." 
How little Goldsmith was qualified to write about the physical 
sciences is sufficiently proved by two anecdotes. He on one 
occasion denied that the sun is longer in the northern than in the 
southern signs. It was vain to cite the authority of Maupertuis. 
" Maupertuis!" he cried, "I understand those matters better 
than Maupertuis." On another occasion he, in defiance of 
the evidence of his own senses, maintained obstinately, and 
even angrily, that he chewed his dinner by moving his upper 
jaw. 

Yet, ignorant as Goldsmith was, few writers have done more 
to make the first steps in the laborious road to knowledge easy 
and pleasant. His compilations are widely distinguished from 
the compilations of ordinary bookmakers. He was a great, 
perhaps an unequalled, master of the arts of selection and con- 
densation. In these respects his histories of Rome and of 
England, and still more his own abridgments of these histories, 
well deserved to be studied. In general nothing is less attrac- 
tive than an epitome; but the epitomes of Goldsmith, 
even when most concise, are always amusing; and to read them 
is considered by intelligent children not as a task but as a 
pleasure. 

Goldsmith might now be considered as a prosperous man. 
He had the means of living in comfort, and even in what to one 
who had so often slept in barns and on bulks must have been 
luxury. His fame was great and was constantly rising. He 
lived in what was intellectually far the best society of the king- 
dom, in a society in which no talent or accomplishment was 
wanting, and in which the art of conversation was cultivated 
with splendid success. There probably were never four talkers 
more admirable in four different ways than Johnson, Burke, 
Beauclerk and Garrick; and Goldsmith was on terms of intimacy 
with all the four. He aspired to share in ttieir colloquial renown, 
but never was ambition more unfortunate. \ It may seem strange 
that a man who wrote with so much perspicuity, vivacity and 
grace should have been, whenever he took a part in conversation, 
an empty, noisy, blundering rattle. But on this point the 
evidence is overwhelming. So extraordinary was the contrast 
between Goldsmith's published works and the silly things which 
he said, that Horace Walpole described him as an inspired idiot. 
" Noll," said Garrick, " wrote like an angel, and talked like poor 
Poll." Chamier declared that it was a hard exercise of faith to 
believe that so foolish a chatterer could have really written the 
Traveller. Even Boswell could say, with contemptuous com- 
passion, that he liked very well to hear honest Goldsmith run on. 
" Yes, sir," said Johnson, " but he should not like to hear him- 
self." Minds differ as rivers differ. There are transparent and 
sparkling rivers from which it is delightful to drink as they flow; 
to such rivers the minds of such men as Burke and Johnson may 
be compared. But there are rivers of which the water when first 
drawn is turbid and noisome, but becomes pellucid as crystal 
and delicious to the taste, if it be suffered to stand till it has 
deposited a sediment; and such a river is a type of the mind of 
Goldsmith. His first thoughts on every subject were confused 
even to absurdity, but they required only a little time to work 
themselves clear. When he wrote they had that time, and 
therefore his readers pronounced him a man of genius; but 
when he talked he talked nonsense and made himself the 
laughing-stock of his hearers. He was painfully sensible of 
his inferiority in conversation; he felt every failure keenly; yet 
he had not sufficient judgment and self-command to hold his 
tongue. His animal spirits and vanity were always impelling 
him to try to do the one thing which he could not do. After. 
every attempt he felt that he had exposed himself, and writhed 
with shame and vexation; yet the next moment he began 
again. 

His associates seem to have regarded him with kindness, which, 
in spite of their admiration of his writings, was not unmixed with 
contempt. In truth, there was in his character much to love, 
but very little to respect. His heart was soft even to weakness: 



218 



GOLDSTUCKER 



he was so generous that he quite forgot to be just ; he forgave 
injuries so readily that he might be said to invite them, and was 
so liberal to beggars that he had nothing left for his tailor and his 
butcher. He was vain, senjmal, frivolous, profuse, improvident. 
One vice of a darker shade was imputed to him, envy. But there 
is not the least reason to believe that this bad passion, though it 
sometimes made him wince and utter fretful exclamations, ever 
impelled him to injure by wicked arts the reputation of any of 
his rivals. The truth probably is that he was not more envious, 
but merely less prudent, than his neighbours. His heart was 
on his lips. All those small jealousies, which are but too common 
among men of letters, but which a man of letters who is also a 
man of the world does his best to conceal, Goldsmith avowed 
with the simplicity of a child. When he was envious, instead of 
affecting indifference, instead of damning with faint praise, 
instead of doing injuries slyly and in the dark, he told everybody 
that he was envious. " Do not, pray, do not, talk of Johnson in 
such terms," he said to Boswell; " you harrow up my very soul." 
George Steevens and Cumberland were men far too cunning 
to say such a thing. They would have echoed the praises of the 
man whom they envied, and then have sent to the newspapers 
anonymous libels upon him. Both what was good and what, was 
bad in Goldsmith's character was to his associates a perfect 
security that he would never commit such villainy. He was 
neither ill-natured enough, nor long-headed enough, to be 
guilty of any malicious act which required contrivance and 
disguise. 

Goldsmith has sometimes been represented as a man of genius, 
cruelly treated by the world, and doomed to struggle with 
difficulties, which at last broke his heart. But no representation 
can be more remote from the truth. He did, indeed, go through 
much sharp misery before he had done anything considerable 
in literature. But after his name had appeared on the title-page 
of the Traveller, he had none but himself to blame for his dis- 
tresses. His average income, during the last seven years of his 
life, certainly exceeded 400 a year, and 400 a year ranked, 
among the incomes of that day, at least as high as 800 a year 
would rank at present. A single man living in the Temple, with 
400 a year, might then be called opulent. Not one in ten of the 
young gentlemen of good families who were studying the law 
there had so much. But all the wealth which Lord Clive had 
brought from Bengal and Sir Lawrence Dundas from Germany, 
joined together, would not have sufficed for Goldsmith. He 
spent twice as much as he had. He woxe_&-dojjies j gave 
dinners of several courses, pajd-couxLtQ venal beauties. He had 
also, it should be remembered, to the honour of his heart, though 
not of his head, a guinea, or five, or ten, according to the state of 
his purse, ready for any tale of distress, true or false. But it was 
not in dress or feasting, in promiscuous amours or promiscuous 
charities, that his chief expense lay. He had been from boyhood 
a gambler, and at once the most sanguine and the most unskilful 
of gamblers. For a time he put off the day of inevitable ruin by 
temporary expedients. He obtained advances from booksellers 
by promising to execute works which he never began. But at 
length this source of supply failed. He owed more than 2000; 
and he saw no hope of extrication from his embarrassments. 
His spirits and health gave way. He was attacked by a nervous 
fever, which he thought himself competent to treat. It would 
have been happy for him if his medical skill had been appreciated 
as justly by himself as by others. Notwithstanding the degree 
which he pretended to have received on the continent, he could 
procure no patients. " I do not practise," he once said; " I 
make it a rule to prescribe only for my friends." " Pray, dear 
Doctor," said Beauclerk, " alter your rule; and prescribe only 
for your enemies." Goldsmith, now, in spite of this excellent 
advice, prescribed for himself. The remedy aggravated the 
malady. The sick man was induced to call in real physicians; 
and they at one time imagined that they had cured the disease. 
Still his weakness and restlessness continued. He could get no 
sleep. He could take no food. " You are worse," said one of his 
medical attendants, " than you should be from the degree of 
fever which you have. Is your mind at ease?" "No; it is 



not," were the last recorded words of Oliver Goldsmith. He 
died on the 4th of April 1774, in his forty-sixth year. He was 
laid in the churchyard of the Temple; but the spot was not 
marked by any inscription and is now forgotten. The coffin 
was followed by Burke and Reynolds. Both these great men 
were sincere mourners. Burke, when he heard of Goldsmith's 
death, had burst into a flood of tears. Reynolds had been so 
much moved by the news that he had flung aside his brush and 
palette for the day. 

A short time after Goldsmith's death, a little poem appeared, 
which will, as long as our language lasts, associate the names of 
his two illustrious friends with his own. It has already been 
mentioned that he sometimes felt keenly the sarcasm which his 
wild blundering talk brought upon him. He was, not long 
before his last illness, provoked into retaliating. He wisely 
betook himself to his pen; and at that weapon he proved 
himself a match for all his assailants together. Within a small 
compass he drew with a singularly easy and vigorous pencil 
the characters of nine or ten of his intimate associates. 
Though this little work did not receive his last touches, it 
must always be regarded as a masterpiece. It is impossible, 
however, not to wish that four or five likenesses which have 
no interest for posterity were wanting to that noble gallery, 
and that their places were supplied by sketches of Johnson 
and Gibbon, as happy and vivid as the sketches of Burke and 
Garrick. 

Some of Goldsmith's friends and admirers honoured him 
with a cenotaph in Westminster Abbey. Nollekens was the 
sculptor, and Johnson wrote the inscription. It is much to be 
lamented that Johnson did not leave to posterity a more durable 
and a more valuable memorial of his friend. A life of Goldsmith 
would have been an inestimable addition to the Lives of the Poets. 
No man appreciated Goldsmith's writings more justly than 
Johnson; no man was better acquainted with Goldsmith's 
character and habits; and no man was more competent to 
delineate with truth and spirit the peculiarities of a mind in 
which great powers were found in company with great weaknesses. 
But the list of poets to whose works Johnson was requested by 
the booksellers to furnish prefaces ended with Lyttelton, who 
died in 1773. The line seems to have been drawn expressly for 
the purpose of excluding the person whose portrait would have 
most fitly closed the series. Goldsmith, however, has been 
fortunate in his biographers. (M.) 

Goldsmith's life has been written by Prior (1837), by Washington 
Irving (1844-1849), and by John Forster (1848, 2nd ed. 1854). 
The diligence of Prior deserves great praise ; the style of Washington 
Irving is always pleasing; but the highest place must, in justice, be 
assigned to the eminently interesting work of Forster. Subsequent 
biographies are by William Black (1878), and Austin Dobson (1888, 
American ed. 1899). The above article by Lord Macaulay has been 
slightly revised for this edition by Mr Austin Dobson, as regards 
questions of fact for which there has been new evidence. 

GOLDSTUCKER, THEODOR (1821-1872), German Sanskrit 
scholar, was born of Jewish parents at Konigsberg on the i8th of 
January 1821, and, after attending the gymnasium of that 
town, entered the university in 1836 as a student of Sanskrit. 
In 1838 he removed to Bonn, and, after graduating at Konigsberg 
in 1840, proceeded to Paris; in 1842 he edited a German trans- 
lation of the Prabodha Chandrodaya. From 1847 to 1850 he 
resided at Berlin, where his talents and scholarship were recog- 
nized by Alexander von Humboldt, but where his advanced 
political views caused the authorities to regard him with suspicion. 
In the latter year he removed to London, where in 1852 he was 
appointed professor of Sanskrit in University College. He now 
worked on a new Sanskrit dictionary, of which the first instal- 
ment appeared in 1856. In 1861 he published his chief work: 
Panini: his place in Sanskrit Literature; and he was one of the 
founders and chief promoters of the Sanskrit Text Society; 
he was also an active member of the Philological Society, and of 
other learned bodies. He died in London on the 6th of March 
1872. 

As Literary Remains some of his writings were published in two 
volumes (London, 1879), but his papers were left to the India Office 
with the request that they were not to be published until 1920. 






GOLDWELL GOLF 



219 






GOLDWELL, THOMAS (d. 1585), English ecclesiastic, began 
his career as vicar of Cheriton in 1531, after graduating M.A. at 
All Souls College, Oxford. He became chaplain to Cardinal 
Pole and lived with him at Rome, was attainted in 1539, but 
returned to England on Mary's accession, and in 1555 became 
bishop of St Asaph, a diocese which he did much to win back 
to the old faith. On the death of Mary, Goldwell escaped from 
England and in 1 56 1 became superior of the Theatines at Naples. 
He was the only English bishop at the council of Trent, and in 
1562 was again attainted. In the following year he was appointed 
vicar-general to Carlo Borromeo, archbishop of Milan. He died 
in Rome in 1385, the last of the English bishops who had refused 
to accept the Reformation. 

GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ (1850- ), Jewish Hungarian orient- 
alist, was born in Stuhlweissenburg on the 2 2nd of June 
1850. He was educated at the universities of Budapest, Berlin, 
Leipzig and Leiden, and became privat decent at Budapest in 
1872. In the next year, under the auspices of the Hungarian 
government, he began a journey through Syria, Palestine and 
Egypt, and took the opportunity of attending lectures of 
Mahommedan sheiks in the mosque of el-Azhar in Cairo. He 
was the first Jewish scholar to become professor in the Budapest 
University (1894), and represented the Hungarian government 
and the Academy of Sciences at numerous international con- 
gresses. He received the large gold medal at the Stockholm 
Oriental Congress in 1889. He became a member of several 
Hungarian and other learned societies, was appointed secretary 
of the Jewish community in Budapest. He was made Litt. D. 
of Cambridge(i9O4)and LL.D. of Aberdeen(i9o6). His eminence 
in the sphere of scholarship is due primarily to his careful in- 
vestigationofpre-MahommedanandMahommedan law, tradition, 
religion and poetry, in connexion with which he published a large 
number of treatises, review articles and essays contributed to 
the collections of the Hungarian Academy. 

Among his chief works are: Beitrage zur Literaturgeschichte der 
Schi'a (1874); Beitrage zur Geschichte der Sprachgelehrsamkeit bei 
den Arabern (Vienna, 1871-1873) ; Der Mythos bei den Hebrdern und 
seine geschichtliche Entwickelung (Leipzig, 1876; Eng. trans., R. 
Martineau, London, 1877); Muhammedanische Studien (Halle, 
1889-1890, 2 vols.) ; Abhandlungen zur arabischen Philologie (Leiden, 
1896-1899, 2 vols.); Buck v. Wesen d. Seele (ed. 1907). 

GOLETTA [LA GOULETTE], a town on the Gulf of Tunis in 
36 50' N. 10 19' E., a little south of the ruins of Carthage, and 
on the north side of the ship canal which traverses the shallow 
Lake of Tunis and leads to the city of that name. Built on the 
narrow strip of sand which separates the lake from the gulf, 
Goletta is defended by a fort and battery. The town contains 
a summer palace of the bey, the old seraglio, arsenal and custom- 
house, and many villas, gardens and pleasure resorts, Goletta 
being a favourite place for sea-bathing. A short canal, from 
which the name of the town is derived (Arab. Halk-el-Wad, 
" throat of the canal "), 40 ft. broad and 8 ft. deep, divides the 
town and affords communication between the ship canal and 
a dock or basin, 1082 ft. long and 541 ft. broad. An electric 
tramway which runs along the north bank of the ship canal 
connects Goletta with the city of Tunis (q.v.). Pop. (1907) 
about so, mostly Jews and Italian fishermen. 

Beyond Cape Carthage, 5 m. N. of Goletta, is La Marsa, a 
summer resort overlooking the sea. The bey has a palace here, 
and the French resident-general, the British consul, other 
officials, and many Tunisians have country-houses, surrounded 
by groves of olive trees. 

Before the opening of the ship canal in 1893 Goletta, as the 
port of Tunis, was a place of considerable importance. The 
basin at the Goletta end of the canal now serves as a subsidiary 
harbour to that of Tunis. The most stirring events in the 
history of the town are connected with the Turkish conquest 
of the Barbary states. Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa having made 
himself master of Tunis and its port, Goletta was attacked in 
IS3S by the emperor Charles V., who seized the pirate's fleet, 
which was sheltered in the small canal, his arsenal, and 300 brass 
cannon. The Turks regained possession in 1574. (See TUNISIA: 
History.) 



GOLF (in its older forms GOFF, GOUFF or GOWFF, the last of 
which gives the genuine old pronunciation), a game which 
probably derives its name from the Ger. kolbe, a club in Dutch, 
kolf which last is nearly in sound identical and might suggest a 
Dutch origin, 1 which many pictures and other witnesses further 
support. 

History. One of the most ancient and most interesting of the 
pictures in which the game is portrayed is the tailpiece to an 
illuminated Book of Hours made at Bruges at the beginning of 
the i6th century. The original is in the British Museum. The 
players, three in number, have but one club apiece. The heads 
of the clubs are steel or steel covered. They play with a ball each. 
That which gives this picture a peculiar interest over the many 
pictures of Dutch schools that portray the game in progress is 
that most of them show it on the ice, the putting being at a stake. 
In this Book of Hours they are putting at a hole in the turf, as in 
our modern golf. It is scarcely to be doubted that the game is of 
Dutch origin, and that it has been in favour since very early days. 
Further than that our knowledge does not go. The early Dutch- 
men played golf, they painted golf, but they did not write it. 

It is uncertain at what date golf was introduced into Scotland, 
but in 1457 the popularity of the game had already become so 
great as seriously to interfere with the more important pursuit 
of archery. In March of that year the Scottish parliament 
" decreted and ordained that wapinshaivingis be halden be the 
lordis and baronis spirituale and temporale, four times in the 
zeir; and that the fute-ball and golf lie utterly cryit doun, and 
nocht usit; and that the bowe-merkis be maid at ilk paroche kirk 
a pair of buttis, and schuttin be usit ilk Sunday. ' ' Fourteen years 
afterwards, in May 1471, it was judged necessary to pass another 
act " anent wapenshawings," and in 1491 a final and evidently 
angry fulmination was issued on the general subject, with pains 
and penalties annexed. It runs thus " Futeball and Golfe 
forbidden. Item, it is statut and ordainit that in na place of the 
realme there be usit fute-ball, golfe, or uther sik unprofitabill 
sporlis," &c. This, be it noted, is an edict of James IV.; and it is 
not a little curious presently to find the monarch himself setting 
an ill example to his commons, by practice of this " unprofitabill 
sport," as is shown by various entries in the accounts of the lord 
high treasurer of Scotland (1503-1506). 

About a century later, the game again appears on the surface of 
history, and it is quite as popular as before. In the year 1592 
the town council of Edinburgh "ordanis proclamation to be made 
threw this burgh, that na inhabitants of the samyn be seen at ony 
pastymes within or without the toun, upoun the Sabboth day, sic 
as golfe, &c." 2 The following year the edict was re-announced, 
but with the modification that the prohibition was " in tyme of 
sermons." 

Golf has from old times been known in Scotland as " The 
Royal and Ancient Game of Goff." Though no doubt Scottish 
monarchs handled the club before him, James IV. is the first who 
figures formally in the golfing record. James V. was also very 
partial to the game distinctively known as " royal "; and there 
is some scrap of evidence to show that his daughter, the unhappy 
Mary Stuart, was a golfer. It was alleged by her enemies that, as 
showing her shameless indifference to the fate of her husband, a 
very few days after his murder, she " was seen playing golf and 
pallmall in the fields beside Seton." 3 That her son, James VI. 
(afterwards James I. of England), was a golfer, tradition con- 
fidently asserts, though the evidence which connects him with the 
personal practice of the game is slight. Of the interest he took in 
it we have evidence in his act already alluded to " anent golfe 
ballis," prohibiting their importation, except under certain 

"From an enactment of James VI. (then James I. of England), 
bearing date 1618, we find that a considerable importation of golf 
balls at that time took place from Holland, and as thereby " na 
small quantitie of gold and silver is transported zierly out of his 
Hienes kingdome of Scoteland " (see letter of His Majesty from 
Salisbury, the 5th of August 1618), he issues a royal prohibition, at 
once as a wise economy of the national moneys, and a protection to 
native industry in the article. From this it might almost seem that 
the game was at that date still known and practised in Holland. 

* Records of the City of Edinburgh. 

1 Inventories of Mary Queen of Scots, preface, p. Ixx. (1863). 



220 



GOLF 



restrictions. Charles I. (as his brother Prince Henry had been ') 
was devotedly attached to the game. Whilst engaged in it on 
the links of Leith, in 1642, the news reached him of the Irish 
rebellion of that year. He had not the equanimity to finish his 
match, but returned precipitately and in much agitation to 
Holyrood. 2 Afterwards, while prisoner to the Scots army at 
Newcastle, he found his favourite diversion in " the royal game." 
" The King was nowhere treated with more honour than at New- 
castle, as he himself confessed, both he and his train having liberty 
to go abroad and play at goff in the Shield Field, without the 
walls." 3 Of his son, Charles II., as a golfer, nothing whatever is 
ascertained, but James II. was a known devotee. 4 After the 
Restoration, James, then duke of York, was sent to Edinburgh in 
1681/2 as commissioner of the king to parliament, and an 
historical monument of his prowess as a golfer remains there to 
this day in the " Golfer's Land," as it is still called, 77 Canongate. 
The duke having been challenged by two English noblemen of his 
suite, to play a match against them, for a very large stake, along 
with any Scotch ally he might select, chose as his partner one 
" Johne Patersone," a shoemaker. The duke and the said Johne 
won easily, and half of the large stake the duke made over to his 
humble coadjutor, who therewith built himself the house men- 
tioned above. In 1834 William IV. became patron of the St 
Andrews Golf Club (St Andrews being then, as now, the most 
famous seat of the game), and approved of its being styled " The 
Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews." In 1837, as 
further proof of royal favour, he presented to it a magnificent gold 
medal, which " should be challenged and played for annually "; 
and in 1838 the queen dowager, duchess of St Andrews, became 
patroness of the club, and presented to it a handsome gold medal 
" The Royal Adelaide " with a request that it should be worn 
by the captain, as president, on all public occasions. In June 
1863 the prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) signified his 
desire to become patron of the club, and in the following September 
was elected captain by acclamation. His engagements did not 
admit of his coming in person to undertake the duties of the 
office, but his brother Prince Leopold (the duke of Albany) , having 
in 1876 done the club the honour to become its captain, twice 
visited the ancient city in that capacity. 

In more recent days, golf has become increasingly popular in 
a much wider degree. In 1880 the man who travelled about 
England with a set of golf clubs was an object of some astonish- 
ment, almost of alarm, to his fellow-travellers. In those days the 
commonest of questions in regard to the game was, " You have to 
be a fine rider, do you not, to play golf ? " so confounded was it in 
the popular mind with the game of polo. At Blackheath a few 
Scotsmen resident in London had long played golf. In 1864 the 
Royal North Devon Club was formed at Westward Ho, and this 
was the first of the seaside links discovered and laid out for golf in 
England. In 1869 the Royal Liverpool Club established itself in 
possession of thesecondEnglish course of this quality at Hoylake, in 
Cheshire. A golf club was formed in connexion with the London 
Scottish Volunteers corps, which had its house on the Putney end 
of Wimbledon Common on Putney Heath; and, after making so 
much of a start, the progress of the game was slow, though steady, 
for many years. A few more clubs were formed; the numbers of 
golfers grew; but it could not be said that the game was yet in 
any sense popular in England. All at once, for no very obvious 
reason, the qualities of the ancient Scottish game seemed to strike 
home, and from that moment its popularity has been wonderfully 
and increasingly great. The English links that rose into most 
immediate favour was the fine course of the St George's Golf 
Club, near Sandwich, on the coast of Kent. To the London golfer 
it was the first course of the first class that was reasonably 
accessible, and the fact made something like an epoch in 
English golf. A very considerable increase, it is true, in the 
number of English golfers and English golf clubs had taken place 
before the discovery for golfing purposes of the links at Sandwich. 

1 Anonymous author of MS. in the Harleian Library. 

2 See History of Leith, by A. Campbell (1827). 

* Local Records of Northumberland, by John Sykes (Newcastle, 

4 Robertson's Historical Notices of Leith. 



Already there was a chain of links all round the coast, besides 
numerous inland courses; but since 1890 their increase has been 
extraordinary, and the number which has been formed in the 
colonies and abroad is very large also, so that in the Golfer's 
Year Book for 1906 a space of over 300 pages was allotted to the 
Club Directory alone, each page containing, on a rough average, 
six clubs. To compute the average membership of these clubs is 
very difficult. There is not a little overlapping, in the sense that 
a member of one club will often be a member of several others; 
but probably the average may be placed at something like 200 
members for each club. 

The immense amount of golf-playing that this denotes, the 
large industry in the making of clubs and balls, in the upkeep 
of links, in the actual work of club-carrying by the caddies, 
and in the instruction given by the professional class, is obvious. 
Golf has taken a strong hold on the affections of the people in 
many parts of Ireland, and the fashion for golf in England has 
reacted strongly on Scotland itself, the ancient home of the game, 
where since 1880 golfers have probably increased in the ratio of 
forty to one. Besides the industry that such a growth of the 
game denotes in the branches immediately connected with it, 
as mentioned above, there is to be taken into further account 
the visiting population that it brings to all lodging-houses and 
hotels within reach of a tolerable golf links, so that many a 
fishing village has risen into a moderate watering-place by virtue 
of no other attractions than those which are offered by its golf 
course. ^ Therefore to the Briton, golf has developed from 
something of which he had a vague idea as of " curling "- 
to something in the nature of an important business, a business 
that can make towns and has a considerable effect on the receipts 
of railway companies. 

Moreover, ladies have learned to play golf. Although this 
is a crude and brief sentence, it does not state the fact too 
widely nor too forcibly, for though it is true that before 1885 
many played on the short links of St Andrews, North Berwick, 
Westward Ho and elsewhere, still it was virtually unknown 
that they should play on the longer courses, which till then 
had been in the undisputed possession of the men. At many 
places women now have their separate links, at others they play 
on the same course as the men. But even where links are set 
apart for women, they are far different from the little courses 
that used to be assigned to them. They are links only a little 
less formidable in their bunkers, a little less varied in their 
features than those of men. The ladies have their annual 
championship, which they play on the long links of the men, 
sometimes on one, sometimes on another, but always on courses 
of the first quality, demanding the finest display of golfing skill. 

The claim that England made to a golfing fellowship with 
Scotland was conceded very strikingly by the admission of 
three English greens, first those of Hoylake and of Sandwich, 
and in 1909 Deal, into the exclusive list of the links on which 
the open championship of the game is decided. Before England 
had so fully assimilated Scotland's game this great annual 
contest was waged at St Andrews, Musselburgh and Prestwick 
in successive years. Now the ancient green of Musselburgh, 
somewhat worn out with length of hard and gallant service, and 
moreover, as a nine-holes course inadequately accommodating 
the numbers who compete in the championships to-day, has been 
superseded by the course at Muirfield as a championship arena. 

While golf had been making itself a force in the southern 
kingdom, the professional element men who had learned the 
game from childhood, had become past-masters, were capable 
of giving instruction, and also of making clubs and balls and 
looking after the greens on which golf was played had at first 
been taken from the northern side of the Border. But when 
golf had been started long enough in England for the little boys 
who were at first employed as " caddies " in carrying the 
players' clubs to grow to sufficient strength to drive the ball 
as far as their masters, it was inevitable that out of the number 
who thus began to play in their boyhood some few should 
develop an exceptional talent for the game. This, in fact, 
actually happened, and English golfers, both of the amateur 



GOLF 



221 



and the professional classes, have proved themselves so adept 
at Scotland's game, that the championships in either the Open 
or the Amateur competitions have been won more often by 
English than by Scottish players of late years. Probably in the 
United Kingdom to-day there are as many English as Scottish 
professional golf players, and their relative number is increasing. 

Golf also " caught on," to use the American expression, in 
the United States. To the American of 1890 golf was largely an 
unknown thing. Since then, however, golf has become perhaps 
a greater factor in the life of the upper and upper-middle classes 
in the United States than it ever has been in England or Scotland. 
Golf to the English and the Scots meant only one among several 
of the sports and pastimes that take the man and the woman 
of the upper and upper-middle classes into the country and the 
fresh air. To the American of like status golf came as the one 
thing to take him out of his towns and give him a reason for 
exercise in the country. To-day golf has become an interest 
all over North America, but it is in the Eastern States that it 
has made most difference in the life of the classes with whom it 
has become fashionable. Westerners and Southerners found 
more excuses before the coming of golf for being in the open 
country air. It is in the Eastern States more especially that it 
has had so much influence in making the people live and take 
exercise out of doors. In a truly democratic spirit the American 
woman golfer plays on a perfect equality with the American 
man. She does not compete in the men's championships; she 
has championships of her own; but she plays, without question, 
on the same links. There is no suggestion of relegating her, as a 
certain cynical writer in the Badminton volume on golf described 
it, to a waste corner, a kind of " Jews' Quarter," of the links. 
And the Americans have taken up golf in the spirit of a sumptuous 
and opulent people, spending money on magnificent clubhouses 
beyond the finest dreams of the Englishman or the Scot. The 
greatest success achieved by any American golfer fell to the lot 
of Mr Walter Travis of the Garden City club, who in 1904 won 
the British amateur championship. 

So much enthusiasm and so much golf in America have not 
failed to make their influence felt in the United Kingdom. 
Naturally and inevitably they have created a strong demand 
for professional instruction, both by example and by precept, 
and for professional advice and assistance in the laying-out and 
upkeep of the many new links that have been created in all parts 
of the States, sometimes out of the least promising material. 
By the offer of great prizes for exhibition matches, and of wages 
that are to the British rate on the scale of the dollar to the 
shilling, they have attracted many of the best Scottish and 
English professionals to pay them longer or shorter visits as the 
case may be, and thus a new opening has been created for the 
energies of the professional golfing class. 

The Game. The game of golf may be briefly defined as 
consisting in hitting the ball over a great extent of country, 
preferably of that sand-hill nature which is found by the sea-side, 
and finally hitting or " putting " it into a little hole of some 
4 in. diameter cut in the turf. The place of the hole is commonly 
marked by a flag. Eighteen is the recognized number of these 
holes on a full course, and they are at varying distances apart, 
from 100 yds. up to anything between a J and J m. For the 
various strokes required to achieve the hitting of the ball over 
the great hills, and finally putting it into the small hole, a number 
of different " clubs " has been devised to suit the different 
positions in which the ball may be found and the different 
directions in which it is wished to propel it. At the start 
for each hole the ball may be placed on a favourable position 
(e.g. " tee'd " on a small mound of sand) for striking it, but 
after that it may not be touched, except with the club, until 
it is hit into the next holer A " full drive," as the farthest distance 
that the ball can be hit is called, is about 200 yds. in length, 
of which some three-fourths will be traversed in the air, and the 
rest by bounding or running over the ground. It is easily to be 
understood that when the ball is lying on the turf behind a tall 
sand-hill, or in a bunker, a differently-shaped club is required 
for raising it over such an obstacle from that which is needed 



when it is placed on the tee to start with; and again, that 
another club is needed to strike the ball out of a cup or out of 
heavy grass. It is this variety that gives the game its charm. 
Each player plays with his own ball, with no interference from 
his opponent, and the object of each is to hit the ball from the 
starting-point into each successive hole in the fewest strokes. 
The player who at the end of the round (i.e. of the course of 
eighteen holes) has won the majority of the holes is the winner 
of the round; or the decision may be reached before the end 
of the round by one side gaining more holes than there remain to 
play. For instance, if one player be four holes to the good, and 
only three holes remain to be played, it is evident that the 
former must be the winner, for even if the latter win every 
remaining hole, he still must be one to the bad at the finish. 

The British Amateur Championship is decided by a tourna- 
ment in matches thus played, each defeated player retiring, and 
his opponent passing on into the next round. In the case of the 
Open Championship, and in most medal competitions, the scores 
are differently reckoned each man's total score (irrespective 
of his relative merit at each hole) being reckoned at the finish 
against the total score of the other players in the competition. 
There is also a species of competition called " bogey " play, in 
which each man plays against a " bogey " score a score fixed 
for each hole in the round before starting and his position in 
the competition relatively to the other players is determined 
by the number of holes that he is to the good or to the bad of the 
" bogey " score at the end of the round. The player who is most 
holes to the good, or fewest holes to the bad, wins the competition. 
It may be mentioned incidentally that golf occupies the almost 
unique position of being the only sport in which even a single 
player can enjoy his game, his opponent in this event being 
" Colonel Bogey" more often than not a redoubtable adversary. 

The links which have been thought worthy, by reason of their 
geographical positions and their merits, of b^ng the scenes on which 
the golf championships are fought out, are, as we have already said, 
three in Scotland St Andrews, Prestwick and Muirfield and three 
in England Hoylake, Sandwich and Deal. This brief list is very 
far from being complete as regards links of first-class quality in Great 
Britain. Besides those named, there are in Scotland Carnoustie, 
North Berwick, Cruden Bay, Nairn, Aberdeen, Dornoch, Troon, 
Machrihanish, South Uist, Islay, Gullane, Luffness and many more. 
In England there are Westward Ho, Bembridge, Littlestone, Great 
Yarmouth, Brancaster, Seaton Carew, Formbv, Lytham, Harlech, 
Burnham, among the seaside ones; while of the inland, some of them 
of very fine quality, we cannot even attempt a selection, so large is 
their number and so variously estimated their comparative merits. 
Ireland has Portrush, Newcastle, Portsalon, Dollymount and many 
more of the first class; and there are excellent courses in the Isle of 
Man. In America many fine courses have been constructed. There 
is not a British colony of any standing that is without its golf course 
Australia, India, South Africa, all have their golf championships, 
which are keenly contested. Canada has had courses at Quebec and 
Montreal for many years, and the Calcutta Golf Club, curiously 
enough, is the oldest established (next to the Blackheath Club), the 
next oldest being the club at Pau in the Basses-Pyr<6n6es. 

The Open Championship of golf was started in 1860 by the 
Prestwick Club giving a belt to be played for annually under the 
condition that it should become the property of any who could win 
it thrice in succession. The following is the list of the champions: 

1860. W. Park, Musselburgh . 

1861. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick 

1862. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick 

1863. W. Park, Musselburgh . . 

1864. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick 

1865. A. Strath, St Andrews . 

1866. W. Park, Musselburgh . . 

1867. Tom Morris, sen., St Andrews 



1868. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews 

1869. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews 

1870. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews 



174 at Prestwick. 
163 at Prestwick. 
163 at Prestwick. 
1 68 at Prestwick. 
160 at Prestwick. 
162 at Prestwick. 
169 at Prestwick. 
170 at Prestwick. 
154 at Prestwick. 
157 at Prestwick. 
149 at Prestwick. 



Tom Morris, junior, thus won the belt finally, according to the 
conditions. In 1871 there was no competition; but by 1872 the 
three clubs of St Andrews, Prestwick and Musselburgh had sub- 
scribed for a cup which should be played for over the course of each 
subscribing club successively, but should never become the property 
of the winner. In later years the course at Muirfield was substituted 
for that at Musselburgh, and Hoylake and Sandwich were admitted 
into the list of championship courses. Up to 1891, inclusive, the 
play of two rounds, or thirty-six holes, determined the championship, 
but from 1892 the result has been determined by the play of 72 holes 



222 



GOLF 



After the interregnum of 1871, the following were the champions: 



1872. 

1873- 
1874. 

i87S- 
1876. 
1877. 
1878. 
1879. 
1880. 
1881. 
1882. 
1883. 
1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 
1888. 
1889. 
1890. 
1891. 
1892. 

1893- 
1894. 
1895. 
1896. 
1897. 
1898. 
1899. 
1900. 
1901. 
1902. 
1903. 
1904. 

1905- 
1906. 
1907. 
1908. 
1909. 
1910. 



Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews 
Tom Kidd, St Andrews . . 
Mungo Park, Musselburgh 
Willie Park, Musselburgh 
Bob Martin, St Andrews 
Jamie Anderson, St Andrews 
Jamie Anderson, St Andrews 
Jamie Anderson, St Andrews 
Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh 
Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh 
Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh 
W. Fernie, Dumfries 
Jack Simpson, Carnoustie 
Bob Martin, St Andrews 
D. Brown, Musselburgh . 
Willie Park, iun., Musselburgh 
Jack Burns, Warwick 
Willie Park, jun., Musselburgh 
Mr John Ball, jun., Hoylake 
Hugh Kirkaldy, St Andrews 
Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake . 
W. Auchterlonie, St Andrews 
J. H. Taylor, Winchester 
T. H. Taylor, Winchester 
H. Vardon, Scarborough 
Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake . 
H. Vardon, Scarborough 
H. Vardon, Scarborough 

}. H. Taylor, Richmond 
. Braid, Romford 
A. Herd, Huddersfield . . 
H. Vardon, Ganton 
J. White, Sunningdale 
J. Braid, Walton Heath . . 
J. Braid, Walton Heath . . 
Arnaud Massey, La Boulie 
Braid, Walton Heath 
Taylor, Richmond . 
Walton Heath . . 



/\rnaua iv 
J. Braid, 
J. H. Tay 
J. Braid, 



166 at Prestwick. 
179 at St Andrews. 
159 at Musselburgh. 
1 66 at Prestwick. 
176 at St Andrews. 
1 60 at Musselburgh. 
157 at Prestwick. 
170 at St Andrews. 
162 at Musselburgh. 
170 at Prestwick. 
171 at St Andrews. 
159 at Musselburgh. 
1 60 at Prestwick. 
171 at St Andrews. 
157 at Musselburgh. 
161 at Prestwick. 
171 at St Andrews. 
155 at Musselburgh. 
164 -at Prestwick. 
1 66 at St Andrews. 
305 at Muirfield. 
322 at Prestwick. 
326 at Sandwich. 
322 at St Andrews. 
316 at Muirfield. 
314 at Hoylake. 
307 at Prestwick. 
310 at Sandwich. 
309 at St Andrews. 
309 at Muirfield. 
307 at Hoylake. 
300 at Prestwick. 
296 at Sandwich. 
318 at St Andrews. 
300 at Muirfield. 
312 at Hoylake. 
291 at Prestwick. 
295 at Deal. 
298 at St Andrews. 



The Amateur Championship is of far more recent institution. 



1886. Mr Horace Hutchinson 

1887. Mr Horace Hutchinson 

1888. Mr John Ball .... 

1889. Mr J. E. Laidlay . . . 

1890. Mr John Ball .... 

1891. Mr J. E. Laidlay . . . 

1892. Mr John Ball .... 

1893. Mr P. Anderson .... 

1894. Mr John Ball 

1895. Mr L. Balfour-Melville . 

1896. Mr F. G. Tait .... 

1897. Mr J. T. Allan .... 

1898. Mr John Ball .... 

1899. Mr F. G. Tail .... 

1900. Mr H. H. Hilton 

1901. Mr H. H. Hilton 

1902. Mr C. Hutchings 

1903. Mr R. Maxwell .... 

1904. Mr W. T. Travis 

1905. Mr A. G. Barry 

1906. Mr J. Robb 

1907. Mr John Ball .... 

1908. Mr E. A. Lassen 

1909. Mr Robert Maxwell 

1910. Mr John Ball .... 

The Ladies' Championship was started in 

1893. Lady M. Scott .... 

1894. Lady M. Scott .... 

1895. Lady M. Scott .... 

1896. Miss A. B. Pascoe 

1897. Miss E. C. Orr . . . . 

1898. Miss L. Thompson 

1899. Miss M. Hezlet .... 

1900. Miss R. K. Adair 

1901. Miss M. A. Graham 

1902. Miss M. Hezlet .... 

1903. Miss R. K. Adair 

1904. Miss L. Dod 

1905. Miss B. Thompson . 

1906. Mrs Kennion .... 

1907. Miss M. Hezlet .... 

1908. Miss M. Titterton 

1909. Miss D. Campbell 

1910. Miss Grant Suttie 



at St Andrews, 
at Hoylake. 
at Prestwick. 
at St Andrews, 
at Hoylake. 
at St Andrews, 
at Sandwich, 
at Prestwick. 
at Hoylake. 
at St Andrews, 
at Sandwich, 
at Muirfield. 
at Prestwick. 
at Hoylake. 
at Sandwich, 
at St Andrews, 
at Hoylake. 
at Muirfield. 
at Sandwich, 
at St Andrews, 
at Hoylake. 
at St Andrews, 
at Sandwich, 
at Muirfield. 
at Hoylake. 

1893- 

at St Annes. 
at Littlestone. 
at Portrush. 
at Hoylake. 
at Gullane. 
at Yarmouth, 
at Newcastle, 
at Westward Ho. 
at Aberdovy. 
at Deal, 
at Portrush. 
at Troon. 
at Cromer. 
at Burnham. 
at Newcastle(Co.Down) 
at St Andrews, 
at Birkdale. 
at Westward Ho. 



There have been some' slight changes of detail and arrangement 
as time has gone on, in the rules of the game (the latest edition 



of the Rules should be consulted). A new class of golfer has 
arisen, requiring a code of rules framed rather more exactly 
than the older code. The Scottish golfer, who was " teethed " 
on a golf club, as Mr Andrew Lang has described it, imbibed all 
the traditions of the game with his natural sustenance. Very 
few rules sufficed for him. But when the Englishman, and still 
more the American (less in touch with the traditions), began to 
play golf as a new game, then they began to ask for a code of 
rules that should be lucid and illuminating on every point 
an ideal perhaps impossible to realize. It was found, at least, 
that the code put forward by the Royal and Ancient Club of 
St Andrews did not realize it adequately. Nevertheless the new 
golfers were very loyal indeed to the club that had ever of old 
held, by tacit consent, the position of fount of golfing legislation. 
The Royal and Ancient Club was appealed to by English golfers 
to step into the place, analogous to that of the Marylebone 
Cricket Club in cricket, that they were both willing and anxious 
to give it. It was a place that the Club at St Andrews did not 
in the least wish to occupy, but the honour was thrust so insist- 
ently upon it, 'that there was no declining. The latest effort to 
meet the demands for some more satisfactory legislation on the 
thousand and one points that continually must arise for decision 
in course of playing a game of such variety as golf, consists of 
the appointment of a standing committee, called the " Rules 
of Golf Committee." Its members all belong to the Royal and 
Ancient Club; but since this club draws its membership from 
all parts of the United Kingdom, this restriction is quite con- 
sistent with a very general representation of the views of north, 
south, east and west from Westward Ho and Sandwich to 
Dornoch, and all the many first-rate links of Ireland on the 
committee. Ireland has, indeed, some of the best links in the 
kingdom, and yields to neither Scotland nor England in en- 
thusiasm for the game. This committee, after a general revision 
of the rules into the form in which they now stand, consider 
every month, either by meeting or by correspondence, the 
questions that are sent up to it by clubs or by individuals; and 
the committee's answers to these questions have the force of law 
until they have come before the next general meeting of the 
Royal and Ancient Club at St Andrews, which may confirm or 
may reject them at will. The ladies of Great Britain manage 
otherwise. They have a Golfing Union which settles questions 
for them; but since this union itself accepts as binding the 
answers given by the Rules of Golf Committee, they really arrive 
at the same conclusions by a slightly different path. Nor does the 
American Union, governing the play of men and women alike 
in the States, really act differently. The Americans naturally 
reserve to themselves freedom to make their own rules, but in 
practice they conform to the legislation of Scotland, with the 
exception of a more drastic definition of the status of the amateur 
player, and certain differences as to the clubs used. 

A considerable modification has been effected in theimplements 
of the game. The tendency of the modern wooden clubs is to 
be short in the head as compared with the clubs of, say, 1880 or 
1885. The advantage claimed (probably with justice) for this 
shape is that it masses the weight behind the point on which 
the ball is struck. Better material in the wood of the club is a 
consequence of the increased demand for these articles and the 
increased competition among their makers. Whereas under 
the old conditions a few workers at the few greens then in 
existence were enough to supply the golfing wants, now there 
is a very large industry in golf club and ball making, which not 
only employs workers in the local club-makers' shops all the 
kingdom over, but is an important branch of the commerce of 
the stores and of the big athletic outfitters, both in Great Britain 
and in the United States. By far the largest modification in 
the game since the change to gutta-percha balls from balls 
of leather-covering stuffed with feathers, is due to the American 
invention of the india-rubber cased balls. Practically it is as an 
American invention that it is still regarded, although the British 
law courts decided, after a lengthy trial (1905), that there had 
been " prior users " of the principle of the balls' manufacture, 
and therefore that the patent of Mr Haskell, by whose name the 




GOLF 



223 






balls of the kind were called, was not good. It is singular 

to remark that in the first introduction of the gutta-percha 
balls, superseding the leather and feather compositions, they also 
were called by the name of their first maker, " Gourlay." The 
general mode of manufacture of the rubber-cored ball, which is 
now everywhere in use, is interiorly, a hard core of gutta-percha 
or some other such substance; round this is wound, by 
machinery, india-rubber thread or strips at a high tension, and 
over all is an outer coat of gutta-percha. Some makers have 
tried to dispense with the kernel of hard substance, or to sub- 
stitute for.it kernels of some fluid or gelatinous substance, but 
in general the above is a sufficient, though rough, description of 
the mode of making all these balls. Their superiority over the 
solid gutta-percha lies in their superior resiliency. The effect 
is that they go much more lightly off the club. It is not so much 
in the tee-shots that this superiority is observed, as in the 
second shots, when the ball is lying badly; balls of the rubber- 
cored kind, with their greater liveliness, are more easy to raise 
in the air from a lie of this kind. They also go remarkably well 
off the iron clubs, and thus make the game easier by placing the 
player within an iron shot of the hole at a distance at which he 
would have to use a wooden club if he were playing with a solid 
gutta-percha ball. They also tend to make the game more easy by 
the fact that if they are at all mis-hit they go much better than 
a gutta-percha ball similarly inaccurately struck. As a slight set- 
off against these qualities, the ball.because of the greater liveliness, 
is not quite so good for the short game as the solid ball; but on 
the whole its advantages distinctly overbalance its disadvantages. 

When these balls were first put on the market they were sold 
at two shillings each and even, when the supply was quite 
unequal to the demand, at a greater deal higher price, rising to as 
much as a guinea a ball. But the normal price, until about a 
year after the decision in the British courts of law affirming that 
there was no patent in the balls, was always two shillings for the 
best quality of ball. Subsequently there was a reduction down 
to one shilling for the balls made by many of the manufacturing 
companies, though in 1910 the rise in the price of rubber sent up 
the cost. The rubber-cored ball does not go out of shape so 
quickly as the gutta-percha solid ball and does not show other 
marks of ill-usage with the club so obviously. It has had the 
effect of making the game a good deal easier for the second- and 
third-class players, favouring especially those who were short 
drivers with the old gutta-percha ball. To the best players it has 
made the least difference, nevertheless those who were best with 
the old ball are also best with the new; its effect has merely 
been to bring the second, third and fourth best closer to each 
other and to the best. 

Incidentally, the question of the expense of the game has 
been touched on in this notice of the new balls. There is no 
doubt that the balls themselves tend to a greater economy, not 
only because of their own superior durability but also because, 
as a consequence of their greater resiliency, they are not nearly 
so hard on the clubs, and the clubs themselves being perhaps 
made of better material than used to be given to their manu- 
facture, the total effect is that a man's necessary annual expendi- 
ture on them is very small indeed even though he plays pretty 
constantly. Four or five rounds are not more than the average 
of golfers will make an india-rubber cored ball last them, so that 
the outlay on the weapons is very moderate. On the other 
hand the expenditure of the clubs on their courses has increased 
and tends to increase. Demands are more insistent than they 
used to be for a well kept course, for perfectly mown greens, 
renewed teeing grounds and so on, and probably the modern 
golfer is a good deal more luxurious in his clubhouse wants than 
his father used to be. This means a big staff of servants and 
workers on the green, and to meet this a rather heavy subscription 
is required. Such a subscription as five guineas added to a ten 
or fifteen guinea. entrance fee is not uncommon, and even this is 
very moderate compared with the subscriptions to some of the 
clubs in the United States, where a hundred dollars a year, or 
twenty pounds of our money, is not unusual. But on the whole 
golf is a very economical pastime, as compared with almost 



any other sport or pastime which engages the attention of 
Britons, and it is a pastime for all the year round, and for all 
the life of a man or woman. 

Glossary of Technical Terms used in the Game. 

Addressing the Ball. Putting oneself in position to strike the ball. 

All Square. -Term used to express that the score stands level, 
neither side being a hole up. 

Baff. To strike the ground with the club when playing, and so 
loft the ball unduly. 

Baffy. A short wooden club, with laid-back face, for lofting shots. 

Bogey. The number of strokes which a good average player 
should take to each hole. This imaginary player is usually known 
as " Colonel Bogey," and plays a fine game. 

Brassy. A wooden club with a brass sole. 

Bulger. A driver in which the face " bulges " into a convex shape. 
The head is shorter than in the older-fashioned driver. 

Bunker. A sand-pit. 

Bye. The holes remaining after one side has become more holes up 
than remain for play. 

Caddie. The person who carries the clubs. Diminutive of 
" cad "; cf. laddie (from Fr. cadet). 

Cleek. The iron-headed club that is capable of the farthest drive 
of any of the clubs with iron heads. 

Cup. A depression in the ground causing the ball to lie badly. 

Dead. A ball is said to be " dead " when so near the hole that 
the putting it in in the next stroke is a " dead " certainty. A ball 
is said to " fall dead " when it pitches with hardly any run. 

Divot. A piece of turf cut out in the act of playing, which, be it 
noted, should always be replaced before the player moves on. 

Dormy. One side is said to be " dormy " when it is as many 
holes to the good as remain to be played so that it cannot be 
beaten. 

Driver. The longest driving club, used when the ball lies very 
well and a long shot is needed. 

Foozle. Any very badly missed or bungled stroke. 

" Fore! " A cry of warning to people in front. 

Foursome. A match in which four persons engage, two on each 
side playing alternately with the same ball. 

Green. (a) The links as a whole; (b) the " putting-greens " 
around the holes. 

Grip. (a) The part of the club-shaft which is held in the hands 
while playing; (b) the grasp itself e.g. "a firm grip," "a loose 
grip," are common expressions. 

Half-Shot. A shot played with something less than a full swing. 

Halved. A hole is " halved " when both sides have played it in 
the same number of strokes. A round is " halved " when each side 
has won and lost the same number of holes. 

Handicap. The strokes which a player receives either in match 
play or competition. 

Hanging. Said of a ball that lies on a slope inclining downwards 
in regard to the direction in which it is wished to drive. 

Hazard. A general term for bunker, whin, long grass, roads and 
all kinds of bad ground. 

Heel. To hit the ball on the " heel " of the club, i.e. the part of 
the face nearest the shaft, and so send the ball to the right, with the 
same result as from a slice. 

Honour. The privilege (which its holder is not at liberty to 
decline) of striking off first from the tee. 

Iron. An iron-headed club intermediate between the cleek and 
lofting mashie. There are driving irons and lofting irons according 
to the purposes for which they are intended. 

Lie. (a) The angle of the club-head with the shaft (e.g. a " flat 
lie," " an upright lie ") ; (b) the position of the ball on the ground 
(e.g. " a good lie;" " a bad lie "). 

Like, The. The stroke which makes the player's score equal to 
his opponent's in course of playing a hole. 

Like-as-we-Lie. Said when both sides have played the same 
number of strokes. 

Line. The direction in which the hole towards which the player 
is progressing lies with reference to the present position of his ball. 

Mashie. An iron club with a short head. The lofting mashie has 
the blade much laid back, for playing a short lofting shot. The 
driving mashie has the blade less laid back, and is used for longer, 
less lofted shots. 

Match-Play. Play in which the score is reckoned by holes won 
and lost. 

Medal-Play. Play in which the score is reckoned by the total 
of strokes taken on the round. 

Niblick. -A short stiff club with a short, laid back, iron head, 
used for getting the ball out of a very bad lie. 

Odd, The. A stroke more than the opponent has played. 

Press. To strive to hit harder than you can hit with accuracy. 

Pull. To hit the ball with a pulling movement of the club, so as 
to make it curve to the left. 

Putt. To play the short strokes near the hole (pronounced as in 
" but "). 

Putter. The club used for playing the short strokes near the hole. 
Some have a wooden head, some an iron head. 



224 



GOLIAD GOLIARD 



Rub-of-the-Green. Any chance deflection that the ball receives as 
it goes along. 

Run Up. To send the ball low and close to the ground in 
approaching the hole opposite to lofting it up. 

Scratch Player. Player who receives no odds in handicap com- 
petitions. 

Slice. To hit the ball with a cut across it, so that it flies curving 
to the right. 

Stance. (a) The place on which the player has to stand when 
playing e.g." a bad stance," " a good stance," are common ex- 
pressions ; (6) the position relative to each other of the player's feet. 

Stymie. When one ball lies in a straight line between another and 
the hole the first is sa'id to " stymie," or " to be a stymie to " the 
other from an old Scottish word given by Jamieson to mean " the 
faintest form of anything." The idea probably was, the "stymie" 
only left you the " faintest form " of the hole to aim at. 

Tee. The little mound of sand on which the ball is generally 
placed for the first drive to each hole. 

Teetng-Ground. The place marked as the limit, outside of which 
it is not permitted to drive the ball off. This marked-out ground is 
also sometimes called " the tee." 

Top. To hit the ball above the centre, so that it does not rise 
much from the ground. 

Up. A player is said to be " one up," " two up," &c., when he is so 
many holes to the good of his opponent. 

Wrist-Shot. A shot less in length than a half-shot, but longer than 
a putt. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature of the game has grown to some 
considerable bulk. For many years it was practically comprised in 
the fine work by Mr Robert Clark, Golf: A Royal and Ancient Game, 
together with two handbooks on the game by Mr Chambers and by 
Mr Forgan respectively, and the Golfiana Miscellanea of Mr Stewart. 
A small book by Mr Horace Hutchinspn, named Hints on Golf, was 
very shortly followed by a much more important work by Sir Walter 
Simpson, Bart., called The Art of Golf, a title which sufficiently 
explains itself. The Badminton Library book on Golf attempted to 
collect into one volume the most interesting historical facts known 
about the game, with obiter dicta and advice to learners, and, on 
similar didactic lines, books have been written by Mr H. C. S. 
Everard, Mr Garden Smith and W. Park, the professional player. 
Mr H. J. Whigham, sometime amateur champion golfer of the 
United States, has given us a book about the game in that country. 
The Book of Golf and Golfers, compiled, with assistance, by Mr Horace 
Hutchinson, is in the first place a picture-gallery of famous golfers 
in their respective attitudes of play. Taylor, Vardon and Braid have 
each contributed a volume of instruction, and Mr G. W. Beldam has 
published a book with admirable photographs of players in action, 
called Great Golfers: their Methods at a Glance. A work intended for 
the use of green committees is among the volumes of the Country Life 
Library of Sport. Much interesting lore is contained in the Golfing 
A nnual, in the Golfer's Year Book and in the pages of Golf, which 
has now become Golf Illustrated, a weekly paper devoted to the game. 
Among works that have primarily a local interest, but yet contain 
much of historical value about the game, may be cited the Golf Book 
of East Lothian, by the Rev. John Kerr, and the Chronicle of Black- 
heath Golfers, by Mr W. E. Hughes. (H. G. H.) 

GOLIAD, an unincorporated village and the county-seat of 
Goliad county, Texas, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the San Antonio 
river, 85 m. S.E. of San Antonio. Pop. (1900) about 1700. It 
is served by the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio railway 
(Southern Pacific System). Situated in the midst of a rich 
farming and stock-raising country, Goliad has flour mills, cotton 
gins and cotton-seed oil mills. Here are the interesting ruins of 
the old Spanish mission of La Bahia, which was removed to this 
point from the Guadaloupe river in 1747. During the struggle 
between Mexico and Spain the Mexican leader Bernardo Gutierrez 
(1778-1814) was besieged here. The name Goliad, probably an 
anagram of the name of the Mexican patriot Hidalgo (1753-181 1), 
was first used about 1829. On the outbreak of the Texan War 
of Liberation Goliad was garrisoned by a small force of Mexicans, 
who surrendered to the Texans in October 1835, and ontheaoth 
of December a preliminary " declaration of independence " 
was published here, antedating by several months the official 
Declaration issued at Old Washington, Texas, on the 2nd of 
March 1836. In 1836, when Santa Anna began his advance 
against the Texan posts, Goliad was occupied by a force of about 
350 Americans under Colonel James W. Fannin (c. 1800-1836), 
who was overtaken on the Coletto Creek while attempting to 
carry out orders to withdraw from Goliad and to unite with 
General Houston; he surrendered after a sharp fight (March 
19-20) in which he inflicted a heavy loss on the Mexicans, and 
was marched back with his force to Goliad, where on the morning 
of the 27th of March they were shot down by Santa Anna's 



orders. Goliad was nearly destroyed by a tornado on the igth 
of May 1903. 

GOLIARD, a name applied to those wandering students 
(vagantes) and clerks in England, France and Germany, during 
the 1 2th and I3th centuries, who were better known for their 
rioting, gambling and intemperance than for their scholarship. 
The derivation of the word is uncertain. It may come from 
the Lat. gula, gluttony (Wright), but was connected by them 
with a mythical " Bishop Golias," also called " archipoeta " and 
" primas " especially in Germany in whose name their satirical 
poems were mostly written. Many scholars have accepted 
Budinger's suggestion (fiber einige Reste der Vagantenpoesie in 
Osterreich, Vienna, 1854) that the title of Golias goes back to 
the letter of St Bernard to Innocent II., in which he referred 
to Abelard as Goliath, thus connecting the goliards with the 
keen-witted student adherents of that great medieval critic. 
Giesebrecht and others, however, support the derivation of 
goliard from gaUliard, a gay fellow, leaving " Golias " as the 
imaginary " patron "of their fraternity. 

Spiegel has ingeniously disentangled something of a biography 
of an archipoeta who flourished mainly in Burgundy and at 
Salzburg from 1160 to beyond the middle of the i3th century; 
but the proof of the reality of this individual is not convincing. 
It is doubtful, too, if the jocular references to the rules of the 
" gild " of goliards should be taken too seriously, though their 
aping of the " orders " of the church, especially their contrasting 
them with the mendicants, was too bold for church synods. 
Their satires were almost uniformly directed against the church, 
attacking even the pope. In 1227 the council of Treves forbade 
priests to permit the goliards to take part in chanting the service. 
In 1229 they played a conspicuous part in the disturbances at 
the university of Paris, in connexion with the intrigues of the 
papal legate. During the century which followed they formed 
a subject for the deliberations of several church councils, notably 
in 1289 when it was ordered that " no clerks shall be jongleurs, 
goliards or buffoons," and in 1300 (at Cologne) when they were 
forbidden to preach or engage in the indulgence traffic. This 
legislation was only effective when the " privileges of clergy " 
were withdrawn from the goliards. Those historians who regard 
the middle ages as completely dominated by ascetic ideals, regard 
the goliard movement as a protest against the spirit of the time. 
But it is rather indicative of the wide diversity in temperament 
among those who crowded to the universities in the I3th century, 
and who found in the privileges of the clerk some advantage 
and attraction in the student life. The goliard poems are as 
truly " medieval " as the monastic life which they despised; 
they merely voice another section of humanity. Yet their 
criticism was most keenly pointed, and marks a distinct step 
in the criticism of abuses in the church. 

Along with these satires went many poems in praise of wine 
and riotous living. A remarkable collection of them, now at 
Munich, from the monastery at Benedictbeuren in Bavaria, 
was published by Schmeller (3rd ed., 1895) under the title Carmina 
Burana. Many of these, which form the main part of song-books 
of German students to-day, have been delicately translated by 
John Addington Symonds in a small volume, Wine, Women and 
Song (1884). As Symonds has said, they form a prelude to the 
Renaissance. The poems of " Bishop Golias " were later 
attributed to Walter Mapes, and have been published by Thomas 
Wright in The Latin Poems commonly attributed to Walter Mapes 
(London, 1841). 

The word " goliard " itself outlived these turbulent bands 
which had given it birth, and passed over into French and 
English literature of the I4th century in the general meaning of 
jongleur or minstrel, quite apart from any clerical association. 
It is thus used in Piers Plowman, where, however, the goliard 
still rhymes in Latin,- and in Chaucer. 

See, besides the works quoted above, M. Haezner, Goliardendich- 
tung und die Satire im l^ten Jahrhundert in England (Leipzig, 1905) ; 
Spiegel, Die Vaganten und ihr " Orden " (Spires, 1892) ; -Hubatsch, 
Die lateinischen Vagantenlieder des Mittelalters (Gorlitz, 1870); and 
the article in La grande Encyclopedie. All of these have biblio- 
graphical apparatus. (J. T. S. *) 



GOLIATH GOLITSUIN, V. V. 



225 



GOLIATH, the name of the giant by slaying whom David 
achieved renown (i Sam. xvii.). The Philistines had come up to 
make war against Saul and, as the rival camps lay opposite each 
other, this warrior came forth day by day to challenge to single 
combat. Only David ventured to respond, and armed with a 
sling and pebbles he overcame Goliath. The Philistines, seeing 
their champion killed, lost heart and were easily put to flight. 
The giant's arms were placed in the sanctuary, and it was his 
famous sword which David took with him in his flight from Saul 
(i Sam. xxi. 1-9). From another passage we learn that Goliath 
of Gath, " the shaft of whose spear was like a weaver's beam," 
was slain by a certain Elhanan of Bethlehem in one of David's 
conflicts with the Philistines (2 Sam. xxi. 18-22) the parallel 
i Chron. xx. 5, avoids the contradiction by reading the " brother 
of Goliath." But this old popular story has probably preserved 
the more original tradition, and if Elhanan is the son of Dodo 
in the list of David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 9, 24), the 
resemblance between the two names may have led to the trans- 
ference. The narratives of David's early life point to some 
exploit by means of which he gained the favour of Saul, Jonathan 

and Israel, but the absence of all reference to his achieve- 
ment in the subsequent chapters (i Sam. xxi. n, xxix. 5) 
is evidence of the relatively late origin of a tradition which 
in course of time became one of the best-known incidents in 
David's life (Ps. cxliv., LXX. title, the apocryphal Ps.cli./Ecclus. 
xlvii. 4). 

See DAVID; SAMUEL (BOOKS) and especially Cheyne, Aids and 
Devout Study of Criticism, pp. 80 sqq., 125 sqq. In the old Egyptian 
romance of Sinuhit (ascribed to about 2000 B.C.), the story of the 
slaying of the Bedouin hero has several points of resemblance with that 
of David and Goliath. See L. B. Paton, Hist, of Syr. and Pal. p. 60 ; 
A. Jeremias, Das A.T. im Lichte d. alien Orients, 2nd ed. pp. 299, 491 ; 
A. K. S. Kennedy, Century Bible: Samuel, p. 122, argues that David's 
Philistine adversary was originally nameless, in i Sam. xvii. he is 
named only in . 4. 

GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH (1654-1714), Russian 
statesman, came of a princely family, claiming descent from 
Prince Gedimin of Lithuania. Earlier members of .the family 
were Mikhail (d. c. 1552), a famous soldier, and his great-grandson 
Vasily Vasilevich (d. 1 6 1 9) , who was sent as ambassador to Poland 
to offer the Russian crown to Prince Ladislaus. Boris became 
court chamberlain in 1676. He was the young tsar Peter's chief 
supporter when, in 1689, Peter resisted the usurpations of his 
elder sister Sophia, and the head of the loyal council which 
assembled at the Troitsa monastery during the crisis of the struggle. 
Golitsuin it was who suggested taking refuge in that strong 
fortress and won over the boyars of the opposite party. In 1690 
he was created a boyar and shared with Lev Naruishkin, Peter's 

I uncle, the conduct of home affairs. After the death of the 
tsaritsa Natalia, Peter's mother, in 1694, his influence increased 
still further. He accompanied Peter to the White Sea (1694- 
1695); took part in the Azov campaign (1695); and was one of 
the triumvirate who ruled Russia during Peter's first foreign 
tour (1697-1698). The Astrakhan rebellion (1706), which affected 
all the districts under his government, shook Peter's confidence 
in him, and seriously impaired his position. In 1707 he was 
superseded in the Volgan provinces by Andrei Matvyeev. A 

I year before his death he entered a monastery. Golitsuin was a 
typical representative of Russian society of the end of the i;th 
century in its transition from barbarism to civilization. In 
many respects he was far in advance of his. age. He was highly 
educated, spoke Latin with graceful fluency, frequented the society 
of scholars and had his children carefully educated according 
to the best European models. Yet this eminent, this superior 
personage was an habitual drunkard, an uncouth savage who 
intruded upon the hospitality of wealthy foreigners, and was not 
ashamed to seize upon any dish he took a fancy to, and send it 
home to his wife. It was his reckless drunkenness which 
ultimately ruined him in the estimation of Peter the Great, 
despite his previous inestimable services. 

See S. Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.), vol. xiv. (Moscow, 1858) ; 
R. N. Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905). (R. N. B.) 

GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH (1665-1737), 
Russian statesman, was sent in 1697 to Italy to learn " military 

xn.8 



affairs "; in 1704 he was appointed to the command of an 
auxiliary corps. in Poland against Charles XII.; from 1711 to 
1 7 1 8 he was governor of Byelogorod. In 1 7 18 he was appointed 
president of the newly erected Kammer Kollegium and a senator. 
In May 1723 he was implicated in the disgrace of the vice- 
chancellor Shafirov and was deprived of all his offices and 
dignities, which he only recovered through the mediation of the 
empress Catherine I. After the death of Peter the Great, 
Golitsuin became the recognized head of the old Conservative 
party which had never forgiven Peter for putting away Eudoxia 
and marrying the plebeian Martha Skavronskaya. But the 
reformers, as represented by Alexander Menshikov and Peter 
Tolstoi, prevailed; and Golitsuin remained in the background 
till the fall of Menshikov, 1727. Duringthe last years of Peter II. 
(1728-1730), Golitsuin was the most prominent statesman in 
Russia and his high aristocratic theories had full play. On the 
death of Peter II. he conceived the idea of limiting the autocracy 
by subordinating it to the authority of the supreme privy council, 
of which he was president. He drew up a form of constitution 
which Anne of Courland, the newly elected Russian empress, 
was forced to sign at Mittau before being permitted to proceed to 
St Petersburg. Anne lost no time in repudiating this constitution, 
and never forgave its authors. Golitsuin was left in peace, how- 
ever, and lived for the most part in retirement, till 1736, when he 
was arrested on suspicion of being concerned in the conspiracy 
of his son-in-law Prince Constantine Cantimir. This, however, 
was a mere pretext, it was for his anti-monarchical sentiments 
that he was really prosecuted. A court, largely composed of 
his antagonists, condemned him to death, but the empress 
reduced the sentence to lifelong imprisonment in Schliisselburg 
and confiscation of all his estates. He died in his prison on the 
I4th of April 1737, after three months of confinement. 

See R. N. Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (London, 1897) 

(R. N. B.) 

GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH (1643-1714), Russian 
statesman, spent his early days at the court of Tsar Alexius 
where he gradually rose to the rank of boyar. In 1676 he was 
sent to the Ukraine to keep in order the Crimean Tatars and 
took part in the Chigirin campaign. Personal experience of the 
inconveniences and dangers of the prevailing system of prefer- 
ment, the so-called myestnichestvo, or rank priority, which had 
paralysed the Russian armies for centuries, induced him to pro- 
pose its abolition, which was accomplished by Tsar Theodore III. 
(1678). The May revolution of 1682 placed Golitsuin at the 
head of the Posolsky Prikaz, or ministry of foreign affairs, and 
during the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, whose 
lover he became, he was the principal minister of state (1682- 
1689) and " keeper of the great seal," a title bestowed upon 
only two Russians before him, Athonasy Orduin-Nashchokin 
and Artamon Matvyeev. In home affairs his influence was 
insignificant, but his foreign policy was distinguished by the 
peace with Poland in 1683, whereby Russia at last recovered 
Kiev. By the terms of the same treaty, he acceded to the 
grand league against the Porte, but his two expeditions against 
the Crimea (1687 and 1689), " the First Crimean War," were 
unsuccessful and made him extremely unpopular. Only with the 
utmost difficulty could Sophia get the young tsar Peter to 
decorate the defeated commander-in-chief as if he had returned 
a victor. In the^civil war between Sophia and Peter (August- 
September 1689), Golitsuin half-heartedly supported his mistress 
and shared her ruin. His life was spared owing to the supplica- 
tions of his cousin Boris, but he was deprived of his boyardom, 
his estates were confiscated and he was banished successively to 
Kargopol, Mezen and Kologora, where he died on the 2ist of 
April 1 7 14. Golitsuin was unusually well educated. He under- 
stood German and Greek as well as his mother-tongue, and could 
express himself fluently in Latin. He was a great friend of 
foreigners, who generally alluded to him as " the great Golitsuin." 

His brother MIKHAIL (1674-1730) was a celebrated soldier, who 
is best known for his governorship of Finland (1714-1721), where 
his admirable qualities earned the remembrance of the people 
whom he had conquered. And Mikhail's son Alexander (1718- 



226 



GOLIUS GOLTZ, B. 



1783) was a diplomat and soldier, who rose to be field-marshal 
and governor of St Petersburg. 

See R. N. Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905); A. 
Bruckner, Fiirst Golizin (Leipzig, 1887); S. Solovev, History of 
Russia (Rus.), vols. xiii.-xiv. (Moscow, 1858, &c.). (R. N. B.) 

GOLIUS or (GoHL), JACOBUS (1596-1667), Dutch Orientalist, 
was born at the Hague in 1596 , and studied at the university of 
Leiden, where in Arabic and other Eastern languages he was the 
most distinguished pupil of Erpenius. In 1622 he accompanied 
the Dutch embassy to Morocco, and on his return he was chosen 
to succeed Erpenius (1624). In the following year he set out on a 
Syrian and Arabian tour from which he did not return until 1629. 
The remainder of his life was spent at Leiden where he held the 
chair of mathematics as well as that of Arabic. He died on the 
a8th of September 1667. 

His most important work is the Lexicon Arabico-Latinum, fol., 
Leiden, 1653, which, based on the Sihah of Al-Jauhari, was only 
superseded by the corresponding work of Freytag. Among his earlier 
publications may be mentioned editions of various Arabic texts 
(Proverbia quaedam Alis, imperatoris Muslemici, et Carmen Tograi- 
poetae doctissimi, necnpn dissertatio quaedam Aben Synae, 1629; and 
Ahmedis Arabsiadae vitae et rerum gestarum Timuri, qui vulgo Tamer, 
lanes dicitur, historia, 1636). In 1656 he published a new edition, 
with considerable additions, of the Grammatica Arabica of Erpenius. 
After his death, there was found among his papers a Dictionarium 
Persico-Latinum which was published, with additions, by Edmund 
Castell in his Lexicon heptaglolton (1669). Golius also edited, trans- 
lated and annotated the astronomical treatise of Alfragan (Muham- 
medis, filii Ketiri Ferganensis, qui vulgo Alfraganus dicitur, elementa 
astronomica Arabice et Latine, 1669). 

GOLLNOW, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Pomerania, on the right bank of the Ihna, 14 m. N.N.E. of Stettin, 
with which it has communication by rail and steamer. Pop. 
(1905) 8539. It possesses two Evangelical churches, a synagogue 
and some small manufactures. Gollnow was founded in 1190, 
and was raised to the rank of a town in 1 268. It was for a time 
a Hanse town, and came into the possession of Prussia in 1720, 
having belonged to Sweden since 1648. 

GOLOSH, or GALOSH (from the Fr. galoche, Low Lat. calopedcs, 
a wooden shoe or clog; an adaptation of the Gr. /caXorroStoi', 
a diminutive formed of KaXov, wood, and TroOs, foot), originally 
a wooden shoe or patten, or merely a wooden sole fastened to 
the foot by a strap or cord. In the middle ages " galosh " was a 
general term for a boot or shoe, particularly one with a wooden 
sole. In modern usage, it is an outer shoe worn in bad weather 
to protect the inner one, and keep the feet dry. Goloshes are 
now almost universally made of rubber, and in the United States 
they are known as " rubbers " simply, the word golosh being 
rarely if ever used. In the bootmakers' trade, a " golosh " 
is the piece of leather, of a make stronger than, or different from 
that of the " uppers, " which runs around the bottom part of a 
boot or shoe, just above the sole. 

GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH, COUNT (d. 1706), 
Russian statesman, learnt, like so many of his countrymen in 
later times, the business of a ruler in the Far East. During the 
regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, he was sent to the 
Amur to defend the new Muscovite fortress of Albazin against 
the Chinese. In 1689 he concluded with the Celestial empire the 
treaty of Nerchinsk, by which the line of the Amur, as far as its 
tributary the Gorbitsa, was retroceded to China because of the 
impossibility of seriously defending it. In Peter's grand embassy 
to the West in 1697 Golovin occupied the second place 
immediately after Lefort. It was his chief duty to hire foreign 
sailors and obtain everything necessary for the construction and 
complete equipment of a fleet. On Lefort's death, in March 1699, 
he succeeded him as admiral-general. The same year he was 
created the first Russian count, and was also the first to be 
decorated with the newly-instituted Russian order of St Andrew. 
The conduct of foreign affairs was at the same time entrusted 
to him, and from 1699 to his death he was "the premier minister 
of the tsar." Golovin's first achievement as foreign minister was 
to supplement the treaty of Carlowitz, by which peace with 
Turkey had only been secured for three years, by concluding with 
the Porte a new treaty at Constantinople (June 13, 1700), by 
which the term of the peace was extended to thirty years and, 



besides other concessions, the Azov district and a strip of territory 
extending thence to Kuban were ceded to Russia. He also 
controlled, with consummate ability, the operations of the 
brand-new Russian diplomatists at the various foreign courts. 
His superiority over all his Muscovite contemporaries was due 
to the fact that he was already a statesman, in the modern sense, 
while they were still learning the elements of statesmanship. 
His death was an irreparable loss to the tsar, who wrote upon the 
despatch announcing it, the words " Peter filled with grief." 

See R. N. Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905). (R. N. B.) 

GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH, CODNT (1660-1734), 
Russian statesman, was attached (1677), while still a lad, to the 
court of the tsarevitch Peter, afterwards Peter the Great, with 
whose mother Natalia he was connected, and vigilantly guarded 
him during the disquieting period of the regency of Sophia, 
sister of Peter the Great (1682-1689). He accompanied the 
young tsar abroad on his first foreign tour, and worked by his 
side in the dockyards of Saardam. In 1 706 he succeeded Golovin 
in the direction of foreign affairs, and was created the first Russian 
grand-chancellor on the field of Poltava (1709). Golovkin held 
this office for twenty-five years. In the reign of Catherine I. 
he became a member of the supreme privy council which had 
the chief conduct of affairs during this and the succeeding reigns. 
The empress also entrusted him with her last will whereby she 
appointed the young Peter II. her successor and Golovkin one 
of his guardians. On the death of Peter II. in 1730 he declared 
openly in favour of Anne, duchess of Courland, in opposition 
to the aristocratic Dolgorukis and Golitsuins, and his determined 
attitude on behalf of autocracy was the chief cause of the failure 
of the proposed constitution, which would have converted Russia 
into a limited monarchy. Under Anne he was a member of the 
first cabinet formed in Russia, but had less influence in affairs than 
Ostermann and Miinnich. In 1707 he was created a count of 
the Holy Roman empire, and in 1710 a count of the Russian 
empire. He was one of the wealthiest, and at the same time 
one of the .stingiest, magnates of his day. His ignorance of any 
language but his own made his intercourse with foreign ministers 
very inconvenient. 

See R. N. Bain, Tlie Pupils of Peter the Great (London, 1897). 

(R. N. B.) 

GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH (1776-1831), Russian 
vice-admiral, was born on the 2oth of April 1776 in the village 
of Gulynki in the province of Ryazan, and received his education 
at the Cronstadt naval school. From 1801 to 1806 he served as 
a volunteer in the English navy. In 1807 he was commissioned 
by the Russian government to survey the coasts of Kamchatka 
and of Russian America, including also the Kurile Islands. 
Golovnin sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and on the 5th of 
October 1809, arrived in Kamchatka. In 1810, whilst attempting 
to survey the coast of the island of Kunashiri, he was seized by 
the Japanese, and was retained by them as a prisoner, until the 
i3th of October 1813, when he was liberated, and in the following 
year he returned to St Petersburg. Soon after this the govern- 
ment planned another expedition, which had for its object the 
circumnavigation of the globe by a Russian ship, and Golovnin 
was appointed to the command. He started from St Petersburg 
on the 7th of September 1817, sailed round Cape Horn, and 
arrived in Kamchatka in the following May. He returned to 
Europe by way of the Cape of Good Hope, and landed at St 
Petersburg on the I7th of September 1819. He died on the I2th 
of July 1831. 

Golovnin published several works, of which the following are the 
most important: Journey to Kamchatka (2 vols., 1819); Journey 
Round the World (2 vols., 1822); and Narrative of my Captivity in 
Japan, 1811-1813 ( 2 vols., 1816). The last has been translated into 
French, German and English, the English edition being in three 
volumes (1824). A complete edition of his works was published at 
St Petersburg in five volumes in 1864, with maps and charts, and a 
biography of the author by N. Grech. 

GOLTZ, BOGUMIL (1801-1870), German humorist and 
satirist, was born at Warsaw on the 2oth of March 1801. After 
attending the classical schools of Marienwerder and Konigsberg, 
he learnt farming on an estate near Thorn, and in 1821 entered 
the university of Breslau as a student of philosophy. But he 



GOLTZ, C. GOLUCHOWSKI 



227 



soon abandoned an academical career, and, after returning for 
a. while to country life, retired to the small town of Gollub 
where he devoted himself to literary studies. In 1847 he settlec 
at Thorn, " the home of Copernicus," where he died on the i2th 

of November 1870. Goltz is best known to literary fame by his 
Buck der Kindheit (Frankfort, 1847; 4th ed., Berlin, 1877), in 
which, after the style of Jean Paul, and Adalbert Stifter, but 
with a more modern realism, he gives a charming and idyllic 
description of the impressions of his own childhood. Among hi: 
other works must be noted Ein Jugendleben (1852); Der Mensch 
und die Leule (1858); Zur Charakterislik und Nalurgeschichte 
der Frauen (1859) ; Zur Geschichte und Charakteristik des deutschen 
Genius (1864), and Die Weltklugheit und die Lebensweisheit 
(1869). 

Goltz's works have not been collected, but a selection will be found 
in Reclam's Universalbibliothek (ed. by P. Stein, 1901 and 1906). 
See O. Roquette, Siebzig Jahre, i. (1894). 

GOLTZ, COLMAR, FREIHERR VON DER (1843- ), 
Prussian soldier and military writer, was born at Bielkenfeld, 
East Prussia, on the I2th of August 1843, an d entered the 
Prussian infantry in 1861. In 1864 he entered the Berlin 
Military Academy, but was temporarily withdrawn in 1866 to 
serve in the Austrian war, in which he was wounded at Trautenau. 
In 1867 he joined the topographical section of the general staff, 
and at the beginning of the Franco-German War of 1870-71 
was attached to the staff of Prince Frederick Charles. He took 
part in the battles of Vionville and Gravelotte and in the siege 
of Metz. After its fall he served under the Red Prince in the 
campaign of the Loire, including the battles of Orleans and Le 
Mans. He was appointed in 187 1 professor at the military school 
at Potsdam, and the same year was promoted captain and placed 
in the historical section of the general staff. It was then he 
wrote Die Operationen der II. Armee bis zur Capitulation von 
Metz and Die Sieben Tage von Le Mans, both published in 1873. 
In 1874 he was appointed to the staff of the 6th division, and 
while so employed wrote Die Operationen der II. Armee an der 
Loire and Leon Gambetta und seine Armeen, published in 1875 
and 1877 respectively. The latter was translated into French 
the same year, and both are impartially written. The views 
expressed in the latter work led to his being sent back to regi- 
mental duty for a time, but it was not long before he returned 
to the military history section. In 1878 von der Goltz was 
appointed lecturer in military history at the military academy 
at Berlin, where he remained for five years and attained the rank 
of major. He published, in 1883, Rossbach und Jena, (new and 
revised edition, Von Rossbach bis Jena und Auerstddt, 1906), 
Das Volk in Wa/en (English translation The Nation in Arms), 
both of which quickly became military classics, and during his 
residence in Berlin contributed many articles to the military 
journals. In June 1883 his services were lent to Turkey to 
reorganize the military establishments of the country. He spent 
twelve years in this work, the result of which appeared in the 
Greco-Turkish War of 1897, and he was made a pasha and in 

1895 a mushir or field-marshal. On his return to Germany in 

1896 he became a lieutenant-general and commander of the 5th 
division, and in 1898, head of the Engineer and Pioneer Corps 
and inspector-general of fortifications. In 1900 he was made 
general of infantry and in 1902 commander of the I. army corps. 
In 1907 he was made inspector-general of the newly created 
sixth army inspection established at Berlin, and in 1908 was 
given the rank of colonel-general (Generalobersf). 

In addition to the works already named and frequent contribu- 
tions to military periodical literature, he wrote Kriegfuhrung (1895, 
later edition Krieg- und Heerfuhrung, 1901 ; Eng. trans. The Conduct 
of War); Der thessalische Krieg (Berlin, 1898); Ein Ausflng nach 
Macedonien (1894); Anatolische Ausfluge (1896); a map and de- 
scription of the environs of Constantinople; Von Jena bis Pr. Eylau 
U907), a most important historical work, carrying on the story of 
Rossbach und Jena to the peace of Tilsit, &c. 

GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK (1558-1617), Dutch painter and 
engraver, was born in 1558 at Mulebrecht, in the duchy of 
Jiilich. After studying painting on glass for some years under 
his father, he was taught the use of the burin by Dirk Volkertsz 
Coornlert, a Dutch engraver of mediocre attainment, whom he 



soon surpassed, but who retained his services for his own 
advantage. He was also employed by Philip Galle to engrave a 
set of prints of the history of Lucretia. At the age of twenty-one 
he married a widow somewhat advanced in years, whose money 
enabled him to establish at Haarlem an independent business; 
but his unpleasant relations with her so affected his health that 
he found it advisable in 1590 to make a tour through Germany 
to Italy, where he acquired an intense admiration for the works 
of Michelangelo, which led him to surpass that master in the 
grotesqueness and extravagance of his designs. He returned 
to Haarlem considerably improved in health, and laboured there 
at his art till his death, on the ist of January 1617. Goltzius 
ought not to be judged chiefly by the works he valued most, 
his eccentric imitations of Michelangelo. His portraits, though 
mostly miniatures, are master-pieces of their kind, both on 
account of their exquisite finish, and as fine studies of individual 
character. Of his larger heads, the life-size portrait of himself 
is probably the most striking example. His " master-pieces," 
so called from their being attempts to imitate the style of the 
old masters, have perhaps been overpraised. In his command 
of the burin Goltzius is not surpassed even by Diirer; but his 
technical skill is often unequally aided by higher artistic qualities. 
Even, however, his eccentricities and extravagances are greatly 
counterbalanced by the beauty and freedom of his execution. 
He began painting at the age of forty-two, but none of his 
works in this branch of art some of which are in the imperial 
collection at Vienna display any special excellences. He 
also executed a few pieces in chiaroscuro. 

His prints amount to more than 300 plates, and are fully described 
in Bartsch's Peintre-graveur, and Weigel's supplement to the same 
work. 

GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR, COUNT (1840- ), Austrian 
statesman, was born on the 25th of March 1849. His father, 
descended from an old and noble Polish family, was governor 
of Galicia. Entering the diplomatic service, the son was in 
1872 appointed attache to the Austrian embassy at Berlin, 
where he became secretary of legation, and thence he was 
transferred to Paris. After rising to the rank of counsellor of 
legation, h'e was in 1887 made minister at Bucharest, where he 
remained till 1893. In these positions he acquired a great 
reputation as a firm and skilful diplomatist, and on the retirement 
of Count Kalnoky in May 1895 was chosen to succeed him as 
Austro-Hungarian minister for foreign affairs. The appointment 
of a Pole caused some surprise in view of the importance of 
Austrian relations with Russia(then rather strained)and Germany, 
but the choice was justified by events. In his speech of that 
year to the delegations he declared the maintenance of the Triple 
Alliance, and in particular the closest intimacy with Germany, 
to be the keystone of Austrian policy; at the same time he 
dwelt on the traditional friendship between Austria and Great 
Britain, and expressed his desire for a good understanding with 
all the powers. In pursuance of this policy he effected an under- 
standing with Russia, by which neither power was to exert any 
separate influence in the Balkan peninsula, and thus removed 
a long-standing cause of friction. This understanding was 
formally ratified during a visit to St Petersburg on which he 
accompanied the emperor in April 1897. He took the lead in 
establishing the European concert during the Armenian troubles 
of 1896, and again resisted isolated action on the part of any of 
the great powers during the Cretan troubles and the Greco- 
Turkish War. In November 1897, when the Austro-Hungarian 
lag was insulted at Mersina, he threatened to bombard the 
town if instant reparation were not made, and by his firm 
attitude greatly enhanced Austrian prestige in the East. In his 
speech to the delegations in 1898 he dwelt on the necessity of 
expanding Austria's mercantile marine, and of raising the fleet 
to a strength which, while not vying with the fleets of the great 
laval powers, would ensure respect for the Austrian flag wherever 
ler interests needed protection. He also hinted at the necessity 
or European combination to resist American competition. 
The understanding with Russia in the matter of the Balkan 
States temporarily endangered friendly relations with Italy, 



228 



GOMAL GOMER 



who thought her interests threatened, until Goluchowski 
guaranteed in 1898 the existing order. He further encouraged 
a good understanding with Italy by personal conferences with 
the Italian foreign minister, Tittoni, in 1904 and 1905. Count 
Lamsdorff visited Vienna in December 1902, when arrangements 
were made for concerted action in imposing on the sultan reforms 
in the government of Macedonia. Further steps were taken after 
Goluchowski's interview with the tsar at Miirzsteg in 1903, and 
two civil agents representing the countries were appointed for 
two years to ensure the execution of the promised reforms. This 
period was extended in 1905, when Goluchowski was the chief 
mover in forcing the Porte, by an international naval demonstra- 
tion at Mitylene, to accept financial control by the powers in 
Macedonia. At the conference assembled at Algeciras to settle 
the Morocco Question, Austria supported the German position, 
and after the close of the conferences the emperor William II. 
telegraphed to Goluchowski: " You have proved yourself a 
brilliant second on the duelling ground and you may feel certain 
of like services from me in similar circumstances." This pledge 
was redeemed in 1908, when Germany's support of Austria in 
the Balkan crisis proved conclusive. By the Hungarians, 
however, Goluchowski was hated; he was suspected of having 
inspired the emperor's opposition to the use of Magyar in the 
Hungarian army, and was made responsible for the slight 
offered to the Magyar deputation by Francis Joseph in September 
1905. So long as he remained in office there was no hope of 
arriving at a settlement of a matter which threatened the dis- 
ruption of the Dual monarchy, and on the nth of October 1906 
he was forced to resign. ' ' 

GOMAL, or GUMAL, the name of a river of Afghanistan, and of 
a mountain pass on the Dera Ismail Khan border of the North- 
West Frontier Province of British India. The Gomal river, one 
of the most important rivers in Afghanistan, rises in the un- 
explored regions to the south-east of Ghazni. Its chief tributary 
is the Zhob. Within the limits of British territory the Gomal 
forms the boundary between the North- West Frontier Province 
and Baluchistan, and more or less between the Pathan and 
Baluch races. The Gomal pass is the most important pass on 
the Indian frontier between the Khyber and the Bolan. It 
connects Dera Ismail Khan with the Gomal valley in Afghanistan, 
and has formed for centuries the outlet for the povindah trade. 
Until the year 1889 this pass was almost unknown to the Anglo- 
Indian official; but in that year the government of India 
decided that, in order to maintain the safety of the railway 
as well as to perfect communication between Quetta and the 
Punjab, the Zhob valley should, like the Bori valley, be brought 
under British protection and control, and the Gomal pass should 
be opened. After the Waziristan expedition of 1894 Wana was 
occupied by British troops in order to dominate the Gomal and 
Waziristan; but on the formation of the North- West Frontier 
Province in 1901 it was decided to replace these troops by the 
South Waziristan militia, who now secure the safety of the 
pass. 

GOHARUS, FRANZ (1563-1641), Dutch theologian, was born 
at Bruges on the 3Oth of January 1563. His parents, having 
embraced the principles of the Reformation, emigrated to the 
Palatinate in 1578, in order to enjoy freedom to profess their 
new faith, and they sent their son to be educated at Strassburg 
under Johann Sturm (1507-1589). He remained there three 
years, and then went in 1580 to Neustadt, whither the professors 
of Heidelberg had been driven by the elector-palatine because 
they were not Lutherans. Here his teachers in theology were 
Zacharius Ursinus (1534-1583), Hieronymus Zanchius (1560- 
1590), and Daniel Tossanus (1541-1602). Crossing to England 
towards the end of 1582, he attended the lectures of John Rainolds 
(1540-1607) at Oxford, and those of William Whitaker (1548- 
1595) at Cambridge. He graduated at Cambridge in 1584, and 
then went to Heidelberg, where the faculty had been by this time 
re-established. He was pastor of a Reformed Dutch church in 
Frankfort from 1587 till 1593, when the congregation was 
dispersed by persecution. In 1594 he was appointed professor 
of theology at Leiden, and before going thither received from 



the university of Heidelberg the degree of doctor. He taught 
quietly at Leiden till 1603, when Jakobus Arminius came to be 
one of his colleagues in the theological faculty, and began to 
teach Pelagian doctrines and to create a new party in the uni- 
versity. Gomarus immediately set himself earnestly to oppose 
these views in his classes at college, and was supported by 
Johann B. Bogermann (1570-1637), who afterwards became 
professor of theology at Franeker. Arminius " sought to make 
election dependent upon faith, whilst they sought to enforce 
absolute predestination as the rule of faith, according to which 
the whole Scriptures are to be interpreted " (J. A. Dorner, 
History of Protestant Theology, i. p. 417). Gomarus then became 
the leader of the opponents of Arminius, who from that circum- 
stance came to be known as Gomarists. He engaged twice in 
personal disputation with Arminius in the assembly of the 
estates of Holland in 1608, and was one of five Gomarists who 
met five Arminians or Remonstrants in the same assembly of 
1609. On the death of Arminius shortly after this time, Konrad 
Vorstius (1560-1622), who sympathized with his views, was 
appointed to succeed him, in spite of the keen opposition of 
Gomarus and his friends; and Gomarus took his defeat so ill 
that he resigned his post, and went to Middleburg in 1611, where 
he became preacher at the Reformed church, and taught theology 
and Hebrew in the newly founded Illustre Schule. From this 
place he was called in 1614 to a chair of theology at Saumur, 
where he remained four years, and then accepted a call as 
professor of theology and Hebrew to Groningen, where he stayed . 
till his death on the nth of January 1641. He took a leading 
part in the synod of Dort, assembled in 1618 to judge of the 
doctrines of Arminius. He was a man of ability, enthusiasm 
and learning, a considerable Oriental scholar, and also a keen 
controversialist. He took part in revising the Dutch translation 
of the Old Testament in 1633, and after his death a book by him, 
called the Lyra Davidis, was published, which sought to explain 
the principles of Hebrew metre, and which created some con- 
troversy at the time, having been opposed by Louis Cappel. 
His works were collected and published in one volume folio, 
in Amsterdam in 1645. He was succeeded at Groningen in 1643 
by his pupil Samuel Maresius (1599-1673). 

GOMBERVILLE, MARIN LE ROY, SIEUE DU PARC EX DE 
(1600-1674), French novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born 
at Paris in 1600. At fourteen years of age he wrote a volume 
of verse, at twenty a Discours sur I'histoire and at twenty-two 
a pastoral, La Carithfe, which is really a novel. The persons in 
it, though still disguised as shepherds and shepherdesses, repre- 
sent real persons for whose identification the author himself 
provides a key. This was followed by a more ambitious attempt, 
Polexandre (5 vols. 1632-1637). The hero wanders through the 
world in search of the island home of the princess Alcidiane. 
It contains much history and geography; the travels of Polex- 
andre extending to such unexpected places as Benin, the Canary 
Islands, Mexico and the Antilles, and incidentally we learn all that 
was then known of Mexican history. CylMree (4 vols.) appeared 
in 1630-1642, and in 1651 the Jeune Alcidiane, intended to undo 
any harm the earlier novels may have done, for Gomberville 
became a Jansenist and spent the last twenty-five years of his 
life in pious retirement. He was one of the earliest and most 
energetic members of the Academy. He died in Paris on the 
I4th of June 1674. 

GOMER, the biblical name of a race appearing in the table 
of nations (Gen. x. 2), as the " eldest son " of Japheth and the 
" father " of Ashkenaz, Riphath and Togarmah ; and in Ezek. 
xxxviii. 6 as a companion of " the house of Togarmah in the 
uttermost parts of the north," and an ally of Gog; both Corner 
and Togarmah being credited with " hordes," J E.V., i.e. 
" bands " or " armies." The " sons " of Corner are probably 
tribes of north-east Asia Minor and Armenia, and Corner is 
identified with the Cimmerians. These are referred to in cunei- 
form inscriptions under the Assyrian name gimmira (gimirrai) 
as raiding Asia Minor from the north and north-east of the Black 

1 ] Agaph, a word peculiar to Ezekiel, Clarendon Press Heb. 
Lex. 



GOMERA GOMM 



229 



ea, and overrunning Lydia in the 7th century B. c. (see 
ZIMMERII, SCYTHIA, LYDIA). They do not seem to have made 
ny permanent settlements, unless some such are indicated by 
the fact that the Armenians called Cappadocia Gamir. It is, 
however, suggested that this name is borrowed from the Old 
Testament. 1 

The name Corner (Corner bath Diblaim) was also borne by the 
unfaithful wife of Hosea, whom he pardoned and took back (Hosea 
i. 3). Hosea uses these incidents as symbolic of the sin, punishment 
and redemption of Israel, but there is no need to regard Comer as a 
purely imaginary person. (W. H. BE.) 

GOMERA, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of 
the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop. 
(1900) 15,358; area 144 sq. m. Gomera lies 20 m. W.S.W. of 
Teneriffe. Its greatest length is about 23 m. The coast is 
precipitous and the interior mountainous, but Gomera has the 
most wood and is the best watered of the group. The inhabitants 
are very poor. Dromedaries are bred on Gomera in large 
numbers. San Sebastian (3187) is the chief town and a port. 
It was visited by Columbus on his first voyage of discovery in 
1492. 

GOMEZ, DIOGO (DIEGO) (fl. 1440-1482), Portuguese seaman, 
explorer and writer. We first trace him as a cavalleiro of the 
royal household; in 1440 he was appointed receiver of the royal 
customs in 1466 judge at Cintra (juiz das causas e feitorias 
contadas de Cintra); on the 5th of March 1482 he was confirmed 
in the last-named office. He wrote, especially for the benefit 
of Martin Behaim, a Latin chronicle of great value, dealing with 
the life and discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator, and 
divided into three parts: (i) De prima inventione Guineae; 
(2) De instills primo inventis in mare (sic) Occidentis; (3) De 
inventione insularum de Azores. This chronicle contains the 
only contemporary account of the rediscovery of the Azores 
by the Portuguese in Prince Henry's service, and is also note- 
worthy for its clear ascription to the prince of deliberate scientific 
and commercial purpose in exploration. For, on the one hand, 
the infante sent out his caravels to search for new lands (ad 
quacrendas terras) from his wish to know the more distant parts 
of the western ocean, and in the hope of finding islands or terra 
firma beyond the limits laid down by Ptolemy (ultra descrip- 
tionem Tolomei); on the other hand, his information as to the 
native trade from Tunis to Timbuktu and the Gambia helped 
to inspire his persistent exploration of the West African coast 
" to seek those lands by way of the sea." Chart and quadrant 
were used on the prince's vessels, as by Gomez himself on reach- 
ing the Cape Verde Islands; Henry, at the time of Diogo's first 
voyage, was in correspondence with an Oran merchant who 
kept him informed upon events even in the Gambia hinterland; 
and, before the discovery of the Senegal and Cape Verde in 1445, 
Gomez' royal patron had already gained reliable information 
of some route to Timbuktu. In the first part of his chronicle 
Gomez tells how, no long time after the disastrous expedition 
of the Danish nobleman " Vallarte " (Adalbert) in 1448, he was 
sent out in command of three vessels along the West African 
coast, accompanied by one Jacob, an Indian interpreter, to be 
employed in the event of reaching India. After passing the Rio 
Grande, beyond Cape Verde, strong currents checked his course; 
his officers and men feared that they were approaching the 
extremity of the ocean, and he put back to the Gambia. He 
ascended this river a considerable distance, to the negro town of 
" Cantor," whither natives came from " Kukia " and Timbuktu 
for trade; he gives elaborate descriptions of the negro world 
he had now penetrated, refers to the Sierra Leone (" Serra Lyoa ") 
Mountains, sketches the course of this range, and says much of 
Kukia (in the upper Niger basin?), the centre of the West African 
gold trade, and the resort of merchants and caravans from Tunis, 
Fez, Cairo and " all the land of the Saracens." Mahommedan- 
ism was already dominant at the Cambria estuary, but Gomez 
seems to have won over at least one important chief, with his 
court, to Christianity and Portuguese allegiance. Another 
African voyage, apparently made in 1462, two years after Henry 
1 A. Jeremias, Das A.T. im Lichte des alien Orients, pp. 145 f. 



the Navigator's death (though assigned by some to 1 460) , resulted 
in a fresh discovery of the Cape Verde Islands, already found by 
Cadamosto (q.v.). To the island of Santiago Gomez, like his 
Venetian forerunner, claims to have given its present name. 
His narrative is a leading authority on the last illness and death 
of Prince Henry, as well as on the life, achievements and pur- 
poses of the latter; here alone is recorded what appears to have 
been the earliest of the navigator's exploring ventures, that 
which under Joao de Trasto reached Grand Canary in 1415. 

Of Gomez' chronicle there is only one MS., viz. Cod. Hisp. 27, in the 
Hof- und Staats-Bibliothek, Munich; the original Latin text was 
printed by Schmeller " Cber Valentim Fernandez Alemao " in the 
Abhandlungen der philosoph.-philolog. Kl. der bayerisch. Akademie der 
Wissenschaften, vol. iv., part iii. (Munich, 1847) ; see alsoSophus Ruge, 
" Die Entdeckung der Azoren," pp. 149-180 (esp. 178-179) in the 
27th Jahresbericht des Vereins fur Erdkunde (Dresden, 1901); Jules 
Mees, Histoire de la decouyerte des ties A gores, pp. 44-45, 125- 1 27 (Ghent , 
1901); R. H. Major, Life of Prince Henry the Navigator, pp. xviii., 
xix., 64-65, 287-299, 303-305 (London, 1868); C. R. Beazley, Prince 
Henry the Navigator, 289-298, 304-305 ; and Introduction to Azurara's 
Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, ii., iv., xiv., xxv.-xxvii., xcii.-xcvi. 
(London, 1899). (C. R. B.) 

GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS (1814-1873), 
Spanish dramatist and poet, was born at Puerto Principe 
(Cuba) on the 23rd of March 1814, and removed to Spain in 1836. 
Her Poesias Hricas (1841), issued with a laudatory preface by 
Gallego, made a most favourable impression and were republisbed 
with additional poems in 1850. In 1846 she married a diplo- 
matist named Pedro Sabater, became a widow within a year, 
and in 1853 married Colonel Domingo Verdugo. Meanwhile 
she had published Sab (1839), Guatimozin (1846), and other 
novels of no great importance. She obtained, however, a series 
of successes on the stage with Alfonso Munio (1844), a tragedy 
in the new romantic manner; with Satil (1849), a biblical drama 
indirectly suggested by Alfieri; and with Baltasar (1858), a 
piece which bears some resemblance to Byron's Sardanapalus. 
Her commerce with the world had not diminished her natural 
piety, and, on the death of her second husband, she found so 
much consolation in religion that she had thoughts of entering 
a convent. She died at Madrid on the 2nd of February 1873, 
full of mournful forebodings as to the future of her adopted 
country. It is impossible to agree with Villemain that " le 
g6nie de don Luis de Leon et de sainte Therese a reparu sous le 
voile funebre de Gomez de Avellaneda," for she has neither the 
monk's mastery of poetic form not the nun's sublime simplicity of 
soul. She has a grandiose tragical vision of life, a vigorous 
eloquence rooted in pietistic pessimism, a dramatic gift effective 
in isolated acts or scenes; but she is deficient in constructive 
power and in intellectual force, and her lyrics, though instinct 
with melancholy beauty, or the tenderness of resigned devotion, 
too often lack human passion and sympathy. The edition of her 
Obras literarias (5 vols., 1869-1871), still incomplete, shows a 
scrupulous care for minute revision uncommon in Spanish 
writers; but her emendations are seldom happy. But she is 
interesting as a link between the classic and romantic schools of 
poetry, and, whatever her artistic shortcomings, she has no rivals 
of her own sex in Spain during the igth century. 

GOMM, SIR WILLIAM MAYNARD (1784-1875), British 
soldier, was gazetted to the 9th Foot at the age of ten, in recog- 
nition of the services of his father, Lieut.-Colonel William Gomm, 
who was killed in the attack on Guadaloupe (1794). He joined 
his regiment as a lieutenant in 1799, and fought in Holland under 
the duke of York, and subsequently was with Pulteney's Ferrol 
expedition. In 1803 he became Captain, and shortly afterwards 
qualified as a staff officer at the High Wycombe military college. 
On the general staff he was with Cathcart at Copenhagen, with 
Wellington in the Peninsula, and on Moore's staff at Corunna. 
He was also on Chatham's staff in the disastrous Walcheren 
expedition of 1809. In 1810 he rejoined the Peninsular army as 
Leith's staff officer, and took part in all the battles of 1810, 
1811 and 1812, winning his majority after Fuentes d'Onor and 
his lieutenant-colonelcy at Salamanca. His careful reconnais- 
sances and skilful leading were invaluable to Wellington in the 
Vittoria campaign, and to the end of the war he was one of the 



230 



GOMPERS GONCHAROV 



most trusted men of his staff. His reward was a transfer to the 
Coldstream Guards and the K.C.B. In the Waterloo campaign 
he served on the staff of the 5th British Division. From the 
peace until 1839 he was employed on home service, becoming 
colonel in 1829 and major-general in 1837. From 1839 to 1842 
he commanded the troops in Jamaica. He became lieutenant- 
general in 1846, and was sent out to be commander-in-chief in 
India, arriving only to find that his appointment had been 
cancelled in favour of Sir Charles Napier, whom, however, he 
eventually succeeded (1850-1855). In 1854 he became general 
and in 1868 field marshal. In 1872 he was appointed constable 
of the Tower, and he died in 1875. He was twice married, but 
had no children. His Letters and Journals were published by 
F. C. Carr-Gomm in 1881. Five " Field Marshal Gomm " 
scholarships were afterwards founded in his memory at Keble 
College, Oxford. 

GOHPERS, SAMUEL (18503- ), American labour leader, 
was born in London on the 27th of January 1850. He was 
put to work in a shoe-factory when ten years old, but soon 
became apprenticed to a cigar-maker, removed to New York 
in 1863, became a prominent member of the International 
Cigar-makers' Union, was its delegate at the convention of the 
Federation of Organized Trade and Labor Unions of the United 
States and Canada, later known as the American Federation of 
Labor, of which he became first president in 1882. He was 
successively re-elected up to 1895, when the opposition of the 
Socialist Labor Party, then attempting to incorporate the 
Federation into itself, secured his defeat; he was re-elected 
in the following year. In 1894 he became editor of the Federa- 
tion's organ, The American Federationist. 

GOMPERZ, THEODOR (1832- ), German philosopher and 
classical scholar, was born at Brtinn on the 2gth of March 1832. 
He studied at Briinn and at Vienna under Herman Bonitz. 
Graduating at Vienna in 1867 he became Privatdozent, and 
subsequently professor of classical philology (1873). In 1882 
he was elected a member of the Academy of Science. He 
received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy honoris causa from 
the university of Konigsberg, and Doctor of Literature from 
the universities of Dublin and Cambridge, and became corre- 
spondent for several learned societies. His principal works are : 
Demosthenes der Staatsmann (1864), Philodemi de ira liber (1864), 
Traumdeulung und Zauberei (1866), Herkulanische Studien 
(1865-1866), Beilrage zur Kritik und Erklarung griech. Schrift- 
steller (7 vols., 1875-1900), Neue Bruchstucke Epikurs (1876), 
Die Bruchstucke der griech. Tragiker und Cobets neuesle krilische 
Manier (1878), Herodoteische Studien (1883), Ein bisher unbe- 
kanntes griech. Schriftsystem (1884), Zu Philodems Biichern 
lion der Musik (1885), Uber den Abschluss .des herodoteischen 
Geschichtswerkes(i&86), Platonische Aufsalze (3 vols., 1887-1905), 
Zu Heraklits Lehre und den Uberresten seines Werkes (1887), 
Zu Aristoteles' Poetik (2 parts, 1888-1896), Uber die Charaktere 
Theophrasts (1888), Nachlese zu den Bruchstilcken der griech. 
Tragiker (1888), Die Apologie der Heilkunsi (1890), Philodem 
und die asthetischen Schriften der herculanischen B ibl iothek ( 1 89 1 ) , 
DieSchrift iiomStaatswesenderAthener(i8gi),Diejiingst entdeckten 
Uberreste einer den Platonischen Phddon enthaltenden Papyrus- 
rolle (1892), Aus der Hekale des Kallimachos (1893), Essays 
und Erinnerungen (1905). He supervised a translation of J. S. 
Mill's complete works (12 vols., Leipzig, 1869-1880), and 
wrote a life (Vienna, 1889) of Mill. His Griechische Denker: 
Geschichte der anliken Philosophic (vols. i. and ii., Leipzig, 1893 
and 1902) was translated into English by L. Magnus (vol. i., 1901). 

GONA6UAS (" borderers "), descendants of a very old cross 
between the Hottentots and the Kaffirs, on the " ethnical divide " 
between the two races, apparently before the arrival of the 
whites in South Africa. They have been always a despised race 
and regarded as outcasts by the Bantu peoples. They were 
threatened with extermination during the Kaffir wars, but were 
protected by the British. At present they live in settled com- 
munities under civil magistrates without any tribal organization, 
and in some districts could be scarcely distinguished from the other 
natives but for their broken Hottentot-Dutch-English speech. 



GONCALVES DIAS, ANTONIO (1823-1864), Brazilian lyric 
poet, was born near the town of Caxias, in Maranhao. From the 
university of Coimbra, in Portugal, he returned in 1845 to his 
native province, well-equipped with legal lore, but the literary 
tendency which was strong within him led him to try his fortune 
as an author at Rio de Janeiro. Here he wrote for the newspaper 
press, ventured to appear as a dramatist, and in 1846 established 
his reputation by a volume of poems Primeiros Cantos which 
appealed to the national feelings of his Brazilian readers, were 
remarkable for their autobiographic impress, and by their beauty 
of expression and rhythm placed their author at the head of the 
lyric poets of his country. In 1848 he followed up his success by 
Segundos Cantos e sextilhas de Frei Antdo, in which, as the title 
indicates, he puts a number of the pieces in the mouth of a simple 
old Dominican friar; and in the following year, in fulfilment of 
the duties of his new post as professor of Brazilian history in the 
Imperial College of Pedro II. at Rio de Janeiro, he published an 
edition of Berredo's Annaes historicos do Maranhao and added a 
sketch of the migrations of the Indian tribes. A third volume of 
poems, which appeared with the title of Ultimas Cantos in 1851, 
was practically the poet's farewell to the service of the muse, for 
he spent the next eight years engaged under government patronage 
in studying the state of public instruction in the north and the 
educational institutions of Europe. On his return to Brazil in 
1860 he was appointed a member of an expedition for the explora- 
tion of the province of Ceara, was forced in 1862 by the state of 
his health to try the effects of another visit to Europe, and died in 
September 1864, the vessel that was carrying him being wrecked 
off his native shores. While in Germany he published at Leipzig 
a complete collection of his lyrical poems, which went through 
several editions, the four first cantos of an epic poem called Os 
Tymbiras (1857) and a Diccionario da lingua Tupy (1858). 

A complete edition of the works of Dias has made its appearance 
at Rio de Janeiro. See Wolf, Bresil litteraire (Berlin, 1863); Inno- 
cencio de Silva, Diccionario bibliographico portuguez, viii. 157; 
Sotero dos Reis, Curso de litteratura portugueza e brazUeira, 
\v. (Maranhao, 1868) ; Jos6 Verissimo, Estudos de literatura 
brazileira, segunda serie (Rio, 1901). 

GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEXANDROVICH (1812-1891), Rus- 
sian novelist, was born 6/18 July 1812, being the son of a rich 
merchant in the town of Simbirsk. At the age of ten he was 
placed in one of the gymnasiums at Moscow, from which he passed, 
though not without some difficulty on account of his ignorance 
of Greek, into the Moscow University. He read many French 
works of fiction, and published a translation of one of the novels 
of Eugene Sue. During his university career he devoted himself 
to study, taking no interest in the political and Socialistic agitation 
among his fellow-students. He was first employed as secretary to 
the governor of Simbirsk, and afterwards in the ministry of 
finance at St Petersburg. Being absorbed in bureaucratic work, 
Goncharov paid no attention to the social questions then ardently 
discussed by such men as Herzen, Aksakov and Bielinski. He 
began his literary career by publishing translations from Schiller, 
Goethe and English novelists. His first original work was 
Obuiknovennayalstoria, " A Common Story " (1847). I n 1856 he 
sailed to Japan as secretary to Admiral Putiatin for the purpose of 
negotiating a commercial treaty, and on his return to Russia he 
published a description of the voyage under the title of " The 
Frigate Pallada." His best work is Oblomov (1857), which exposed 
the laziness and apathy of the smaller landed gentry in Russia 
anterior to the reforms of Alexander II. Russian critics have 
pronounced this work to be a faithful characterization of Russia 
and the Russians. Dobrolubov said of it, " Oblomofka [the 
country-seat of the Oblomovs] is our fatherland: something of 
Oblomov is to be found in every one of us." Peesarev, another 
celebrated critic, declared that " Oblomovism," as Goncharov 
called the sum total of qualities with which he invested the hero 
of his story, " is an illness fostered by the nature of the Slavonic 
character and the life of Russian society." In 1858 Goncharov 
was appointed a censor, and'in 1868 he published another novel 
called Obreev. He was not a voluminous writer, and during the 
latter part of his life produced nothing of any importance. His 
death occurred on 15/27 September 1891. 



GONCOURT GONDAR 



231 



GONCOURT, DE, a name famous in French literary history. 
EDMOND Louis ANTOINE HUOT DE GONCOURT was born at 
fancy on the 26th of May 1822, and died at Champrosay on the 
:6th of July 1896. JULES ALFRED HUOT DE GONCOURT, his 
irother, was born in Paris on the iyth of December 1830, and 
lied in Paris on the 2oth of June 1870. 

Writing always in collaboration, until the death of the younger, 
it was their ambition to be not merely novelists, inventing a new 
;ind of novel, but historians; not merely historians, but the 
listorians of a particular century, and of what was intimate and 
vhat is unknown in it ; to be alsodiscriminating, indeed innovating, 
:ritics of art, but of a certain section of art, the i8th century, in 
France and Japan; and also to collect pictures and bibelots, 
ilways of the French and Japanese i8th century. Their histories 
Portraits intimes du X VIII' slide (1857) , La Femme au X VIII' 
iecle (1862), La du Barry (1878), &c.) are made entirely out of 
Jocuments, autograph letters, scraps of costume, engravings, 
songs, the unconscious self -revelations of the time; their three 
volumes on L'ArtduXVIII'siecle (1850-1875) deal with Watteau 
and his followers in the same scrupulous, minutely enlightening 
way, with all the detail of unpublished documents; and when 
they came to write novels, it was with a similar attempt to give 
the inner, undiscovered, minute truths of contemporary existence, 
the inedil of life. The same morbidly sensitive noting of the 
inedit, of whatever came to them from their own sensations of 
things and people around them, gives its curious quality to the 
nine volumes of the Journal, 1887-1896, which will remain, 
perhaps, the truest and most poignant chapter of human history 
that they have written. Their novels, Sxur Philomene (1861), 
Renee Mauperin (1864), Germinie Lacerteux (1865), Manette 
Salomon (1865), Madame Gervaisais (1869), and, by Edmond 
alone, La Fille Elisa (1878), Les Freres Zemganno (1879), La 
Faustin (1882), Cherie (1884), are, however, the work by which 
they will live as artists. Learning something from Flaubert, and 
teaching almost everything to Zola, they invented a new kind of 
novel, and their novels are the result of a new vision of the world, 
in which the very element of sight is decomposed, as in a picture 
of Monet. Seen through the nerves, in this conscious abandon- 
ment to the tricks of the eyesight, the world becomes a thing of 
broken patterns and conflicting colours, and uneasy movement. 
A novel of the Goncourts is made up of an infinite number of 
details, set side by side, every detail equally prominent. While a 
novel of Flaubert, for all its detail, gives above all things an 
impression of unity , a novel of the Goncourts deliberately dispenses 
with unity in order to give the sense of the passing of life, the 
heat and form of its moments as they pass. It is written in little 
chapters, sometimes no longer than a page, and each chapter is a 
separate notation of some significant event, some emotion or sensa- 
tion which seems to throw sudden light on the picture of a soul. 
To the Goncourts humanity is as pictorial a thing as the world it 
moves in ; they do not search further than " the physical basis 
of life," and they find everything that can be known of that 
unknown force written visibly upon the sudden faces of little 
incidents, little expressive moments. The soul, to them, is a 

series of moods, which succeed one another, certainly without 
any of the too arbitrary logic of the novelist who has conceived oi 
character as a solid or consistent thing. Their novels are hardly 
stories at all, but picture-galleries, hung with pictures of the 
momentary aspects of the world. French critics have complained 
that the language of the Goncourts is no longer French, no longer 

the French of the past ; and this is true. It is their distinction 
the finest of their inventions that, in order to render new 
sensations, a new vision of things, they invented a new 
language. (A. SY.) 

In his will Edmond de Goncourt left his estate for the endowmen 
of an academy, the formation of which was entrusted to MM 
Alphonse Daudet and Ldon Hennique. The society was to consist o 
ten members, each of whom was to receive an^annuity of 6000 francs 
and a yearly prize of 5000 francs was to be awarded to the author o 
some work of fiction. Eight of the members of the new academv 
were nominated in the will. They were: Alphonse Daudet, J. K 
Huysmans, Ldon Hennique, Octave Mirbeau, the. two brother 
J. H. Rosny, Gustave Geffroy and Paul Margueritte. On the 191! 
of January 1903, after much litigation, the academy was constituted 



with E16mir Bourges, Lucien Descaves and L6on Daudet as members 

n addition to those mentioned in de Goncourt's will, the place of 

Alphonse Daudet having been left vacant by his death in 1897. 

On the brothers de Goncourt see the Journal des Goncourt already 

ted ; also M. A. Belloc (afterwards Lowndes) and M. L. Shedlock, 

Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, with Letters and Leaves from their 

'ournals (1895) ; Alidor Delzant, Les Goncourt (1889) which contains 

valuable bibliography; Lettres de Jules de Goncourt (1888), with 

reface by H. C6ard; R. Doumic, Portraits d'ecrivains (1892); Paul 

Jourget, Nouveaux Essais de psychologie contemporaine (1886); 

mile Zola, Les Romanciers naturalistes (1881), &c. 



GONDA, a town and district of British India, in the Fyzabad 

division of the United Provinces. The town is 28 m. N.W. of 

r yzabad, and is an important junction on the Bengal & North- 

Western railway. The site on which it stands was originally a 

ungle, in the centre of which was a cattle-fold (Gontha or Golhah), 

where the cattle were enclosed' at night as a protection against 

wild beasts, and from this the town derives its name. Pop. 

1901) 15,811. The cantonments were abandoned in 1863. 

The district of Gonda has an area of 2813 sq. m. It consists 
of a vast plain with very slight undulations, studded with groves 
of mango trees. The surface consists of a rich alluvial deposit 
which is naturally divided into three great belts known as the 
arai or swampy tract, the uparhar or uplands, and the tarhar 
or wet lowlands, all three being marvellously fertile. Several 
rivers flow through the district, but only two, the Gogra and 
Rapti, are of any commercial importance, the first being navigable 
throughout the year, and the latter during the rainy season. 
The country is dotted with small lakes, the water of which is 
argely used for irrigation. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 
1857, the raja of Gonda, after honourably escorting the govern- 
ment treasure to Fyzabad, joined the rebels. His estates, along 
with those of the rani of Tulsipur, were confiscated, and conferred 
as rewards upon the maharajas of Balrampur and Ajodhya, who 
tiad remained loyal. In 1901 the population was 1,403,195, 
showing a decrease of 4 % in one decade. The district is traversed 
by the main line and three branches of the Bengal & North- 
Western railway. 

GONDAL, a native state of India, in the Kathiawar political 
agency of Bombay, situated in the centre of the peninsula of 
Kathiawar. Its area is 1024 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 162,859. The 
estimated gross revenue is about 100,000, and the tribute 
7000. Grain and cotton are the chief products. The chief, 
whose title is Thakur Sahib, is a Jadeja Rajput, of the same clan 
as the Rao of Cutch. The Thakur Sahib, Sir Bhagvat Sinhji 
(b. 1865), was educated at the Rajkot college, and afterwards 
graduated in arts and medicine at the university of Edinburgh. 
He published (in English) a Journal of a Visit to England and 
A Short History of Aryan Medical Science. In 1892 he received 
Jhe honorary degree of D.C.L. of Oxford University. He was 
created K.C.I.E. in 1887 and G.C.I.E. in 1897. The state has 
long been conspicuous for its progressive administration. It 
is traversed by a railway connecting it with Bhaunagar, Rajkot 
and the sea-board. The town of Gondal is 23 m. by rail S. of 
Rajkot; pop. (1901) 19,592- 

GONDAR, properly GUENDAR, a town of Abyssinia, formerly 
the capital of the Amharic kingdom, situated on a basaltic ridge 
some 7500 ft. above the sea, about 21 m. N.E. of Lake Tsana, 
a splendid view of which is obtained from the castle. Two 
streams, the Angreb on the east side and the Gaha or Kaha on 
the west, flow from the ridge, and meeting below the town, pass 
onwards to the lake. In the early years of the 2oth century the 
town was much decayed, numerous ruins of castles, palaces 
and churches indicating its former importance. It was never a 
compact city, being divided into districts separated from each 
other by open spaces. The chief quarters were those of the 
Abun-Bed or bishop, the Etchege-Bed or chief of the monks, 
the Debra Berhan or Church of the Light, and the Gemp or 
castle. There was also a quarter for the Mahommedans. Gondar 
was a small village when at the beginning of the i6th century 
it was chosen by the Negus Sysenius (Seged I.) as the capital 
of his kingdom. His son Fasilidas, or A'lem-Seged (1633-1667), 
was the builder of the castle which bears his name. Later 
emperors built other castles and palaces, the latest in date being 



232 



GONDOKORO GONDOMAR 



that of the Negus Yesu II. This was erected about 1736, at 
which time Gondar appears to have been at the height of its 
prosperity. Thereafter it suffered greatly from the civil wars 
which raged in Abyssinia, and was more than once sacked. In 
1868 it was much injured by the emperor Theodore, who did 
not spare either the castle or the churches. After the defeat 
of the Abyssinians at Debra Sin in August 1887 Gondar was 
looted and fired by the dervishes under Abu Anga. Although 
they held the town but a short time they inflicted very great 
damage, destroying many churches, further damaging the castles 
and carrying off much treasure. The population, estimated by 
James Bruce in 1770 at 10,000 families, had dwindled in 1905 
to about 7000. Since the pacification of the Sudan by the 
British (1886-1889) there has been some revival of trade between 
Gondar and the regions of the Blue Nile. Among the inhabitants 
are numbers of Mahommedans, and there is a settlement of 
Falashas. Cotton, cloth, gold and silver ornaments, copper 
wares, fancy articles in bone and ivory, excellent saddles and 
shoes are among the products of the local industry. 

Unlike any other buildings in Abyssinia, the castles and 
palaces of Gondar resemble, with some modifications, the 
medieval fortresses of Europe, the style of architecture being 
the result of the presence in the country of numbers of Portuguese. 
The Portuguese were expelled by Fasilidas, but his castle was 
built, by Indian workmen, under the superintendence of 
Abyssinians who had learned something of architecture from the 
Portuguese adventurers, helped possibly by Portuguese still in 
the country. The castle has two storeys, is 90 ft. by 84 ft., 
has a square tower and circular domed towers at the corners. 
The most extensive ruins are a group of royal buildings enclosed 
in a wall. These ruins include the palace of Yesu II., which has 
several fine chambers. Christian Levantines were employed in 
its construction and it was decorated in part with Venetian 
mirrors, &c. In the same enclosure is a small castle attributed 
to Yesu I. The exterior walls of the castles and palaces named 
are little damaged and give to Gondar a unique character among 
African towns. Of the forty-four churches, all in the circular 
Abyssinian style, which are said to have formerly existed in 
Gondar or its immediate neighbourhood, Major Powell-Cotton 
found only one intact in 1900. This church contained some 
well-executed native paintings of St George and the Dragon, 
The Last Supper, &c. Among the religious observances of the 
Christians of Gondar is that of bathing in large crowds in the 
Gaha on the Feast of the Baptist, and again, though in more 
orderly fashion, on Christmas day. 

See E. Ruppell, Reise inAbyssinien (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1838- 
i8<p); T. von Heuglin, Reise nach Abessinien (Jena, 1868); G. 
Lejean, Voyage en Abyssinie (Paris, 1872) ; Achille Raffray, Afrique 
orientate; Abyssinie (Paris, 1876); P. H. G. Powell-Cotton, A 
Sporting Trip through Abyssinia, chaps. 27-30 (London, 1902); and 
Boll. Soc. Geog. Italiana for 1909. Views of the castle are given by 
Heuglin, Raffray and Powell-Cotton. 

GONDOKORO, a government station and trading-place on the 
east bank of the upper Nile, in 4 54' N., 31 43' E. It is the 
headquarters of the Northern Province of the (British) Uganda 
protectorate, is 1070 m. by river S. of Khartum and 350 m. 
N.N.W. in a direct line of Entebbe on Victoria Nyanza. The 
station, which is very unhealthy, is at the top of a cliff 25 ft. 
above the river-level. Besides houses for the civil and military 
authorities and the lines for the troops, there are a few huts 
inhabited by Bari, the natives of this part of the Nile. The 
importance of Gondokoro lies in the fact that it is within a few 
miles of the limit of navigability of the Nile from Khartum up 
stream. From this point the journey to Uganda is continued 
overland. 

Gondokoro was first visited by Europeans in 1841-1842, 
when expeditions sent out by Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, 
ascended the Nile as far as the foot of the rapids above Gondokoro. 
It soon became an ivory and slave-trading centre. In 1851 an 
Austrian Roman Catholic mission was established here, but it 
was abandoned in 1859. It was at Gondokoro that J. H. Speke 
and J. A. Grant, descending the Nile after their discovery of its 
source, met, on the isth of February 1863, Mr (afterwards Sir) 



Samuel Baker and his wife who were journeying up the river. 
In 1871 Baker, then governor-general of the equatorial provinces 
of Egypt, established a military post at Gondokoro which he 
named Ismailia, after the then khedive. Baker made this post 
his headquarters, but Colonel (afterwards General) C. G. Gordon, 
who succeeded him in 1874, abandoned the station on account 
of its unhealthy site, removing to Lado. Gondokoro, however, 
remained a trading-station. It fell into the hands of the Mahdists 
in 1885. After the destruction of the Mahdist power in 1898 
Gondokoro was occupied by British troops and has since formed 
the northernmost post on the Nile of the Uganda protectorate 
(see SUDAN; NILE; and UGANDA). 

GONDOMAR. DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUNA, COUNT OF 
(1567-1626), Spanish diplomatist, was the son of Garcia Sarmiento 
de Sotomayor, corregidor of Granada, and governor of the 
Canary Islands, by his marriage with Juana de Acuna, an 
heiress. Diego Sarmiento, their eldest son, was born in the 
parish of Gondomar, in the bishopric of Tuy, Galicia, Spain, 
on the ist of November 1567. He inherited wide estates both 
in Galicia and in Old Castile. In 1583 he was appointed by 
Philip II. to the military command of the Portuguese frontier 
and sea coast of Galicia. He is said to have taken an active 
part in the repulse of an English coast-raid in 1585, and in the 
defence of the country during the unsuccessful English attack 
on Corunna in 1589. In 1593 he was named corregidor of Toro. 
In 1603 he was sent from court to Vigo to superintend the 
distribution of the treasure brought from America by two 
galleons which were driven to take refuge at Vigo, and on his 
return was named a member of the board of finance. In 1609 
he was again employed on the coast of Galicia, this time to repel 
a naval attack made by the Dutch. Although he held military 
commands, and administrative posts, his habitual residence was 
at Valladolid, where he owned the Casa del Sol and was already 
collecting his fine library. He was known as a courtier, and 
apparently as a friend of the favourite, the duke of Lerma. 
In 1612 he was chosen as ambassador in England, but did not 
leave to take up his appointment till May 1613. 

His reputation as a diplomatist is based on his two periods 
of service in England from 1613 to 1618 and from 1619 to 1622. 
The excellence of his latinity pleased the literary tastes of James 
I., whose character he judged with remarkable insight. He 
flattered the king's love of books and of peace, and he made 
skilful use of his desire for a matrimonial alliance between the 
prince of Wales and a Spanish infanta. The ambassador's 
task was to keep James from aiding the Protestant states 
against Spain and the house of Austria, and to avert English 
attacks on Spanish possessions in America. His success made 
him odious to the anti-Spanish and puritan parties. The active 
part he took in promoting the execution of Sir Walter Raleigh 
aroused particular animosity. He was attacked in pamphlets, 
and the dramatist Thomas Middleton made him a principal 
person in the strange political play A Game of Chess, which was 
suppressed by order of the council. In 1617 Sarmiento was 
created count of Gondomar. In 1618 he obtained leave to come 
home for his health, but was ordered to return by way of Flanders 
and France with a diplomatic mission. In 1619 he returned to 
London, and remained till 1622, when he was allowed to retire. 
On his return he was named a member of the royal council and 
governor of one of the king's palaces, and was appointed to a 
complimentary mission to Vienna. Gondomar was in Madrid 
when the prince of Wales afterwards Charles I. made his 
journey there in search of a wife. He died at the house of the 
constable of Castile, near Haro in the Rioja, on the 2nd of 
October 1626. 

Gondomar was twice married, first to his niece Beatrix 
Sarmiento, by whom he had no children, and then to his cousin 
Constanza de Acuna, by whom he had four sons and three 
daughters. The hatred he aroused in England, which was 
shown by constant jeers at the intestinal complaint from which 
he suffered for years, was the best tribute to the zeal with which 
he served his own master. Gondomar collected, both before he 
came to London and durintc his residence there, a very fine 



GONDOPHARES GONGORA Y ARGOTE 



233 



library of printed books and manuscripts. Orders for the 
arrangement, binding and storing of his books in his house at 
/alladolid take a prominent place in his voluminous correspond- 
In 1785 the library was ceded by his descendant and 
ipresentative the marquis of Malpica to King Charles III., 
id it is now in the Royal Library at Madrid. A portrait of 
mdomar, attributed to Valazquez, was formerly at Stowe. 
.t was mezzotinted by Robert Cooper. 

AUTHORITIES. Gondomar's missions to England are largely dealt 
jvith in S. R. Gardiner's History of England (London, 1883-1884). 
In Spanish, Don Pascual de Gayangos wrote a useful biographical 
introduction to a publication of a few of his letters Cinco Cartas 
politico-literarias de Don Diego Sarmiento de Acuna, ^ Conde de 
Gondomar, issued at Madrid 1869 by the Sociedad de Bibliofilos of the 
Spanish Academy; and there is a life in English by F. H. Lyon 
(1910). (D. H.) 

GONDOPHARES, or GONDOP!HERNES, an Indo-Parthian king 
who ruled over the Kabul valley and the Punjab. By means 
of his coins his accession may be dated with practical certainty 
at A.D. 21, and his reign lasted for some thirty years. He is 
notable for his association with St Thomas in early Christian 
tradition. The legend is that India fell to St Thomas, who 
showed unwillingness to start until Christ appeared in a vision 
and ordered him to serve King Gondophares and build him a 
palace. St Thomas accordingly went to India and suffered 
martyrdom there. This legend is not incompatible with what 
is known of the chronology of Gondophares' reign. 

60NDWANA, the historical name for a large tract of hilly 
country in India which roughly corresponds with the greater 
part of the present Central Provinces. It is derived from the 
aboriginal tribe of Gonds, who still form the largest element 
in the population and who were at one time the ruling power. 
From the I2th to as late as the i8th century three or four Gond 
dynasties reigned over this region with a degree of civilization 
that seems surprising when compared with the existing condition 
of the people. They built large walled cities, and accumulated 
immense treasures of gold and silver and jewels. On the whole, 
they maintained their independence fairly well against the 
Mahommedans, being subject only to a nominal submission and 
occasional payment of tribute. But when the Mahratta invaders 
appeared, soon after the beginning of the i8th century, the Gond 
kingdoms offered but a feeble resistance and the aboriginal 
population fled for safety to the hills. Gondwana was thus 
included in the dominions of the Bhonsla raja of Nagpur, from 

whom it finally passed to the British in 1853. 
The Gonds, who call themselves Koitur or " highlanders," 
are the most numerous tribe of Dravidian race in India. Their 
total number in 1901 was 2,286,913, of whom nearly two millions 
were enumerated in the Central Provinces, where they form 20% 
of the population. They have a language of their own, with 
many dialects, which is intermediate between the two great 
Dravidian languages, Tamil and Telugu. It is unwritten and 
has no literature, except a little provided by the missionaries. 
More than half the Gonds in the Central Provinces have now 
abandoned their own dialects, and have adopted Aryan forms 
of speech. This indicates the extent to which they have become 
Hinduized. The higher class among them, called Raj Gonds, 
have been definitely admitted into Hinduism as a pure cultivating 
caste; but the great majority still retain the animistic beliefs, 
ceremonial observances and impure customs of food which are 
common to most of the aboriginal tribes of India. 

GONFALON (the late French and Italian form, also found in 
other Romanic languages, of gonfanon, which is derived from 
the O.H. Ger. gundfano, gund, war, and/awo, flag, cf. Mod. Ger. 
Fahne, and English " vane "), a banner or standard of the 
middle ages. It took the form of a small pennon attached below 
the head of a knight's lance, or when used in religious processions 
and ceremonies, or as the banner of a city or state or military 
order, it became a many-streamered rectangular ensign, fre- 
quently swinging from a cross-bar attached to a pole. This is 
the most frequent use of the word. The title of " gonfalonier," 
the bearer of the gonfalon, was in the middle ages both military 
and civil. It was borne by the counts of Vexin, as leaders of the 






men of Saint Denis, and when the Vexin was incorporated in the 
kingdom of France the title of Gonfalonier de Sant Denis passed 
to the kings of France, who thus became the bearers of the 
" oriflamme," as the banner of St Denis was called. " Gon- 
falonier " was the title of civic magistrates of various degrees 
of authority in many of the city republics of Italy, notably of 
Florence, Sienna and Lucca. At Florence the functions of the 
office varied. At first the gonfaloniers were the leaders of the 
various military divisions of the inhabitants. In 1293 was 
created the office of gonfalonier of justice, who carried out the 
orders of the signiory. By the end of the i4th century the 
gonfalonier was the chief of the signiory. At Lucca he was the 
chief magistrate of the republic. At Rome two gonfaloniers 
must be distinguished, that of the church and that of the 
Roman people; both offices were conferred by the pope. The 
first was usually granted to sovereigns, who were bound to 
defend the church and lead her armies. The second bore a 
standard with the letters S.P.Q.R. on any enterprise undertaken 
in the name of the church and the people of Rome, and also at 
ceremonies, processions, &c. This was granted by the pope to 
.distinguished families. Thus the Cesarini held the office till 
the end of the lyth century. The Pamphili held it from 1686 
till 1764. 

GONG (Chinese, gong-gong or tam-tam), a sonorous or musical 
instrument of Chinese origin and manufacture, made in the form 
of a broad thin disk with a deep rim. Gongs vary in diameter 
from about 20 to 40 in., and they are made of bronze containing 
a maximum of 22 parts of tin to 78 of copper; but in many cases 
the proportion of tin is considerably less. Such an alloy, when 
cast and allowed to cool slowly, is excessively brittle, but it can be 
tempered and annealed in a peculiar manner. If suddenly cooled 
from a cherry-red heat, the alloy becomes so soft that it can be 
hammered and worked on the lathe, and afterwards it may be 
hardened by re-heating and cooling it slowly. In these properties 
it will be observed, the alloy behaves in a manner exactly opposite 
to steel, and the Chinese avail themselves of the known peculiari- 
ties for preparing the thin sheets of which gongs are made. They 
cool their castings of bronze in water, and after hammering out 
the alloy in the soft state, harden the finished gongs by heating 
them to a cherry-red and allowing them to cool slowly. These 
properties of the alloy long remained a secret, said to have been 
first discovered in Europe by Jean Pierre Joseph d'Arcet at the 
beginning of the ipth century. Riche and Champion are said 
to have succeeded in producing tam-tams having all the qualities 
and timbre of the Chinese instruments. The composition of the 
alloy of bronze used for making gongs is stated to be as follows: 1 
Copper, 76-52; Tin, 22-43; Lead, 0-62; Zinc, 0-23; Iron, 0-18. 
The gong is beaten with a round, hard, leather-covered pad, 
fitted on a short stick or handle. It emits a peculiarly sonorous 
sound, its complex vibrations bursting into a wave-like succession 
of tones, sometimes shrill, sometimes deep. In China and Japan 
it is used in religious ceremonies, state processions, marriages 
and other festivals; and it is said that the Chinese can modify 
its tone variously by particular ways of striking the disk. 

The gong has been effectively used in the orchestra to intensify the 
impression of fear and horror in melodramatic scenes. The tam-tam 
was first introduced into a western orchestra by Frangois Joseph 
Gossec in the funeral march composed at the death of Mirabeau in 
1791. Gaspard Spontini used it in La Vestale (1807), in the finale of 
act II., an impressive scene in which the high pontiff pronounces the 
anathema on the faithless vestal. It was also used in the funeral 
music played when the remains of Napoleon the Great were brought 
back to France in 1840. Meyerbeer made use of the instrument in the 
scene of the resurrection of the three nuns in Robert le diable. Four 
tam-tams are now used at Bayreuth in Parsifal to reinforce the bell 
instruments, although there is no indication given in the score (see 
PARSIFAL). The tam-tam has been treated from its ethnographical 
side by Franz Heger. 2 (K. S.) 

GONGORA Y ARGOTE, LUIS DE (1561-1627), Spanish lyric 
poet, was born at Cordova on the nth of July 1561. -His father, 
Francisco de Argote, was corregidor of that city; the poet early 
adopted the surname of his mother, Leonora de G6ngora, who 

1 See La grande Encyclopedie, vol. viii. (Paris), " Bronze," p. 1463. 

a Alte Metalllrommeln aus Siidost-Asien (Leipzig, 1902), Bd. i., 
Text; Bd. ii., Tafeln. 



234 



GONIOMETER 



was descended from an ancient family. At the age of fifteen he 
entered as a student of civil and canon law at the university of 
Salamanca; but he obtained no academic distinctions and was 
content with an ordinary pass degree. He was already known 
as a poet in 1585 when Cervantes praised him in the Galatea; in 
this same year he took minor orders, and shortly afterwards 
was nominated to a canonry at Cordova. About 1605-1606 
he was ordained priest, and thenceforth resided principally at 
Valladolid and Madrid, where, as a contemporary remarks, he 
" noted and stabbed at everything with his satirical pen." His 
circle of admirers was now greatly enlarged; but the acknowledg- 
ment accorded to his singular genius was both slight and tardy. 
Ultimately indeed, through the influence of the duke of Sandoval, 
he obtained an appointment as honorary chaplain to Philip III., 
but even this slight honour he was not permitted long to enjoy. 
In 1626 a severe illness, which seriously impaired his memory, 
compelled his retirement to Cordova, where he died on the 24th 
of May 1627. An edition of his poems was published almost 
immediately after his death by Juan Lopez de Vicuna; the 
frequently reprinted edition by Hozes did not appear till 1633. 
The collection consists of numerous sonnets, odes, ballads, songs 
for the guitar, and of certain larger poems, such as the Soledades 
and the Polifemo. Too many of them exhibit that tortuous 
elaboration of style (estilo cidto) with which the name of Gongora 
is inseparably associated; but though Gongora has been justly 
censured for affected Latinisms, unnatural transpositions, strained 
metaphors and frequent obscurity, it must be admitted that he 
was a man of rare genius, a fact cordially acknowledged by 
those of his contemporaries who were most capable of judging. 
It was only in the hands of those who imitated Gongora's style 
without inheriting his genius that cidteranismo became absurd. 
Besides his lyrical poems Gongora is the author of a play entitled 
Las Firmezas de Isabel and of two incomplete dramas, the 
Comedia venatoria and El Doctor Carlino. The only satisfactory 
edition of his works is that published by R. Foulche-Delbose in 
the Bibliolheca Hispanica. 

See Edward Churton, Gongora (London, 1862, 2 vols.); M. 
Gonzalez y France's, Gongora racionero (Cordoba, 1895) ; M. Gonzalez 
y Francds, Don Luis de Gongora vindicando su Jama ante el propio 
obispo (C6rdoba, 1899) ; " Vingt-six Lettres de Gongora " in the Revue 
hispanique, vol. x. pp. 184-225 (Paris, 1903). 

GONIOMETER (from Gr. yuvla, angle, and fikrpov, measure), 
an instrument for measuring the angles of crystals; there are two 
kinds the contact goniometer and the reflecting goniometer. 
Nicolaus Stena in 1669 determined the interfacial angles of 
quartz crystals by cutting sections perpendicular to the edges, 
the plane angles of the sections being then the angles between the 
faces which are perpendicular to the sections. The earliest instru- 
ment was the contact goniometer devised by Carangeot in 1783. 
The Contact Goniometer (or Hand-Goniometer). This consists of 
two metal rules pivoted together at the centre of a graduated semi- 
circle (fig. i). The instrument is placed with its plane perpendicular 

to an edge between 
two faces of the 
crystal to be meas- 
ured, and the rules 
are brought into 
contact with the 
faces; this is best 
done by holding the 
crystal up against 
the light with the 
edge in the line of 
sight. The angle 
between the rules, 
as read on the 
graduated semi- 
circle, then gives 
the angle between 
the two faces. The 




FIG. i. Contact Goniometer. 



rules are slotted, so that they may be shortened and their tips applied 
to a crystal partly embedded in its matrix. The instrument repre- 
sented in fig. i is practically the same in all its details as that made 
for Carangeot, and it is employed at the present day for the approxi- 
mate measurement of large crystals with dull and rough faces. 
S. L. Penfield (1900) has devised some cheap and simple forms of 
contact goniometer, consisting of jointed arms and protractors made 
of cardboard or celluloid. 




The Reflecting Goniometer. This is an instrument of far greater 
precision, and is always used for the accurate measurement of the 
angles when small crystals with bright faces are available. As a rule, 
the smaller the crystal the more even are its faces, and when these are 
smooth and bright they reflect sharply defined images of a bright 
object. By turning the crystal 
about an axis parallel to the 
edge between two faces, the 
image reflected from a second 
face may be brought into the 
same position as that formerly 
occupied by the image reflected 
from the first face; the angle 
through which the crystal has 
been rotated, as determined by 
a graduated circle to which the 
crystal is fixed, is the angle 
between the normals to the 
two faces. 

Several forms of instruments 
depending on this principle 
have been devised, the earliest 
being the vertical-circle gonio- 
meter of W. H. Wollaston, 
made in 1809. This consists 
of a circle m (fig. 2), graduated 
to degrees of arc and reading 
with the vernier h to minutes, 
which turns with the milled 
head t about a horizontal 
axis. The crystal is attached _ 
with wax (a mixture of bees- FlG - 2. Vertical-Circle Goniometer, 
wax and pitch) to the holder 

q, and by means of the pivoted arcs it may be adjusted so that 
the edge between two faces (a zone-axis) is parallel to, and coincident 
with, the axis of the instrument. The crystal-holder and adjustment- 
arcs, together with the milled head s, are carried on an axis which 
passes through the hollow axis of the graduated circle, and may thus 
be rotated independently of the circle. In use, the goniometer is 
placed directly opposite to a window, with its axis parallel to the 
horizontal window-bars, and as far distant as possible. The eye is 
placed quite close to the crystal, and the image of an upper window- 
bar (or better still a slit in a dark screen) as seen in the crystal-face 
is made to coincide with a lower window-bar (or chalk mark on the 
floor) as seen directly: this is done by turning the milled head s, 
the reading of the graduated circle having previously been observed. 
Without moving the eye, the milled head /, together with the crystal, 
is then rotated until the image from a second face is brought into the 
same position; the difference between the first and second readings 
of the graduated circle will then give the angle between the normals 
of the two faces. 

Several improvements have been made on Wollaston's gonio- 
meter. The adjustment-arcs have been modified; a mirror of black 
glass fixed to the stand beneath the crystal gives a reflected image of 
the signal, with 

which the reflec- . C T 

tion from the **^-*^ 
crystal can be 
more conveni- 
ently made to co- 
incide; a telescope 
provided with 
cross-wires gives 
greater precision 
to the direction 
of the reflected 
rays of light; and 
with the telescope 
a collimator has 
sometimes been 
used. P 

A still greater 
improvement was 
effected by plac- 
ing the graduated 
circle in a hori- 
zontal position, 
as in the instru- 
ments of E. L. 
Malus (1810), F. 




FIG. 3. Horizontal-Circle Goniometer. 



C. von Riese (1829) and J. Babinet (1839). Many forms of 
the horizontal-circle goniometer have been constructed; they are 
provided with a telescope and collimator, and in construction are 
essentially the same as a spectrometer, with the addition of arrange- 
ments for adjusting and centring the crystal. The instrument shown 
in fig. 3 is made by R. Fuess of Berlin. It has four concentric axes, 
which enable the crystal-holder A, together with the adjustment- 
arcs B and centring-slides D, to be raised or lowered, or to be rotated 
independently of the circle H; further, either the crystal-holder or 
the telescope T may be rotated with the circle, while the other 



GONTAUT GONZAGA 



235 



remains fixed. The crystal is placed on the holder and adjusted 
so that the edge (zone-axis) between two faces is coincident with the 
axis of the instrument. Light from an incandescent gas-burner 
passes through the slit of the collimator C, and the image of the slit 
(signal) reflected from the crystal face is viewed in the telescope. 
The clamp o and slow-motion screw F enable the image to be 
brought exactly on the cross-wires of the telescope, and the position 
of the circle with respect to the vernier is read through the lens. 
The crystal and the circle are then rotated together until the image 
from a second face is brought on the cross-wires of the telescope, and 
the angle through which they have been turned is the angle between 
the normals to the two faces. While measuring the angles between 
the faces of crystals the telescope remains fixed by the clamp 0, but 
when this is released the instrument may be used as a spectrometer 
or refractometer for determining, by the method of minimum 
deviation, the indices of refraction of an artificially cut prism or of a 
transparent crystal when the faces are suitably inclined to one 
another. . . 

With a one-circle goniometer, such as is described above, it is 
necessary to mount and re-adjust the crystal afresh for the measure- 
ment of each zone of faces (i.e. each set of faces intersecting in parallel 
edges) ; with very small crystals this operation takes a considerable 
time, and the minute faces are not readily identified again. Further, 
in certain cases, it is not possible to measure the angles between zones, 
nor to determine the position of small faces which do not lie in pro- 
minent zones on the crystal. These difficulties have been overcome 
by the use of a two-circle goniometer or theodolite-goniometer? 
which as a combination of a vertical-circle goniometer and one with a 
horizontal-circle was first employed by W. H. Miller in 1874. Special 
forms have been designed by E. S. Fedorov (1889), V. Gpldschmidt 
(1893), S. Czapski (1893) and F. Stoeber (1898), which differ mainly 
in the arrangement of the optical parts. In these instruments the 
crystal is set up and adj usted once for all, with the axis of a prominent 
zone parallel to the axis of either the horizontal or the vertical 
circle. As a rule, only in this zone can the angles betweenthefaces be 
measured directly; the positions of all the other faces, which need 
be observed only once, are fixed by the simultaneous readings of the 
two circles. These readings, corresponding to the polar distance and 
azimuth, or latitude and longitude readings of astronomical tele- 
scopes, must be plotted on a projection before the symmetry of the 
crystal is apparent; and laborious calculations are necessary in 
order to determine the indices of the faces and the angles between 
them, and the other constants of the crystal, or to test whether any 
three faces are accurately in a zone. 

These disadvantages are overcome by adding still another gradu- 
ated circle to the instrument, with its axis perpendicular to the axis 
of the vertical circle, thus forming a three-circle goniometer. With 
such an instrument measurements may be made in any zone or 
between any two faces without re-adjusting the crystal; further the 
troublesome calculations are avoided, and, indeed, the instrument 
may be used for solving spherical triangles. Different forms of 
three-circle goniometers have been designed by G. F. H. Smith 
(1899 and 1904), E. S. Fedorov (1900) and J. F. C. Klein (1900). 
Besides being used as a one-, two-, or three-circle goniometer for 
the measurement of the interfaciat angles of crystals, and as a re- 
fractometer for determining refractive indices by the prismatic 
method or by total reflection, Klein's instrument, which is called a 
polymeter, is fitted with accessory optical apparatus which enables 
it to be used for examining a crystal in parallel or convergent polar- 
ized light and for measuring the optic axial angle. 

Goniometers of special construction have been devised for certain 
purposes; for instance, the inverted horizontal-circle goniometer of 
H. A. Miers (1903) for measuring crystals during their growth in the 
mother-liquid. A. E. Tutton (1894) has combined a goniometer with 
lapidaries' appliances for cutting section-plates and prisms from 
crystals accurately in any desired direction. The instrument 
commonly employed for measuring the optic axia) angle of biaxial 
crystals is really a combination of a goniometer with a polariscope. 
For the optical investigation of minute crystals under the microscope, 
various forms of stage-goniometer with one, two or three graduated 
circles have been constructed. An ordinary microscope fitted with 
cross-wires and a rotating graduated stage serves the purpose of a 
goniometer for measuring the plane angles of a crystal face or section, 
being the same in principle as the contact goniometer. 

For fuller descriptions of goniometers reference may be made to 
the text-books of Crystallography and Mineralogy, especially to 
P. H. Groth, Physikalische Krystallographie (4th ed., Leipzig, 1905). 
See also C. Leiss, Die optischen Instrumente der Firma R. Fuess, deren 
Beschreibung, Justierung undAnwendung (Leipzig, 1899). (L. J. S.) 

GONTAUT, MARIE JOSEPHINE LOUISE, DUCHESSE DE 
(1773-1857), was born in Paris on the 3rd of August 1773, 
daughter of Augustin Francois, comte de Montaut-Navailles, 
who had been governor of Louis XVI. and his two brothers when 
children. The count of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII.) 
and his wife stood sponsors to Josephine de Montaut, and she 
shared the lessons given by Madame de Genlis to the Orleans 
family, with whom her mother broke off relations after the out- 



ireak of the Revolution. Mother and daughter emigrated to 
Coblenz in 1792; thence they went to Rotterdam, and finally 
to England, where Josephine married the marquis Charles 
Michel de Gontaut-Saint-Blacard. They returned to France 
at the Restoration, and resumed their place at court. Madame 
de Gontaut became lady-in-waiting to Caroline, duchess of 
Berry, and, on the birth of the princess Louise (Mile d'Artois, 
afterwards duchess of Parma), governess to the children of 
France. Next year the birth of Henry, duke of Bordeaux 
(afterwards known as the comte de Chambord), added to her 
charge the heir of the Bourbons. She remained faithful to his 
cause all her life. Her husband died in 1822, and in 1827 she 
was created duchesse de Gontaut. She followed the exiled royal 
Family in 1830 to Holyrood Palace, and then to Prague, but in 
1834, owing to differences with Pierre Louis, due de Blacas, who 
thought her comparatively liberal views dangerous for the 
prince and princess, she received a brusque conge from Charles X. 
Her twin daughters, Josephine (1796-1844) and Charlotte (1796- 
1818), married respectively Ferdinand de Chabot, prince de L6on 
and afterwards due de Rohan, and Francois, comte de Bourbon- 
Busset. She herself wrote in her old age some naive memoirs, 
which throw an odd light on the pretensions of the " governess 
of the children of France." She died in Paris in 1857. 

See her Memoirs (Eng. ed., 2 vols., 1894), and Lettresin6dites(i8gs). 
GONVILE, EDMUND (d. 1351), founder of Gonville Hall, 
now Gonville and Caius College, at Cambridge, England, is 
thought to have been the son of William de Gonvile, and the 
brother of Sir Nicholas Gonvile. In 1320 he was rector of 
Thelnetham, Suffolk, and steward there for William, earl Warren 
and the earl of Lancaster. Six years later he was rector of 
Rushworth, and in 1342 rector of Terrington St John and com- 
missioner for the marshlands of Norfolk. In this year he 
founded and endowed a collegiate church at Rushworth, sup- 
pressed in 1541. The foundation of Gonville Hall at Cambridge 
was effected by a charter granted by Edward III. in 1348. 
It was called, officially, the Hall of the Annunciation of the 
Blessed Virgin, but was usually known as Gunnell or Gonville 
Hall. Its original site was in Free-school Lane, where Corpus 
Christi College now stands. Gonvile apparently wished it to 
be devoted to training for theological study, but after his death 
the foundation was completed by William Bateman, bishop of 
Norwich and founder of Trinity Hall, on a different site and with 
considerably altered statutes. (See also CAIUS, JOHN.) 

GONZAGA, an Italian princely family named after the town 
where it probably had its origin. Its known history begins with 
the i3th century, when Luigi I. (1267-1360), after fierce struggles 
supplanted his brother-in-law Rinaldo (nicknamed Passerino) 
Bonacolsi as lord of Mantua in August 1328, with the title of 
captain-general, and afterwards of vicar-general of the empire, 
adding the designation of count of Mirandola and Concordia, 
which fief the Gonzagas held from 1328 to 1354. In July 1335 
his son Guido, with the help of Filippino and Feltrino Gonzaga, 
wrested Reggio from the Scaligeri and held it until 1371. Luigi 
was succeeded by Guido (d. 1369); the latter's son Luigi II. 
came next in succession (d. 1382), and then Giovan Francesco I. 
(d. 1407), who, although at one time allied with the treacherous 
Gian Galeazzo Visconti, incurred the latter's enmity and all but 
lost his estates and his life in consequence; eventually he joined 
the Florentines and Bolognese, enemies of Visconti. He pro- 
moted commerce and wisely developed the prosperity of his 
dominions. His son Giovan Francesco II. (d. 1444) succeeded him 
under the regency of his uncle Carlo Malatesta and the protection 
of the Venetians. He became a famous general, and was rewarded] 
for his services to the emperor Sigismund with the title of 
marquess of Mantua for himself and his descendants (1432), an 
investiture which legitimatized the usurpations of the house of 
Gonzaga. His son Luigi III. " il Turco " (d. 1478) likewise 
became a celebrated soldier, and was also a learned and liberal 
prince, a patron of literature and the arts. His son Federigo I. 
(d. 1484) followed in his father's footsteps, and served under 
various foreign sovereigns, including Bona of Savoy and Lorenzo 
de' Medici; subsequently he upheld the rights of the house of 



236 



GONZAGA, T. A. GONZALO DE BERCEO 



Este against Pope Sixtus IV. and the Venetians, whose ambitious 
claims were a menace to his own dominions of Ferrara and 
Mantova. His son Giovan Francesco III. (d. 1519) continued the 
military traditions of the family, and commanded the allied 
Italian forces against Charles VIII. at the battle of Fornovo; 
he afterwards fought in the kingdom of Naples and in Tuscany, 
until captured by the Venetians in 1509. On his liberation he 
adopted a more peaceful and conciliatory policy, and with the 
help of his wife, the famous Isabella d'Este, he promoted the 
fine arts and letters, collecting pictures, statues and other works 
of art with intelligent discrimination. He was succeeded by his 
son Federigo II. (d. 1540), captain-general of the papal forces. 
After the peace of Cambrai (1529) his ally and protector, the 
emperor Charles V., raised his title to that of duke of Mantua in 
1530; in 1536 the emperor decided the controversy for the 
succession of Monferrato between Federigo and the house of 
Savoy in favour of the former. His son Francesco I. succeeded 
him, and, being a minor, was placed under the regency of his 
uncle Cardinal Ercole; he was accidentally drowned in 1550, 
leaving his possessions to his brother Guglielmo. The latter 
was an extravagant spendthrift, but having] subdued a revolt 
in Monferrato was presented with that territory by the emperor 
Maximilian II. At- his death in 1587 he was succeeded by his 
son Vincenzo I. (d. 1612), who was more addicted to amusements 
than to warfare. Then followed in succession his sons Francesco 
II. (d. i6i2),Ferdinando(d. 1626), and Vincenzo II. (d. 1627), all 
three incapable and dissolute princes. The last named appointed 
as his successor Charles, the son of Henriette, the heiress of the 
French family of Nevers-Rethel, who was only able to take 
possession of the ducal throne after a bloody struggle; his 
dominions were laid waste by foreign invasions and he himself 
was reduced to the sorest straits. He died in 1637, leaving his 
possessions to his grandson Charles (Carlo) II. under the regency 
of the latter's mother Maria Gonzaga, which lasted until 1647. 
Charles died in consequence of his own profligacy and was 
succeeded by his son Ferdinand Charles (Ferdinando Carlo), 
who was likewise for some years under the regency of his mother 
Isabella of Austria. Ferdinand Charles, another extravagant 
and dissolute prince, acquired the county of Guastalla by 
marriage in 1678, but lost it soon afterwards; he involved his 
country in useless warfare, with the result that in 1708 Austria 
annexed the duchy. On the sth of July of the same year he 
died in Venice, and with him the Gonzagas of Mantua came to an 
end. 

Of the cadet branches of the house one received the lordship 
of Bozzolo, another the counties of Novellara and Bagnolo, a 
third, of which the founder was Ferrante I. (d. 1557), retained 
the county of Guastalla, raised to a duchy in 1621, and came to 
an end with the death of Giuseppe Maria on the i6th of August 

1746. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. S. Maffei, Annali di Mantova (Tortona, 1675) ; 
G. Veronesi, Quadra storico della Mirandola (Modena, 1847) ; T. Affo, 
Storia di Guastalla (Guastalla, 1875, 4 vols.); Alessandro Luzio, 
/ Precattori d' Isabella d'Este (Ancona, 1887) ; A. Luzio and R. Renier, 
"Francesco Gonzaga alia battaglia di Fornovo (1495), secondo i 
document! Mantovani " (in Archivio storico italiano, ser. v. vol. vi., 
205-246); id., Mantova e Urbino, Isabella d'Este e Elisabeth Gonzaga 
nelle relazioni famigliari e nelle vicende politiche (Turin, 1893); L. G., 
Pelissier, " Les Relations de Francois de Gonzague, marquis de 
Mantoue, avec Ludovico Sforza et Louis XII " (in Annales de la 
faculte de Lettres de Bordeaux, 1893); Antonino Bertolotti, " Lettere 
del duca di Savoia Emanuele Filiberto a Guglielmo Gonzaga, duca di 
Mantova" (A rch. star, it., ser. v., vol.ix. pp. 250-283) ; EdmpndoSolari, 
Lettere inedite del card. Gasparo Contarini nel carteggio del card. 
Ercole Gonzaga (Venice, 1904); Arturo Segrd, // Richiamo di Don 
Ferrante Gonzaga dal governo di Milano, e sue conseguenze (Turin, 
1904). 

GONZAGA, THOMAZ ANTONIO (1744-1809), Portuguese 
poet, was a native of Oporto and the son of a Brazilian-born 
judge. He spent a part of his boyhood at Bahia, where his 
father was disembargador of the appeal court, and returning to 
Portugal he went to the university of Coimbra and took his law 
degree at the age of twenty-four. He remained on there for some 
years and compiled a treatise of natural law on regalist lines, 
'dedicating it to Pombal, but the fall of the marquis led him to 



leave Coimbra and become a candidate for a magistracy, and in 
1782 he obtained the posts of ouvidor and provedor of the goods of 
deceased and absent persons at Villa Rica in the province of Minas 
Geraes in Brazil. In 1786 he was named disembargador of the 
appeal court at Bahia, and three years later, as he was about to 
marry a young lady of position, D. Maria de Seixas Brandao, the 
Marilia of his verses, he suddenly found himself arrested on the 
charge of being the principal author of a Republican conspiracy in 
Minas. Conducted to Rio, he was imprisoned in a fortress and 
interrogated, but constantly asserted his innocence. However, 
his friendship with the conspirators compromised him in the eyes 
of his absolutist judges, who, on the ground that he had known of 
the plot and not denounced it, sentenced him in April 1792 to 
perpetual exile in Angola, with the confiscation of his property. 
Later, this penalty was commuted into one of ten years of exile to 
Mozambique, with a death sentence if he should return to America. 
After having spent three years in prison, Gonzaga sailed in May 
1792 for Mozambique and shortly after his arrival a violent fever 
almost ended his life. A wealthy Portuguese gentleman, married 
to a lady of colour, charitably received him into his house, and 
when the poet recovered, he married their young daughter who 
had nursed him through the attack. He lived in exile until his 
death, practising advocacy at intervals, but his last years were 
embittered by fits of melancholia, deepening into madness, which 
were brought on by the remembrance of his misfortunes. His 
reputation as a poet rests on a little volume of bucolics entitled 
Marilia, which includes all his published verses and is divided into 
two parts, corresponding with those of his life. The first extends 
to his imprisonment and breathes only love and pleasure, while 
the main theme of the second part, written in prison, is his 
saudade for Marilia and past happiness. Gonzaga borrowed his 
forms from the best models, Anacreon and Theocritus, but the 
matter, except for an occasional imitation of Petrarch, the 
natural, elegant style and the harmonious metrification, are all 
his own. The booklet comprises the most celebrated collection of 
erotic poetry dedicated to a single person in the Portuguese 
tongue ; indeed its popularity is so great as to exceed its intrinsic 
merit. 

Twenty-nine editions had appeared up to 1854, but the Paris 
edition of 1862 in 2 vols. is in every way the best, although the 
authenticity of the verses in its 3rd part, which do not relate to 
Marilia, is doubtful. A popular edition of the first two parts was 
published in 1888 (Lisbon, Corazzi). A French version of Marilia by 
Monglave and Chalas appeared in Paris in 1825, an Italian by 
Vegezzi Ruscalla at Turin in 1844, a Latin by Dr Castro Lopes at 
Rio in 1868, and there is a Spanish one by Vedia. 

See Innocencio da Silva, Diccionario biblipgraphico porluguez, 
vol. vii. p. 320, also Dr T. Braga, Filinto Elysio e os Disstdentas da 
Arcadia (Oporto, 1901). (E. PR.) 

GONZALEZ-CAR VAJAL, TOMAS JOSE (1753-1834), Spanish 
poet and statesman, was born at Seville in 1753. He studied at 
the university of Seville, and took the degree of LL.D. at Madrid. 
He obtained an office in the financial department of the govern- 
ment; and in 1795 was made intendant of the colonies which had 
just been founded in Sierra Morena and Andalusia. During 
1809-1811 he held an intendancy in the patriot army. Ha 
became, in 1812, director of the university of San Isidro ; but 
having offended the government by establishing a chair of inter- 
national law, he was imprisoned for five years (1815-1820). The 
revolution of 1820 reinstated him, but the counter-revolution of 
three years later forced him into exile. After four years he was 
allowed to return, and Jie died, in 1834, a member of the supreme 
council of war. Gonzalez-Carvajal enjoyed European fame as 
author of metrical translations of the poetical books of the Bible. 
To fit himself for this work he commenced the study of Hebrew at 
the age of fifty-four. He also wrote other works in verse and 
prose, avowedly taking Luis de Leon as his model. 

See biographical notice in Biblioteca de Rivadeneyra, vol. Ixvii., 
Poetas del siglo 18, 

GONZALO DE BERCEO (c. n8o-c. 1246), the earliest Castilian 
poet whose name is known to us, was born at Berceo, a village in 
the neighbourhood of Calahorra in the province of Logrono. In 
1 221 he became a deacon and was attached, as a secular priest, 
to the Benedictine monastery of San Millan de la Cogolla, in the 






GOOCH GOOD FRIDAY 



237 



diocese of Calahorra. His name is to be met with in a number of 
documents between the years 1237 and 1246. He wrote upwards 
of 13,000 verses, all on devotional subjects. His best work is a 
life of St Oria; others treat of the life of St Millan, of St Dominic 
of Silos, of the Sacrifice of the Mass, the Martyrdom of St Laurence, 
the visible signs preceding the Last Judgment, the Praises of 
Our Lady, the Miracles of Our Lady and the Lamentations of the 
Virgin on the Passion of her Son. He writes in the common 
tongue, the roman paladino, and his claim to the name of poet 
rests on his use of the cuaderna via (single-rhymed quatrains, 
each verse being of fourteen syllables). Sometimes, however, he 
takes the more modest title of juglar (jongleur), when claiming 
payment for his poems. His literary attainments are not great, 
and he lacks imagination and animation of style, but he has a 
certain eloquence, and in speaking of the Virgin and the saints a 
certain charm, while his verse bears at times the imprint of a 
passionate devotion, recalling the lyrical style of the great 
Spanish mystics. There is, however, a very strong popular element 
in his writings, which explains his long vogue. The great 
majority of his legends of the Virgin are obviously borrowed 
from the collection of a Frenchman, Gautier de Coinci; but he 
has succeeded in making this material entirely his own by reason 
of a certain conciseness and a realism in detail which make his 
work far superior to the tedious and colourless narrative of his 
model. 

His Poesias are in the Biblioteca de autores espanoles of Riva- 
deneyra, vol. Ivii. (1864) ; La Vida de San Domingo de Silos has been 
edited by J. D. FitzGerald (Paris, 1904; see the Bibliotheque de 
I'Ecole des Hautes ,tudes, part 149); see also F. Fernandez y 
Gonzalez in the Razon (vol. i., Madrid, 1860) ; N. Hergueta, " Docu- 
mentos referentes a Gonzalo de Berceo," in the Revista de archives, 
(3rd series, Feb.-March, 1904, pp. 178-179). (P. A.) 

GOOCH, SIR DANIEL, Bart. (1816-1889), English mechanical 
engineer, was born at Bedlington, in Northumberland, on the 
i6th of August 1816. At the age of fifteen, having shown a taste 
for mechanics, he was put to work at the Tredegar Ironworks, 
Monmouthshire. In 1834 he went to Warrington, where, at the 
Vulcan foundry, under Robert Stephenson, he acquired the 
principles of locomotive design. Subsequently, after passing a 
year at Dundee, he was engaged by the Stephensons at their 
Gateshead works, where he seems to have conceived that predilec- 
tion for the broad gauge for which he was afterwards distinguished, 
through having to design some engines for a 6-foot gauge in 
Russia and noticing the advantages it offered in allowing greater 
space for the machinery, &c., as compared with the standard 
gauge favoured by Stephenson. In 1837, on I. K. Brunei's 
recommendation, he was appointed locomotive superintendent to 
the Great Western railway at a time when the engines possessed 
by the railway were very poor and inefficient. He soon improved 
this state of affairs, and gradually provided his employers with 
locomotives which were unsurpassed for general excellence and 
economy of working. One of the most famous, the " Lord of the 
Isles," was awarded a gold medal at the Great Exhibition of 1851, 
and when, thirty years afterwards, it was withdrawn from active 
service it had run more than three-quarters of a million miles, all 
with its original boiler. In 1864 he left the Great Western and 
interested himself in the problem of laying a telegraph cable 
across the Atlantic. At this time the " Great Eastern " was in 
the hands of the bondholders, of whom he himself was one of the 
most important, and it occurred to him that she might advan- 
tageously be utilized in the enterprise. Accordingly, at his 
instance she was chartered by the Telegraph Construction 
Company, of which also he was a director, and in 1865 was 
employed in the attempt to lay a cable, Gooch himself super- 
intending operations. The cable, however, broke in mid-ocean, 
and the attempt was a failure. Next year it was renewed with 
more success, for not only was a new cable safely put in place, but 
the older one was picked up and spliced, so that there were two 
complete lines between England and America. For this achieve- 
ment Gooch was created a baronet. Meanwhile the Great 
Western railway had fallen on evil days, being indeed on the 
verge of bankruptcy, when in 1866 the directors appealed to him 
to accept the chairmanship of the board and undertake the 



rehabilitation of the company. He agreed to the proposal, and 
was so successful in restoring its prosperity that in 1889, at the 
last meeting over which he presided, a dividend was declared at the 
rate of 7^%. Under his administration the system was greatly 
enlarged and consolidated by the absorption of various smaller 
lines, such as the Bristol and Exeter and the Cornwall railways; 
and his appreciation of its strategic value caused him to be a 
strenuous supporter of the construction of the Severn Tunnel. 
His death occurred on the i5th of October 1889 at his residence, 
Clewer Park, near Windsor. 

GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827), English writer on medical, 
religious and classical subjects, was born on the 25th of May 
1764 at Epping, Essex. After attending a school at Romsey 
kept by his father, the Rev. Peter Good, who was a Nonconformist 
minister, he was, at about the age of fifteen, apprenticed to a 
surgeon-apothecary at Gosport. In 1783 he went to London to 
prosecute his medical studies, and in the autumn of 1784 he 
began to practise as a surgeon at Sudbury in Suffolk. In 1793 
he removed to London, where he entered into partnership with 
a surgeon and apothecary. But the partnership was soon 
dissolved, and to increase his income he began to devote attention 
to literary pursuits. Besides contributing both in prose and 
verse to the Analytical and Critical Reviews and the British 
and Monthly Magazines, and other periodicals, he wrote a large 
number of works relating chiefly to medical and religious subjects. 
In 1794 he became a member of the British Pharmaceutical 
Society, and in that connexion, and especially by the publication 
of his work, A History of Medicine (1795), he did much to effect 
a greatly needed reform in the profession of the apothecary. 
In 1820 he took the diploma of M.D. at Marischal College, 
Aberdeen. He died at Shepperton, Middlesex, on the 2nd of 
January 1827. Good was not only well versed in classical 
literature, but was acquainted with the principal European 
languages, and also with Persian, Arabic and Hebrew. His 
prose works display wide erudition; but their style is dull and 
tedious. His poetry never rises above pleasant and well-versified 
commonplace. His translation of Lucretius, The Nature of 
Things (1805-1807), contains elaborate philological and ex- 
planatory notes, together with parallel passages and quotations 
from European and Asiatic authors. 

GOOD FRIDAY (probably "God's Friday ")," the English 
name for the Friday before Easter, kept as the anniversary of 
the Crucifixion. In the Greek Church it has been or is known 
as irdcrxa [aTaupaxnjuoc], irapaaKtwri, irapcuTKfvfi ntya^ij or ayia, 
(wnjpia or T&. cxorijpia, i^tpa rov craupoD, while among the 
Latins the names of most frequent occurrence are Pascha Crucis, 
Dies Dominicae Passionis, Parasceve, Feria Sexta Paschae, 
Feria Sexta Major in Hierusalem, Dies Absolutionis. It was 
called Long Friday by the Anglo-Saxons 1 and Danes, possibly in 
allusion to the length of the services which marked the day. 
In Germany it is sometimes designated Stiller Freitag (compare 
Greek, e/35o;uas a^pa/cros; Latin, hebdomas inofficiosa, non 
laboriosa)', but more commonly Charfreitag. The etymology 
of this last name has been much disputed, but there seems now 
to be little doubt that it is derived from the Old High German 
chara, meaning suffering or mourning. 

The origin of the custom of a yearly commemoration of the 
Crucifixion is somewhat obscure. It may be regarded as certain 
that among Jewish Christians it almost imperceptibly grew out 
of the old habit of annually celebrating the Passover on the 
i4th of Nisan, and of observing the " days of unleavened bread " 
from the i sth to the 2 ist of that month. In the Gentile churches, 
on the other hand, it seems to be well established that originally 
no yearly cycle of festivals was known at all. (See EASTER.) 

From its earliest observance, the day was marked by a specially 
rigorous fast, and also, on the whole, by a tendency to greater 
simplicity in the services of the church. Prior to the 4th century 
there is no evidence of non-celebration of the eucharist on Good 
Friday; but after that date the prohibition of communion 

1 See Johnson's Collection of Ecclesiastical Laws (vol. i., anno 057) : 
" House! ought not to be hallowed on Long Friday, because Christ 
suffered for us on that day." 



2 3 8 



GOODMAN GOODSIR 



became common. In Spain, indeed, it became customary to 
close the churches altogether as a sign of mourning; but this 
practice was condemned by the council of Toledo (633). In the 
Roman Catholic Church the Good Friday ritual at present 
observed is marked by many special features, most of which 
can be traced back to a date at least prior to the close of the 8th 
century (see the Ordo Romanus in Muratori's Liturg. Rom. Vet.). 
The altar and officiating clergy are draped in black, this being the 
only day on which that colour is permitted. Instead of the 
epistle, sundry passages from Hosea, Habakkuk, Exodus and 
the Psalms are read. The gospel for the day consists of the 
history of the Passion as recorded by St John. This is often 
sung in plain-chaunt by three priests, one representing the " nar- 
rator," the other two the various characters of the story. The 
singing of this is followed by bidding prayers for the peace and 
unity of the church, for the pope, the clergy, all ranks and 
conditions of men, the sovereign, for catechumens, the sick and 
afflicted, heretics and schismatics, Jews and heathen. Then 
follows the " adoration of the cross " (a ceremony derived from 
the church of Jerusalem and said to date back to near the time 
of Helena's " invention of the cross ") ; the hymns Pange 
lingua and Vexilla regis are sung, and then follows the " Mass 
of the Presanctified." The name is derived from the fact that 
it is celebrated with elements consecrated the day before, the 
liturgy being omitted on this day. The priest merely places the 
Sacrament on the altar, censes it, elevates and breaks the host, 
and communicates, the prayers and responses interspersed being 
peculiar to the day. This again is followed by vespers, with a 
special anthem; after which the altar is stripped in silence. 
In many Roman Catholic countries in Spain, for example it is 
usual for the faithful to spend much time in the churches in 
meditation on the " seven last words " of the Saviour; no 
carriages are driven through the streets; the bells and organs 
are silent; and in every possible way it is sought to deepen the 
impression of a profound and universal grief. In the Greek 
Church also the Good Friday fast is excessively strict; as in the 
Roman Church, the Passion history is read and the cross adored; 
towards evening a dramatic representation of the entombment 
takes place, amid open demonstrations of contempt for Judas 
and the Jews. In Lutheran churches the organ is silent on this 
day, and altar, font and pulpit are draped in black, as indeed 
throughout Holy Week. In the Church of England the history 
of the Passion from the gospel according to John is also read; 
the collects for the day are based upon the bidding prayers 
which are found in the Ordo Romanus. The " three hours " 
service, borrowed from Roman Catholic usage and consisting 
of prayers, addresses on the " seven last words from the cross " 
and intervals for meditation and silent prayer, has become very 
popular in the Anglican Church, and the observance of the day 
is more marked than formerly among Nonconformist bodies, 
even in Scotland. 

GOODMAN, GODFREY (1583-1656), bishop of Gloucester, 
was born at Ruthin, Denbighshire, and educated at Westminster 
and Cambridge. He took orders in 1603, and in 1606 obtained 
the living of Stapleford Abbots, Essex, which he held together 
with several other livings. He was canon of Windsor from 1617 
and dean of Rochester 1620-1621, and became bishop of 
Gloucester in 1625. From this time his tendencies towards 
Roman Catholicism constantly got him into trouble. He 
preached an unsatisfactory sermon at court in 1626, and in 
1628 incurred charges of introducing popery at Windsor. In 
1633 he secured the see of Hereford by bribery, but Archbishop 
Laud persuaded the king to refuse his consent. In 1638 he was 
said to be converted to Rome, and two years later he was im- 
prisoned for refusing to sign the new canons denouncing popery 
and affirming the divine right of kings. He afterwards signed 
and was released on bail, but next year the bishops who had 
signed were all imprisoned in the Tower, by order of parliament, 
on the charge of treason. After eighteen weeks' imprisonment 
Goodman was allowed to return to his diocese. About 1650 he 
settled in London, where he died a confessed Roman Catholic. 
His best known book is The Fall of Man (London, 1616). 



GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD (1793-1860), American 
author, better known under the pseudonym of " Peter Parley," 
was born, the son of a Congregational minister, at Ridgefield, 
Connecticut, on the ipth of August 1793. He was largely 
self-educated, became an assistant in a country store at Danbury, 
Conn., in 1808, and at Hartford, Conn., in 1811, and from 1816 to 
1822 was a bookseller and publisher at Hartford. He visited 
Europe in 1823-1824, and in 1826 removed to Boston, where 
he continued in the publishing business, and from 1828 to 1842 
he published an illustrated annual, the Token, to which he was 
a frequent contributor both in prose and verse. A selection 
from these contributions was published in 1841 under the title 
Sketches from a. Student's Window. The Token also contained 
some of the earliest work of Nathaniel Hawthorne, N. P. Willis, 
Henry W. Longfellow and Lydia Maria Child. In 1841 he 
established Merry's Museum, which he continued to edit till 
1854. In 1827 he began, under the name of " Peter Parley," his 
series of books for the young, which embraced geography, 
biography, history, science and miscellaneous tales. Of these 
he was the sole author of only a few, but in 1857 he wrote that he 
was "the author and editor of about 170 volumes," and that 
about seven millions had been sold. In 1857 he published 
Recollections of a Lifetime, which contains a list both of the 
works of which he was the author or editor and of the spurious 
works published under his name. By his writings and publica- 
tions he amassed a large fortune. He was chosen a member of 
the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1836, and of the 
state Senate in 1837, his competitor in the last election being 
Alexander H. Everett, and in 1851-1853 he was consul at Paris, 
where he remained till 1855, taking advantage of his stay to have 
several of his works translated into French. After his return 
to America* he published, in 1859, Illustrated History of the 
Animal Kingdom. He died, in New York, on the gth of May 
1860. 

His brother, CHARLES AUGUSTUS GOODRICH (1790-1862), a 
Congregational, clergyman, published various ephemeral books, 
and helped to compile some of the " Peter Parley " series. 

GOODRICH, or GOODRICKE, THOMAS (d. 1554), English 
ecclesiastic, was a son of Edward Goodrich of East Kirkby, 
Lincolnshire, and was educated at Corpus Christi College, 
Cambridge, afterwards becoming a fellow of Jesus College in the 
same university. He was among the divines.consulted about the 
legality of Henry VIII. 's marriage with Catherine of Aragon, 
became one of the royal chaplains about 1530, and was conse- 
crated bishop of Ely in 1 534. He was favourable to the Reforma- 
tion, helped in 1537 to draw up the Institution of a Christian 
Man (known as the Bishops' Book), and translated the Gospel 
of St John for the revised New Testament. On the accession of 
Edward VI. in 1547 the bishop was made a privy councillor, 
and took a conspicuous part in public affairs during the reign. 
" A busy secular spirited man," as Burnet calls him, he was 
equally opposed to the zealots of the " old " and the " new 
religion." He assisted to compile the First Prayer Book of 
Edward VI., was one of the commissioners for the trial of Bishop 
Gardiner, and in January 1551-1552 succeeded Rich as lord high 
chancellor. This office he continued to hold during the nine 
days' reign of " Queen Jane " (Lady Jane Grey) ; but he con- 
tinued to make his peace with Queen Mary, conformed to the 
restored religion, and, though deprived of the chancellorship, 
was allowed to keep his bishopric until his death on the loth of 
May 1554. 

See the Did. Nat. Biog., where further authorities are cited. 

GOODSIR, JOHN (1814-1867), Scottish anatomist, born at 
Anstruther, Fife, on the 2oth of March 1814, was the son of Dr 
John Goodsir, and grandson of Dr John Goodsir of Largo. He 
was educated at the burgh and grammar-schools of his native 
place and at the university of St Andrews. In 1830 he was 
apprenticed to a surgeon-dentist in Edinburgh, where he studied 
anatomy under Robert Knox, and in 1835 he joined his father 
in practice at Anstruther. Three years later he communicated 
to the British Association a paper on the pulps and sacs of the 
human teeth, his researches on the whole process of dentition 



GOODWILL GOODWIN, T. 



239 



being at this time distinguished by their completeness; and 
about the same date, on the nomination of Edward Forbes, he 
was elected to the famous coterie called the " Universal Brother- 
hood of the Friends of Truth," which comprised artists, scholars, 
naturalists and others, whose relationship became a potent 
influence in scien'ce. With Forbes he worked at marine zoology, 
but human anatomy, pathology and morphology formed his 
chief study. In 1840 he moved to Edinburgh, where in the 
following year he was appointed conservator of the museum of 
the College of Surgeons, in succession to William Macgillivray. 
Much of his reputation rested on his knowledge of the anatomy of 
tissues. In his lectures in the theatre of the college in 1842-1843 
he evidenced the largeness of his observation of cell-life, both 
physiologically and pathologically, insisting on the importance 
of the cell as a centre of nutrition, and pointing out that the 
organism is subdivided into a number of departments. R. 
Virchow recognized his indebtedness to these discoveries by 
dedicating his Cellular Pathologic to Goodsir, as " one of the 
earliest and most acute observers of cell-life." In 1843 Goodsir 
obtained the post of curator in the university of Edinburgh; 
the following year he was appointed demonstrator of anatomy, 
and in 1845 curator of the entire museum. A year later he was 
elected to the chair of anatomy in the university, and devoted 
all his energies to anatomical research and teaching. 

Human myology was his strong point; no one had laboured 
harder at the dissecting-table; and he strongly emphasized 
the necessity of practice as a means of research. He believed 
that anatomy, physiology and pathology could never be properly 
advanced without daily consideration and treatment of disease. 
In 1848 he became a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons, 
and in the same year he joined the Highland and Agricultural 
Society, acting as chairman of the veterinary department, and 
advising on strictly agricultural matters. In 1847 he delivered 
a series of systematic lectures on the comparative anatomy 
of the invertebrata; and, about this period, as member of an 
aesthetic club, he wrote papers on the natural principles of 
beauty, the aesthetics of the ugly, of smell, the approbation or 
disapprobation of sounds, &c. Owing to the failing health of 
Professor Robert Jameson, Goodsir was induced to deliver the 
course of lectures on natural history during the summer of 1853. 

The lectures were long remembered for their brilliancy, but 
the infinite amount of thought and exertion which they cost 
broke down the health of the lecturer. Goodsir, nevertheless, 
persevered in his labours, writing in 1855 on organic electricity, 
in 1856 on morphological subjects, and afterwards on the structure 
of organized forms. His speculations in the latter domain gave 
birth to his theory of a triangle as the mathematical figure 
upon which nature had built up both the organic and inorganic 
worlds, and he hoped to complete this triangle theory of formation 
and law as the greatest of his works. In his lectures on the skull 
and brain he held the doctrine that symmetry of brain had more 
to do with the higher faculties than bulk or form. He died at 
Wardie, near Edinburgh, on the 6th of March 1867, in the same 
cottage in which his friend Edward Forbes died. His anatomical 
lectures were remarkable for their solid basis of fact ; and no one 
in Britain took so wide a field for survey or marshalled so many 
facts for anatomical tabulation and synthesis. 

See Anatomical Memoirs of John Goodsir, F.R.S., edited by W. 
Turner, with Memoir by H. Lonsdale (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1868), in 
which Goodsir's lectures, addresses and writings are epitomized; 
Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. iv. (1868) ; Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. vol. ix. (1868). 

GOODWILL, in the law of property, a term of somewhat 
vague significance. It has been defined as every advantage 
which has been acquired in carrying on a business, whether 
connected with the premises in which the business has been 
carried on, or with the name of the firm by whom it has been 
conducted (Churton v. Douglas, 1859, Johns, 174). Goodwill 
may be either professional or trade. Professional goodwill 
usually takes the form of the recommendation by a retiring 
professional man, doctor, solicitor, &c., to his clients of the suc- 
cessor or purchaser coupled generally with an undertaking not 
to compete with him. Trade goodwill varies with the nature of 



the business with which it is connected, but there are two rights 
which, whatever the nature of the business may be, are invariably 
associated with it, viz. the right of the purchaser to represent 
himself as the owner of the business, and the right to restrain 
competition. For the purposes of the Stamp Act, the goodwill of 
a business is property, and the proper duty must be paid on the 
conveyance of such. (See also PARTNERSHIP; PATENTS.) 

GOODWIN, JOHN (c. 1594-1665), English Nonconformist 
divine, was born in Norfolk and educated at Queens' College, 
Cambridge, where he was elected fellow in 1617. He was vicar 
of St Stephen's, Coleman Street, London, from 1633 to 1645, 
when he was ejected by parliament for his attacks on Presbyterian- 
ism, especially in his Geo/mxio. (1644) . He thereupon established 
an independent congregation, and put his literary gifts at Oliver 
Cromwell's service. In 1648 he justified the proceedings of the 
army against the parliament (" Pride's Purge ") in a pamphlet 
Might and Right Well Mel, and in 1649 defended the proceedings 
against Charles I. (to whom he had offered spiritual advice) in 
"T PpuTTodLnai. At the Restoration this tract, with some that 
Milton had written to Monk in favour of a republic, was publicly 
burnt, and Goodwin was ordered into custody, though finally in- 
demnified. He died in 1665. Among his other writings are Anti- 
Cavalierisme (1642), a translation of the Stralagemata Satanae of 
Giacomo Aconcio, the Elizabethan advocate of toleration, tracts 
against Fifth-Monarchy Men, Cromwell's " Triers " and 
Baptists, and Redemption Redeemed, containing a thorough 
discussion of . . . election, reprobation and the perseverance of 
the saints (1651, reprinted 1840). Goodwin's strongly Arminian 
tendencies brought him into conflict with Robert Baillie, professor 
of divinity of Glasgow, George Kendall, the Calvinist prebendary 
of Exeter, and John Owen (q.i>.~), who replied to Redemption 
Redeemed in The Doctrine of the Saints' Perseverance, paying a 
high tribute to his opponent's learning and controversial skill. 
Goodwin answered all three in the Triumviri (1658). John 
Wesley in later days held him in much esteem and published an 
abridged edition of his Impulalio fidei, a work on justification 
that had originally appeared in 1642. 

Life by T. Jackson (London, 1839). 

GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL (1857- ), American actor, 
was born in Boston on the 25th of July 1857. While clerk in a 
large shop he studied for the stage, and made his first appearance 
in 1873 in Boston in Stuart Robson's company as the newsboy 
in Joseph Bradford's Law. He made an immediate success by his 
imitations of popular actors. A hit in the burlesque Black-eyed 
Susan led to his taking part in Rice arid Goodwin's Evangeline 
company. It was at this time that he married Eliza Weathersby 
(d. 1887), an English actress with whom he played in B. E. 
Woollf's Hobbies. It was not until 1889, however, that Nat 
Goodwin's talent as a comedian of the "legitimate" type began 
to be recognized. From that time he appeared in a number of 
plays designed to display his drily humorous method, such as 
Brander Matthews' and George H. Jessop's A Gold Mine, 
Henry Guy Carleton's A Gilded Fool and Ambition, Clyde Fitch's 
Nathan Hale, H. V. Esmond's When vie were Twenty-one, &c. 
Till 1903 he was associated in his performances with his third 
wife, the actress Maxine Elliott (b. 1873), whom he married in 
1898; this marriage was dissolved in 1908. 

GOODWIN, THOMAS (1600-1680), English Nonconformist 
divine, was born at Rollesby, Norfolk, on the 5th of October 
1600, and was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge, where in 
1616 he graduated B.A. In 1619 he removed to Catharine Hall, 
where in 1620 he was elected fellow. In 1625 he was licensed 
a preacher of the university; and three years afterwards he 
became lecturer of Trinity Church, to the vicarage of which he 
was presented by the king in 1632. Worried by his bishop, who 
was a zealous adherent of Laud, he resigned all his preferments and 
left the university in 1634. He lived for some time in London, 
where in 1638 he married the daughter of an alderman; but in the 
following year he withdrew to Holland, and for some time was 
pastor of a small congregation of English merchants and refugees 
atArnheim. Returning toLondonsoon after Laud'simpeachment 
by the Long Parliament, he ministered for some years to the 



240 



GOODWIN, W. W. GOODYEAR 



Independent congregation meeting at Paved Alley Church, Lime 
Street, in the parish of St Dunstan's-in-the-East, and rapidly rose 
to considerable eminence as a preacher; in 1643 he was chosen a 
member of the Westminster Assembly, and at once identified 
himself with the Congregational party, generally referred to in 
contemporary documents as " the dissenting brethren." He 
frequently preached by appointment before the Commons, and in 
January 1630 his talents and learning were rewarded by the 
House with the presidentship of Magdalen College, Oxford, a post 
which he held until the Restoration. He rose into high favour with 
the protector, and was one of his intimate advisers, attending him 
on his death-bed. He was also a commissioner for the inventory 
of the Westminster Assembly, 1650, and for the approbation of 
preachers, 1653, and together with John Owen (q.v.) drew up an 
amended Westminster Confession in 1658. From 1660 until his 
death on the 23rd of February 1680 he lived in London, and 
devoted himself exclusively to theological study and to the 
pastoral charge of the Fetter Lane Independent Church. 

The works published by Goodwin during his lifetime consist 
chiefly of sermons printed by order of the House of Commons; but 
he was also associated with Philip Nye and others in the preparation 
of the ApologeticaU Narration (1643). His collected writings, which 
include expositions of the Epistle to the Ephesians and of the 
Apocalypse, were published in five folio volumes between 1681 and 
1704, and were reprinted in twelve 8vo volumes (Edin., 1861-1866). 
Characterized by abundant yet one-sided reading, remarkable at once 
for the depth and for the narrowness of their observation and spiritual 
experience, often admirably thorough in their workmanship, yet in 
style intolerably prolix they fairly exemplify both the merits and 
the defects of the special school of religious thought to which they 
belong. Calamy's estimate of Goodwin's qualities may be quoted 
as both friendly and just. " He was a considerable scholar and an 
eminent divine, and had a very happy faculty in descanting upon 
Scripture so as to bring forth surprising remarks, which yet generally 
tended to illustration." A memoir, derived from his own papers, by 
his son (Thomas Goodwin, "the younger," i6so?-i7i6?, Inde- 
pendent minister at London and Pinner, and author of the History 
of the Reign of Henry V.) is prefixed to the fifth volume of his collected 
works; as a "patriarch and Atlas of Independency " he is also noticed 
by Anthony Wood in the Athenae Oxonienses. An amusing sketch, 
from Addison's point of view, of the austere and somewhat fanatical 
president of Magdalen is preserved in No. 494 of the Spectator. 

GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON (1831- ), American 
classical scholar, was born in Concord, Massachusetts, on the 
gth of May 1831. He graduated at Harvard in 1851, studied in 
Germany, was tutor in Greek at Harvard in 1856-1860, and 
Eliot professor of Greek there from 1860 until his resignation in 
1901. He became an overseer of Harvard in 1903. In 1882- 
1883 he was the first director of the American School for Classical 
Studies at Athens. Goodwin edited the Panegyricus of Isocrates 
(1864) and Demosthenes On The Crown (1901); and assisted in 
preparing the seventh edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek- 
English Lexicon. He revised an .English version by several 
writers of Plutarch's Morals (5 vols., 1871; 6th ed., 1889), and 
published the Greek text with literal English version of Aeschylus' 
Agamemnon (1906) for the Harvard production of that play in 
June 1906. As a teacher he did much to raise the tone of classical 
reading from that of a mechanical exercise to literary study. 
But his most important work was his Syntax of the Moods and 
Tenses of the Greek Verb (1860), of which the seventh revised 
edition appeared in 1877 and another (enlarged) in 1890. This, 
was " based in part on Madvig and Kriiger," but, besides making 
accessible to American students the works of these continental 
grammarians, it presented original matter, including a " radical 
innovation in the classification of conditional sentences," notably 
the " distinction between particular and general suppositions." 
Goodwin's Greek Grammar (elementary edition, 1870; enlarged 
1879; revised and enlarged 1892) gradually superseded in most 
American schools the Grammar of Hadley and Allen. Both the 
Moods and Tenses and the Grammar in later editions are largely 
dependent on the theories of Gildersleeve for additions and 
changes. Goodwin also wrote a few elaborate syntactical 
studies, to be found in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, 
the twelfth volume of which was dedicated to him upon the 
completion of fifty years as an alumnus of Harvard and forty-one 
years as Eliot professor. 



GOODWIN SANDS, a dangerous line of shoals at the entrance 
to the Strait of Dover from the North Sea, about 6 m. from the 
Kent coast of England, from which they are separated by the 
anchorage of the Downs. For this they form a shelter. They 
are partly exposed at low water, but the sands are shifting, and 
in spite of Lights and bell-buoys the Goodwins are frequently 
the scene of wrecks, while attempts to erect a lighthouse or 
beacon have failed. Tradition finds in the Goodwins the remnant 
of an island called Lomea, which belonged to Earl Godwine in 
the first half of the nth century, and was afterwards submerged, 
when the funds devoted to its protection were diverted to build 
the church steeple at Tenterden (q.v.). Four lightships mark 
the limits of the sands, and also signal by rockets to the lifeboat 
stations on the coast when any vessel is in -distress on the sands. 
Perhaps the most terrible catastrophe recorded here was the 
wreck of thirteen ships of war during a great storm in November 

1703- 

GOODWOOD, a mansion in the parish of Boxgrove, in the 
Chichester parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 4 m. 
N.E. of Chichester. It was built from designs of Sir William 
Chambers with additions by Wyatt, after the purchase of the 
property by the first duke of Richmond in 1720. The park is in 
a hilly district, and is enriched with magnificent trees of many 
varieties, including some huge cedars. In it is a building con- 
taining a Roman slab recording the construction of a temple 
to Minerva and Neptune at Chichester. There is mention of a 
British tributary prince named Cogidubnus, who perhaps served 
also as a Roman official. A reference to early Christianity in 
Britain has been erroneously read into this inscription. On the 
racecourse a famous annual meeting, dating from 1802, is held 
in July. The parish church of SS. Mary and Blaize, Boxgrove, 
is almost entirely a rich specimen of Early English work. 

GOODYEAR, CHARLES (1800-1860), American inventor, 
was born at New Haven, Connecticut, on the 29th of December 
1800, the son of Amasa Goodyear, an inventor (especially of 
farming implements) and a pioneer in the manufacture of hard- 
ware in America. The family removed to Naugatuck, Conn., 
when Charles was a boy; he worked in his father's button 
factory and studied at home until 1816, when he apprenticed 
himself to a firm of hardware merchants in Philadelphia. In 
1821 he returned to Connecticut and entered into a partnership 
with his father at Naugatuck, which continued till 1830, when it 
was terminated by business reverses. Already he was interested 
in an attempt to discover a method of treatment by which india- 
rubber could be made into merchandizable articles that would 
stand extremes of heat and cold. To the solution of this problem 
the next ten years of his life were devoted. With ceaseless 
energy and unwavering faith in the successful outcome of his 
labours, in the face of repeated failures and hampered by 
poverty, which several times led him to a debtor's prison, he 
persevered in his endeavours. For a time he seemed to have 
succeeded with a treatment (or " cure ") of the rubber with 
aquafortis. In 1836 he secured a contract for the manufacture 
by this process of mail bags for the U.S. government, but the 
rubber fabric was useless at high temperatures. In 1837 he met 
and worked with Nathaniel Hayward (1808-1865), who had been 
an employee of a rubber factory in Roxbury and had made 
experiments with sulphur mixed with rubber. Goodyear bought 
from Hayward the right to use this imperfect process. In 1839, 
by dropping on a hot stove some indiarubber mixed with sulphur, 
he discovered accidentally the process for the vulcanization of 
rubber. Two years more passed before he could find any one who 
had faith enough in his discovery to invest money in it. At 
last, in 1844, by which time he had perfected his process, his 
first patent was granted, and in the subsequent years more than 
sixty patents were granted to him for the application of his 
original process to various uses. Numerous infringements had 
to be fought in the courts, the decisive victory coming in 1852 
in the case of Goodyear v. Day, in which his rights were defended 
by Daniel Webster and opposed by Rufus Choate. In 1852 he 
went to England, where articles made under his patents had 
been displayed at the International Exhibition of 1851, but he 






GOOGE GOOSE 



241 






was unable to establish factories there. In France a company 
for the manufacture of vulcanized rubber by his process failed, 
and in December 1855 he was arrested and imprisoned for debt 
in Paris. Owing to the expense of the litigation in which he was 
engaged and to bad business management, he profited little from 
his inventions. He died in New York City on the ist of July 
1860. He wrote an account of his discovery entitled Gum- 
Elastic and its Varieties (2 vols., New Haven, 1853-1855). 

See also B. K. Peirce, Trials of an Inventor, Life and Discoveries of 
Charles Goodyear (New York, 1866); James Parton, Famous 
Americans of Recent Times (Boston, 1867); and Herbert L. Terry, 
India Rubber and its Manufacture (New York, 1907). 

GOOGE, BARNABE (1540-1594), English poet, son of Robert 
Googe, recorder of Lincoln, was born on the nth of June 1540 
at Alvingham, Lincolnshire. He studied at Christ's College, 
Cambridge, and at New College, Oxford, but does not seem to 
have taken a degree at either university. He afterwards removed 
to Staple's Inn, and was attached to the household of his kinsman, 
Sir William Cecil. In 1563 he became a gentleman pensioner 
to Queen Elizabeth. He was absent in Spain when his poems 
were sent to the printer by a friend, L. Blundeston. Googe then 
gave his consent, and they appeared in 1563 as Eglogs, Epytaphes, 
and Sonettes. There is extant a curious correspondence on the 
subject of his marriage with Mary Darrell, whose father refused 
Googe's suit on the ground that she was bound by a previous 
contract. The matter was decided by the intervention of Sir 
William Cecil with Archbishop Parker, and the marriage took 
place in 1564 or 1565. Googe was provost-marshal of the court 
of Connaught, and some twenty letters of his in this capacity 
are preserved in the record office. He died in February 1594. 
He was an ardent Protestant, and his poetry is coloured by his 
religious and political views. In the third " Eglog," for instance, 
he laments the decay of the old nobility and the rise of a new 
aristocracy of wealth, and he gives an indignant account of the 
sufferings of his co-religionists under Mary. The other eclogues 
deal with the sorrows of earthly love, leading up to a dialogue 
between Corydon and Cornix, in which the heavenly love is 
extolled. The volume includes epitaphs on Nicholas Grimald, 
John Bale and on Thomas Phaer, whose translation of Virgil 
Googe is uncritical enough to prefer to the versions of Surrey 
and of Gavin Douglas. A much more charming pastoral than 
any of those contained in this volume, " Phyllida was a fayer 
maid" (Totlel's Miscellany) has been ascribed to Barnabe 
Googe. He was one of the earliest English pastoral poets, and 
the first who was inspired by Spanish romance, being consider- 
ably indebted to the Diana Enamorada of Montemayor. 

His other works include a translation from Marcellus Palingenius 
(said to be an anagram for Pietro Angelo Manzolli) of a satirical 
Latin poem, Zodiacus vitae (Venice, 1531?), in twelve books, under 
the title of The Zodyake of Life (1560) ; The Popish Kingdome, or 
reign of Antichrist (1570), translated from Thomas Kirchmayer or 
Naogeorgus; The Spiritual Husbandrie from the same author, 
printed with the last; Foure Bookes of Husbandrie (1577), collected 
by Conradus Heresbachius; and The Proverbes of ... Lopes de 
Mendoza (1579). 

GOOLE, a market town and port in the Osgoldcross parlia- 
mentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 
at the confluence of the Don and the Ouse, 24 m. W. by S. from 
Hull, served by the North Eastern, Lancashire & Yorkshire, 
Great Central and Asholme joint railways. Pop. of urban 
district (1901) 16,576. The town owes its existence to the 
construction of the Knottingley canal in 1826 by the Aire and 
Calder Navigation Company, after which, in 1829, Goole was 
made a bonding port. Previously it had been an obscure hamlet. 
The port was administratively combined with that of Hull in 
1885. It is 47 m. from the North Sea (mouth of the Humber), 
and a wide system of inland navigation opens from it. There are 
eight docks supplied with timber ponds, quays, warehouses and 
other accommodation. The depth of water is 21 or 22 ft. at high 
water, spring tides. Chief exports are coal, stone, woollen good: 
and machinery; imports, butter, fruit, indigo, logwood, timber 
and wool. Industries include the manufacture of alum, sugar 
rope and agricultural instruments, and iron-founding. Ship- 
building is also carried on, and there is a large dry dock and a 



patent slip for repairing vessels. Passenger steamship services 
are worked in connexion with the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway 
;o Amsterdam, Antwerp, Bruges, Copenhagen, Rotterdam and 
other north European ports. The handsome church of St John 
the Evangelist, with a lofty tower and spire, dates from 1844. 

GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. g6s, pi. gts, Ger. Cans, 
O. Norse g&s, from Aryan root, ghans, whence Sans, hansd, Lat. 
anser (for hanser), Gr. x^", &c.), the general English name for a 
considerable number of birds, belonging to the family Anatidae 
of modern ornithologists, which are mostly larger than ducks 
and less than swans. Technically the word goose is reserved 
Eor the female, the male being called gander (A.-S. gandra). 

The most important species of goose, and the type of the 
genus Anser, is undoubtedly that which is the origin of the 
well-known domestic race (see POULTRY), the Anser ferus or 
A. cinereus of most naturalists, commonly called in English the 
grey or grey lag 1 goose, a bird of exceedingly wide range in the 
Old World, apparently breeding where suitable localities are 
to be found in most European countries from Lapland to Spain 
and Bulgaria. Eastwards it extends to China, but does not 
seem to be known in Japan. It is the only species indigenous 
to the British Islands, and in former days bred abundantly in 
the English Fen-country, where the young were caught in large 
numbers and kept in a more or less reclaimed condition with the 
vast flocks of tame-bred geese that at one time formed so valuable 
a property to the dwellers in and around the Fens. It is im- 
possible to determine when the wild grey lag goose ceased from 
breeding in England, but it certainly did so towards the end of 
the i8th century, for Daniell mentions (Rural Sports, iii. 242) 
his having obtained two broods in one season. In Scotland this 
goose continues to breed sparingly in several parts of the High- 
lands and in certain of the Hebrides, the nests being generally 
placed in long heather, and the eggs seldom exceeding five or 
six in number. It is most likely the birds reared here that are 
from time to time obtained in England, for at the present day 
the grey lag goose, though once so numerous, is, and for many 
years has been, the rarest species of those that habitually resort 
to the British Islands. The domestication of this species, as 
Darwin remarks (Animals and Plants under Domestication, i. 
287), is of very ancient date, and yet scarcely any other animal 
that has been tamed for so long a period, and bred so largely in 
captivity, has varied so little. It has increased greatly in size 
and fecundity, but almost the only change in plumage is that 
tame geese commonly lose the browner and darker tints of the 
wild bird, and are more or less marked with white being often 
indeed wholly of that colour. 2 The most generally recognized 
breeds of domestic geese are those to which the distinctive names 
of Emden and Toulouse are applied; but a singular breed, said 
to have come from Sevastopol, was introduced into western 
Europe about the year 1856. In this the upper plumage is 
elongated, curled and spirally twisted, having their shaft 
transparent, and so thin that it often splits into fine filaments, 
which, remaining free for an inch or more, often coalesce again; 3 
while the quills are aborted, so that the birds cannot fly. 

1 The meaning and derivation of this word lag had long been a 
puzzle until Skeat suggested (Ibis, 1870, p. 301) that it signified 
late, last, or slow, as in laggard, a loiterer, lagman, the last man, 
lagteeth, the posterior molar or " wisdom " teeth (as the last to 
appear), and lagclock, a clock that is behind time. Thus the grey 
lag goose is the grey goose which in England when the name was 
given was not migratory but lagged behind the other wild species at 
the season when they betook themselves to their northern breeding- 
quarters. In connexion with this word, however, must be noticed 
the curious fact mentioned by Rowley (Orn. Miscell., iii. 213), 
that the flocks of tame geese in Lincolnshire are urged on by their 
drivers with the cry of lag'em, lag'em." 

2 From the times of the Romans white geese have been held in 
great estimation, and hence, doubtless, they have been preferred as 
breeding stock, but the practice of plucking geese alive, continued 
for so many centuries, has not improbably also helped to perpetuate 
this variation, for it is well known to many bird-keepers that a 
white feather is often produced in place of one of the natural colour 
that has been pulled out. 

8 In some English counties, especially Norfolk and Lincoln, it 
was no uncommon thing formerly for a man to keep a stock of a 
thousand geese, each of which might be reckoned to rear on an 



242 



GOOSE 



The other British species of typical geese are the bean-goose 
(A. segetum), the pink-footed (A. brachyrhynchus) and the white- 
fronted (A. albifrons). On the continent of Europe, but not 
yet recognized as occurring in Britain, is a small form of the last 
(A. erythropus) which is known to breed in Lapland. All these, 
for the sake of discrimination, may be divided into two groups 
(i) those having the " nail " at the tip of the bill white, or of a 
very pale flesh colour, and (2) those in which this "nail" is 
black. To the former belong the grey lag goose, as well as A. 
albifrons and A. erythropus, and to the latter the other two. 
A. albifrons and A. erythropus, which differ little but in size, 
the last being not much bigger than a mallard (Anas boschas), 
may be readily distinguished from the grey lag goose by their 
bright orange legs and their mouse-coloured upper wing-coverts, 
to say nothing of their very conspicuous white face and the 
broad black bars which cross the belly, though the last two 
characters are occasionally observable to some extent in the 
grey lag goose, which has the bill and legs flesh-coloured, and 
the upper wing-coverts of a bluish-grey. Of the second group, 
with the black " nail," A. segetum has the bill long, black at the 
base and orange in the middle; the feet are also orange, and 
the upper wing-coverts mouse-coloured, as in A. albifrons and 
A. erythropus, while A. brachyrhynchus has the bill short, bright 
pink in the middle, and the feet also pink, the upper wing-coverts 
being nearly of the same bluish-grey as in the grey lag goose. 
Eastern Asia possesses in A. grandis a third species of this group, 
which chiefly differs from A. segetum in its larger size. In North 
America there is only one species of typical goose, and that 
belongs to the white-" nailed " group. It very nearly resembles 
A. albifrons, but is larger, and has been described as distinct 
under the name of A . gambeli. Central Asia and India possess 
in the bar-headed goose (A. indicus) a bird easily distinguished 
from any of the foregoing by the character implied by its English 
name; but it is certainly somewhat abnormal, and, indeed, 
under the name of Eulabia, has been separated from the genus 
Anser, which has no other member indigenous to the Indian 
Region, nor any at all to the Ethiopian, Australian or Neotropical 
Regions. 

America possesses by far the greatest wealth of Anserine forms. 
Beside others, presently to be mentioned, its northern portions 
are the home of all the species of snow-geese belonging to the 
genus Chen. The first of these is C. hyperboreus, the snow-goose 
proper, a bird of large size, and when adult of a pure white, 
except the primaries, which are black. This has long been 
deemed a visitor to the Old World, and sometimes in considerable 
numbers, but the later discovery of a smaller form, C. albatus, 
scarcely differing except in size, throws some doubt on the older 
records, especially since examples which have been obtained in 
the British Islands undoubtedly belong to this lesser bird, and 
it would be satisfactory to have the occurrence in the Old World 
of the true C. hyperboreus placed on a surer footing. So nearly 
allied to the species last named as to have been often confounded 
with it, is the blue-winged goose, C. coerulescens, which is said 
never to attain a snowy plumage. Then we have a very small 
species, long ago described as distinct by Samuel Hearne, the 
Arctic traveller, but until 1861 discredited by ornithologists. 
Its distinctness has now been fully recognized, and it has received, 
somewhat unjustly, the name of C. rossi. Its face is adorned 
with numerous papillae, whence it has been removed by Elliot 
to a separate genus, Exanthemops, and for the same reason it 
has long been known to the European residents in the fur 
countries as the " horned wavey " the last word being a 
rendering of a native name, Wawa, which signifies goose. Finally, 
average seven goslings. The flocks were regularly taken to pasture 
and water, just as sheep are, and the man who tended them was 
called the gooseherd, corrupted into gozzerd. The birds were 
plucked five times in the year, and in autumn the flocks were driven 
to London or other large markets. They travelled at the rate of 
about a mile an hour, and would get over nearly 10 m. in the day. 
For further particulars the reader may be referred to Pennant's 
British Zoology; Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary; Latham's 
General History of Birds; and Rowley's Ornithological Miscellany 
(iii. 206-215), where some account also may be found of the goose- 
fatting at Strassburg. 



there appears to belong to this section, though it has been 
frequently referred to another (Chloephaga), and has also been 
made the type of a distinct genus (Philacte), the beautiful 
emperor goose, P. canagica, which is almost peculiar to the 
Aleutian Islands, though straying to the continent in winter, 
and may be recognized by the white edging of its remiges. 

The southern portions of the New World are inhabited by 
about half a dozen species of geese not nearly akin to the fore- 
going, and separated as tMe genus Chloephaga. The most 
noticeable of them are the rock or kelp goose, C. antarctica, and 
the upland goose, C. magellanica. In both of these the sexes 
are totally unlike in colour, but in others a greater similarity 
obtains. 1 Formerly erroneously associated with the birds of 
this group comes one which belongs to the northern hemisphere, 
and is common to the Old World as well as the New. It contains 
the geese which have received the common names of bernacles 
or brents, 2 and the scientific appellations of Bernicla and Branta 
for the use of either of which much may be said by nomen- 
claturists. All the species of this section are distinguished by 
their general dark sooty colour, relieved in some by white of 
greater or less purity, and by way of distinction from the members 
of the genus Anser, which are known as grey geese, are frequently 
called by fowlers black geese. Of these, the best known both 
in Europe and North America is the brent-goose the Anas 
bernicla of Linnaeus, and the B. lorquata of many modern 
writers a truly marine bird, seldom (in Europe at least) quitting 
salt-water, and coming southwards in vast flocks towards 
autumn, frequenting bays and estuaries on the British coasts, 
where it lives chiefly on sea-grass (Zostera maritima). It is 
known to breed in Spitsbergen and in Greenland. A form which 
is by some ornithologists deemed a good species, and called 
by them B. nigricans, occurs chiefly on the Pacific coast of 
North America. In it the black of the neck, which in the common 
brent terminates just above the breast, extends over most of 
the lower parts. The true bernacle-goose, 3 the B. leucopsis of 
most authors, is but a casual visitor to North America, but is 
said to breed in Iceland, and occasionally in Norway. Its usual 
incunabula, however, still form one of the puzzles of the ornitho- 
logist, and the difficulty is not lessened by the fact that it will 
breed freely in semi-captivity, while the brent-goose will not. 
From the latter the bernacle-goose is easily distinguished by its 
larger size and white cheeks. Hutchins's goose (B. Hutchinsi) 
seems to be its true representative in the New World. In this 
the face is dark, but a white crescentic or triangular patch 
extends from the throat on either side upVards behind the eye. 
Almost exactly similar in coloration to the last, but greatly 
superior in size, and possessing 18 rectrices, while all the fore- 
going have but 16, is the common wild goose of America, B. 
canadensis, which, for more than two centuries has been intro- 
duced into Europe, where it propagates so freely that it has been 
included by nearly all the ornithologists of this quarter of the 
globe as a member of its fauna. An allied form, by some 
deemed a species, is B. leucopareia, which ranges over the western 
part of North America, and, though having 18 rectrices, is 
distinguished by a white collar round the lower part of the 
neck. The most diverse species of this group of geese are the 
beautiful B. ruficollis, a native of north-eastern Asia, which 
occasionally strays to western Europe, and has been obtained 
more than once in Britain, and that which is peculiar to the 
Hawaian archipelago, B. sandvicensis. 

The largest living goose is that called the Chinese, Guinea or 
swan-goose, Cygnopsis cygnoides, and this is the stock whence 
the domestic geese of several eastern countries have sprung. 
It may often be seen in English parks, and it is found to cross 
readily with the common tame goose, the offspring being fertile, 

1 See Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Society (1876), pp. 361-369. 

2 The etymology of these two words is exceedingly obscure. 
The ordinary spelling bernicle seems to be wrong, if we may judge 
from the analogy of the French Bernache. In both words the e 
should be sounded as a. 

3 The old fable, perhaps still believed by the uneducated in some 
parts of the world, was that bernacle-geese were produced from the 
barnacles (Lepadidae) that grow on timber exposed to salt-water. 






GOOSE (GAME OF) GOOSEBERRY 



243 



and Blyth has said that these crosses are very abundant in India. 
The true home of the species is in eastern Siberia or Mongolia. 
It is distinguished by its long smooth neck, marked dorsally 
by a chocolate streak. The reclaimed form is usually distin- 
guished by the knob at the base of the bill, but the evidence of 
many observers shows that this is not found in the wild race. 
Of this bird there is a perfectly white breed. 

We have next to mention a very curious form, Cereopsis 
novae-hollandiae, which is peculiar to Australia, and is a more 
terrestrial type of goose than any other now existing. Its short, 
decurved bill and green cere give it a very peculiar expression, 
and its almost uniform grey plumage, bearing rounded black 
spots, is also remarkable. It bears captivity well, breeding in 
confinement, but is now seldom seen. It appears to have been 
formerly very abundant in many parts of Australia, from which 
it has of late been exterminated. Some of its peculiarities seem 
to have been still more exaggerated in a bird that is wholly 
extinct, the Cnemiornis calcitrant of New Zealand, the remains 
of which were described in full by Sir R. Owen in 1873 
(Trans. Zool. Society, ix. 253). Among the first portions of this 
singular bird that were found were the tibiae, presenting an 
extraordinary development of the patella, which, united with 
the shank-bone, gave rise to the generic name applied. For some 
time the affinity of the owner of this wonderful structure was 
in doubt, but all hesitation was dispelled by the discovery of a 
nearly perfect skeleton, now in the British Museum, which proved 
the bird to be a goose, of great size, and unable, from the shortness 
of its wings, to fly. In correlation with this loss of power may 
also be noted the dwindling of the keel of the sternum. Generally, 
however, its osteological characters point to an affinity to Cere- 
opsis, as was noticed by Dr Hector (Trans. New Zeal. Institute, 
vi. 76-84), who first determined its Anserine character. 

Birds of the genera Chenalopex (the Egyptian and Orinoco 
geese), Plectropterus, Sarcidiornis, Chlamydochen and some others, 
are commonly called geese. It seems uncertain whether they 
should be grouped with the Anserinae. The males of all, like 
those of the above-mentioned genus Chloephaga, appear to have 
that curious enlargement at the junction of the bronchial tubes 
and the trachea which is so characteristic of the ducks or 
Anatinae. (A. N.) 

GOOSE (GAME or), an ancient French game, said to have been 
derived from the Greeks, very popular at the close of the middle 
ages. It was played on a piece of card-board upon which was 
drawn a fantastic scroll, called the jardin de I'Oie (goose-garden) , 
divided into 63 spaces marked with certain emblems, such as 
dice, an inn, a bridge, a labyrinth, &c. The emblem inscribed on 
i and 63, as well as every ninth space between, was a goose. 
The object was to land one's counter in number 63, the number 
of spaces moved through being determined by throwing two 
dice. The counter was advanced or retired according to the space 
on which it was placed. For instance if it rested on the inn it 
must remain there until each adversary, of which there might 
be several, had played twice; if it rested on the' death's head 
the player must begin over again; if it went beyond 63 it must 
be retired a certain number of spaces. The game was usually 
played for a stake, and special fines were exacted for resting on 
certain spaces. At the end of the i8th century a variation of 
the game was called the jeu de la Revolution Franc,aise. 

GOOSEBERRY, Ribes Grossularia, a well-known fruit-bush 
of northern and central Europe, placed in the same genus of 
the natural order to which it gives name (Ribesiaceae) as the 
closely allied currants. It forms a distinct section Grossularia, 
the members of which differ from the true currents chiefly in 
their spinous stems, and in their flowers growing on short foot- 
stalks, solitary, or two or three together, instead of in racemes. 

The wild gooseberry is a small, straggling bush, nearly re- 
sembling the cultivated plant, the branches being thickly 
set with sharp spines, standing out singly or in diverging tufts 
of two or three from the bases of the short spurs or lateral leaf 
shoots, on which the bell-shaped flowers are produced, singly 
or in pairs, from the groups of rounded, deeply-crenated 3- or 5- 
lobed leaves. The fruit is smaller than in the garden kinds, 



but is often of good flavour; it is generally hairy, but in one 
variety smooth, constituting the R. Uva-crispa of writers; the 
colour is usually green, but plants are occasionally met with 
having deep purple berries. The gooseberry is indigenous in 
Europe and western Asia, growing naturally in alpine thickets 
and rocky woods in the lower country, from France eastward, 
perhaps as far as the Himalaya. In Britain it is often found in 
copses and hedgerows and about old ruins, but has been so long 
a plant of cultivation that it is difficult to decide upon its claim 
to a place in the native flora of the island. Common as it is now 
on some of the lower slopes of the Alps of Piedmont and Savoy, 
it is uncertain whether the Romans were acquainted with the 
gooseberry, though it may possibly be alluded to in a vague 
passage of Pliny: the hot summers of Italy, in ancient times as 
at present, would be unfavourable to its cultivation. Abundant 
in Germany and France, it does not appear to have been much 
grown there in the middle ages, though the wild fruit was held 
in some esteem medicinally for the cooling properties of its acid 
juice in fevers; while the old English name, Fea-berry, still 
surviving in some provincial dialects, indicates that- it was 
similarly valued in Britain, where it was planted in gardens 
at a comparatively early period. William Turner describes the 
gooseberry in his Herball, written about the middle of the i6th 
century, and a few years later it is mentioned in one of Thomas 
Tusser's quaint rhymes as an ordinary object of garden culture. 
Improved varieties were probably first raised by the skilful 
gardeners of Holland, whose name for the fruit, Kruisbezie, may 
have been easily corrupted into the present English vernacular 
word. 1 Towards the end of the i8th century the gooseberry 
became a favourite object of cottage-horticulture, especially in 
Lancashire, where the working cotton-spinners have raised 
numerous varieties from seed, their efforts having been chiefly 
directed to increasing the size of the fruit. Of the many hundred 
sorts enumerated in recent horticultural works, few perhaps equal 
in flavour some of the older denizens of the fruit-garden, such 
as the " old rough red " and " hairy amber." The climate of 
the British Islands seems peculiarly adapted to bring the goose- 
berry to perfection, and it may be grown successfully even in 
the most northern parts of Scotland; indeed, the flavour of the 
fruit is said to improve with increasing latitude. In Norway 
even, the bush flourishes in gardens on the west coast nearly up 
to the Arctic circle, and it is found wild as far north as 63. 
The dry summers of the French and German plains are less 
suited to it, though it is grown in some hilly districts with tolerable 
success. The gooseberry in the south of England will grow well 
in cool situations, and may be sometimes seen in gardens near 
London flourishing under the partial shade of apple trees; but 
in the north it needs full exposure to the sun to bring the fruit 
to perfection. It will succeed in almost any soil, but prefers a 
rich loam or black alluvium, and, though naturally a plant of 
rather dry places, will do well in moist land, if drained. 

The varieties are most easily propagated by cuttings planted 
in the autumn, which root rapidly, and in a few years form 
good fruit-bearing bushes. Much difference of opinion prevails 
regarding the mode of pruning this valuable shrub; it is probable 
that in different situations it may require varying treatment. 
The fruit being borne on the lateral spurs, and on the shoots of 
the last year, it is the usual practice to shorten the side branches 
in the winter, before the buds begin to expand ; some reduce the 
longer leading shoots at the same time, while others prefer to 
nip off the ends of these in the summer while they are still 

1 The first part of the word has been usually treated as an ety- 
mological corruption either of this Dutch word or the allied Ger. 
Krausbeere, or of the earlier forms of the Fr. groseille. The New 
English Dictionary takes the obvious derivation from " goose " and 
" berry " as probable; " the grounds on which plants and fruits 
have received names associating them with animals are so commonly 
inexplicable, that the want of appropriateness in the meaning afford? 
no sufficient ground for assuming that the word is an etymologizing 
corruption." Skeat (Etym. Diet., 1898) connects the French, Dutch 
and German words, and finds the origin in the M.H.G. krus, curling, 
crisped, applied here to the hairs on the fruit. The French word 
was latinized as grossularia and confused with groseus, thick, fat. 



244 



GOOSEBERRY 



succulent. When large fruit is desired, plenty of manure should 
be supplied to the roots, and the greater portion of the berries 
picked off while still small. If standards are desired, the goose- 
berry may be with advantage grafted or budded on stocks of 
some other species of Ribes, R. aureum, the ornamental golden 
currant of the flower garden, answering well for the purpose. The 
giant gooseberries of the Lancashire " fanciers " are obtained 
by the careful culture of varieties specially raised with this 
object, the growth being encouraged by abundant manuring, and 
the removal of all but a very few berries from each plant. Single 
gooseberries of nearly 2 oz. in weight have been occasionally 
exhibited; but the produce of such fanciful horticulture is 
generally insipid. The bushes at times suffer much from the 
ravages of the caterpillars of the gooseberry or magpie moth, 
Abraxas grossidariata, which often strip the branches of leaves 
in the early summer, if not destroyed before the mischief is 
accomplished. The most effectual way of getting rid of this 
pretty but destructive insect is to look over each bush carefully, 
and pick off the larvae by hand; when larger they may be 
shaken off by striking the branches, but by that time the harm 
is generally done the eggs are laid on the leaves of the previous 
season. Equally annoying in some years is the smaller larva 
of the V-moth, Halias vanaria, which often appears in great 
numbers, and is not so readily removed. The gooseberry is 
sometimes attacked by the grub of the gooseberry sawfly, 
Nematus ribesii, of which several broods appear in the course of 
the spring and summer, and are very destructive. The grubs 
bury themselves in the ground to pass into the pupal state; 
the first brood of flies, hatched just as the bushes are coming into 
leaf in the spring, lay their eggs on the lower side of the leaves, 
where the small greenish larvae soon after emerge. For the 
destruction of the first broods it has been recommended to syringe 
the bushes with tar- water; perhaps a very weak solution of 
carbolic acid might prove more effective. The powdered root 
of white hellebore is said to destroy both this grub and the 
caterpillars of the gooseberry moth and V-mbth; infusion of 
foxglove, and tobacco-water, are likewise tried by some growers. 
If the fallen leaves are carefully removed from the ground in the 
autumn and burnt, and the surface of the soil turned over with 
the fork or spade, most eggs and chrysalids will be destroyed. 

The gooseberry was introduced into the United States by the 
early settlers, and in some parts of New England large quantities 
of the green fruit are produced and sold for culinary use in the 
towns; but the excessive heat of the American summer is not 
adapted for the healthy maturation of the berries, especially of 
the English varieties. Perhaps if some of these, or those raised 
in the country, could be crossed with one of the indigenous 
species, kinds might be obtained better fitted for American 
conditions of culture, although the gooseberry does not readily 
hybridize. The attacks of the American gooseberry mildew 

have largely con- 
tributed to the 
failure of the crop 
in America. 

Occasionally the 
gooseberry is at- 
tacked by the 
fungus till recently 
called Aecidium 
Gross ul aria e, 
which forms little 
cups with white 
torn edges clus- 

. _.. tered together on 

FIG. I. A^Fungal Disease of the Gooseberry rec j,jj s jj 




spots on 
the leaves or fruits 
(fig. i). It has 
recently been dis- 
covered that the 
spores contained in these cups will not reproduce the disease on 
the gooseberry, but infect species of Carex (sedges) on which 
they produce a fungus of a totally different appearance. This 



(Aectdium Grossulariae.) 

I, Leaf showing patches of cluster-cups on 
surface; 2, Fruit, showing same; 3, Cluster- 
cups much enlarged. 




stage in the life-history of the parasite gives its name to the 
whole fungus, so that it is now known as Puccinia Pringsheimiana. 
Both uredospores and 
teleutospores are formed 
on the sedge, and the 
latter live through the 
winter and produce the 
disease on the goose- 
berry in the succeeding 
year. In cases where 
the disease proves 
troublesome the sedges 
in the neighbourhood 
should be destroyed. 

A much more pre- 
valent disease is that 
caused by Micro- 
sphaeria Grossulariae. 
This is a mildew grow- 
ing on the surface of 
the leaf and sending 
suckers into the epi- 
dermis. The white 
mycelium gives the From G ^ Ttf . Mass ee's Text-Boot o) Plant zx<, 

leaves of the plant the b V permission of Duckworth & Co. 
appearance of having FIG. 2. Gooseberry Mildew (Microsphaeria 
been whitewashed Grossulariae.) 

(fie 2^ Numerous l ' Leaf attacked by the fungus; 2, 
15 Fructification or perithecium (X7S); the 
wmte spores are pro- g n( j O f one O f fa numerous appendages 
duced in the summer is shown more highly magnified (Xsoo) 
which are able to ger- in 3, 4. 5. spore sacs (asci) from the peri- 
m i n a t e immediately, thecium < containing spores ( X4<x>). 
and later small blackish fruits (perithecia) are produced that pass 
uninjured through the winter liberating the spores they contain 
in the spring, 
which infect the 
young developing 
leaves of the 
bush. In bad 
'cases the plants 
are greatly in- 
jured but fre- 
quently little 
harm is done. 
Attacked plants 
should be sprayed 
with potassium 
sulphide. 

An allied fun- 
gus, Sphaerotheca 
mors-uvae, of 
much greater vir- 
ulence, has re- 
cently appeared in 
England, causing 
the disease known 
as "American 
gooseberry mil- 
dew " (fig. 3 A). In 
the main the mode 
of attack is simi- 
lar to that of the 
last - mentioned, 
but not only are 
the leaves at 

, , From the Journal of the Board of Agriculture (May 1907), 

taCKCQ, DUt tne by permission of the Dept. of Agriculture and Technical 
tips Of the young ^""lion for Ireland. 

shoots and the FIG.JA. American GooseberryMildew(Sftaer- 
fmito K A r- r. m o othcca mors-uvoe). Plant with leaves and fruit 
become attacked b the fungus . 

covered by the 

cobweb-like mycelium, the attack frequently resulting in the 

death of the shoots and the destruction of the fruits. After a 





GOOTY GORAKHPUR 



245 



ie the mycelium becomes rusty brown and produces the 
inter form of the fungus. Through the winter the shoots 
B re covered thickly with the brown mycelium and in the spring 
the .spores contained in the perithecia germinate and start the 
infection anew, as in the case of the European mildew. This 
fungus has recently been the subject of legislation, and when it 
ippears in a district strong repressive measures are called for. 
i bad cases the attacked bushes should be destroyed, while in 
wilder attacks frequent spraying with potassium sulphide and 
.he pruning off and immediate destruction by fire of all the 
>ung shoots showing the mildew should be resorted to. 
The gooseberry, when ripe, yields a fine wine by the fermenta- 
.ion of the juice with water and sugar, the resulting sparkling 
liquor retaining much of the flavour of the fruit. By similarly 
treating the juice of the green fruit, picked just before it ripens, 
an effervescing wine is produced, nearly resembling some kinds 
champagne, and, when skilfully prepared, far superior to 





FlG. SB. I, Fructification (perithecium) bursting, ascus containing 
spores protruding ( X4OO) ; 2, Ascus with spores more highly magnifiec 
(Xiooo). 

much of the liquor sold under that name. Brandy has been 
made from ripe gooseberries by distillation; by exposing the 
juice with sugar to the acetous fermentation a good vinegar 
may be obtained. The gooseberry, when perfectly ripe, contains 
a large quantity of sugar, most abundant in the red and amber 
varieties; in the former it amounts to from 6 to upwards of 
8 %. The acidity of the fruit is chiefly due to malic acid. 

Several other species of the sub-genus produce edible fruit, 
though none have as yet been brought under economic culture. 
Among them may be noticed R. oxyacanthoides and R. Cynosbati, 
abundant in Canada and the northern parts of the United States, 
and R. gracile, common along the Alleghany range. The 
group is a widely distributed one in the north temperate zone, 
one species is found in Europe extending to the Caucasus and 
North Africa (Atlas Mountains), five occur in Asia and nineteen 
in North America, the range extending southwards to Mexico 
and Guatemala. 

GOOTY, a town and hill fortress in southern India, in the 
Anantapur district of Madras, 48 m. E. of Bellary. Pop. (1901] 
9682. The town is surrounded by a circle of rocky hills, connectec 
by a wall. On the highest of these stands the citadel, 2100 ft 
above sea-level and 1000 ft. above the surrounding country 
Here was the stronghold of Morari Rao Ghorpade, a famous 
Mahratta warrior and ally of the English, who was ultimately 
starved into surrender by Hayder AU in 1775. 

GOPHER (Testudo polyphemus), the only living representativ 

on the North American continent of the genus Testudo of th 
family Testudinidae or land tortoises; it occurs in the south 
eastern parts of the United States, from Florida in the south t< 
the river Savannah in the north. Its carapace, which is oblonj 
and remarkably compressed, measures from 12-18 in. in extrem 
length, the shields which cover it being grooved, and of a yellow 
brown colour. It is characterized by the shape of the front lob 

I of the plastron, which is bent upwards and extends beyond th 
carapace. The gopher abounds chiefly in the forests, bu 
occasionally visits the open plains, where it does great damage 
especially to the potato crops, on which it feeds. It is a nocturna 
animal, remaining concealed by day in its deep burrow, an 
coming forth at night to feed. The eggs, five in number, almos 



ound and 15 in. in diameter, are laid in a separate cavity near 
he entrance. The flesh of the gopher or mungofa, as it is also 
ailed, is considered excellent eating. 

The name " gopher " is more commonly applied to certain 
mall rodent mammals, particularly the pocket-gopher. 

GdPPINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttem- 

>erg, on the right bank of the Fils, 22 m. E.S.E. of Stuttgart on 

he railway to Friedrichshafen. Pop. (1905) 20,870. It possesses 

castle built, partly with stones from the ruined castle of Hohen- 

taufen, by Duke Christopher of Wurttemberg in the i6th century 

and now used as public offices, two Evangelical churches, a 

loman Catholic church, a synagogue, a classical school, and a 

modern school. The manufactures are considerable and include 

inen and woollen cloth, leather, glue, paper and toys. There are 

machine shops and tanneries in the town. Three m. N. of the 

own are the ruins of the castle of Hohenstaufen. Goppingen 

originally belonged to the house of Hohenstaufen, and in 1270 

came into possession of the counts of Wurttemberg. It was 

surrounded by walls in 1129, and was almost entirely rebuilt after 

a fire in 1782. 

See Pfeiffer, Beschreibung und Geschichte der Stadt Goppingen 
1885). 

GORAKHPUR, a city, district and division of the United 
Provinces of British India. The city is situated on the left bank 
of the river Rapti. Pop. (1901) 64,148. It is believed to have 
jeen founded about 1400 A.D. It is the civil headquarters of the 
district and was formerly a military cantonment. It consists of 
a number of adjacent village sites, sometimes separated by 
cultivated land, and most of the inhabitants are agriculturists. 

The DISTRICT OF GORAKHPUR has an area of 4535 sq. m. It 
ies immediately south of the lower Himalayan slopes, but itself 
forms a portion of the great alluvial plain. Only a few sandhills 
break the monotony of its level surface, which is, however, inter- 
sected by numerous rivers studded with lakes and marshes. In 
the north and centre dense forests abound, and the whole country 
lias a verdant appearance. The principal rivers are the Rapti, 
the Gogra, the Gandak and Little Gandak, the Kuana, the Robin, 
the Ami and the Gunghi. Tigers are found in the north, and 
many other wild animals abound throughout the district. The 
lakes are well stocked with fish. The district is not subject to 
very intense heat, from which it is secured by its vicinity to the 
hills and the moisture of its soil. Dust-storms are rare, and cool 
breezes from the north, rushing down the gorges of the Himalayas, 
succeed each short interval of warm weather. The climate is, 
however, relaxing. The southern and eastern portions are as 
healthy as most parts of the province, but the tarai and forest- 
tracts are still subject to malaria. 

Gautama Buddha, the founder of the religion bearing his name, 
was born, and died near the boundaries of the district. From the 
beginning of the 6th century the country was the scene of a con- 
tinuous struggle between the Bhars and their Aryan antagonists, 
the Rathors. About 900 the Domhatars or military Brahmans 
appeared, and expelled the Rathors from the town of Gorakhpur, 
but they also were soon driven back by other invaders. During 
the isth and i6th centuries, after the district had been desolated 
by incessant war, the descendants of the various conquerors held 
parts of the territory, and each seems to have lived quite isolated, 
as no bridges or roads attest any intercourse with each other. 
Towards the end of the i6th century Mussulmans occupied 
Gorakhpur town, but they interfered very little with the district, 
and allowed it to be controlled by the native rajas. In the 
middle of the i8th century a formidable foe, the Banjaras from the 
west, so weakened the power of the rajas that they could not resist 
the fiscal exactions of the Oudh officials, who plundered the 
country to a great extent. The district formed part of the 
territory ceded by Oudh to the British under the treaty of 1801. 
During the Mutiny it was lost for a short time, but under the 
friendly Gurkhas the rebels were driven out. The population in 
1901 was 2,957,074, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. 
The district is traversed by the main line and several branches of 
the Bengal & North- Western railway, and the Gandak, the Gogra 
and the Rapti are navigable. 






246 



GORAL GORCHAKOV 



The DIVISION has an area of 9534 sq. m. The population in 
1901 was 6,333,012, giving an average density of 664 persons per 
sq. m., being more than one to every acre, and the highest for 
any large tract in India. 

GORAL, the native name of a small Himalayan rough-haired 
and cylindrical-horned ruminant classed in the same group as the 
chamois. Scientifically this animal is known as Urotragus (or 
Cemas) goral; and the native name is now employed as the 
designation of all the other members of the same genus. In 
addition to certain peculiarities in the form of the skull, gorals 
are chiefly distinguished from serows (q.v.) by not possessing a 
gland below the eye, nor a corresponding depression in the skull. 
Several species are known, ranging from the Himalaya to Burma, 
Tibet and North China. Of these, the two Himalayan gorals 
( U. goral and U. bedfordi) are usually found in small parties, but 
less commonly in pairs. They generally frequent grassy hills, or 
rocky ground clothed with forest; in fine weather feeding only 
in the mornings and evenings, but when the sky is cloudy grazing 
throughout the day. 

GORAMY, or GOURAMY (Osphromenus olfax), reputed to be one 
of the best-flavoured freshwater fishes in the East Indian archi- 
pelago. Its original home is Java, Sumatra, Borneo and several 
other East Indian islands, but thence it has been transported to 
and acclimatized in Penang, Malacca, Mauritius and even 
Cayenne. Being an almost omnivorous fish and tenacious of life, 




Goramy. 

it seems to recommend itself particularly for acclimatization in 
other tropical countries; and specimens kept in captivity become 
as tame as carps. It attains the size of a large turbot. Its 
shape is flat and short, the body covered with large scales; the 
dorsal and anal fins are provided with numerous spines, and 
the ventral fins produced into long filaments. Like Anabas, 
the climbing perch, it possesses a suprabranchial accessory 
respiratory organ. 

GORBERSDORF, a village and climatic health resort of 
Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, romantically 
situated in a deep and well-wooded valley of the Waldenburg 
range, 1900 ft. above the sea, 60 m. S.W. of Breslau by the 
railway to Friedland and 3 m. from the Austrian frontier. Pop. 
700. It has four large sanatoria for consumptives, the earliest of 
which was founded in 1854 by Hermann Brehmer (1826-1889). 

GORBODUC, a mythical king of Britain. He gave his kingdom 
away during his lifetime to his two sons, Ferrex and Porrex. 
The two quarrelled and the younger stabbed the elder. Their 
mother, loving the latter most, avenged his death by murdering 
her son, and the people, horrified at her act, revolted and 
murdered both her and King Gorboduc. This legend was the 
subject of the earliest regular English tragedy which in 1561 
was played before Queen Elizabeth in the Inner Temple hall. 
It was written by Thomas Sackville, Lord Buckhurst and 
Thomas Norton in collaboration. Under the title of Gorboduc it 
was published first very corruptly in 1565, and in better form as 
The Tragedy of Ferrex and Porrex in 1570. 

GORCHAKOV, or GORTCHAKOFF, a noble Russian family, 
descended from Michael Vsevolodovich, prince of Chernigov, 
who, in 1 246, was assassinated by the Mongols. PRINCE ANDREY 
IVANOVICH (1768-1855), general in the Russian army,- took a 
conspicuous part in the final campaigns against Napoleon. 
ALEXANDER IVANOVICH (1760-1825) served with distinction 



under his relative Suvarov in the Turkish Wars, and took part 
as a general officer in the Italian and Swiss operations of 1799, 
and in the war against Napoleon in Poland in 1806-1807 (battle 
of Heilsberg). PETR DMITRIEVICH (1790-1868) served under 
Kamenski and Kutusov in the campaign against Turkey, and 
afterwards against France in 1813-1814. In 1820 he suppressed 
an insurrection in the Caucasus, for which service he was raised 
to the rank of major-general. In 1828-1829 he fought under 
Wittgenstein against the Turks, won an action at Aidos, and 
signed the treaty of peace at Adrianople. In 1839 he was made 
governor of Eastern Siberia, and in 1851 retired into private 
life. When the Crimean War broke out he offered his services 
to the emperor Nicholas, by whom he was appointed general of 
the VI. army corps in the Crimea. He commanded the corps 
in the battles of Alma and Inkerman. He retired in 1855 and 
died at Moscow, on the i8th of March 1868. 

PRINCE MIKHAIL DMITRIEVICH (1795-1861), brother of the 
last named, entered the Russian army in 1807 and took part 
in the campaigns against Persia in 1810, and in 1812-1815 
against France. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 
he was present at the sieges of Silistria and Shumla. After 
being appointed, in 1830, a general officer, he was present in the 
campaign in Poland, and was wounded at the battle of Grochow, 
on the 25th of February 1831. He also distinguished himself 
at the battle of Ostrolenka and at the taking of Warsaw. For 
these services he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general. 
In 1846 he was nominated military governor of Warsaw. In 
1840, he commanded the Russian artillery in the war against the 
Hungarians, and in 1852 he visited London as a representative 
of the Russian army at the funeral of the duke of Wellington. 
At this time he was chief of the staff of the Russian army and 
adjutant-general to the tsar. Upon Russia declaring war 
against Turkey in 1853, he was appointed commander-in-chief 
of the troops which occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1854 
he crossed the Danube and besieged Silistria, but was superseded 
in April by Prince Paskevich, who, however, resigned on the 8th 
of June, when Gorchakov resumed the command. In July 
the siege of Silistria was raised, and the Russian armies recrossed 
the Danube; in August they withdrew to Russia. In 1855 he 
was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian forces in the 
Crimea in place of Prince Menshikov. Gorchakov's defence of 
Sevastopol, and final retreat to the northern part of the town, 
which he continued to defend till peace was signed in Paris, were 
conducted with skill and energy. In 1856 he was appointed 
governor-general of Poland in succession to Prince Paskevich. 
He died at Warsaw on the 3oth of May 1861, and was buried, 
in accordance with his own wish, at Sevastopol. 

PRINCE GORCHAKOV, ALEXANDER MIKHAILOVICH (1798-1883), 
Russian statesman, cousin of Princes Petr and Mikhail Gorchakov, 
was born on the i6th of July 1798, and was educated at the 
lyceum of Tsarskoye Selo, where he had the poet Pushkin as a 
school-fellow. He became a good classical scholar, and learnt 
to speak and write in French with facility and elegance. Pushkin 
in one of his poems described young Gorchakov as " Fortune's 
favoured son," and predicted his success. On leaving the lyceum 
Gorchakov entered the foreign office under Count Nesselrode. 
His first diplomatic work of importance was the negotiation of a 
marriage between the grand duchess Olga and the crown prince 
Charles of Wiirttemberg. He remained at Stuttgart for some 
years as Russian minister and confidential adviser of the crown 
princess. He foretold the outbreak of the revolutionary spirit 
in Germany and Austria, and was credited with counselling the 
abdication of Ferdinand in favour of Francis Joseph. When the 
German confederation was re-established in 1850 in place of the 
parliament of Frankfort, Gorchakov was appointed Russian 
minister to the diet. It was here that he first met Prince 
Bismarck, with whom he formed a friendship which was after- 
wards renewed at St Petersburg. The emperor Nicholas found 
that his ambassador at Vienna, Baron Meyendorff, was not a 
sympathetic instrument for carrying out his schemes in the East. 
He therefore transferred Gorchakov to Vienna, where the latter 
remained through the critical period of the Crimean War. 



GORDIAN GORDIUM 



247 



Gorchakov perceived that Russian designs against Turkey, 
supported by Great Britain and France, were impracticable, 
and he counselled Russia to make no more useless sacrifices, 
but to accept the bases of a pacification. At the same time, 
although he attended the Paris conference of 1856, he purposely 
abstained from affixing his signature to the treaty of peace after 
that of Count Orlov, Russia's chief representative. For the time, 
however, he made a virtue of necessity, and Alexander II., 
recognizing the wisdom and courage which Gorchakov had 
exhibited, appointed him minister of foreign affairs in place of 
Count Nesselrode. Not long after his accession to office Gorcha- 
kov issued a circular to the foreign powers, in which he announced 
that Russia proposed, for internal reasons, to keep herself as 
free as possible from complications abroad, and he added the 
now historic phrase, " La Russie ne boude pas; die se recueille." 
During the Polish insurrection Gorchakov rebuffed the sugges- 
tions of Great Britain, Austria and France for assuaging the 
severities employed in quelling it, and he was especially acrid 
in his replies to Earl Russell's despatches. In July 1863 
Gorchakov was appointed chancellor of the Russian empire 
expressly in reward for his bold diplomatic attitude towards an 
indignant Europe. The appointment was hailed with enthusiasm 
in Russia, and at that juncture Prince Chancellor Gorchakov 
was unquestionably the most powerful minister in Europe. 

An approchement now began between the courts of Russia and 
Prussia; and in 1863 Gorchakov smoothed the way for the 
occupation of Holstein by the Federal troops. This seemed 
equally favourable to Austria and Prussia, but it was the latter 
power which gained all the substantial advantages; and when 
the conflict arose between Austria and Prussia in 1866, Russia 
remained neutral and permitted Prussia to reap the fruits and 
establish her supremacy in Germany. When the Franco-German 
War of 1870-71 broke out Russia answered for the neutrality 
of Austria. An attempt was made to form an anti-Prussian 
coalition, but it failed in consequence of the cordial understanding 
between the German and Russian chancellors. In return for 
Russia's service in preventing the aid of Austria from being 
given to France, Gorchakov looked to Bismarck for diplomatic 
support in the Eastern Question, and he received an instalment 
of the expected support when he successfully denounced the 
Black Sea clauses of the treaty of Paris. This was justly regarded 
by him as an important service to his country and one of the 
triumphs of his career, and he hoped to obtain further successes 
with the assistance of Germany, but the cordial relations between 
the cabinets of St Petersburg and Berlin did not subsist much 
longer. In 1875 Bismarck was suspected of a design of again 
attacking France, and Gorchakov gave him to understand, in a 
way which was not meant to be offensive, but which roused the 
German chancellor's indignation, that Russia would oppose any 
such scheme. The tension thus produced between the two 
statesmen was increased by the political complications of 1875- 
1878 in south-eastern Europe, which began with the Herze- 
govinian insurrection and culminated at the Berlin congress. 
Gorchakov hoped to utilize the complications in such a way as 
to recover, without war, the portion of Bessarabia ceded by the 
treaty of Paris, but he soon lost control of events, and the 
Slavophil agitation produced the Russo-Turkish campaign of 
1877-78. By the preliminary peace of San Stefano the 
Slavophil aspirations seemed to be realized, but the stipulations 
of that peace were considerably modified by the congress of 
Berlin (i3th June to I3th July 1878), at which the aged chancellor 
held nominally the post of first plenipotentiary, but left to the 
second plenipotentiary, Count Shuvalov, not only the task of 
defending Russian interests, but also the responsibility and 
odium for the concessions which Russia had to make to Great 
Britain and Austria. He had the satisfaction of seeing the lost 
portion of Bessarabia restored to his country by the Berlin 
treaty, but at the cost of greater sacrifices than he anticipated. 
After the congress he continued to hold the post of minister for 
foreign affairs, but lived chiefly abroad, and resigned formally in 
1882, when he was succeeded by M. de Giers. He died at Baden- 
Baden on the nth of March 1883. Prince Gorchakov devoted 



himself entirely to foreign affairs, and took no part in the great 
internal reforms of Alexander II. 's reign. As a diplomatist he 
displayed many brilliant qualities adroitness in negotiation, 
incisiveness in argument and elegance in style. His statesman- 
ship, though marred occasionally by personal vanity and love 
of popular applause, was far-seeing and prudent. In the latter 
part of his career his main object was to raise the prestige of 
Russia by undoing the results of the Crimean War, and it may 
fairly be said that he in great measure succeeded. (D. M. W.) 

GORDIAN, or GORDIANUS, the name of three Roman 
emperors. The first, Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus 
Romanus Africanus (A.D. 150-238), an extremely wealthy man, 
was descended from the Gracchi and Trajan, while his wife was 
the great-granddaughter of Antoninus Pius. While he gained 
unbounded popularity by his magnificent games and shows, his 
prudent and retired life did not excite the suspicion of Caracalla, 
in whose honour he wrote a long epic called A ntoninias. Alexander 
Severus called him to the dangerous honours of government in 
Africa, and during his proconsulship occurred the usurpation of 
Maximin. The universal discontent roused by the oppressive rule 
of Maximin culminated in a revolt in Africa in 238, and Gordian 
reluctantly yielded to the popular clamour and assumed the 
purple. His son, Marcus Antonius Gordianus (192-238), was 
associated with him in the dignity. The senate confirmed the 
choice of the Africans, and most of the provinces gladly sided 
with the new emperors; but, even while their cause was so 
successful abroad, they had fallen before the sudden inroad of 
Cappellianus, legatus of Numidia and a supporter of Maximin. 
They had reigned only thirty-six days. Both the Gordians had 
deserved by their amiable character their high reputation; they 
were men of great accomplishments, fond of literature, and 
voluminous authors; but they were rather intellectual voluptu- 
aries than able statesmen or powerful rulers. Having embraced 
the cause of Gordian, the senate was obliged to continue the 
revolt against Maximin, and appointed Pupienus Maximus 
and Caelius Balbinus, two of its noblest and most esteemed 
members, as joint emperors. At their inauguration a sedition 
arose, and the popular outcry for a Gordian was appeased 
by the association with them of M. Antonius Gordianus 
Pius (224-244), grandson of the elder Gordian, then a boy of 
thirteen. Maximin forthwith invaded Italy, but was murdered 
by his own troops while besieging Aquileia, and a revolt of the 
praetorian guards, to which Pupienus and Balbinus fell victims, 
left Gordian sole emperor. For some time he was under the 
control of his mother's eunuchs, till Timesitheus, 1 his father-in- 
law and praefect of the praetorian guard, persuaded him to assert 
his independence. When the Persians under Shapur (Sapor) I. 
invaded Mesopotamia, the young emperor opened the temple of 
Janus for the last time recorded in history, and marched in person 
to the East. The Persians were driven back over the Euphrates 
and defeated in the battle of Resaena (243), and only the death 
of Timesitheus (under suspicious circumstances) prevented an 
advance into the enemy's territory. Philip the Arabian, who 
succeeded Timesitheus, stirred up discontent in the army, and 
Gordian was murdered by the mutinous soldiers in Mesopotamia. 

See lives of the Gordians by Capitolinus in the Scriptores historiae 
Augustae; Herodian vii. viii.; Zosimus i. 16, 18; Ammianus 
Marcellinus xxiii. 5; Eutropius ix. 2; Aurelius Victor, Caesares, 
27; article SHAPUR (I.); Pauly-Wissowa, Realencydopddie, i. 
2619 f. (von Rohden). 

GORDIUM, an ancient city of Phrygia situated on the Persian 
" Royal road " from Pessinus to Ancyra, and not far from the 
Sangarius. It lies opposite the village Pebi, a little north of 
the point where the Constantinople-Angora railway crosses the 
Sangarius. It is not to be confused with Gordiou-kome, refounded 
as Juliopolis, a Bithynian town on a small tributary of the 
Sangarius, about 47 m. in an air-line N.W. of Gordium. Accord- 
ing to the legend, Gordium was founded by Gordius, a Phrygian 
peasant who had been called to the throne by his countrymen in 
obedience to an oracle of Zeus commanding them to select the 
first person that rode up to the temple of the god in a wagon. 
The king afterwards dedicated his car to the god, and another 
1 For this name see footnote to SHAPUR. 



248 



GORDON (FAMILY) GORDON, A. 



oracle declared that whoever succeeded in untying the strangely 
entwined knot of cornel bark which bound the yoke to the pole 
should reign over all Asia. Alexander the Great, according to 
the story, cut the knot by a stroke of his sword. Gordium was 
captured and destroyed by the Gauls soon after 189 B.C. and 
disappeared from history. In imperial times only a small village 
existed on the site. Excavations made in 1900 by two German 
scholars, G. and A. Koerte, revealed practically no remains later 
than the middle of the 6th century B.C. (when Phrygia fell under 

Persian power). 

See Jahrbuch des Instituts, Erganzungsheft v. (1904). (J. G. C. A.) 
GORDON, the name of a Scottish family, no fewer than 157 
main branches of which are traced by the family historians. A 
laird of Gorden, in Berwickshire, near the English border, is said 
to have fallen in the battle of the Standard (1138). The families 
of the two sons ascribed to him by tradition, Richard Gordon of 
Gordon and Adam Gordon of Huntly, were united by the marriage 
of their great-grandchildren Alicia and Sir Adam, whose grandson 
Sir Adam (killed at Halidon Hill, 1333) at first took the English 
side in the Scottish struggle for independence, and is the first 
member of the family definitely to emerge into history. He was 
justiciar of Scotland in 1310, but after Bannockburn he attached 
himself to Robert Bruce, who granted him in 1318 the lordship of 
Strathbogie in Aberdeenshire, to which Gordon gave the name of 
Huntly from a village on the Gordon estate in Berwickshire. He 
had two sons, Adam and William. The younger son, laird of 
Stitchel in Roxburghshire, was the ancestor of William de 
Gordon of Stitchel and Lochinvar, founder of the Galloway 
branch of the family represented in the Scottish peerage by the 
dormant viscounty of Kenmure (q.v.), created in 1633; most of 
the Irish and Virginian Gordons are offshoots of this stock. The 
elder son, Adam, inherited the Gordon-Huntly estates. He had 
two grandsons, Sir John (d. 1394) and Sir Adam (slain at Homildon 
Hill, 1403). Sir John had two illegitimate sons, Jock of Scur- 
dargue, the ancestor of the earls of Aberdeen, and Tarn of 
Ruthven. From these two stocks most of the northern Gordon 
families are derived. Sir Adam's daughter and heiress, Elizabeth, 
married Sir Alexander Seton, and with her husband was confirmed 
in 1408 in the possession of the barony of Gordon and Huntly in 
Berwickshire and of the Gordon lands in Aberdeen. The Seton- 
Gordons are their descendants. Their son Alexander was created 
earl of Huntly (see HUNTLY, EARLS AND MARQUESSES or), 
probably in 1445; and his heirs became dukes of Gordon, George 
Gordon (c. 1650-1716), 4th marquess of Huntly, being created 
duke of Gordon in 1684. He had been educated in a French 
Catholic seminary, and served in the French army in the cam- 
paigns of 1673 to 1675. Under James II. he was made keeper of 
Edinburgh Castle on account of his religion, but he refused to 
support James's efforts to impose Roman Catholicism on his 
subjects. He offered little active resistance when the castle was 
besieged by William III.'s forces. After his submission he was 
more than once imprisoned on suspicion of Jacobite leanings, and 
was ordered by George I. to reside on parole in Edinburgh. For 
some time before his death he was separated from his wife Elizabeth 
Howard, daughter of the 6th duke of Norfolk. His son Alexander, 
and duke of Gordon (c. 1678-1728), joined the Old Pretender, but 
gained the royal pardon after the surrender of Gordon Castle in 
1716. Of his children by his wife Henrietta Mordaunt, second 
daughter of Charles Mordaunt, earl of Peterborough, Cosmo 
George (c. 1720-1752) succeeded as 3rd duke; Lord Lewis Gordon 
(d. 1754) took an active part in the Jacobite rising of 1745; and 
General Lord Adam Gordon (c. 1726-1801) became commander of 
the forces in Scotland in 1782, and governor of Edinburgh Castle 
in 1786. Lord George Gordon (g.v.) was a younger son of the 
3rd duke. 

The title, with the earldom of Norwich and the barony of 
Gordon Huntly, became extinct on the death of George, 5th 
duke (1770-1836), a distinguished soldier who raised the corps 
now known as the 2nd battalion of the Gordon Highlanders. 
The marquessate of Huntly passed to his cousin and heir-male, 
George, 5th earl of Aboyne. Lady Charlotte Gordon, sister of 
and co-heiress with the 5th duke, married Charles Lennox, 4th 



duke of Richmond, whose son took the name of Gordon-Lennox. 
The dukedom of Gordon was revived in 1876 in favour of the 
6th duke of Richmond, who thenceforward was styled duke of 
Richmond and Gordon. Adam Gordon of Aboyne (d. 1537) 
took the courtesy title of earl of Sutherland in right of his wife 
Elizabeth, countess of Sutherland in her own right, sister of the 
9th earl. The lawless and turbulent Gordons of Gight were the 
maternal ancestors of Lord Byron. 

Among the many soldiers of fortune bearing the name of 
Gordon was Colonel John Gordon, one of the murderers of 
Wallenstein. Patrick Gordon (1635-1699) was born at Auch- 
leuchries in Aberdeenshire, entered the service of Charles X. 
of Sweden in 1651 and served against the Poles. He changed 
sides more than once before he found his way to Moscow in 1661 
and took service under the tsar Alexis. He became general in 
1687; in 1688 he helped to secure Peter the Great's ascendancy; 
and later he crushed the revolt of the Streltzi. His diary was 
published in German (3 vols., 1849-1853, Moscow and St Peters- 
burg), and selections from the English original by the Spalding 
Club (Aberdeen, 1859). 

The Gordons fill a considerable place in Scottish legend and 
ballad. " Captain Car," or" Edom (Adam) of Gordon" describes 
an incident in the struggle between the Forbeses and Gordons 
in Aberdeenshire in 1571; " The Duke of Gordon's Daughter " 
has apparently no foundation in fact, though " Geordie " of the 
ballad is sometimes said to have been George, 4th earl of Huntly; 
" The Fire of Frendraught " goes back to a feud (1630) between 
James Crichton of Frendraught and William Gordon of Rothie- 
may; the " Gallant Gordons Gay " figure in " Chevy Chase "; 
William Gordon of Earlston, the Covenanter, appears in " Both- 
well Bridge " &c. 

See William Gordon (of old Aberdeen), The History of the Ancient, 
Noble, and Illustrious House of Gordon (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1726- 
1727), of which A Concise History of the . . . House of Gordon, by 
C. A. Gordon (Aberdeen, 1754) is iittle more than an abridgment; 
The Records of Aboyne, 1230-^1081, edited by Charles, nth marquess 
of Huntly, &c. (New Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1894); The Gordon 
Book, ed. J. M. Bulloch (1902); The House of Gordon, ed. J. M. 
Bulloch (Aberdeen, vol. i., 1903) ; and Mr Bulloch's The First Duke 
of Gordon (1909). 

GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY (1833-1870), Australian poet, 
was born at Fayal, in the Azores, in 1833, the son of a retired 
Indian officer who taught Hindustani at Cheltenham College. 
Young Gordon was educated there and at Merton College, 
Oxford, but a youthful indiscretion led to his being sent in 1853 
to South Australia, where he joined the mounted police. He then 
became a horsebreaker, but on his father's death he inherited 
a fortune and obtained a seat in the House of Assembly. At 
this time he had the reputation of being the best non-professional 
steeplechase rider in the colony. In 1867 he moved to Victoria 
and set up a livery stable at Ballarat. Two volumes of poems, 
Sea Spray and Smoke Drift and Ashlar oth, were published in this 
year, and two years later he gave up his business and settled 
at New Brighton, near Melbourne. A second volume of poetry, 
Bush Ballads and Galloping Rhymes, appeared in 1870. It 
brought him more praise than emolument, and, thoroughly 
discouraged by his failure to make good his claim to some 
property in Scotland to which he believed himself entitled, 
he committed suicide on the 24th of June 1870. His reputation 
rose after his death, and he became the best known and most 
widely popular of Australian poets. Much of Gordon's poetry 
might have been written in England; when, however, it is 
really local, it is vividly so; his genuine feeling frequently 
kindles into passion; his versification is always elastic and 
sonorous, but sometimes too reminiscent of Swinburne. Hisj 
compositions are almost entirely lyrical, and their merit is 
usually in proportion to the degree in which they partake of the 
character of the ballad. 

Gordon's poems were collected and published in 1880 with a 
biographical introduction by Marcus Clarke. 

GORDON, ALEXANDER (c. 1692-^ 1754), Scottish antiquary, 
is believed to have been born in Aberdeen in 1692. He is 
the " Sandy Gordon " of Scott's Antiquary. Of his parentage 
and early history nothing is known. He appears to have 



distinguished himself in classics at Aberdeen University, and to 
have made a living at first by teaching languages and music. 
When still young he travelled abroad, probably in the capacity of 
tutor. He returned to Scotland previous to 1726, and devoted 
himself to antiquarian work. In 1726 appeared the Itinerarium 
Septentrionale, his greatest and best-known work. He was already 
the friend of Sir John Clerk, of Penicuik, better known as Baron 

I Clerk (a baron of the exchequer) ; and the baron and Roger Gale 
(vice-president of the Society of Antiquaries) are the " two 
gentlemen, the honour of their age and country," whose letters 
were published, without their consent it appears, as an appendix 
to the Itinerarium. Subsequently Gordon was appointed secre- 
tary to the Society for the Encouragement of Learning, with an 
annual salary of 50. Resigning this post, or, as there seems 
reason for believing, being dismissed for carelessness in his 
accounts, he succeeded Dr Stukeley as secretary to the Society 
of Antiquaries, and also acted for a short time as secretary to 
the Egyptian Club, an association composed of gentlemen who 
had visited Egypt. In 1741 he accompanied James Glen (after- 
wards governor), to South Carolina. Through his influence Gor- 
Idon, besides receiving a grant of land in South Carolina, became 
registrar of the province and justice of the peace, and filled 
several other offices. From his will, dated the 22nd of August 
1754, it appears he had a son Alexander and a daughter Frances, 
to whom he bequeathed most of his property, among which were 
portraits of himself and of friends painted by his own hand. 

See Sir Daniel Wilson, Alexander Gordon, the Antiquary; and his 
Papers in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 
with Additional Notes and an Appendix of Original Letters by 
Dr David Laing (Proc. Soc. of Anliq. of Scot. x. 363-382). 

GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE (1833-1885), British soldier 
and administrator, fourth son of General H. W. Gordon, Royal 
Artillery, was born at Woolwich on the 28th of January 1833. 
He received his early education at Taunton school, and was 
given a cadetship in the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, 
in 1848. He was commissioned as second lieutenant in the 
corps of Royal Engineers on the 23rd of June 1852. After 
passing through a course of instruction at the Royal Engineers' 
establishment, Chatham, he was promoted lieutenant in 1854, 
and was sent to Pembroke dock to assist in the construction of 
the fortifications then being erected for the defence of Milford 
Haven. The Crimean War broke out shortly afterwards, and 
Gordon was ordered on active service, and landed at Balaklava 
on the ist of January 1855. The siege of Sevastopol was in 
progress, and he had his full share of the arduous work in the 
trenches. He was attached to one of the British columns which 
assaulted the Redan on the i8th of June, and was also present 
at the capture of that work on the 8th of September. He took 
part in the expedition to Kinburn, and then returned to Sevas- 
topol to superintend a portion of the demolition of the Russian 
dockyard. After peace with Russia had been concluded, Gordon 
was attached to an international commission appointed to de- 
limit the new boundary, as fixed by treaty, between Russia and 
Turkey in Bessarabia; and on the conclusion of this work he 
was ordered to Asia Minor on similar duty, with reference to 
the eastern boundary between the two countries. While so 
employed Gordon took the opportunity to make himself well 
acquainted with the geography and people of Armenia, and 
the knowledge of dealing with eastern nations then gained 
was of great use to him in after life. 

He returned to England towards the end of 1858, and was 
then selected for the appointment of adjutant and field-works 
instructor at the Royal Engineers' establishment, 
and took up his new duties at Chatham after promotion 
to the rank of captain in April 1859. But his stay in England 
was brief, for in 1860 war was declared against China, and 
Gordon was ordered out there, arriving at Tientsin in September. 
He was too late for the attack on the Taku forts, but was present 
at the occupation of Peking and destruction of the Summer 
Palace. He remained with the British force of occupation in 
northern China until April 1862, when the British troops, 
under the command of General Staveley, proceeded to Shanghai, 



GORDON, C. G. 



249 



In China. 



in order to protect the European settlement at that place from 
the Taiping rebels. The Taiping revolt, which had some remark- 
able points of similarity with the Mahdist rebellion in the Sudan, 
had commenced in 1850 in the province of Kwangsi. The 
leader, Hung Sin Tsuan, a semi-political, semi-religious en- 
thusiast, assumed the title of Tien Wang, or Heavenly King, 
and by playing on the feelings of the lower class of people gradu- 
ally collected a considerable force. The Chinese authorities 
endeavoured to arrest him, but the imperialist troops were 
defeated. The area of revolt extended northwards through 
the provinces of Hunan and Hupeh, and down the valley of 
the Yangtsze-kiang as far as the great city of Nanking, which 
was captured by the rebels in 1853. Here the Tien Wang 
established his court, and while spending his own time in heavenly 
contemplation and earthly pleasures, sent the assistant Wangs 
on warlike expeditions through the adjacent provinces. For 
some years a constant struggle was maintained between the 
Chinese imperialist troops and the Taipings, with varying success 
on both sides. The latter gradually advanced eastwards, and ap- 
proaching the important city of, Shanghai, alarmed the European 
inhabitants, who subscribed to raise a mixed force of Europeans 
and Manila men for the defence of the town. This force, which 
was placed under the command of an American, Frederick 
Townsend Ward (1831-1862), took up a position in the country 
west of Shanghai to check the advance of the rebels. Fighting 
continued round Shanghai for about two years, but Ward's 
force was not altogether successful, and when General Staveley 
arrived from Tientsin affairs were in a somewhat critical con- 
dition. He decided to clear the district of rebels within a radius 
of 30 m. from Shanghai, and Gordon was attached to his staff 
as engineer officer. A French force, under the command of 
Admiral Protet, co-operated with Staveley and Ward, with his 
little army, also assisted. Kahding, Singpo and other towns 
were occupied, and the country was fairly cleared of rebels 
by the end of 1862. Ward was, unfortunately, killed in the 
assault of Tseki, and his successor, Burgevine, having had a 
quarrel with the Chinese authorities, Li Hung Chang, the gover- 
nor of the Kiang-su province, requested General Staveley to 
appoint a British officer to command the contingent. Staveley 
selected Gordon, who had been made a brevet-major in December 
1862 for his previous services, and the nomination was approved 
by the British government. The choice was judicious as 
further events proved. In March 1863 Gordon proceeded to 
Sungkiang to take command of the force, which had received 
the name of " The Ever- Victorious Army," an encouraging 
though somewhat exaggerated title, considering its previous 
history. Without waiting to reorganize his troops he marched 
at once to the relief of Chansu, a town 40 m. north-west of 
Shanghai, which was invested by the rebels. The relief was 
successfully accomplished, and the operation established Gordon 
in the confidence of his troops. He then reorganized his force, 
a matter of no small difficulty, and advanced against Quinsan, 
which was captured, though with considerable loss. Gordon 
then marched through the country, seizing town after town 
from the rebels until at length the great city of Suchow was 
invested by his army and a body of Chinese imperialist troops. 
The city was taken on the 29th of November, and after its 
capture Gordon had a serious dispute with Li Hung Chang, 
as the latter had beheaded certain of the rebel leaders whose 
lives the former had promised to spare if they surrendered. This 
action, though not opposed to Chinese ethics, was so opposed 
to Gordon's ideas of honour that he withdrew his force from 
Suchow and remained inactive at Quinsan until February 
1864. He then came to the conclusion that the subjugation of 
the rebels was more important than his dispute with Li, and 
visited the latter in order to arrange for further operations. 
By mutual consent no allusion was made to the death of the 
Wangs. This was a good example of one of Gordon's marked 
characteristics, that, though a man of strong personal feelings, 
he was always prepared to subdue them for the public benefit. 
He declined, however, to take any decoration or reward from 
the emperor for his services at the capture of Suchow. After 



25 



GORDON, C. G. 



the meeting with Li Hung Chang the " Ever- Victorious Army " 
again advanced and took a number of towns from the rebels, 
ending with Chanchufu, the principal military position of the 
Taipings. This fell in May, when Gordon returned to Quinsan 
and disbanded his force. In June the Tien Wang, seeing his 
cause was hopeless, committed suicide, and the capture of Nan- 
king by the imperialist troops shortly afterwards brought the 
Taiping revolt to a conclusion. The suppression of this serious 
movement was undoubtedly due in great part to the skill and 
energy of Gordon, who had shown remarkable qualities as a 
leader of men. The emperor promoted him to the rank of Titu, 
the highest grade in the Chinese army, and also gave him the 
Yellow Jacket, the most important decoration in China. He 
wished to give him a large sum of money, but this Gordon refused. 
He was promoted lieutenant-colonel for his Chinese services, 
and made a Companion of the Bath. Henceforth he was often 
familiarly spoken of as " Chinese " Gordon. 

Gordon was appointed on his return to England Commanding 
Royal Engineer at Gravesend, where he was employed in super- 
intending the erection of forts for the defence of the Thames. 
He devoted himself with energy to his official duties, and his 
leisure hours to practical philanthropy. All the acts of kindness 
which he did for the poor during the six years he was stationed 
at Gravesend will never be fully known. In October 1871 he 
was appointed British representative on the international 
commission which had been constituted after the Crimean War 
to maintain the navigation of the mouth of the river Danube, 
with headquarters at Galatz. During 1872 Gordon was sent to 
inspect the British military cemeteries in the Crimea, and when 
passing through Constantinople on his return to Galatz he made 
the acquaintance of Nubar Pasha, prime minister of Egypt, 
who sounded him as to whether he would take service under the 
khedive. Nothing further was settled at the time, but the 
following year he received a definite offer from the khedive, 
which he accepted with the consent of the British government, 
and proceeded to Egypt early in 1874. He was then a colonel 
in the army, though still only a captain in the corps of Royal 
Engineers. 

To understand the object of the appointment which Gordon 
accepted in Egypt, it is necessary to give a few facts with refer- 
ence to the Sudan. In 1820-22 Nubia, Sennar and Kordofan 
had been conquered by Egypt, and the authority of the Egyptians 
was subsequently extended southward, eastward to the Red 
Sea and westward over Darfur (conquered by Zobeir Pasha in 
1874). One result of the Egyptian occupation of the country 
was that the slave trade was largely developed, especially in the 
White Nile and Bahr-el-Ghazal districts. Captains Speke and 
Grant, who had travelled through Uganda and came down the 
White Nile in 1863, and Sir Samuel Baker, who went up the 
same river as far as Albert Nyanza, brought back harrowing 
tales of the misery caused by the slave-hunters. Public opinion 
was considerably moved, and in 1869 the khedive Ismail decided 
to send an expedition up the White Nile, with the double object 
of limiting the evils of the slave trade and opening up the district 
to commerce. The command of the expedition was given to 
Sir Samuel Baker, who reached Khartum in February 1870, but, 
owing to the obstruction of the river by the sudd or grass barrier, 
did not reach Gondokoro, the centre of his province, for fourteen 
months. He met with great difficulties, and when his four years' 
service came to an end little had been effected beyond establishing 
a few posts along the Nile and placing some steamers on the river. 
It was to succeed Baker as governor of the equatorial regions 
that the khedive asked for Gordon's services, having come to 
the conclusion that the latter was the most likely person to bring 
the affair to a satisfactory conclusion. After a short stay in 
Cairo, Gordon proceeded to Khartum by way of Suakin and 
Berber, a route which he ever afterwards regarded as the best 
mode of access to the Sudan. From Khartum he proceeded up 
the White Nile to Gondokoro, where he arrived in twenty-four 
days, the sudd, which had proved such an obstacle to Baker, 
having been removed since the departure of the latter by the 
Egyptian governor-general. Gordon remained in the equatorial 



provinces until October 1876, and then returned to Cairo. The 
two years and a half thus spent in Central Africa was a time of 
incessant toil. A line of stations was established from the Sobat 
confluence on the White Nile to the frontier of Uganda to 
which country he proposed to open a route from Mombasa and 
considerable progress was made in the suppression of the slave 
trade. The river and Lake Albert were mapped by Gordon and 
his staff, and he devoted himself with wonted energy to improving 
the condition of the people. Greater results might have been 
obtained but for the fact that Khartum and the whole of the 
Sudan north of the Sobat were in the hands of an Egyptian 
governor, independent of Gordon, and not too well disposed 
towards his proposals for diminishing the slave trade. On 
arriving in Cairo Gordon informed the khedive of his reasons 
for not wishing to return to the- Sudan, but did not definitely 
resign the appointment of governor of the equatorial provinces. 
But on reaching London he telegraphed to the British consul- 
general in Cairo, asking him to let the khedive know that he 
would not go back to Egypt. Ismail Pasha, feeling, no doubt, 
that Gordon's resignation would injure his prestige, wrote to him 
saying that he had promised to return, and that he expected him 
to' keep his word. Upon this Gordon, to whom the keeping of a 
promise was a sacred duty, decided to return to Cairo, but gave 
an assurance to some friends that he would not go back to the 
Sudan unless he was appointed governor-general of the entire 
country. After some discussion the khedive agreed, and made 
him governor-general of the Sudan, inclusive of Darfur and the 
equatorial provinces. 

One of the most important questions which Gordon had to 
take up on his appointment was the state of the political relations 
between Egypt and Abyssinia, which had been in an 
unsatisfactory condition for some years. The dispute 
centred round the district of Bogos, lying not far 
inland from Massawa, which both the khedive and King John of 
Abyssinia claimed as belonging to their respective dominions. 
War broke out in 1875, when an Egyptian expedition was 
despatched to Abyssinia, and was completely defeated by King 
John near Gundet. A second and larger expedition, under 
Prince Hassan, the son of the khedive, was sent the following year 
from Massawa. The force was routed by the Abyssinians at 
Gura, but Prince Hassan and his staff got back to Massawa. 
Matters then remained quiet until March 1877, when Gordon 
proceeded to Massawa to endeavour to make peace with King 
John. He went up to Bogos, and had an interview with Walad 
Michael, an Abyssinian chief and the hereditary ruler of Bogos, 
who had joined the Egyptians with a view to raiding on his, own 
account. Gordon, with his usual powers of diplomacy, persuaded 
Michael to remain quiet, and wrote to the king proposing terms 
of peace. But he received no reply at that time, as John, feeling 
pretty secure on the Egyptian frontier after his two successful 
actions against the khedive's troops, had gone southwards to 
fight with Menelek, king of Shoa. Gordon, seeing that the 
Abyssinian difficulty could wait for a few months, proceeded to 
Khartum. Here he took up the slavery question, and proposed 
to issue regulations making the registration of slaves compulsory, 
but his proposals were not approved by the Cairo government. 
In the meantime an insurrection had broken out in Darfur, and 
Gordon proceeded to that province to relieve the Egyptian 
garrisons, which were considerably stronger than the force he 
had available, the insurgents also being far more numerous than 
his little army. On coming up with the main body of rebels he 
saw that diplomacy gave a better chance of success than fighting, 
and, accompanied only by an interpreter, rode into the enemy's 
camp to discuss the situation. This bold move, which probably 
no one but Gordon would have attempted, proved quite success- 
ful, as part of the insurgents joined him, and the remainder 
retreated to the south. The relief of the Egyptian garrisons was 
successfully accomplished, and Gordon visited the provinces of 
Berber and Dongola, whence he had again to return to the 
Abyssinian frontier to treat with King John. But no satisfactory 
settlement was arrived at, and Gordon came back to Khartum 
in January 1878. There he had scarcely a week's rest when the 



GORDON, C. G. 



251 



hedive summoned him to Cairo to assist in settling the financial 
ffairs of Egypt. He reached Cairo in March, and was at once 
appointed by Ismail as president of a commission of inquiry into 
the finances, on the understanding that the European com- 
issioners of the debt, who were the representatives of the bond- 
olders, and whom Ismail regarded as interested parties, should 
be members of the commission. Gordon accepted the post 
n these terms, but the consuls-general of the different powers 
refused to agree to the constitution of the commission, and it fell 
to the ground, as the khedive was not strong enough to carry 
his point. The attempt of the latter to utilize Gordon as a 
counterpoise to the European financiers having failed, Ismail 
fell into the hands of his creditors, and was deposed by the 
sultan in the following year in favour of his son Tewfik. After 
the conclusion of the financial episode, Gordon proceeded to the 
province of Harrar, south of Abyssinia, and, finding the adminis- 
tration in a bad condition, dismissed Raouf Pasha, the governor. 
He then returned to Khartum, and in 1879 went again into 
Darfur to pursue the slave traders, while his subordinate, Gessi 
Pasha, fought them with great success in the Bahr-el-Ghazal 
district and killed Suleiman, their leader and a son of Zobeir. 
This put an end to the revolt, and Gordon went back to Khartum. 
Shortly afterwards he went down to Cairo, and when there was 
requested by the new khedive to pay a visit to King John and 
make a definite treaty of peace with Abyssinia. Gordon had an 
interesting interview with the king, but was not able to do much, 
as the king wanted great concessions from Egypt, and the 
khedive's instructions were that nothing material was to be 
conceded. The matter ended by Gordon being made a prisoner 
and sent back to Massawa. Thence he returned to Cairo and 
resigned his Sudan appointment. He was considerably ex- 
hausted by the three years' incessant work, during which he had 
ridden no fewer than 8500 m. on camels and mules, and was 
constantly engaged in the task of trying to reform a vicious 
system of administration. 

In March 1880 Gordon visited the king of the Belgians at 
Brussels, and King Leopold suggested that he should at some 
future date take charge of the Congo Free State. 
In April the government of the Cape Colony telegraphed 
to him offering the position of commandant of the 
Cape local forces, but he declined the appointment. In May 
the marquess of Ripon, who had been given the post of governor- 
general of India, asked Gordon to go with him as private secretary. 
This he agreed to do, but a few days later, feeling that he was 
not suitable for the position, asked Lord Ripon to release him. 
The latter refused to do so, and Gordon accompanied him to 
India, but definitely resigned his post on Lord Ripon's staff 
shortly afterwards. Hardly had he resigned when he received 
a telegram from Sir Robert Hart, inspector-general of customs 
in China, inviting him to go to Peking. He started at once 
and arrived at Tientsin in July, where he met Li Hung Chang, 
and learnt that affairs were in a critical condition, and that there 
was risk of war with Russia. Gordon proceeded to Peking and 
used all his influence in favour of peace. His arguments, which 
were given with much plainness of speech, appear to have 
convinced the Chinese government, and war was avoided. 
Gordon returned to England, and in April 1881 exchanged 
with a brother officer, who had been ordered to Mauritius as 
Commanding Royal Engineer, but who for family reasons was 
unable to accept the appointment. He remained in Mauritius 
until the March following, when, on promotion to the rank of 
major-general, he had to vacate the position of Commanding 
Royal Engineer. Just at the same time the Cape ministry 
telegraphed to him to ask if he would go to the Cape to consult 
with the government as regards settling affairs in Basutoland. 
The telegram stated that the position of matters was grave, 
and that it was of the utmost importance that the colony should 
secure the services of someone of proved ability, firmness and 
energy. Gordon sailed at once for the Cape, and saw the governor, 
Sir Hercules Robinson, Mr Thos. Scanlen, the premier, and 
Mr. J. X. Merriman, a member of the ministry, who, for political 
reasons, asked him not to go to Basutoland, but to take the 



1880- 
1884. 



appointment of commandant of the colonial forces at King 
William's Town. After a few months, which were spent in 
reorganizing the colonial forces, Gordon was requested to go up 
to Basutoland to try to arrange a settlement with the chief 
Masupha, one of the most powerful of the Basuto leaders. 
Greatly to his surprise, at the very time he was with Masupha, 
Mr. J. W. Sauer, a member of the Cape government, was taking 
steps to induce Lerethodi, another chief, to advance against 
Masupha. This not only placed Gordon in a position of danger, 
but was regarded by him as an act of treachery. He advised 
Masupha not to deal with the Cape government until the hostile 
force was withdrawn, and resigned his appointment. He con- 
sidered that the Basuto difficulty was due to the bad system 
of administration by the Cape government. That Gordon's 
views were correct is proved by the fact that a few years later 
Basutoland was separated from Cape Colony and placed directly 
under the imperial government. After his return to England 
from the Cape, being unemployed, Gordon decided to go to 
Palestine, a country he had long desired to visit. Here he 
remained for a year, and devoted his time to the study of Biblical 
history and of the antiquities of Jerusalem. The king of the 
Belgians then asked him to take charge of the Congo Free State, 
and he accepted the mission and returned to London to make 
the necessary preparations. But a few days after his arrival he 
was requested by the British government to proceed immediately 
to the Sudan. To understand the reasons for this, it is necessary 
briefly to recapitulate the course of events in that country since 
Gordon had left it in 1879. 

After his resignation of the post of governor-general, Raouf 
Pasha, an official of the ordinary type, who, as already mentioned, 
had been dismissed by Gordon for misgovernment in 1878, was 
appointed to succeed him. As Raouf was instructed to increase 
the receipts and diminish the expenditure, the system of govern- 
ment naturally reverted to the old methods, which Gordon had 
endeavoured to improve. The fact that justice and firmness 
were succeeded by injustice and weakness tended naturally 
to the outbreak of revolt, and unfortunately there was a leader 
ready to head a rebellion one Mahommed Ahmed, already 
known for some years as a holy man, who was insulted by an 
Egyptian official, and retiring with some followers to the island 
of Abba on the White Nile, proclaimed himself as the mahdi, 
a successor of the prophet. Raouf endeavoured to take him 
prisoner but without success, and the revolt spread rapidly. 
Raouf was recalled, and succeeded by Abdel Kader Pasha, a 
much stronger governor, who had some success, but whose 
forces were quite insufficient to cope with the rebels. The 
Egyptian government was too busily engaged in suppressing 
Arabi's revolt to be able to send any help to Abdel Kader, and 
in September 1882, when the British troops entered Cairo, 
the position in the Sudan was very perilous. Had the British 
government listened to the representations then made to them, 
that, having conquered Egypt, it was imperative at once to 
suppress the revolt in the Sudan, the rebellion could have been 
crushed, but unfortunately Great Britain would do nothing 
herself, while the steps she allowed Egypt to take ended in the 
disaster to Hicks Pasha's expedition. Then, in December 1883, 
the British government saw that something must be done, and 
ordered Egypt to abandon the Sudan. .But abandonment was 
a policy most difficult to carry out, as it involved the withdrawal 
of thousands of Egyptian soldiers, civilian employes and their 
families. Abdel Kader Pasha was asked to undertake the work, 
and he agreed on the understanding that he would be supported, 
and that the policy of abandonment was not to be announced. 
But the latter condition was refused, and he declined the task. 
The British government then asked General Gordon to proceed 
to Khartum to report on the best method of carrying out the 
evacuation. The mission was highly popular in England. 
Sir Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer) was, however, at first opposed 
to Gordon's appointment. His objections were overcome, and 
Gordon received his instructions in London on the i8th of 
January 1884, and started at once for Cairo, accompanied by 
Lieut.-Colonel J. D. H. Stewart. 



252 



GORDON, C. G. 






At Cairo he received further instructions from Sir Evelyn 
Baring, and was appointed by the khedive as governor-general, 

with executive powers. Travelling by Korosko and 
turn. Berber, he arrived at Khartum on the 1 8th of February, 

and was well received by the inhabitants, who believed 
that he had come to save the country from the rebels. Gordon 
at once commenced the task of sending the women and children 
and the sick and wounded to Egypt, and about two thousand 
five hundred had been removed before the mahdi's forces closed 
upon Khartum. At the same time he was impressed with the 
necessity of making some arrangement for the future government 
of the country, and asked for the help of Zobeir (q.v.), who had 
great influence in the Sudan, and had been detained in Cairo 
for some years. This request was made on the very day Gordon 
reached Khartum, and was in accordance with a similar proposal 
he had made when at Cairo. But, after delays which involved 
the loss of much precious time, the British government refused 
(i3th of March) to sanction the appointment, because Zobeir 
had been a notorious slave-hunter. With this refusal vanished 
all hope of a peaceful retreat of the Egyptian garrisons. Waver- 
ing tribes went over to the mahdi. The advance of the rebels 
against Khartum was combined with a revolt in the eastern 
Sudan, and the Egyptian troops in the vicinity of Suakin met 
with constant defeat. At length a British force was sent to 
Suakin under the command of General Sir Gerald Graham, and 
routed the rebels in several hard-fought actions. Gordon 
telegraphed to Sir Evelyn Baring urging that the road from 
Suakin to Berber should be opened by a small force. But this 
request, though strongly supported by Baring and the British 
military authorities in Cairo, was refused by the government in 
London. In April General Graham and his forces were withdrawn 
from Suakin, and Gordon and the Sudan were seemingly 
abandoned to their fate. The garrison of Berber, seeing that 
there was no chance of relief, surrendered a month later and 
Khartum was completely isolated. Had it not been for the 
presence of Gordon the city would also soon have fallen, but with 
an energy and skill that were almost miraculous, he so organized 
the defence that Khartum held out until January 1885. When 
it is remembered that Gordon was of a different nationality 
and religion to the garrison and population, that he had only 
one British officer to assist him, and that the town was badly 
fortified and insufficiently provided with food, it is just to say 
that the defence of Khartum is one of the most remarkable 
episodes in military history. The siege commenced on the i8th 
of March, but it was not until August that the British govern- 
ment under the pressure of public opinion decided to take steps 
to relieve Gordon. General Stephenson, who was in command 
of the British troops in Egypt, wished to send a brigade at once 
to Dongola, but he was overruled, and it was not until the 
beginning of November that the British relief force was ready 
to start from Wadi Haifa under the command of Lord Wolseley. 
The force reached Korti towards the end of December, and from 
that place a column was despatched across the Bayuda desert 
to Metemma on the Nile. After some severe fighting in which 
the leader of the column, Sir Herbert Stewart, was mortally 
wounded, the force reached the river on the aoth of January, 
and the following day four steamers, which had been sent down 
by Gordon to meet the British advance, and which had been 
waiting for them for four months, reported to Sir Charles Wilson, 
who had taken command after Sir Herbert Stewart was wounded. 

On the 24th Wilson started with two of the steamers 

for Khartum, but on arriving there on the z8th he 
found that the place had been captured by the rebels and Gordon 
killed two days before. A belief has been entertained that 
Wilson might have started earlier and saved the town, but this 
is quite groundless. In the first place, Wilson could not have 
started sooner than he did; and in the second, even if he had 
been able to do so, it would have made no difference, as the rebels 
could have taken Khartum any time they pleased after the 5th 
of January, when the provisions were exhausted. Another 
popular notion, that the capture of the place was due to treachery 
on the part of the garrison, is equally without foundation. The 



Death. 



attack was made at a point in the fortifications where the 
rampart and ditch had been destroyed by the rising of the Nile, 
and when the mahdi's troops entered the soldiers were too weak 
to make any effectual resistance. Gordon himself expected the 
town to fall before the end of December, and it is really difficult 
to understand how he succeeded in holding out until the 26th 
of January. Writing on the I4th of December he said, " Now, 
mark this, if the expeditionary force and I ask for no more 
than two hundred men does not come in ten days, the town 
may fall, and I have done my best for the honour of my country." 
He had indeed done his best, and far more than could have been 
regarded as possible. To understand what he went through 
during the latter months of the siege, it is only necessary to read 
his own journal, a portion of which, dating from loth September 
to 1 4th December 1884, was fortunately preserved and published. 
Gordon was not an author, but he wrote many short 
memoranda on subjects that interested him, and a considerable 
number of these have been utilized, especially in the work by 
his brother, Sir Henry Gordon, entitled Events in the Life oj 
Charles George Gordon, from Us Beginning to Us End. He was 
a voluminous letter-writer, and much of his correspondence has 
been published. His character was remarkable, and the influence 
he had over those with whom he came in contact was very 
striking. His power to command men of non-European races 
was probably unique. He had no fear of death, and cared but 
little for the opinion of others, adhering tenaciously to the course 
he believed to be right in the face of all opposition. Though 
not holding to outward forms of religion, he was a truly religious 
man in the highest sense of the word, and was a constant student 
of the Bible. To serve God and to do his duty were the great 
objects of his life, and he died as he had lived, carrying out the 
work that lay before him to the best of his ability. The last 
words of his last letter to his sister, written when he knew that 
death was very near, sum up his character: " I am quite happy, 
thank God, and, like Lawrence, I have tried to do my duty." 1 

1 With this estimate of Gordon's character may be contrasted 
those of Lord Cromer (the most severe of Gordon's critics), and of 
Lord Morley of Blackburn; in their strictures as in their praise 
they help to explain both the causes of the extraordinary influence 
wielded by Gordon over all sorts and conditions of men and also 
his difficulties. Lord Cromer's criticism, it should be remembered, 
does not deal with Gordon's career as a whole but solely with his last 
mission to the Sudan; Lord Morley 's is a more general judgment. 

Lord Cromer (Modern Egypt, vol. i., ch. xxvii., p. 565-571) says: 
" We may admire, and for my own part I do very much admire 
General Gordon's personal courage, his disinterestedness and his 
chivalrous feeling in favour of the beleaguered garrisons, but ad- 
miration of these qualities is no sufficient plea against a condemna- 
tion of his conduct on the ground that it was quixotic. In his last 
letter to his sister, dated December 14, 1884, he wrote: ' I am 
quite happy, thank God, and, like Lawrence, I have tried to do my 
duty ' . . . I am not now dealing with General Gordon's character, 
which was in many respects noble, or with his military defence of 
Khartoum, which was heroic, but with the political conduct of his 
mission, and from this point of view I have no hesitation in saying 
that General Gordon cannot be considered to have tried to do his 
duty unless a very strained and mistaken view be taken of what 
his duty was. ... As a matter of public morality I cannot think 
that General Gordon's process of reasoning is defensible. ... I 
do not think that it can be held that General Gordon made any 
serious effort to carry out the main ends of British and Egyptian 
policy in the Sudan. He thought more of his personal opinions 
than of the interests of the state. ... In fact, except personal 
courage, great fertility in military resource, a lively though some- 
times ill-directed repugnance to injustice, oppression and meanness 
of every description, and a considerable power of acquiring influence 
over those, necessarily limited in numbers, with whom he was 
brought into personal contact, General Gordon does not appear to 
have possessed any of the qualities which would have fitted him 
to undertake the difficult task he had in hand." 

Lord Morley (Life of Gladstone, vol. iii., 1st ed., 1903, ch. 9, 
p. 151) says: " Gordon, as Mr Gladstone said, was a hero of heroes. 
He was a soldier of infinite personal courage and daring, of striking 
military energy, initiative and resource; a high, pure and single 
character, dwelling much in the region of the unseen. But as all 
who knew him admit, and as his own records testify, notwithstand- 
ing an undercurrent of shrewd common sense, he was the creature, 
almost the sport, of impulse; his impressions and purposes changed 
with the speed of lightning; anger often mastered him; he went 
very often by intuitions and inspirations rather than by cool 



GORDON, LORD G. GORDON, SIR J. W. 



253 



AUTHORITIES. The Journals of Major-General Gordon at Khartoum 
(1885); Lord Cromer, Modern Egypt (2 vols., 1908); F. R. Wingate, 
Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan (1891); the British Parlia- 
mentary Paper on Egypt (1884-1885); C. G. Gordon, Reflections 
Tn Palestine (1884); edited by D. C. Boulger, General Gordons 
Letters from the Crimea, the Danube, and Armenia (1884); edited by 
G B Hill Colonel Gordon in Central Africa (1881); Letters of 
General C G. Gordon to his Sister (1888); H. W. Gordon, Events in 
the Life of C. G. Gordon (1886); Commander L. Brine, The Taeping 
Rebellion in China (1862); A. Wilson, Gordon's Campaigns and the 
Taeping Rebellion (1868); D. C. Boulger, Life of Gordon (1896): 
A. Egmont Hake, The Story of Chinese Gordon (ist vol. 1884, 2nd 
vol 1885): Colonel Sir W. F. Butler, Charles George Gordon (1889); 
Archibald Forbes, Chinese Gordon (1884) ; edited by A Egmont Hake, 
Events in the Taeping Rebellion (1891) ; S. Mossman, General Gordon s 
Diary in China (1885) ; Lieutenant T. Lister, R.E., With Gordon in 
the Crimea (1891); Lieutenant-General Sir G. Graham, Last Words 
with Gordon (1887); "War Correspondent," Why Gordon Perished 
(1896). ( L - M ' "'J 

GORDON, LORD GEORGE (1751-1793), ^ird and youngest 
son of Cosmo George, duke of Gordon, was born in London on 
the 26th of December 1751. After completing his education at 
Eton, he entered the navy, where he rose to the rank of lieutenant 
in 1772, but Lord Sandwich, then at the head of the admiralty, 
would not promise him the command of a ship, and he resigned 
his commission shortly before the beginning of the American 
War. In 1774 the pocket borough of Ludgershall was bought 
for him by General Eraser, whom he was opposing in Inverness- 
shire, in order to bribe him not to contest the county. He was 
considered flighty, and was not looked upon as being of any 
importance. In 1779 he organized, and made himself head of 
the Protestant associations, formed to secure the repeal of the 
Catholic Relief Act of 1778. On the 2nd of June 1780 hfe headed 
the mob which marched in procession from St George's Fields 
to the Houses of Parliament in order to present the monster 
petition against the acts. After the mob reached Westminster a 
terrific riot ensued, which continued several days, during which 
the city was virtually at their mercy. At first indeed they 
dispersed after threatening to make a forcible entry into the 
House of Commons, but reassembled soon afterwards and 
destroyed several Roman Catholic chapels, pillaged the private 
dwellings of many Roman Catholics, set fire to Newgate and 
broke open all the other prisons, attacked the Bank of England 
and several other public buildings, and continued the work of 
violence and conflagration until the interference of the military, 
by whom no fewer than 450 persons were killed and wounded 
before the riots were quelled. For his share in instigating the 
riots Lord Gordon was apprehended on a charge of high treason ; 
but, -mainly through the skilful and eloquent defence of Erskine, 
he was acquitted on the ground that he had no treasonable 
intentions. His life was henceforth full of crack-brained schemes, 
political and financial. In 1786 he was excommunicated by the 
archbishop of Canterbury for refusing to bear witness in an 
ecclesiastical suit; and in 1787 he was convicted of libelling the 
queen of France, the French ambassador and the administration 
of justice in England. He was, however, permitted to withdraw 
from the court without bail, and made his escape to Holland; 
but on account of representations from the court of Versailles 
he was commanded to quit that country, and, returning to 
England, was apprehended, and in January 1 788 was sentencec 

inference from carefully surveyed fact; with many variations o 
mood he mixed, as we often see in people less famous, an invincible 
faith in his own rapid prepossessions while they lasted. Everybody 
now discerns that to despatch a soldier of this temperament on a 
piece of business [the mission to the Sudan in 1884] that was not 
only difficult and dangerous, as Sir E. Baring said, but profoundl> 
obscure, and needing vigilant sanity and self-control, was littlf 
better than to call in a wizard with his magic. Mr Gladstone alway 
professed perplexity in understanding why the violent end of the 
gallant Cavagnari in Afghanistan stirred the world so little in 
comparison with the fate of Gordon. The answer is that Gordon 
seized the imagination of England, and seized it on its higher side 
His religion was eccentric, but it was religion; the Bible was th 
rock on which he founded himself, both old dispensation and new 
he was known to hate forms, ceremonies and all the ' solemn plausi 
bilities'; his speech was sharp, pithy, rapid and ironic; abov 
all, he knew the ways of war and would not bear the sword fo 
nought." 



o five years' imprisonment in Newgate, where he lived at his 
ase, giving dinners and dances. As he could not obtain securities 
or his good behaviour on the termination of his term of imprison- 
ment, he was not allowed to leave Newgate, and there he died 
f delirious fever on the ist of November 1 793. Some time before 
tis apprehension he had become a convert to Judaism, and had 
undergone the initiatory rite. 

A serious defence of most of his eccentricities is undertaken in 
The Life of Lord George Gordon, with a Philosophical Review of his 
^olilical Conduct, by Robert Watson, M.D. (London, 1795). The 
jest accounts of Lord George Gordon are to be found in the Annual 
Registers from 1780 to the year of his death. 

GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON (1788-1864), Scottish painter, 
ivas the eldest son of Captain Watson, R.N., a cadet of the 
amily of Watson of Overmains, in the county of Berwick. He 
was born in Edinburgh in 1788, and was educated specially with 
a view to his joining the Royal Engineers. He entered as a 
.tudent in the government school of design, under the manage- 
ment of the Board of Manufactures. His natural taste for art 
quickly developed itself, and his father was persuaded to allow 
lim to adopt it as his profession. Captain Watson was himself 
skilful draughtsman, and his brother George Watson, after- 
wards president of the Scottish Academy, stood high as a portrait 
winter, second only to Sir Henry Raeburn, who also was a 
riend of the family. In the year 1808 John sent to the exhibition 
of the Lyceum in Nicolson Street a subject from the Lay of the 
Last Minstrel, and continued for some years to exhibit fancy 
subjects; but, although freely and sweetly painted, they were 
altogether without the force and character which stamped his 
portrait pictures as the works of a master. After the death of 
Sir Henry Raeburn in 1823, he succeeded to much of his practice. 
He assumed in 1826 the name of Gordon. One of the earliest 
of his famous sitters was Sir Walter Scott, who sat for a first 
portrait in 1820. Then came J. G. Lockhart in 1821; Professor 
Wilson, 1822 and 1850, two portraits; Sir Archibald Alison, 
1839; Dr Chalmers, 1844; a little later De Quincey, and Sir 
David Brewster, 1864. Among his most important works may 
be mentioned the earl of Dalhousie (1833), in the Archers' Hall, 
Edinburgh; Sir Alexander Hope (1835), in the county buildings, 
Linlithgow; Lord President Hope, in the Parliament House; 
and Dr Chalmers. These, unlike his later works, are gener- 
ally rich in colour. The full length of Dr Brunton (1844), 
and Dr Lee, the principal of the university (1846), both on the 
staircase of the college library, mark a modification of his style, 
which ultimately resolved itself into extreme simplicity, both 
of colour and treatment. 

During the last twenty years of his life he painted many 
distinguished Englishmen who came to Edinburgh to sit to him. 
And it is significant that David Cox, the landscape painter, on 
being presented with his portrait, subscribed for by many 
friends, chose to go to Edinburgh to have it executed by Watson 
Gordon, although he neither knew the painter personally nor 
had ever before visited the country. Among the portraits 
painted during this period, in what may be termed his third style, 
are De Quincey, in the National Portrait Gallery, London; 
General Sir Thomas Macdougall Brisbane, in the Royal Society; 
the prince of Wales, Lord Macaulay, Sir M. Packington, Lord 
Murray, Lord Cockburn, Lord Rutherford and Sir John Shaw 
Lefevre, in the Scottish National Gallery. These latter pictures 
are mostly clear and grey, sometimes showing little or no positive 
colour, the flesh itself being very grey, and the handling extremely 
masterly, though never obtruding its cleverness. He was very 
successful in rendering acute observant character. A good 
example of his last style, showing pearly flesh-painting freely 
handled, yet highly finished, is his head of Sir John Shaw 
Lefevre. 

John Watson Gordon was one of the earlier members of the 
Royal Scottish Academy, and was elected its president in 1850; 
he was at the same time appointed limner for Scotland to the 
queen, and received the honour of knighthood. Since 1841 he 
had been an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1851 he 
was elected a royal academician. He died on the ist of June 
1864. 



254 



GORDON, L. GORE, C. 



GORDON, LEON, originally JUDAH LOEB BEN ASHER (1831- 
1892), Russian-Jewish poet and novelist (Hebrew), was born at 
Wilna in 1831 and died at St Petersburg in 1892. He took 
a leading part in the modern revival of the Hebrew language 
and culture. His satires did much to rouse the Russian Jews 
to a new sense of the reality of life, and Gordon was the apostle 
of enlightenment in the Ghettos. His Hebrew style is classical 
and pure. His poems were collected in four volumes, Kol Shire 
Yehudah (St Petersburg, 1883-1884); his novels in Kol Kithbe 
Yehuda (Odessa, 1889). 

For his works see Jewish Quarterly Review, xviii. 437 seq. 

GORDON, PATRICK (1635-1699), Russian general, was 
descended from a Scottish family of Aberdeenshire, who 
possessed the small estate of Auchleuchries', and were connected 
with the house of Haddo. He was born in 1635, and after 
completing his education at the parish schools of Cruden and 
Ellon, entered, in his fifteenth year, the Jesuit college at Brauns- 
berg, Prussia; but, as " his humour could not endure such a 
still and strict way of living," he soon resolved to return home. 
He changed his mind, however, before re-embarking, and after 
journeying on foot in several parts of Germany, ultimately, in 
1655, enlisted at Hamburg in the Swedish service. In the 
course of the next five years he served alternately with the 
Poles and Swedes as he was taken prisoner by either. In 1661, 
after further experience as a soldier of fortune, he took service 
in the Russian army under Alexis I., and in 1665 he was sent 
on a special mission to England. After his return he distin- 
guished himself in several wars against the Turks and Tatars in 
southern Russia, and in recognition of his services he in 1678 was 
made major-general, in 1679 was appointed to the chief command 
at Kiev, and in 1683 was made lieutenant-general. He visited 
England in 1686, and in 1687 and 1689 took part as quarter- 
master-general in expeditions against the Crim Tatars in the 
Crimea, being made full general for his services, in spite of the 
denunciations of the Greek Church to which, as a heretic, he 
was exposed. On the breaking out of the revolution in Moscow 
in 1689, Gordon with the troops he commanded virtually decided 
events in favour of the tsar Peter I., and against the tsaritsa 
Sophia. He was therefore during the remainder of his life in 
high favour with the tsar, who confided to him the command of 
his capital during his absence from Russia, employed him in 
organizing his army according to the European system, and 
latterly raised him to the rank of general-in-chief. He died 
on the 2gth of November 1699. The tsar, who had visited him 
frequently during his illness, was with him when he died, and 
with his own hands closed his eyes. 

General Gordon left behind him a diary of his life, written in 
English. This is preserved in MS. in the archives of the Russian 
foreign office. A complete German translation, edited by Dr 
Maurice Possalt (Tagebuchdes Generals PatrickGordon) was published, 
the first volume at Moscow in 1849, the second at St Petersburg in 
1851, and the third at St Petersburg in 1853; and Passages from 
the Diary of General Patrick Gordon of Auchleuchries (1635-1699), 
was printed, under the editorship of Joseph Robertson, for the 
Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1859. 

GORDON-GUMMING, ROUALEYN GEORGE (1820-1866), 
Scottish traveller and sportsman, known as the " lion hunter," 
was born on the isth of March 1820. He was the second son of 
Sir William G. Gordon-Gumming, 2nd baronet of Altyre and 
Gordonstown, Elginshire. From his early years he was distin- 
guished by his passion for sport. He was educated at Eton, and 
at eighteen joined the East India Co.'s service as a cornet in the 
Madras Light Cavalry. The climate of India not suiting him, 
after two years' experience he retired from the service and 
returned to Scotland. During his stay in the East he had laid 
the foundation of his collection of hunting trophies and specimens 
of natural history. In 1843 he joined the Cape Mounted Rifles, 
but for the sake of absolute freedom sold out at the end of the 
year and with an ox wagon and a few native followers set out 
for the interior. He hunted chiefly in Bechuanaland and the 
Limpopo valley, regions then swarming with big game. In 
1848 he returned to England. The story of his remarkable 
exploits is vividly told in his book, Five Years of a Hunter's 



Life in the Far Interior of South Africa (London, 1850, 3rd 
ed. 1851). Of this volume, received at first with incredulity 
by stay-at-home critics, David Livingstone, who furnished 
Gordon-Cumming with most of his native guides, wrote: " I 
have no hesitation in saying that Mr Cumming's book conveys a 
truthful idea of South African hunting " (Missionary Travels, 
chap. vii.). His collection of hunting trophies was exhibited 
in London in 1851 at the Great Exhibition, and was illustrated 
by a lecture delivered by Gordon-Cumming. The collection, 
known as " The South Africa Museum," was afterwards exhibited 
in various parts of the country. In 1858 Gordon-Cumming went 
to live at Fort Augustus on the Caledonian Canal, where the 
exhibition of his trophies attracted many visitors. He died 
there on the 24th of March 1866. 

An abridgment of his book was published in 1856 under the title 
of The Lion Hunter of South Africa, and in this form was frequently 
reprinted, a new edition appearing in 1904. 

GORE, CATHERINE GRACE FRANCES (1790-186^, English 
novelist and dramatist, the daughter of Charles Moody, a wine- 
merchant, was born in 1799 at East Retford, Nottinghamshire. 
In 1823 she was married to Captain Charles Gore; and, in the 
next year, she published her first work, Theresa Marchmont, or 
the Maid of Honour. Then followed, among others, the Lettre 
de Cachet (1827), The Reign of Terror (1827), Hungarian Tales 
(1829), Manners of the Day (1830), Mothers and Daughters (1831), 
and The Fair of May Fair (1832), Mrs Armytage (1836). Every 
succeeding year saw several volumes from her pen : The Cabinet 
Minister and The Courtier of the Days of Charles II., in 1839; 
Preferment in 1840. In 1841 Cecil, or the Adventures of a Cox- 
comb, attracted considerable attention. Greville, or a Season in 
Paris appeared in the same year; then Ormington, or Cecil a 
Peer, Fascination, The Ambassador's Wife; and in 1843 The 
Banker's Wife. Mrs Gore continued to write, with unfailing 
fertility of invention, till her death on the 29th of January 1861. 
She also wrote some dramas of which the most successful was 
the School for Coquettes, produced at the Haymarket (1831). 
She was a woman of versatile talent, and set to music Burns's 
" And ye shall walk in silk attire," one of the most popular songs 
of her day. Her extraordinary literary industry is proved by 
the existence of more than seventy distinct works. Her best 
novels are Cecil, or the Adventures of a Coxcomb, and The Banker's 
Wife. Cecil gives extremely vivid sketches of London fashionable 
life, and is full of happy epigrammatic touches. For the know- 
ledge of London clubs displayed in it Mrs Gore was indebted to 
William Beckford, the author of Vathek. The Banker's Wife 
is distinguished by some clever studies of character, especially 
in the persons of Mr Hamlyn, the cold calculating money-maker, 
and his warm-hearted country neighbour, Colonel Hamilton. 

Mrs Gore's novels had an immense temporary popularity; 
they were parodied by Thackeray in Punch, in his " Lords and 
Liveries by the author of Dukes and Dejeuners "; but, tedious 
as they are to present-day readers, they presented on the whole 
faithful pictures of the contemporary life and pursuits of the 
English upper classes. 

GORE, CHARLES (1853- ), English divine, was born in 
1853, the 3rd son of the Hon. Charles Alexander Gore, brother 
of the 4th earl of Arran. His mother was a daughter of the 4th 
earl of Bessborough. He was educated at Harrow and at Balliol 
College, Oxford, and was elected fellow of Trinity College in 1873. 
From 1880 to 1883 he was vice-principal of the theological 
college at Cuddesdon, and, when in 1884 Pusey House was 
founded at Oxford as a home for Dr Pusey's library and a centre 
for the propagation of his principles, he was appointed principal, 
a position which he held until 1893. As principal of Pusey House 
Mr Gore exercised a wide influence over undergraduates and the 
younger clergy, and it was largely, if not mainly, under this 
influence that the " Oxford Movement " underwent a change 
which to the survivors of the old school of Tractarians seemed 
to involve a break with its basic principles. " Puseyism " had 
been in the highest degree conservative, basing itself on authority 
and tradition, and repudiating any compromise with the modern 
critical and liberalizing spirit. Mr Gore, starting from the same 



GORE GORGE 



255 



all 

I 

M 



basis of faith and authority, soon found from his practical experi- 
ence in dealing with the " doubts and difficulties " of the younger 
generation that this uncompromising attitude was untenable, 
and set himself the task of reconciling the principle of authority 
in religion with that of scientific authority by attempting to 
define the boundaries of their respective spheres of influence. 
To him the divine authority of the Catholic Church was an 
axiom, and in 1889 he published two works, the larger of which, 
The Church and the Ministry, is a learned vindication of the 
'rinciple of Apostolic Succession in the episcopate against the 
'resbyterians and other Protestant bodies, while the second, 

'man Catholic Claims, is a defence, couched in a more popular 
form, of the Anglican Church and Anglican orders against the 
attacks of the Romanists. 

So far his published views had been in complete consonance 
ith those of the older Tractarians. But in 1890 a great stir 
as created by the publication, under his editorship, of Lux 

undi, a series of essays by different writers, being an attempt 
" to succour a distressed faith by endeavouring to bring the 
Christian Creed into its right relation to the modern growth of 
knowledge, scientific, historic, critical; and to modern problems 
of politics and ethics." Mr Gore himself contributed an essay 
on " The Holy Spirit and Inspiration." The book, which ran 
through twelve editions in a little over a year, met with a some- 
what mixed reception. Orthodox churchmen, Evangelical and 
Tractarian alike, were alarmed by views on the incarnate nature 
of Christ that seemed to them to impugn his Divinity, and by 
concessions to the Higher Criticism in the matter of the inspira- 
tion of Holy Scriptures which appeared to them to convert the 
" impregnable rock," as Gladstone had called it, into a founda- 
tion of sand; sceptics, on the other hand, were not greatly 
impressed by a system of defence which seemed to draw an 
artificial line beyond which criticism was not to advance. None 
the less the book produced a profound effect, and that far beyond 
the borders of the English Church, and it is largely due to its 
influence, and to that of the school it represents, that the High 
Church movement developed thenceforth on " Modernist " 
rather than Tractarian lines. 

In 1891 Mr Gore was chosen to deliver the Bampton lectures 
before the university, and chose for his subject the Incarnation. 
In these lectures he developed the doctrine, the enunciation of 
which in Lux Mundi had caused so much heart-searching. This is 
an attempt to explain how it came that Christ, though incarnate 
God, could be in error, e.g. in his citations from the Old Testa- 
ment. The orthodox explanation was based on the principle of 
accommodation (q.v.). This, however, ignored the difficulty that 
if Christ during his sojourn on earth was not subject to human 
limitations, especially of knowledge, he was not a man as other 
men, and therefore not subject to their trials and temptations. 
This difficulty Gore sought to meet through the doctrine of the 
Ktvuais. Ever since the Pauline epistles had been received into 
the canon theologians had, from various points of view, at- 
tempted to explain what St Paul meant when he wrote of 
Christ (2 Phil. ii. 7) that " he emptied himself and took upon 
him the form of a servant " (lavrbv tKevuvtv [Lop^v 5ov\ov 
\aPuv). According to Mr Gore this means that Christ, on his 
incarnation, became subject to all human limitations, and had, 
so far as his life on earth was concerned, stripped himself of all 
the attributes of the Godhead, including the Divine omniscience, 
the Divine nature being, as it were, hidden under the human. 1 

Lux Mundi and the Bampton lectures led to a situation of 
some tension which was relieved when in 1893 Dr Gore resigned 
his principalship and became vicar of Radley, a small parish 
near Oxford. In 1894 he became canon of Westminster. Here 
he gained commanding influence as a preacher and in 1898 was 
appointed one of the court chaplains. In 1902 he succeeded 

1 Cf. the Lutheran theologian Ernst Sartorius in his Lehre von 
der heiligen Liebe (1844), Lehre ii. pp. 21 et seq. : " the Son of God 
veils his all-seeing eye and descends into human darkness and as 
child of man opens his eye as the gradually growing light of the 
world of humanity, until at the right hand of the Father he allows 
it to shine forth in all its glory." See Loofs, Art. " Kenosis " in 
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (ed. 1901), x. 247. 



J. J. S. Perowne as bishop of Worcester and in 1905 was installed 
bishop of Birmingham, a new see the creation of which had been 
mainly due to his efforts. While adhering rigidly to his views 
on the divine institution of episcopacy as essential to the 
Christian Church, Dr Gore from the first cultivated friendly 
relations with the ministers of other denominations, and advo- 
cated co-operation with them in all matters when agreement 
was possible. In social questions he became one of the leaders 
of the considerable group of High Churchmen known, somewhat 
loosely, as Christian Socialists. He worked actively against the 
sweating system, pleaded for European intervention in Mace- 
donia, and was a keen supporter of the Licensing Bill of 1908. 
In 1892 he founded the clerical fraternity known as the Com- 
munity of the Resurrection. Its members are priests, who are 
bound by the obligation of celibacy, live under a common rule 
and with a common purse. Their work is pastoral, evangelistic, 
literary and educational. In 1898 the House of the Resurrection 
at Mirfield, near Huddersfield, became the centre of the com- 
munity; in 1903 a college for training candidates for orders was 
established there, and in the same year a branch house, for 
missionary work, was set up in Johannesburg in South Africa. 

Dr Gore's works include The Incarnation (Bampton Lectures, 
1891), The Creed of the Christian (1895), The Body of Christ (1901), 
The New Theology and the Old Religion (1908), and expositions of 
The Sermon on the Mount (1896), Ephesians (1898), and Romans 
(1899), while in 1910 he published Orders and Unity. 

GORE, (i) (O. Eng. gor, dung or filth), a word formerly 
used in the sense of dirt, but now confined to blood that has 
thickened after being shed. (2) (O. Eng. gdra, probably con- 
nected with gare, an old word for " spear "), something of 
triangular shape, resembling therefore a spear-head. The word 
is used for a tapering strip of land, in the " common or open 
field " system of agriculture, where from the shape of the land 
the acre or half-acre strips could not be portioned out in straight 
divisions. Similarly " gore " is used in the United States, 
especially in Maine and Vermont, for a strip of land left out 
in surveying when divisions are made and boundaries marked. 
The triangular sections of material used in forming the covering 
of a balloon or an umbrella are also called " gores," and in 
dressmaking the term is used for a triangular piece of material 
inserted in a dress to adjust the difference in widths. To gore, 
i.e. to stab or pierce with any sharp instrument, but more 
particularly used of piercing with the horns of a bull, is probably 
directly connected with gare, a spear. 

GOREE, an island off the west coast of Africa, forming part 
of the French colony of Senegal. It lies at the entrance of the 
large natural harbour formed by the peninsula of Cape Verde. 
The island, some 900 yds. long by 330 broad, and 3 m. distant 
from the nearest point of the mainland, is mostly barren rock. 
The greater part of its surface is occupied by a town, formerly 
a thriving commercial entrepot and a strong military post. 
Until 1906 it was a free port. With the rise of Dakar (q.v.), 
c. 1860, on the adjacent coast, Goree lost its trade and its 
inhabitants, mostly Jolofs, had dwindled in 1905 to about 1500. 
Its healthy climate, however, makes it useful as a sanatorium. 
The streets are narrow, and the houses, mainly built of dark- 
red stone, are flat-roofed. The castle of St Michael, the gover- 
nor's residence, the hospital and barracks, testify to the former 
importance of the town. Within the castle is an artesian well, 
the only water-supply, save that collected in rain tanks, on the 
island. Goree was first occupied by the Dutch, who took posses- 
sion of it early in the I7th century and called it Goeree or Goede- 
reede, in memory of the island on their own coast now united . 
with Overflakkee. Its native name is Bir, i.e. a belly, in allusion 
to its shape. It was captured by the English under Commodore 
(afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes in 1663, but retaken 
in the following year by de Ruyter. The Dutch were finally 
expelled in 1677 by the French under Admiral d'Estr6es. 
Goree subsequently fell again into the hands of the English, ' 
but was definitely occupied by France in 1817 (see SENEGAL: 
History). 

GORGE, strictly the French word for the throat considered 
externally. Hence it is applied in falconry to a hawk's crop. 



256 



GORGEI GORGES 



and thus, with the sense of something greedy or ravenous, to 
food given to a hawk and to the contents of a hawk's crop or 
stomach. It is from this sense that the expression of a person's 
" gorge rising at " anything in the sense of loathing or disgust 
is derived. " Gorge," from analogy with " throat," is used 
with the meaning of a narrow opening as of a ravine or valley 
between hills; in fortification, of the neck of an outwork or 
bastion; and in architecture, of the narrow part of a Roman 
Doric column, between the echinus and the astragal. From 
" gorge " also comes a diminutive " gorget," a portion of a 
woman's costume in the middle ages, being a close form of 
wimple covering the neck and upper part of the breast, and also 
that part of the body armour covering the neck and collar- 
bone (see GORGET). The word " gorgeous," of splendid or 
magnificent appearance, comes from the O. Fr. gorgias, with 
the same meaning, and has very doubtfully been connected 
with gorge, a ruffle or neck-covering, of a supposed elaborate 
kind. 

GORGEI, ARTHUR (1818- ), Hungarian soldier, was 
born at Toporcz, in Upper Hungary, on the 3Oth of January 
1818. He came of a Saxon noble family who were converts to 
Protestantism. In 1837 he entered the Bodyguard of Hungarian 
Nobles at Vienna, where he combined military service with a 
course of study at the university. In 1845, on the death of his 
father, he retired from the army and devoted himself to the 
study of chemistry at Prague, after which he retired to the 
family estates in Hungary. On the outbreak of the revolutionary 
war of 1848, Gorgei offered his sword to the Hungarian govern- 
ment. Entering the Honved army with the rank of captain, he 
was employed in the purchase of arms, and soon became major 
and commandant of the national guards north of the Theiss. 
Whilst he was engaged in preventing the Croatian army from 
crossing the Danube, at the island of Csepel, below Pest, the 
wealthy Hungarian magnate Count Eugene Zichy fell into his 
hands, and Gorgei caused him to be arraigned before a court- 
martial on a charge of treason and immediately hanged. After 
various successes over the Croatian forces, of which the most 
remarkable was that at Ozora, where 10,000 prisoners fell into 
his hands, Gorgei was appointed commander of the army of the 
Upper Danube, but, on the advance of Prince Windischgratz 
across the Leitha, he resolved to fall back, and in spite of the 
remonstrances of Kossuth he held to his resolution and retreated 
upon Waitzen. Here, irritated by what he considered undue 
interference with his plans, he issued (January sth, 1849) a pro- 
clamation throwing the blame for the recent want of success 
upon the government, thus virtually revolting against their 
authority. Gorgei retired to the Hungarian Erzgebirge and 
conducted operations on his own initiative. Meanwhile the 
supreme command had been conferred upon the Pole Dembinski, 
but the latter fought without success the battle of Kapolna, 
at which action Gorgei's corps arrived too late to take an effective 
part, and some time after this the command was again conferred 
upon Gorgei. The campaign in the spring of 1849 was brilliantly 
conducted by him, and in a series of engagements, he defeated 
Windischgratz. In April he won the victories of Godollo Izaszeg 
and Nagy Sarlo, relieved Komorn, and again won a battle at 
Acs or Waitzen. Had he followed up his successes by taking 
the offensive against the Austrian frontier, he might perhaps 
have dictated terms in the Austrian capital itself. As it was, 
he contented himself with reducing Ofen, the Hungarian capital, 
in which he desired to re-establish the diet, and after effecting 
this capture he remained inactive for some weeks. Meanwhile, 
^at a diet held at Debreczin, Kossuth had formally proposed the 
/dethronement of the Habsburg dynasty and Hungary had been 
proclaimed a republic. Gorgei had refused the field-marshal's 
baton offered him by Kossuth and was by no means in sympathy 
with the new regime. However, he accepted the portfolio of 
minister of war, while retaining the command of the troops in 
the field. The Russians had now intervened in the struggle and 
made common cause with the Austrians; the allies were advanc- 
ing into Hungary on all sides, and Gorgei was defeated by 
Haynau at Pered (2oth-2ist of June). Kossuth, perceiving 



the impossibility of continuing the struggle and being unwilling 
himself to make terms, resigned his position as dictator ; and was 
succeeded by Gorgei, who meanwhile had been fighting hard 
against the various columns of the enemy. Gorgei, convinced 
that he could not break through the enemy's lines, surrendered, 
with his army of 20,000 infantry and 2000 cavalry, to the 
Russian general Riidiger at Vilagos. Gorgei was not court- 
martialled, as were his generals, but kept in confinement at 
Klagenfurt, where he lived, chiefly employed in chemical work, 
until 1867, when he was pardoned and returned to Hungary. 
The surrender, and particularly the fact that his life was spared 
while his generals and many of his officers and men were hanged 
or shot, led, perhaps naturally, to his being accused of treason 
by public opinion of his countrymen. After his release he 
played no further part in public life. Even in 1885 an attempt 
which was made by a large number of his old comrades to re- 
habilitate him was not favourably received in Hungary. After 
some years' work as a railway engineer he retired to Visegrad, 
where he lived thenceforward in retreat. (See also HUNGARY: 
History.) 

General Gorgei wrote a justification of his operations (Mein 
Leben und Wirken in Ungarn 1848-1859, Leipzig, 1852), an 
anonymous paper under the title Was verdanken ivir der Revolu- 
tion? (1875), and a reply to Kossuth's charges (signed " Job. 
Demar ") in Budapesti Szemle, 1881, 25-26. Amongst those 
who wrote in his favour were Captain Stephan Gorgei (1848 is 
1849 bol, Budapest, 1885), and Colonel Aschermann (Ein ojfenes 
Wort in der Sache des Homied-Generals A rthur Gorgei, Klausenburg, 
1867). 

See also A. G. Horn, Gorgei, Oberkommandant d. ung. Armee 
(Leipzig, 1850) ; Kinety, Gorgei's Life and Work in Hungary (London, 
1853) ; Szinyei, in Magyar Irak (iii. 1378), Hentaller, Gorgei as a 
Statesman (Hungarian) ; Elemar, Gorgei in 1848-1849 (Hungarian, 
Budapest, 1886). 

GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (c. 1566-1647), English colonial 
pioneer in America and the founder of Maine, was born in 
Somersetshire, England, probably in 1566. From youth both 
a soldier and a sailor, he was a prisoner in Spain at the age of 
twenty-one, having been captured by a ship of the Spanish 
Armada. In 1 589 he was in command of a small body of troops 
fighting for Henry IV. of France, and after distinguishing him- 
self at the siege of Rouen was knighted there in 1591. In 1596 
he was commissioned captain and keeper of the castle and fort 
at Plymouth and captain of St Nicholas Isle; in 1597 he accom- 
panied Essex on the expedition to the Azores; in 1599 assisted 
him in the attempt to suppress the Tyrone rebellion in Ireland, 
and in 1600 was implicated in Essex's own attempt at rebellion 
in London. In 1603, on the accession of James I., he was 
suspended from his post at Plymouth, but was restored in the 
same year and continued to serve as " governor of the forts 
and island of Plymouth" until 1629, when, his garrison having 
been without pay for three and a half years, his fort a ruin, 
and all his applications for aid having been ignored, he resigned. 
About 1605 he began to be greatly interested in the New World; 
in 1606 he became a member of the Plymouth Company, and he 
laboured zealously for the founding of the Popham colony at 
the mouth of the Sagadahoc (now the Kennebec) river in 1607. 
For several years following the failure of that enterprise in 1608 
.he continued to fit out ships for fishing, trading and exploring, 
with colonization as the chief end in view. He was largely 
instrumental in procuring the new charter of 1620 for the 
Plymouth Company, and was at all times of its existence perhaps 
the most influential member of that body. He was the recipient, 
either solely or jointly, of several grants of territory from it, 
for one of which he received in 1639 the royal charter of Maine 
(see MAINE). In 1635 he sought to be appointed governor-general 
of all New England, but the English Civil War in which he 
espoused the royal cause prevented him from ever actually 
holding that office. A short time before his death at Long 
Ashton in 1647 ne wrote his Brief e Narration of the 'Originall 
Undertakings of the Advancement of Plantations into the Parts of 
America. He was an advocate, especially late in life, of the 
feudal type of colony. 



GORGET GORILLA 



257 



See J. P. Baxter (ed.), Sir Ferdinando Gorges and his Province of 
Maine (3 vols., Boston, 1890; in the Prince Society Publications), 
the first -volume of which is a memoir of Gorges, and the other 
volumes contain a reprint of the Briefe Narration, Gorges's letters, 
and other documentary material. 

GORGET (O. Fr. gorgete, dim. of gorge, throat), the name 
applied after about 1480 to the collar-piece of a suit of armour. 
It was generally formed of small overlapping rings of plate, and 
attached either to the body armour or to the armet. It was 
worn in the i6th and iyth centuries with the half-armour, 
with the plain cuirass, and even occasionally without any 
body armour at all. During these times it gradually became a 
distinctive badge for officers, and as such it survived in several 
armies in the form of a small metal plate affixed to the front 
of the collar of the uniform coat until after the Napoleonic wars. 
In the German army to-day a gorget-plate of this sort is the 
distinctive mark of military police, while the former officer's 
gorget is represented in British uniforms by the red patches or 
tabs worn on the collar by staff officers and by the white patches 
of the midshipmen in the Royal Navy. 

GORGIAS (c. 483-375 B.C.), Greek sophist and rhetorician, 
was a native of Leontini in Sicily. In 427 he was sent by his 
fellow-citizens at the head of an embassy to ask Athenian 
protection against the aggression of the Syracusans. He subse- 
quently settled in Athens, and supported himself by the practice 
of oratory and by teaching rhetoric. He died at Larissa in 
Thessaly. His chief claim to recognition consists in the fact that 
he transplanted rhetoric to Greece, and contributed to the 
diffusion of the Attic dialect as the language of literary prose. 
He was the author of a lost work On Nature or the Non-existent 
(Ilepi TOV nfi OVTOS ^ Trtpl <fori)S, fragments edited by M. C. 
Valeton, 1876), the substance of which may be gathered from 
the writings of Sextus Empiricus, and also from the treatise 
(ascribed to Theophrastus) De Melisso, Xenophane, Gorgia. 
Gorgias is the central figure in the Platonic dialogue Gorgias. 
The genuineness of two rhetorical exercises (The Encomium 
of Helen and The Defence of Palamedes, edited with Antiphon by 
F. Blass in the Teubner series, 1881), which have come down 
under his name, is disputed. 

For his philosophical opinions see SOPHISTS and SCEPTICISM. 
See also Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, Eng. trans, vol. i. bk. iii. chap. 
vii.; Jebb's Attic Orators, introd. to vol. i. (1893); F. Blass, Die 
attische Beredsamkeit, i. (1887); and article RHETORIC. 



GORGON, GORGONS (Gr. IVytb, Topybves, the "terrible," 
or, according to some, the " loud-roaring "), a figure or figures 
in Greek mythology. Homer speaks of only one Gorgon, whose 
head is represented in the Iliad (v. 741) as fixed in the centre of 
the aegis of Zeus. In the Odyssey (xi. 633) she is a monster of the 
under-world. Hesiod increases the number of Gorgons to three 
Stheno (the mighty), *Luryale (the far-springer) and Medusa 
(the queen), and makes them the daughters of the sea-god 
Phorcys and of Keto. Their home is on the farthest side of the 
western ocean; according to later authorities, in Libya (Hesiod, 
Theog. 274; Herodotus ii. 91; Pausanias ii. 21). The Attic 
tradition, reproduced in Euripides (Ion 1002), regarded the 
Gorgon as a monster, produced by Gaea to aid her sons the 
giants against the gods and slain by Athena (the passage is a 
locus classicus on the aegis of Athena). 

The Gorgons are represented as winged creatures, having 
the form of young women; their hair consists of snakes; they 
are round-faced, flat-nosed, with tongues lolling out and large 
projecting teeth. Sometimes they have wings of gold, brazen 
claws and the tusks of boars. Medusa was the only one of the 
three who was mortal; hence Perseus was able to kill her by 
cutting off her head. From the blood that spurted from her neck 
sprang Chrysaor and Pegasus, her two sons by Poseidon. The 
head, which had the power of turning into stone all who looked 
upon it, was given to Athena, who placed it in her shield; 
according to another account, Perseus buried it in the market- 
place of Argos. The hideously grotesque original type of the 
Gorgoneion, as the Gorgon's head was called, was placed on the 
walls of cities, and on shields and breastplates to terrify an enemy 
(cf. the hideous faces on Chinese soldiers' shields), and used 
xn. 9 



generally as an amulet, a protection against the evil eye. Heracles 
is said to have obtained a lock of Medusa's hair (which possessed 
the same powers as the head) from Athena and given it to 
Sterope, the daughter of Cepheus, as a protection for the town 
of Tegea against attack (Apollodorus ii. 7. 3). According to 
Roscher, it was supposed, when exposed to view, to bring on a 
storm, which put the enemy to flight. Frazer (Golden Bough, i. 
378) gives examples of the superstition that cut hair caused 
storms. According to the later idea of Medusa as a beautiful 
maiden, whose hair had been changed into snakes by Athena, 
the head was represented in works of art with a wonderfully 
handsome face, wrapped in the calm repose of death. The 
Rondanini Medusa at Munich is a famous specimen of this 
conception. Various accounts of the Gorgons were given by 
later ancient writers. According to Diod. Sic. (iii. 54. 55) 
they were female warriors living near Lake Tritonis in Libya, 
whose queen was Medusa; according to Alexander of Myndus, 
quoted in Athenaeus (v. p. 221), they were terrible wild animals 
whose mere look turned men to stone. Pliny (Nat. Hist. vi. 
36 [31]) describes them as savage women, whose persons were 
covered with hair, which gave rise to the story of their snaky 
hair and girdle. Modern authorities have explained them as the 
personification of the waves of the sea or of the barren, un- 
productive coast of Libya; or as the awful darkness of the 
storm-cloud, which comes from the west and is scattered by the 
sun-god Perseus. More recent is the explanation of anthro- 
pologists that Medusa, whose virtue is really in her head, is 
derived from the ritual mask common to primitive cults. 

See Jane E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion 
(1903); W. H. Roscher, Die Gorgonen und Verwandtes (1879); 
J. Six, De Gorgone (1885), on the types of the Gorgon's head ; articles 
by Roscher and Furtwangler in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie, 
by G. Glotz in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites, 
and by R. Gadechens in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopddie ; 
N.G. Polites ('O Trcpl TWV Yopybvutv juD0os Trapa rig 'EXXT^uojj Xaw, 1878) 
gives an account of the Gorgons, and of the various superstitions 
connected with them, from the modern Greek point of view, which 
regards them as malevolent spirits of the sea. 

GORGONZOLA, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province 
of Milan, from which it is n m. E.N.E. by steam tramway. 
Pop. (1901) 5134. It is the centre of the district in which is 
produced the well-known Gorgonzola cheese. 

GORI, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government 
of Tiflis and 49 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Tiflis, on the river 
Kura; altitude, 2010 ft. Pop. (1897) 10,457. The surrounding 
country is very picturesque. Gori has a high school for girls, und 
a school for Russian and Tatar teachers. At one time celebrated 
for its silk and cotton stuffs, it is now famous for corn, reputed 
the best in Georgia, and the wine is also esteemed. The climate 
is excellent, delightfully cool in summer, owing to the refreshing 
breezes from the mountains, though these are, however, at times 
disagreeable in winter. Gori was founded (1123) by the Georgian 
king David II., the Renovater, for the Armenians who fled their 
country on the Persian invasion. The earliest remains of the 
fortress are Byzantine; it was thoroughly restored in 1634- 
1658, but destroyed by Nadir Shah of Persia in the i8th century. 
There is a church constructed in the I7th century by Capuchin 
missionaries from Rome. Five miles east of Gori is the remark- 
able rock-cut town of Uplis-tsykhe, which was a fortress in the 
time of Alexander the Great of Macedon, and an inhabited city 
in the reign of the Georgian king Bagrat III. (980-1014). 

GORILLA (or PONGO), the largest of the man-like apes, and 
a native of West Africa from the Congo to Cameroon, whence 
it extends eastwards across the continent to German East Africa. 
Many naturalists regard the gorilla as best included in the same 
genus as the chimpanzee, in which case it should be known as 
Anthropopithecus gorilla, but by others it is regarded as the 
representative of a genus by itself, when its title will be Gorilla 
savagei, or G. gorilla. That there are local forms of gorilla is 
quite certain: but whether any of these are entitled to rank as 
distinct species may be a matter of opinion. It was long supposed 
that the apes encountered on an island off the west coast of 
Africa by Hanno, the Carthaginian, were gorillas, but in the 



GORINCHEM GORING 



opinion of some of those best qualified to judge, it is probable 
that the creatures in question were really baboons. The first 
real account of the gorilla appears to be the one given by an 
English sailor, Andrew Battel, who spent some time in the wilds 
of West Africa during and about the year 1590; his account 
being presented in Purchas's Pilgrimage, published in the year 
1613. From this it appears that Battel was familiar with both 
the chimpanzee and the gorilla, the former of which he terms 
engeco and the latter pongo names which ought apparently 
to be adopted for these two species in place of those now in use. 
Between Battel's time and 1846 nothing appears to have been 
heard of the gorilla or pongo, but in that year a missionary at 
the Gabun accidentally discovered a skull of the huge ape; 
and in 1847 a sketch of that specimen, together with two others, 
came into the hands of Sir R. Owen, by whom the name Gorilla 
savagei was proposed for the new ape in 1848. Dr Thomas 
Savage, a missionary at the Gabun, who sent Owen information 
with regard to the original skull, had, however, himself proposed 
the name Troglodytes gorilla in 1847. The first complete skeleton 
of a gorilla sent to Europe was received at the museum of the 
Royal College of Surgeons in 1851, and the first complete skin 
appears to have reached the British Museum in 1858. Paul B. 
du Chaillu's account (1861) of his journeys in the Gabun 
region popularized the knowledge of the existence of the gorilla. 
Male gorillas largely exceed the females in size, and attain a 
height of from s| ft. to 65 ft., or perhaps even more. Some of 
the features distinguishing the gorilla from the mere gorilla-like 
chimpanzees will be found mentioned in the article PRIMATES. 
Among them are the small ears, elongated head, the presence of 
a deep groove alongside the nostrils, the small size of the thumb, 
and the great length of the arm, which reaches half-way down 
the shin-bone (tibia) in the erect posture. In old males the eyes 
are overhung by a beetling penthouse of bone, the hinder half 
of the middle line of the skull bears a wall-like bony ridge for 
the attachment of the powerful jaw-muscles, and the tusks, or 
canines, are of monstrous size, recalling those of a carnivorous 
animal. The general colour is blackish, with a more or less 
marked grey or brownish tinge on the hair of the shoulders, and 
sometimes of chestnut on the head. Mr G. L. Bates (in Proc. 
Zool. Soc., 1905, vol. i.) states that gorillas only leave the depths 
of the forest to enter the outlying clearings in the neighbourhood 
of human settlements when they are attracted by some special 
fruit or succulent plant; the favourite being the fruit of the 
" mejom," a tall cane-like plant (perhaps a kind of Amomum) 
which grows abundantly on deserted clearings. At one isolated 
village the natives, who were unarmed, reported that they not 
unfrequently saw and heard the gorillas, which broke down the 
stalks of the plantains in the rear of the habitations to tear out 
and eat the tender heart. On the old clearings of another village 
Mr Bates himself, although he did not see a gorilla, saw the fresh 
' tracks of these great apes and the torn stems and discarded 
fruit rinds of the " mejoms," as well as the broken stalks of the 
latter, which had been used for beds. On another occasion he 
came across the bed of an old gorilla which had been used only 
the night before, as was proved by a negro woman, who on the 
previous evening had heard the animal breaking and treading 
down the stalks to form its couch. According to native report, 
the gorillas sleep on these beds, which are of sufficient thickness 
to raise them a foot or two above the ground, in a sitting posture, 
with the head inclined forwards on the breast. In the first case 
Mr Bates states that the tracks and beds indicated the presence 
of three or four gorillas, some of which were small. This account 
does not by any means accord with one given by von Koppenfels, 
in which it is stated that while the old male gorilla sleeps in a 
sitting posture at the base of a tree-trunk (no mention being 
made of a bed), the female and young ones pass the night in a 
nest in the tree several yards above the ground, made by bending 
the boughs together and covering them with twigs and moss. 
Mr Bates's account, as being based on actual inspection of the 
beds, is probably the more trustworthy. Even when asleep and 
snoring, gorillas are difficult to approach, since they awake at 
the slightest rustle, and an attempt to surround the one heard 



making his bed by the woman resulted in failure. Most gorillas 
killed by natives are believed by Mr Bates to have been en- 
countered suddenly in the daytime on the ground or in low trees 
in the outlying clearings. Many natives, even if armed, refuse, 
however, to molest an adult male gorilla, on account of its 
ferocity when wounded. Mr Bates, like Mr Winwood Reade, 
refused to credit du Chaillu's account of his having killed gorillas, 
and stated that the only instance he knew of one of these animals 
being slain by a European was an old male (now in Mr Walter 
Rothschild's museum at Tring) shot by the German trader 
Paschen in the Yaunde district, of which an illustrated account 
was published in 1901. Mr E. J. Corns states, however, that 
two European traders, apparently in the " 'eighties " of the I9th 
century, were in the habit of surrounding and capturing these 
animals as occasion offered. 1 Fully adult gorillas have never 
been seen alive in captivity and perhaps never will be, as the 
creature is ferocious and morose to a degree. So long ago as the 
year 1855, when the species was known to zoologists only by its 
skeleton, a gorilla was actually living in England. This animal, 
a young female, came from the Gabun, and was kept for some 
months in Wombwell's travelling menagerie, where it was treated 
as a pet. On its death, the body was sent to Mr Charles Waterton, 
of Walton Hall, by whom the skin was mounted in a grotesque 
manner, and the skeleton given to the Leeds museum. Appar- 
ently, however, it was not till several years later that the skin 
was recognized by Mr A. D. Bartlett as that of a gorilla; the 
animal having probably been regarded by its owner as a chim- 
panzee. A young male was purchased by the Zoological Society 
in October 1887, from Mr Cross, the Liverpool dealer in animals. 
At the time of arrival it was supposed to be about three years old, 
and stood i\ ft. high. A second, a male, supposed to be rather 
older, was acquired in March 1896, having been brought to 
Liverpool from the French Congo. It is described as having 
been thoroughly healthy at the date of its arrival, and of an 
amiable and tractable disposition. Neither survived long. Two 
others were received in the Zoological Society's menagerie in 
1904, and another was housed there for a short time in the 
following year, while a fifth was received in 1906. Falkenstein's 
gorilla, exhibited at the Westminster aquarium under the name 
of pongo, and afterwards at the Berlin aquarium, survived for 
eighteen months. " Pussi," the gorilla of the Breslau Zoological 
Gardens, holds a record for longevity, with over seven years 
of menagerie life. Writing in 1903 Mr W. T. Hornaday stated 
that but one live gorilla, and that a tiny infant, had ever 
landed in the United States; and it lived only five days after 
arrival. (R. L.*) 

GORINCHEM, or GORCUM, a fortified town of Holland in the 
province of south Holland, on the right bank of the Merwede 
at the confluence of the Linge, 16 m. by rail W. of Dordrecht. 
It is connected by the Zederik and Merwede canals with Amster- 
dam, and steamers ply hence in every direction. Pop. (1900) 
11,987. Gorinchem possesses several interesting old houses, and 
overlooking the river are some fortified gateways of the i7th 
century. The principal buildings are the old church of St 
Vincent, containing the monuments of the lords of Arkel; the 
town hall, a prison, custom-house, barracks and a military 
hospital. The charitable and benevolent institutions are 
numerous, and there are also a library and several learned 
associations. Gorinchem possesses a good harbour, and besides 
working in gold and silver, carries on a considerable trade in 
grain, hemp, cheese, potatoes, cattle and fish, the salmon fishery 
being noted. Woerkum, or Woudrichem, a little below the town 
on the left bank of the Merwede, is famous for its quaint old 
buildings, which are decorated with mosaics. 

GORING, GEORGE GORING, LORD (1608-1657), English 
Royalist soldier, son of George Goring, earl of Norwich, was born 
on the I4th of July 1608. He soon became famous at court 
for his prodigality and dissolute manners. His father-in-law, 
Richard Boyle, earl of Cork, procured for him a post in the Dutch 

1 In 1905 the Rev. Geo. Grenfell reported that he had that summer 
shot a gorilla in the Bwela country, east of the Mongala affluent of 
the Congo. 



GORKI GORLITZ 



259 






army with the rank of colonel. He was permanently lamed 
by a wound received at Breda in 1637, and returned to England 
early in 1639, when he was made governor of Portsmouth. He 
served in the Scottish war, and already had a considerable 
reputation when he was concerned in the " Army Plot." Officers 
of the army stationed at York proposed to petition the king and 
parliament for the maintenance of the royal authority. A 
second party was in favour of more violent measures, and 
Goring, in the hope of being appointed lieutenant-general, 
proposed to march the army on London and overawe the parlia- 
ment during Stafford's trial. This proposition being rejected 
by his fellow officers, he betrayed the proceedings to Mountjoy 
Blount, earl of Newport, who passed on the information in- 
directly to Pym in April. Colonel Goring was thereupon called 
on to give evidence before the Commons, who commended him 
for his services to the Commonwealth. This betrayal of his 
comrades induced confidence in the minds of the parliamentary 
leaders, who sent him back to his Portsmouth command. Never- 
theless he declared for the king in August. He surrendered 
Portsmouth to the parliament in September 1642 and went to 
Holland to recruit for the Royalist army, returning to England 
in December. Appointed to a cavalry command by the earl of 
Newcastle, he defeated Fairfax at Seacroft Moor near Leeds 
in March 1643, but in May he was taken prisoner at Wakefield 
on the capture of the town by Fairfax. In April 1644 he effected 
an exchange. At Marston Moor he commanded the Royalist 
left, and charged with great success, but, allowing his troopers 
to disperse in search of plunder, was routed by Cromwell at the 
close of the- battle. In November 1644, on his father's elevation 
to the earldom of Norwich, he became Lord Goring. The 
parliamentary authorities, however, refused to recognize the 
creation of the earldom, and continued to speak of the father as 
Lord Goring and the son as General Goring. In August he had 
been despatched by Prince Rupert, who recognized his ability, 
to join Charles in the south, and in spite of his dissolute and 
insubordinate character he was appointed to supersede Henry, 
Lord Wilmot, as lieut.-general of the Royalist horse (see GREAT 
REBELLION). He secured some successes in the west, and in 
January 1645 advanced through Hampshire and occupied 
Farnham; but want of money compelled him to retreat to 
Salisbury and thence to Exeter. The excesses committed by his 
troops seriously injured the Royalist cause, and his exactions 
made his name hated throughout the west. He had himself 
prepared to besiege Taunton in March, yet when in the next 
month he was desired by Prince Charles, who was at Bristol, 
to send reinforcements to Sir Richard Grenville for the siege of 
Taunton, he obeyed the order only with ill-humour. Later in 
the month he was summoned with his troops to the relief of the 
king at Oxford. Lord Goring had long been intriguing for an 
independent command, and he now secured from the king what 
was practically supreme authority in the west. It was alleged 
by the earl of Newport that he was willing to transfer his 
allegiance once more to the parliament. It is not likely that he 
meditated open treason, but he was culpably negligent and 
occupied with private ambitions and jealousies. He, was still 
engaged in desultory operations against Taunton when the 
main campaign of 1645 opened. For the part taken by Goring's 
army in the operations of the Naseby campaign see GREAT 
REBELLION. After the decisive defeat of the king, the army of 
Fairfax marched into the west and defeated Goring in a disastrous 
fight at Langport on the loth of July. He made no further 
serious resistance to the parliamentary general, but wasted his 
time in frivolous amusements, and in November he obtained 
leave to quit his disorganized forces and retire to France on the 
ground of health. His father's Services secured him the command 
of some English regiments in the Spanish service. He died at 
Madrid in July or August 1657. Clarendon gives him a very 
unpleasing character, declaring that " Goring . . . would, 
without hesitation, have broken any trust, or done any act of 
treachery to have satisfied an ordinary passion or appetite; and 
in truth wanted nothing but industry (for he had wit, and 
courage, and understanding and ambition, uncontrolled by any 






fear of God or man) to have been as eminent and successful in 
the highest attempt of wickedness as any man in the age he 
lived in or before. Of all his qualifications dissimulation was 
his masterpiece; in which he so much excelled, that men were 
not ordinarily ashamed, or out of countenance, with being 
deceived but twice by him." 

See the life by C. H. Firth in the Dictionary of National Biography; 
Dugdale's Baronage, where there are some doubtful stories of his 
life in Spain; the Clarendon State Papers; Clarendon's History of the 
Great Rebellion ; and S. R. Gardiner's History of the Great Civil War. 

GORKI, MAXIM (1868- ), the pen-name of the Russian 
novelist Alexei Maximovich Pyeshkov, who was born at Nizhni- 
Novgorod on the 26th of March 1868. His father was a dyer, 
but he lost both his parents in childhood, and in his ninth year 
was sent to assist in a boot-shop. We find him afterwards in a 
variety of callings, but devouring books of all sorts greedily, 
whenever they fell into his hands. He ran away from the boot- 
shop and went to help a land-surveyor. He was then a cook 
on board a steamer and afterwards a gardener. In his fifteenth 
year he tried to enter a school at Kazan, but was obliged to betake 
himself again to his drudgery. He became a baker, than hawked 
about kvas, and helped the barefooted tramps and labourers 
at the docks. From these he drew some of his most striking 
pictures, and learned to give sketches of humble life generally 
with the fidelity of a Defoe. After a long course of drudgery 
he had the good fortune to obtain the place of secretary to a 
barrister at Nizhni-Novgorod. This was the turning-point of 
his fortunes, as he found a sympathetic master who helped him. 
He also became acquainted with the novelist Korolenko, who 
assisted him in his literary efforts. His first story was Makar 
Chudra, which was published in the journal Kavkaz. He con- 
tributed to many periodicals and finally attracted attention by 
his tale called Chelkash, which appeared in Russkoe Bogatsvo 
(" Russian wealth "). This was followed by a series of tales 
in which he drew with extraordinary vigour the life of the 
bosniaki, or tramps. He has sometimes described other classes 
of society, tradesmen and the educated classes, but not with 
equal success. There are some vigorous pictures, however, 
of the trading class in his Foma Gordeyev. But his favourite 
type is the rebel, the man in revolt against society, and him he 
describes from personal knowledge, and enlists our sympathies 
with him. We get such a type completely in Konovalov. Gorki 
is always preaching that we must have ideals something better 
than everyday life, and this view is brought out in his play 
At the Lowest Depths, which had great success at Moscow, but 
was coldly received at St Petersburg. 

For a good criticism of Gorki see Ideas and Realities in Russian 
Literature, by Prince Kropotkin. Many of his works have been 
translated into English. 

GORLITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Silesia, on the left bank of the Neisse, 62 m. E. from Dresden 
on the railway to Breslau, and at the junction of lines to Berlin, 
Zittau and Halle. Pop. (1885) 55,702, (1005) 80,931. The 
Neisse at this point is crossed by a railway bridge 1650 ft. long 
and 120 ft. high, with 32 arches. Gorlitz is one of the hand- 
somest, and, owing to the extensive forests of 70,000 acres, 
which are the property of the municipality, one of the wealthiest 
towns in Germany. It is surrounded by beautiful walks and 
fine gardens, and although its old walls and towers have now 
been demolished, many of its ancient buildings remain to form 
a picturesque contrast with the signs of modern industry. From 
the hill called Landskrone, about 1500 ft. high, an extensive 
prospect is obtained of the surrounding country. The principal 
buildings are the fine Gothic church of St Peter and St Paul, 
dating from the isth century, with two stately towers, a famous 
organ and a very heavy bell; the Frauen Kirche, erected about 
the end of the isth century, and possessing a fine portal and 
choir in pierced work; the Kloster Kirche, restored in 1868, 
with handsome choir stalls and a carved altar dating from 1383; 
and the Roman Catholic church, founded in 1853, in the Roman 
style of architecture, with beautiful glass windows and oil-paint- 
ings. The old town hall (Rathaus) contains a very valuable 
library, having at its entrance a fine flight of steps. There is 



260 



GORRES 



also a new town hall which was erected in 1904-1906. Other 
buildings are: the old bastion, named Kaisertrutz, now used 
as a guardhouse and armoury; the gymnasium buildings in 
the Gothic style erected in 1851; the Ruhmeshalle with the 
Kaiser Friedrich museum, the house of the estates of the province 
(Standehaus), two theatres and the barracks. Near the town 
is the chapel of the Holy Cross, where there is a model of the 
Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem made during the isth century. 
In the public park there is a bust of Schiller, a monument to 
Alexander von Humboldt, and a statue of the mystic Jakob 
Bohme (1575-1624); a monument has been erected in the town 
in commemoration of the war of 1870-71, and also one to the 
emperor William I. and a statue of Prince Frederick Charles. 
In connexion with the natural history society there is a valuable 
museum, and the scientific institute possesses a large library 
and a rich collection of antiquities, coins and articles of virtu. 
Gorlitz, next to Breslau, is the largest and most flourishing 
commercial town of Silesia, and is also regarded as classic ground 
for the study of German Renaissance architecture. Besides 
cloth, which forms its staple article of commerce, it has manu- 
factories of various linen and woollen wares, machines, railway 
wagons, glass, sago, tobacco, leather, chemicals and tiles. 

Gorlitz existed as a village from a very early period, and at 
the beginning of the iath century received civic rights. It was 
then known as Drebenau, but on being rebuilt after its destruc- 
tion by fire in 1131 it received the name of Zgorzelice. About 
the end of the I2th century it was strongly fortified, and for a 
short time it was the capital of a duchy of Gorlitz. It was 
several times besieged and taken during the Thirty Years' War, 
and it also suffered considerably in the Seven Years' War. In the 
battle which took place near it between the Austrians and 
Prussians on the 7th of September 1757, Hans Karl von Winter- 
feldt, the general of Frederick the Great, was slain. In 1815 the 
town, with the greater part of Upper Lusatia, came into the 
possession of Prussia. 

See Neumann, Geschichte von Gorlitz (1850). 

GORRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON (1776-1848), German 
writer, was born on the 25th of January 1776, at Coblenz. His 
father was a man of moderate means, who sent his son to a Latin 
college under, the direction of the Roman Catholic clergy. The 
sympathies of the young Gorres were from the first strongly 
with the French Revolution, and the dissoluteness and irreligion 
of the French exiles in the Rhineland confirmed him in his hatred 
of princes. He harangued the revolutionary clubs, and insisted 
on the unity of interests which should ally all civilized states to 
one another. He then commenced a republican journal called Das 
rote Blatt, and afterwards Riibezahl, in which he strongly con- 
demned the administration of the Rhenish provinces by France. 

After the peace of Campo Formio (1797) there was some hope 
that the Rhenish provinces would be constituted into an inde- 
pendent republic. In 1799 the provinces sent an embassy, of 
which Gorres was a member, to Paris to put their case before the 
directory. The embassy reached Paris on the zoth of November 
1799; two days before this Napoleon had assumed the supreme 
direction of affairs. After much delay the embassy was received 
by him; but the only answer they obtained was " that they 
might rely on perfect justice, and that the French government 
would never lose sight of their wants." Gorres on his return 
published a tract called Resultate meiner Sendung nach Paris, in 
which he reviewed the history of the French Revolution. During 
the thirteen years of Napoleon's dominion Gorres lived a retired 
life, devoting himself chiefly to art or science. In 1801 he 
married Catherine de Lasaulx, and was for some years teacher 
at a secondary school in Coblenz; in 1806 he moved to Heidel- 
berg, where he lectured at the university. As a leading member 
of the Heidelberg Romantic group, he edited together with 
K. Brentano and L. von Arnim the famous Zeitungfiir Einsiedler 
(subsequently re-named Trost-Einsamkeit), and in 1807 he 
published Die teutschen Volksbucher. He returned to Coblenz 
in 1808, and again found occupation as a teacher in a secondary 
school, supported by civic funds. He now studied Persian, and 
in two years published a Mythengeschichte der asiatischen Welt, 



which was followed ten years later by Das Heldenbuch von Iran, 
a translation of part of the Shahnama, the epic of Firdousi. In 
1813 he actively took up the cause of national independence, 
and in the following year founded Der rheinische Merkur. The 
intense earnestness of the paper, the bold outspokenness of its 
hostility to Napoleon, and its fiery eloquence secured for it 
almost instantly a position and influence unique in the history 
of German newspapers. Napoleon himself called it la cinquieme 
puissance. The ideal it insisted on was a united Germany, with 
a representative government, but under an emperor after the 
fashion of other days, for Gorres now abandoned his early 
advocacy of republicanism. When Napoleon was at Elba, 
Gorres wrote an imaginary proclamation issued by him to the 
people, the intense irony of which was so well veiled that many 
Frenchmen mistook it for an original utterance of the emperor. 
He inveighed bitterly against the second peace of Paris (1815), 
declaring that Alsace and Lorraine should have been demanded 
back from France. 

Stein was glad enough to use the Merkur at the time of the 
meeting of the congress of Vienna as a vehicle for giving expres- 
sion to his hopes. But Hardenberg, in May 1815, warned Gorres 
to remember that he was not to arouse hostility against France, 
but only against Bonaparte. There was also in the Merkur an 
antipathy to Prussia, a continual expression of the desire that 
an Austrian prince should assume the imperial title, and'also a 
tendency to pronounced liberalism all of which made it most 
distasteful to Hardenberg, and to his master King Frederick 
William III. Gorres disregarded warnings sent to him by the 
censorship and continued the paper in all its fierceness. Accord- 
ingly it was suppressed early in 1816, at the instance of the 
Prussian government; and soon after Gorres was dismissed from 
his post as teacher at Coblenz. From this time his writings 
were his sole means of support, and he became a most diligent 
political pamphleteer. In the wild excitement which followed 
Kotzebue's assassination, the reactionary decrees of Carlsbad 
were framed, and these were the subject of Gorres's celebrated 
pamphlet Teutschland und die Revolution (1820). In this work 
he reviewed the circumstances which had led to the murder of 
Kotzebue, and, while expressing all possible horror at the deed 
itself, he urged that it was impossible and undesirable to repress 
the free utterance of public opinion by reactionary measures. 
The success of the work was very marked, despite its ponderous 
style. It was suppressed by the Prussian government, and 
orders were issued for the arrest of Gorres and the seizure of his 
papers. He escaped to Strassburg, and thence went to Switzer- 
land. Two more political tracts, Europa und die Revolution 
(1821) and In Sachen der Rheinprovinzen und in eigener Angele- 
genheit (1822), also deserve mention. 

In Gorres's pamphlet Die heilige Allianz und die Volker auf 
dent Kongress zu Verona he asserted that the princes had met 
together to crush the liberties of the people, and that the people 
must look elsewhere for help. The " elsewhere " was to Rome; 
and from this time Gorres became a vehement Ultramontane 
writer. He was summoned to Munich by King Ludwig of Bavaria 
as Professor of History in the university, and there his writing 
enjoyed very great popularity. His Christliche Mystik (1836- 
1842) gave a series of biographies of the saints, together with an 
exposition of Roman Catholic mysticism. But his most cele- 
brated ultramontane work was a polemical one. Its occasion 
was the deposition and imprisonment by the Prussian govern- 
ment of the archbishop Clement Wenceslaus, in consequence of 
the refusal of that prelate to sanction in certain instances the 
marriages of Protestants and Roman Catholics. Gorres in his 
Athanasius (1837) fiercely upheld the power of the church, 
although the liberals of later date who have claimed Gorres as 
one of their own school deny that he ever insisted on the absolute 
supremacy of Rome. Alhanasius went through several editions, 
and originated a long and bitter controversy. In the Historisch- 
politische Blatter, a Munich journal, Gorres and his son Guido 
(1805-1852) continually upheld the claims of the church. 
Gorres received from the king the order of merit for his services. 
He died on the 29th of January 1848. 



GORSAS GORTON 



261 



Gorres's Gesammelte Schriften (only his political writings) appeared 
in six volumes (1854-1860), to which three volumes of Gesammelte 
Briefe were subsequently added (1858-1874). Cp. J. Galland, 
Joseph von Carres (1876, 2nd ed. 1877); J. N. Sepp, Carres und seine 
Zeitgenossen (1877), and by the same author, Carres, in the series 
Geisteshelden (1896). A Gorres-Gesellschaft was founded in 1876. 

GORSAS, ANTOINE JOSEPH (1752-1793), French publicist 
and politician, was born at Limoges (Haute-Vienne) on the 24th 
of March 1752, the son of a shoemaker. He established himself 
as a private tutor in Paris, and presently set up a school for the 
army at Versailles, which was attended by commoners as well 
as nobles. In 1781 he was imprisoned for a short time in the 
Bicetre on an accusation of corrupting the morals of his pupils, 
his real offence being the writing of satirical verse. These 
circumstances explain the violence of his anti-monarchical 
sentiment. At the opening of the states-general he began to 
publish the Courrier de Versailles a Paris et de Paris d Versailles, 
in which appeared on the 4th of October 1789 the account of the 
banquet of the royal bodyguard. Gorsas is said to have himself 
read it in public at the Palais Royal, and to have headed one of 
the columns that marched on Versailles. He then changed the 
name of his paper to the Courrier des quatre-vingt-lrois departe- 
ments, continuing his incendiary propaganda, which had no 
small share in provoking the popular insurrections of June and 
August 1792. During the September massacres he wrote in 
his paper that the prisons were the centre of an anti-national 
conspiracy and that the people exercised a just vengeance on 
the guilty. On the loth of September 1792 he was elected to 
the Convention for the department of Seine-et-Oise, and on the 
loth of January 1793 was elected one of its secretaries. He sat 
at first with the Mountain, but having been long associated 
with Roland and Brissot, his agreement with the Girondists 
became gradually more pronounced ; during the trial of Louis XVI. 
he dissociated himself more and more from the principles of the 
Mountain, and he voted for the king's detention during the war 
and subsequent banishment. A violent attack on Marat in 
the Courrier led to an armed raid on his printing establishment 
on the gth of March 1793. The place was sacked, but Gorsas 
escaped the popular fury by flight. The facts being reported to 
the Convention, little sympathy was shown to Gorsas, and a 
resolution (which was evaded) was passed forbidding repre- 
sentatives to occupy themselves with journalism. On the 2nd 
of June he was ordered by the Convention to hold himself under 
arrest with other members of his party. He escaped to Nor- 
mandy to join Buzot, and after the defeat of the Girondists at 
Pacy-sur-Eure he found shelter in Brittany. He was imprudent 
enough to return to Paris in the autumn, where he was arrested 
on the 6th of October and guillotined the next day. 

See the Moniteur, No. 268 (1792), Nos. 20, 70 new series 18 (1793) ; 
M. Tourneux, Bibl. de I'hist. de Paris, 10,291 seq. (1894). 

GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON (1835- ), English statesman, 
was born at Preston in 1835, the son of Edward Chaddock 
Gorst, who took the name of Lowndes on succeeding to the 
family estate in 1853. He graduated third wrangler from St 
John's College, Cambridge, in 1857, and was admitted to a 
fellowship. After beginning to read for the bar in London, his 
father's illness and death led to his sailing to New Zealand, where 
he married in 1860 Mary Elizabeth Moore. The Maoris had at 
that time set up a king of their own in the Waikato district and 
Gorst, who had made friends with the chief Tamihana (William 
Thomson), acted as an intermediary between the Maoris and 
the government. Sir George Grey made him inspector of 
schools, then resident magistrate, and eventually civil com- 
missioner in Upper Waikato. Tamihana's influence secured his 
safety in the Maori outbreak of 1863. In 1908 he published a 
volume of recollections, under the title of New Zealand Revisited: 
Recollections of the Days of my Youth. He then returned to 
England and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1865, 
becoming Q.C. in 1875. He stood unsuccessfully for Hastings 
in the Conservative interest in 1865, and next year entered 
parliament as member for the borough of Cambridge, but failed 
to secure re-election at the dissolution of 1868. After the 
Conservative defeat of that year he was entrusted by Disraeli 



with the reorganization of the party machinery, and in five years 
of hard work he paved the way for the Conservative success at 
the general election of 1874. At a bye-election in 1875 he re- 
entered parliament as member for Chatham, which he continued 
to represent until 1892. He joined Sir Henry Drummond- 
Wolff, Lord Randolph Churchill and Mr Arthur Balfour in the 
" Fourth Party," and he became solicitor-general in the ad- 
ministration of 1885-1886 and was knighted. On the formation 
of the second Salisbury administration (1886) he became under- 
secretary for India and in 1891 financial secretary to the 
Treasury. At the general election of 1892 he became member 
for Cambridge University. He was deputy chairman of com- 
mittees in the House of Commons from 1888 to 1891, and on the 
formation of the third Salisbury administration in 1895 he 
became vice-president of the committee of the council on educa- 
tion (until 1902). Sir John Gorst adhered to the principles of 
Tory democracy which he had advocated in the days of the 
fourth party, and continued to exhibit an active interest in the 
housing of the poor, the education and care of their children, 
and in social questions generaUy, both in parliament and in the 
press. But he was always exceedingly " independent " in his 
political action. He objected to Mr Chamberlain's proposals 
for tariff reform, and lost his seat at Cambridge at the general 
election of 1906 to a tariff reformer. He then withdrew from 
the vice-chancellorship of the Primrose League, of which he 
had been one of the founders, on the ground that it no longer 
represented the policy of Lord Beaconsfield. In 1910 he con- 
tested Preston as a Liberal, but failed to secure election. 

His elder son, SIR J. ELDON GORST (b. 1861), was financial 
adviser to the Egyptian government from 1898 to 1904, when 
he became assistant under-secretary of state for foreign affairs. 
In 1907 he succeeded Lord Cromer as British agent and consul- 
general in Egypt. 

An account of Sir John Gorst's connexion with Lord Randolph 
Churchill will be found in the Fourth Party (1906), by his younger 
son, Harold E. Gorst. 

GORTON, SAMUEL (c. 1600-1677), English sectary and 
founder of the American sect of Gortonites, was born about 
1600 at Gorton, Lancashire. He was first apprenticed to a 
clothier in London, but, fearing persecution for his religious 
convictions, he sailed for Boston, Massachusetts, in 1636. Cpnr 
stantly involved in religious disputes, he fled in turn to PJy r 
mouth, and (in 1637-1638) to Aquidneck (Newport), where he 
was publicly whipped for insulting the clergy and magistrates. 
In 1643 ne bought land from the Narraganset Indians at 
Shawomet now Warwick where he was joined by a number 
of his followers; but he quarrelled with the Indians and the 
authorities at Boston sent soldiers to arrest Gorton and six of his 
companions. He served a term of imprisonment for heresy at 
Charlestown, after which he was ejected from the colony. 
In England in 1646 he published the curious tract " Simpli- 
cities Defence against Seven Headed Policy " (reprinted in 
I 835), giving an account of his grievances against the Massa- 
chusetts government. In 1648 he returned to New England 
with a letter of protection from the earl of Warwick, and joining 
his former companions at Shawomet, which he named Warwick, 
in honour of the earl, he remained there till his death at the end 
of 1677. He is chiefly remembered as the founder of a small 
sect called the Gortonites, which survived till the end of the 
1 8th century. They had a great contempt for the regular clergy 
and for all outward forms of religion, holding that the true 
believers partook of the perfection of God. 

Among his quaint writings are: An Incorruptible Key composed 
of the CX. Psalms wherewith you may open the rest of the Scriptures 
(1647), and Saltmarsh returned from the Dead, with its sequel, An 
Antidote against the Commqn Plague of the World (1657). See L. -G. 
Jones, Samuel Gorton: a for gotten Founder of our Liberties (Providence, 
1896). 

GORTON, an urban district in the Gorton parliamentary 
division of Lancashire, England, forming an eastern suburb 
of Manchester. Pop. (1901) 26,564. It is largely a manufactur- 
ing district, having cotton mills and iron, engineering and 
chemical works. 



262 



GORTYNA GORZ AND GRADISCA 



GORTYNA, or GORTYN, an important ancient city on the 
southern side of the island of Crete. It stood on the banks 
of the small river Lethaeus (Mitropolipotamo), about three hours 
distant from the sea, with which it communicated by means of 
its two harbours, Metallum and Lebena. It had temples of 
Apollo Pythius, Artemis and Zeus. Near the town was the 
famous fountain of Sauros, inclosed by fruit-bearing poplars; 
and not far from this was another spring, overhung by an ever- 
green plane tree which in popular belief marked the scene of 
the amours of Zeus and Europa. Gortyna was, next to Cnossus, 
the largest and most powerful city of Crete. The two cities 
combined to subdue the rest of the island; but when they had 
gained their object they quarrelled with each other, and the 
history of both towns is from this time little more than a record 
of their feuds. Neither plays a conspicuous part in the history 
of Greece. Under the Romans Gortyna became the metropolis 
of the island. Extensive ruins may still be seen at the modern 
village of Hagii Deka, and here was discovered the great inscrip- 
tion containing chapters of its ancient laws. Though partly 
ruinous, the church of St Titus is a very interesting monument 
of early Christian architecture, dating from about the 4th century. 

See also CRETE, and for a full account of the laws see GREEK 
LAW. 

GO'RTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON, BARON VON SCHLITZ 
(1668-1719), Holstein statesman, was educated at Jena. He 
entered the Holstein-Gottorp service, and after the death of 
the duchess Hedwig Sophia, Charles XII. 's sister, became very 
influential during the minority of her son Duke Charles Frederick. 
His earlier policy aimed at strengthening Holstein-Gottorp 
at the expense of Denmark. With this object, during Charles 
XII.'s stay at Altranstadt (1706-1707), he tried to divert the 
king's attention to the Holstein question, and six years later, 
when the Swedish commander, Magnus Stenbock, crossed the 
Elbe, Gortz rendered him as much assistance as was compatible 
with not openly breaking with Denmark, even going so far 
as to surrender the fortress of Tonning to the Swedes. Gortz 
next attempted to undermine the grand alliance against Sweden 
by negotiating with Russia, Prussia and Saxony for the purpose 
of isolating Denmark, or even of turning the arms of the allies 
against her, a task by no means impossible in view of the strained 
relations between Denmark and the tsar. The plan foundered, 
however, on the refusal of Charles XII. to save the rest of his 
German domains by ceding Stettin to Prussia. Another simul- 
taneous plan of procuring the Swedish crown for Duke Charles 
Frederick also came to nought. Gortz first suggested the 
marriage between the duke of Holstein and the tsarevna Anne 
of Russia, and negotiations were begun in St Petersburg with 
that object. On the arrival of Charles XII. from Turkey at 
Stralsund, Gortz was the first to visit him, and emerged from 
his presence chief minister or " grand-vizier " as the Swedes 
preferred to call the bold and crafty satrap, whose absolute 
devotion to the Swedish king took no account of the intense 
wretchedness of the Swedish nation. Gortz, himself a man of 
uncommon audacity, seems to have been fascinated by the 
heroic element in Charles's nature and was determined, if 
possible, to save him from his difficulties. He owed his extra- 
ordinary influence to the fact that he was the only one of Charles's 
advisers who believed, or pretended to believe, that Sweden 
was still far from exhaustion, or at any rate had a sufficient 
reserve of power to give support to an energetic diplomacy 
Charles's own opinion, in fact. Gortz's position, however, 
was highly peculiar. Ostensibly, he was only the Holstein 
minister at Charles's court, in reality he was everything in Sweden 
except a Swedish subject finance minister, plenipotentiary 
to foreign powers, factotum, and responsible to the king alone, 
though he had not a line of instructions. But he was just the 
man for a hero in extremities, and his whole course of procedure 
was, of necessity, revolutionary. His chief financial expedient 
was to debase, or rather ruin, the currency by issuing copper 
tokens redeemable in better times; but it was no fault of his 
that Charles XII., during his absence, flung upon the market 
too enormous an amount of this copper money for Gortz to deal 



with. By the end of 1718 it seemed as if Gortz's system could 
not go on much longer, and the hatred of the Swedes towards 
him was so intense and universal that they blamed him for 
Charles XII.'s tyranny as well as for his own. Gortz hoped, 
however, to conclude peace with at least some of Sweden's 
numerous enemies before the crash came and then, by means 
of fresh combinations, to restore Sweden to her rank as a great 
power. It must be admitted that, in pursuance of his " system," 
Gortz displayed a genius for diplomacy which would have done 
honour to a Metternich or a Talleyrand. He desired peace with 
Russia first of all, and at the congress of Aland even obtained 
relatively favourable terms, only to have them rejected by his 
obstinately optimistic master. Simultaneously, Gortz was negoti- 
ating with Cardinal Alberoni and with the whigs in England; but 
all his ingenious combinations collapsed like a house of cards on 
the sudden death of Charles XII. The whole fury of the Swedish 
nation instantly fell upon Gortz. After a trial before a special 
commission which was a parody of justice the accused was 
not permitted to have any legal assistance or the use of writing 
materials he was condemned to decapitation and promptly 
executed. Perhaps Gortz deserved his fate for " unnecessarily 
making himself the tool of an unheard-of despotism," but his 
death was certainly a judicial murder, and some historians even 
regard him as a political martyr. 

See R. N. Bain, Charles XII. (London, 1895), and Scandinavia, 
chap. 12 (Cambridge, 1905) ; B. von Beskow, Freherre Georg 
Heinrich von Gortz (Stockholm, 1868). (R. N. B.) 

GORZ (Ital. Gorizia; Slovene, Gorica), the capital of the 
Austrian crownland of Gorz and Gradisca, about 390 m. S.W. 
of Vienna by rail. Pop (1900) 25,432, two-thirds Italians, 
the remainder mostly Slovenes and Germans. It is picturesquely 
situated on the left bank of the Isonzo in a fertile valley, 35 m. 
N.N.W. of Trieste by rail. It is the seat of an archbishop and 
possesses an interesting cathedral, built in the I4th century 
and the richly decorated church of St Ignatius, built in the 
1 7th century by the Jesuits. On an eminence, which dominates 
the town, is situated the old castle, formerly the seat of the 
counts of Gorz, now partly used as barracks. Owing to the 
mildness of its climate Gorz has become a favourite winter- 
resort, and has received the name of the Nice of Austria. Its 
mean annual temperature is 55 F.; while the mean winter 
temperature is 38-7 F. It is adorned with several pretty gardens 
with a luxuriant southern vegetation. On a height to the N. 
of the town is situated the Franciscan convent of Castagnavizza, 
in whose chapel lie the remains of Charles X. of France(d. 1836), 
the last Bourbon king, of the duke of Angouleme (d. 1844), 
his son, and of the duke of Chambord (d. 1883). Seven miles 
to the north of Gorz is the Monte Santo (2275 ft.), a much- 
frequented place on which stands a pilgrimage church. The 
industries include cotton and silk weaving, sugar refining, 
brewing, the manufacture of leather and the making of rosoglio. 
There is also a considerable trade in wooden work, vegetables, 
early fruit and wine. Gorz is mentioned for the first time at 
the beginning of the nth century, and received its charter as 
a town in 1307. During the middle ages the greater part of 
its population was German. 

GORZ AND GRADISCA, a county and crownland of Austria, 
bounded E. by Carniola, S. by Istria, the Triestine territory 
and the Adriatic, W. by Italy and N. by Carinthia. It has 
an area of 1140 sq. m. The coast line, though extending for 
25 m., does not present any harbour of importance. It is fringed 
by alluvial deposits and lagoons, which are for the most part 
of very modern formation, for as late as the 4th or sth centuries 
Aquileia was a great seaport. The harbour of Grado is the only 
one accessible to the larger kind of coasting craft. On all sides, 
except towards the south-west where it unites with the Friulian 
lowland, it is surrounded by mountains, and about four-sixths 
of its area is occupied by mountains and hills. From the Julian 
Alps, which traverse the province in the north, the country 
descends in successive terraces towards the sea, and may roughly 
be divided into the upper highlands, the lower highlands, the 
hilly district and the lowlands. The principal peaks in the 



GOSCHEN, VISCOUNT 



263 



Julian Alps are the Monte Canin (8469 ft.), the Manhart (8784 ft.) , 
the Jalouc (8708 ft.), the Krn (7367 ft.), the Matajur (5386 ft.), 
and the highest peak in the whole range, the Triglav or 
Terglou (9394 ft.). The Julian Alps are crossed by the Predil 
Pass (3811 ft.), through which passes the principal road from 
Carinthia to the Coastland. The southern part of the province 
belongs to the Karst region, and here are situated the famous 
cascades and grottoes of Sankt Kanzian, where the river Reka 
begins its subterranean course. The principal river of the 
province is the Isonzo, which rises in the Triglav, and pursues 
a strange zigzag course for a distance of 78 m. before it reaches 
the Adriatic. At Gorz the Isonzo is still 138 ft. above the sea, 
and it is navigable only in its lowest section, where it takes the 
name of the Sdobba. Its principal affluents are the Idria, 
the Wippach and the Torre with its tributary the Judrio, 
which forms for a short distance the boundary between Austria 
and Italy. Of special interest not only in itself but for the 
frequent allusions to it in classical literature is the Timavus 
or Timavo, which appears near Duino, and after a very short 
course flows into the Gulf of Trieste. In ancient times it appears, 
according to the well-known description of Virgil (Aen. i. 244) 
to have rushed from the mountain by nine separate mouths 
and with much noise and commotion, but at present it usually 
issues from only three mouths and flows quiet and still. It 
is strange enough, however, to see the river coming out full 
formed from the rock, and capable at its very source of bearing 
vessels on its bosom. According to a probable hypothesis it 
is a continuation of the above-mentioned river Reka, which is 
lost near Sankt Kanzian. 

Agriculture, and specially viticulture, is the principal occupa- 
tion of the population, and the vine is here planted not only 
in regular vineyards, but is introduced in long lines through 
the ordinary fields and carried up the hills in terraces locally 
called ronchi. The rearing of the silk-worm, especially in the 
lowlands, constitutes another great source of revenue, and 
furnishes the material for the only extensive industry of the 
country. The manufacture of silk is carried on at Gorz, and in 
and around the village of Haidenschaft. Gorz and Gradisca 
had in 1900 a population of 232,338, which is equivalent to 
203 inhabitants per square mile. According to nationality about 
two-thirds were Slovenes, and the remainder Italians, with only 
about 2200 Germans. Almost the whole of the population 
(99-6%) belongs to the Roman Catholic Church. The local 
diet, of which the archbishop of Gorz is a member ex-officio, 
is composed of 22 members, and the crownland sends 5 deputies 
to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes the 
province is divided into 4 districts and an autonomous munici- 
pality, Gorz (pop. 25,432), the capital. Other principal places 
are Cormons (5824), Monfalcone (5536), Kirchheim (5699), 
Gradisca (3843) and Aquileia (2319). 

Gorz first appears distinctly in history about the close of the 
loth century, as part of a district bestowed by the emperor 
Otto III. on John, patriarch of Aquileia. In the nth century 
it became the seat of the Eppenstein family, who frequently 
bore the title of counts of Gorizia; and in the beginning of the 
1 2th century the countship passed from them to the Lurngau 
family which continued to exist till the year 1500, and acquired 
possessions in Tirol, Carinthia, Friuli and Styria. On the 
death of Count Leonhard (i2th April 1500) the fief reverted to 
the house of Habsburg. The countship of Gradisca was united 
with it in 1754. The province was occupied by the French in 
1809, but reverted again to Austria in 1815. It formed a district 
of the administrative province of Trieste until 1861, when it 
became a separate crownland under its actual name. 

GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN, ist VISCOUNT 
(1831-1907), British statesman, son of William Henry Goschen, 
a London merchant of German extraction, was born in London 
on the loth of August 1831. He was educated at Rugby under 
Dr Tait, and at Oriel College, Oxford, where he took a first- 
class in classics. He entered his father's firm of Friihling & 
Goschen, of Austin Friars, in 1853, and three years later became 
a director of the Bank of England. His entry into public life 



took place in 1863, when he was returned without opposition 
as member for the city of London in the Liberal interest, 
and this was followed by his re-election, at the head of the poll, 
in the general election of 1865. In November of the same year 
he was appointed vice-president of the Board of Trade and 
paymaster-general, and in January 1866 he was made chancellor 
of the duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet. When 
Mr Gladstone became prime minister in December 1868, Mr 
Goschen joined the cabinet as president of the Poor Law Board, 
and continued to hold that office until March 1871, when he 
succeeded Mr Childers as first lord of the admiralty. In 1874 
he was elected lord rector of the university of Aberdeen. Being 
sent to Cairo in 1876 as delegate for the British holders of 
Egyptian bonds, in order to arrange for the conversion of 
the debt, he succeeded in effecting an agreement with the 
Khedive. 

In 1878 his views upon the county franchise question pre- 
vented him from voting uniformly with his party, and he in- 
formed his constituents in the city that he would not stand 
again at the forthcoming general election. In 1880 he was 
elected for Ripon, and continued to represent that constituency 
until the general election of 1885, when he was returned for the 
Eastern Division of Edinburgh. Being opposed to the extension 
of the franchise, he was unable to join Mr Gladstone's govern- 
ment in 1880; declining the post of viceroy of India, he accepted 
that of special ambassador to the Porte, and was successful in 
settling the Montenegrin and Greek frontier questions in 1880 
and 1881. He was made an ecclesiastical commissioner in 1882, 
and when Sir Henry Brand was raised to the peerage in 1884, 
the speakership of the House of Commons was offered to him, 
but declined. During the parliament of 1880-1885 ne frequently 
found himself unable to concur with his party, especially as 
regards the extension of the franchise and questions of foreign 
policy; and when Mr Gladstone adopted the policy of Home 
Rule for Ireland, Mr Goschen followed Lord Hartington (after- 
wards duke of Devonshire) and became one of the most active of 
the Liberal Unionists. His vigorous and eloquent opposition to 
Mr Gladstone's Home Rule Bill of 1886 brought him into greater 
public prominence than ever, but he failed to retain his seat for 
Edinburgh at the election in July of that year. On the resigna- 
tion of Lord Randolph Churchill in December 1886, Mr Goschen, 
though a Liberal Unionist, accepted Lord Salisbury's invitation 
to join his ministry, and became chancellor of the exchequer. 
Being defeated at Liverpool, 26th of January 1887, by seven 
votes, he was elected for St George's, Hanover Square, on the 
9th of February. His chancellorship of the exchequer during 
the ministry of 1886 to 1892 was rendered memorable by his 
successful conversion of the National Debt in 1888 (see NATIONAL 
DEBT). With that financial operation, under which the new 
2j% Consols became known as " Goschens," his name will 
long be connected. Aberdeen University again conferred upon 
him the honour of the lord rectorship in 1888, and he received 
a similar honour from the University of Edinburgh in 1890. 
In the Unionist opposition of 1893 to 1895 Mr Goschen again 
took a vigorous part, his speeches both in and out of the House 
of Commons being remarkable for their eloquence and debating 
power. From 1895 to 1900 Mr Goschen was first lord of the 
admiralty, and in that office he earned the highest reputation 
for his businesslike grasp of detail and his statesmanlike outlook 
on the naval policy of the country. He retired in 1900, and was 
raised to the peerage by the title of Viscount Goschen of Hawk- 
hurst, Kent. Though retired from active politics he continued 
to take a great interest in public affairs; and when Mr Chamber- 
lain started his tariff reform movement in 1903, Lord Goschen 
was one of the weightiest champions of free trade on the Unionist 
side. He died on the 7th of February 1907, being succeeded in 
the title by his son George Joachim (b. 1866), who was Con- 
servative M.P. for East Grinstead from 1895 to 1900, and 
married a daughter of the ist earl of Cranbrook. 

In educational subjects Goschen had always taken the greatest 
interest, his best known, but by no means his only, contribution 
to popular culture being his -participation in the University 



264 



GOS-HAWK GOSLAR 



Extension Movement; and his first efforts in parliament were 
devoted to advocating the abolition of religious tests and the 
admission of Dissenters to the universities. His published 
works indicate how ably he combined the wise study of econo- 
mics with a practical instinct for business-like progress, without 
neglecting the more ideal aspects of human life. In addition to 
his well-known work on The Theory of the Foreign Exchanges, 
he published several financial and political pamphlets and 
addresses on educational and social subjects, among them being 
that on Cultivation of the Imagination, Liverpool, 1877, and that 
on Intellectual Interest, Aberdeen, 1888. He also wrote The Life 
and Times of Georg Joachim Goschen, publisher and printer of 
Leipzig (1903). (H. CH.) 

GOS-HAWK, i.e. goose-hawk, the Astur palumbarius of 
ornithologists, and the largest of the short-winged hawks used 
in falconry. Its English name, however, has possibly been 
transferred to this species from one of the long-winged hawks 
or true falcons, since there is no tradition of the gos-hawk, now 
So called, having ever been used in Europe to take geese or other 
large and powerful birds. The genus Astur may be readily 
distinguished from Falco by the smooth edges of its beak, 
its short wings (not reaching beyond about the middle of the tail) , 
and its long legs and toes though these last are stout and com- 
paratively shorter than in the sparrow-hawks (Accipiter). In 
plumage the gos-hawk has a general resemblance to the pere- 
grine falcon, and it undergoes a corresponding change as it 
advances from youth to maturity the young being longitudin- 
ally streaked beneath, while the adults are transversely barred. 
The irides, however, are always yellow, or in old birds orange, 
while those of the falcons are dark brown. The sexes differ 
greatly in size. There can be little doubt that the gos-hawk, 
nowadays very rare in Britain, was once common in England, 
and even towards the end of the i8th century Thornton obtained 
a nestling in Scotland, while Irish gos-hawks were of old highly 
celebrated. Being strictly a woodland-bird, its disappearance 
may be safely connected with the disappearance of the ancient 
forests in Great Britain, though its destructiveness to poultry 
and pigeons has doubtless contributed to its present scarcity. 
In many parts of the continent of Europe it still abounds. It 
ranges eastward to China and is much valued in India. In 
North America it is represented by a very nearly allied species, 
A. atricapillus, chiefly distinguished by the closer barring of 
the breast. Three or four examples corresponding with this 
form have been obtained in Britain. A good many other species 
of Astur (some of them passing into Accipiter) are found in 
various parts of the world, but the only one that need here be 
mentioned is the A. novae-hollandiae of Australia, which is 
remarkable for its dimorphism one form possessing the normal 
dark-coloured plumage of the genus and the other being perfectly 
white, with crimson irides. Some writers hold these two forms 
to be distinct species and call the dark-coloured one A. cinereus 
or A. rait. (A. N.) 

GOSHEN, a division of Egypt settled by the Israelites between 
Jacob's immigration and the Exodus. Its exact delimitation 
is a difficult problem. The name may possibly be of Semitic, 
or at least non-Egyptian origin, as in Palestine we meet with a 
district (Josh. x. 41) and a city (ib. xv. 51) of the same name. 
The Septuagint reads Tto-fn 'Apa/3ias in Gen. xlv. 10, and 
xlvi. 34, elsewhere simply Fecre/i. In xlvi. 28 " Goshen . . . 
the land of Goshen " are translated respectively " Heroopolis 
. . . the land of Rameses." This represents a late Jewish 
identification. Ptolemy defines " Arabia " as an Egyptian nome 
on the eastern border of the delta, with capital Phacussa, 
corresponding to the Egyptian nome Sopt and town Kesem. 
It is doubtful whether Phacussa be situated at the mounds of 
Fakus, or at another place, Saft-el-Henneh, which suits Strabo's 
description of its locality rather better. The extent of Goshen, 
according to the apocryphal book of Judith (i. 9, 10), included 
Tanis and Memphis; this is probably an overstatement. It 
is indeed impossible to say more than that it was a place of 
good pasture, on the frontier of Palestine, and fruitful in edible 
vegetables and in fish (Numbers xi. 5). (R. A. S. M.) 



GOSHEN, a city and the county-seat of Elkhart county, 
Indiana, U.S.A., on the Elkhart river, about 95 m. E. by S. 
of Chicago, at an altitude of about 800 ft. Pop. (1890) 
6033; (1900) 7810 (462 foreign-born); (1910) 8514. Goshen is 
served by the Cleveland. Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and 
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railways, and is connected 
by electric railway with Warsaw and South Bend. The city 
has a Carnegie library, and is the seat of Goshen College (under 
Mennonite control), chartered as Elkhart Institute, at Elkhart, 
Ind., in 1895, and removed to Goshen and opened under its 
present name in 1903. The college includes a collegiate depart- 
ment, an academy, a Bible school, a normal school, a summer 
school and correspondence courses, and schools of business, 
of music and of oratory, and in 1908-1909 had 331 students, 
73 of whom were in the Academy. Goshen is situated in 
a good farming region and is an important lumber market. 
There is a good water-power. Among the city's manufactures 
are wagons and carriages, furniture, wooden-ware, veneer- 
ing, sash and doors, ladders, lawn swings, rubber goods, 
flour, foundry products and agricultural machinery. The 
municipality owns its water works and its electric-lighting 
system. Goshen was first settled in 1828 and was first chartered 
as a city in 1868. 

GOSLAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Hanover, romantically situated on the Gose, an affluent of the 
Oker, at the north foot of the Harz, 24 m. S.E. of Hildesheim 
and 31 m. S.W. from Brunswick, by rail. Pop. (1905) 17,817. 
It is surrounded by walls and is of antique appearance. Among 
the noteworthy buildings are the " Zwinger," a tower with 
walls 23 ft. thick; the market church, in the Romanesque 
style, restored since its partial destruction by fire in 1844, and 
containing the town archives and a library in which are some 
of Luther's manuscripts; the old town hall (Rathaus), possessing 
many interesting antiquities; the Kaiserworth (formerly the 
hall of the tailors' gild and now an inn) with the statues of 
eight of the German emperors; and the Kaiserhaus, the oldest 
secular building in Germany, built by the emperor Henry III. 
before 1050 and often the residence of his successors. This was 
restored in 1867-1878 at the cost of the Prussian government, 
and was adorned with frescoes portraying events in German 
history. Other buildings of interest are: the small chapel 
which is all that remains since 1820 of the old and famous 
cathedral of St Simon and St Jude founded by Henry III. about 
1040, containing among other relics of the cathedral an old 
altar supposed to be that of the idol Krodo which formerly 
stood on the Burgberg near Neustadt-Harzburg; the church 
of the former Benedictine monastery of St Mary, or Neuwerk, 
of the 1 2th century, in the Romanesque style, with wall-paintings 
of considerable merit; and the house of the bakers' gild now 
an hotel, the birthplace of Marshal Saxe. There are four 
Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue, 
several schools, a natural science museum, containing a collection 
of Harz minerals, the Fenkner museum of antiquities and a 
number of small foundations. The town has equestrian statues 
of the emperor Frederick I. and of the German emperor William 
I. The population is chiefly occupied in connexion with the 
sulphur, copper, silver and other mines in the neighbourhood. 
The town has also been long noted for its beer, and possesses 
some small manufactures and a considerable trade in fruit. 

Goslar is believed to have been founded by Henry the Fowler 
about 920, and when in the time of Otto the Great the mineral 
treasures in the neighbourhood were discovered it increased 
rapidly in prosperity. It was often the meeting-place of German 
diets, twenty-three of which are said to have been held here, 
and was frequently the residence of the emperors. About 1350 
it joined the Hanseatic League. In the middle of the I4th 
century the famous Goslar statutes, a code of laws, which was 
adopted by many other towns, was published. The town was 
unsuccessfully besieged in 1625, during the Thirty Years' War, 
but was taken by the Swedes in 1632 and nearly destroyed by 
fire. Further conflagrations in 1728 and 1780 gave a severe 
blow to its prosperity. It was a free town till 1802, when it 



came into th< 



GOSLICKI GOSPEL 



265 



ie into the possession of Prussia. In 1807 it was joined to 
Westphalia, in 1816 to Hanover and in 1866 it was, along with 
Hanover, re-united to Prussia. 

See T. Erdmann, Die alte Kaiserstadt Goslar und ihre Umgebung 
in Ceschichte, Sage und Bild (Goslar, 1892); Crusius, Geschichte 
der vormals kaiserlichen freien Reichstadt Goslar (1842-1843); A. 
Wolfstieg, Verfassungsgeschichte von Goslar (Berlin, 1885); T. Asche, 
Die Kaiserpfalz zu Goslar (1892); Neuburg, Goslars Bergbau bis 
/5?2 (Hanover, 1892); and the Urkundenbuch der Stadt Goslar, 
edited by G. Bode (Halle, 1893-1900). For the Goslarische Statuten 
see the edition published by Goschen (Berlin, 1840). 

GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC ( ? 1533-1607), Polish bishop, 
better known under his Latinized name of Laurentius Grimalius 
Goslicius, was bom about 1 533. After having studied at Cracow 
and Padua, he entered the church, and was successively appointed 
bishop of Kaminietz and of Posen. Goslicki was an active man 
of business, was held in high estimation by his contemporaries 
and was frequently engaged in political affairs. It was chiefly 
through his influence, and through the letter he wrote to the 
pope against the Jesuits, that they were prevented from establish- 
ing their schools at Cracow. He was also a strenuous advocate 
of religious toleration in Poland. He died on the 3ist of October 
1607. 

His principal work is De optima senatore, &c. (Venice, 1568). 
There are two English translations published respectively under 
the titles A commonwealth of good counsaile, &c. (1607), and The 
Accomplished Senator, done into English by Mr Oldisworth (1733). 

GOSLIN, or GAUZLINUS (d. c. 886), bishop of Paris and defender 
of the city against the Northmen (885), was, according to some 
authorities, the son of Roricon II., count of Maine, according 
to others the natural son of the emperor Louis I. In 848 he 
became a monk, and entered a monastery at Reims, later he 
became abbot of St Denis. Like most of the prelates of his 
time he took a prominent part in the struggle against the 
Northmen, by whom he and his brother Louis were taken 
prisoners (858), and he was released only after paying a heavy 
ransom (Prudentii Trecensis episcopi Annales, ann. 858). From 
855 to 867 he held intermittently, and from 867 to 881 regularly, 
the office of chancellor to Charles the Bald and his successors. 
In 883 or 884 he was elected bishop of Paris, and foreseeing the 
dangers to which the city was to be exposed from the attacks 
of the Northmen, he planned and directed the strengthening 
of the defences, though he also relied for security on the merits 
of the relics of St Germain and St Genevieve. When the attack 
finally came (885), the defence of the city was entrusted to him 
and to Odo, count of Paris, and Hugh, abbot of St Germain 
1'Auxerrois. The city was attacked on the 26th of November, 
and. the struggle for the possession of the bridge (now the Pont- 
au-Change) lasted for two days; but Goslin repaired the destruc- 
tion of the wooden tower overnight, and the Normans were 
obliged to give up the attempt to take the city by storm. The 
siege lasted for about a year longer, while the emperor Charles 
the Fat was in Italy. Goslin died soon after the preliminaries 
of the peace had been agreed on, worn out by his exertions, or 
killed by a pestilence which raged in the city. 

See Amaury Duval, L'Eveque Gozlin ou le siege de Paris par les 
Normands, chronique du IX' siecle (2 vols., Paris, 1832, 3rd ed. ib. 
1835). 

GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW (d. 1607), English navigator. 
Nothing is known of his birth, parentage or early life. In 1602, 
in command of the " Concord," chartered by Sir Walter Raleigh 
and others, he crossed the Atlantic; coasted from what is now 
Maine to Martha's Vineyard, landing at and naming Cape Cod 
and Elizabeth Island (now Cuttyhunk) and giving the name 
Martha's Vineyard to the island now called No Man's Land; 
and returned to England with a cargo of furs, sassafras and other 
commodities obtained in trade with the Indians about Buzzard's 
Bay. In London he actively promoted the colonization of 
the regions he had visited and, by arousing the interest of Sir 
Ferdinando Gorges and other influential persons, contributed 
toward securing the grants of the charters to the London and 
Plymouth Companies in 1606. In 1606-1607 he was associated 
with Christopher Newport in command of the three vessels 
by which the first Jamestown colonists were carried to Virginia. 



As a member of the council he took an active share in the affairs 
of the colony, ably seconding the efforts of John Smith to intro- 
duce order, industry and system among the motley array of 
adventurers and idle " gentlemen " of which the little band was 
composed. He died from swamp fever on the 22nd of August 1607. 

See The Works of John Smith (Arber's Edition, London, 1884); 
and J. M. Brereton, Brief and True Relation of the North Part of 
Virginia (reprinted by B. F. Stevens, London, 1901), an account of 
Gosnold's voyage of 1602. 

GOSPATRIC (fl. 1067), earl of Northumberland, belonged to 
a family which had connexions with the royal houses both of 
Wessex and Scotland. Before the Conquest he accompanied 
Tostig on a pilgrimage to Rome (1061); and at that time 
was a landholder in Cumberland. About 1067 he bought "the 
earldom of Northumberland from William the Conqueror; but, 
repenting of his submission, fled with other Englishmen to the 
court of Scotland (1068). He joined the Danish army of in- 
vasion in the next year; but was afterwards able, from his 
possession of Bamburgh castle, to make terms with the con- 
queror, who left him undisturbed till 1072. The peace concluded 
in 'that year with Scotland left him at William's mercy. He 
lost his earldom and took refuge in Scotland, where Malcolm 
seems to have provided for him. 

See E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, vol. i. (Oxford, 1877), 
and the English Hist. Review, vol. xix. (London, 1904). 

GOSPEL (0. Eng. godspel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. 
bona annuntiatio, or evangelium, Gr. fvayyf\tov; cf. Goth: 
iu spillon, " to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of 
the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce); 
primarily the " glad tidings " announced to the world by Jesus 
Christ. The word thus came to be applied to the whole body of 
doctrine taught by Christ and his disciples, and so to the Christian 
revelation generally (see CHRISTIANITY); by analogy the term 
" gospel " is also used in other connexions as equivalent to 
" authoritative teaching." In a narrower sense each of the 
records of the life and teaching of Christ preserved in the writings 
of the four " evangelists " is described as a Gospel. The many 
more or less imaginative lives of Christ which are not accepted 
by the Christian Church as canonical are known as " apocryphal 
gospels " (see APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE). The present article 
is concerned solely with general considerations affecting the 
four canonical Gospels; see for details of each, the articles 
under MATTHEW, MARK, LUKE and JOHN. 

The Four Gospels. The disciples of Jesus proclaimed the 
Gospel that He was the Christ. Those to whom this message 
was first delivered in Jerusalem and Palestine had seen and 
heard Jesus, or had heard much about Him. They did not 
require to be told who He was. But more and more as the work 
of preaching and teaching extended to such as had not this 
knowledge, it became necessary to include in the Gospel delivered 
some account of the ministry of Jesus. Moreover, ab'ke those 
who had followed Him during His life on earth, and all who 
joined themselves to them, must have felt the need of dwelling 
on His precepts, so that these must have been often repeated, 
and also in ail probability from an early time grouped together 
according to their subjects, and so taught. For some time; 
probably for upwards of thirty years, both the facts of the life 
of Jesus and His words were only related orally. This would 
be in accordance with the habits of mind of the early preachers 
of the Gospel. Moreover, they were so absorbed in the expecta- 
tion of the speedy return of Christ that they did not feel called 
to make provision for the instruction of subsequent generations. 
The Epistles of the New Testament contain no indications of 
the existence of any written record of the life and teaching 
of Christ. Tradition indicates A.D. 60-70 as the period when 
written accounts of the life and teaching of Jesus began to be 
made (see MARK, GOSPEL OF, and MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF). 
This may be accepted as highly probable. We cannot but 
suppose that at a time when the number of the original band 
of disciples of Jesus who survived must have been becoming 
noticeably smaller, and all these were advanced in life, the 
importance of writing down that which had been orally delivered 
concerning the Gospel-history must have been realized. We also 






266 



GOSPEL 



gather from Luke's preface (i. 1-4) that the work of writing 
was undertaken in these circumstances and under the influence 
of this feeling, and that various records had already in con- 
sequence been made. 

But do our Gospels, or any of them, in the form in which 
we actually have them, belong to the number of those earliest 
records ? Or, if not, what are the relations in which they 
severally stand to them ? These are questions which in modern 
criticism have been greatly debated. With a view to obtaining 
answers to them, it is necessary to consider the reception of the 
Gospels in the early Church, and also to examine and compare 
the Gospels themselves. Some account of the evidence supplied 
in these two ways must be given in the present article, so far 
as it is common to all four Gospels, or to three or two of them, 
and in the articles on the several Gospels so far as it is especial 
to each. 

i. The Reception of the Gospels in the Early Church. The 
question of the use of the Gospels and of the manner in which 
they were regarded during the period extending from the latter 
years of the ist century to the beginning of the last quarter 
of the 2nd is a difficult one. There is a lack of explicit references 
to the Gospels; 1 and many of the quotations which may be 
taken from them are not exact. At the same time these facts 
can be more or less satisfactorily accounted for by various 
circumstances. In the first place, it would be natural that 
the habits of thought of the period when the Gospel was delivered 
orally should have continued to exert influence even after the 
tradition had been committed to writing. Although documents 
might be known and used, they would not be regarded as the 
authorities for that which was independently remembered, and 
would not, therefore, necessarily be mentioned. Consequently, 
it is not strange that citations of sayings of Christ and these 
are the only express citations in writings of the Subapostolic 
Age should be made without the source whence they were 
derived being named, and (with a single exception) without 
any clear indication that the source was a document. The 
exception is in the little treatise commonly called the Epistle 
of Barnabas, probably composed about A.D. 130, where (c. iv. 
14) the words " many are called but few chosen " are intro- 
duced by the formula " as it is written." 

For the identification, therefore, of the source or sources 
used we have to rely upon the amount of correspondence with 
our Gospels in the quotations made, and in respect to other 
parallelisms of statement and of expression, in these early 
Christian writers. The correspondence is in the main full and 
true as regards spirit and substance, but it is rarely complete 
in form. The existence of some differences of language may, 
however, be too readily taken to disprove derivation. Various 
forms of the same saying occurring in different documents, 
or remembered from oral tradition and through catechetical 
instruction, would sometimes be purposely combined. Or, 
again, the memory might be confused by this variety, and the 
verification of quotations, especially of brief ones, was difficult, 
not only from the comparative scarcity of the copies of books, 
but also because ancient books were not provided with ready 
means of reference to particular passages. On the whole there 
is clearly a presumption that where we have striking expressions 
which are known to us besides only in one of our Gospel-records, 
that particular record has been the source of it. And where 
there are several such coincidences the ground for the supposition 
that the writing in question has been used may become very 
strong. There is evidence of this kind, more or less clear in the 
several cases, that all the four Gospels were known in the first 
two or three decades of the 2nd century. It is fullest as to our 
first Gospel and, next to this one, as to our third. 

After this time it becomes manifest that, as we should expect, 
documents were the recognized authorities for the Gospel history; 
but there is still some uncertainty as to the documents upon 
which reliance was placed, and the precise estimation in which 

1 For the only two that can be held to be such in the first half 
of the 2nd century, and the doubts whether they refer to our present 
Gospels, see MARK, GOSPEL OF, and MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF. 



they were severally held. This is in part at least due to the 
circumstance that nearly all the writings which have remained 
of the Christian literature belonging to the period circa A.D. 
130-180 are addressed to non-Christians, and that for the most 
part they give only summaries of the teaching of Christ and of 
the facts of the Gospel, while terms that would not be under- 
stood by, and names that would not carry weight with, others 
than Christians are to a large extent avoided. The most im- 
portant of the writings now in question are two by Justin 
Martyr (circa A.D. 145-160), viz. his Apology and his Dialogue 
with Trypho. In the former of these works he shows plainly 
his intention of adapting his language and reasoning to Gentile, 
and in the latter to Jewish, readers. In both his name for the 
Gospel-records is " Memoirs of the Apostles." After a great 
deal of controversy there has come to be very wide agreement 
that he reckoned the. first three Gospels among these Memoirs. 
In the case of the second and third there are indications, though 
slight ones, that he held the view of their composition and 
authorship which was common from the last quarter of the 
century onwards (see MARK, GOSPEL or, and LUKE, GOSPEL 
OF), but he has made the largest use of our first Gospel. It is 
also generally allowed that he was acquainted with the fourth 
Gospel, though some think that he used it with a certain reserve. 
Evidence may, however, be adduced which goes far to show 
that he regarded it, also, as of apostolic authority. There is a 
good deal of difference of opinion still as to whether Justin 
reckoned other sources for the Gospel-history besides our 
Gospels among the Apostolic Memoirs. 'In this connexion, 
however, as well as on other grounds, it is a significant fact that 
within twenty years or so after the death of Justin, which prob- 
ably occurred circa A.D. 160, Tatian, who had been a hearer of 
Justin, produced a continuous narrative of the Gospel-history 
which received the name Diatessaron (" through four "), in 
the main a compilation from our four Gospels. 1 

Before the close of the 2nd century the four Gospels had 
attained a position of unique authority throughout the greater 
part of the Church, not different from that which they have 
held since, as is evident from the treatise of Irenaeus Against 
Heresies (c. A.D. 180; see esp. iii. i. i f. and x., xi.) and from other 
evidence only a few years later. The struggle against Gnosticism, 
which had been going on during the middle part of the century, 
had compelled the Church both to define her creed and to draw 
a sharper line of demarcation than heretofore between those 
writings whose authority she regarded as absolute and all others. 
The effect of this was no doubt to enhance the sense generally 
entertained of the value of the four Gospels. At the same time 
in the formal statements now made it is plainly implied that the 
belief expressed is no new one. And it is, indeed, difficult to 
suppose that agreement on this subject between different 
portions of the Church could have manifested itself at this time 
in the spontaneous manner that it does, except as the consequence 
of traditional feelings and convictions, which went back to the 
early part of the century, and which could hardly have arisen 
without good foundation, with respect to the special value of 
these works as embodiments of apostolic testimony, although 
all that came to be supposed in regard to their actual authorship 
cannot be considered proved. 

2. The Internal Criticism of the Gospels. In the middle of the 
ipth century an able school of critics, known as the Tubingen 
school, sought to show from indications in the several Gospels 
that they were composed well on in the 2nd century in the 
interests of various strongly marked parties into which the Church 
was supposed to have been divided by differences in regard to 
the Judaic and Pauline forms of Christianity. These theories 
are now discredited. It may on the contrary be confidently 
asserted with regard to the first three Gospels that the local 
colouring in them is predominantly Palestinian, and that they 

1 The character of Tatian's Diatessaron has been much disputed 
in the past, but there can no longer be any reasonable doubt on the 
subject after recent discoveries and investigations. (An account 
of these may be seen most conveniently in The Diatessaron of Tatian, 
by S. Hemphill; see under TATIAN.) 



GOSPORT 



267 



show no signs of acquaintance with the questions and the 
circumstances of the 2nd century; and that the character even 
of the Fourth Gospel is not such as to justify its being placed, 
at furthest, much after the beginning of that century. 

We turn to the literary criticism of the Gospels, where solid 
results have been obtained. The first three Gospels have in 
consequence of the large amount of similarity between them 
in contents, arrangement, and even in words and the forms of 
sentences and paragraphs, been called Synoptic Gospels. It 
has long been seen that, to account for this similarity, relations 
of interdependence between them, or of common derivation, 
must be supposed. And the question as to the true theory of 
these relations is known as the Synoptic Problem. Reference 
has already been made to the fact that during the greater part 
of the Apostolic age the Gospel history was taught orally. Now 
some have held that the form of this oral teaching was to a great 
extent a fixed one, and that it was the common source of our 
first three Gospels. This oral theory was for a long time the 
favourite one in England ; it was never widely held in Germany, 
and in recent years the majority of English students of the 
Synoptic Problem have come to feel that it does not satisfactorily 
explain the phenomena. Not only are the resemblances too 
close, and their character in part not of a kind, to be thus 
accounted for, but even many of the differences between parallel 
contexts are rather such as would arise through the revision 
of a document than through the freedom of oral delivery. 

It is now and has for many years been widely held that a 
document which is most nearly represented by the Gospel of 
Mark, or which (as some would say) was virtually identical 
with it, has been used in the composition of our first and third 
Gospels. This source has supplied the Synoptic Outline, and in 
the main also the narratives common to all three. Questions 
connected with the history of this document are treated in the 
article on MARK, GOSPEL OF. 

There is also a considerable amount of matter common to 
Matthew and Luke, but not found in Mark. It is introduced 
into the Synoptic Outline very differently in those two Gospels, 
which clearly suggests that it existed in a separate form, and 
was independently combined by the first and third evangelists 
with their other document. This common matter has also a 
character of its own; it consists mainly of pieces of discourse. 
The form in which it is given in the two Gospels is in several 
passages so nearly identical that we must suppose these pieces 
at least to have been derived immediately or ultimately from 
the same Greek document. In other cases there is more diver- 
gence, but in some of them this is accounted for by the 
consideration that in Matthew passages from the source now 
in question have been interwoven with parallels in the other 
chief common source before mentioned. There are, however, 
instances in which no such explanation will serve, and it is 
possible that our first and third evangelists may have used 
two documents which were not in all respects identical, but which 
corresponded very closely on the whole. The ultimate source 
of the subject matter in question, or of the most distinctive 
and larger part of it, was in all probability an Aramaic one, 
and in some parts different translations may have been used. 

This second source used in the composition of Matthew and 
Luke has frequently been called " The Logia " in order to signify 
that it was a collection of the sayings and discourses of Jesus. 
This name has been suggested by Schleiermacher's interpretation 
of Papias' fragment on Matthew (see MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF). 
But some have maintained that the source in question also 
contained a good many narratives, and in order to avoid any 
premature assumption as to its contents and character several 
recent critics have named it " Q." It may, however, fairly 
be called " the Logian document," as a convenient way of 
indicating the character of the greater part of the matter which 
our first and third evangelists have taken from it, and this 
designation is used in the articles on the Gospels of Luke 
and Matthew. The reconstruction of this document has been 
attempted by several critics. The arrangement of its contents 
, it seems, best be learned from Luke. 



can 



3. One or two remarks may here be added as to the bearing 
of the results of literary criticism upon the use of the Gospels. 
Their effect is to lead us, especially when engaged in historical 
inquiries, to look beyond our Gospels to their sources, instead 
of treating the testimony of the Gospels severally as independent 
and ultimate. Nevertheless it will still appear that each Gospel 
has its distinct value, both historically and in regard to the 
moral and spiritual instruction afforded. And the fruits of 
much of that older study of the Gospels, which was largely 
employed in pointing out the special characteristics of each, 
will still prove serviceable. 

AUTHORITIES. I. German Books: Introductions to the New 
Testament H. J. Holtzmann (3rd ed., 1892), B. Weiss (Eng. trans., 
1887), Th. Zahn (2nd ed., 1900), G. A. Julicher (6th ed., 1906; Eng. 
trans., 1904); H. v. Soden, Urchrislliche Literaturgeschichte, vol. i. 
(1905; Eng. trans., 1906). Books on the Synoptic Gospels, especi- 
ally the Synoptic Problem: H. J. Holtzmann, Die synoptischen 
Evangelien (1863); Weizsacker, Untersuchungen uber die evaneelische 
Geschichte (1864); B. Weiss, Das Marcus-Evangelium und' seine 
synoptischen Parallelen (1872); Das Matthdus-Evangelium und seine 
Lucas-Parallelen (1876); H. H. Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu (1886); 
A. Resch, Agrapha (1889), &c. ; P. Wernle, Die synoptische Frage 
(1899); W. Soltau, Unsere Evangelien, ihre Quellen und ihr Quellen- 
wert (1901); H. J. Holtzmann, Hand-Commentar zum N.T., vol. i. 
(1889); J. Wellhausen, Das Evangelium Marci, Das Evangelium 
Matlhdi, Das Evangelium Lucas (1904), Einleitung in die drei ersten 
Evangelien (1905); A. Harnack, Spruche und Reden Jesu, die 
zweite Quelle des Matthdus und Lukas (1907). 

2. French Books: A. Loisy, Les Evangiles synoptiques (1907-1908). 

3. English Books: G. Salmon, Introduction to the New Testament 
(ist ed., 1885; oth ed., 1904); W. Sanday, Inspiration (Lect. vi., 
3rd ed., 1903); B. F. Westcott, An Introduction to the Study of the 
Gospels (ist ed., 1851; 8th ed., 1895); A. Wright, The Composition 
of the Four Gospels (1890); J. E. Carpenter, The First Three Gospels, 
their Origin and Relations (1890) ; A. J. Jolley, The Synoptic Problem 
(1893); J. C. Hawkins, Horae synopticae (1899); W. Alexander, 
Leading Ideas of the Gospels (new ed., 1892); E. A. Abbott, Clue 
(1900); J. A. Robinson, The Study of the Gospels (1902); F. C. 
Burkitt, The Gospel History and its Transmission (1906) ; G. Salmon, 
The Human Element in the Gospels (1907); V. H. Stanton, The 
Gospels as Historical Documents: Pt. I., The Early Use of the Gospels 
(1903); Pt. II., The Synoptic Gospels (1908). 

4. Synopses. W. G. Rushbrooke, Synopticon, An Exposition of 
the Common Matter of the Synoptic Gospels (1880); A. Wright, The 
Synopsis of the Gospels in Greek (2nd ed., 1903). 

See also the articles on each Gospel, and the article BIBLE, section 
New Testament. (V. H. S.) 

GOSPORT. a seaport in the Fareham parliamentary division 
of Hampshire, England, facing Portsmouth across Portsmouth 
harbour, 81 m. S.W. from London by the London & South- 
western railway. Pop. of urban district of Gosport and Alver- 
stoke (1901), 28,884. A ferry and a floating bridge connect it 
with Portsmouth. It is enclosed within a double line of fortifica- 
tions, consisting of the old Gosport lines, and, about 3000 yds. 
to the east, a series of forts connected by strong lines with 
occasional batteries, forming part of the defence works of Ports- 
mouth harbour. The principal buildings are the town hall and 
market hall, and the church of Holy Trinity, erected in the time of 
William III. To the south at Haslar there is a magnificent 
naval hospital, capable of containing 2000 patients, and adjoin- 
ing it a gunboat slipway and large barracks. To the north is 
the Royal Clarence victualling yard, with brewery, cooperage, 
powder magazines, biscuit-making establishment, and store- 
houses for various kinds of provisions for the royal navy. 

Gosport (Goseporte, Gozeport, Gosberg, Godsport) was 
originally included in Alverstoke manor, held in 1086 by the 
bishop and monks of Winchester under whom villeins farmed the 
land. In 1284 the monks agreed to give up Alverstoke with 
Gosport to the bishop, whose successors continued to hold them 
until the lands were taken over by the ecclesiastical commis- 
sioners. After the confiscation of the bishop's lands in 1641, 
however, the manor of Alverstoke with Gosport was granted to 
George Withers, but reverted to the bishop at the Restoration. 
In the i6th century Gosport was " a little village of fishermen." 
It was called a borough in 1461, when there are also traces of 
burgage tenure. From 1462 one bailiff was elected annually 
in the borough court, and government by a bailiff continued 
until 1682, when Gosport was included in Portsmouth borough 



268 



GOSS, SIR J. GOSSE, P. H. 



under the charter of Charles II. to that town. This was annulled 
in 1688, since which time there is no evidence of the election of 
bailiffs. With this exception no charter of incorporation is 
known, although by the i6th century the inhabitants held common 
property in the shape of tolls of the ferry. The importance of 
Gosport increased during the i6th and lyth centuries owing to 
its position at the mouth of Portsmouth harbour, and its con- 
venience as a victualling station. For this reason also the town 
was particularly prosperous during the American and Peninsular 
Wars. About 1 540 fortifications were built there for the defence 
of the harbour, and in the i?th century it was a garrison town 
under a lord-lieutenant. 

GOSS, SIR JOHN (1800-1880), English composer, was born 
at Fareham, Hampshire, on the 27th of December 1800. He 
was elected a chorister of the Chapel Royal in 1811, and in 1816, 
on the breaking of his voice, became a pupil of Attwood. A 
few early compositions, some for the theatre, exist, and some 
glees were published before 1825. He was appointed organist 
of St Luke's, Chelsea, in 1824, and in 1838 became organist of 
St Paul's in succession to Attwood; he kept the post until 
1872, when he resigned and was knighted. His position in the 
London musical world of the time was an influential one, and he 
did much by his teaching and criticism to encourage the study and 
appreciation of good music. In 1876 he was given the degree 
of Mus.D. at Cambridge. Though his few orchestral works 
have very small importance, his church music includes some 
fine compositions, such as the anthems " O taste and see," 
" O Saviour of the world " and others. He was the last of the 
great English school of church composers who devoted themselves 
almost exclusively to church music; and in the history of the glee 
his is an honoured name, if only on account of his finest work 
in that form, the five-part glee, Ossian's "Hymn to the sun." 
He died at Brixton, London, on the loth of May 1880. 

GOSSAMER, a fine, thread-like and filmy substance spun 
by small spiders, which is seen covering stubble fields and gorse 
bushes, and floating in the air in clear weather; especially in the 
autumn. By transference anything light, unsubstantial or 
flimsy is known as "gossamer." A thin gauzy material used 
for trimming and millinery, resembling the " chiffon " of to-day, 
was formerly known as gossamer; and in the early Victorian 
period it was a term used in the hat trade, for silk hats of very 
light weight. 

The word is obscure in origin, it is found in numerous forms 
in English, and is apparently taken from gose, goose and 
somere, summer. The Germans have Mddchensommer, maidens' 
summer, and Allweibersommer, old women's summer, as well 
as Sommerfiiden, summer-threads, as equivalent to the English 
gossamer, the connexion apparently being that gossamer is 
seen most frequently in the warm days of late autumn (St 
Martin's summer) when geese are also in season. Another 
suggestion is that the word is a corruption of gaze a Marie 
(gauze of Mary) through the legend that gossamer was origin- 
ally the threads which fell away from the Virgin's shroud on her 
assumption. 

GOSSE, EDMUND (1840- ), English poet and critic, was 
born in London on the 2ist of September 1849, son of the zoolo- 
gist P. H. Gosse. In 1867 he became an assistant in the depart- 
ment of printed books in the British Museum, where he remained 
until he became in 1875 translator to the Board of Trade. In 
1904 he was appointed librarian to the House of Lords. In 
1884-1890 he was Clark Lecturer in English literature at Trinity 
College, Cambridge. Himself a writer of literary verse of much 
grace, and master of a prose style admirably expressive of a wide 
and appreciative culture, he was conspicuous for his valuable 
work in bringing foreign literature home to English readers. 
Northern Studies (1879), a collection of essays on the literature 
of Holland and Scandinavia, was the outcome of a prolonged 
visit to those countries, and was followed by later work in the 
same direction. He translated Ibsen's Hedda Gabler (1891), 
and, with W. Archer, The Master- Builder (1893), and in 1907 
he wrote a life of Ibsen for the " Literary Lives " series. He 
also edited the English translation of the works of Biornson. 



His services to Scandinavian letters were acknowledged in 1901, 
when he was made a knight of the Norwegian order of St Olaf 
of the first class. Mr Gosse's published volumes of verse include 
On Viol and Flute (1873), King Erik (1876), New Poems (1879), 
Firdausi in Exile (1885), In Russet and Silver (1894), Collected 
Poems (1896). Hypolympia, or the Gods on the Island (1901), 
an " ironic phantasy," the scene of which is laid in the zoth 
century, though the personages are Greek gods, is written in 
prose, with some blank verse. His Seventeenth Century Studies 
(1883), Life of William Congreve (1888), The Jacobean Poets 
(1894), Life and Letters of Dr John Donne, Dean of St Paul's 
(1899), Jeremy Taylor (1904, " English Men of Letters "), and 
Life of Sir Thomas Browne (1905) form a very considerable 
body of critical work on the English 17th-century writers. He 
also wrote a life of Thomas Gray, whose works he edited (4 vols., 
1884); A History of Eighteenth Century Literature (1889); a 
History of Modern English Literature (1897), and vols. iii. and iv. 
of an Illustrated Record of English Literature (1903-1904) under- 
taken in connexion with Dr Richard Garnett. Mr Gosse was 
always a sympathetic student of the younger school of French 
and Belgian writers, some of his papers on the subject being 
collected as French Profiles (1905). Critical Kit-Kats (1896) 
contains an admirable criticism of J. M. de Heredia, reminiscences 
of Lord de Tabley and others. He edited Heinemann's series 
of " Literature of the World " and the same publisher's " Inter- 
national Library." To the gth edition of the Encyclopaedia, 
Britannica he contributed numerous articles, and his services 
as chief literary adviser in the preparation of the loth and nth 
editions incidentally testify to the high position held by him 
in the contemporary world of letters. In 1905 he was entertained 
in Paris by the leading litterateurs as a representative of English 
literary culture. In 1907 Mr Gosse published anonymously 
Father and Son, an intimate study of his own early family life. 
He married Ellen, daughter of Dr G. W. Epps, and had a son and 
two daughters. 

GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY (1810-1888), English naturalist, 
was born at Worcester on the 6th of April 1810, his father, 
Thomas Gosse (1765-1844) being a miniature painter. In his 
youth the family settled at Poole, where Gosse's turn for natural 
history was noticed and encouraged by his aunt, Mrs Bell, the 
mother of the zoologist, Thomas BeU (1792-1880). He had, 
however, little opportunity for developing it until, in 1827, 
he found himself clerk in a whaler's office at Carbonear, in 
Newfoundland, where he beguiled the tedium of his life by 
observations, chiefly with the microscope. After a brief and 
unsuccessful interlude of farming in Canada, during which he 
wrote an unpublished work on the entomology of Newfoundland, 
he travelled in the United States, was received and noticed 
by men of science, was employed as a teacher for some time 
in Alabama, and returned to England in 1839. His Canadian 
Naturalist (1840), written on the voyage home, was followed 
in 1843 by his Introduction to Zoology. His first widely popular 
book was The Ocean (1844). In 1844 Gosse, who had meanwhile 
been teaching in London, was sent by the British Museum to 
collect specimens of natural history in Jamaica. He spent 
nearly two years on that island, and after his return published 
his Birds of Jamaica (1847) and his Naturalist's Sojourn in 
Jamaica (1851). He also wrote about this time several zoological 
works for the S.P.C.K., and laboured to such an extent as to 
impair his health. While recovering at Ilfracombe, he was 
attracted by the forms of marine life so abundant on that shore, 
and in 1853 published A Naturalist's Rambles on the Devonshire 
Coast, accompanied by a description of the marine aquarium 
invented by him, by means of which he succeeded in preserving 
zoophytes and other marine animals of the humbler grades 
alive and in good condition away from the sea. This arrange- 
ment was more fully set forth and illustrated in his Aquarium 
(1854), succeeded in 1855-1856 by A Manual of Marine Zoology, 
in two volumes, illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings 
after the author's drawings. A volume on the marine fauna 
of Tenby succeeded in 1856. In June of the same year he was 
elected F.R.S. Gosse, who was a most careful observer, but who 




GOSSEC GOTA 



269 



t:d the philosophical spirit, was now tempted to essay work 
more ambitious order, publishing in 1857 two books, Life 
Omphalos, embodying his speculations on the appearance 
ui ,..e on the earth, which he considered to have been instan- 
taneous, at least as regarded its higher forms. His views met 
I with no favour from scientific men, and he returned to the 
field of observation, which he was better qualified to cultivate. 
Taking up his residence at St Marychurch, in South Devon, he 
produced from 1858 to 1860 his standard work on sea-anemones, 
the Actinologia Britannica. The Romance of Natural History 
and other popular works followed. In 1865 he abandoned 
authorship, and chiefly devoted himself to the cultivation of 
orchids. Study of the Rotifera, however, also engaged his 
attention, and his results were embodied in a monograph by 
Dr C. T. Hudson (1886). He died at St Marychurch on the 
23rd of August 1888. 

His life was written by his son, Edmund Gosse. 

GOSSEC, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1734-1829), French musical 
composer, son of a small farmer, was born at the village of 
Vergnies, in Belgian Hainaut, and showing early a taste for 
music became a choir-boy at Antwerp. He went to Paris in 
1751 and was taken up by Rameau. He became conductor 
of a private band kept by La Popeliniere, a wealthy amateur, 
and gradually determined to do something to revive the study 
of instrumental music in France. He had his own first symphony 
performed in 1754, and as conductor to the Prince de Conde's 
orchestra he produced several operas and other compositions 
of his own. He imposed his influence upon French music with 
remarkable success, founded the Concert des Amateurs in 1770, 
organized the Ecole de Chant in 1784, was conductor of the band 
of the Garde Nationale at the Revolution, and was appointed 
(with Mehul and Cherubini) inspector of the Conservatoire de 
Musique when this institution was created in 1795. He was an 
original member of the Institute and a chevalier of the legion 
of honour. Outside France he was but little known, and his 
own numerous compositions, sacred and secular, were thrown 
into the shade by those of men of greater genius; but he has a 
place in history as the inspirer of others, and as having powerfully 
stimulated the revival of instrumental music. He died at 
Passy on the i6th of February 1829. 

See the Lives by P. Hddouin (1852) and E. G. J. Gregoir (1878). 

GOSSIP (from the O.E. godsibb, i.e. God, and sib, akin, standing 
in relation to), originally a god-parent, i.e. one who by taking a 
sponsor's vows at a baptism stands in a spiritual relationship 
to the child baptized. The common modern meaning is of light 
personal or social conversation, or, with an invidious sense, of 
idle tale-bearing. " Gossip " was early used with the sense of 
a friend or acquaintance, either of the parent of the child 
baptized or of the other god-parents, and thus came to be used, 
with little reference to the position of sponsor, for women friends 
of the mother present at a birth; the transition of meaning 
to an idle chatterer or talker for talking's sake is easy. The 
application to the idle talk of such persons does not appear to 
be an early one. 

GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA (1773-1858), German 
divine and philanthropist, was born at Hausen near Augsburg 
on the i4th of December 1773, and educated at the university 
of Dillingen. Here like Martin Boos and others he came under 
the spell of the Evangelical movement promoted by Johann 
Michael Sailer, the professor of pastoral theology. After taking 
priest's orders, Gossner held livings at Dirlewang (1804-1811) 
and Munich (1811-1817), but his evangelical tendencies brought 
about his dismissal and in 1826 he formally left the Roman 
Catholic for the Protestant communion. As minister of the 
Bethlehem church in Berlin (1829-1846) he was conspicuous 
not only for practical and effective preaching, but for the founding 
of schools, asylums and missionary agencies. He died on the 
2oth of March 1858. 

Lives by Bethmann-Hollweg (Berlin, 1858) and H. Dalton 
(Berlin, 1878). 

GOSSON, STEPHEN (1554-1624), English satirist, was 
baptized at St George's, Canterbury, on the I7th of April 1554. 



He entered Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 1572, and on leaving 
the university in 1576 he went to London. In 1598 Francis 
Meres in his Palladis Tamia mentions him with Sidney, Spenser, 
Abraham Fraunce and others among the " best for pastorall," 
but no pastorals of his are extant. He is said to have been an 
actor, and by his own confession he wrote plays, for he speaks 
of Catilines Conspiracies as a " Pig of mine own Sowe." To 
this play and some others, on account of their moral intention, 
he extends indulgence in the general condemnation of stage 
plays contained in his Schoole of Abuse, containing a pleasant 
invective against Poets, Pipers, Plaiers, Jesters and such like 
Caterpillars of the Commonwealth (1579). The euphuistic style 
of this pamphlet and its ostentatious display of learning were 
in the taste of the time, and do not necessarily imply insincerity. 
Gosson justified his attack by considerations of the disorder 
which the love of melodrama and of vulgar comedy was intro- 
ducing into the social life of London. It was not only by 
extremists like Gosson that these abuses were recognized. 
Spenser, in his Teares of the Muses (1591), laments the same 
evils, although only in general terms. The tract was dedicated 
to Sir Philip Sidney, who seems not unnaturally to have 
resented being connected with a pamphlet which opened with 
a comprehensive denunciation of poets, for Spenser, writing 
to Gabriel Harvey (Oct. 16, 1579) of the dedication, says the* 
author " was for hys labor scorned." He dedicated, however, 
a second tract, The Ephemerides of Phialo . . . and A Short 
Apologie of the Schoole of Abuse, to Sidney on Oct. 28th, 1579. 
Gosson's abuse of poets seems to have had a large share in 
inducing Sidney to write his Apologie for Poelrie, which probably 
dates from 1581. After the publication of the Schoole of Abuse 
Gosson retired into the country, where he acted as tutor to the 
sons of a gentleman (Plays Confuted. " To the Reader," 1582). 
Anthony a Wood places this earlier and assigns the termination 
of his tutorship indirectly to his animosity against the stage, 
which apparently wearied his patron of his company. The 
publication of his polemic provoked many retorts, the most 
formidable of which was Thomas Lodge's Defence of Playes 
(1580). The players themselves retaliated by reviving Gosson's 
own plays. Gosson replied to his various opponents in 1582 
by his Playes Confuted in Five Actions, dedicated to Sir Francis 
Walsingham. Meanwhile he had taken orders, was made 
lecturer of the parish church at Stepney (1585), and was pre- 
sented by the queen to the rectory of Great Wigborough, Essex, 
which he exchanged in 1600 for St Botolph's, Bishopsgate. He 
died on the I3th of February 1624. Pleasant Quippesfor Upstart 
New-fangled Gentlewomen (1595), a coarse satiric poem, is also 
ascribed to Gosson. 

The Schoole of Abuse and Apologie were edited (1868) by Prof. E. 
Arber in his English Reprints. Two poems of Gosson's are included. 

GOT, FRANCOIS JULES EDMOND (1822-1901), French actor, 
was born at Lignerolles on the ist of October 1822, and entered 
the Conservatoire in 1841, winning the second prize for comedy 
that year and the first in 1842. After a year of military service 
he made his debut at the Comedie Francaise on the I7th of July 
1844, as Alexis in Les Heritiers and Mascarelles in Les Precieuses 
ridicules. He was immediately admitted pensionnaire, and be- 
came societaire in 1850. By special permission of the emperor 
in 1866 he played at the Odeon in Emile Augier's Contagion. 
His golden jubilee at the Theatre Francais was celebrated in 
1894, and he made his final appearance the year after. Got 
was a fine representative of the grand style of French acting, 
and was much admired in England as well as in Paris. He 
wrote the libretto of the opera Francois Villon (1857) and also 
of L'Esclave (1874). In 1881 he was decorated with the cross 
of the Legion of Honour. 

GOTA, a river of Sweden, draining the great Lake Vener. 
The name, however, is more familiar in its application to the 
canal which affords communication between Gothenburg and 
Stockholm. The river flows out of the southern extremity 
of the lake almost due south to the Cattegat, which it enters 
by two arms enclosing the island of Hisingen, the eastern forming 
the harbour and bearing the heavy sea-traffic of the port of 




270 



GOTARZES GOTHA 



Gothenburg. The Gota river is 50 m. in length, and is navigable 
for large vessels, a series of locks surmounting the famous falls 
of Trollhattan (?..) 'Passing the abrupt wooded Halleberg 
and Hunneberg (royal shooting preserves) Lake Vener is reached 
at Venersborg. Several important ports lie on the north, east 
and south shores (see VENER). From Sjotorp, midway on the 
eastern shore, the western Gota canal leads S.E. to Karlsborg. 
Its course necessitates over twenty locks to raise it from the 
Vener level (144 ft.) to its extreme height of 300 ft., and lower 
it over the subsequent fall through the small lakes Viken and 
Botten to Lake Vetter (q.v.; 289 ft.), which the route crosses to 
Motala. The eastern canal continues eastward from this point, 
and a descent is followed through five locks to Lake Boren, 
after which the canal, carried still at a considerable elevation, 
overlooks a rich and beautiful plain. The picturesque Lake 
Roxen with its ruined castle of Stjernarp is next traversed. At 
Norsholm a branch canal connects Lake Glan to the north, 
giving access to the important manufacturing centre of Norrko- 
ping. Passing Lake Asplangen, the canal follows a cut through 
steep rocks, and then resumes an elevated course to the old town 
of Soderkoping, after which the Baltic is reached at Mem. 
Vessels plying to Stockholm run N.E. among the coastal island- 
fringe (skdrg&rd), and then follow the Sodertelge canal into 
' Lake Malar. The whole distance from Gothenburg to Stockholm 
is about 360 m., and the voyage takes about 25 days. The length 
of artificial work on the Gota canal proper is 54 m., and there 
are 58 locks. The scenery is not such as will bear adverse 
weather conditions; that of the western canal is without any 
interest save in the remarkable engineering work. The idea 
of a canal dates from 1516, but the construction was organized 
by Baron von Flatten and engineered by Thomas Telford in 
1810-1832. The falls of Trollhattan had already been locked 
successfully in 1800. 

GOTARZES, or GOTERZES, king of Parthia (c. A.D. 42-51). 
In an inscription at the foot of the rock of Behistun 1 he is 
called roxnlpf'jp Ytdnrodpos, i.e. " son of Gew," and seems 
to be designated as " satrap of satrap." This inscription 
therefore probably dates from the reign of Artabanus II. (A.D. 
10-40), to whose family Gotarzes must have belonged. From 
a very barbarous coin of Gotarzes with the inscription /Sacri- 
Xeatt (SaatXtajv Apaavofr vos KeKa\ov/jvos Aprafiavov IWepfr/s 
(Wroth, Catalogue of the Coins of Parthia, p. 165; Numism. 
Chron., 1900, p. 95; the earlier readings of this inscription are 
wrong), which must be translated " king of kings Arsakes, 
named son of Artabanos, Gotarzes," it appears that he was 
adopted by Artabanus. When the troublesome reign of Arta- 
banus II. ended in A.D. 39 or 40, he was succeeded by Vardanes, 
probably his son; but against him in 41 rose Gotarzes (the dates 
are fixed by the coins). He soon made himself detested by his 
cruelty among many other murders he even slew his brother 
Artabanus and his whole family (Tac. Ann. xi. 8) and Vardanes 
regained the throne in 42; Gotarzes fled to Hyrcania and 
gathered an army from the Dahan nomads. The war between 
the two kings was at last ended by a treaty, as both were afraid 
of the conspiracies of their nobles. Gotarzes returned to 
Hyrcania. But when Vardanes was assassinated in 45, Gotarzes 
was acknowledged in the whole empire (Tac. Ann. xi. 9 ff.; 
Joseph. Antiq. xx. 3, 4, where Gotarzes is called Kotardes). 
He now takes on his coins the usual Parthian titles, " king of 
kings Arsaces the benefactor, the just, the illustrious (Epiphanes) , 
the friend of the Greeks (Philhellen)," without mentioning his 
proper name. The discontent excited by his cruelty and luxury 
induced the hostile party to apply to the emperor Claudius 
and fetch from Rome an Arsacid prince Meherdates (i.e. Mithra- 
dates), who lived there as hostage. He crossed the Euphrates 
in 49, but was beaten and taken prisoner by Gotarzes, who cut 
off his ears (Tac. Ann. xii. 10 ff.). Soon after Gotarzes died, 
according to Tacitus, of an illness; Josephus says that he was 
murdered. His last coin is dated from June 51. 

1 Rawlinson, Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc. ix. 114; Flandin and Coste, 
La Perse ancienne, i. tab. 19; Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci inscr. 
431- 



An earlier " Arsakes with the name Gotarzes," mentioned on 
some astronomical tablets from Babylon (Strassmaier in Zeitschr. 
fur Assyriologie, vi. 216; Mahler in Wiener Zeitschr. fur Kunde des 
Morgenlands, xv. 63 ff.), appears to have reigned for some time in 
Babylonia about 87 B.C. (ED. M.) 

GOTHA, a town of Germany, alternately with Coburg the 
residence of the dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in a pleasant 
situation on the Leine canal, 6 m. N. of the slope of the Thuringian 
forest, 17 m. W. from Erfurt, on the railway to Bebra-Cassel. 
Pop. ( 1 905) 36,906. It consists of an old inner town and encircling 
suburbs, and is dominated by the castle of Friedenstein, lying 
on the Schlossberg at an elevation of 1 100 ft. With the exception 
of those in the older portion of the town, the streets are hand- 
some and spacious, and the beautiful gardens and promenades 
between the suburbs and the castle add greatly to the town's 
attractiveness. To the south of the castle there is an extensive 
and finely adorned park. To the north-west of the town the 
Galberg on which there is a public pleasure garden and 
to the south-west the Seeberg rise to a height of over 1300 ft. 
and afford extensive views. The castle of Friedenstein, begun 
by Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in 1643 and 
completed in 1654, occupies the site of the old fortress of Grim- 
menstein. It is a huge square building flanked with two wings, 
having towers rising to the height of about 140 ft. It contains 
the ducal cabinet of coins and the ducal library of nearly 200,000 
volumes, among which are several rare editions and about 
6900 manuscripts. The picture gallery, the cabinet of engravings, 
the natural history museum, the Chinese museum, and the 
cabinet of art, which includes a collection of Egyptian, Etruscan, 
Roman and German antiquities, are now included in the new 
museum, completed in 1878, which stands on a terrace to the 
south of the castle. The principal other public buildings are 
the church of St Margaret with a beautiful portal and a lofty 
tower, founded in the I2th century, twice burnt down, and 
rebuilt in its present form in 1652 ; the church of the Augustinian 
convent, with an altar-piece by the painter Simon Jacobs; 
the theatre; the fire insurance bank and the life insurance bank; 
the ducal palace, in the Italian villa style, with a winter garden 
and picture gallery; the buildings of the ducal legislature; 
the hospital; the old town-hall, dating from the nth century; 
the old residence of the painter Lucas Cranach, now used as a 
girls' school; the ducal stable; and the Friedrichsthal palace, 
now used as public offices. The educational establishments 
include a gymnasium (founded in 1524, one of the most famous, 
in Germany), two training schools for teachers, conservatoires, 
of music and several scientific institutions. Gotha is remarkable 
for its insurance societies and for the support it has given to 
cremation. The crematorium was long regarded as a model 
for such establishments. 

Gotha is one of the most active commercial towns of Thuringia, 
its manufactures including sausages, for which it has a great 
reputation, porcelain, tobacco, sugar, machinery, mechanical 
and surgical instruments, musical instruments, shoes, lamps 
and toys. There are also a number of nurseries and market 
gardens. The book trade is represented by about a dozen firms, 
including that of the great geographical house of Justus Perthes, 
founded in 1785. 

Gotha (in old chronicles called Gotegewe and later Gotaha) 
existed as a village in the time of Charlemagne. In 930 its lord 
Gothard abbot of Hersfeld surrounded it with walls. It was. 
known as a town as early as 1200, about which time it came 
into the possession of the landgraves of Thuringia. On the 
extinction of that line Gotha came into the possession of the 
electors of Saxony, and it fell later to the Ernestine line of dukes. 
After the battle of Miihlberg in 1547 the castle of Grimmenstein 
was partly destroyed, but it was again restored in 1554. In 
1567 the town was taken from Duke John Frederick by the 
elector Augustus of Saxony. After the death of John Frederick's 
sons, it came into the possession of Duke Ernest the Pious, the 
founder of the line of the dukes of Gotha; and on the extinction 
of this family it was united in 1825 along with the dukedom to. 
Coburg. 



GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF GOTHENBURG 



rSee Gotha und seine Umgebung (Gotha, 1851); Kuhne, Beitrdge 
!r Geschichte der Entwickelung der socialen Zustande der Stadt 
und des Herzogtums Gotha (Gotha, 1862); Humbert, Les Villes 
ie la Thuringe (Paris, 1869), and Beck, Geschichte der Stadt Gotha 
(Gotha, 1870). 
GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF, the early name given to the people 
of the village of Gotham, Nottingham, in allusion to their reputed 
simplicity. But if tradition is to be believed the Gothamites 
were not so very simple. The story is that King John intended 
to live in the neighbourhood, but that the villagers, foreseeing 

I ruin as the cost of supporting the court, feigned imbecility when 
the royal messengers arrived. Wherever the latter went they 
saw the rustics engaged in some absurd task. John, on this 
report, determined to have hi? hunting lodge elsewhere, and the 
" wise men " boasted, " we ween there are more fools pass 
through Gotham than remain in it." The " foles of Gotham " 
are mentioned as early as the isth century in the Towneley 
Mysteries; and a collection of their " jests " was published in 
the 1 6th century under the title Merrie Tales of the Mad Men 
of Gotham, gathered together by A.B., of Phisicke Doctour. The 
" A.B." was supposed to represent Andrew Borde or Boorde 
(i490?-i549), famous among other things for his wit, but he 
probably had nothing to do with the compilation. As typical 
of the Gothamite folly is usually quoted the story of the villagers 
joining hands round a thornbush to shut in a cuckoo so that it 
would sing all the year. The localizing of fools is common to 
most countries, and there are many other reputed " imbecile " 
centres in England besides Gotham. Thus there are the people 
of Coggeshall, Essex, the " carles of Austwick," Yorkshire, 
" the gpwks of Gordon," Berwickshire, and for many centuries 
the charge of folly has been made against " silly " Suffolk and 
Norfolk (Descriptio Norfolciensium about I2th century, printed 
in Wright's Early Mysteries and other Latin Poems). In Germany 
there are the Schildburgers, in Holland the people of Kampen. 
Among the ancient Greeks Boeotia was the home of fools; 
among the Thracians, Abdera; among the ancient Jews, 
Nazareth. 

See W. A. Clouston, Book of Noodles (London, 1888); R. H. 
Cunningham, Amusing Prose Chap-books (1889), 

GOTHENBURG (Swed. Goteborg), a city and seaport of 
Sweden, on the river Gota, 5 m. above its mouth in the Cattegat, 
285 m. S.W. of Stockholm by rail, and 360 by the Gota canal- 
route. Pop. (1900) 130,619. It is the chief town of the district 
(Ian) of Goteborg och Bohus, and the seat of a bishop. It lies 
on the east or left bank of the river, which is here lined with 
quays on both sides, those on the west belonging to the large 
island of Hisingen, contained between arms of the Gota. On 
this island are situated the considerable suburbs of Lindholmen 
and Lundby. 

The city itself stretches east and south from the river, with 
extensive and pleasant residential suburbs, over a wooded plain 
enclosed by low hills. The inner city, including the business 
quarter, is contained almost entirely between the river and the 
Rosenlunds canal, continued in the Vallgraf, the moat of the old 
fortifications; and is crossed by the Storahamn, Ostrahamn 
and Vestrahamn canals. The Storahamn is flanked by the 
handsome tree-planted quays, Norra and Sodra Hamngatan. 
The first of these, starting from the Stora Bommenshamn, 
where the sea-going passenger-steamers lie, leads past the museum 
to the Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg. The museum, in the old East 
India Company's house, has fine collections in natural history, 
entomology, botany, anatomy, archaeology and ethnography, 
a picture and sculpture gallery, and exhibits of coins and in- 
dustrial art. Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg is the business centre, and 
contains the town-hall (1670) and exchange (1849). Here are 
statues by B. E. Fogelberg of Gustavus Adolphus and of Odin, 
and of Oscar I. by J. P. Molin. Among several churches in 
this quarter of the city is the cathedral (Gustavii Domkyrka), 
a cruciform church founded in 1633 and rebuilt after fires in 
1742 and 1815. Here are also the customs-house and residence 
of the governor of the Ian. On the north side, closely adjacent, 
are the Lilla Bommenshamn, where the Gota canal steamers 
lie, and the two principal railway stations, Statens and Bergslafs 



271 



Bangard. Above the Rosenlunds canal rises a low, rocky 
eminence, Lilla Otterhalleberg. The inner city is girdled on 
the south and east by the Kungspark, which contains Molin's 
famous group of statuary, the Belt-bucklers (Baltespannare) , 
and by the beautiful gardens of the Horticultural Society 
(Tradgdrdsforeningen). These grounds are traversed by the 
broad Nya Alle, a favourite promenade, and beyond them lies 
the best residential quarter, the first houses facing Vasa Street, 
Vasa Park and Kungsport Avenue. At the north end of the 
last are the university and the New theatre. At the west end 
of Vasa Street is the city library, the most important in the 
country except the royal library at Stockholm and the university 
libraries at Upsala and Lund. The suburbs are extensive. To 
the south-west are Majorna and Masthugget, with numerous 
factories. Beyond these lie the fine Slottskog Park, planted with 
oaks, and picturesquely broken by rocky hills commanding views 
of the busy river and the city. The suburb of Annedal is the 
workmen's quarter; others are Landala, Garda and Stampen. 
All are connected with the city by electric tramways. Six 
railways leave the city from four stations. The principal lines, 
from the Statens and Bergslafs stations, run N. to Trollhattan, 
and into Norway (Christiania); N.E. between Lakes Vener 
and Vetter to Stockholm, Falun and the north; E. to Boris 
and beyond, and S. by the coast to Helsingborg, &c. From 
the Vestgota station a narrow-gauge line runs N.E. to Skara 
and the southern shores of Vener, and from Saro station near 
Slottskog Park a line serves Saro, a seaside watering-place on 
an island 20 m. S. of Gothenburg. 

The city has numerous important educational establishments. 
The university (Hogskola) was a private foundation (1891), 
but is governed by a board, the members of which are nominated 
by the state, the town council, Royal Society of Science and 
Literature, directors of the museum, and the staffs of the various 
local colleges. There are several boys' schools, a college for 
girls, a scientific college, a commercial college (1826), a school 
of navigation, and Chalmers' Polytechnical College, founded 
by William Chalmers (1748-1811), a native of Gothenburg of 
English parentage. He bequeathed half his fortune to this 
institution, and the remainder to the Sahlgrenska hospital. 
A people's library was founded by members of the family of 
Dickson, several of whom have taken a prominent part in 
philanthropical works in the city. The connexion of the family 
with Gothenburg dates from 1802, when Robert Dickson, a 
native of Montrose in Scotland, founded the business in which 
he was joined in 1807 by his brother James. 

In respect of industry and commerce as a whole Gothenburg 
ranks as second to Stockholm in the kingdom; but it is actually 
the principal centre of export trade and port of register; and 
as a manufacturing town it is slightly inferior to Malmo. Its 
principal industrial establishments are mechanical works (both 
in the city and at Lundby), saw-mills, dealing with the timber 
which is brought down the Gota, flour-mills, margarine factories, 
breweries and distilleries, tobacco works, cotton mills, dyeing 
and bleaching works (at Levanten in the vicinity), furniture 
factories, paper and leather works, and shipbuilding yards. 
The vessels registered at the port in 1901 were 247 of 1 20,488 tons. 
There are about 3 m. of quays approachable by vessels drawing 
20 ft., and slips for the accommodation of large vessels. Gothen- 
burg is the principal port of embarkation of Swedish emigrants 
for America. 

The city is governed by a council including two mayors, and 
returns nine members to the second chamber of the Riksdag 
(parliament). 

Founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1619, Gothenburg was 
from the first designed to be fortified, a town of the same name 
founded on Hisingen in 1603 having been destroyed by the Danes 
during the Calmar war. From 1621, when it was first chartered, 
it steadily increased, though it suffered greatly in the Danish 
wars of the last half of the I7th and the beginning of the i8th 
centuries, and from several extensive conflagrations (the last 
in 1813), which have destroyed important records of its history. 
The great development of its herring fishery in the latter part 



272 



GOTHIC GOTHS 



of the 1 8th century gave a new impulse to the city's trade, which 
was kept up by the influence of the " Continental System," 
under which Gothenburg became a depot for the colonial mer- 
chandise of England. After the fall of Napoleon it began to 
decline, but after its closer connexion with the interior of the 
country by the Gota canal (opened 1832) and Western railway 
it rapidly advanced both in population and trade. Since the 
demolition of its fortifications in 1807, it has been defended 
only by some small forts. Gothenburg was the birthplace of 
the poet Bengt Lidner (1757-1793) and two of Sweden's greatest 
sculptors, Bengt Erland Fogelberg (1786-1854) and Johann 
Peter Molin (1814-1873). After the French Revolution Gothen- 
burg was for a time the residence of the Bourbon family. The 
name of this city is associated with the municipal licensing 
system known as the Gothenburg System (see LIQUOR LAWS). 

See W. Berg, Samlingar till Goleborgs hisloria (Gothenburg, 1893) ; 
Lagerberg, Goteborg i dldre och nyare tid (Gothenburg, 1902); 
Eroding, Detforna Goteborg (Stockholm, 1903). 

GOTHIC, the term generally applied to medieval architecture, 
and more especially to that in which the pointed arch appears. 
The style was at one time supposed to have originated with the 
warlike people known as the Goths, some of whom (the East 
Goths, or Ostrogoths) settled in the eastern portion of Europe, 
and others (the West Goths, or Visigoths) in the Asturias of 
Spain; but as no buildings or remains of any description have 
ever been found, in which there are any traces of an independent 
construction in either brick or stone, the title is misleading; 
since, however, it is now so generally accepted it would be difficult 
to change it. The term when first employed was one of reproach, 
as Evelyn (1702) when speaking of the faultless building (i.e. 
classic) says, " they were demolished by the Goths or Vandals, 
who introduced their own licentious style now called modern 
or Gothic." The employment of the pointed arch in Syria, 
Egypt and Sicily from the 8th century onwards by the Mahom- 
medans for their mosques and gateways, some four centuries 
before it made its appearance in Europe, also makes it advisable 
to adhere to the old [term Gothic in preference to Pointed 
Architecture. (See ARCHITECTURE) 

GOTHITE, or GOETHITE, a mineral composed of an iron 
hydrate, FezOj.I^O, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system 
and isomorphous with diaspore and manganite (<?..). It was 
first noticed in 1789, and in 1806 was named after the poet 
Goethe. Crystals are prismatic, acicular or scaly in habit; 
they have a perfect cleavage parallel to the brachypinacoid 
(M in the figure). Reniform and stalactitic 
masses with a radiated fibrous structure also 
occur. The colour varies from yellowish 
or reddish to blackish-brown, and by trans- 
mitted light it is often blood-red; the streak 
is brownish-yellow; hardness, 5; specific 
gravity, 4-3. The best crystals are the 
brilliant, blackish-brown prisms with terminal 
pyramidal planes (fig.) from the Restormel 
iron mines at Lostwithiel, and the Botallack 
mine at St Just in Cornwall. A variety 
occurring as thin red scales at Siegen in Westphalia is known 
as Rubinglimmer or pyrrhosiderite (from Gr. iruppos, flame- 
coloured, and aiSripos, iron): a scaly-fibrous variety from the 
same locality is called lepidocrocite (from Xris, scale, and Kpows, 
fibre) . Sammetblende or przibramite is a variety, from Przibram 
in Bohemia, consisting of delicate acicular or capillary crystals 
arranged in radiating groups with a velvety surface and yellow 
colour. 

Gotbite occurs with other iron oxides, especially limonite 
and hematite, and when found in sufficient quantity is mined 
with these as an ore of iron. It often occurs also as an enclosure 
in other minerals. _ Acicular crystals, resembling rutile in ap- 
pearance,[sometimes'penetrate crystals of pale-coloured amethyst, 
for instance, at Wolf's Island in Lake Onega in Russia: this 
form of the mineral has long been known as onegite, and the 
crystals enclosing it are cut for ornamental purposes under the 
name of " Cupid's darts " (filches d'amour). The metallic glitter 




of avanturine or sun-stone (q.v.) is due to the enclosed scales 
of gothite and certain other minerals. (L. J. S.) 

GOTHS (Gotones, later Gothis), a Teutonic people who in the 
ist century of the Christian era appear to have inhabited the 
middle part of the basin of the Vistula. They were 
probably the easternmost of the Teutonic peoples. history 
According to then" own traditions as recorded by 
Jordanes, they had come originally from the island Scandza, 
i.e. Skane or Sweden, under the leadership of a king named 
Berig, and landed first in a region called Gothiscandza. Thence 
they invaded the territories of the Ulmerugi (the Holmryge of 
Anglo-Saxon tradition), probably in the neighbourhood of 
Riigenwalde in eastern Pomerania, and conquered both them 
and the neighbouring Vandals. Under their sixth king Filimer 
they migrated into Scythia and settled in a district which they 
called Oium. The rest of their early history, as it is given by 
Jordanes following Cassiodorus, is due to an erroneous identifica- 
tion of the Goths with the Getae, and ancient Thracian people. 

The credibility of the story of the migration from Sweden 
has been much discussed by modern authors. The legend was 
not peculiar to the Goths, similar traditions being current among 
the Langobardi, the Burgundians, and apparently several 
other Teutonic nations. It has been observed with truth 
that so many populous nations can hardly have sprung from 
the Scandinavian peninsula; on the other hand, the existence of 
these traditions certainly requires some explanation. Possibly, 
however, many of the royal families may have contained an 
element of Scandinavian blood, a hypothesis which would well 
accord with the social conditions of the migration perjod, as 
illustrated, e.g., in Volsunga Saga and in Hervarar Saga ok 
HeitSreks Konungs. In the case of the Goths a connexion with 
Gotland is not unlikely, since it is clear from archaeological 
evidence that this island had an extensive trade with the coasts 
about the mouth of the Vistula in early times. If, however, 
there was any migration at all, one would rather have expected 
it to have taken place in the reverse direction. For the origin 
of the Goths can hardly be separated from that of the Vandals, 
whom according to Procopius they resembled in language and 
in all other respects. Moreover the Gepidae, another Teutonic 
people, who are said to have formerly inhabited the delta of 
the Vistula, also appear to have been closely connected with 
the Goths. According to Jordanes they participated in the 
migration from Scandza. 

Apart from a doubtful reference by Pliny to a statement 
of the early traveller Pytheas, the first notices we have of the 
Goths go back to the first years of the Christian era, at which 
time they seem to have been subject to the Marcomannic king 
Maroboduus. They do not enter into Roman history, however, 
until after the beginning of the 3rd century, at which time they 
appear to have come in conflict with the emperor Caracalla. 
During this century their frontier seems to have been advanced 
considerably farther south, and the whole country as far as the 
lower Danube was frequently ravaged by them. The emperor 
Gordianus is called " victor Gothorum " by Capitolinus, though 
we have no record of the ground for the claim, and further conflicts 
are recorded with his successors, one of whom, Decius, was slain 
by the Goths in Moesia. According to Jordanes the kings of 
the Goths during these campaigns were Ostrogotha and after- 
wards Cniva, the former of whom is praised also in the Anglo- 
Saxon poem Widsith. The emperor Gallus was forced to pay 
tribute to the Goths. By this time they had reached the coasts of 
the Black Sea, and during the next twenty years they frequently 
ravaged the maritime regions of Asia Minor and Greece. Aurelian 
is said to have won a victory over them, but the province of 
Dacia had to be given up. In the time of Constantino the Great 
Thrace and Moesia were again plundered by the Goths, A.D. 321. 
Constantine drove them back and concluded peace with their 
king Ariaric in 336. From the end of the 3rd century we hear 
of subdivisions of the nation called Greutungi, Teruingi, 
Austrogothi (Ostrogothi), Visigothi, Taifali, though it is not 
clear whether these were all distinct. 

Though by this time the Goths had extended their territories 



GOTHS 



273 



far to the south and east, it must not be assumed that they had 
evacuated their old lands on the Vistula. Jordanes records 
several traditions of their conflicts with other Teutonic tribes, 
in particular a victory won by Ostrogotha over Fastida, king of 
the Gepidae, and another by Geberic over Visimar, king of the 
Vandals, about the end of Constantine's reign, in consequence 
of which the Vandals sought and obtained permission to settle 
in Pannonia. Geberic was succeeded by the most famous of 
the Gothic kings, Hermanaric (Eormenric, lormunrekr), whose 
deeds are recorded in the traditions of all Teutonic nations. 
According to Jordanes he conquered the Heruli, the Aestii, 
the Venedi, and a number of other tribes who seem to have been 
settled in the southern part of Russia. From Anglo-Saxon 
sources it seems probable that his supremacy reached westwards 
as far as Hoist ein. He was of a cruel disposition, and is said to 
have killed his nephews Embrica (Emerca) and Fritla (Fridla) 
in order to obtain the great treasure which they possessed. 
Still more famous is the story of Suanihilda (Svanhildr), who 
according to Northern tradition was his wife and was cruelly 
put to death on a false charge of unfaithfulness. An attempt 
to avenge her death was made by her brothers Ammius (HamSir) 
and Sarus (Sorli) by whom Hermanaric was severely wounded. 
To his time belong a number of other heroes whose exploits 
are recorded in English and Northern tradition, amongst whom 
we may mention Wudga (Vidigoia), Hama and several others, 
who in Widsith are represented as defending their country against 
the Huns in the forest of the Vistula. Hermanaric committed 
suicide in his distress at an invasion of the Huns about A.D. 370, 
and the portion of the nation called Ostrogoths then came under 
Hunnish supremacy. The Visigoths obtained permission to 
cross the Danube and settle in Moesia. A large part of the nation 
became Christian about this time (see below). The exactions 
of the Roman governors, however, soon led to a quarrel, which 
ended in the total defeat and death of Valens at Adrianople 
in the year 378. (F. G. M. B.) 

From about 370 the history of the East and West Goths 
parts asunder, to be joined together again only incidentally 
, ater and for a season. The great mass of the East Goths 
history. stayed north of the Danube, and passed under the 
overlordship of the Hun. They do not for the present 
play any important part in the affairs of the Empire. The great 
mass of the West Goths crossed the Danube into the Roman 
provinces, and there played a most important part in various 
characters of alliance and enmity. The great migration was in 
376, when they were allowed to pass as peaceful settlers under 
their chief Frithigern. His rival Athanaric seems to have tried 
to maintain his party for a while north of the Danube in defiance 
of the Huns; but he had presently to follow the example of the 
great mass of the nation. The peaceful designs of Frithigern 
were meanwhile thwarted by the ill-treatment which the Goths 
suffered from the Roman officials, which led first to disputes 
and then to open war. In 378 the Goths won the great battle of 
Adrianople, and after this Theodosius the Great, the successor 
of Valens, made terms with them in 381, and the mass of the 
Gothic warriors entered the Roman service as foederali. Many 
of their chiefs were in high favour; but it seems that the orthodox 
Theodosius showed more favour to the still remaining heathen 
party among the Goths than to the larger part of them who had 
embraced Arian Christianity. Athanaric himself came to Con- 
stantinople in 381; he was received with high honours, and had 
a solemn funeral when he died. His saying is worth recording, 
as an example of the effect which Roman civilization had on 
the Teutonic mind. " The emperor," he said, " was a god upon 
earth, and he who resisted him would have his blood on his 
own head." 

The death of Theodosius in 395 broke up the union between 
the West Goths and the Empire. Dissensions arose between 
them and the ministers of Arcadius; the Goths threw off their 
allegiance, and chose Alaric as their king. This was a restoration 
alike of national unity and of national independence. The 
royal title had not been borne by their leaders in the Roman 
service. Alaric's position is quite different from that of several 



Goths in the Roman service, who appear as simple rebels. He 
was of the great West Gothic house of the Balthi, or Bold-men, 
a house second in nobility only to that of the Amali. His whole 
career was taken up with marchings to and fro within the lands, 
first of the Eastern, then of the Western empire. The Goths 
are under him an independent people under a national king; 
their independence is in no way interfered with if the Gothic 
king, in a moment of peace, accepts the office and titles of a 
Roman general. But under Alaric the Goths make no lasting 
settlement. In the long tale of intrigue and warfare between 
the Goths and the two imperial courts which fills up this whole 
time, cessions of territory are offered to the Goths, provinces 
are occupied by them, but as yet they do not take root anywhere; 
no Western land as yet becomes Gothia. Alaric's designs of 
settlement seem in his first stage to have still kept east of the 
Adriatic, in Illyricum, possibly in Greece. Towards the end of 
his career his eyes seem fixed on Africa. 

Greece was the scene of his great campaign in 395-96, the 
second Gothic invasion of that country. In this campaign the 
religious position of the Goths is strongly marked. The Arian 
appeared as an enemy alike to the pagan majority and the 
Catholic minority; but he came surrounded by monks, and his 
chief wrath was directed against the heathen temples (vide G. F. 
Hertzberg, Geschichte Griechenlands, iii. 391). His Italian cam- 
paigns fall into two great divisions, that of 402-3, when he 
was driven back by Stilicho, and that of 408-10, after Stilicho's 
death. In this second war he thrice besieged Rome (408, 409, 
410). The second time it suited a momentary policy to set 
up a puppet emperor of his own, and even to accept a military 
commission from him. The third time he sacked the city, 
the first time since Brennus that Rome had been taken by an 
army of utter foreigners. The intricate political and military 
details of these campaigns are of less importance in the history 
of the Gothic nation than the stage which Alaric's reign marks 
in the history of that nation. It stands between two periods 
of settlement within the Empire and of service under the Empire. 
Under Alaric there is no settlement, and service is quite secondary 
and precarious; after his death in 410 the two begin again in 
new shapes. 

Contemporary with the campaigns of Alaric was a barbarian 
invasion of Italy, which, according to one view, again brings 
the East and West Goths together. The great mass of the East 
Goths, as has been already said, became one of the many nations 
which were under vassalage to the Huns; but their relation 
was one merely of vassalage. They remained a distinct people 
under kings of their own, kings of the house of the Amali and of 
the kindred of Ermanaric (Jordanes, 48) . They had to follow the 
lead of the Huns in war, but they were also able to carry on wars 
of their own; and it has been held that among these separate 
East Gothic enterprises we are to place the invasion of Italy in 
405 by Radagaisus (whom R. Pallmann 1 writes Ratiger, and 
takes him for the chief of the heathen part of the East Goths). 
One chronicler, Prosper, makes this invasion preceded by another 
in 400, in which Alaric and Radagaisus appear as partners. 
The paganism of Radagaisus is certain. The presence of Goths 
in his army is certain, but it seems dangerous to infer that his 
invasion was a national Gothic enterprise. 

Under Ataulphus, the brother-in-law and successor of Alaric, 
another era opens, the beginning of enterprises which did in the 
end lead to the establishment of a settled Gothic monarchy 
in the West. The position of Ataulphus is well marked by the 
speech put into his mouth by Orosius. He had at one time 
dreamed of destroying the Roman power, of turning Romania 
into Gothia, and putting Ataulphus in the stead of Augustus; 
but he had learned that the world could be governed only by 
the laws of Rome and he had determined to use the Gothic arms 
for the support of the Roman power. And in the confused and 
contradictory accounts of his actions (for the story in Jordanes 
cannot be reconciled with the accounts in Olympiodorus and 
the chroniclers), we can see something of this principle at work 
throughout. Gaul and Spain were overrun both by barbarian 
l Gcschichle der Volkerwanderung (Gotha, 1863-1864). 



274 



GOTHS 



invaders and by rival emperors. The sword of the Goth was 
to win back the last lands for Rome. And, amid many shif tings 
of allegiance, Ataulphus seems never to have wholly given up 
the position of an ally of the Empire. His marriage with Placidia, 
the daughter of the great Theodosius, was taken as the seal of 
the union between Goth and Roman, and, had their son Theo- 
dosius lived, a dynasty might have arisen uniting both claims. 
But the career of Ataulphus was cut short at Barcelona in 415, 
by his murder at the hands of another faction of the Goths. 
The reign of Sigeric was momentary. Under Wallia in 418 a 
more settled state of things was established. The Empire re- 
ceived again, as the prize of Gothic victories, the Tarraconensis 
in Spain, and Novempopulana and the Narbonensis in Gaul. 
The " second Aquitaine," with the sea-coast from the mouth 
of the Garonne to the mouth of the Loire, became the West 
Gothic kingdom of Toulouse. The dominion of the Goths was 
now strictly Gaulish; their lasting Spanish dominion does not 
yet begin. 

The reign of the first West Gothic Theodoric (419-451) shows 
a shifting state of relations between the Roman and Gothic 
powers; but, after defeats and successes both ways, the older 
relation of alliance against common enemies was again estab- 
lished. At last Goth and Roman had to join together against 
the common enemy of Europe and Christendom, Attila the Hun. 
But they met Gothic warriors in his army. By the terms of 
their subjection to the Huns, the East Goths came to fight for 
Attila against Christendom at Chalons, just as the Servians came 
to fight for Bajazet against Christendom at Nicopolis. Theodoric 
fell in the battle (451). After this momentary meeting, the 
history of the East and West Goths again separates for a while. 
The kingdom of Toulouse grew within Gaul at the expense of 
the Empire, and in Spain at the expense of the Suevi. Under 
Euric (466-485) the West Gothic power again became largely 
a Spanish power. The kingdom of Toulouse took in nearly all 
Gaul south of the Loire and west of the Rhone, with all Spain, 
except the north-west corner, which was still held by the Suevi. 
Provence alone remained to the Empire. The West Gothic 
kings largely adopted Roman manners and culture; but, as 
they still kept to their original Arian creed, their rule never 
became thoroughly acceptable to their Catholic subjects. They 
stood, therefore, at a great disadvantage when a new and aggres- 
sive Catholic power appeared in Gaul through the conversion 
of the Frank Clovis or Chlodwig. Toulouse was, as in days long 
after, the seat of an heretical power, against which the forces 
of northern Gaul marched as on a crusade. In 507 the West 
Gothic king Alaric II. fell before the Prankish arms at Campus 
Vogladensis, near Poitiers, and his kingdom, as a great power 
north of the Alps, fell with him. That Spain and a fragment of 
Gaul still remained to form a West Gothic kingdom was owing 
to the intervention of the East Goths under the rule of the greatest 
man in Gothic history. 

When the Hunnish power broke in pieces on the death of 
Attila, the East Goths recovered their full independence. They 
now entered into relations with the Empire, and were settled 
on lands in Pannonia. During the greater part of the latter 
half of the 5th century, the East Goths play in south-eastern 
Europe nearly the same part which the West Goths played 
in the century before. They are seen going to and fro, in every 
conceivable relation of friendship and enmity with the Eastern 
Roman power, till, just as the West Goths had done before them, 
they pass from the East to the West. They are still ruled by 
kings of the house of the Amali, and from that house there now 
steps forward a great figure, famous alike in history and in 
romance, in the person of Theodoric, son of Theodemir. Born 
about 454, his childhood was spent at Constantinople as a 
hostage, where he was carefully educated. The early part of 
his life is taken up with various disputes, intrigues and wars 
within the Eastern empire, in which he has as his rival another 
Theodoric, son of Triarius, and surnamed Strabo. This older 
but lesser Theodoric seems to have been the chief, not the king, 
of that branch of the East Goths which had settled within the 
Empire at an earlier time. Theodoric the Great, as he is some- 



times 'distinguished, is sometimes the friend, sometimes the 
enemy, of the Empire. In the former case he is clothed with 
various Roman titles and offices, as patrician and consul; but 
in all cases alike he remains the national East Gothic king. It 
was in both characters together that he set out in 488, by com- 
mission from the emperor Zeno, to recover Italy from Odoacer. 
By 493 Ravenna was taken; Odoacer was killed by Theodoric's 
own hand; and the East Gothic power was fully established 
over Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia and the lands to the north of Italy. 
In this war the history of the East and West Goths begins again 
to unite, if we may accept the witness of one writer that Theo- 
doric was helped by West Gothic auxiliaries. The two branches 
of the nation were soon brought much more closely together, 
when, through the overthrow of the West Gothic kingdom of 
Toulouse, the power of Theodoric was practically extended 
over a large part of Gaul and over nearly the whole of Spain. 
A time of confusion followed the fall of Alaric II., and, as that 
prince was the son-in-law of Theodoric, the East Gothic king 
stepped in as the guardian of his grandson Amalaric, and pre- 
served for him all his Spanish and a fragment of his Gaulish 
dominion. Toulouse passed away to the Frank; but the Goth 
kept Narbonne and its district, the land of Septimania the 
land which, as the last part of Gaul held by the Goths, kept 
the name of Gothia for many ages. While Theodoric lived, 
the West Gothic kingdom was practically united to his own 
dominion. He seems also to have claimed a kind of protect- 
orate over the Teutonic powers generally, and indeed to have 
practically exercised it, except in the case of the Franks. 

The East Gothic dominion was now again as great in extent 
and far more splendid than it could have been in the time of 
Ermanaric. But it was now of a wholly different character. 
The dominion of Theodoric was not a barbarian but a civilized 
power. His twofold position ran through everything. He was 
at once national king of the Goths, and successor, though without 
any imperial titles, of the Roman emperors of the West. The 
two nations, differing in manners, language and religion, lived 
side by side on the soil of Italy; each was ruled according to its 
own law, by the prince who was, in his two separate characters, 
the common sovereign of both. The picture of Theodoric's 
rule is drawn for us in the state papers drawn up in his name 
and in the names of his successors by his Roman minister Cassio- 
dorus. The Goths seem to have been thick on the ground in 
northern Italy; in the south they formed little more than 
garrisons. In Theodoric's theory the Goth was the armed pro- 
tector of the peaceful Roman; the Gothic king had the toil of 
government, while the Roman consul had the honour. All the 
forms of the Roman administration went on, and the Roman 
polity and Roman culture had great influence on the Goths 
themselves. The rule of the prince over two distinct nations 
in the same land was necessarily despotic; the old Teutonic 
freedom was necessarily lost. Such a system as that which 
Theodoric established needed a Theodoric to carry it on. It 
broke in pieces after his death. 

On the death of Theodoric (526) the East and West Goths 
were again separated. The few instances' in which they are 
found acting together after this time are as scattered and 
incidental as they were before. Amalaric succeeded to the 
West Gothic kingdom in Spain and Septimania. Provence 
was added to the dominion of the new East Gothic king Athalaric, 
the grandson of Theodoric through his daughter Amalasuntha. 
The weakness of the East Gothic position in Italy how showed 
itself. The long wars of Justinian's reign (535-555) recovered 
Italy for the Empire, and the Gothic name died out on Italian 
soil. The chance of forming a national state in Italy by the 
union of Roman and Teutonic elements, such as those which 
arose in Gaul, in Spain, and in parts of Italy under Lombard 
rule, was thus lost. The East Gothic kingdom was destroyed 
before Goths and Italians had at all mingled together. The war 
of course made the distinction stronger; under the kings who 
were chosen for the purposes of the war national Gothic* feeling 
had revived. The Goths were now again, if not a wandering 
people, yet an armed host, no longer the protectors but the 



GOTHS 



275 



*<* 

S^P 



enemies of the Roman people of Italy. The East Gothic dominion 
and the East Gothic name wholly passed away. The nation 
had followed Theodoric. It is only once or twice after his 
expedition that we hear of Goths, or even of Gothic leaders, 
in the eastern provinces. From the soil of Italy the nation 
passed away almost without a trace, while the next Teutonic 
conquerors stamped their name on the two ends of the land, 
one of which keeps it to this day. 

The West Gothic kingdom lasted much longer, and came 
much nearer to establishing itself as a national power in the 
lands which it took in. But the difference of race and faith 
tween the Arian Goths and the Catholic Romans of Gaul and 
ipain influenced the history of the West Gothic kingdom for 
a long time. The Arian Goths ruled over Catholic subjects, 
and were surrounded by Catholic neighbours. The Franks 
were Catholics from their first conversion; the Suevi became 
Catholics much earlier than the Goths. The African conquests 
of Belisarius gave the Goths of Spain, instead of the Arian 
Vandals, another Catholic neighbour in the form of the restored 
Roman power. The Catholics everywhere preferred either 
Roman, Suevian or Prankish rule to that of the heretical Goths; 
even the unconquerable mountaineers of Cantabria seem for 
a while to have received a Prankish governor. In some other 
mountain districts the Roman inhabitants long maintained 
their independence, and in 534 a large part of the south of Spain, 
including the great cities of Cadiz, Cordova, Seville and New 
Carthage, was, with the good will of its Roman inhabitants, 
reunited to the Empire, which kept some points on the coast 
as late as 624. That is to say, the same work which the Empire 
was carrying on in Italy against the East Goths was at the same 
moment carried on in Spain against the West Goths. But in 
Italy the whole land was for a while won back, and the Gothic 
power passed away for ever. In Spain the Gothic power outlived 
the Roman power, but it outlived it only by itself becoming 
in some measure Roman. The greatest period of the Gothic 
pcwer as such was in the reign of Leovigild (568-586). He 
reunited the Gaulish and Spanish parts of the kingdom which 
had been parted for a moment; he united the Suevian dominion 
to his own; he overcame some of the independent districts, 
and won back part of the recovered Roman province in southern 
Spain. He further established the power of the crown over the 
Gothic nobles, who were beginning to grow into territorial lords. 
The next reign, that of his son Recared (586-601), was marked 
by a change which took away the great hindrance which had 
thus far stood in the way of any national union between 
Goths and Romans. The king and the greater part of the 
Gothic people embraced the Catholic faith. A vast degree of 
influence now fell into the hands of the Catholic bishops; the 
two nations began to unite; the Goths were gradually romanized 
and the Gothic language began to go out of use. In short, the 
Romance nation and the Romance speech of Spain began to 
be formed. The Goths supplied the Teutonic infusion into the 
Roman mass. The kingdom, however, still remained a Gothic 
kingdom. " Gothic," not " Roman " or " Spanish," is its 
formal title; only a single late instance of the use of the formula 
" regnum Hispaniae " is known. In the first half of the 7th 
century that name became for the first time geographically 
applicable by the conquest of the still Roman coast of southern 
Spain. The Empire was then engaged in the great struggle 
with the Avars and Persians, and, now that the Gothic kings 
were Catholic, the great objection to their rule on the part of 
the Roman inhabitants was taken away. The Gothic nobility 
still remained a distinct class, and held, along with the Catholic 
prelacy, the right of choosing the king. Union with the Catholic 
Church was accompanied by the introduction of the ecclesi- 
astical ceremony of anointing, a change decidedly favourable to 
elective rule. The growth of those later ideas which tended 
again to favour the hereditary doctrine had not time to grow 
up in Spain before the Mahommedan conquest (711). The West 
Gothic crown therefore remained elective till the end. The 
modern Spanish nation is the growth of the long struggle with 
the Mussulmans; but it has a direct connexion with the West 



Gothic kingdom. We see at once that the Goths hold altogether 
a different place in Spanish memory from that which they hold 
in Italian memory. In Italy the Goth was but a momentary 
invader and ruler; the Teutonic element in Italy comes from 
other sources. In Spain the Goth supplies an important element 
in the modern nation. And that element has been neither 
forgotten nor despised. Part of the unconquered region of 
northern Spain, the land of Asturia, kept for a while the name 
of Gothia, as did the Gothic possessions in Gaul and in Crim. 
The name of the people who played so great a part in all southern 
Europe, and who actually ruled over so large a part of it has 
now wholly passed away; but it is in Spain that its historical 
impress is to be looked for. 

Of Gothic literature in the Gothic language we have the Bible 
of Ulfilas, and some other religious writings and fragments 
(see Gothic Language below). Of Gothic legislation in Latin 
we have the edict of Theodoric of the year 500, edited by F. 
Bluhme in the Monumenta Germaniae historica; and the books 
of Variae of Cassiodorus may pass as a collection of the state 
papers of Theodoric and his immediate successors. Among the 
West Goths written laws had already been put forth by Euric. 
The second Alaric (484-507) put forth a Breviarium of Roman 
law for his Roman subjects; but the great collection of West 
Gothic laws dates from the later days of the monarchy, being 
put forth by King Recceswinth about 654. This code gave 
occasion to some well-known comments by Montesquieu and 
Gibbon, and has been discussed by Savigny {Geschichte des 
romischen Rechts, ii. 65) and various other writers. They are 
printed in the Monumenta Germaniae, leges, tome i. (1902). 
Of special Gothic histories, besides that of Jordanes, already 
so often quoted, there is the Gothic history of Isidore, archbishop 
of Seville, a special source of the history of the West Gothic 
kings down to Svinthala (621-631). But all the Latin and 
Greek writers contemporary with the days of Gothic predominance 
make their constant contributions. Not for special facts, but 
for a general estimate, no writer is more instructive than Salvian 
of Marseilles in the sth century, whose work De Gubernatione Dei 
is full of passages contrasting the vices of the Romans with the 
virtues of the barbarians, especially of the Goths. In all such 
pictures we must allow a good deal for exaggeration both ways, 
but there must be a ground-work of truth. The chief virtues 
which the Catholic presbyter praises in the Arian Goths are 
their chastity, their piety according to their own creed, their 
tolerance towards the Catholics under their rule, and their 
general good treatment of their Roman subjects. He even 
ventures to hope that such good people may be saved, notwith- 
standing their heresy. All this must have had some ground- 
work of truth in the 5th century, but it is not very wonderful 
if the later West Goths of Spain had a good deal fallen away from 
the doubtless somewhat ideal picture of Salvian. (E. A. F.) 

There is now an extensive literature on the Goths, and among the 
principal works may be mentioned: T. Hodgkin, Italy and her 
Invaders (Oxford, 1880-1899); J. Aschbach, Geschichte der West- 
goten (Frankfort, 1827); F. Dahn, Die Konige der Germanen (1861- 
1899); E. von Wietersheim, Geschichte der Volkerwanderung (1880- 
1881); R. Pallmann, Die Geschichte der Volkerwanderung (Gotha, 
1863-1864.); B. Rappaport, Die Einfdlle der Goten in das romische 
Reich (Leipzig, 1899), and K. Zeuss, Die Deutschen und die Nachbar- 
stdmme (Munich, 1837). Other works which may be consulted are: 
E. Gibbon, Decline arid Fall of the Roman Empire, edited by J. B. 
Bury (1896-1000); H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity 
(1867); J. B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire (1889); 
P. Villari, Le Invasioni barbartche in Italia (Milan, 1901); and F. 
Martroye, L'Occideni a I'epoque byzantine: Goths et Vandal es (Paris, 
1903). There is a popular history of the Goths by H. Bradley in the 
" Story of the Nations " series (London, 1888). For the laws see the 
Leges in Band I. of the Monumenta Germaniae historica, leges (1902). 
A. Helfferich, Entstehung und Geschichte des Westgotenrechts (Berlin, 
1858); F. Bluhme, Zur Textkritik des Westgotenrechts (1872); F. 
Dahn, Lex Visigothorum. Westgotische Studien (Wurzburg, 1874); 
C. Rinaudo, Leggidei Visigote, studio (Turin, 1878); and K. Zeumer, 
" Geschichte der westgotischen Gesetzgebung " in the Neues Archio 
der Gesellschaftfur dltere deutsche Geschichlskunde. See also the article 
on THEODORIC. 

Gothic Language. Our knowledge of the Gothic language 
is derived almost entirely from the fragments of a translation 



276 



GOTLAND 



of the Bible which is believed to have been made by the Arian 
bishop Wulfila or Ulfilas (d. 383) for the Goths who dwelt on 
the lower Danube. The MSS. which have come down to us 
and which date from the period of Ostrogothic rule in Italy 
(480-555) contain the Second Epistle to the Corinthians complete, 
together with more or less considerable fragments of the four 
Gospels and of all the other Pauline Epistles. The only remains 
of the Old Testament are three short fragments of Ezra and 
Nehemiah. There is also an incomplete commentary (skeireins) 
on St John's Gospel, a fragment of a calendar, and two charters 
(from Naples and Arezzo, the latter now lost) which contain 
some Gothic sentences. All these texts are written in a special 
character, which is said to have been invented by Wulfila. It 
is based chiefly on the uncial Greek alphabet, from which 
indeed most of the letters are obviously derived, and several 
orthographical peculiarities, e.g. the use of ai for e and ei for i 
reflect the Greek pronunciation of the period. Other letters, 
however, have been taken over from the Runic and Latin 
alphabets. Apart from the texts mentioned above, the only 
remains of the Gothic language are the proper names and 
occasional words which occur in Greek and Latin writings, 
together with some notes, including the Gothic alphabet, in a 
Salzburg MS. of the loth century, and two short inscriptions 
on a torque and a spear-head, discovered at Buzeo (Walachia) 
and Kovel (Volhynia) respectively. The language itself, as 
might be expected from the date of Wulfila's translation, is 
of a much more archaic type than that of any other Teutonic 
writings which we possess, except a few of the earliest Northern 
inscriptions. This may be seen, e.g. in the better preservation 
of final and unaccented syllables and in the retention of the dual 
and the middle (passive) voice in verbs. It would be quite 
erroneous, however, to regard the Gothic fragments as represent- 
ing a type of language common to all Teutonic nations in the 
4th century. Indeed the distinctive characteristics of the 
language are very marked, and there is good reason for believing 
that it differed considerably from the various northern and 
western languages, whereas the differences among the latter 
at this time were probably comparatively slight (see TEUTONIC 
LANGUAGES). On the other hand, it must not be supposed that 
the language of the Goths stood quite isolated. Procopius 
(Vand. i. 2) states distinctly that the Gothic language was 
spoken not only by the' Ostrogoths and Visigoths but also by the 
Vandals and the Gepidae; and in the former case there is sufficient 
evidence, chiefly from proper names, to prove that his statement 
is not far from the truth. With regard to the Gepidae we have 
less information; but since the Goths, according to Jordanes 
(cap. 17), believed them to have been originally a branch of 
their own nation, it is highly probable that the two languages 
were at least closely related. Procopius elsewhere (Vand. i. 
3; Goth. i. i, iii. 2) speaks of the Rugii, Sciri and Alani as 
Gothic nations. The fact that the two former were sprung 
from the north-east of Germany renders it probable that they 
had Gothic affinities, while the Alani, though non-Teutonic 
in origin, may have become gothicized in the course of the 
migration period. Some modern writers have included in the 
same class the Burgundians, a nation which had apparently 
come from the basin of the Oder, but the evidence at our disposal 
on the whole hardly justifies the supposition that their language 
retained a close affinity with Gothic. 

In the 4th and sth centuries the Gothic language using 
the term in its widest sense must have spread over the greater . 
part of Europe together with the north coast of Africa. It 
disappeared, however, with surprising rapidity. There is no 
evidence for its survival in Italy or Africa after the fall of the 
Ostrogothic and Vandal kingdoms, while in Spain it is doubtful 
whether the Visigoths retained their language until the Arabic 
conquest. In central Europe it may have lingered somewhat 
longer in view of the evidence of the Salzburg MS. mentioned 
above. Possibly the information there given was derived from 
southern Hungary or Transylvania where remains of the Gepidae 
were to be found shortly before the Magyar invasion (889). 
According to Walafridus Strabo (de Reb. Eccles. cap. 7) also 



Gothic was still used in his time (the Qth century) in some 
churches in the region of the lower Danube. Thenceforth the 
language seems to have survived only among the Goths (Goti 
Tetraxitae) of the Crimea, who are mentioned for the last time 
by Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, an imperial envoy at Constanti- 
nople about the middle of the i6th century. He collected a 
number of words and phrases in use among them which show 
clearly that their language, though not unaffected by Iranian 
influence, was still essentially a form of Gothic. 

See H. C. von der Gabelentz and J. Loebe, Ulfilas (Altenburg and 
Leipzig, 1836-1846); E. Bernhardt, Vulfila oder die gotische Bibel 
(Halle, 1875). For other works on the Gothic language seej. Wright, 
A Primer of the Gothic Language (Oxford, 1892), p. 143 f. To the 
references there given should be added: C. C. Uhlenbeck, Etymo- 
logischesWorterbuch d.go(.5*rocAe(Amsterdam,2nd ed. 1901) ;F.Kluge, 
" Geschichte d. got. Sprache " in H. Paul's Grundriss d. germ. Philo- 
logie (2nd ed., vol. i., Strassburg, 1897); W. Streitberg, Golisches 
Elementarbuch (Heidelberg, 1897) ; Th. von Grienberger, Beitrdge zur 
Geschichte d. deutschen Sprache u. Literatur, xxi. 185 ff. ; L. F. A. 
Wimmer, Die Runenschrift (Berlin, 1887), p. 61 ff. ; G. Stephens, 
Handbook to the Runic Monuments (London, 1884), p. 203; F. Wrede, 
t)ber die Sprache der Wandalen (Strassburg, 1886). For further 
references see K. Zeuss, Die Deutschen, p. 432 f. (where earlier refer- 
ences to the Crimean Goths are also given) ; F. Kluge, op. cit., p. 515 
ff. ; and O. Bremer, ib. vol. iii., p. 822. (H. M. C.) 

GOTLAND, an island in the Baltic Sea belonging to Sweden, 
lying between 57 and 58 N., and having a length from S. S. W. 
to N.N.E. of 75 m., a breadth not exceeding 30 m., and an area 
of 1142 sq. m. The nearest point on the mainland is 50 m. 
from the westernmost point of the island. With the island 
Faro, off the northern extremity, the Karlsoe, off the west coast, 
and Gotska Sando, 25 m. N. by E., Gotland forms the admini- 
strative district (Ian) of Gotland. The island is a level plateau 
of Silurian limestone, rising gently eastward, of an average 
height of 80 to 100 ft., with steep coasts fringed with tapering, 
free-standing columns of limestone (raukar). A few low isolated 
hills rise inland. The climate is temperate, and the soil, although 
in parts dry and sterile, is mostly fertile. Former marshy moors 
have been largely drained and cultivated. There are extensive 
sand-dunes in the north. As usual in a limestone formation, 
some of the streams have their courses partly below the surface, 
and caverns are not infrequent. Less than half the total area 
is under forest, the extent of which was formerly much greater. 
Barley, rye, wheat and oats are grown, especially the first, which 
is exported to the breweries on the mainland. The sugar-beet 
is also produced and exported, and there are beet-sugar works 
on the island. Sheep and cattle are kept ; there is a government 
sheep farm at Roma, and the cattle may be noted as belonging 
principally to an old native breed, yellow and horned. Some 
lime-burning, cement-making and sea-fishing are carried on. 
The capital of the island is Visby, on the west coast. There are 
over 80 m. of railways. Lines run from Visby N.E. to Tingstade 
and S. to Hofdhem, with branches from Roma to Klintehamn, 
a small watering-place on the west coast, and to Slitehamn on 
the east. Excepting along the coast the island has no scenic 
attraction, but it is of the highest archaeological interest. Nearly 
every village has its ruined church, and others occur where no 
villages remain. The shrunken walled town of Visby was one 
of the richest commercial centres of the Baltic from the nth to 
the i4th century, and its prosperity was shared by the whole 
island. It retains ten churches besides the cathedral. The 
massive towers of the village churches are often detached, and 
doubtless served purposes of defence. The churches of Roma, 
Hemse, with remarkable mural paintings, Othen and Larbo 
may be specially noted. Some contain fine stained glass, as at 
Dalhem near Visby. The natives of Gotland speak a dialect 
distinguished from that of any part of the Swedish mainland. 
Pop. of Ian (1900) 52,781. 

Gotland was subject to Sweden before 890, and in 1030 was 
christianized by St Olaf, king of Norway, when returning from 
his exile at Kiev. He dedicated the first church in the island to 
St Peter at Visby. At that time Visby had long been one of 
the most important trading towns in the Baltic, and the chief 
distributing centre of the oriental commerce which came to 
Europe along the rivers of Russia. In the early years of the 



GOTO ISLANDS GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG 



r Hanseatic League, or about the middle of the I3th century, 
it became the chief dep6t for the produce of the eastern Baltic 
countries, including, in a commercial sense, its daughter colony 
(nth century or earlier) of Novgorod the Great. Although 
Visby was an independent member of the Hanseatic League, 
the influence of Liibeck was paramount in the city, and half 
its governing body were men of German descent. Indeed, 
Bjorkander endeavours to prove that the city was a German 
(Hanseatic) foundation, dating principally from the middle 

I of the 1 2th century. However that may be, the importance of 
Visby in the sea trade of the North is conclusively attested by 
the famous code of maritime law which bears its name. This 
Waterrecht dat de Koopliide en de Schippers gemakt hebben to 
Visby (" sea-law which the merchants and seamen have made 
at Visby ") was a compilation based upon the Liibeck code, 
the Oleron code and the Amsterdam code, and was first printed 
in Low German in 1 505, but in all probability had its origin about 
1240, or not much later (see SEA LAWS). By the middle of the 
1 4th century the reputation of the wealth of the city was so 
great that, according to an old ballad, " the Gotlanders weighed 
out gold with stone weights and played with the choicest jewels. 
The swine ate out of silver troughs, and the women spun with 
distaffs of gold." This fabled wealth was too strong a temptation 
for the energetic Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark. In 1361 he 
invaded the island, routed the defenders of Visby under the 
city walls (a monolithic cross marks the burial-place of the 
islanders who fell) and plundered the city. From this blow 
it never recovered, its decay being, however, materially helped 
by the fact that for the greater part of the next 1 50 years it was 
the stronghold of successive freebooters or sea-rovers first, 
of the Hanseatic privateers called Vitalienbrodre or Viktualien- 
briider, who made it their stronghold during the last eight 
years of the I4th century; then of the Teutonic Knights, whose 
Grand Master drove out the " Victuals Brothers," and kept the 
island until it was redeemed by Queen Margaret. There too 
Erik XIII. (the Pomeranian), after being driven out of Denmark 
by his own subjects, established himself in 1437, and for a 
dozen years waged piracy upon Danes and Swedes alike. After 
him came Olaf and Ivar Thott, two Danish lords, who down to 
the year 1487 terrorized the seas from their pirates' stronghold 
of Visby. Lastly, the Danish admiral Soren Norrby, the last 
supporter of Christian I. of Denmark, when his master's cause 
was lost, waged a guerrilla war upon the Danish merchant ships 
and others from the same convenient base. But this led to an 
expedition by the men of Liibeck, who partly destroyed Visby 
in 1525. By the peace of Stettin (1570) Gotland was confirmed 
to the Danish crown, to which it had been given by Queen 
Margaret. But at the peace of Bromsebro in 1645 it was at length 
restored to Sweden, to which it has since belonged, except for 
the three years 1676-1679, when it was forcibly occupied by the 
Danes, and a few weeks in 1808, when the Russians landed a force. 
The extreme wealth of the Gotlanders naturally fostered a 
spirit of independence, and their relations with Sweden were 
curious. The island at one period paid an annual tribute of 
60 marks of silver to Sweden, but it was clearly recognized that 
it was paid by the desire of the Gotlanders, and not enforced 
by Sweden. The pope recognized their independence, and it 
was by their own free will that they came under the spiritual 
charge of the bishop of Linkoping. Their local government was 
republican in form, and a popular assembly is indicated in the 
written Gotland Law, which dates not later than the middle of 
the 1 3th century. Sweden had no rights of objection to the 
measures adopted by this body, and there was no Swedish 
judge or other official in the island. Visby had a system of 
government and rights independent of, and in some measure 
opposed to, that of the rest of the island. It seems clear that 
there were at one time two separate corporations, for the native 
Gotlanders and the foreign traders respectively, and that 
these were subsequently fused. The rights and status of native 
Gotlanders were not enjoyed by foreigners as a whole even 
intermarriage was illegal but Germans, on account of their 
commercial pre-eminence in the island, were excepted. 



277 



See C. H. Bergman, Gotlands geografi och historia (Stockholm, 
1898) and Gotldndska skildringar och minnen (Visby, 1902); A. T. 
Snobohm, Gotlands land och folk (Visby, 1897 et seq.) ; W. Moler, 
Bidrag till en Gotldni.sk bibliografi (Stockholm, 1890); Hans Hilde- 
brand, Visby och dess Minnesmdrken (Stockholm, 1892 et seq.); 
A. Bjorkander, Till Visby Slads Aeldsld Historia (1898), where most 
of the literature dealing with the subject is mentioned ; but some of 
the author's arguments require criticism. For local government and 
rights see K. Hegel, Stddter und Gilden im Mittelalter (book iii. ch. 
iii., Leipzig, 1891). 

GOTO ISLANDS [Goxo RETTO, GOTTO], a group of islands 
belonging to Japan, lying west of Kiushiu, in 33 N., 129 E. 
The southern of the two principal islands, Fukae-shima, measures 
17 m. by 135; the northern, Nakaori-shima, measures 23 m. by 
75. These islands lie almost in the direct route of steamers plying 
between Nagasaki and Shanghai, and are distant some 50 m. from 
Nagasaki. Some dome-shaped hills command 'the old castle- 
town of Fukae. The islands are highly cultivated; deer and 
other game abound, and trout are plentiful in the mountain 
streams. A majority of the inhabitants are Christians. 

COTTER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1746-1797), German poet 
and dramatist, was born on the 3rd of September 1746, at Gotha. 
After the completion of his university career at Gottingen, he 
was appointed second director of the Archive of his native town, 
and subsequently went to Wetzlar, the seat of the imperial law 
courts, as secretary to the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha legation. In 
1768 he returned to Gotha as tutor to two young noblemen, and 
here, together with H. C. Boie, he founded the famous Goltinger 
Musenalmanach. In 1770 he was once more in Wetzlar, where 
he belonged to Goethe's circle of acquaintances. Four years 
later he took up his permanent abode in Gotha, where he died on 
the i8th of March 1797. Gotter was the chief representative of 
French taste in the German literary life of his time. His own 
poetry is elegant and polished, and in great measure free from the 
trivialities of the Anacreontic lyric of the earlier generation of 
imitators of French literature; but he was lacking in the imagin- 
ative depth that characterizes the German poetic temperament. 
His plays, of which Merope (1774), an adaptation in admirable 
blank verse of the tragedies of Maffei and Voltaire, and Medea 
(1775), a melodrame, are best known, were mostly based on 
French originals and had considerable influence in counteracting 
the formlessness and irregularity of the Sturm und Drang drama. 

Cotter's collected Gedichte appeared in 2 vols. in 1787 and 1788; 
a third volume (1802) contains his Literarischer Nachlass. See B. 
Litzmann, Schroder und Gotter (1887), and R. Schlosser, F. W. 
Gotter, sein Leben und seine Werke (1894). 

GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG, one of the chief German 
poets of the middle ages. The dates of his birth and death 
are alike unknown, but he was the contemporary of Hartmann 
von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Walther von der 
Vogelweide, and his epic Tristan was written about the year 
1 2 10. In all probability he did not belong to the nobility, as 
he is entitled Meister, never Herr, by his contemporaries; his 
poem the only work that can with any certainty be attributed 
to him bears witness to a learned education. The story of 
Tristan had been evolved from its shadowy Celtic origins by the 
French trouveres of the early i2th century, and had already 
found its way into Germany before the close of that century, 
in the crude, unpolished version of Eilhart von Oberge. It 
was Gottfried, however, who gave it its final form. His version 
is based not on that of Chretien de Troyes, but on that of a 
trouvere Thomas, who seems to have been more popular with 
contemporaries. A comparison of the German epic with the 
French original is, however, impossible, as Chretien's Tristan 
is entirely lost, and of Thomas's only a few fragments have come 
down to us. The story centres in the fatal voyage which Tristan, 
a vassal to the court of his uncle King Marke of Kurnewal 
(Cornwall), makes to Ireland to bring back Isolde as the king's 
bride. On the return voyage Tristan 'and Isolde drink by 
mistake a love potion, which binds them irrevocably to each other. 
The epic resolves itself into a series of love intrigues in which 
the two lovers ingeniously outwit the trusting king. They are 
ultimately discovered, and Tristan flees to Normandy where 
he marries another Isolde " Isolde with the white hands " 



278 



GOTTINGEN GOTTLING 



without being able to forget the blond Isolde of Ireland. At this 
point Gottfried's narrative breaks off and to learn the close 
of the story we have to turn to two minor poets of the time, 
Ulrich von Turheim and Heinrich von Freiberg the latter 
much the superior who have supplied the conclusion. After 
further love adventures Tristan is fatally wounded by a poisoned 
spear in Normandy; the " blond Isolde," as the only person 
who has power to cure him, is summoned from Cornwall. The 
ship that brings her is to bear a white sail if she is on board, 
a black one if not. Tristan's wife, however, deceives him, 
announcing that the sail is black, and when Isolde arrives, 
she finds her lover dead. Marke at last learns the truth concern- 
ing the love potion, and has the two lovers buried side by side 
in Kurnewal. 

It is difficult to form an estimate of Gottfried's independence 
of his French source; but it seems clear that he followed closely 
the narrative of events he found in Thomas. He has, however, 
introduced into the story an astounding fineness of psychological 
motive, which, to judge from a general comparison of the 
Arthurian epic in both lands, is German rather than French; 
he has spiritualized and deepened the narrative; he has, above 
all, depicted with a variety and insight, unusual in medieval 
literature, the effects of an overpowering passion. Yet, glowing 
and seductive as Gottfried's love-scenes are, they are never 
for a moment disfigured by frivolous hints or innuendo; the 
tragedy is unrolled with an earnestness that admits of no touch 
of humour, and also, it may be added, with a freedom from 
moralizing which was easier to attain in the I3th than in later 
centuries. The mastery of style is no less conspicuous. Gottfried 
had learned his best lessons from Hartmann von Aue, but he 
was a more original and daring artificer of rhymes and rhythms 
than that master; he delighted in the sheer music of words, 
and indulged in antitheses and allegorical conceits to an extent 
that proved fatal to his imitators. As far as beauty of expression 
is concerned, Gottfried's Tristan is the masterpiece of the German 
court ep ; c. 

Gottfried's Tristan has been frequently edited : by H. F. Massman 
(Leipzig, 1843); by R. Bechstein (2 vols., 3rd ed., Leipzig, 1890- 
1891); by W. Gofther (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1889); by K. Marold 
(1906). Translations into modern German have been made by H. 
Kurz (Stuttgart, 1844); by K. Simrock (Leipzig, 1855); and, best 
of all, by W. Hertz (Stuttgart, 1877). There is also an abbreviated 
English translation by Jessie L. Weston (London, 1899). The 
continuation of Ulrich von Turheim will be found in Massman's 
edition; that by Heinrich von Freiberg has been separately edited 
by R. Bechstein (Leipzig, 1877). See also R. Heinzel, " Gottfrieds 
von Strassburg Tristan und seine Quelle " in the Zeit. fiir deut. Alt. 
xiv. (1869), pp. 272 ff. ; W. Golther, Die Sage von Tristan und 
Isolde (Munich, 1887); F. Piquet, L 'Originatite de Gottfried de 
Strasbourg dans son pobme de Tristan et Isolde (Lille, 1905). K. 
Immermann (q.v.) has written an epic of Tristan und Isolde (1840), 
R. Wagner (q.v.) a musical drama (1865). Cp. R. Bechstein, Tristan 
und Isolde in der deutschen Dichtung der Neuzeit (Leipzig, 1877). 

GOTTINGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province 
of Hanover, pleasantly situated at the west foot of the Hainberg 
(1200 ft.), in the broad and fertile valley of the Leine, 67 m. S. 
from Hanover, on the railway to Cassel. Pop. (1875) 17,057, 
(1905) 34,030. It is traversed by the Leine canal, which separates 
the Altstadt from the Neustadt and from Masch, and is surrounded 
by ramparts, which are planted with lime-trees and form an 
agreeable promenade. The streets in the older part of the town 
are for the most part crooked and narrow, but the newer portions 
are spaciously and regularly built. Apart from the Protestant 
churches of St John, with twin towers, and of St James, with a 
high tower (290 ft.), the medieval town hall, built in the I4th 
century and restored in 1880, and the numerous university 
buildings, Gottingen possesses few structures of any public 
importance. There are several thriving industries, including, 
besides the various branches of the publishing trade, the manu- 
facture of cloth and woollens and of mathematical and other 
scientific instruments. 

The university, the famous Georgia Augusta, founded by 
George II. in 1734 and opened in 1737, rapidly attained a leading 
position, and in 1823 its students numbered 1547. Political 
disturbances, in which both professors and students were im- 



plicated, lowered the attendance to 860 in 1834. The expulsion 
in 1837 of the famous seven professors Die Gottinger Sieben 
viz. the Germanist, Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht (1800-1876); 
the historian, Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann (1785-1860); 
the orientalist, Georg Heinrich August Ewald (1803-1875); 
the historian. Georg Gottfried Gervinus (1805-1875); the 
physicist, Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804-1891); and the philo- 
logists, the brothers Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm (1785-1863), 
and Wilhelm Karl Grimm (1786-1859), for protesting against 
the revocation by King Ernest Augustus of Hanover of the 
liberal constitution of 1833, further reduced the prosperity of 
the university. The events of 1848, on the other hand, told 
somewhat in its favour; and, since the annexation of Hanover in 
1866, it has been carefully fostered by the Prussian government. 
In 1903 its teaching staff numbered 121 and its students 1529. 
The main university building lies on the Wilhelmsplatz, and, 
adjoining, is the famous library of 500,000 vols. and 5300 MSS., 
the richest collection of modern literature in Germany. There 
is a good chemical laboratory as well as adequate zoological, 
ethnographical and mineralogical collections, the most remark- 
able being Blumenbach's famous collection of skulls in the 
anatomical institute. There are also a celebrated observatory, 
long under the direction of Wilhelm Klinkerfues (1827-1884), 
a botanical garden, an agricultural institute and various hospitals, 
all connected with the university. Of the scientific societies 
the most noted is the Royal Society of Sciences (Konigliche 
Sozietat der Wissenschaften) founded by Albrecht von Haller, 
which is divided into three classes, the physical, the mathematical 
and the historical-philological. It numbers about 80 members 
and publishes the well-known Giittingische gelehrte Anzeigen. 
There are monuments in the town to the mathematicians K. F. 
Gauss and W. E. Weber, and also to the poet G. A. Burger. 

The earliest mention of a village of Coding or Gutingi occurs 
in documents of about 950 A.D. The place received municipal 
rights from the German king Otto IV. about 1210, and from 
1 286 to 1463 it was the seat of the princely house of Brunswick- 
Gottingen. During the I4th century it held a high place among 
the towns of the Hanseatic League. In 1531 it joined the 
Reformation movement, and in the following century it suffered 
considerably in the Thirty Years' War, being taken by Tilly 
in 1626, after a siege of 25 days, and recaptured by the 
Saxons in 1632. After a century of decay, it was anew brought 
into importance by the establishment of its university; and a 
marked increase in its industrial and commercial prosperity 
has again taken place in recent years. Towards the end of the 
1 8th century Gottingen was the centre of a society of young 
poets of the Sturm und Drang period of German literature, known 
as the Gottingen Dichterbund or Hainbund (see GERMANY: 
Literature). 

See Freusdorff, Gottingen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart (Gottin- 
gen, 1887); the Urkundenbuch der Stadt Gottingen, edited by G. 
Schmidt, A. Hasseiblatt and G. Kastner; Unger, Gottingen und die 
Georgia Augusta (1861); and Gottinger Professoren (Gotha, 1872); 
and O. Mejer, Kulturgeschichtliche Bilder aus Gottinger (1889). 

GOTTLING, CARL WILHELM (1793-1869), German classical 
scholar, was born at Jena on the igth of January 1793. 
He studied at the universities of Jena and Berlin, took part 
in the war against France in 1814, and finally settled down 
in 1822 as professor at the university of his native town, where 
he continued to reside till his death on the 2oth of January 
1869. In his early years Gottling devoted himself to German 
literature, and published two works on the Nibelungen : Uber das 
Geschichtliche im Nibelungenliede (1814) and Nibelungen und 
Gibelinen (1817). The greater part of his life, however, was 
devoted to the study of classical literature, especially the elucida- 
tion of Greek authors. The contents of his Gesammelle Abhand- 
lungen aus dent klassischen Altertum (1851-1863) and Opuscula 
Academica (published in 1869 after his death) sufficiently indicate 
the varied nature of his studies. He edited the Tex^ (gram- 
matical manual) of Theodosius of Alexandria (1822), Aristotle's 
Politics (1824), and Economics (1830) and Hesiod (1831; 3rd ed. 
by J. Flach, 1878). Mention may also be made of his Allgemeine 
Lehre vom Accent der griechischen Sprache (1835), enlarged from a 



GOTTSCHALK GOTTSCHED 



279 






smaller work, which was translated into English (1831) as the 
Elements of Greek Accentuation; and of his Correspondence with 
Goethe (published 1880). 

See memoirs by C. Nipperdey, his colleague at Jena (1869), G. 
Lothholz (Stargard, 1876), K. Fischer (preface to the Opuscula 
Academica), and C. Bursian in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, ix. 

GOTTSCHALK [GODESCALUS, GOTTESCALE], (c. 808-867?), 
German theologian, was born near Mainz, and was devoted 
(oblatus) from infancy by his parents, his father was a Saxon, 
Count Bern, to the monastic life. He was trained at the 
monastery of Fulda, then under the abbot Hrabanus Maurus, and 
became the friend of Walafrid Strabo and Loup of Ferrieres. In 
June 829, at the synod of Mainz, on the pretext that he had been 
unduly constrained by his abbot, he sought and obtained his 
liberty, withdrew first to Corbie, where he met Ratramnus, and 
then to the monastery of Orbais in the diocese of Soissons. 
There he studied St Augustine, with the result that he became an 
enthusiastic believer in the doctrine of absolute predestination, in 
one point going beyond his master Goftschalk' believing in a 
predestination to condemnation as well as in a predestination to 
salvation, while Augustine had contented himself with the 
doctrine of preterition as complementary to the doctrine of elec- 
tion. Between 835 and 840 Gottschalk was ordained priest, 
without the knowledge of his bishop, by Rigbold, ckorepiscopus of 
Reims. Before 840; deserting his monastery, he went to Italy, 
preached there his doctrine of double predestination, and entered 
into relations with Notting, bishop of Verona,and Eberhard, 
count of Friuli. Driven from Italy through the influence of 
Hrabanus Maurus, now archbishop of Mainz, who wrote two 
violent letters to Notting and Eberhard, he travelled through 
Dalmatia, Pannonia and Norica, but continued preaching and 
writing. In October 848 he presented to the synod at Mainz a 
profession of faith and a refutation of the ideas expressed by 
Hrabanus Maurus in his letter to Notting. He was convicted, 
however, of heresy, beaten, obliged to swear that he would never 
again enter the territory of Louis the German, and handed over 
to Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, who sent him back to his 
monastery at Orbais. The next year at a provincial council at 
Quierzy, presided over by Charles the Bald, he attempted to 
justify his ideas, but was again condemned as a heretic and 
disturber of the public peace, was degraded from the priesthood, 
whipped, obliged to burn his declaration of faith, and shut up in 
the monastery of Hautvilliers. There Hincmar tried again to 
induce him to retract. Gottschalk however continued to defend 
his doctrine, writing to his friends and to the most eminent theo- 
logians of France and Germany. A great controversy resulted. 
Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, Wenilo of Sens, Ratramnus of 
Corbie, Loup of Ferrieres and Florus of Lyons wrote in his 
favour. Hincmar wrote De praedestinatione and De una non 
trina deitate against his views, but gained little aid from 
Johannes Scotus Erigena, whom he had called in as an authority. 
The question was discussed at the councils of Kiersy (853), of. 
Valence (855) and of Savonnieres (859). Finally the pope 
Nicolas I. took up the case, and summoned Hincmar to the 
council of Metz (863). Hincmar either could not or would not 
appear, but declared that Gottschalk might go to defend himself 
before the pope. Nothing came of this, however, and when 
Hincmar learned that Gottschalk had fallen ill, he forbade him 
the sacraments or burial in consecrated ground unless he would 
recant. This Gottschalk refused to do. He died on the 3oth of 
October between 866- and 870. 

Gottschalk was a vigorous and original thinker, but also of a 
violent temperament, incapable of discipline or moderation in 
his ideas as in his conduct. He was less an innovator than a 
reactionary. Of his many works we have only the two pro- 
fessions of faith (cf. Migne, Patrologia Latina, cxxi. c. 347 et seq.), 
and some poems, edited by L. Traube in Monumenla Germaniae 
hislorica: Poetae Latini aevi Carolini (t. iii. 707-738). Some 
fragments of his theological treatises have been preserved in the 
writings of Hincmar, Erigena, Ratramnus and Loup of Ferrie'res. 

From the lyth century, when the Jansenists exalted Gottschalk, 
much has been written on him. Mention may be made of two 
recent studies, F. Picavet, " Les Discussions sur la Hbert6 au temps 



de Gottschalk, de Raban Maur, d'Hincmar, et de Jean Scot," in 
Comptes rendus de I'acad. des sciences morales et politiques (Paris, 
1896); and A. Freystedt, " Studien zu Gottschalks l!,eben und 
Lehre," in Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte (1897), vol. xviii. 

GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON (1823-1909), German man of 
letters, was born at Breslau on the 3Oth of September 1823, the 
son of a Prussian artillery officer. He received his early educa- 
tion at the gymnasia in Mainz and Coburg, and subsequently at 
Rastenburg in East Prussia. In 1841 he entered the university 
of Konigsberg as a student of law, but, in consequence of his 
pronounced liberal opinions, was expelled. The academic 
authorities at Breslau and Leipzig were not more tolerant 
towards the young fire-eater, and it was only in Berlin that he 
eventually found himself free to prosecute his studies. During 
this period of unrest he issued Lieder der Gegenwart (1842) and 
Zensurfliichtlinge (1843) the poetical fruits of his political 
enthusiasm. He completed his studies in Berlin, took the degree 
of doctor juris in Konigsberg, and endeavoured to obtain there the 
venia legendi. His political views again stood in the way, and 
forsaking the legal career, Gottschall now devoted himself entirely 
to literature. He met with immediate success, and beginning as 
dramaturge in Konigsberg with Der Blinde von Alcala (1846) and 
Lord Byron in Italien (1847) proceeded to Hamburg where he 
occupied a similar position. In 1852 he married Marie, baroness 
von Seherr-Thoss, and for the next few years lived in Silesia. 
In 1862 he took over the editorship of a Posen newspaper, but in 
1864 removed to Leipzig. Gottschall was raised, in 1877, by the 
king of Prussia to the hereditary nobility with the prefix " von," 
having been previously made a Geheimer Hofrat by the grand duke 
of Weimar. Down to 1887 Gottschall edited the Brockhaus'sche 
Blatter fur litter arische Unterhaltung and the monthly periodical 
Unsere Zeit. He died at Leipzig on the 2ist of March 1909. 

Gottschall's prolific literary productions cover the fields of 
poetry, novel-writing and literary criticism. Among his volumes 
of lyric poetry are Sebastopol (1856), Janus (1873), Bunte Bluten 
(1891). Among his epics, Carlo Zeno (1854), M aja (1864), dealing 
with an episode in the Indian Mutiny, and Merlins Wande- 
rungen (1887). The comedy Pittund Fox (1854), first produced 
on the stage in Breslau, was never surpassed by the other lighter 
pieces of the author, among which may be mentioned Die Welt 
des Schwindels and Der Spion von Rheinsberg. The tragedies, 
Mazeppa, Catharine Howard, Amy Robsart and Der Gotze von 
Venedig, were very successful; and the historical novels, Im 
Banne des schwarzen Adlers (1875; 4th ed., 1884), Die Erbschaft 
des Blutes (1881), Die Tochter Rilbezahls( 1889), and Verkummerte 
Existenzen (1892), enjoyed a high degree of popularity. As a 
critic and historian of literature Gottschall has also done excellent 
work. His Die deutsche Nalionalliteratur des 19. Jahrhunderts 
(1855; 7th ed., 1901-1902), and Poetik (1858; 6th ed., 1903) 
command the respect of all students of literature. 

Gottschall's collected Dramatische Werke appeared in 12 vols. in 



1880 (2nd ed., 1884); he has also, in recent years, published many 
volumes of collected essays and criticisms. See I " 
A us meiner Jugend (1898). 



his autobiography, 



GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH (1700-1766), German 
author and critic, was born on the 2nd of February 1700, at 
Judithenkirch near Konigsberg, the son of a Lutheran clergyman. 
He studied philosophy and history at the university of his native 
town, but immediately on taking the degree of Magister in 1723, 
fled to Leipzig in order to evade impressment in the Prussian 
military service. Here he enjoyed the protection of J. B. 
Mencke (1674-1732), who, under the name of " Philander von 
der Linde," was a well-known poet and also president of the 
Deutschiibende poetische Gesellschaft in Leipzig. Of this society 
Gottsched was elected " Senior" in 1726, and in the next year 
reorganized it under the title of the Deutsche Gesellschaft. In 
1730 he was appointed extraordinary professor of poetry, and, 
in 1734, ordinary professor of logic and metaphysics in the 
university. He died at Leipzig on the 1 2th of December 1 766. 

Gottsched's chief work was his Versuch einer kritischen 
Dichtkunst fur die Deutschen (1730), the first systematic treatise 
in German on the art of poetry from the standpoint of Boileau. 
His Ausfilhrliche Redekunst (1728) and his Grundlegung einer 



280 



GOTZ GOUDIMEL 



deutschen Sprachkunst (1748) were of importance for the develop- 
ment of German style and the purification of the language. 
He wrote several plays, of which Der slerbende Cato (1732), an 
adaptation of Addison's tragedy and a French play on the same 
theme, was long popular on the stage. In his Deutsche Schau- 
biihne (6 vols., 1740-1745), which contained mainly translations 
from the French, he provided the German stage with a classical 
repertory, and his bibliography of the German drama, Notiger 
Vorrat zur Geschichte der deutschen dramatischen Dicktkunst 
(175 7- 1765), is still valuable. He was also the editor of several 
journals devoted to literary criticism. As a critic, Gottsched 
insisted on German literature being subordinated to the laws 
of French classicism; he enunciated rules by which the play- 
wright must be bound, and abolished bombast and buffoonery 
from the serious stage. While such reforms obviously afforded 
a healthy corrective to the extravagance and want of taste 
which were rampant in the German literature of the time, 
Gottsched went too far. In 1740 he came into conflict with the 
Swiss writers Johann Jakob Bodmer (q.v.} and Johann Jakob 
Breitinger (1701-1776), who, under the influence of Addison 
and contemporary Italian critics, demanded that the poetic 
imagination should not be hampered by artificial rules; they 
pointed to the great English poets, and especially to Milton. 
Gottsched, although not blind to the beauties of the English 
writers, clung the more tenaciously to his principle that poetry 
must be the product of rules, and, in the fierce controversy 
which for a time raged between Leipzig and Zurich, he was 
inevitably defeated. His influence speedily declined, and 
before his death his name became proverbial for pedantic 
folly. 

His wife, Luise Adelgunde Victorie, nee Kulmus (1713-1762), 
in some respects her husband's intellectual superior, was an 
author of some reputation. She wrote several popular comedies, 
of which Das Testament is the best, and translated the Spectator 
(9 vols., 1730-1743), Pope's Rape of the Lock (1744) and other 
English and French works. After her death her husband edited 
her Samtliche kleinere Gedichle with a memoir (1763). 

See T. W. Danzel, Gottsched und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 1848); J. 
Criiger, Gottsched, Bodmer, und Breitinger (with selections from their 
writings) (Stuttgart, 1884); F. Servaes, Die Poetik Gottscheds und 
der Schweizer (Strassburg, 1887); E. Wolff, Gottscheds Stellung im 
deutschen Bildungsleben (2 vols., Kiel, 1895-1897), and G. Waniek, 
Gottsched und die deutsche Literatur seiner Zeit (Leipzig, 1897). On 
Frau Gottsched, see P. Schlenther, Frau Gottsched und die burgerliche 
Komodie (Berlin, 1886). 

GO"TZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS (1721-1781), German poet, was 
born at Worms on the 9th of July 1721. He studied theology 
at Halle (1739-1742), where he became intimate with the poets 
Johann W. L. Gleim and Johann Peter Uz, acted for some years 
as military chaplain, and afterwards filled various other ecclesi- 
astical offices. He died at Winterburg on the 4th of November 
1781. The writings of Gotz consist of a number of short lyrics 
and several translations, of which the best is a rendering of 
Anacreon. His original compositions are light, lively and 
sparkling, and are animated rather by French wit than by 
German depth of sentiment. The best known of his poems is 
Die Madcheninsel, an elegy which met with the warm approval 
of Frederick the Great. 

Gotz's Vermischte Gedichte were published with biography by 
K. W. Ramler (Mannheim, 1785; new ed., 1807), and a collection of 
his poems, dating from the years 1745-1765, has been edited by 
C. Schliddekopf in the Deutsche Literaturdenkmale des 18. und IQ. 
Jahrhunderls (1893). See also Brief e von und an J. N. Gotz, edited 
by C. Schuddekopf (1893). 

GOUACHE, a French word adapted from the Ital. guazzo 
(probably in origin connected with " wash "), meaning literally 
a " ford," but used also for a method of painting in opaque 
water-colour. The colours are mixed with or painted in a 
vehicle of gum or honey, and whereas in true water-colours 
the high lights are obtained by leaving blank the surface of the 
paper or other material used, or by allowing it to show through 
a translucent wash in " gouache," these are obtained by white 
or other light colour. " Gouache " is frequently used in miniature 
painting. 



GOUDA (or TEE GOUWE), a town of Holland, in the province 
of South Holland, on the north side of the Gouwe at its confluence 
with the Ysel, and a junction station 1 2 Jm. by rail N.E. of Rotter- 
dam. Pop. (1900) 22,303. Tramways connect it with Bodegraven 
(S^m. N.) on the old Rhine and with Oudewater (8 m. E.) on 
the Ysel; and there is a regular steamboat service in various 
directions, Amsterdam being reached by the canalized Gouwe; 
Aar, Drecht and Amstel. The town of Gouda is laid out in a 
fine open manner and, like other Dutch towns, isintersected by 
numerous canals. On its outskirts pleasant walks and fine 
trees have replaced the old fortifications. The Groote Markt 
is the largest market-square in Holland. Among the numerous 
churches belonging to various denominations, the first place must 
be given to the Groote Kerk of St John. It was founded in 1485, 
but rebuilt after a fire in 1552, and is remarkable for its dimensions 
(345 ft. long and 150 ft. broad), for a large and celebrated organ, 
and a splendid series of over forty stained-glass windows presented 
by cities and princes and executed by various well-known artists, 
including the brothers Dirk (d. 0.1577) and Wouter (d. c. 1590) 
Crabeth, between the years 1555 and 1603 (see Explanation 
of the Famous and Renowned Glass Works, &c., Gouda, 1876, 
reprinted from an older volume, 1718). Other noteworthy 
buildings are the Gothic town hall, founded in 1449 and rebuilt 
in 1690, and the weigh-house, built by Pieter Post of Haarlem 
(1608-1669) and adorned with a fine relief by Barth. Eggers 
(d. c. 1690). The museum of antiquities (1874) contains an 
exquisite chalice of the year 1425 and some pictures and portraits 
by Wouter Crabeth the younger, Corn. Ketel (a native of Gouda, 
1548-1616) and Ferdinand Bol (1616-1680). Other buildings 
are the orphanage, the hospital, a house of correction for women 
and a music hall. 

In the time of the counts the wealth of Gouda was mainly 
derived from brewing and cloth- weaving; but at a later date 
the making of clay tobacco pipes became the staple trade, and, 
although this industry has somewhat declined, the churchwarden 
pipes of Gouda are still well known and largely manufactured. 
In winter-time it is considered a feat to skate hither from 
Rotterdam and elsewhere to buy such a pipe and return with 
it in one's mouth without its being broken. The mud from the 
Ysel furnishes the material for large brick- works and potteries; 
there are also a celebrated manufactory of stearine candles, a 
yarn factory, an oil refinery and cigar factories. The transit 
and shipping trade is considerable, and as one of the principal 
markets of South Holland, the round, white Gouda cheeses are 
known throughout Europe. Boskoop, 5 m. N. by W. of Gouda 
on the Gouwe, is famous for its nursery gardens; and the little 
old-world town of Oudewater as the birthplace of the famous 
theologian Arminius in 1 560. The town hall ( 1 588) of Oudewater 
contains a picture by Dirk Stoop (d. 1686), commemorating 
the capture of the town by the Spaniards in 1575 and the 
subsequent sack and massacre. 

GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE, muscial composer of the i6th century, 
was born about 1510. The French and the Belgians claim him 
as their countryman. In all probability he was born at Besanc. on, 
for in his edition of the songs of Arcadelt, as well as in the mass 
of 1554, he calls himself " natif de Besanfon " and " Claudius 
Godimellus Vescontinus." This discountenances the theory of 
Ambros that he was born at Vaison near Avignon. As to his 
early education we know little or nothing, but the excellent 
Latin in which some of his letters were written proves that, 
in addition to his musical knowledge, he also acquired a good 
classical training. It is supposed that he was in Rome in 1540 
at the head of a music-school, and that besides many other 
celebrated musicians, Palestrina was amongst his pupils. About 
the middle of the century he seems to have left Rome for Paris, 
where, in conjunction with Jean Duchemin, he published, in 
1555, a musical setting of Horace's Odes. Infinitely more 
important is another collection of vocal pieces, a setting of the 
celebrated French version of the Psalms by Marot and Beza 
published in 1565. It is written in four parts, the melody being 
assigned to the tenor. The invention of the melodies was long 
ascribed to Goudimel, but they have now definitely been proved 



GOUFFIER GOUGH, VISCOUNT 



281 



to have originated in popular tunes found in the collections of 
his period. Some of these tunes are still used by the French 
Protestant Church. Others were adopted by the German 
Lutherans, a German imitation of the French versions of the 
Psalms in the same metres having been published at an early 
date. Although the French version of the Psalms was at first 
used by Catholics as well as Protestants, there is little doubt 
that Goudimel had embraced the new faith. In Michel Brenet's 
Biographic (Annalesfranc-cuntoises, Besancon, 1898, P. Jacquin) 
it is established that in Metz, where he was living in 1565, Goudi- 
mel moved in Huguenot circles, and even figured as godfather 
to the daughter of the president of Senneton. Seven years 
later he fell a victim to religious fanaticism during the St 
Bartholomew massacres at Lyons from the 27th to the 28th of 
August 1572, his death, it is stated, being due to " les ennemis 
de la gloire de Dieu et quelques mechants envieux de 1'honneur 
qu'il avail acquis." Masses and motets belonging to his Roman 
period are found in the Vatican library, and in the archives 
of various churches in Rome; others were published. Thus 
the work entitled Missae tres a Claudia Goudimel praestantissimo 
musico auctore, nunc primum in lucent editae, contains one mass 
by the learned editor himself, the other two being by Claudius 
Sermisy and Jean Maillard respectively. Another collection, 
La Fleur des chansons des deux plus excellens musiciens de nostre 
temps, consists of part songs by Goudimel and Orlando di Lasso. 
Burney gives in his history a motet of Goudimel's Domine quid 
miilliplicati sunt. 

GOUFFIER, the name of a great French family, which owned 
the estate of Bonnivet in Poitou from the i4th century. GUIL- 
LAUME GOUFFIER, chamberlain to Charles VII., was an inveterate 
enemy of Jacques Cceur, obtaining his condemnation and after- 
wards receiving his property (1491). He had a great number 
of children, several of whom played a part in history. ARTUS, 
seigneur deBoisy (c. i475-i52o)was entrusted with the education 
of the young count of Angouleme (Francis I.), and on the acces- 
sion of this prince to the throne as Francis I. became grand 
master of the royal household, playing an important part in the 
government; to him was given the task of negotiating the 
treaty of Noyon in 1516; and shortly before his death the king 
raised the estates of Roanne and Boisy to the rank of a duchy, 
that of Roannais, in his favour. ADRIEN GOUFFIER (d. 1523) 
was bishop of Coutances and Albi, and grand almoner of France. 
GUILLAUME GOUFFIER, seigneur de Bonnivet, became admiral 
of France (see BONNIVET). CLAUDE GOUFFIER, son of Artus, 
was created comte de Maulevrier (1542) and marquis de Boisy 

(1564)- 

There were many branches of this family, the chief of them 
being the dukes of Roannais, the counts of Caravas, the lords of 
Crevecceur and of Bonnivet, the marquises of Thois, of Brazeux, 
and of Espagny. The name of Gouffier was adopted in the i8th 
century by a branch of the house of Choiseul. (M. P.*) 

GOUGE, MARTIN (c. 1360-1444), surnamed DE CHARPAIGNE, 
French chancellor, was born at Bourges about 1360. A canon 
of Bourges, in 1402 he became treasurer to John, duke of Berri, 
and in 1406 bishop of Chartres. He was arrested by John the 
Fearless, duke of Burgundy, with the hapless Jean de Montaigu 
(1349-1409) in 1409, but was soon released and then banished. 
Attaching himself to the dauphin Louis, duke of Guienne, he 
became his chancellor, the king's ambassador in Brittany, and a 
member of the grand council; and on the I3th of May 1415, 
he was transferred from the see of Chartres to that of Clermont- 
Ferrand. In May 1418, when the Burgundians re-entered Paris, 
he only escaped death at their hands by taking refuge in the 
Bastille. He then left Paris, but only to fall into the hands of 
his enemy, the duke de la Tremoille, who imprisoned him in 
the castle of Sully. Rescued by the dauphin Charles, he was 
appointed chancellor of France on the 3rd of February 1422. 
He endeavoured to reconcile Burgundy and France, was a party 
to the selection of Arthur, earl of Richmond, as constable, but 
had to resign his chancellorship in favour of Regnault of Chartres; 
first from March 25th to August 6th 1425, and again when La 
Tr6moille had supplanted Richmond. After the fall of La 



Tremoille in 1433 he returned to court, and exercised a powerful 
influence over affairs of state almost till his death, which took 
place at the castle of Beaulieu (Puy-de-D6me) on the 25th or 
26th of November 1444. 

See Hiver's account in the Memoires de la Societe des Antiquaires 
du Centre, p. 267 (1869); and the Nouvelle Biographie generate, vol. 
xxi. 

GOUGE (adopted from the Fr. gouge, derived from the Late 
Lat. gubia or gulbia, in Ducange gulbium, an implement ad 
hortum excolendum, and also instrumenlum ferreum in usu 
fabrorum; according to the New English Dictionary the word 
is probably of Celtic origin, gylf, a beak, appearing in Welsh, 
and gilb, a boring tool, in Cornish), a tool of the chisel type with 
a curved blade, used for scooping a groove or channel in wood, 
stone, &c. (see TOOL). A similar instrument is used in surgery 
for operations involving the excision of portions of bone. 
" Gouge " is also used as the name of a bookbinder's tool, for 
impressing a curved line on the leather, and for the line so im- 
pressed. In mining, a " gouge " is the layer of soft rock or earth 
sometimes found in each side of a vein of coal or ore, which the 
miner can scoop out with his pick, and thus attack the vein more 
easily from the side. The verb " to gouge " is used in the sense 
of scooping or forcing out. 

GOUGH, HUGH GOUGH, VISCOUNT (1770-1869), British 
field-marshal, a descendant of Francis Gough who was made 
bishop of Limerick in 1626, was born at Woodstown, Limerick, 
on the 3rd of November 1779. Having obtained a commission 
in the army in August 1794, he served with the 78th Highlanders 
at the Cape of Good Hope, taking part in the capture of Cape 
Town and of the Dutch fleet in Saldanha Bay in 1796. His 
next service was in the West Indies, where, with the 87th 
(Royal Irish Fusiliers), he shared in the attack on Porto Rico, 
the capture of Surinam, and the brigand war in St Lucia. In 
1809 he was called to take part in the Peninsular War, and, 
joining the army under Wellington, commanded his regiment as 
major in the operations before Oporto, by which the town was 
taken from the French. At Talavera he was severely wounded, 
and had his horse shot under him. For his conduct on this 
occasion he was afterwards promoted lieutenant-colonel, his 
commission, on the recommendation of Wellington, being 
antedated from the day of the duke's despatch. He was thus 
the first officer who ever received brevet rank for services 
performed in the field at the head of a regiment. He was next 
engaged at the battle of Barrosa, at which his regiment captured 
a French eagle. At the defence of Tarifa the post of danger 
was assigned to him, and he compelled the enemy to raise the 
siege. At Vitoria, where Gough again distinguished himself, 
his regiment captured the baton of Marshal Jourdan. He was 
again severely wounded at Nivelle, and was soon after created a 
knight of St Charles by the king of Spain. At the close of the 
war he returned home and enjoyed a respite of some years from 
active service. He next took command of a regiment stationed 
in the south of Ireland, discharging at the same time the duties 
of a magistrate during a period of agitation. Gough was pro- 
moted major-general in 1830. Seven years later he was sent to 
India to take command of the Mysore division of the army. 
But not long after his arrival in India the difficulties which led 
to the first Chinese war made the presence of an energetic general 
on the scene indispensable, and Gough was appointed commander- 
in-chief of the British forces in China. This post he held during 
all the operations of the war; and by his great achievements 
and numerous victories in the face of immense difficulties, he 
at length enabled the English plenipptentiary, Sir H. Pottinger, 
to dictate peace on his own terms. After the conclusion of the 
treaty of Nanking in August 1842 the British forces were with- 
drawn; and before the close of the year Gough, who had been 
made a G.C.B. in the previous year for his services in the capture 
of the Canton forts, was created a baronet. In August 1843 he 
was appointed commander-in-chief of the British forces in India, 
and in December he took the command in person against the 
Mahrattas, and defeated them at Maharajpur, capturing more 
than fifty guns. In 1845 occurred the rupture with the Sikhs, 



282 



GOUGH, J. B. GOUJON, JEAN 



who crossed the Sutlej in large numbers, and Sir Hugh Gough 
conducted the operations against them, being well supported 
by Lord Hardinge, the governor-general, who volunteered to 
serve under him. Successes in the hard-fought battles of 
Mudki and Ferozeshah were succeeded by the victory of 
Sobraon, and shortly afterwards the Sikhs sued for peace at 
Lahore. The services of Sir Hugh Gough were rewarded by 
his elevation to the peerage of the United Kingdom as Baron 
Gough (April 1846). The war broke out again in 1848, and 
again Lord Gough took the field; but the result of the battle 
of Chillianwalla being equivocal, he was superseded by the 
home authorities in favour of Sir Charles Napier; before the 
news of the supersession arrived Lord Gough had finally crushed 
the Sikhs in the battle of Gujarat (February 1849). His tactics 
during the Sikh wars were the subject of an embittered contro- 
versy (see SIKH WARS). Lord Gough now returned to England, 
was raised to a viscountcy, and for the third time received the 
thanks of both Houses of Parliament. A pension of 2000 per 
annum was granted to him by parliament, and an equal pension 
by the East India Company. He did not again see active service. 
In 1854 he was appointed colonel of the Royal Horse Guards, 
and two years later he was sent to the Crimea to invest Marshal 
Pelissier and other officers with the insignia of the Bath. Honours 
were multiplied upon him during his latter years. He was made 
a knight of St Patrick, being the first knight of the order who 
did not hold an Irish peerage, was sworn a privy councillor, 
was named a G. C.S.I., and in November 1862 was made field- 
marshal. He was twice married, and left children by both his 
wives. He died on the 2nd of March 1869. 

See R. S. Rait, Lord Gough (1903); and Sir W. Lee Warner, Lord 
Dalhousie (1904). 

GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW (1817-1886), American 
temperance orator, was born at Sandgate, Kent, England, on 
the 22nd of August 1817. He was educated by his mother, 
a schoolmistress, and at the age of twelve was sent to the United 
States to seek his fortune. He lived for two years with family 
friends on a farm in western New York, and then entered a 
book-bindery in New York City to learn the trade. There in 
1833 his mother joined him, but after her death in 1835 he fell 
in with dissolute companions, and became a confirmed drunkard. 
He lost his position, and for several years supported himself 
as a ballad singer and story-teller in the cheap theatres and 
concert-halls of New York and other eastern cities. Even this 
means of livelihood was being closed to him, when in Worcester, 
Massachusetts, in 1842 he was induced to sign a temperance 
pledge. After several lapses and a terrific struggle, he determined 
to devote his life to lecturing in behalf of temperance reform. 
Gifted with remarkable powers of pathos and of description, 
he was successful from the start, and was soon known and sought 
after throughout the entire country, his appeals, which were 
directly personal and emotional, being attended with extra- 
ordinary responses. He continued his work until the end of his 
life, made several tours of England, where his American success 
was repeated, and died at his work, being stricken with apoplexy 
on the lecture platform at Frankford, Pennsylvania, where he 
passed away two days later, on the i8th of February 1886. 
He published an Autobiography (1846); Orations (1854); Tem- 
perance Addresses (1870); Temperance Lectures (1879); and Sun- 
light and Shadow, or Gleanings from My Life Work (1880). 

GOUGH, RICHARD (1735-1809), English antiquary, was born 
in London on the 2ist of October 1735. His father was a wealthy 
M.P. and director of the East India Company. Gough was a 
precocious child, and at twelve had translated from the French 
a history of the Bible, which his mother printed for private 
circulation. When fifteen he translated Abbe Fleury's work on 
the Israelites; and at sixteen he published an elaborate work 
entitled Atlas Renovatus, or Geography modernized. In 1752 
he entered Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where he began 
his work on British topography, published in 1768. Leaving 
Cambridge in 1756, he began a series of antiquarian excursions 
in various parts of Great Britain. In 1773 he began an edition 
in English of Camden's Britannia, which appeared in 1789. 



Meantime he published, in 1786, the first volume of his splendid 
work, the Sepulchral Monuments of Great Britain, applied to 
illustrate the history of families, manners, habits, and arts at the 
different periods from the Norman Conquest to the Seventeenth 
Century. This volume, which contained the first four centuries, 
was followed in 1796 by a second volume containing the i$th 
century, and an introduction to the second volume appeared 
in 1 799. Gough was chosen a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries 
of London in 1767, and from 1771 to 1791 he was its director. 
He was elected F.R.S. in 1775. He died at Enfield on the 2oth 
of February 1809. His books and manuscripts relating to 
Anglo-Saxon and northern literature, all his collections in the 
department of British topography, and a large number of his 
drawings and engravings of other archaeological remains, were 
bequeathed to the university of Oxford. 

Among the minor works of Gough are An Account of the Bedford 
Missal (in MS.); A Catalogue of the Coins of Canute, King of 
Denmark (1777); History of Fleshy in Essex (1803); An Account of 
the Coins of the Seleucidae, Kings of Syria (1804) ; and " History of the 
Society of Antiquaries of London," prefixed to their Archaeologia. 

GOUJET, CLAUDE PIERRE (1697-1767), French abbe and 
litterateur, was born in Paris on the igth of October 1697. 
He studied at the College of the Jesuits, and at the College 
Mazarin, but he nevertheless became a strong Jansenist. In 
1705 he assumed the ecclesiastical habit, in 1719 entered the 
order of Oratorians, and soon afterwards was named canon 
of St Jacques 1'Hopital. On account of his extreme Jansenist 
opinions he suffered considerable persecution from the Jesuits, 
and several of his works were suppressed at their instigation. 
In his latter years his health began to fail, and he lost his 
eyesight. Poverty compelled him to sell his library, a sacrifice 
which hastened his death, which took place at Paris on the 
ist of February 1767. 

He is the author of Supplement au dictionnaire de Moreri (1735), 
and a Nouveau Supplement to a subsequent edition of the work; 
he collaborated in Bibliotheque fran$atse, on histoire litteraire de 
la France (18 vols., Paris, 1740-1759); and in the Vies des saints 
(7 vols., 1730); he also wrote Memoires historiques et litteraires sur 
le college royal de France (1758); Histoire des Inquisitions (Paris, 
1752); and supervised an edition of Richelet's Dictionnaire, of 
which he has also given an abridgment. He helped the abb6 Fabre 
in his continuation of Fleury's Histoire ecclesiastique. 

See Memoires hist, et lilt, de I'abbe Goujet (1767). 

GOUJON, JEAN (c. isao-c. 1566), French sculptor of the 
1 6th century. Although some evidence has been offered in 
favour of the date 1520 (Archives de I'art fran$ais, iii. 350), 
the time and place of his birth are still uncertain. The 
first mention of his name occurs in the accounts of the church 
of St Maclou at Rouen in the year 1540, and in the following 
year he was employed at the cathedral of the same town, where 
he added to the tomb of Cardinal d'Amboise a statue of his 
nephew Georges, afterwards removed, and possibly carved 
portions of the tomb of Louis de Breze, executed some time after 
1545. On leaving Rouen, Goujon was employed by Pierre 
Lescot.the celebrated architect of the Louvre, on the restorations 
of St-Germain 1'Auxerrois; the building accounts some of 
which for the years 1542-1544 were discovered by M. de Laborde 
on a piece of parchment binding specify as his work, not only 
the carvings of the pulpit (Louvre), but also a Notre Dame de 
Piete, now lost. In 1547 appeared Martin's French translation 
of Vitruvius, the illustrations of which were due, the translator 
tells us in his " Dedication to the King," to Goujon, " nagueres 
architecte de Monseigneur le Connetable, et maintenant un des 
v6tres." We learn from this statement not only that Goujon 
had been taken into the royal service on the accession of Henry 
II., but also that he had been previously employed under Bullant 
on the chateau of Ecouen. Between 1547 and 1549 he was 
employed in the decoration of the Loggia ordered from Lescot 
for the entry of Henry II. into Paris, which took place on the 
1 6th of June 1549. Lescot's edifice was reconstructed at the 
end of the i8th century by Bernard Poyet into the Fontaine 
des Innocents, this being a considerable variation of the original 
design. At the Louvre, Goujon, under the direction of Lescot, 
executed the carvings of the south-west angle of the court, the 



GOUJON, J. M. GOULBURN, H. 



283 






reliefs of the Escalier Henri II., and the Tribune des Cariatides, 
for which he received 737 livres on the 5th of September 1550. 
Between 1548 and 1554 rose the chateau d'Anet, in the embel- 
lishment of which Goujon was associated with Philibert Delorme 
in the service of Diana of Poitiers. Unfortunately the building 
accounts of Anet have disappeared, but Goujon executed a 
vast number of other works of equal importance, destroyed or 
lost in the great Revolution. In 1555 his name appears again 
in the Louvre accounts, and continues to do so every succeeding 
year up to 1562, when all trace of him is lost. In the course of 
this year an attempt was made to turn out of the royal employ- 
ment all those who were suspected of Huguenot tendencies. 
Goujon has always been claimed as a Reformer; it is consequently 
possible that he was one of the victims of this attack. We should 
therefore probably ascribe the work attributed to him in the 
H6tel Carnavalet (in situ), together with much else executed 
in various parts of Paris but now dispersed or destroyed 
to a period intervening between the date of his dismissal from 
the Louvre and his death, which is computed to have taken 
place between 1564 and 1568, probably at Bologna. The 
researches of M. Tomaso Sandonnini (see Gazette des Beaux Arts, 
2' periode, vol. xxxi.) have finally disposed of the supposition, 
long entertained, that Goujon died during the St Bartholomew 
massacre in 1572. 

List of authentic works of Jean Goujon'. Two marble columns 
supporting the organ of the church of St Maclou (Rouen) on 
right and left of porch on entering; left-hand gate of the church 
of St Maclou; bas-reliefs for decoration of screen of St Germain 
1'Auxerrois (now in Louvre) ; " Victory " over chimney-piece 
of Salle des Gardes at Ecouen; altar at Chantilly; illustrations 
for Jean Martin's translation of Vitruvius; bas-reliefs and 
sculptural decoration of Fontaine des Innocents; bas-reliefs 
adorning entrance of H6tel Carnavalet, also series of satyrs' 
heads on keystones of arcade of courtyard; fountain of Diana 
from Anet (now in Louvre); internal decoration of chapel at 
Anet; portico of Anet (now in courtyard of Ecole des Beaux 
Arts) ; bust of Diane de Poif tiers (now at Versailles) ; Tribune 
of Caryatides in the Louvre; decoration of " Escalier Henri 
II., " Louvre; ceils de bccuf and decoration of Henri II. facade, 
Louvre; groups for pediments of facade now placed over 
entrance to Egyptian and Assyrian collections, Louvre. 

See A. A. Pettier, (Euvres de Goujon (1844); Reginald Lister, 
Jean Goujon (London, 1903). 

GOUJON, JEAN MARIE CLAUDE ALEXANDRE (1766-1795), 
French publicist and statesman, was born at Bourg on the 
I3th of April 1766, the son of a postmaster. The boy went 
early to sea, and saw fighting when he was twelve years old; 
in 1790 he settled at Meudon, and began to make good his lack 
of education. As procureur-general-syndic of the department 
of Seine-et-Oise, in August, 1 792 , he had to supply the inhabitants 
with food, and fulfilled his difficult functions with energy and 
tact. In the Convention, which he entered on the death of 
H6rault de Sechelles, he took his seat on the benches of the 
Mountain. He conducted a mission to the armies of the Rhine 
and the Moselle with creditable moderation, and was a con- 
sistent advocate of peace within the republic. Nevertheless, 
he was a determined opponent of. the counter-revolution, which 
he denounced in the Jacobin Club and from the Mountain 
after his recall to Paris, following on the revolution of the 9th 
Thermidor (July 27, 1794). He was one of those who protested 
against the readmission of Louvet and other survivors of the 
Girondin party to the Convention in March 1795; and, when 
the populace invaded the legislature on the ist Prairial (May 
20, 1 795) and compelled the deputies to legislate in accordance 
with their desires, he proposed the immediate establishment 
of a special commission which should assure the execution of 
the proposed changes and assume the functions of the various 
committees. The failure of the insurrection involved the fall 
of those deputies who had supported the demands of the populace. 
Before the close of the sitting, Goujon, with Romme, Duroi, 
Duquesnoy, Bourbotte, Soubrany and others were put under 
arrest by their colleagues, and on their way to the chateau 



of Taureau in Brittany had a narrow escape from a mob at 
Avranches. They were brought back to Paris for trial before 
a military commission on the i?th of June, and, though no proof 
of their complicity in organizing the insurrection could be found 
they were, in fact, with the exception of Goujon and Bourbotte, 
strangers to one another they were condemned. In accordance 
with a pre-arranged plan, they attempted suicide on the stair- 
case leading from the court-room with a knife which Goujon 
had successfully concealed. Romme, Goujon and Duquesnoy 
succeeded, but the other three merely inflicted wounds which 
did not prevent their being taken immediately to the guillotine. 
With their deaths the Mountain ceased to exist as a party. 

See J. Claretie, Les Derniers Montagnards, histoire de I insurrection 
de Prairial an III d'aprks les documents (1867); Defense du repre- 
sentant du peuple Goujon (Paris, no date), with the letters and a hymn 
written by Goujon during his imprisonment. For other documents 
see Maurice Tourneux (Paris, 1890, vol. i., pp. 422-425). 

GOULBURN, EDWARD MEYRICK (1818-1897), English 
churchman, son of Mr Serjeant Goulburn, M.P., recorder of 
Leicester, and nephew of the Right Hon. Henry Goulburn, 
chancellor of the exchequer in the ministries of Sir Robert Peel 
and the duke of Wellington, was born in London on the nth of 
February 1818, and was educated at Eton and at Balliol College, 
Oxford. In 1839 he became fellow and tutor of Merton, and in 
1841 and 1843 was ordained deacon and priest respectively. 
For some years he held the living of Holywell, Oxford, and was 
chaplain to Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of the diocese. In 
1849 he succeeded Tail as headmaster of Rugby, but in 1857 
he resigned, and accepted the charge of Quebec Chapel, Maryle- 
bone. In 1858 he became a prebendary of St Paul's, and in 
1859 vicar of St John's, Paddington. In 1866 he was made 
dean of Norwich, and in that office exercised a long and marked 
influence on church life. A strong Conservative and a churchman 
of traditional orthodoxy, he was a keen antagonist of " higher 
criticism " and of all forms of rationalism. His Thoughts on 
Personal Religion (1862) and The Pursuit of Holiness were 
well received; and he wrote the Life (1892) of his friend Dean 
Burgon, with whose doctrinal views he was substantially in 
agreement. He resigned the deanery in 1889, and died at 
Tunbridge Wells on the 3rd of May 1897. 

See Life by B. Compton (1899). 

GOULBURN, HENRY (1784-1856), English statesman, was 
born in London on the igth of March 1784 and was educated at 
Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1808 he became member of 
parliament for Horsham; in 1810 he was appointed under- 
secretary for home affairs and two and a half years later he was 
made under-secretary for war and the colonies. Still retaining 
office in the Tory government he became a privy councillor in 
1821, and just afterwards was appointed chief secretary to the 
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, a position which he held until April 
1827. Here although frequently denounced as an Orangeman, 
his period of office was on the whole a successful one, and in 
1823 he managed to pass the Irish Tithe Composition Bill. In 
January 1828 he was made chancellor of the. exchequer under 
the duke of Wellington; like his leader he disliked Roman 
Catholic emancipation, which he voted against in 1828. In the 
domain of finance Goulburn's chief achievements were to reduce 
the rate of interest on part of the national debt, and to allow 
any one to sell beer upon payment of a small annual fee, a com- 
plete change of policy with regard to the drink traffic. Leaving 
office with Wellington in November 1830, Goulburn was home 
secretary under Sir Robert Peel for four months in 1835, and 
when this statesman returned to office in September 1841 he 
became chancellor of the exchequer for the second time. Although 
Peel himself did some of the chancellor's work, Goulburn was 
responsible for a further reduction in the rate of interest on the 
national debt, and he aided his chief in the struggle which ended 
in the repeal of the corn laws. With his colleagues he left office 
in June 1846. After representing Horsham in the House of 
Commons for over four years Goulburn was successively member 
for St Germans, for West Looe, and for the city of Armagh. In 
May 1831 he was elected for Cambridge University, and he 
retained this seat until his death on the i2th of January 1856 



GOULBURN GOULD, JAY 



at Betchworth House, Dorking. Goulburn was one of Peel's 
firmest supporters and most intimate friends. His eldest son, 
Henry (1813-1843), was senior classic and second wrangler 
at Cambridge in 1835. 

See S. Walpole, History of England (1878-1886). 

GOULBURN, a city of Argyle county, New South Wales, 
Australia, 134 m. S.W. of Sydney by the Great Southern railway. 
Pop. (1901) 10,618. It lies in a productive agricultural district, 
at an altitude of 2129 ft., and is a place of great importance, 
being the chief depot of the inland trade of the southern part 
of the state. There are Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals. 
Manufactures of boots and shoes, flour and beer, and tanning 
are important. The municipality was created in 1859; and 
Goulburn became a city in 1864. 

GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON (1805-1866), American 
conchologist, was born at New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the 
23rd of April 1805, graduated at Harvard College in 1825, and 
took his degree of doctor of medicine in 1830. Thrown from 
boyhood on his own exertions, it was only by industry, per- 
severance and self-denial that he obtained the means to pursue 
his studies. Establishing himself in Boston, he devoted himself 
to the practice of medicine, and finally rose to high professional 
rank and social position. He became president of the Massachu- 
setts Medical Society, and was employed in editing the vital 
statistics of the state. As a conchologist his reputation is world- 
wide, and he was one of the pioneers of the science in America. 
His writings fill many pages of the publications of the Boston 
Society of Natural History (see vol. xi. p. 197 for a list) and 
other periodicals. He published with L. Agassiz the Principles 
of Zoology (2nd ed. 1851); he edited the Terrestrial and Air- 
breathing Mollusks (1851-1855) of Amos Binney (1803-1847); he 
translated Lamarck's Genera of Shells. The two most important 
monuments to his scientific work, however, are Mollusca and 
Shells (vol. xii., 1852) of the United States exploring expedition 
(1838-1842) under Lieutenant CharlesWilkes(i833), published by 
the government, and the Report on the Imiertebrata published by 
order of the legislature of Massachusetts in 1841. A second 
edition of the latter work was authorized in 1865, and published 
in 1870 after the author's death, which took place at Boston 
on the isth of September 1866. Gould was a corresponding 
member of all the prominent American scientific societies, and 
of many of those of Europe, including the London Royal Society. 

GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP (1824-1896), American 
astronomer, a son of Benjamin Apthorp Gould (1787-1859), 
principal of the Boston Latin school, was born at Boston, Massa- 
chusetts, on the 27th of September 1824. Having graduated 
at Harvard College in 1844, he studied mathematics and as- 
tronomy under C. F. Gauss at Gottingen, and returned to 
America in 1848. From 1852 to 1867 he was in charge of the 
longitude department of the United States coast survey; he 
developed and organized the service, was one of the first to 
determine longitudes by telegraphic means, and employed the 
Atlantic cable in 1866 to establish longitude-relations between 
Europe and America. The Astronomical Journal was founded 
by Gould in 1849; and its publication, suspended in 1861, 
was resumed by him in 1885. From 1855 to 1859 he acted as 
director of the Dudley observatory at Albany, New York; 
and published hi 1859 a discussion of the places and proper 
motions of circumpolar stars to be used as standards by the 
United States coast survey. Appointed in 1862 actuary to 
the United States sanitary commission, he issued in 1869 an 
important volume of Military and Anthropological Statistics. 
He fitted up in 1864 a private observatory at Cambridge, Mass. ; 
but undertook in 1868, on behalf of the Argentine republic, 
to organize a national observatory at Cordoba; began to observe 
there with four assistants in 1870, and completed in 1874 his 
Uranometria Argentina (published 1879) for which he received 
in 1883 the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 
This was followed by a zone-catalogue of 73,160 stars (1884), and 
a general catalogue (1885) compiled from meridian observations 
of 32,448 stars. Gould's measurements of L. M. Rutherfurd's 
photographs of the Pleiades in 1866 entitle him to rank as a 



pioneer in the use of the camera as an instrument of precision; 
and he secured at Cordoba 1400 negatives of southern star- 
clusters, the reduction of which occupied the closing years of 
his life. He returned in 1885 to his home at Cambridge, where 
he died on the 26th of November 1896. 

See Astronomical Journal, No. 389; Observatory, xx. 70 (same 
notice abridged); Science (Dec. 18, 1896, S. C. Chandler); Astro- 
physical Journal, v. 50; Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society, Ivii. 
218. 

GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHERS (1844- ), English 
caricaturist and politician, was born in Barnstaple on the 2nd 
of December 1844. Although in early youth he showed great 
love of drawing, he began life in a bank and then joined the 
London Stock Exchange, where he constantly sketched the 
members and illustrated important events in the financial 
world ; many of these drawings were reproduced by lithography 
and published for private circulation. In 1879 he began the 
regular illustration of the Christmas numbers of Truth, and in 
1887 he became a contributor to the Pall Mall Gazette, trans- 
ferring his allegiance to the Westminster Gazette on its foundation 
and subsequently acting as assistant editor. Among his inde- 
pendent publications are Who killed Cock Robin? (1897), Tales 
told in the Zoo (1900), two volumes of Froissart's Modern 
Chronicles, told and pictured by F. C. Gould (1902 and 1903), 
and Picture Politics a periodical reprint of his Westminster 
Gazette cartoons, one of the most noteworthy implements of 
political warfare in the armoury of the Liberal party. Frequently 
grafting his ideas on to subjects taken freely from Uncle Remus, 
Alice in Wonderland, and the works of Dickens and Shakespeare, 
Sir F. C. Gould used these literary vehicles with extraordinary 
dexterity and point, but with a satire that was not unkind and 
with a vigour from which bitterness, virulence and cynicism 
were notably absent. He was knighted in 1906. 

GOULD, JAY (1836-1892), American financier, was born in 
Roxbury, Delaware county, New York, on the 27th of May 1836. 
He was brought up on his father's farm, studied at Hobart 
Academy, and though he left school in his sixteenth year, devoted 
himself assiduously thereafter to private study, chiefly of mathe- 
matics and surveying, at the same time keeping books for a 
blacksmith for his board. For a short time he worked for his 
father in the hardware business; in 1852-1856 he worked as a 
surveyor in preparing maps of Ulster, Albany and Delaware 
counties in New York, of Lake and Geauga counties in Ohio, 
and of Oakland county in Michigan, and of a projected 
railway line between Newburgh and Syracuse, N.Y. An ardent 
anti-renter in his boyhood and youth, he wrote A History of 
Delaware County and the Border Wars of New York, containing 
a Sketch of the Early Settlements in the County, and A History 
of the Late Anti-Rent Difficulties in Delaware (Roxbury, 1856). 
He then engaged in the lumber and tanning business in western 
New York, and in banking at Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. In 
1863 he married Miss Helen Day Miller, and through her father, 
Daniel S. Miller, he was appointed manager of the Rensselaer 
& Saratoga railway, which he bought up when it was in a very 
bad condition, and skilfully reorganized; in the same way he 
bought and reorganized the Rutland & Washington railway, 
from which he ultimately realized a large profit. In 1859 he 
removed to New York City, where he became a broker in railway 
stocks, and in 1868 he was elected president of the Erie railway, o^ 
which by shrewd strategy he and James Fisk, jT.(q.v.), had gained 
control in July of that year. The management of the road under 
his control, and especially the sale of $5,000,000 of fraudulent 
stock in 1868-1870, led to litigation begun by English bond- 
holders, and Gould was forced out of the company in March 
1872 and compelled to restore securities valued at about 
$7,500,000. It was during his control of the Erie that he and 
Fisk entered into a league with the Tweed Ring, they admitted 
Tweed to the directorate of the Erie, and Tweed in turn arranged 
favourable legislation for them at Albany. With Tweed, Gould 
was cartooned by Nast in 1869. In October 1871 Gould was the 
chief bondsman of Tweed when the latter was held in $1,000,000 
bail. With Fisk in August 1869 he began to buy gold in a daring 



GOUNOD 



285 



attempt to " corner " the market, his hope being that, with the 
advance in price of gold, wheat would advance to such a price 
that western farmers would sell, and there would be a consequent 
great movement of breadstuffs from West to East, which would 
result in increased freight business for the Erie road. His 
speculations in gold, during which he attempted through President 
Grant's brother-in-law, A. H. Corbin, to influence the president 
and his secretary General Horace Porter, culminated in the panic 
of " Black Friday," on the 24th of September 1869, when the 
price of gold fell from 162 to 135. 

Gould gained control of the Union Pacific, from which in 
1883 he withdrew after realizing a large profit. Buying up the 
stock of the Missouri Pacific he built up, by means of consolida- 
tions, reorganizations, and the construction of branch lines, 
the " Gould System " of railways in the south-western states. 
In 1880 he was in virtual control of 10,000 miles of railway, about 
one-ninth of the railway mileage of the United States at that 
time. Besides, he obtained a controlling interest in the Western 
Union Telegraph Company, and after 1881 in the elevated 
railways in New York City, and was intimately connected with 
many of the largest railway financial operations in the United 
States for the twenty years following 1 868. He died of consump- 
tion and of mental strain on the 2nd of December 1892, his 
fortune at that time being estimated at $72,000,000; all of 
this he left to his own family. 

His eldest son, GEORGE JAY GOULD (b. 1864), was prominent 
also as an owner and manager of railways, and became president 
of the Little Rock & Fort Smith railway (1888), the St Louis, 
Iron Mountain & Southern railway (1893), the International 
& Great Northern railway (1893), the Missouri Pacific railway 
(1893), the Texas & Pacific railway (1893), and the Manhattan 
Railway Company (1892); he was also vice-president and 
director of the Western Union Telegraph Company. It was 
under his control that the Wabash system became transconti- 
nental and secured an Atlantic port at Baltimore; and it was 
he who brought about a friendly alliance between the Gould 
and the Rockefeller interests. 

The eldest daughter, HELEN MILLER GOULD (b. 1868), became 
widely known as a philanthropist, and particularly for her 
generous gifts to American army hospitals in the war with Spain 
in 1898 and for her many contributions to New York University, 
to which she gave $250,000 for a library in 1895 and $100,000 
for a Hall of Fame in 1900. 

GOUNOD. CHARLES FRANCOIS (1818-1893), French com- 
poser, was born in Paris on the l^th of June 1818, the son of 
F. L. Gounod, a talented painter. He entered the Paris Con- 
servatoire in 1836, studied under Reicha, Halevy and Lesueur, 
and won the " Grand Prix de Rome " in 1839. While residing 
in the Eternal City he devoted much of his time to the study 
of sacred music, notably to the works of Palestrina and Bach. 
In 1843 he went to Vienna, where a " requiem " of his composi- 
tion was performed. On his return to Paris he tried in vain to 
find a publisher for some songs he had written in Rome. Having 
become organist to the chapel of the " Missions Etrangeres," 
he turned his thoughts and mind to religious music. At that 
time he even contemplated the idea of entering into holy 
orders. His thoughts were, however, turned to more mundane 
matters when, through 'the intervention of Madame Viardot, 
the celebrated singer, he received a commission to compose an 
opera on a text by Emile Augier for the Academic Nationale 
de Musique. Sapho, the work in question, was produced in 
1851, and if its success was not very great, it at least sufficed to 
bring the composer 's name to the fore. Some critics appearec 
to consider this work as evidence of a fresh departure in the 
style of dramatic music, and Adolphe Adam, the composer 
who was also a musical critic, attributed to Gounod the wish 
to revive the system of musical declamation invented by Gluck 
The fact was that Sapho differed in some respects from the 
operatic works of the period, and was to a certain extent in 
advance of the times. When it was revived at the Paris Opera 
in 1884, several additions were made by the composer to thi 
original score, not altogether to its advantage, and Sapho one 



more failed to attract the public. Gounod's second dramatic 
ttempt was again in connexion with a classical subject, and 
consisted in some choruses written for Ulysse, a tragedy by 
'onsard, played at the Theatre Francais in 1852, when the 
orchestra was conducted by Offenbach. The composer's next ' 
opera, La Nonne sanglante, given at the Paris Op6ra in 1854, 
was a failure. 

Goethe's Faust had for years exercised a strong fascination 
over Gounod, and he at last determined to turn it to operatic 
account. The performance at a Paris theatre of a drama on 
the same subject delayed the production of his opera for a time, 
in the meanwhile he wrote in a few months the music for an 
operatic version of Moliere's comedy, Le Medecin malgre lui, 
which was produced at the Theatre Lyrique in 1858. Berlioz well 
described this charming little work when he wrote of it, " Every- 
thing is pretty, piquant, fluent, in this ' opdra comique '; there is 
nothing superfluous and nothing wanting." The first perform- 
ance of Faust took place at the Theatre Lyrique on the igth 
of March 1859. Goethe's masterpiece had already been utilized 
'or operatic purposes by various composers, the most celebrated 
of whom was Spohr. The subject had also inspired Schumann, 
Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner, to mention only a few, and the enormous 
success of Gounod's opera did not deter Boito from writing his 
Mefistofele. Faust is without doubt the most popular French 
opera of the second half of the i gth century. Its success has been 
universal, and nowhere has it achieved greater vogue than in 
the land of Goethe. For years it remained the recognized type 
of modern French opera. At the time of its production in Paris 
it was scarcely appreciated according to its merits. Its style 
was too novel, and its luscious harmonies did not altogether 
suit the palates of those dilettanti who still looked upon Rossini 
as the incarnation of music. Times have indeed changed, and 
French composers have followed the road opened by Gounod, 
and have further developed the form of the lyrical drama, 
adopting the theories of Wagner in a manner suitable to their 
national temperament. Although in its original version Faust 
contained spoken dialogue, and was divided into set pieces 
according to custom, yet it differed greatly from the operas of 
the past. Gounod had not studied the works of German masters 
such as Mendelssohn and Schumann in vain, and although 
his own style is eminently Gallic, yet it cannot be denied that 
much of its charm emanates from a certain poetic sentimentality 
which seems to have a Teutonic origin. Certainly no music 
such as his had previously been produced by any French com- 
poser. Auber was a gay trifler, scattering his bright effusions 
with absolute insouciance, teemingywith melodious ideas, but 
lacking depth. Berlioz, a musical Titan, wrestled against fate 
with a superhuman energy, and, Jove-like, subjugated his 
hearers with his thunderbolts. It was, however, reserved for 
Gounod to introduce la note tendre, to sing the tender passion 
in accents soft and languorous. The musical language em- 
ployed in Faust was new and fascinating, and it was soon to be 
adopted by many other French composers, certain of its idioms 
thereby becoming hackneyed. Gounod's opera was given in 
London in 1863, when its success, at first doubtful, became 
enormous, and it was heard concurrently at Covent Garden 
and Her Majesty's theatres. Since then it has never lost its 
popularity. 

Although the success of Faust in Paris was at first not so 
great as might have been expected, yet it gradually increased 
and set the seal on Gounod's fame. The fortunate composer 
now experienced no difficulty in finding an outlet for his works, 
and the succeeding decade is a specially important one in his 
career. The opera from his pen which came after Faust was 
Philemon el Baucis, a setting of the mythological tale in which 
the composer followed the traditions of the Op6ra Comique, 
employing spoken dialogue, while not abdicating the in- 
dividuality of his own style. This work was produced at the 
Theatre Lyrique in 1860. It has repeatedly been heard in 
London. La. Reine de Saba, a four-act opera, produced at the 
Grand Opera on the 28th of February 1862, was altogether 
a far more ambitious work. For some reason it did not meet 



286 



GOURD 



with success, although the score contains some of Gounod's 
choicest inspirations, notably the well-known air, " Lend me 
your aid." La Reine de Saba was adapted for the English stage 
under the name of Irene. The non-success of this work proved 
a great disappointment to Gounod, who, however, set to work 
again, and this time with better results, Mireille, the fruit of his 
labours, being given for the first time at the Theatre Lyrique 
on the i gth of March 1864. Founded upon the Mireio of the 
Provencal poet Mistral, Mireille contains much charming and 
characteristic music. The libretto seems to have militated against 
its success, and although several revivals have taken place and 
various modifications and alterations have been made in the score, 
yet Mireille has never enjoyed a very great vogue. Certain 
portions of this opera have, however, been popularized in the 
concert-room. La Colombe, a little opera in two acts without pre- 
tension, deserves mention here. It was originally heard at Baden 
in 1860, and subsequently at the Opera Comique. A suavely 
melodious entr'acte from this little work has survived and been 
repeatedly performed. 

Animated with the desire to give a pendant to his Faust, 
Gounod now sought for inspiration from Shakespeare, and 
turned his attention to Romeo and Juliet. Here, indeed, was a 
subject particularly well calculated to appeal to a composer 
who had so eminently qualified himself to be considered the 
musician of the tender passion. The operatic version of the 
Shakespearean tragedy was produced at the Theatre Lyrique on 
the 27th of April 1867. It is generally considered as being the 
composer's second best opera. Some people have even placed 
it on the same level as Faust, but this verdict has not^ound 
general acceptance. Gounod himself is stated to have expressed 
his opinion of the relative value of the two operas enigmatically 
by saying, " Faust is the oldest, but I was younger; Romeo 
is the youngest, but I was older." The luscious strains wedded 
to the love scenes, if at times somewhat cloying, are generally 
in accord with the situations, often irresistibly fascinating, 
while always absolutely individual. The success of Romeo 
in Paris was great from the outset, and eventually this work 
was transferred to the Grand Opera, after having for some time 
formed part of the repertoire of the Opera Comique. In London 
it was not until the part of Romeo was sung by Jean de 
Reszke that this opera obtained any real hold upon the English 
public. , 

After having so successfully sought for inspiration from 
Moliere, Goethe and Shakespeare, Gounod now turned to another 
famous dramatist, and selected Pierre Corneille's Polyeucte 
as the subject of his next opera. Some years were, however, 
to elapse before this work was given to the public. The Franco- 
German War had broken out, and Gounod was compelled to 
take refuge in London, where he composed the " biblical elegy " 
Gallia for the inauguration of the Royal Albert Hall. During 
his stay in London Gounod composed a great deal and wrote a 
number of songs to English words, many of which have attained 
an enduring popularity, such as " Maid of Athens," " There 
is a green hill far away," " Oh that we two were maying," 
" The fountain mingles with the river." His sojourn in London 
was not altogether pleasant, as he was embroiled in lawsuits 
with publishers. On Gounod's return to Paris he hurriedly 
set to music an operatic version of Alfred de Vigny's Cinq-Mars, 
which was given at the Opera Comique on the 5th of April 1877 
(and in London in 1900), without obtaining much success. 
Polyeucte, his much-cherished work, appeared at the Grand 
Opera the following year on the 7th of October, and did not meet 
with a better fate. Neither was Gounod more fortunate with 
Le Tribut de Zamora, his last opera, which, given on the same 
stage in 1881, speedily vanished, never to reappear. In his 
later dramatic works he had, unfortunately, made no attempt 
to keep up with the times, preferring to revert to old-fashioned 
methods. 

The genius of the great composer was, however, destined to 
assert itself in another field that of sacred music. His friend 
Camille Saint-Saens, in a volume entitled Portraits et Souvenirs, 
writes: 



Gounod did not cease all his life to write for the church, to 
accumulate masses and motetts; but it was at the commencement 
of his career, in the Messe de Sainte Cecile, and at the end, in the 
oratorios The Redemption and Mors et vita, that he rose highest. 

Saint-Saens, indeed, has formulated the opinion that the three 
above-mentioned works will survive all the master's operas. 
Among the many masses composed by Gounod at the outset 
of his career, the best is the Messe de Sainte Cecile, written in 
1855. He also wrote the Messe du Sacre Cceur (1876) and the 
Messe a la mimoire de Jeanne d'Arc (1887). This last work 
offers certain peculiarities, being written for solos, chorus, 
organ, eight trumpets, three trombones, and harps. In style 
it has a certain affinity with Palestrina. The Redemption, which 
seems to have acquired a permanent footing in Great Britain, 
was produced at the Birmingham Festival of 1882. It was 
styled a sacred trilogy, and was dedicated to Queen Victoria. 
The score is prefixed by a commentary written by the composer, 
in which the scope of the oratorio is explained. It cannot be 
said that Gounod has altogether risen to the magnitude of his 
task. The music of The Redemption bears the unmistakable 
imprint of the composer's hand, and contains many beautiful 
thoughts, but the work in its entirety is not exempt from 
monotony. Mors et vita, a sacred trilogy dedicated to Pope 
Leo XIII., was also produced for the first time in Birmingham 
at the Festival of 1885. This work is divided into three parts, 
" Mors," " Judicium," " Vita." The first consists of a Requiem, 
the second depicts the Judgment, the third Eternal Life. 
Although quite equal, if not superior to The Redemption, Mors 
et vita has not obtained similar success. 

Gounod was a great worker, an indefatigable writer, and it 
would occupy too much space to attempt even an incomplete 
catalogue of his compositions. Besides the works already 
mentioned may be named two symphonies which were played 
during the 'fifties, but have long since fallen into neglect. 
Symphonic music was not Gounod's forte, and the French master 
evidently recognized the fact, for he made no further attempts 
in this style. The incidental music he wrote to the dramas Les 
Deux Reines and Jeanne d'Arc must not be forgotten. He also 
attempted to set Moliere's comedy, Georges Dandin, to music, 
keeping to the original prose. This work has never been brought 
out. Gounod composed a large number of songs, many of which 
are very beautiful. One of the vocal pieces that have contri- 
buted most to his popularity is the celebrated Meditation on 
the First Prelude of Bach, more widely known as the Ave Maria. 
The idea of fitting a melody to the Prelude of Bach was original, 
and it must be admitted that in this case the experiment was 
successful. 

Gounod died at St Cloud on the i8th of October 1893. His 
influence on French music was immense, though during the 
last years of the igth century it was rather counterbalanced 
by that of Wagner. Whatever may be the verdict of posterity, 
it is unlikely that the quality of individuality will be denied 
to Gounod. To be the composer of Faust is alone a sufficient 
title to lasting fame. (A. HE.) 

GOURD, a name given to various plants of the order Cucur- 
bitaceae, especially those belonging to the genus Cucurbita, 
monoecious trailing herbs of annual duration, with long succulent 
stems furnished with tendrils, and large, rough, palmately-lobed 
leaves; the flowers are generally large and of a bright yellow 
or orange colour, the barren ones with the stamens united; 
the fertile are followed by the large succulent fruit that gives 
the gourds their chief economic value. Many varieties of 
Cucurbita are under cultivation in tropical and temperate 
climates, especially in southern Asia; but it is extremely 
difficult to refer them to definite specific groups, on account of 
the facility with which they hybridize; while it is very doubtful 
whether any of the original forms now exist in the wild state. 
Charles Naudin, who made a careful and interesting series of 
observations upon this genus, came to the conclusion that all 
varieties known in European gardens might be referred to six 
original species; probably three, or at most four, have furnished 
the edible kinds in ordinary cultivation. Adopting the specific 



GOURGAUD 



287 



names usually given to the more familiar forms, the most im- 
portant of the gourds, from an economic point of view, is perhaps 
C. maxima, the Poliron Jaune of the French, the red and yellow 
gourd of British gardeners (fig. 6), the spheroidal fruit of which 
is remarkable for its enormous size: the colour of the somewhat 
rough rind varies from white to bright yellow, while in some kinds 
it remains green; the fleshy interior is of a deep yellow or 
orange tint. This valuable gourd is grown extensively in southern 
Asia and Europe. In Turkey and Asia Minor it yields, at some 
periods of the year, an important article of diet to the people; 
immense quantities are sold in the markets of Constantinople, 
where in the winter the heaps of one variety with a white rind 
are described as resembling mounds of snowballs. The yellow 
kind attains occasionally a weight of upwards of 240 ft. It 
grows well in Central Europe and the United States, while in 
the south of England it will produce its gigantic fruit in perfection 
in hot summers. The yellow flesh of this gourd and its numerous 
varieties yields a considerable amount of nutriment, and is the 
more valuable as the fruit can be kept, even in warm climates, for 
a long time. In France and in the East it is much used in soups 
and ragouts, while simply boiled it forms a substitute for other 
table vegetables; the taste has been compared to that of a young 
carrot. In some countries the larger kinds are employed as 
cattle food. The seeds yield by expression a large quantity 
of a bland oil, which is used for the same purposes as that of 
the poppy and olive. The " mammoth " gourds of English and 
American gardeners (known in America as squashes) belong 
to this species. The pumpkin (summer squash of America) 
is Cucurbita Pepo. Some of the varieties of C. maxima and 
Pepo contain a considerable quantity of sugar, amounting in 
the sweetest kinds to 4 or 5 %, and in the hot plains of Hungary 
efforts have been made to make use of them as a commercial 
source of sugar. The young shoots of both these large gourds 
may be given to cattle, and admit of being eaten as a green 
vegetable when boiled. The vegetable marrow is a variety 
(ovifera) of C. Pepo. Many smaller gourds are cultivated in 
India and other hot climates, and some have been introduced 
into English gardens, rather for the beauty of their fruit and 

foliage than for their escu- 
lent qualities. Among these 
is C. Pepo var. aurantia, 
the orange gourd, bearing a 
spheroidal fruit, like a large 
orange in form and colour; 
in Britain it is generally 
too bitter to be palatable, 
though applied to culinary 
purposes in Turkey and the 
Levant. C. Pepo var. pyri- 
formis and var. verrucosa, 
the warted gourds, are 
likewise occasionally eaten, 
especially in the immature 
state; and C. moschata 
(musk melon) is very exten- 
sively cultivated throughout 
India by the natives, the 
yellow flesh being cooked 
and eaten. 

_ _ The bottle-gourds are 

Photographri from .pedmens in the British P'aced in a separate genus, 




Museum. 



Group of Gourds. 



Lagcnaria, chiefly differing 
{ rom Cucurbita in the an- 



1-5. Various forms of bottle gourd, there being free instead of 



properly so-called, L. 
garis, is a climbing plant with downy, heart-shaped leaves and 
beautiful white flowers: the remarkable fruit (figs. 1-5) first begins 
to grow in the form of an elongated cylinder, but gradually widens 
towards the extremity, until, when ripe, it resembles a flask 
with a narrow neck and large rounded bulb; it sometimes 
attains a length of 7 ft. When ripe, the pulp is removed from 



the neck, and the interior cleared by leaving water standing 
in it; the woody rind that remains is used as a bottle: or the 
lower part is cut off and cleared out, forming a basin-like vessel 
applied to the same domestic purposes as the calabash (Cres- 
centia) of the West Indies: the smaller varieties, divided length- 
wise, form spoons. The ripe f nut is apt to be bitter and cathartic, 
but while immature it is eaten by the Arabs and Turks. When 
about the size of a small cucumber, it is stuffed with rice and 
minced meat, flavoured with pepper, onions, &c., and then boiled, 
forming a favourite dish with Eastern epicures. The elongated 
snake-gourds of India and China (Trichosanthes) are used in 
curries and stews. 

All the true gourds have a tendency to secrete the cathartic 
principle colocynthin, and in many varieties of Cucurbila and the 
allied genera it is often elaborated to such an extent as to 
render them unwholesome, or even poisonous. The seeds of 
several species therefore possess some anthelmintic properties; 
those of the common pumpkin are frequently administered 
in America as a vermifuge. 

The cultivation of gourds began far beyond the dawn of history, 
and the esculent species have become so modified by culture 
that the original plants from which they have descended can 
no longer be traced. The abundance of varieties in India would 
seem to indicate that part of Asia as the birthplace of the present 
edible forms; but some appear to have been cultivated in all 
the hotter regions of that continent, and in North Africa, from 
the earliest ages, while the Romans were familiar with at least 
certain kinds of Cucurbita, and with the bottle-gourd. Cucurbita 
Pepo, the source of many of the American forms, is probably 
a native of that continent. 

Most of the annual gourds mav be grown successfully in Britain. 
They are usually raised in hotbeds or under frames, and planted out 
in rich soil in the early summer as soon as the nights become warm. 
The more ornamental kinds may be trained over trellis-work, a 
favourite mode of displaying them in the East; but the situation 
must be sheltered and sunny. Even Lagenaria will sometimes pro- 
duce fine fruit when so treated in the southern counties. 

For an account of these cultivations in England see paper by Mr 
J. W. Odell, " Gourds and Cucurbits," in Journ. Royal Hort. Soc. 
xxix. 450 (1904). 

GOURGAUD, CASPAR, BAKON (1783-1852), French soldier, 
was born at Versailles on the I4th of September 1783; his father 
was a musician of the royal chapel. At school he showed talent 
in mathematical studies and accordingly entered the artillery. 
In 1802 he became junior lieutenant, and thereafter served 
with credit in the campaigns of 1803-1805, being wounded at 
Austerlitz. He was present at the siege of Saragossa in 1808, 
but returned to service in Central Europe and took part in nearly 
all the battles of the Danubian campaign of 1809. In 1811 
he was chosen to inspect and report on the fortifications of 
Danzig. Thereafter he became one of the ordnance officers 
attached to the emperor, whom he followed closely through 
the Russian campaign of 1812; he was one of the first to enter 
the Kremlin and discovered there a quantity of gunpowder 
which might have been used for the destruction of Napoleon. 
For his services in this campaign he received the title of baron, 
and became first ordnance officer. In the campaign of 1813 
in Saxony he further evinced his courage and prowess, especially 
at Leipzig and Hanau; but it was in the first battle of 1814, 
near to Brienne, that he rendered the most signal service by 
killing the leader of a small band of Cossacks who were riding 
furiously towards Napoleon's tent. Wounded at the battle of 
Montmirail, he yet recovered in time to share in several of the 
conflicts which followed, distinguishing himself especially at 
Laon and Reims. Though enrolled among the royal guards of 
Louis XVIII. in the summer of 1814, he yet embraced the cause 
of Napoleon during the Hundred Days (1815), was named general 
and aide-de-camp by the emperor, and fought at Waterloo. 

After the second abdication of the emperor (June 22nd, 1815) 
Gourgaud retired with him and a few other companions to 
Rochefort. It was to him that Napoleon entrusted the letter 
of appeal to the prince regent for an asylum in England. Gour- 
gaud set off in H.M.S. " Slaney," but was not allowed to land 



288 



GOURKO GOURVILLE 



in England. He determined to share Napoleon's exile and 
sailed with him on H.M.S. " Northumberland " to St Helena. 
The ship's secretary, John R. Glover, has left an entertaining 
account of some of Gourgaud's gasconnades at table. His 
extreme sensitiveness and vanity soon brought him into collision 
with Las Cases and Montholon at Longwood. The former he 
styles in his journal a " Jesuit " and a scribbler who went thither 
in order to become famous. With Montholon, his senior in rank, 
the friction became so acute that he challenged him to a duel, 
for which he suffered a sharp rebuke from Napoleon. Tiring 
of the life at Longwood and the many slights which he suffered 
from Napoleon, he desired to depart, but before he could sail 
he spent two months with Colonel Basil Jackson, whose account 
of him throws much light on his character, as also on the " policy" 
adopted by the exiles at Longwood. In England he was gained 
over by members of the Opposition and thereafter made common 
cause with O'Meara and other detractors of Sir Hudson Lowe, 
for whose character he had expressed high esteem to Basil Jack- 
son. He soon published his Campagne de 1815, in the preparation 
of which he had had some help from Napoleon; but Gourgaud's 
Journal de Ste-H&ene was not destined to be published till 
the year 1899. Entering the arena of letters, he wrote, or colla- 
borated in, two well-known critiques. The first was a censure of 
Count P. de Segur's work on the campaign of 1812, with the 
result that he fought a duel with that officer and wounded him. 
He also sharply criticized Sir Walter Scott's Life of Napoleon. 
He returned to active service in the army in 1830; and in 1840 
proceeded with others to St Helena to bring back the remains 
of Napoleon to France. He became a deputy to the Legislative 
Assembly in 1849; he died in 1852. 

Gourgaud's works are La Campagne de 1815 (London and Paris, 
1818); Napoleon et la Grande Armee en Russie; examen critique de 
I'ouvrage de M. le comte P. de Segur (Paris, 1824); Refutation de la 
vie de Napoleon par Sir Walter Scott (Paris, 1827). He collaborated 
with Montholon in the work entitled Memoires pour serair a I'histoire 
de France sous Napoleon (Paris, 1822-1823), and with Belliard and 
others in the work entitled Bourrienne et ses erreurs (2 vols., Paris, 
1830); but his most important work is the Journal inedit de Ste- 
Helene (2 vols., Paris, 1899), which is a remarkably naif and lifelike 
record of the life at Longwood. See, too, Notes and Reminiscences of 
a Staff Officer, by Basil Jackson (London, 1904), and the bibliography 
to the article LOWE, SIR HUDSON. (J. HL. R.) 

GOURKO, JOSEPH VLADIMIROVICH, COUNT (1828-1901), 
Russian general, was born, of Lithuanian extraction, on the 
1 5th of November 1828. He was educated in the imperial 
corps of pages, entered the hussars of the imperial bodyguard 
as sub-lieutenant in 1846, became captain in 1857, adjutant 
to the emperor in 1860, colonel in 1861, commander of the 4th 
Hussar regiment of Mariupol in 1866, and major-general of the 
emperor's suite in 1867. He subsequently commanded the 
grenadier regiment, and in 1873 the ist brigade, 2nd division, 
of the cavalry of the guard. Although he took part in the 
Crimean War, being stationed at Belbek, his claim to distinction 
is due to his services in the Turkish war of 1877. He led the van 
of the Russian invasion, took Trnovo on the 7th July, crossed 
the Balkans by the Hain Bogaz pass, debouching near Hainkioi, 
and, notwithstanding considerable resistance, captured Uflani, 
Maglish and Kazanlyk; on the i8th of July he attacked Shipka, 
which was evacuated by the Turks on the following day. Thus 
within sixteen days of crossing the Danube Gourko had secured 
three Balkan passes and created a panic at Constantinople. 
He then made a series of successful reconnaissances of the 
Tunja valley, cut the railway in two places, occupied Stara 
Zagora (Turkish, Eski Zagra) and Nova Zagora (Yeni Zagra), 
checked the advance of Suleiman's army, and returned again 
over the Balkans. In October he was appointed commander of 
the allied cavalry, and attacked the Plevna line of communication 
to Orkhanie with a large mixed force, captured Gorni-Dubnik, 
Telische and Vratza, and, in the middle of November, Orkhanie 
itself. Plevna was isolated, and after its fall in December 
Gourko led the way amidst snow and ice over the Balkans to 
the fertile valley beyond, totally defeated Suleiman, and occupied 
Sophia, Philippopolis and Adrianople, the armistice at the 
end of January 1878 stopping further operations (see Russo- 



TURKISH WARS). Gourko was made a count, and decorated 
with the 2nd class of St George and other orders. In 1870-1880 
he was governor of St Petersburg, and from 188310 1894 governor- 
general of Poland. He died on the 29th of January 1901. 

GOURMET, a French term for one who takes a refined and 
critical, or even merely theoretical pleasure in good cooking 
and the delights of the table. The word has not the disparaging 
sense attached to the Fr. gourmand, to whom the practical 
pleasure of good eating is the chief end. The O. Fr. groumel 
or gromet meant a servant, or shop-boy, especially one employed 
in a wine-seller's shop, hence an expert taster of wines, from 
which the modern usage has developed. The etymology of 
gourmet is obscure; it may be ultimately connected with the 
English " groom " (<?..). The origin of gourmand is unknown. 
In English, in the form " grummet," the word was early applied 
to a cabin or ship's boy. Ships of the Cinque Ports were obliged 
to carry one " grummet "; thus in a charter of 1229 (quoted 
in the New English Dictionary) it is laid down servitia inde 
debita Domino Regi, xxi. naves, et in qualibet nave xxi. homines, 
cum uno gartione qui dicitur gromet. 

GOUROCK, a police burgh and watering-place of Renfrew- 
shire, Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde, 
3i m. W. by N. of Greenock by the Caledonian railway. Pop. 
(1901) 5261. It is partly situated on a fine bay affording good 
anchorage, for which it is largely resorted to by the numerous 
yacht clubs of the Clyde. The extension of the railway from 
Greenock (in 1889) to the commodious pier, with a tunnel if m. 
long, the longest in Scotland, affords great facilities for travel 
to the ports of the Firth, the sea lochs on the southern Highland 
coast and the Crinan Canal. The eminence called Barrhill 
(480 ft. high) divides the town into two parts, the eastern known 
as Kempoch, the western as Ashton. Near Kempoch point is 
a monolith of mica-schist, 6 ft. high, called " Granny Kempoch," 
which the superstitious of other days regarded as possessing 
influence over the winds, and which was the scene, in 1662, of 
certain rites that led to the celebrants being burned as witches. 
Gamble Institute (named after the founder) contains halls, 
recreation rooms, a public library and baths. It is said that 
Gourock was the first place on the Clyde where herrings were 
cured. There is tramway communication with Greenock and 
Ashton. About 3 m. S.W. there stands on the shore the familiar 
beacon of the Cloch. Gourock became a burgh of barony in 1 694. 

GOURVILLE, JEAN HERAULD (1625-1703), French adven- 
turer, was born at La Rochefoucauld. At the age of eighteen 
he entered the house of La Rochefoucauld as a servant, and in 
1646 became secretary to Francois de la Rochefoucauld, author 
of the Maximes. Resourceful and quick-witted, he rendered 
services to his master during the Fronde, in his intrigues with 
the parliament, the court or the princes. In these negotiations 
he BAade the acquaintance of Conde, whom he wished to help 
to escape from the chateau of Vincennes; of Mazarin, for whom 
he negotiated the reconciliation with the princes; and of Nicolas 
Fouquet. After the Fronde he engaged in financial affairs, 
thanks to Fouquet. In 1658 he farmed the taille in Guienne. 
He bought depreciated rentes and had them raised to their 
nominal value by the treasury; he extorted gifts from the 
financiers for his protection, being Fouquet's confidant in many 
operations of which he shared the profits. In three years he 
accumulated an enormous fortune, still further increased by his 
unfailing good fortune at cards, playing even with the king. 
He was involved in the trial of Fouquet, and in April 1663 was 
condemned to death for peculation and embezzlement of public 
funds; but escaping, was executed in effigy. He sent a valet 
one night to take the effigy down from the gallows in the court 
of the Palais de Justice, and then fled the country. He re- 
mained five years abroad, being excepted in 1665 from the 
amnesty accorded by Louis XIV. to the condemned financiers. 
Having returned secretly to France, he entered the service of 
Conde, who, unable to meet his creditors, had need of a clever 
manager to put his affairs in order. In this way he was able to 
reappear at court, to assist at the campaigns of the war with 
Holland, and to offer himself for all the delicate negotiations 



GOUT 



289 



for his master or the king. He received diplomatic missions in 
Germany, in Holland, and especially in Spain, though it was 
only in 1694, that he was freed from the condemnation pro- 
nounced against him by the chamber of justice. From 1696 
he fell ill and withdrew to his estate, where he dictated to his 
secretary, in four months and a half, his Mfmoires, an important 
source for the history of his time. In spite of several errors, 
introduced purposely, they give a clear idea of the life and morals 
of a financier of the age of Fouquet, and throw light on certain 
points of the diplomatic history. They were first published in 
1724. 

There is a modern edition, with notes, an introduction and ap- 
pendix, by Lecestre (Paris, 1894-1895, 2 vols.). 

GOUT, the name rather vaguely given, in medicine, to a 
constitutional disorder which manifests itself by inflammation 
of the joints, with sometimes deposition of urates of soda, and 
also by morbid changes in various important organs. The 
term gout, which was first used about the end of the i3th 
century, is derived through the Fr. goulle from the Lat. gulta, 
a drop, in allusion to the old pathological doctrine of the dropping 
of a morbid material from the blood within the joints. The 
disease was known and described by the ancient Greek physicians 
under various terms, which, however, appear to have been 
applied by them alike to rheumatism and gout. The general 
term arthritis (apdpov, a joint) was employed when many joints 
were the seat of inflammation; while in those instances where 
the disease was limited to one part the terms used bore reference 
to such locality; hence podagra (irodaypa, from irovs, the foot, 
and ay pa, a seizure), chiragra (xip, the hand), gonagra (yovv, 
the knee), &c. 

Hippocrates in his Aphorisms speaks of gout as occurring 
most commonly in spring and autumn, and mentions the fact 
that women are less liable to it than men. He also gives directions 
as to treatment. Celsus gives a similar account of the disease. 
Galen regarded gout as an unnatural accumulation of humours 
in a part, and the chalk-stones as the concretions of these, and 
he attributed the disease to over-indulgence and luxury. Gout 
is alluded to in the works of Ovid and Pliny, and Seneca, in his 
95th epistle, mentions the prevalence of gout among the Roman 
ladies of his day as one of the results of their high living and 
debauchery. Lucian, in his Tragopodagra, gives an amusing 
account of the remedies employed for the cure of gout. 

In all times this disease has engaged a large share of the atten- 
tion of physicians, from its wide prevalence and from the amount 
of suffering which it entails. Sydenham, the famous English 
physician of the lyth century, wrote an important treatise on 
the subject, and his description of the gouty paroxysm, all the 
more vivid from his having himself been afflicted with the disease 
for thirty-four years, is still quoted by writers as the most 
graphic and exhaustive account of the symptomatology of gout. 
Subsequently Cullen, recognizing gout as capable of manifesting 
itself in various ways, divided the disease into regular gout, 
which affects the joints only, and irregular gout, where the gouty 
disposition exhibits itself in other forms; and the latter variety 
he subdivided into atonic gout, where the most prominent 
symptoms are throughout referable to the stomach and ali- 
mentary canal; retrocedent gout, where the inflammatory attack 
suddenly disappears from an affected joint and serious disturb- 
ance takes place in some internal organ, generally the stomach 
or heart; and misplaced gout, where from the first the disease 
does not appear externally, but reveals itself by an inflammatory 
attack of some internal part. Dr Garrod, one of the most 
eminent authorities on gout, adopted a division somewhat 
similar to, though simpler than that of Cullen, namely, regular 
gout, which affects the joints alone, and is either acute or chronic, 
and irregular gout, affecting non-articular tissues, or disturbing 
the functions of various organs. 

It is often stated that the attack of gout comes on without 
any previous warning; but, while this is true in many instances, 
the reverse is probably as frequently the case, and the pre- 
monitory symptoms, especially in those who have previously 
suffered from the disease, may be sufficiently precise to indicate 
xu. 10 



the impending seizure. Among the more common of these 
may be mentioned marked disorders of the digestive organs, 
with a feeble and capricious appetite, flatulence and pain after 
eating, and uneasiness in the right side in the region of the liver. 
A remarkable tendency to gnashing of the teeth is sometimes 
observed. This symptom was first noticed by Dr Graves, 
who connected it with irritation in the urinary organs, which 
also is present as one of the premonitory indications of the 
gouty attack. Various forms of nervous disturbance also present 
themselves in the form of general discomfort, extreme irritability 
of temper, and various perverted sensations, such as that of 
numbness and coldness in the limbs. These symptoms may 
persist for many days and then undergo amelioration immediately 
before the impending paroxysm. On the night of the attack 
the patient retires to rest apparently well, but about two or three 
o'clock in the morning awakes with a painful feeling in the foot, 
most commonly in the ball of the great toe, but it may be in 
the instep or heel, or in the thumb. With the pain there often 
occurs a distinct shivering followed by feverishness. The pain 
soon becomes of the most agonizing character: in the words 
of Sydenham, " now it is a violent stretching and tearing of the 
ligaments, now it is a gnawing pain, and now a pressure and 
tightening; so exquisite and lively meanwhile is the part 
affected that it cannot bear the weight of the bedclothes, nor 
the jar of a person walking in the room." 

When the affected part is examined it is found to be swollen 
and of a deep red hue. The superjacent skin is tense and glisten- 
ing, and the surrounding veins are more or less distended. After 
a few hours there is a remission of the pain, slight perspiration 
takes place, and the patient may fall asleep. The pain may 
continue moderate during the day but returns as night advances, 
and the patient goes through a similar experience of suffering 
to that of the previous night, followed with a like abatement 
towards morning. These nocturnal exacerbations occur with 
greater or less severity during the continuance of the attack, 
which generally lasts for a week or ten days. As the symptoms 
decline the swelling and tenderness of the affected joint abate, 
but the skin over it pits on pressure for a time, and with this 
there is often associated slight desquamation of the cuticle. 
During the attacks there is much constitutional disturbance. 
The patient is restless and extremely irritable, and suffers from 
cramp in the limbs and from dyspepsia, thirst and constipation. 
The urine is scanty and high-coloured, with a copious deposit, 
consisting chiefly of urates. During the continuance of the 
symptoms the inflammation may leave the one foot and affect 
the other, or both may suffer at the same time. After the attack 
is over the patient feels quite well and fancies himself better 
than he had been for a long time before; hence the once popular 
notion that a fit of the gout was capable of removing all other 
ailments. Any such idea, however, is sadly belied in the ex- 
perience of most sufferers from this disease. It is rare that the 
first is the only attack of gout, and another is apt to occur within 
a year, although by care and treatment it may be warded off. 
The disease, however, undoubtedly tends to take a firmer hold 
on the constitution and to return. In the earlier recurrences 
the same joints as were formerly the seat of the gouty inflam- 
mation suffer again, but in course of time others become im- 
plicated, until in advanced cases scarcely any articulation 
escapes, and the disease thus becomes chronic. It is to be noticed 
that when gout assumes this form the frequently recurring attacks 
are usually attended with less pain than the earlier ones, but 
their disastrous effects are evidenced alike by the disturbance 
of various important organs, especially the stomach, liver, 
kidneys and heart, and by the remarkable changes which take 
place in the joints from the formation of the so-called chalk- 
stones or tophi. These deposits, which are highly characteristic 
of gout, appear at first to take place in the form of a semifluid 
material, consisting for the most part of urate of soda, which 
gradually becomes more dense, and ultimately quite hard. 
When any quantity of this is deposited in the structures of a 
joint the effect is to produce stiffening, and, as deposits appear 
to take place to a greater or less amount in connexion with every 

5 



290 



GOUT 



attack, permanent thickening and deformity of the parts is apt 
to be the consequence. The extent of this depends, of course, 
on the amount of the deposits, which, however, would seem 
to be in no necessary relation to the severity of the attack, being 
in some cases even of chronic gout so slight as to be barely 
appreciable externally, but on the other hand occasionally 
causing great enlargement of the joints, and fixing them in a 
flexed or extended position which renders them entirely useless. 
Dr Garrod describes the appearance of a hand in an extreme 
case of this kind, and likens its shape to a bundle of French 
carrots with their heads forward, the nails corresponding to the 
stalks. Any of the joints may be thus affected, but most 
commonly those of the hands and feet. The deposits take place 
in other structures besides those of joints, such as along the course 
of tendons, underneath the skin and periosteum, in the sclerotic 
coat of the eye, and especially on the cartilages of the external 
ear. When largely deposited in joints an abscess sometimes 
forms, the skin gives way, and the concretion is exposed. Sir 
Thomas Watson quotes a case of this kind where the patient 
when playing at cards was accustomed to chalk the score of the 
game upon the table with his gouty knuckles. 

The recognition of what is termed irregular gout is less easy 
than that form above described, where the disease gives abundant 
external evidence of its presence; but that other parts than 
joints suffer from gouty attacks is beyond question. The diag- 
nosis may often be made in cases where in an attack of ordinary 
gout the disease suddenly leaves the affected joints and some 
new series of symptoms arises. It has been often observed when 
cold has been applied to an inflamed joint that the pain and 
inflammation in the part ceased, but that some sudden and 
alarming seizure referable to the stomach, brain, heart or lungs 
supervened. Such attacks, which correspond to what is termed 
by Cullen retrocedent gout, often terminate favourably, more 
especially if the disease again returns to the joints. Further, 
the gouty nature of some long-continued internal or cutaneous 
disorder may be rendered apparent by its disappearance on the 
outbreak of the paroxysm in the joints. Gout, when of long 
standing, is often found associated with degenerative changes in 
the heart and large arteries, the liver, and especially the kidneys, 
which are apt to assume the contracted granular condition 
characteristic of one of the forms of Bright's disease. A variety 
of urinary calculus the uric acid formed by concretions of 
this substance in the kidneys is a not unfrequent occurrence 
in connexion with gout; hence the well-known association of 
this disease and gravel. 

The pathology of gout is discussed in the article on METABOLIC 
DISEASES. Many points, however, still remain unexplained. 
As remarked by Trousseau, " the production in excess of uric 
acid and urates is a pathological phenomenon inherent like all 
others in the disease; and like all the others it is dominated 
by a specific cause, which we know only by its effects, and which 
we term the gouty diathesis." This subject of diathesis (habit, 
or organic predisposition of individuals), which is regarded as an 
essential element in the pathology of gout, naturally suggests 
the question as to whether, besides being inherited, such a 
peculiarity may also be acquired, and this leads to a considera- 
tion of the causes which are recognized as influential in favouring 
the occurrence of this disease. 

It is beyond dispute that gout is in a marked degree hereditary, 
fully more than half the number of cases being, according to 
Sir C. Scudamore and Dr Garrod, of this character. But it is 
no less certain that there are habits and modes of life the observ- 
ance of which may induce the disease even where no hereditary 
tendencies can be traced, and the avoidance of which may, on 
the other hand, go far towards weakening or neutralizing the 
influence of inherited liability. Gout is said to affect the sedentary 
more readily than the active. If, however, inadequate exercise 
be combined with a luxurious manner of living, with habitual 
over-indulgence in animal food and rich dishes, and especially 
in alcoholic beverages, then undoubtedly the chief factors in the 
production of the disease are present. 

Much has been written upon the relative influence of various 



forms of alcoholic drinks in promoting the development of gout. 
It is generally stated that fermented are more injurious than 
distilled liquors, and that, in particular, the stronger wines, 
such as port, sherry and madeira, are much more potent in their 
gout-producing action than the lighter class of wines, such as 
hock, moselle, &c., while malt liquors are fully as hurtful as strong 
wines. It seems quite as probable, however,that over-indulgence 
in any form of alcohol, when associated with the other conditions 
already adverted to, will have very much the same effect in 
developing gout. The comparative absence of gout in countries 
where spirituous liquors are chiefly used, such as Scotland, is 
cited as showing their relatively slight effect in encouraging 
that disease; but it is to be noticed that in such countries there 
is on the whole a less marked tendency to excess in the other 
pleasures of the table, which in no degree less than alcohol are 
chargeable with inducing the gouty habit. Gout is not a common 
disease among the poor and labouring classes, and when it does 
occur may often be connected even in them with errors in living. 
It is not very rare to meet gout in butlers, coachmen, &c., who 
are apt to live luxuriously while leading comparatively easy lives. 

Gout, it must ever be borne in mind, may also affect persons who 
observe the strictest temperance in living, and whose only excesses 
are in the direction of over-work, either physical or intellectual. 
Many of the great names in history in all times have had their 
existence embittered by this malady, and have died from its 
effects. The influence of hereditary tendency may often be 
traced in such instances, and is doubtless called into activity 
by the depressing consequences of over-work. It may, notwith- 
standing, be affirmed as generally true that those who lead regular 
lives, and are moderate in the use of animal food and alcoholic 
drinks, or still better abstain from the latter altogether, are 
less likely to be the victims of gout even where an undoubted 
inherited tendency exists. 

Gout is more common in mature age than in the earlier years 
of life, the greatest number of cases in one decennial period being 
between the ages of thirty and forty, next between twenty and 
thirty, and thirdly between forty and fifty. It may occasionally 
affect very young persons; such cases are generally regarded as 
hereditary, but, so far as diet is concerned, it has to be remembered 
that their home life has probably been a predisposing cause. 
After middle life gout rarely appears for the first time. Women 
are much less the subjects of gout than men, apparently from 
their less exposure to the influences (excepting, of course, that 
of heredity) which tend to develop the disease, and doubtless 
also from the differing circumstances of their physical constitu- 
tion. It most frequently appears in females after the cessation 
of the menses. Persons exposed to the influence of lead poisoning, 
such as plumbers, painters, &c., are apt to suffer from gout; 
and it would seem that impregnation of the system with this 
metal markedly interferes with the uric acid excreting function 
of the kidneys. 

Attacks of gout are readily excited in those predisposed to 
the disease. Exposure to cold, disorders of digestion, fatigue, 
and irritation or injuries of particular joints will often precipitate 
the gouty paroxysm. 

With respect to the treatment of gout the greatest variety 
of opinion has prevailed and practice been pursued, from the 
numerous quaint nostrums detailed by Lucian to the " expectant " 
or do-nothing system recommended by Sydenham. But gout, 
although, as has been shown, a malady of a most severe and 
intractable character, may nevertheless be successfully dealt 
with by appropriate medicinal and hygienic measures. The 
general plan of treatment can be here only briefly indicated. 
During the acute attack the affected part should be kept at 
perfect rest, and have applied to it warm opiate fomentations 
or poultices, or, what answers quite as well, be enveloped in 
cotton wool covered in with oil silk. The diet of the patient 
should be light, without animal food or stimulants. The adminis- 
tration of some simple laxative will be of service, as well as the 
free use of alkaline diuretics, such as the bicarbonate or acetate 
of potash. The medicinal agent most relied on for the relief 
of pain is colchicum, which manifestly exercises a powerful 



acti 



GOUTHIERE 



291 



ion on the disease. This drug (Colchicum autumnale) , which 
is believed to correspond to the hermodactyl of the ancients, 
has proved of such efficacy in modifying the attacks that, as 
observed by Dr Garrod, " we may safely assert that colchicum 
possesses as specific a control over the gouty inflammation as 
cinchona barks or their alkaloids over intermittent fever." 
It is usually administered in the form of the wine in doses of 
10 to 30 drops every four or six hours, or in pill as the acetous 
extract (gr. J-gr. i.). The effect of colchicum in subduing the 
pain of gout is generally so prompt and marked that it is un- 
necessary to have recourse to opiates; but its action requires 
lo be carefully watched by the physician from its well-known 
nauseating and depressing consequences, which, should they 
appear, render the suspension of the drug necessary. Otherwise 
the remedy may be continued in gradually diminishing doses 
for some days after the disappearance of the gouty inflammation. 
Should gout give evidence of its presence in an irregular form 
by attacking internal organs, besides the medicinal treatment 
above mentioned, the use of frictions and mustard applications 
to the joints is indicated with the view of exciting its appearance 
there. When gout has become chronic, colchicum, although of 
less service than in acute gout, is yet valuable, particularly 
when the inflammatory attacks recur. More benefit, however, 
appears to be derived from potassium iodide, guaiacum, the 
alkalis potash and lit hia, and from the administration of aspirin 
and sodium salicylate. Salicylate of menthol is an effective 
local application, painted on and covered with a gutta-percha 
bandage. Lithia was strongly recommended by Dr Garrod from 
its solvent action upon the urates. It is usually administered 
in the form of the carbonate (gr. v., freely diluted). 

The treatment and regimen to be employed in the intervals 
of the gouty attacks are of the highest importance. These 
bear reference for the most part to the habits and mode of life 
of the patient. Restriction must be laid upon the amount and 
quality of the food, and equally, or still more, upon the alcoholic 
stimulants. " The instances," says Sir Thomas Watson, " are 
not few of men of good sense, and masters of themselves, who, 
being warned by one visitation of the gout, have thenceforward 
resolutely abstained from rich living and from wine and strong 
drinks of all kinds, and who have been rewarded for their prudence 
and self-denial by complete immunity from any return of the 
disease, or upon whom, at any rate, its future assaults have been 
few and feeble." The same eminent authority adds: " I am 
sure it is worth any young man's while, who has had the gout, 
to become a teetotaller." By those more advanced in life 
who, from long continued habit, are unable entirely to relinquish 
the use of stimulants, the strictest possible temperance must 
be observed. Regular but moderate exercise in the form, of 
walking or riding, in the case of those who lead sedentary lives, 
is of great advantage, and all over-work, either physical or mental, 
should be avoided. Fatiguez la bite, et reposez la tile is the maxim 
of an experienced French doctor (Dr Debout d'Estrees of Con- 
trexeville). Unfortunately the complete carrying out of such 
directions, even by those who feel their importance, is too often 
rendered difficult or impossible by circumstances of occupation 
and otherwise, and at most only an approximation can be made. 
Certain mineral waters and baths (such as those of Vichy, 
Royat, Contrexeville, &c.) are of undoubted value in cases of 
gout and arthritis. The particular place must in each case be 
determined by the physician, and special caution must be 
observed in recommending this plan of treatment in persons 
whose gout is complicated by organic disease of any kind. 

Dr Alexander Haig's " uric acid free diet " has found many ad- 
His view as regards the pathology is that in gouty persons 



herents. 



, . . i it r ~ "oj C>vj' i/.*0%M*a 

the blood is less alkaline than in normal, and therefore less able to 
hold in solution uric acid or its salts, which are retained in the joints. 
Assuming gout to be a poisoning by animal food (meat, fish, eggs), 
and by tea, coffee, cocoa and other vegetable alkaloid-containing sub- 
stances, he recommends an average daily diet excluding these, and 
containing 24 oz. of breadstuffs (toast, bread, biscuits and puddings) 
together with 24 oz. of fruit and vegetables (excluding peas, beans, 
lentils, mushrooms and asparagus) ; 8 oz. of the breadstuffs may be 
replaced by 2 1 oz. of milk or 2 oz. of cheese, butter and oil being taken 
as required, so that it is not strictly a vegetarian diet. 



Precisely the opposite view as to diet has recently been put forward 
by Professor A. Robin of the Hdpital Beaujon, who says serious 
mistakes are made in ordering patients to abstain from red meats 
and take light food, fish, eggs, &c. The common object in view is the 
diminished output of uric acid. This output is chiefly obtained from 
food rich in nucleins and in collagenous matters, i.e. young white 
meats, eggs, &c. Consequently the gouty subject ought to restrict 
himself to the consumption of red meat, beef and mutton, and leave 
out of his dietary all white meat and internal organs. He should 
take little hydrocarbons and sugars, and be moderate in fats. 
Vegetarian diet he regards as a mistake, likewise milk diet, as they 
tend to weaken the patient. To prevent the formation of uric acid 
Robin prescribes quinic acid combined with formine or urotropine. 

GOUTHIERE, PIERRE (1740-1806), French metal worker, 
was born at Troyes and went to Paris at an early age as the 
pupil of Martin Cour. During his brilliant career he executed 
a vast quantity of metal work of the utmost variety, the best of 
which was unsurpassed by any of his rivals in that great art 
period. It was long believed that he received many commissions 
for furniture from the court of Louis XVI., and especially from 
Marie Antoinette, but recent searches suggest that his work for 
the queen was confined to bronzes. Gouthiere can, however, well 
bear this loss, nor will his reputation suffer should those critics 
ultimately be justified who believe that many of the furniture 
mounts attributed to him were from the hand of Thomire. But 
if he did not work for the court he unquestionably produced 
many of the most splendid belongings of the due d'Aumont, 
the duchesse de Mazarin and Mme du Barry. Indeed the 
custom of the beautiful mistress of Louis XV. brought about 
the financial ruin of the great artist, who accomplished more 
than any other man for the fame of her chateau of Louveciennes. 
When the collection of the due d'Aumont was sold by auction 
in Paris in 1782 so many objects mounted by Gouthiere were 
bought for Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette that it is not 
difficult to perceive the basis of the belief that they were actually 
made for the court. The due's sale catalogue is, however, in 
existence, with the names of the purchasers and the prices 
realized. The auction was almost an apotheosis of Gouthiere. 
The precious lacquer cabinets, the chandeliers and candelabra, 
the tables and cabinets in marquetry, the columns and vases 
in porphyry, jasper and choice marbles, the porcelains of China 
and Japan were nearly all mounted in bronze by him. More 
than fifty of these pieces bore Gouthiere's signature. The due 
d'Aumont's cabinet represented the high-water mark of the 
chaser's art, and the great prices which were paid for Gouthiere's 
work at this sale are the most conclusive criterion of the value 
set upon his achievement in his own day. Thus Marie Antoinette 
paid 12,000 livres for a red jasper bowl or brfile-parfums mounted 
by him, which was then already famous. Curiously enough 
it commanded only one-tenth of that price at the Founder sale 
in 1831; but in 1865, when the marquis of Hertford bought 
it at the prince de Beauvais's sale, it fetched 31,900 francs. It 
is now in the Wallace Collection, which contains the finest and 
most representative gathering of Gouthiere's undoubted work. 
The mounts of gilt bronze, cast and elaborately chased, show 
satyrs' heads, from which hang festoons of vine leaves, while 
within the feet a serpent is coiled to spring. A smaller cup is one 
of the treasures of the Louvre. There too is a bronze clock, 
signed by " Gouthiere, cizileur et doreur du Roy d Paris," dated 
1771, with a river god, a water nymph symbolizing the Rh6ne 
and its tributary the Durance, and a female figure typifying the 
city of Avignon. Not all of Gouthiere's work is of the highest 
quality, and much of what he executed was from the designs 
of others. At his best his delicacy, refinement and finish are 
exceedingly delightful in his great moments he ranks with 
the highest alike as artist and as craftsman. The tone of soft 
dead gold which is found on some of his mounts he is believed 
to have invented, but indeed the gilding of all his superlative 
work possesses a remarkable quality. This charm of tone is 
admirably seen in the bronzes and candelabra which he executed 
for the chimneypiece of Marie Antoinette's boudoir at Fontaine- 
bleau. He continued to embellish Louveciennes for Madame 
du Barry until the Revolution, and then the guillotine came for 
her and absolute ruin for him. When her property was seized 






2Q2 



GOUVION SAINT-CYR GOVERNMENT 



she owed him 756,000 livres, of which he never received a sol, 
despite repeated applications to the administrators. " Reduit 
d solliciter une place d I'hospice, il mourut dans la misere." So 
it was stated in a lawsuit brought by his sons against du Barry's 
heirs. 

GOUVION SAINT-CYR, LAURENT, MARQUIS DE (1764-1830), 
French marshal, was born at Toul on the ijth of April 1764. 
At the age of eighteen he went to Rome with the view of pro- 
secuting the study of painting, but although he continued his 
artistic studies after his return to Paris in 1784 he never definitely 
adopted the profession of a painter. In 1792 he was chosen 
a captain in a volunteer battalion, and served on the staff of 
General Custine. Promotion rapidly followed, and in the course 
of two years he had become a general of division. In 1796 he 
commanded the centre division of Moreau's army in the campaign 
of the Rhine, and by coolness and sagacity greatly aided him 
in the celebrated retreat from Bavaria to the Rhine. In 1798 
he succeeded Massena in the command of the army of Italy. 
In the following year he commanded the left wing of Jourdan's 
army in Germany; but when Jourdan was succeeded by Massena, 
he joined the army of Moreau in Italy, where he distinguished 
himself in face of the great difficulties that followed the defeat 
of Novi. When Moreau, in 1800, was appointed to the command 
of the army of the Rhine, Gouvion St-Cyr was named his principal 
lieutenant, and on the gth of May gained a victory over General 
Kray at Biberach. He was not, however, on good terms with 
his commander and retired to France after the first operations 
of the campaign. In 1801 he was sent to Spain to command 
the army intended for the invasion of Portugal, and was named 
grand officer of the Legion of Honour. Whn a treaty of peace 
was shortly afterwards concluded with Portugal, he succeeded 
Lucien Bonaparte as ambassador at Madrid. In 1803 he was 
appointed to the command of an army corps in Italy, in 1805 
he served with distinction under Massena, and in 1806 was 
engaged in the campaign in southern Italy. He took part in 
the Prussian and Polish campaigns of 1807, and in 1808, in which 
yea< he was made a count, he commanded an army corps in 
Catalonia; but, not wishing to comply with certain orders 
he received from Paris (for which see Oman, Peninsular War, 
vol. iii.), he resigned his command and remained in disgrace 
till 181 1 . He was still a general of division, having been excluded 
from the first list of marshals owing to his action in refusing 
to influence the troops in favour of the establishment of the 
Empire. On the opening of the Russian campaign he received 
command of an army corps, and on the i8th of August 1812 
obtained a victory over the Russians at Polotsk, in recognition 
of which he was created a marshal of France. He received a 
severe wound in one of the actions during the general retreat. 
St-Cyr distinguished himself at the battle of Dresden (August 
26-27, 1813), and in the defence of that place against the Allies 
after the battle of Leipzig, capitulating only on the nth of 
November, when Napoleon had retreated to the Rhine. On 
the restoration of the Bourbons he was created a peer of France, 
and in July 1815 was appointed war minister, but resigned his 
office in the November following. In June 1817 he was appointed 
minister of marine, and in September following again resumed 
the duties of war minister, which he continued to discharge 
till November 1819. During this time he effected many reforms, 
particularly in respect of measures tending to make the army 
a national rather than a dynastic force. He exerted himself 
also to safeguard the rights of the old soldiers of the Empire, 
organized the general staff and revised the code of military law 
and the pension regulations. He was made a marquess in 1817. 
He died at Hyeres (Var) on the i7th of March 1830. Gouvion 
St-Cyr would doubtless have obtained better opportunities of 
acquiring distinction had he shown himself more blindly devoted 
to the interests of Napoleon, but Napoleon paid him the high 
compliment of referring to his " military genius," and entrusted 
him with independent commands in secondary theatres of war. 
It is doubtful, however, if he possessed energy commensurate 
with his skill, and in Napoleon's modern conception of war, 
as three parts moral to one technical, there was more need for 



the services of a bold leader of troops whose " doctrine " to 
use the modern phrase predisposed him to self-sacrificing and 
vigorous action, than for a savant in the art of war of the type of 
St-Cyr. Contemporary opinion, as reflected by Marbot, did 
justice to his " commanding talents," but remarked the indolence 
which was the outward sign of the vague complexity of a mind 
that had passed beyond the simplicity of mediocrity without 
attaining the simplicity of genius. 

He was the author of the following works, all of the highest 
value: Journal des operations de I'armee de Catalogne en 1808 et 
i8oQ (Paris, 1821); Memoires sur les campagnes des armies de Rhin 
et de Rhin-et-MoseUe de 1794 a i?97 (Paris, 1829) ; and Memoires 
pour servir d Vhistoire militaire sous le Directoire, le Consulat, et 
I'Empire (1831). 

See Gay de Vernon's Vie de Gouvion Saint-Cyr (1857). 

GOVAN, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland. 
It lies on the south bank of the Clyde in actual contact with 
Glasgow, and in a parish of the same name which includes a large 
part of the city on both sides of the river. Pop. (1891) 61,589; 
(1901) 76,532. Govan remained little more than a village till 
1860, when the growth of shipbuilding and allied trades gave 
its development an enormous impetus. Among its public build- 
ings are the municipal chambers, combination fever hospital, 
Samaritan hospital and reception houses for the poor. Elder 
Park (40 acres) presented to the burgh in 1885 contains a statue 
of John Elder (1824-1869), the pioneer shipbuilder, the husband 
of the donor. A statue of Sir William Pearce (1833-1888), 
another well-known Govan shipbuilder, once M.P. for the burgh, 
stands at Govan Cross. The Govan lunacy board opened in 
1896 an asylum near Paisley. Govan is supplied with Glasgow 
gas and water, and its tramways are leased by the Glasgow 
corporation; but it has an electric light installation of its own, 
and performs all other municipal functions quite independently 
of the city, annexation to which it has always strenuously 
resisted. Prince's Dock lies within its bounds and the ship- 
building yards have turned out many famous ironclads and 
liners. Besides shipbuilding its other industries are match- 
making, silk-weaving, hair-working, copper-working, tube- 
making, weaving, and the manufacture of locomotives and 
electrical apparatus. The town forms the greater part of the 
Govan division of Lanarkshire, which returns one member to 
parliament. 

GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. goitvernement, 
O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, fnom Lat. gubernare, to steer a 
ship, guide, .rule; cf. Gr. Kv$tpva.v), in its widest sense, the 
ruling power in a political society. In every society of men there 
is a determinate body (whether consisting of one individual 
or a few or many individuals) whose commands the rest of the 
community are bound to obey. This sovereign body is what in 
more popular phrase is termed the government of the country, 
and the varieties which may exist in its constitution are known 
as forms of government. For the opposite theory of a community 
with " no government," see ANARCHISM. 

How did government come into existence? Various answers 
to this question have at times been given, which may be dis- 
tinguished broadly into three classes. The first class would 
comprehend the legendary accounts which nations have given 
in primitive times of their own forms of government. These 
are always attributed to the mind of a single lawgiver. The 
government of Sparta was the invention of Lycurgus. Solon, 
Moses, Numa and Alfred in like manner shaped the government 
of their respective nations. There was no curiosity about the 
institutions of other nations about the origin of governments 
in general; and each nation was perfectly ready to accept the 
traditional vofjaderai of any other. 

The second tnay be called the logical or metaphysical account 
of the origin of government. It contained no overt reference 
to any particular form of government, whatever its covert 
references may have been. It answered the question, how 
government in general came into existence; and it answered 
it by a logical analysis of the elements of society. The phenome- 
non to be accounted for being government and laws, it abstracted 
government and laws, and contemplated mankind as existing 



GOVERNMENT 



293 



without them. The characteristic feature of this kind of specula^ 
tion is that it reflects how contemporary men would behave 
if all government were removed, and infers that men must have 
behaved so before government came into existence. Society 
without government resolves itself into a number of individuals 
each following his own aims, and therefore, in the days before 
government, each man followed his own aims. It is easy to see 
how this kind of reasoning should lead to very different views 
of the nature of the supposed original state. With Hobbes, 
it is a state of war, and government is the result of an agreement 
among men to keep the peace. With Locke, it is a state of 
liberty and equality, it is not a state of war; it is governed 
by its own law, the law of nature, which is the same thing 
as the law of reason. The state of nature is brought to an end 
by the voluntary agreement of individuals to surrender their 
natural liberty and submit themselves to one supreme govern- 
ment. In the words of Locke, " Men being by nature all free, 
equal and independent, no one can be put out of this estate 
and subjected to the political power of another without his own 
consent. The only way whereby any one divests himself of his 
natural liberty, and puts on the bonds of civil society, is by agree- 
ing with other men to join and unite into a community " (On 
Civil Government, c. viii.). Locke boldly defends his theory 
as founded on historical fact, and it is amusing to compare his 
demonstration of the baselessness of Sir R. Filmer's speculations 
with the scanty and doubtful examples which he accepts as the 
foundation of his own. But in general the various forms of the 
hypothesis eliminate the question of time altogether. The 
original contract from which government sprang is likewise the 
subsisting contract on which civil society continues to be based. 
The historical weakness of the theory was probably always 
recognized. Its logical inadequacy was conclusively demon- 
strated by John Austin. But it still clings to speculations on 
the principles of government. 

The " social compact " (see ROUSSEAU) is the most famous 
of the metaphysical explanations of government. It has had 
the largest history, the widest influence and the most complete 
development. To the same class belong the various forms of 
the theory that governments exist by divine appointment. 
Of all that has been written about the divine right of kings, a 
great deal must be set down to the mere flatteries of courtiers 
and ecclesiastics. But there remains a genuine belief that men 
are bound to obey their rulers because their rulers have been 
appointed by God. Like the social compact, the theory of 
divine appointment avoided the question of historical fact. 

The application of the historical method to the phenomena 
of society has changed the aspect of the question and robbed it 
of its political interest. The student of the history of society has 
no formula to express the law by which government is born. All 
that he can do is to trace governmental forms through various 
stages of social development. The more complex and the larger 
the society, the more distinct is the separation between the 
governing part and the rest, and the more elaborate is the 
subdivision of functions in the government. The primitive 
type of ruler is king, judge, priest and general. At the same 
time, his way of life differs little from that of his followers and 
subjects. The metaphysical theories were so far right in imputing 
greater equality of social conditions to more primitive times. 
Increase of bulk brings with it a more complex socialorganization. 
War tends to develop the strength of the governmental organiza- 
tion; peace relaxes it. All societies of men exhibit the germs 
of government; but there would appear to be races of men so 
low that they cannot be said to live together in society at all. 
Modern investigations have illustrated very fully the importance 
of the family (q.v.) in primitive societies, and the belief in a 
common descent has much to do with the social cohesion of a 
tribe. The government of a tribe resembles the government of a 
household; the head of the family is the ruler. But we cannot 
affirm that political government has its origin in family govern- 
ment, or that there may not have been states of society in 
which government of some sort existed while the family did 
not. 



I. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT 






Three Standard Forms. Political writers from the time of 
Aristotle have been singularly unanimous in their classification 
of the forms of government. There are three ways in which 
states may be governed. They may be governed by one man, 
or by a number of men, small in proportion to the whole number 
of men in the state, or by a number large in proportion to the 
whole number of men in the state. The government may be 
a monarchy, an aristocracy or a democracy. The same terms 
are used by John Austin as were used by Aristotle, and in very 
nearly the same sense. The determining quality in governments 
in both writers, and it may safely be said in all intermediate 
writers, is the numerical relation between the constituent 
members of the government and the population of the state. 
There were, of course, enormous differences between the state- 
systems present to the mind of the Greek philosopher and the 
English jurist. Aristotle was thinking of the small independent 
states of Greece, Austin of the great peoples of modern Europe. 
The unit of government in the one case was a city, in the other 
a nation. This difference is of itself enough to invalidate all 
generalization founded on the common terminology. But on 
one point there is a complete parallel between the politics of 
Aristotle and the politics of Austin. The Greek cities were to 
the rest of the world very much what European nations and 
European colonies are to the rest of the world now. They were 
the only communities in which the governed visibly took some 
share in the work of government. Outside the European system, 
as outside the Greek system, we have only the stereotyped 
uniformity of despotism, whether savage or civilized. The 
question of forms of government, therefore, belongs character- 
istically to the European races. The virtues and defects of 
monarchy, aristocracy and democracy are the virtues and 
defects manifested by the historical governments of Europe. 
The generality of the language used by political writers must 
not blind us to the fact that they are thinking only of a compara- 
tively small portion of mankind. 

Greek Politics. Aristotle divides governments according to 
two principles. In all states the governing power seeks either 
its own advantage or the advantage of the whole state, and 
the government is_ bad or good accordingly. In all states the 
governing power is one man, or a few men or many men. Hence 
six varieties of government, three of which are bad and three 
good. Each excellent form has a corresponding depraved form, 
thus: 

The good government of one (Monarchy) corresponds to the 
depraved form (Tyranny). 

The good government of few (Aristocracy) corresponds to 
the depraved form (Oligarchy). 

The good government of many (Commonwealth) corresponds 
to the depraved form (Democracy). 

The fault of the depraved forms is that the governors act 
unjustly where their own interests are concerned. The worst 
of the depraved forms is tyranny, the next oligarchy and the 
least bad democracy. 1 Each of the three leading types exhibits 
a number of varieties. Thus in monarchy we have the heroic, 
the barbaric, the elective dictatorship, the Lacedemonian 
(hereditary generalship, aTparrrfla), and absolute monarchy. 
So democracy and oligarchy exhibit four corresponding varieties. 
The best type of democracy is that of a community mainly 
agricultural, whose citizens, therefore, have not leisure for 
political affairs, and allow the law to rule. The best oligarchy 
is that in which a considerable number of small proprietors 
have the power; here, too, the laws prevail. The worst 
democracy consists of a larger citizen class having leisure for 
politics; and the worst oligarchy is that of a small number of 
very rich and influential men. In both the sphere of law is 
reduced to a minimum. A good government is one in which 
as much as possible is left to the laws, and as little as possible 
to the will of the governor. 

1 Aristotle elsewhere speaks of the error of those who think that 
any one of the depraved forms is better than any other. 



294 



GOVERNMENT 



The Politics of Aristotle, from which these principles are 
taken, presents a striking picture of the variety and activity 
of political life in the free communities of Greece. The king and 
council of heroic times had disappeared, and self-government 
in some form or other was the general rule. It is to be noticed, 
however, that the governments of Greece were essentially 
unstable. The political philosophers could lay down the law 
of development by which one form of government gives birth 
to another. Aristotle devotes a large portion of his work to 
the consideration of the causes of revolutions. The dread of 
tyranny was kept alive by the facility with which an over- 
powerful and unscrupulous citizen could seize the whole machinery 
of government. Communities oscillated between some form of 
oligarchy and some form of democracy. The security of each 
was constantly imperilled by the conspiracies of the opposing 
factions. Hence, although political life exhibits that exuberant 
variety of form and expression which characterizes all the in- 
tellectual products of Greece, it lacks the quality of persistent 
progress. Then there was no approximation to a national 
government, even of the federal type. The varying confederacies 
and hegemonies are the nearest approach to anything of the kind. 
What kind of national government would ultimately have arisen 
if Greece had not been crushed it is needless to conjecture; 
the true interest of Greek politics lies in the fact that the free 
citizens were, in the strictest sense of the word, self -governed. 
Each citizen took his turn at the common business of the state. 
He spoke his own views in the agora, and from time to time 
in his own person acted as magistrate or judge. Citizenship 
in Athens was a liberal education, such as it never can be made 
under any representative system. 

The Government of Rome. During the whole period of freedom 
the government of Rome was, in theory at least, municipal 
self-government. Each citizen had a right to vote laws in his 
own person in the comitia of the centuries or the tribes. The 
administrative powers of government were, however, in the hands 
of a bureaucratic assembly, recruited from the holders of high 
public office. The senate represented capacity and experience 
rather than rank and wealth. Without some such instrument 
the city government of Rome could never have made the conquest 
of the world. The gradual extension of the citizenship to other 
Italians changed the character of Roman government. The 
distant citizens could not come to the voting booths; the device 
of representation was not discovered; and the comitia fell into 
the power of the town voters. In the last stage of the Roman 
republic, the inhabitants of one town wielded the resources of 
a world-wide empire. We can imagine what would be the effect 
of leaving to the people of London or Paris the supreme control 
of the British empire or of France, irresistible temptation, 
inevitable corruption. The rabble of the capital learn to live 
on the rest of the empire. 1 The favour of the effeminate masters 
of the world is purchased by panem el circenses. That capable 
officers and victorious armies should long be content to serve 
such masters was impossible. A conspiracy of generals placed 
itself at the head of affairs, and the most capable of them made 
himself sole master. Under Caesar, Augustus .and Tiberius, 
the Roman people became habituated to a new form of govern- 
ment, which is best described by the name of Caesarism. The 
outward forms of republican government remained, but one 
man united in his own person all the leading offices, and used 
them to give a seemingly legal title to what was essentially 
military despotism. There is no more interesting constitutional 
study than the chapters in which Tacitus traces the growth 
of the new system under the subtle and dissimulating intellect 
of Tiberius. The new Roman empire was as full of fictions as 
the English constitution of the present day. The master of the 
world posed as the humble servant of a menial senate. Depre- 

1 None of the free states of Greece ever made extensive or per- 
manent conquests; but the tribute sometimes paid by one state to 
another (as by the Aeginetans to the Athenians) was a manifest source 
of corruption. Compare the remarks of Hume (Essays, part i. 3, That 
Politics may be reduced to a Science), " free governments are the most 
ruinous and oppressive for their provinces." 



eating the outward symbols of sovereignty, he was satisfied with 
the modest powers of a consul or a tribunus plebis. The reign 
of Tiberius, little capable as he was by personal character of 
captivating the favour of the multitude, did more for imperialism 
than was done by his more famous predecessors. Henceforward 
free government all over the world lay crushed beneath the 
military despotism of Rome. Caesarism remained true to the 
character imposed upon it by its origin. The Caesar was an 
elective not an hereditary king. The real foundation of his 
power was the army, and the army in course of time openly 
assumed the right of nominating the sovereign. The character- 
istic weakness of the Roman empire was the uncertainty of the 
succession. The nomination of a Caesar in the lifetime of the 
emperor was an ineffective remedy. Rival emperors were 
elected by different armies; and nothing less than the force 
of arms could decide the question between them. 

Modern Governments. Feudalism. The Roman empire be- 
queathed to modern Europe the theory of universal dominion. 
The nationalities which grew up after its fall arranged themselves 
on the basis of territorial sovereignty. Leaving out of account 
the free municipalities of the middle ages, the problem of govern- 
ment had now to be solved, not for small urban communities, 
but for large territorial nations. The medieval form of govern- 
ment was feudal. One common type pervaded all the relations 
of life. The relation of king and lord was like the relation between 
lord and vassal (see FEUDALISM). The bond between them 
was the tenure of land. In England there had been, before 
the Norman Conquest, an approximation to a feudal system. 
In the earlier English constitution, the most striking features 
were the power of the witan, and the common property of the 
nation in a large portion of the soil. The steady development 
of the power of the king kept pace with the aggregation of the 
English tribes under one king. The conception that the land 
belonged primarily to the people gave way to the conception 
that everything belonged primarily to the king. 2 The Norman 
Conquest imposed on England the already highly developed 
feudalism of France, and out of this feudalism the free govern- 
ments of modern Europe have grown. One or two of the leading 
steps in this process may be indicated here. The first, and 
perhaps the most important, was the device of representation. 
For an account of its origin, and for instances of its use in England 
before its application to politics, we must be content to refer 
to Stubbs's Constitutional History, vol. ii. The problem of com- 
bining a large area of sovereignty with some degree of self- 
government, which had proved fatal to ancient commonwealths, 
was henceforward solved. From that time some form of repre- 
sentation has been deemed essential to every constitution 
professing, however remotely, to be free. 

The connexion between representation and the feudal system 
of estates must be shortly noticed. The feudal theory gave the 
king a limited right to military service and to certain aids, both 
of which were utterly inadequate to meet the expenses of the 
government, especially in time of war. The king therefore 
had to get contributions from his people, and he consulted 
them in their respective orders. The three estates were simply 
the three natural divisions of the people, and Stubbs has pointed 
out that, in the occasional treaties between a necessitous king 
and the order of merchants or lawyers, we have examples of 
inchoate estates or sub-estates of the realm. The right of repre- 
sentation was thus in its origin a right to consent to taxation. 
The pure theory of feudalism had from the beginning been 
broken by William the Conqueror causing all free-holders to 
take an oath of direct allegiance to himself. The institution of 
parliaments, and the association of the king's smaller 
tenants in capite with other commoners, still further removed the 

2 Ultimately, in the theory of English law, the king may be said to 
have become the universal successor of the people. Same of the 
peculiarities of the prerogative rights seem to be explainable only 
on this view, e.g. the curious distinction between wrecks come to 
land and wrecks still on water. The common right to wreckage was 
no doubt the origin of the prerogative right to the former. Every 
ancient common right has come to be a right of the crown or a right 
held of the crown by a vassal. 



GOVERNMENT 



295 



government from the purely feudal type in which the mesne lord 
stands between the inferior vassal and the king. 

Parliamentary Government. The English System. The right 
of the commons to share the power of the king and lords in 
legislation, the exclusive right of the commons to impose taxes, 
the disappearance of the clergy as a separate order, were all 
important steps in the movement towards popular government. 
The extinction of the old feudal nobility in the dynastic wars of 
the i sth century simplified the question by leaving the crown 
face to face with parliament. The immediate result was no 
doubt an increase in the power of the crown, which probably 
never stood higher than it did in the reigns of Henry VIII. and 
Elizabeth; but even these powerful monarchs were studious 
in their regard for parliamentary conventionalities. After a 
long period of speculative controversy and civil war, the settle- 
ment of 1688 established limited monarchy as the government 
of England. Since that time the external form of government 
has remained unchanged, and, so far as legal description goes, 
the constitution of William III. might be taken for the same 
system as that which still exists. The silent changes have, 
however, been enormous. The most striking of these, and that 
which has produced the most salient features of the English 
system, is the growth of cabinet government. Intimately con- 
nected with this is the rise of the two great historical parties of 
English politics. The normal state of government in England 
is that the cabinet of the day shall represent that which is, for 
the time, the stronger of the two. Before the Revolution the 
king's ministers had begun to act as a united body; but even 
after the Revolution the union was still feeble and fluctuating, 
and_'each individual minister was bound to the others only by 
the tie of common service to the king. Under the Hanoverian 
sovereigns the ministry became consolidated, the position of 
the cabinet became definite, and its dependence on parliament, 
and more particularly on the House of Commons, was established. 
Ministers were chosen exclusively from one house or the other, 
and they assumed complete responsibility for every act done 
in the name of the crown. The simplicity of English politics 
has divided parliament into the representatives of two parties, 
and the party in opposition has been steadied by the conscious- 
ness that it, too, has constitutional functions of high importance, 
because at any moment it may be called to provide a ministry. 
Criticism is sobered by being made responsible. Along with 
this movement went the withdrawal of the personal action of 
the sovereign in politics. No king has attempted to veto a 
bill since the Scottish Militia Bill was vetoed by Queen Anne. 
No ministry has been dismissed by the sovereign since 1834. 
Whatever the power of the sovereign may be, it is unquestionably 
limited to his personal influence over his ministers. And it 
must be remembered that since the Reform Act of 1832 ministers 
have become, in practice, responsible ultimately, not to parlia- 
ment, but to the House of Commons. Apart, therefore, from 
democratic changes due to a wider suffrage, we find that the 
House of Commons, as a body, gradually made itself the centre 
of the government. Since the area of the constitution has been 
enlarged, it may be doubted whether the orthodox descriptions 
of the government any longer apply. The earlier constitutional 
writers, such as Blackstone and J. L. Delolme, regard it as a 
wonderful compound of the three standard forms, monarchy, 
aristocracy and democracy. Each has its place, and each acts 
as a check upon the others. Hume, discussing the question 
" Whether the British government inclines more to absolute 
monarchy or to a republic," decides in favour of the former 
alternative. " The tide has run long and with some rapidity 
to the side of popular government, and is just beginning to 
turn toward monarchy." And he gives it as his own opinion 
that absolute monarchy would be the easiest death, the true 
euthanasia of the British constitution. These views of the 
En^ish government in the i8th century may be contrasted 
with Bagehot's sketch of the modern government as a working 
instrument. 1 

J See Bagehot's English Constitution; or, for a more recent 
analysis, Sidney Low's Governance of England. 



Iaiiaiy 



Leading Features of Parliamentary Government. The parlia- 
mentary government developed by England out of feudal 
materials has been deliberately accepted as the type of constitu- 
tional government all over the world. Its leading features are 
popular representation more or less extensive, a bicameral 
legislature, and a cabinet or consolidated ministry. In connexion 
with all of these, numberless questions of the highest practical 
importance have arisen, the bare enumeration of which would 
surpass the limits of our space. We shall confine ourselves to 
a few very general considerations. 

The Two Chambers. First, as to the douole chamber. This, 
which is perhaps more accidental than any other portion of 
the British system, has been the most widely imitated. In most 
European countries, in the British colonies, in the United 
States Congress, and in the separate states of the Union, 2 there 
are two houses of legislature. This result has been brought 
about partly by natural imjtatiqn of the accepted type of free 
government, partly from a conviction that the second chamber 
will moderate the democratic tendencies of the first. But the 
elements of the British original cannot be reproduced to order 
under different conditions. There have, indeed, been a few 
attempts to imitate the special character of hereditary nobih'ty 
attaching to the British House of Lords. In some countries, 
where the feudal tradition is still strong (e.g. Prussia, Austria, 
Hungary), the hereditary element in the upper chambers has 
survived as truly representative of actual social and economic 
relations. But where these social conditions do not obtain 
(e.g. in France after the Revolution) the attempt to establish 
an hereditary peerage on the British model has always failed. 
For the peculiar solidarity between the British nobility and the 
general mass of the people, the outcome of special conditions 
and tendencies, is a result beyond the power of constitution- 
makers to attain. The British system too, after its own way, 
has for a long period worked without any serious collision 
between the Houses, the standing and obvious danger of the 
bicameral system. The actual ministers of the day must possess 
the confidence of the House of Commons; they need not in fact 
they often do not possess the confidence of the House of Lords. 
It is only in legislation that the Lower House really shares its 
powers with the Upper; and (apart from any such change in 
the constitution as was suggested in 1907 by Sir H. Campbell- 
Bannerman) the constitution possesses, in the unlimited power 
of nominating peers, a well-understood last resource should 
the House of Lords persist in refusing important measures 
demanded by the representatives of the people. In the United 
Kingdom it is well understood that the real sovereignty lies 
with the people (the electorate), and the House of Lords 
recognizes the principle that it must accept a measure when the 
popular will has been clearly expressed. In all but measures 
of first-class importance, however, the House of Lords is a real 
second chamber, and in these there is little danger of a collision 
between the Houses. There is the widest possible difference 
between the British and any other second chamber. In the 
United States the Senate (constituted on the system of equal 
representation of states) is the more important of the two 
Houses, and the only one whose control of the executive can be 
compared to that exercised by the British House of Commons. 

The real strength of popular government in England lies in 
the ultimate supremacy of the House of Commons. That 
supremacy had been acquired, perhaps to its full extent, before 
the extension of the suffrage made the constituencies democratic. 
Foreign imitators, it may be observed, have been more ready to 
accept a wide basis of representation than to confer real power 
on the representative body. In all the monarchical countries 
of Europe, however unrestricted the right of suffrage may be, 
the real victory of constitutional government has yet to be won. 
Where the suffrage means little or nothing, there is little or no 
reason for guarding it against abuse. The independence of the 
executive in the United States brings that country, from one 

2 For an account of the double chamber system in the state legis- 
latures see UNITED STATES: Constitution and Government, and also 
S. G. Fisher, The Evolution of the Constitution (Philadelphia, 1897). 



296 



GOVERNMENT 



point of view, more near to the state system of the continent 
of Europe than to that of the United Kingdom. The people 
make a more complete surrender of power to the government 
(State or Federal) than is done in England. 

Cabinet Government. The peculiar functions of the English 
cabinet are not easily matched in any foreign system. They are 
a mystery even to most educated Englishmen. The cabinet 
(g.v.) is much more than a body consisting of chiefs of depart- 
ments. It is the inner council of the empire, the arbiter of 
national policy, foreign or domestic, the sovereign in commission. 
The whole power of the House of Commons is concentrated in 
its hands. At the same time, it has no place whatever in the 
legal constitution. Its numbers and its constitution are not 
fixed even by any rule of practice. It keeps no record of its 
proceedings. The relations of an individual minister to the 
cabinet, and of the cabinet to its head and creator, the premier, 
are things known only to the initiated. With the doubtful 
exception of France, no other system of government presents 
us with anything like its equivalent. In the United States, 
as in the European monarchies, we have a council of ministers 
surrounding the chief of the state. 

Change of Power in the English System. One of the most 
difficult problems of government is how to provide for the 
devolution of political power, and perhaps no other question 
is so generally and justly applied as the test of a working con- 
stitution. If the transmission works smoothly, the constitution, 
whatever may be its other defects, may at least be pronounced 
stable. It would be tedious to enumerate all the contrivances 
which this problem has suggested to political societies. Here, 
as usual, oriental despotism stands at the bottom of the scale. 
When sovereign power is imputed to one family, and the law 
of succession fails to designate exclusively the individual entitled 
to succeed, assassination becomes almost a necessary measure 
of precaution. The prince whom chance or intrigue has pro- 
moted to the throne of a father or an uncle must make himself 
safe from his relatives and competitors. Hence the scenes 
which shock the European conscience when " Amurath an 
Amurath succeeds." The strong monarchical governments 
of Europe have been saved from this evil by an indisputable 
law of succession, which macks out from his infancy the next 
successor to the throne. The king names his ministers, and the 
law names the king. In popular or constitutional governments 
far more elaborate precautions are required. It is one of the real 
merits of the English constitution that it has solved this problem 
in a roundabout way perhaps, after its fashion but with per- 
fect success. The ostensible seat of power is the throne, and 
down to a time not long distant the demise of the crown suspended 
all the other powers of the state. In point of fact, however, the 
real change of power occurs on a change of ministry. The con- 
stitutional practice of the ipth century settled, beyond the 
reach of controversy, the occasions on which a ministry is bound 
to retire. It must resign or dissolve when it is defeated * in the 
House of Commons, and if after a dissolution it is beaten again, 
it must resign without alternative. It may resign if it thinks its 
majority in the House of Commons not sufficiently large. The 
dormant functions of the crown now come into existence. It 
receives back political power from the old ministry in order to 
transmit it to the new. When the new ministry is to be formed, 
and how it is to be formed, is also clearly settled by established 
practice. The outgoing premier names his successor by recom- 
mending the king to consult him; and that successor must be 
the recognized leader of his successful rivals. All this is a 
matter of custom, not of law; and it is doubtful if any two 
authorities could agree in describing the custom in language 
of precision. In theory the monarch may send for any one 
he please's, and charge him with the formation of a government; 
but the ability to form a government restricts this liberty to 
the recognized head of a party, subject to there being such an 
individual. It is certain that the intervention of the crown 

1 A government " defeat " may, of course, not really represent a 
hostile vote in exceptional cases, and in some instances a government 
has obtained a reversal of the vote and has not resigned. 



facilitates the transfer of power from one party to another, by 
giving it the appearance of a mere change of servants. The 
real disturbance is that caused by the appeal to the electors. 
A general election is always a struggle between the great political 
parties for the possession of the powers of government. It 
may be noted that modern practice goes far to establish the rule 
that a ministry beaten at the hustings should resign at once 
without waiting for a formal defeat in the House of Commons. 

The English custom makes the ministry dependent on the will 
of the House of Commons; and, on the other hand, the House 
of Commons itself is dependent on the will of the ministry. In 
the last result both depend on the will of the constituencies, 
as expressed at the general election. There is no fixity in either 
direction in the tenure of a ministry. It may be challenged at 
any moment, and it lasts until it is challenged and beaten. And 
that there should be a ministry and a House of Commons in 
harmony with each other but out of harmony with the people is 
rendered all but impossible by the law and the practice as to 
the duration of parliaments. 

Change of Power in the United States. The United States 
offers a very different solution of the problem. The American 
president is at once king and prime minister; and there is no 
titular superior to act as a conduit-pipe between him and his 
successor. His crown is rigidly fixed; he can be removed only 
by the difficult method of impeachment. No hostile vote 
on matters of legislation can affect his position. But the end of 
his term is known from the first day of his government; and 
almost before he begins to reign the political forces of the country 
are shaping out a new struggle for the succession. Further, a 
change of government in America means a considerable change 
in the administrative staff (see CIVIL SERVICE). The com- 
motion caused by a presidential election in the United States 
is thus infinitely greater and more prolonged than that caused 
by a general election in England. A change of power in England 
affects comparatively few personal interests, and absorbs the 
attention of the country for a comparatively short space of time. 
In the United States it is long foreseen and elaborately prepared 
for, and when it comes it involves the personal fortunes of large 
numbers of citizens. And yet the British constitution is more 
democratic than the American, in the sense that the popular 
will can more speedily be brought to bear upon the government. 

Change of Power in France. The established practice of 
England and America may be compared with the constitutional- 
ism of France. Here the problem presents different conditions. 
The head of the state is neither a premier of the English, nor 
a president of the American type. He is served by a prime 
minister and a cabinet, who, like an English ministry, hold office 
on the condition of parliamentary confidence; but he holds 
office himself on the same terms, and is, in fact, a minister like 
the others. So far as the transmission of power from cabinet 
to cabinet is concerned, he discharges the functions of an English 
king. But the transmission of power between himself and his 
successor is protected by no constitutional devices whatever, 
and experience would seem to show that no such devices are 
really necessary. Other European countries professing con- 
stitutional government appear to follow the English practice. 
The Swiss republic is so peculiarly situated that it is hardly fair to 
compare it with any other. But it is interesting to note that, 
while the rulers of the states are elected annually, the same 
persons are generally re-elected. 

The Relation between Government and Laws. It might be 
supposed that, if any general proposition could be established 
about government, it would be one establishing some constant 
relation between the form of a government and the character 
of the laws which it enforces. The technical language of the 
English school of jurists is certainly of a kind to encourage such 
a supposition. The entire body of law in force in a country 
at any moment is regarded as existing solely by the fiat of the 
governing power. There is no maxim more entirely in the spirit 
of this jurisprudence than the following: " The real legislator 
is not he by whom the law was first ordained, but he by whose 
will it continues to be law." The whole of the vast repertory 



GOVERNMENT 



297 






of rules which make up the law of England the rules of practice 
in the courts, the local customs of a county or a manor, the 
principles formulated by the sagacity of generations of judges, 
equally with the statutes for the year, are conceived of by the 
school of Austin as created by the will of the sovereign and the 
two Houses of Parliament, or so much of them as would now 
satisfy the definition of sovereignty. It would be out of place 
to examine here the difficulties which embarrass this definition, 
but the statement we have made carries on its face a demonstra- 
tion of its own falsity in fact. There is probably no government 
in the world of which it could be said that it might change at 
will the substantive laws of the country and still remain a 
government. However well it may suit the purposes of analytical 
jurisprudence to define a law as a command set by sovereign to 
subject, we must not forget that this is only a definition, and that 
the assumption it rests upon is, to the student of society, any- 
thing but a universal fact. From his point of view the cause of 
a particular law is not one but many, and of the many the deliber- 
ate will of a legislator may not be one. Sir Henry Maine has 
illustrated this point by the case of the great tax-gathering 
empires of the east, in which the absolute master of millions 
of men never dreams of making anything in the nature of a law 
at all. This view is no doubt as strange to the English statesman 
as to the English jurist. The most conspicuous work of govern- 
ment in his view is that of parliamentary legislation. For a 
large portion of the year the attention of the whole people is 
bent on the operations of a body of men who are constantly 
engaged in making new laws. It is natural, therefore, to think 
of law as a factitious thing, made and unmade by the people 
who happen for the time being to constitute parliament. It is 
forgotten how small a proportion the laws actually devised by 
parliament are of the law actually prevailing in the land. No 
European country has undergone so many changes in the form 
of government as France. It is surprising how little effect these 
political revolutions have had on the body of French law. 
The change from empire to republic is not marked by greater 
legislative effects than the change from a Conservative to a 
Liberal ministry in England would be. 

These reflections should make us cautious in accepting any 
general proposition about forms of government and the spirit 
of their laws. We must remember, also, that the classification 
of governments according to the numerical proportion between 
governors and governed supplies but a small basis for generaliza- 
tion. What parallel can be drawn between a small town, in which 
half the population are slaves, and every freeman has a direct 
voice in the government, and a great modern state, in which 
there is not a single slave, while freemen exercise their sovereign 
powers at long intervals, and through the action of delegates 
and representatives ? Propositions as vague as those of Montes- 
quieu may indeed be asserted with more or less plausibility. 
But to take any leading head of positive law, and to say that 
monarchies treat it in one way, aristocracies and democracies 
in another, is a different matter. 

II. SPHERE or GOVERNMENT 



The action of the state, or sovereign power, or government 
in a civilized community shapes itself into the threefold functions 
of legislation, judicature and administration. The two first 
are perfectly well-defined, and the last includes all the kinds 
of state action not included in the other two. It is with reference 
to legislation and administration that the line of permissible 
state-action requires to be drawn. There is no doubt about the 
province of the judicature, and that function of government 
may therefore be dismissed with a very few observations. 

The complete separation of the three functions marks a 
high point of social organization. In simple societies the same 
officers discharge all the duties which we divide between the 
legislator, the administrator and the judge. The acts them- 
selves are not consciously recognized as being of different kinds. 
The evolution of all the parts of a highly complex government 
from one original is illustrated in a striking way by the history 
of English institutions. All the conspicuous parts of the modern 



government, however little they may resemble each other now, 
can be followed back without a break to their common origin. 
Parliament, the cabinet, the privy council, the courts of law, 
all carry us back to the same nidus in the council of the feudal 
king. 

Judicature. The business of judicature, requiring as it does 
the possession of a high degree of technical skill and knowledge, 
is generally entrusted by the sovereign body or people to a 
separate and independent class of functionaries. In England 
the appellate jurisdiction of the House of Lords still maintains 
in theory the connexion between the supreme legislative and the 
supreme judicial functions. In some states of the American Union 
certain judicial functions of the upper house were for a time main- 
tained after the example of the English constitution as it existed 
when the states were founded. In England there is also still 
a considerable amount of judicial work in which the people takes 
its share. The inferior magistracies, except in populous places, 
are in the hands of private persons. And by the jury system 
the ascertainment of fact has been committed in very large 
measure to persons selected indiscriminately from the mass 
of the people, subject to a small property qualification. But 
the higher functions of the judicature are exercised by persons 
whom the law has jealously fenced off from external interference 
and control. The independence of the bench distinguishes the 
English system from every other. It was established in principle 
as a barrier against monarchical power, and hence has become 
one of the traditional ensigns of popular government. In many 
of the American states the spirit of democracy has demanded 
the subjection of the judiciary to popular control. The judges 
are elected directly by the people, and hold office for a short 
term, instead of being appointed, as in England, by the respons- 
ible executive, and removable only by a vote of the two Houses. 
At the same time the constitution of the United States has 
assigned to the supreme court of the Union a perfectly unique 
position. The supreme court is the guardian of the constitution 
(as are the state courts of the constitution of the states: see 
UNITED STATES). It has to judge whether a measure passed 
by the legislative powers is not void by reason of being uncon- 
stitutional, and it may therefore have to veto the deliberate 
resolutions of both Houses of Congress and the president. It 
is admitted that this singular experiment in government has been 
completely justified by its success. 

Limits of State Interference in Legislation and Administration. 
The question of the limits of state action does not arise with 
reference to the judiciary. The enforcement of the laws is a 
duty which the sovereign power must of absolute necessity 
take upon itself. But to what conduct of the citizens the laws 
shall extend is the most perplexing of all political questions. 
The correlative question with regard to the executive would 
be what works of public convenience should the state undertake 
through its own servants. The whole question of the sphere 
of government may be stated in these two questions: What 
should the state do for its citizens ? and How far should the 
state interfere with the action of its citizens ? These questions 
are the direct outcome of modern popular government; they 
are equally unknown to the small democracies of ancient times 
and to despotic governments at all times. Accordingly ancient 
political philosophy, rich as it is in all kinds of suggestions, 
has very little to say that has any bearing on the sphere of 
government. The conception that the power of the state can 
be and ought to be limited belongs to the times of " government 
by discussion," to use Bagehot's expression, to the time when 
the sovereign number is divided by class interests, and when 
the action of the majority has to be carried out in the face of 
strong minorities, capable of making themselves heard. Aristotle 
does indeed dwell on one aspect of the question. He would 
limit the action of the government in the sense of leaving as little 
as possible to the personal will of the governors, whether one 
or many. His maxim is that the law should reign. But that the 
sphere of law itself should be restricted, otherwise than by 
general principles of morality, is a consideration wholly foreign 
to ancient philosophy. The state is conceived as acting like 



298 



GOVERNOR GOWER, J. 



a just man, and justice in the state is the same thing as justice 
in the individual. The Greek institutions which the philosophers 
are unanimous in commending are precisely those which the most 
state-ridden nations of modern times would agree in repudiating. 
The exhaustive discussion of all political measures, which for 
over two centuries has been a fixed habit of English public life, 
has of itself established the principle that there are assignable 
limits to the action of the state. Not that the limits ever have 
been assigned in terms, but popular sentiment has more or 
less vaguely fenced off departments of conduct as sacred from 
the interference of the law. Phrases like " the liberty of the 
subject," the " sanctity of private property," an Englishman's 
house is his castle," " the rights of conscience," are the common- 
places of political discussion, and tell the state, " Thus far shall 
thou go and no further." 

The two contrasting policies are those of laissez-faire (let 
alone) and Protection, or individualism and state-socialism, 
the one a policy of non-interference with the free play of social 
forces, the other of their regulation for the benefit of the com- 
munity. The laissez-faire theory was prominently upheld by 
John Stuart Mill, whose essay on Liberty, together with the 
concluding chapters of his treatise on Political Economy, gives 
a tolerably complete view of the principles of government. 
There is a general presumption against the interference of govern- 
ment, which is only to be overcome by very strong evidence 
of necessity. Governmental action is generally less effective 
than voluntary action. The necessary duties of government 
are so burdensome, that to increase them destroys its efficiency. 
Its powers are already so great that individual freedom is 
constantly in danger. As a general rule, nothing which can be 
done by the voluntary agency of individuals should be left to 
the state. Each man is the best judge of his own interests. 
But, on the other hand, when the thing itself is admitted to 
be useful or necessary, and it cannot be effected by voluntary 
agency, or when it is of such a nature that the consumer cannot 
be considered capable of judging of the quality supplied, then 
Mill would allow the state to interpose. Thus the education 
of children , and even of adults, would fairly come within the 
province of the state. Mill even goes so far as to admit that, 
where a restriction of the hours of labour, or the establishment 
of a periodical holiday, is proved to be beneficial to labourers 
as a class, but cannot be carried out voluntarily on account of 
the refusal of individuals to co-operate, government may justifi- 
ably compel them to co-operate. Still further, Mill would desire 
to see some control exercised by the government over the opera- 
tions of those voluntary associations which, consisting of large 
numbers of shareholders, necessarily leave their affairs in the 
hands of one or a few persons. In short, Mill's general rule 
against state action admits of many important exceptions, 
founded on no principle less vague than that of public expediency. 
The essay on Liberty is mainly concerned with freedom of 
individual character, and its arguments apply to control exercised, 
not only by the state, but by society in the form of public opinion. 
The leading principle is that of Humboldt, " the absolute and 
essential importance of human development in its richest 
diversity." Humboldt broadly excluded education, religion 
and morals from the action, direct and indirect, of the state. 
Mill, as we have seen, conceives education to be within the pro- 
vince of the state, but he would confine its action to compelling 
parents to educate their children. 

The most thoroughgoing opponent of state action, however, 
is Herbert Spencer. In his Social Statics, published in 1850, 
he holds it to be the essential duty of government to protect 
to maintain men's rights to life, to personal liberty and to 
property; and the theory that the government ought to under- 
take other offices besides that of protector he regards as an 
untenable theory. Each man has a right to the fullest exercise 
of all his faculties, compatible with the same right in others. 
This is the fundamental law of equal freedom, which it is the 
duty and the only duty of the state to enforce. If the state 
goes beyond this duty, it becomes, not a protector, but an 
aggressor. Thus all state regulations of commerce, all religious 



establishments, all government relief of the poor, all state 
systems of education and of sanitary superintendence, even 
the state currency and the post-office, stand condemned, not 
only as ineffective for their respective purposes, but as involving 
violations of man's natural liberty. 

The tendency of modern legislation is more a question of 
political practice than of political theory. In some cases state 
interference has been abolished or greatly limited. These cases 
are mainly two in matters of opinion (especially religious 
opinion), and in matters of contract. 

The mere enumeration of the individual instances would occupy a 
formidable amount of space. The reader is referred to such articles 
as ENGLAND, CHURCH OF; ESTABLISHMENT; MARRIAGE; OATH; 
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, &c., and COMPANY; CONTRACT; 
PARTNERSHIP, &c. In other cases the state has interfered for the 
protection and assistance of definite classes of persons. For example, 
the education and protection of children (see CHILDREN, LAW RE- 
LATING TO; EDUCATION; TECHNICAL EDUCATION); the regulation 
of factory labour and dangerous employment (see LABOUR LEGISLA- 
TION); improved conditions of health (see ADULTERATION; HOUS- 
ING; PUBLIC HEALTH, LAW OF, &c.); coercion for moral purposes 
(see BET AND BETTING; CRIMINAL LAW; GAMING AND WAGERING; 
LIQUOR LAWS; LOTTERIES, &c.). Under numerous other headings 
in this work the evolution of existing forms of government is dis- 
cussed ; see also the bibliographical note to the article CONSTITUTION 
AND CONSTITUTIONAL LAW. 

GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. 
governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide), in 
general, one who governs or exercises authority; specifically, 
an official appointed to govern a district, province, town, &c. 
In British colonies or dependencies the representative of the 
crown is termed a governor. Colonial governors are classed 
as governors-general, governors and lieutenant-governors, 
according to the status of the colony or group of colonies over 
which they preside. Their powers vary according to the position 
which they occupy. In all cases they represent the authority 
of the crown. In the United States (q.v.) the official at the 
head of every state government is called a governor. 

GOW, NIEL (1727-1807), Scottish musician of humble parent- 
age, famous as a violinist and player of reels, but more so for 
the part he played in preserving the old melodies of Scotland. 
His compositions, and those of his four sons, Nathaniel, the 
most famous (1763-1831), William (1751-1791), Andrew (1760- 
1803), and John (1764-1826), formed the " Gow Collection," 
comprising various volumes edited by Niel and his sons, a 
valuable repository of Scottish traditional airs. The most im- 
portant of Niel's sons was Nathaniel, who is remembered as 
the author of the well-known " Caller Herrin," taken from the 
fishwives' cry, a tune to which words were afterwards written 
byLadyNairne. Nathaniel's son, NIEL Gow Junior(i795-i8z3), 
was the author of the famous songs " Flora Macdonald'sLament " 
and " Cam' ye by Athol." 

GOWER, JOHN (d. 1408), English poet, died at an advanced 
age in 1408, so that he may be presumed to have been born 
about 1330. He belonged to a good Kentish family, but the 
suggestion of Sir Harris Nicolas that the poet is to be identified 
with a John Gower who was at one time possessed of the manor 
of Kentwell is open to serious objections. There is no evidence 
that he ever li ved as a country gentleman, but he was undoubtedly 
possessed of some wealth, and we know that he was the owner 
of the manors of Feltwell in Suffolk and Moulton in Norfolk. 
In a document of 1382 he is called an " Esquier de Kent," and 
he was certainly not in holy orders. That he was acquainted 
with Chaucer we know, first because Chaucer in leaving England 
for Italy in 1378 appointed Gower and another to represent 
him in his absence, secondly because Chaucer addressed his 
Troilus and Criseide to Gower and Strode (whom he addresses 
as " moral Gower " and " philosophical Strode ") for criticism 
and correction, and thirdly because of the lines in the first edition 
of Gower's Confessio amantis, " And gret wel Chaucer whan ye 
mete," &c. There is no sufficient ground for the suggestion, 
based partly on the subsequent omission of these lines and 
partly on the humorous reference of Chaucer to Gower's Confessio 
amantis in the introduction to the M an of Law's Tale, that the 
friendship was broken by a quarrel. From his Latin poem 



GOWER 



299 



'ox clamantis we know that he was deeply and painfully 
interested in the peasants' rising of 1381; and by the alterations 
which the author made in successive revisions of this work 
we can trace a gradually increasing sense of disappointment in 
the youthful king, whom he at first acquits of all responsibility 
for the state of the kingdom on account of his tender age. That 
he became personally known to the king we learn from his 
own statement in the first edition of the Confessio amantis, 
where he says that he met the king upon the river, was invited 
to enter the royal barge, and in the conversation which followed 
received the suggestion which led him to write his principal 
English poem. At the same time we know, especially from the 
later revisions of the Confessio amantis, that he was a great 
admirer of the king's brilliant cousin, Henry of Lancaster, 
afterwards Henry IV., whom he came eventually to regard as a 
possible saviour of society from the misgovernment of Richard II. 
We have a record that in 1393 he received a collar from his 
favourite political hero, and it is to be observed that the 
effigy upon Gower's tomb is wearing a collar of SS. with the 
swan badge which was used by Henry. 

The first edition of the Confessio amantis is dated 1390, and 
this contains, at least in some copies, a secondary dedication 
to the then earl of Derby. The later form, in which Henry 
became the sole object of the dedication, is of the year 1393. 
Gower's political opinions are still more strongly expressed in 
the Cronica Iripartita. 

In 1398 he was married to Agnes Groundolf, and from the 
special licence granted by the bishop of Winchester for the 
celebration of this marriage in John Gower's private oratory 
we gather that he was then living in lodgings assigned to him 
within the priory of St Mary Overy, and perhaps also that he 
was too infirm to be married in the parish church. It is probable 
that this was not his first marriage, for there are indications 
in his early French poem that he had a wife at the time when 
that was written. His will is dated the isth of August 1408, 
and his death took place very soon after this. He had been 
blind for some years before his death. A magnificent tomb 
with a recumbent effigy was erected over his grave in the chapel 
of St John the Baptist within the church of the priory, now 
St Saviour's, Southwark, and this is still to be seen, though not 
quite in its original state or place. From the inscription on the 
tomb, as well as from other indications, it appears that he was a 
considerable benefactor of the priory and contributed largely 
to the rebuilding of the church. 

The effigy on Gower's tomb rests its head upon a pile of three 
folio volumes entitled Speculum meditantis, Vox clamantis 
and Confessio amantis. These are his three principal works. 
The first of these was long supposed to have perished, but a copy 
of it was discovered in the year 1895 under the title Mir our 
de I'omme. It is a French poem of about 30,000 lines in twelve- 
line stanzas, and under the form of an allegory of the human soul 
describes the seven deadly sins and their opposing virtues, and 
then the various estates of man and the vices incident to each, 
concluding with a narrative of the life of the Virgin Mary, and 
with praise of her as the means of reconciliation between God 
and man. The work is extremely tedious for the most part, 
but shows considerable command over the language and a great 
facility in metrical expression. 

Gower's next work was the Vox clamantis in Latin elegiac 
verse, in which the author takes occasion from the peasants' 
insurrection of 1381 to deal again with the faults of the various 
classes of society. In the earlier portion the insurrection itself 
is described in a rather vivid manner, though under the form 
of an allegory: the remainder contains much the same material 
as we have already seen in that part of the French poem where 
the classes of society are described. Gower's Latin verse is 
very fair, as judged by the medieval standard, but in this book 
he has borrowed very freely from Ovid, Alexander Neckam, 
Peter de Riga and others. 

Gower's chief claim, however, to reputation as a poet rests 
upon his English work, the Confessio amantis, in which he 
displays in his native language a real gift as a story-teller. He 



is himself the lover of his poem, in spite of his advancing years, 
and he makes his confession to Genius, the priest of Venus, 
under the usual headings supplied by the seven deadly sins. 
These with their several branches are successively described, 
and the nature of them illustrated by tales, which are directed 
to the illustration both of the general nature of the sin, and of the 
particular form which it may take in a lover. Finally he receives 
at once his absolution, and his dismissal from the service of 
Venus, for which his age renders him unfit. The idea is ingenious, 
and there is often much quaint ness of fancy in the application 
of moral ideas to the relations of the lover and his mistress. 
The tales are drawn from very various sources and are often 
extremely well told. The metre is the short couplet, and it is 
extremely smooth and regular. The great fault of the Confessio 
amantis is the extent of its digressions, especially in the fifth 
and seventh books. 

Gower also wrote in 1397 a short series of French ballades 
on the virtue of the married state (Traitie pour essampler les 
amantz maries), and after the accession of Henry IV. he produced 
the Cronica tripartita, a partisan account in Latin leonine 
hexameters of the events of the last twelve years of the reign 
of Richard II. About the same time he addressed an English 
poem in seven-line stanzas to Henry IV. (In Praise of Peace), 
and dedicated to the king a series of French ballades (Cinkante 
Balades), which deal with the conventional topics of love, but 
are often graceful and even poetical in expression. Several 
occasional Latin pieces also belong to the later years of his 
life. 

On the whole Gower must be admitted to have had consider- 
able literary powers; and though not a man of genius, and by 
no means to be compared with Chaucer, yet he did good service 
in helping to establish the standard literary language, which at 
the end of the I4th century took the place of the Middle English 
dialects. The Confessio amantis was long regarded as a classic 
of the language, and Gower and Chaucer were often mentioned 
side by side as the fathers of English poetry. 

A complete edition of Gower's works in four volumes, edited by 
G. C. Macaulay, was published in 1899-1902, the first volume con- 
taining the French works, the second and third the English, and the 
fourth the Latin, with a biography. Before this the Confessio 
amantis had been published in the following editions: Caxton (1483) ; 
Berthelette (1532 and 1554); Chalmers, British Poets (1810); Rein- 
hold Pauli (1857); H. Morley (1889, incomplete). The two series 
of French ballades and the Praise of Peace were printed for the 
Roxburghe Club in 1818, and the Vox clamantis and Cronica 
tripartita were edited by H. O. Coxe for the Roxburghe Club in 
1850. The Cronica tripartita, the Praise of Peace and some of the 
minor Latin poems were printed in Wright's Political Poems (Rolls 
series, 14). The Praise of Peace appeared in the early folio editions 
of Chaucer, and has been edited also by Dr Skeat in his Chaucerian 
and other Pieces. Reference may be made to Todd's Illustrations of 
the Lives and Writings of Gower and Chaucer; the article (by Sir 
H. Nicolas) in the Retrospective Review for 1828 ; Observations on the 
Language of Chaucer and Gower, by F. J. Child ; H. Morley's English 
Writers, iv. ; Ten Brink's History of Early English Literature, ii. ; and 
Courthope's History of English Poetry, i. (G. C. M.) 

GOWER, a seigniory and district in the county of Glamorgan, 
lying between the rivers Tawe and Loughor and between 
Breconshire and the sea, its length from the Breconshire border 
to Worm's Head being 28 m., and its breadth about 8 m. It 
corresponds to the ancient commote of Gower (in Welsh Gwyr) 
which in early Welsh times was grouped with two other commotes 
stretching westwards to the Towy and so formed part of the 
principality of Ystrad Tywi. Its early association with the 
country to the west instead of with Glamorgan is perpetuated by 
its continued inclusion in the diocese of St Davids, its two rural 
deaneries, West and East Gower, being in the archdeaconry 
of Carmarthen. What is meant by Gower in modern popular 
usage, however, is only the peninsular part or " English Gower " 
(that is the Welsh Bro-wyr, as distinct from Gwyr proper), 
roughly corresponding to the hundred of Swansea and lying 
mainly to the south of a line drawn from Swansea to Loughor. 

The numerous limestone caves of the coast are noted for their 
immense deposits of animal remains, but their traces of man are 
far scantier, those found in Bacon Hole and in Paviland cave 




300 



GOWER 



being the most important. In the Roman period the river Tawe, 
or the great morass between it and the Neath, probably formed 
the boundary between the Silures and the Goidelic population 
to the west. The latter, reinforced perhaps from Ireland, 
continued to be the dominant race in Gower till their conquest 
or partial expulsion in the 4th century by the sons of Cunedda 
who introduced a Brythonic element into the district. Centuries 
later Scandinavian rovers raided the coasts, leaving traces of 
their more or less temporary occupation in such place-names 
as Burry Holms, Worms Head and Swansea, and probably 
also in some cliff earthworks. About the year 1 100 the conquest 
of Gower was undertaken by Henry de Newburgh, first earl of 
Warwick, with the assistance of Maurice de Londres and others. 
His followers, who were mostly Englishmen from the marches 
and Somersetshire with perhaps a sprinkling of Flemings, settled 
for the most part on the southern side of the peninsula, leaving 
the Welsh inhabitants of the northern half of Gower practically 
undisturbed. These invaders were probably reinforced a little 
later by a small detachment of the larger colony of Flemings 
which settled in south Pembrokeshire. Moated mounds, which 
in some cases developed into castles, were built for the protection 
of the various manors into which the district was parcelled out, 
the castles of Swansea and Loughor being ascribed to the earl 
of Warwick and that of Oystermouth to Maurice de Londres. 
These were repeatedly attacked and burnt by the Welsh during 
the 1 2th and i3th centuries, notably by Griffith ap Rhys in 
1113, by his son the Lord Rhys in 1189, by his grandsons acting 
in concert with Llewelyn the Great in 1215, and by the last 
Prince Llewelyn in 1257. With the Norman conquest the feudal 
system was introduced, and the manors were held in capite 
of the lord by the tenure of castle-guard of the castle of Swansea, 
the caput baroniae. 

About 1189 the lordship passed from the Warwick family 
to the crown and was granted in 1203 by King John to William 
de Braose, in whose family it remained for over 120 years except 
for three short intervals when it was held for a second time by 
King John (1211-1215), by Llewelyn the Great (1216-1223), 
and the Despensers (c. 1323-1326). In 1208 the Welsh and 
English inhabitants who had frequent cause to complain of 
their treatment, received each a charter, in similar terms, from 
King John, who also visited the town of Swansea in 1210 and 
in 1215 granted its merchants liberal privileges. In 1283 
a number of de Braose's tenants unquestionably Welshmen 
left Gower for the royal lordship of Carmarthen, declaring that 
they would live under the king rather than under a lord marcher. 
In the following year the king visited de Braose at Oystermouth 
Castle, which seems to have been made the lord's chief residence, 
after the destruction of Swansea Castle by Llewelyn. Later 
on the king's officers of the newly organized county of Carmarthen 
repeatedly claimed jurisdiction over Gower, thereby endeavour- 
ing to reduce its status from that of a lordship marcher with 
semi-regal Jurisdiction, into that of an ordinary constituent of 
the new county. De Braose resisted the claim and organized the 
English part of his lordship on the lines of a county palatine, 
with its own comitatus and chancery held in Swansea Castle, 
the sheriff and chancellor being appointed by himself. The 
inhabitants, who had no right of appeal to the crown against 
their lord or the decisions of his court, petitioned the king, 
who in 1305 appointed a special commission to enquire into 
their alleged grievances, but in the following year the de Braose 
of the time, probably in alarm, conceded liberal privileges both 
to the burgesses of Swansea and to the English and Welsh 
inhabitants of his " county " of English Gower. He was the 
last lord seignior to live within the seigniory, which passed from 
him to his son-in-law John de Mowbray. Other troubles befell 
the de Braose barons and their successors in title, for their right 
to the lordship was contested by the Beauchamps, representa- 
tives of the earlier earls of Warwick, in prolonged litigation 
carried on intermittently from 1278 to 1396, the Beaucnamps 
being actually in possession from 1354, when a decision was 
given in their favour, till its reversal in 1396. It then reverted 
to the Mowbrays and was held by them until the 4th duke of 



Norfolk exchanged it in 1489, for lands in England, with William 
Herbert, earl of Pembroke. The latter's granddaughter brought 
it to her husband Charles Somerset, who in 1506 was granted 
her father's subtitle of Baron Herbert of Chepstow, Raglan and 
Gower, and from him the lordship has descended to the present 
lord, the duke of Beaufort. 

Gower was made subject to the ordinary law of England by 
its inclusion in 1535 in the county of Glamorgan as then re- 
organized; its chancery, which from about the beginning of 
the I4th century had been located at Oystermouth Castle, came 
to an end, but though the Welsh acts of 1535 and 1542 purported 
to abolish the rights and privileges of the lords marchers as 
conquerors, yet some of these, possibly from being regarded as 
private rights, have survived into modern times. For instance, 
the seignior maintained a franchise gaol in Swansea Castle till 
1858, when it was abolished by act of parliament, the appoint- 
ment of coroner for Gower is still vested in him, all writs are 
executed by the lord's officers instead of by the officers of the 
sheriff for the county, and the lord's rights to the foreshore, 
treasure trove, felon's goods and wrecks are undiminished. 

The characteristically English part of Gower lies to the south 
and south-west of its central ridge of Cefn y Bryn. It was this 
part that was declared by Professor Freeman to be " more Teu- 
tonic than Kent itself." The seaside fringe lying between this 
area and the town of Swansea, as well as the extreme north-west 
of the peninsula, also became anglicized at a comparatively 
early date, though the place-names and the names of the in- 
habitants are still mainly Welsh. The present line of demarca- 
tion between the two languages is one drawn from Swansea 
in a W.N.W. direction to Llanrhidian on the north coast. It 
has remained practically the same for several centuries, and is 
likely to continue so, as it very nearly coincides with the southern 
outcrop of the coal measures, the industrial population to 
the north being Welsh-speaking, the agriculturists to the south 
being English. In 1901 the Gower rural district (which includes 
the Welsh-speaking industrial parish of Llanrhidian, with about 
three-sevenths of the total population) had 64-5 % of the popula- 
tion above three years of age that spoke English only, 5-2% 
that spoke Welsh only, the remainder being bilinguals, as com- 
pared with 17 % speaking English only, 17-7 speaking Welsh only 
and the rest bilinguals in the Swansea rural district, and 7% 
speaking English only, 55-2 speaking Welsh only and the rest 
bilinguals in the Pontardawe rural district, the last two districts 
constituting Welsh Gower. 

More than one-fourth of the whole area of Gower is unenclosed 
common land, of which in English Gower fully one-half is 
apparently capable of cultivation. Besides the demesne manors 
of the lord seignior, six in number, there are some twelve mesne 
manors and fees belonging to the Penrice estate, and nearly 
twenty more belonging to various other owners. The tenure is 
customary freehold, though in some cases described as copyhold, 
and in the ecclesiastical manor of Bishopston, descent is by 
borough English. The holdings are on the whole probably smaller 
in size than in any other area of corresponding extent in Wales, 
and agriculture is still in a backward state. 

In the Arthurian romances Gower appears in the form of 
Goire as the island home of the dead, a view which probably 
sprang up among the Celts of Cornwall, to whom the peninsula 
would appear as an island. It is also surmised by Sir John Rhys 
that Malory's Brandegore (i.e. Bran of Gower) represents the 
Celtic god of the other world (Rhys, Arthurian Legend, 160, 
3 29 et seq.) . On Cefn Bryn, almost in the centre of the peninsula, 
is a cromlech with a large capstone known as Arthur's Stone. 
The unusually large number of cairns on this hill, given as eighty 
by Sir Gardner Wilkinson, suggests that this part of Gower 
was a favourite burial-place in early British times. 

See Rev. J. D. Davies, A History of West Gower (4 vols., 1877- 
1894); Col. W. Li-Morgan, An Antiquarian Survey of East Gower 
(1899); an article (probably by Professor Freeman) entitled 
" Anglia Trans-Walliana " in the Saturday Review for May 20, 
1876; "The Signory of Gower" by G. T. Clark in Archaeologia 
Cambrensis for 1893-1894; The Surveys of Gower and Kilvey, ed. by 
Baker and Grant-Francis (1861-1870). (D. LL. T.) 



GOWN COWRIE, EARL OF 



301 



GOWN, properly the term for a loose outer garment formerly 
worn by either sex but now generally for that worn by women. 
While " dress " is the usual English word, except in such com- 
binations as " tea-gown," " dressing-gown " and the like, where 
the original loose flowing nature of the " gown " is referred to, 
" gown " is the common American word. " Gown " comes from 
the O. Fr. goune or gonne. The word appears in various Romanic 
languages, cf. Ital. gonna. The medieval Lat. gunna is used of 
a garment of skin or fur. A Celtic origin has been usually 
adopted, but the Irish, Gaelic and Manx words are taken from 
the English. Outside the ordinary use of the word, " gown " 
is the name for the distinctive robes worn by holders of particular 
offices or by members of particular professions or of universities, 
&c. (see ROBES). 

GOWRIE, JOHN RUTHVEN, 3RD EARL OF (c. 1577-1600), 
Scottish conspirator, was the second son of William, 4th Lord 
Ruthven and ist earl of Cowrie (cr. 1581), by his wife Dorothea, 
daughter of Henry Stewart, 2nd Lord Methven. The Ruthven 
family was of ancient Scottish descent, and had owned extensive 
estates in the time of William the Lion; the Ruthven peerage 
dated from the year 1488. The ist earl of Cowrie (? 1541-1584), 
and his father, Patrick, 3rd Lord Ruthven (c. 1520-1566), had 
both been concerned in the murder of Rizzio in 1566; and 
both took an active part on the side of the Kirk in the constant 
intrigues and factions among the Scottish nobility of the period. 
The former had been the custodian of Mary, queen of Scots, 
during her imprisonment in Loch Leven, where, according to 
the queen, he had pestered her with amorous attentions; he 
had also been the chief actor in the plot known as the " raid of 
Ruthven " when King James VI. was treacherously seized 
while a guest at the castle of Ruthven in 1582, and kept under 
restraint for several months while the earl remained at the head 
of the government. Though pardoned for this conspiracy he 
continued to plot against the king in conjunction with the earls 
of Mar and Angus, and he was executed for high treason on 
the 2nd of May 1584; his friends complaining that the confession 
on which he was convicted of treason was obtained by a promise 
of pardon from the king. His eldest son, William, 2nd earl of 
Cowrie, only survived till 1588, the family dignities and estates, 
which had been forfeited, having been restored to him in 1586. 

When, therefore, John Ruthven succeeded to the earldom 
while still a child, he inherited along with his vast estates family 
traditions of treason and intrigue. There was also a popular 
belief, though without foundation, that there was Tudor blood 
in his veins; and Burnet afterwards asserted that Gowrie 
stood next in succession to the crown of England after King 
James VI. Like his father and grandfather before him, the 
young earl attached himself to the party of the reforming 
preachers, who procured his election in 1592 as provost of 
Perth, a post that was almost hereditary in the Ruthven family. 
He received an excellent education at the grammar school of 
Perth and the university of Edinburgh, where he was in the 
summer of 1593, about the time when his mother, and his sister 
the countess of Atholl, aided Bothwell in forcing himself sword 
in hand into the king's bedchamber in Holyrood Palace. A 
few months later Gowrie joined with Atholl and Montrose in 
offering to serve Queen Elizabeth, then almost openly hostile 
to the Scottish king; and it is probable that he had also relations 
with the rebellious Bothwell. Gowrie had thus been already 
deeply engaged in treasonable conspiracy when, in August 
1594, he proceeded to Italy with his tutor, William Rhynd, to 
study at the university of Padua. On his way home in 1599 
he remained for some months at Geneva with the reformer 
Theodore Beza; and at Paris he made acquaintance with the 
English ambassador, who reported him to Cecil as devoted to 
Elizabeth's service, and a nobleman " of whom there may be 
exceeding use made." In Paris he may also at this time have 
had further communication with the exiled Bothwell; in London 
he was received with marked favour by Queen Elizabeth and her 
ministers. 

These circumstances owe their importance to the light they 
throw on the obscurity of the celebrated " Gowrie conspiracy," 



con- 
spiracy. 



which resulted in the slaughter of the earl and his brother by 
attendants of King James at Gowrie House, Perth, a few weeks 
after Cowrie's return to Scotland in May 1600. This The 
event ranks among the unsolved enigmas of history. Oon-rfe 
The mystery is caused by the improbabilities inherent in 
any of the alternative hypotheses suggested to account 
for the unquestionable facts of the occurrence; the discrepancies 
in the evidence produced at the time; the apparent lack of 
forethought or plan on the part of the chief actors, whichever 
hypothesis be adopted, as well as the thoughtless folly of their 
actual procedure; and the insufficiency of motive, whoever 
the guilty parties may have been. The solutions of the mystery 
that have been suggested are three in number: first, that 
Gowrie and his brother had concocted a plot to murder, or 
more probably to kidnap King James, and that they lured him 
to Gowrie House for this purpose; secondly, that James paid 
a surprise visit to Gowrie House with the intention, which he 
carried out, of slaughtering the two Ruthvens; and thirdly, 
that the tragedy was the outcome of an unpremeditated brawl 
following high words between the king and the earl, or his 
brother. To understand the relative probabilities of these 
hypotheses regard must be had to the condition of Scotland in 
the year 1600 (see SCOTLAND: History). Here it can only be 
recalled that plots to capture the person of the sovereign for the 
purpose of coercing his actions were of frequent occurrence, 
more than one of which had been successful, and in several of 
which the Ruthven family had themselves taken an active 
part; that the relations between England and Scotland were 
at this time more than usually strained, and that the young 
earl of Gowrie was reckoned in London among the adherents 
of Elizabeth; that the Kirk party, being at variance with 
James, looked upon Gowrie as an hereditary partisan of their 
cause, and had recently sent an agent to Paris to recall him 
to Scotland as their leader; that Gowrie was believed to be 
James's rival for the succession to the English crown. Moreover, 
as regards the question of motive it is to be observed, on the 
one hand, that the Ruthvens believed Cowrie's father to have 
been treacherously done to death, and his widow insulted by 
the king's favourite minister; while, on the other, James was 
indebted in a large sum of money to the earl of Cowrie's estate, 
and popular gossip credited either Gowrie or his brother, Alex- 
ander Ruthven, with being the lover of the queen. Although 
the evidence on these points, and on every minute circumstance 
connected with the tragedy itself, has been exhaustively examined 
by historians of the Gowrie conspiracy, it cannot be asserted 
that the mystery has been entirely dispelled; but, while it is 
improbable that complete certainty will ever be arrived at as 
to whether the guilt lay with James or with the Ruthven brothers, 
the most modern research in the light of materials inaccessible 
or overlooked till the 2oth century, points pretty clearly to the 
conclusion that there was a genuine conspiracy by Gowrie and 
his brother to kidnap the king. If this be the true solution, 
it follows that King James was innocent of the blood of the 
Ruthvens; and it raises the presumption that his own account 
of the occurrence was, in spite of the glaring improbabilities 
which it involved, substantially true. 

The facts as related by James and other witnesses were, in 
outline, as follows. On the 5th of August 1600 the king rose 
early to hunt in the neighbourhood of Falkland Palace, about 
14 m. from Perth. Just as he was setting forth in company 
with the duke of Lennox, the earl of Mar, Sir Thomas Erskine 
and others, he was accosted by Alexander Ruthven (known 
as the master of Ruthven), a younger brother of the earl of 
Gowrie, who had ridden from Perth that morning to inform 
the king that he had met on the previous day a man in posses- 
sion of a pitcher full of foreign gold coins, whom he had secretly 
locked up in a room at Gowrie House. Ruthven urged the king 
to ride to Perth to examine this man for himself and to take 
possession of the treasure. After some hesitation James gave 
credit to the story, suspecting that the possessor of the coins 
was one of the numerous Catholic agents at that time moving 
about Scotland in disguise. Without giving a positive reply to 






304 



GOYEN GOZLAN 



and Maranhao. A considerable part of southern Goyaz, however, 
slopes southward and the drainage is through numerous small 
streams flowing into the Paranahyba, a large tributary of the 
Parana. The general elevation of the plateau is estimated to 
be about 2700 ft., and the highest elevation was reported in 
1892 to be the Serra dos Pyrenees (5250 ft.). Crossing the 
state N.N.E. to S.S.W. there is a well-defined chain of mountains, 
of which the Pyrenees, Santa Rita and Santa Martha ranges 
form parts, but their elevation above the plateau is not great. 
The surface of the plateau is generally open campo and scrubby 
arboreal growth called caatingas, but the streams are generally 
bordered with forest, especially in the deeper valleys. Towards 
the N. the forest becomes denser and of the character of the 
Amazon Valley. The climate of the plateau is usually described 
as temperate, but it is essentially sub-tropical. The valley regions 
are tropical, and malarial fevers are common. The cultivation 
of the soil is limited to local needs, except in the production of 
tobacco, which is exported to neighbouring states. The open 
campos afford good pasturage, and live stock is largely exported. 
Gold-mining has been carried on in a primitive manner for more 
than two centuries, but the output has never been large and no 
very rich mines have been discovered. Diamonds have been 
found, but only to a very limited extent. There is a considerable 
export of quartz crystal, commercially known as " Brazilian 
pebbles," used in optical work. Although the northern and 
southern extremities of Goyiz lie within two great river systems 
the Tocantins and Parana the upper courses of which are 
navigable, both of them are obstructed by falls. The only 
outlet for the state has been by means of mule trains to the 
railway termini of Sao Paulo and Minas Geraes, pending the 
extension of railways from both of those states, one entering 
Goyaz by way of Catalao, near the southern boundary, and the 
other at some point further N. 

The capital of the state is GOYAZ, or Villa-Boa de Goyaz, a 
mining town on the Rio Vermelho, a tributary of the Araguaya 
rising on the northern slopes of the Serra de Santa Rita. Pop. 
(1890) 6807. Gold was discovered here in 1682 by Bartholomeu 
Bueno, the first European explorer of this region, and the 
settlement founded by him was called Santa Anna, which is 
still the name of the parish. The site of the town is a barren, 
rocky mountain valley, 1900 ft. above sea-level, in which the 
heat is most oppressive at times and the nights are unpleasantly 
cold. Goyaz is the see of a bishopric founded in 1826, and 
possesses a small cathedral and some churches. 

GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN (1596-1656), Dutch 
painter, was born at Leiden on the I3th of January 1596, learned 
painting under several masters at Leiden and Haarlem, married 
in 1618 and settled at the Hague about 1631. He was one of 
the first to emancipate himself from the traditions of minute 
imitation embodied in the works of Breughel and Savery. 
Though he preserved the dun scale of tone peculiar to those 
painters, he studied atmospheric effects in black and white with 
considerable skill. He had much influence on Dutch art. He 
formed Solomon Ruysdael and Pieter Potter, forced attention 
from Rembrandt, and bequeathed some of his precepts to Pieter 
de Molyn, Coelenbier, Saftleven, van der Kabel and even 
Berghem. His life at the Hague for twenty-five years was very 
prosperous, and he rose in 1640 to be president of his gild. A 
friend of van Dyck and Bartholomew van der Heist, he sat 
to both these artists for his likeness. His daughter Margaret 
married Jan Steen, and he had steady patrons in the stadtholder 
Frederick Henry, and the chiefs of the municipality of the 
Hague. He died at the Hague in 1656, possessed of land and 
houses to the amount of 15,000 florins. 

Between 1610 and 1616 van Goyen wandered from one school 
to the other. He was first apprenticed to Isaak Swanenburgh; 
he then passed through the workshops of de Man, Klok and 
de Hoorn. In 1616 he took a decisive step and joined Esaias 
van der Velde at Haarlem; amongst his earlier pictures, some 
of 1621 (Berlin Museum) and 1623 (Brunswick Gallery) show 
the influence of Esaias very perceptibly. The landscape is 
minute. Details of branching and foliage are given, and the 



figures are important in relation to the distances. After 1625 
these peculiarities gradually disappear. Atmospheric effect in 
landscapes of cool tints varying from grey green to pearl or brown 
and yellow dun is the principal object which van Goyen holds 
in view, and he succeeds admirably in light skies with drifting 
misty cloud, and downs with cottages and scanty shrubbery 
or stunted trees. Neglecting all detail of foliage he now works 
in a thin diluted medium, laying on rubbings as of sepia or 
Indian ink, and finishing without loss of transparence or lucidity. 
Throwing his foreground into darkness, he casts alternate light 
and shade upon the more distant planes, and realizes most 
pleasing views of large expanse. In buildings and water, with 
shipping near the banks, he sometimes has the strength if not 
the colour of Albert Cuyp. The defect of his work is chiefly 
want of solidity. But even this had its charm for van Goyen's 
contemporaries, and some time elapsed before Cuyp, who 
imitated him, restricted his method of transparent tinting to 
the foliage of foreground trees. 

Van Goyen's pictures are comparatively rare in English collec- 
tions, but his work is seen to advantage abroad, and chiefly 
at the Louvre, and in Berlin, Gotha, Vienna, Munich and 
Augsburg. Twenty-eight of his works were exhibited together 
at- Vienna in 1873. Though he visited France once or twice, 
van Goyen chiefly confined himself to the scenery of Holland 
and the Rhine. Nine times from 1633 to 1655 he painted views 
of Dordrecht. Nimeguen was one of his favourite resorts. 
But he was also fond of Haarlem and Amsterdam, and he did 
not neglect Arnheim or Utrecht. One of his largest pieces is 
a view of the Hague, executed in 1651 for the municipality, and 
now in the town collection of that city. Most of his panels 
represent reaches of the Rhine, the Waal and the Maese. But 
he sometimes sketched the downs of Scheveningen, or the sea 
at the mouth of the Rhine and Scheldt; and he liked to depict 
the calm inshore, and rarely ventured upon seas stirred by more 
than a curling breeze or the swell of a coming squall. He often 
painted winter scenes, with ice and skaters and sledges, in the 
style familiar to Isaac van Ostade. There are numerous varieties 
of these subjects in the master's works from 1621 to 1653. One 
historical picture has been assigned to van Goyen the " Em- 
barkation of Charles II." in the Bute collection. But this canvas 
was executed after van Goyen's death. When he tried this 
form of art he properly mistrusted his own powers. But he 
produced little in partnership with his contemporaries, and we 
can only except the " Watering-place " in the gallery of Vienna, 
where the landscape is enlivened with horses and cattle by 
Philip Wouvermans. Even Jan Steen, who was his son-in-law, 
only painted figures for one of his pictures, and it is probable 
that this piece was completed after van Goyen's death. More 
than 250 of van Goyen's pictures are known and accessible. 
Of this number little more than 70 are undated. None exist 
without the full name or monogram, and yet there is no painter 
whose hand it is easier to trace without the help of these 
adjuncts. An etcher, but a poor one, van Goyen has only 
bequeathed to us two very rare plates. 

GOZLAN, LEON (1806-1866), French novelist and play- 
writer, was born on the ist of September 1806, at Marseilles. 
When he was still a boy, his father, who had made a large 
fortune as a ship-broker, met with a series of misfortunes, and 
Leon, before completing his education, had to go to sea in order 
to earn a living. In 1828 we find him in Paris, determined to 
run the risks of literary life. His townsman, Joseph Mery, 
who was then making himself famous by his political satires, 
introduced him to several newspapers, and Gozlan's brilliant 
articles in the Figaro did much harm to the already tottering 
government of Charles X. His first novel was Les Memoires 
d'un apothicaire (1828), and this was followed by numberless 
others, among which may be mentioned Washington Levert 
et Socrate Leblanc (1838), Le Notaire de Chantilly (1836), Aristide 
Froissart (1843) (one of the most curious and celebrated of his 
productions), Les Nuits du Pere Lachaise (1846), Le Tapis vert 
(1855), La Folle du logis (1857), Les Emotions de Poly dor e Maras- 
qitin (1857), &c. His best-known works for the theatre are 






GOZO GOZZOLI 



305 



La Pluie et k beau temps (1861), and Une Tempete dans un 
verre d'eau (1850), two curtain-raisers which have kept the 
stage; Le Lion empaille (1848), La Queue du Men d'Alcibiade 
(1849), Louise de Nanteuil (1854), Le Gateau des reines (1855), 
Les Paniers de la comtesse (1852); and he adapted several of 
his own novels to the stage. Gozlan also wrote a romantic 
and picturesque description of the old manors and mansions 
of his country entitled Les Chateaux de France (2 vols., 1844), 
originally published (1836) as Les Tourelles, which has some 
archaeological value, and a biographical essay on Balzac (Balzac 
chez lui, 1862). He was made a member of the Legion of 
Honour in 1846, and in 1859 an officer of that order. Gozlan 
died on the i4th of September 1866, in Paris. 

See also P. Audebrand, Leon Gozlan (1887). 

GOZO (Gozzo), an island of the Maltese group in the Medi- 
terranean Sea, second in size to Malta. It lies N.W. and 31 m. 
from the nearest point of Malta, is of oval form, 8f m. in length 
and 4^ m. in extreme breadth, and has an area of nearly 25 m. 
Its chief town, Victoria, formerly called Rabato (pop. in 1901, 
5057) stands near the middle of the island on one of a cluster 
of steep conical hills, 3i m. from the port of Migiarro Bay, 
on the south-east shore, below Fort Chambray. The character 
of the island is similar to that of Malta. The estimated popula- 
tion in 1907 was 21,911. 

GOZZI, CARLO, COUNT (1722-1806), Italian dramatist, 
was descended from an old Venetian family, and was born at 
Venice in March 1722. Compelled by the embarrassed condition 
of his father's affairs to procure the means of self-support, he, 
at the age of sixteen, joined the army in Dalmatia; but three 
years afterwards he returned to Venice, where he soon made 
a reputation for himself as the wittiest member of the Granel- 
leschi society, to which the publication of several satirical 
pieces had gained him admission. This society, nominally 
devoted to conviviality and wit, had also serious literary aims, 
and was especially zealous to preserve the Tuscan literature 
pure and untainted by foreign influences. The displacement 
of the old Italian comedy by the dramas of Pietro Chiari (1700- 
1 788) and Goldoni, founded on French models, threatened defeat 
to all their efforts; and in 1757 Gozzi came to the rescue by 
publishing a satirical poem, Tartana degli influssi per I' anno 
bisestile, and in 1761 by his comedy, Fiaba dell' amore delle tre 
melarancie, a parody of the manner of the two obnoxious poets, 
founded on a fairy tale. For its representation he obtained 
the services of the Sacchi company of players, who, on account 
of the popularity of the comedies of Chiari and Goldoni which 
afforded no scope for the display of their peculiar talents had 
been left without employment; and as their satirical powers 
were thus sharpened by personal enmity, the play met with 
extraordinary success. Struck by the effect produced on the 
audience by the introduction of the supernatural or mythical 
element, which he had merely used as a convenient medium 
for his satirical purposes, Gozzi now produced a series of dramatic 
pieces based on fairy tales, which for a period obtained great 
popularity, but after the breaking up of the Sacchi company 
were completely disregarded. They have, however, obtained 
high praise from Goethe, Schlegel, Madame de Stael and Sis- 
mondi; and one of them, Re Turandote, was translated by 
Schiller. In his later years Gozzi set himself to the production 
)f tragedies in which the comic element was largely introduced; 
jut as this innovation proved unacceptable to the critics he had 
ecourse to the Spanish drama, from which he obtained models 
'or various pieces, which, however, met with only equivocal 
mccess. He died on the 4th of April 1806. 

His collected works were published under his own superintend- 
ence, at Venice, in 1792, in 10 volumes; and his dramatic works, 
ranslated into German by Werthes, were published at Bern in 
795. See Gozzi's work, Memorie inutiti della vita di Carlo Gozzi 
3 vols., Venice, 1797), translated into French by Paul de Musset 
1848), and into English by J. A. Symonds (1889); F. Horn, Ober 
lozzis dramatische Poesie (Venice, 1803); Gherardini, Vita di Gasp. 
"<ozzi (1821); "Charles Gozzi," by Paul de Musset, in the Revue 
'es deux mondes for isth November 1844; Magrini, Carlo Gozzi 

la fiabe: saegi storici, biografici, e critici (Cremona, 1876), and the 
ime author s book on Gozzi's life and times (Benevento, 1883). 



J 



GOZZI, GASPARO, COUNT (1713-1786), eldest brother of' 
Carlo Gozzi, was born on the 4th of December 1713. In 1739 
he married the poetess Luise Bergalli, and she undertook the 
management of the theatre of Sant' Angelo, Venice, he supplying 
the performers with dramas chiefly translated from the French. 
The speculation proved unfortunate, but meantime he had 
attained a high reputation for his contributions to the Gazzetta 
Veneta, and he soon came to be known as one of the ablest 
critics and purest and most elegant stylists in Italy. For a 
considerable period he was censor of the press in Venice, and in 
1774 he was appointed to reorganize the university system at 
Padua. He died at Padua on the 26th of December 1786. 

His principal writings are Osservatore Veneto periodico (1761), on 
the model of the English Spectator, and distinguished by its high 
moral tone and its light and pleasant satire; Lettere famigliari 
(1755), a collection of short racy pieces in prose and verse, on subjects 
of general interest ; Sermoni, poems in blank verse after the manner 
of Horace; II Mondo morale (1760), a personification of human 
passions with inwoven dialogues in the style of Lucian ; and Giudizio 
degli antichi poeti sopra la moderna censura di Dante (1755), a defence 
of the great poet against the attacks of Bettinelli. He also trans- 
lated various works from the French and English, including Mar- 
montel's Tales and Pope's Essay on Criticism. His collected works 
were published at Venice, 1794-1798, in 12 volumes, and several 
editions have appeared since. 

GOZZOLI, BENOZZO, Italian painter, was born in Florence 
in 1424, or perhaps 1420, and in the early part of his career 
assisted Fra Angelico, whom he followed to Rome and worked 
with at Orvieto. In Rome he executed in Santa Maria in 
Aracoeli a fresco of " St Anthony and Two Angels." In 1449 
he left Angelico, and went to Montefalco, nearFoligno in Umbria. 
In S. Fortunato, near Montefalco, he painted a " Madonna and 
Child with Saints and Angels," and three other works. One of 
these, the altar-piece representing " St Thomas receiving the 
Girdle of the Virgin," is now in the Lateran Museum, and 
shows the affinity of Gozzoli's early style to Angelico's. He 
next painted in the monastery of S. Francesco, Montefalco, 
filling the choir with a triple course of subjects from the life 
of the saint, with various accessories, including heads of Dante, 
Petrarch and Giotto. This work was completed in 1452, and 
is still marked by the style of Angelico, crossed here and there 
with a more distinctly Giottesque influence. In the same church, 
in the chapel of St Jerome, is a fresco by Gozzoli of the Virgin 
and Saints, the Crucifixion and other subjects. He remained 
at Montefalco (with an interval at Viterbo) probably till 1456, 
employing Mesastris as assistant. Thence he went to Perugia, 
and painted in a church a " Virgin and Saints," now in the local 
academy, and soon afterwards to his native Florence, the head- 
quarters of art. By the end of 1459 he had nearly finished 
his important labour in the chapel of the Palazzo Riccardi, the 
" Journey of the Magi to Bethlehem," and, in the tribune of 
this chapel, a composition of " Angels in a Paradise." His 
picture in the National Gallery, London, a " Virgin and Child 
with Saints," 1461, belongs also to the period of his Florentine 
sojourn. Another small picture in the same gallery, the " Rape 
of Helen," is of dubious authenticity. In 1464 Gozzoli left 
Florence for S. Gimignano, where he, executed some extensive 
works; in the church of S. Agostino, a composition of St 
Sebastian protecting the City from the Plague of this same 
year, 1464; over the entire choir of the church, a triple course 
of scenes from the legends of St Augustine, from the time of 
his entering the school of Tegaste on to his burial, seventeen 
chief subjects, with some accessories; in the Pieve di S. 
Gimignano, the "Martyrdom of Sebastian," and other subjects, 
and some further works in the city and its vicinity. Here his 
style combined something of Lippo Lippi with its original 
elements, and he received co-operation from Giusto d'Andrea. 
He stayed in this city till 1467, and then began, in the Campo 
Santo of Pisa, from 1469, the vast series of mural paintings 
with which his name is specially identified. There are twenty- 
four subjects from the Old Testament, from the " Invention of 
Wine by Noah " to the " Visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon." 
He contracted to paint three subjects per year for about ten 
ducats each a sum which may be regarded as equivalent to 



I 




304 



GOYEN GOZLAN 



and Maranhao. A considerable part of southern Goyaz, however, 
slopes southward and the drainage is through numerous small 
streams flowing into the Paranahyba, a large tributary of the 
Parana. The general elevation of the plateau is estimated to 
be about 2700 ft., and the highest elevation was reported in 
1892 to be the Serra dos Pyrenees (5250 ft.). Crossing the 
state N.N.E. to S.S.W. there is a well-defined chain of mountains, 
of which the Pyrenees, Santa Rita and Santa Martha ranges 
form parts, but their elevation above the plateau is not great. 
The surface of the plateau is generally open campo and scrubby 
arboreal growth called caatingas, but the streams are generally 
bordered with forest, especially in the deeper valleys. Towards 
the N. the forest becomes denser and of the character of the 
Amazon Valley. The climate of the plateau is usually described 
as temperate, but it is essentially sub-tropical. The valley regions 
are tropical, and malarial fevers are common. The cultivation 
of the soil is limited to local needs, except in the production of 
tobacco, which is exported to neighbouring states. The open 
campos afford good pasturage, and live stock is largely exported. 
Gold-mining has been carried on in a primitive manner for more 
than two centuries, but the output has never been large and no 
very rich mines have been discovered. Diamonds have been 
found, but only to a very limited extent. There is a considerable 
export of quartz crystal, commercially known as " Brazilian 
pebbles," used in optical work. Although the northern and 
southern extremities of Goyaz lie within two great river systems 
the Tocantins and Parana the upper courses of which are 
navigable, both of them are obstructed by falls. The only 
outlet for the state has been by means of mule trains to the 
railway termini of Sao Paulo and Minas Geraes, pending the 
extension of railways from both of those states, one entering 
Goyaz by way of Catalao, near the southern boundary, and the 
other at some point further N. 

The capital of the state is GOYAZ, or Villa-Boa de Goyaz, a 
mining town on the Rio Vermelho, a tributary of the Araguaya 
rising on the northern slopes of the Serra de Santa Rita. Pop. 
(1890) 6807. Gold was discovered here in 1682 by Bartholomeu 
Bueno, the first European explorer of this region, and the 
settlement founded by him was called Santa Anna, which is 
still the name of the parish. The site of the town is a barren, 
rocky mountain valley, 1900 ft. above sea-level, in which the 
heat is most oppressive at times and the nights are unpleasantly 
cold. Goyaz is the see of a bishopric founded in 1826, and 
possesses a small cathedral and some churches. 

GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN (1596-1656), Dutch 
painter, was born at Leiden on the I3th of January 1596, learned 
painting under several masters at Leiden and Haarlem, married 
in 1618 and settled at the Hague about 1631. He was one of 
the first to emancipate himself from the traditions of minute 
imitation embodied in the works of Breughel and Savery. 
Though he preserved the dun scale of tone peculiar to those 
painters, he studied atmospheric effects in black and white with 
considerable skill. He had much influence on Dutch art. He 
formed Solomon Ruysdael and Pieter Potter, forced attention 
from Rembrandt, and bequeathed some of his precepts to Pieter 
de Molyn, Coelenbier, Saftleven, van der Kabel and even 
Berghem. His life at the Hague for twenty-five years was very 
prosperous, and he rose in 1640 to be president of his gild. A 
friend of van Dyck and Bartholomew van der Heist, he sat 
to both these artists for his likeness. His daughter Margaret 
married Jan Steen, and he had steady patrons in the stadtholder 
Frederick Henry, and the chiefs of the municipality of the 
Hague. He died at the Hague in 1656, possessed of land and 
houses to the amount of 15,000 florins. 

Between 1610 and 1616 van Goyen wandered from one school 
to the other. He was first apprenticed to Isaak Swanenburgh; 
he then passed through the workshops of de Man, Klok and 
de Hoorn. In 1616 he took a decisive step and joined Esaias 
van der Velde at Haarlem; amongst his earlier pictures, some 
of 1621 (Berlin Museum) and 1623 (Brunswick Gallery) show 
the influence of Esaias very perceptibly. The landscape is 
minute. Details of branching and foliage are given, and the 



figures are important in relation to the distances. After 1625 
these peculiarities gradually disappear. Atmospheric effect in 
landscapes of cool tints varying from grey green to pearl or brown 
and yellow dun is the principal object which van Goyen holds 
in view, and he succeeds admirably in light skies with drifting 
misty cloud, and downs with cottages and scanty shrubbery 
or stunted trees. Neglecting all detail of foliage he now works 
in a thin diluted medium, laying on rubbings as of sepia or 
Indian ink, and finishing without loss of transparence or lucidity. 
Throwing his foreground into darkness, he casts alternate light 
and shade upon the more distant planes, and realizes most 
pleasing views of large expanse. In buildings and water, with 
shipping near the banks, he sometimes has the strength if not 
the colour of Albert Cuyp. The defect of his work is chiefly 
want of solidity. But even this had its charm for van Goyen's 
contemporaries, and some time elapsed before Cuyp, who 
imitated him, restricted his method of transparent tinting to 
the foliage of foreground trees. 

Van Goyen's pictures are comparatively rare in English collec- 
tions, but his work is seen to advantage abroad, and chiefly 
at the Louvre, and in Berlin, Gotha, Vienna, Munich and 
Augsburg. Twenty-eight of his works were exhibited together 
at- Vienna in 1873. Though he visited France once or twice, 
van Goyen chiefly confined himself to the scenery of Holland 
and the Rhine. Nine times from 1633 to 1655 he painted views 
of Dordrecht. Nimeguen was one of his favourite resorts. 
But he was also fond of Haarlem and Amsterdam, and he did 
not neglect Arnheim or Utrecht. One of his largest pieces is 
a view of the Hague, executed in 1651 for the municipality, and 
now in the town collection of that city. Most of his panels 
represent reaches of the Rhine, the Waal and the Maese. But 
he sometimes sketched the downs of Scheveningen, or the sea 
at the mouth of the Rhine and Scheldt; and he liked to depict 
the calm inshore, and rarely ventured upon seas stirred by more 
than a curling breeze or the swell of a coming squall. He often 
painted winter scenes, with ice and skaters and sledges, in the 
style familiar to Isaac van Ostade. There are numerous varieties 
of these subjects in the master's works from 1621 to 1653. One 
historical picture has been assigned to van Goyen the " Em- 
barkation of Charles II." in the Bute collection. But this canvas 
was executed after van Goyen's death. When he tried this 
form of art he properly mistrusted his own powers. But he 
produced little in partnership with his contemporaries, and we 
can only except the " Watering-place " in the gallery of Vienna, 
where the landscape is enlivened with horses and cattle by 
Philip Wouvermans. Even Jan Steen, who was his son-in-law, 
only painted figures for one of his pictures, and it is probable 
that this piece was completed after van Goyen's death. More 
than 250 of van Goyen's pictures are known and accessible. 
Of this number little more than 70 are undated. None exist 
without the full name or monogram, and yet there is no painter 
whose hand it is easier to trace without the help of these 
adjuncts. An etcher, but a poor one, van Goyen has only 
bequeathed to us two very rare plates. 

GOZLAN, LEON (1806-1866), French novelist and play- 
writer, was born on the ist of September 1806, at Marseilles. 
When he was still a boy, his father, who had made a large 
fortune as a ship-broker, met with a series of misfortunes, and 
Leon, before completing his education, had to go to sea in order 
to earn a living. In 1828 we find him in Paris, determined to 
run the risks of literary life. His townsman, Joseph Mery, 
who was then making himself famous by his political satires, 
introduced him to several newspapers, and Gozlan's brilliant 
articles in the Figaro did much harm to the already tottering 
government of Charles X. His first novel was Les Memoires 
d'un apothicaire (1828), and this was followed by numberless 
others, among which may be mentioned Washington Leeert 
et Socrate Leblanc (1838), Le Notaire de Chantilly (1836), Aristide 
Froissart (1843) (one of the most curious and celebrated of his 
productions), Les Nuits du Pere Lachaise (1846), Le Tapis vert 
(1855), La Folle du logis (1857), Les Emotions de Polydore Maras- 
quin (1857), &c. His best-known works for the theatre are 



GOZO GOZZOLI 



305 



La Pluie el le beau temps (1861), and Une Tempete dans un 
verre d'eau (1850), two curtain-raisers which have kept the 
stage; Le Lion empaille (1848), La Queue du chien d'Alcibiade 
(1849), Louise de Nanteuil (1854), Le Gateau des reines (1855), 
Les Paniers de la comtesse (1852); and he adapted several of 
his own novels to the stage. Gozlan also wrote a romantic 
and picturesque description of the old manors and mansions 
of his country entitled Les Chateaux de France (2 vols., 1844), 
originally published (1836) as Les Tourelles, which has some 
archaeological value, and a biographical essay on Balzac (Balzac 
chez lui, 1862). He was made a member of the Legion of 
Honour in 1846, and in 1859 an officer of that order. Gozlan 
died on the I4th of September 1866, in Paris. 
See also P. Audebrand, Leon Gozlan (1887). 
GOZO (Gozzo), an island of the Maltese group in the Medi- 
terranean Sea, second in size to Malta. It lies N.W. and 3! m. 
from the nearest point of Malta, is of oval form, 8f m. in length 
and 4^ m. in extreme breadth, and has an area of nearly 25 m. 
Its chief town, Victoria, formerly called Rabato (pop. in 1901, 
5057) stands near the middle of the island on one of a cluster 
of steep conical hills, 3^ m. from the port of Migiarro Bay, 
on the south-east shore, below Fort Chambray. The character 
of the island is similar to that of Malta. The estimated popula- 
tion in 1907 was 21,911. 

GOZZI, CARLO, COUNT (1722-1806), Italian dramatist, 
was descended from an old Venetian family, and was born at 
Venice in March 1722. Compelled by the embarrassed condition 
of his father's affairs to procure the means of self-support, he, 
at the age of sixteen, joined the army in Dalmatia; but three 
years afterwards he returned to Venice, where he soon made 
a reputation for himself as the wittiest member of the Granel- 
leschi society, to which the publication of several satirical 
pieces had gained him admission. This society, nominally 
devoted to conviviality and wit, had also serious literary aims, 
and was especially zealous to preserve the Tuscan literature 
pure and untainted by foreign influences. The displacement 
of the old Italian comedy by the dramas of Pietro Chiari (1700- 
1788) and Goldoni, founded on French models, threatened defeat 
to all their efforts; and in 1757 Gozzi came to the rescue by 
publishing a satirical poem, Tartana degli influssi per I' anno 
bisestile, and in 1761 by his comedy, Fiaba dell' amore delle tre 
melarancie, a parody of the manner of the two obnoxious poets, 
founded on a fairy tale. For its representation he obtained 
the services of the Sacchi company of players, who, on account 
of the popularity of the comedies of Chiari and Goldoni which 
afforded no scope for the display of their peculiar talents had 
been left without employment; and as their satirical powers 
were thus sharpened by personal enmity, the play met with 
extraordinary success. Struck by the effect produced on the 
audience by the introduction of the supernatural or mythical 
element, which he had merely used as a convenient medium 
for his satirical purposes, Gozzi now produced a series of dramatic 
pieces based on fairy tales, which for a period obtained great 
popularity, but after the breaking up of the Sacchi company 
were completely disregarded. They have, however, obtained 
high praise from Goethe, Schlegel, Madame de Stael and Sis- 
mondi; and one of them, Re Turandote, was translated by 
Schiller. In his later years Gozzi set himself to the production 
)f tragedies in which the comic element was largely introduced ; 
jut as this innovation proved unacceptable to the critics he had 
ecourse to the Spanish drama, from which he obtained models 
or various pieces, which, however, met with only equivocal 
.uccess. He died on the 4th of April 1806. 

His collected works were published under his own superintend- 

mce, at Venice, in 1792, in 10 volumes; and his dramatic works, 

ranslated into German by Werthes, were published at Bern in 

795. See Gozzi's work, Memorie inutili detta vita di Carlo Gozzi 

3 vols., Venice, 1797), translated into French by Paul de Musset 

1848), and into English by J. A. Symonds (1889); F. Horn, Uber 

lozzis dramatische Poesie (Venice, 1803); Gherardini, Vita di Gasp. 

rozzi (1821); " Charles Gozzi," by Paul de Musset, in the Revue 

, es deux mondes for ijjth November 1844; Magrini, Carlo Gozzi 

la fiabe: saggi storici, biografici, e critici (Cremona, 1876), and the 

imc author's book on Gozzi's life and times (Benevento, 1883). 



GOZZI, GASPARO, COUNT (1713-1786), eldest brother of* 
Carlo Gozzi, was born on the 4th of December 1713. In 1739 
he married the poetess Luise Bergalli, and she undertook the 
management of the theatre of Sant' Angelo, Venice, he supplying 
the performers with dramas chiefly translated from the French. 
The speculation proved unfortunate, but meantime he had 
attained a high reputation for his contributions to the Gazzetta 
Veneta, and he soon came to be known as one of the ablest 
critics and purest and most elegant stylists in Italy. For a 
considerable period he was censor of the press in Venice, and in 
1774 he was appointed to reorganize the university system at 
Padua. He died at Padua on the 26th of December 1786. 

His principal writings are Osservatore Veneto periodico (1761), on 
the model of the English Spectator, and distinguished by its high 
moral tone and its light and pleasant satire; Lettere famigliari 
(!755)i a collection of short racy pieces in prose and verse, on subjects 
of general interest ; Sermoni, poems in blank verse after the manner 
of Horace; II Mondo morale (1760), a personification of human 
passions with inwoven dialogues in the style of Lucian ; and Giudizio 
degli antichi poeti sopra la moderna censura di Dante (1755), a defence 
of the great poet against the attacks of Bettinelli. He also trans- 
lated various works from the French and English, including Mar- 
montel's Tales and Pope's Essay on Criticism. His collected works 
were published at Venice, 1794-1798, in 12 volumes, and several 
editions have appeared since. 

GOZZOLI, BENOZZO, Italian painter, was born in Florence 
in 1424, or perhaps 1420, and in the early part of his career 
assisted Fra Angelico, whom he followed to Rome and worked 
with at Orvieto. In Rome he executed in Santa Maria in 
Aracoeli a fresco of " St Anthony and Two Angels." In 1449 
he left Angelico, and went to Montefalco, near Foligno in Umbria. 
In S. Fortunate, near Montefalco, he painted a " Madonna and 
Child with Saints and Angels," and three other works. One of 
these, the altar-piece representing " St Thomas receiving the 
Girdle of the Virgin," is now in the Lateran Museum, and 
shows the affinity of Gozzoli's early style to Angelico's. He 
next painted in the monastery of S. Francesco, Montefalco, 
filling the choir with a triple course of subjects from the life 
of the saint, with various accessories, including heads of Dante, 
Petrarch and Giotto. This work was completed in 1452, and 
is still marked by the style of Angelico, crossed here and there 
with a more distinctly Giottesque influence. In the same church, 
in the chapel of St Jerome, is a fresco by Gozzoli of the Virgin 
and Saints, the Crucifixion and other subjects. He remained 
at Montefalco (with an interval at Viterbo) probably till 1456, 
employing Mesastris as assistant. Thence he went to Perugia, 
and painted in a church a " Virgin and Saints," now in the local 
academy, and soon afterwards to his native Florence, the head- 
quarters of art. By the end of 1459 he had nearly finished 
his important labour in the chapel of the Palazzo Riccardi, the 
" Journey of the Magi to Bethlehem," and, in the tribune of 
this chapel, a composition of " Angels in a Paradise." His 
picture in the National Gallery, London, a " Virgin and Child 
with Saints," 1461, belongs also to the period of his Florentine 
sojourn. Another small picture in the same gallery, the " Rape 
of Helen," is of dubious authenticity. In 1464 Gozzoli left 
Florence for S. Gimignano, where he, executed some extensive 
works; in the church of S. Agostino, a composition of St 
Sebastian protecting the City from the Plague of this same 
year, 1464; over the entire choir of the church, a triple course 
of scenes from the legends of St Augustine, from the time of 
his entering the school of Tegaste on to his burial, seventeen 
chief subjects, with some accessories; in the Pieve di S. 
Gimignano, the " Martyrdom of Sebastian," and other subjects, 
and some further works in the city and its vicinity. Here his 
style combined something of Lippo Lippi with its original 
elements, and he received co-operation from Giusto d'Andrea. 
He stayed in this city till 1467, and then began, in the Campo 
Santo of Pisa, from 1469, the vast series of mural paintings 
with which his name is specially identified. There are twenty- 
four subjects from the Old Testament, from the " Invention of 
Wine by Noah " to the " Visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon." 
He contracted to paint three subjects per year for about ten 
ducats each a sum which may be regarded as equivalent ta 






36 



GRAAFF REINET GRABE 



100 at the present day. It appears, however, that this contract 
was not strictly adhered to, for the actual rate of painting was 
only three 'pictures in two years. Perhaps the great multitude 
of figures and accessories was accepted as a set-off against the 
slower rate of production. By January 1470 he had executed 
the fresco of" Noah and his Family," followed by the " Curse 
of Ham," the "Building of the Tower of Babel " (which contains 
portraits of Cosmo de' Medici, the young Lorenzo Politian and 
others), the" Destruction of Sodom, "the "Victory of Abraham," 
the " Marriages of Rebecca and of Rachel," the " Life of Moses," 
&c. In the Cappella Ammannati, facing a gate of the Campo 
Santo, he painted also an "Adoration of the Magi," wherein 
appears a portrait of himself. All this enormous mass of work, 
in which Gozzoli was probably assisted by Zanobi Macchiavelli, 
was performed, in addition to several other pictures during his 
stay in Pisa (we need only specify the " Glory of St Thomas 
Aquinas," now in the Louvre), in sixteen years, lasting up to 
1485. This is the latest date which can with certainty be 
assigned to any work from his hand, although he is known to 
have been alive up to 1498. In 1478 the Pisan authorities had 
given him, as a token of their regard, a tomb in the Campo 
Santo. He had likewise a house of his own in Pisa, and houses 
and land in Florence. In rectitude of life he is said to have been 
worthy of his first master, Fra Angelico. 

The art of Gozzoli does not rival that of his greatest contem- 
poraries either in elevation or in strength, but is pre-eminently 
attractive by its sense of -what is rich, winning, lively and 
abundant in the aspects of men and things. His landscapes, 
thronged with birds and quadrupeds, especially dogs, are more 
varied, circumstantial and alluring than those of any predecessor; 
his compositions are crowded with figures, more characteristically 
true' when happily and gracefully occupied than when the demands 
of the subject require tragic or dramatic intensity, or turmoil 
of action; his colour is bright, vivacious and festive. Gozzoli's 
genius was, on the whole, more versatile and assimilative than 
vigorously original; his drawing not free from considerable 
imperfections, especially in the extremities and articulations, 
and in the perspective of his gorgeously-schemed buildings. 
In fresco-painting he used the methods of tempera, and the decay 
of his works has been severe in proportion. Of his untiring 
industry the recital of his labours and the number of works 
produced are the most forcible attestation. 

Vasari, Crowe and Cavalcaselle, and the other ordinary authori- 
ties, can be consulted as to the career of Gozzoli. A separate 
Life of him, by H. Stokes, was published in 1903 in Newnes's Art 
library. (W. M. R.) 

GRAAFF REINET, a town of South Africa, 185 m. by rail 
N.W. by N. of Port Elizabeth. Pop. (1904) 10,083, f whom 
4055 were whites. The town lies 2463 ft. above the sea and is 
built on the banks of the Sunday river,which rises a little farther 
north on the southern slopes of the Sneeuwberg, and here 
ramifies into several channels. The Dutch church is a handsome 
stone building with seating accommodation for 1 500 people. The 
college is an educational centre of some importance; it was 
rebuilt in 1906. Graaff Reinet is a flourishing market for 
agricultural produce, the district being noted for its mohair 
industry, its orchards and vineyards. 

The town was founded by the Cape Dutch in 1786, being named 
after the then governor of Cape Colony, C. J. van de Graaff, 
and his wife. In 1 795 the burghers, smarting under the exactions 
of the Dutch East India Company proclaimed a republic. 
Similar action was taken by the burghers of Swellendam. Before 
the authorities at Cape Town could take decisive measures 
against the rebels, they were themselves compelled to capitulate 
to the British. The burghers having endeavoured, unsuccessfully, 
to get aid from a French warship at Algoa Bay surrendered to 
Colonel (afterwards General Sir) J. O. Vandeleur. In January 
1799 Marthinus Prinsloo, the leader of the republicans in 1795, 
again rebelled, but surrendered in April following. Prinsloo 
and nineteen' others were imprisoned in Cape Town castle. 
After trial, Prinsloo and another commandant were sentenced 
to death and others to banishment. The sentences were not 



carried out and the prisoners were released, March 1803, on the 
retrocession of the Cape to Holland. In 1801 there had been 
another revolt in Graaff Reinet, but owing to the conciliatory 
measures of General F. Dundas (acting governor of the Cape) 
peace was soon restored. It was this district, where a republican 
government in South Africa was first proclaimed, which furnished 
large numbers of the voortrekkers in 1835-1842. It remains a 
strong Dutch centre. 

See J. C. Voight, Fifty Years of the History of the Republic in 
South Africa 1795-1845, vol. i. (London, 1899). 

GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH (1801-1836), German 
dramatist, was born at Detmold on the nth of December 1801. 
Entering the university of Leipzig in 1819 as a student of law, 
he continued the reckless habits which he had begun at Detmold, 
and neglected his studies. Being introduced into literary 
circles, he conceived the idea of becoming an actor and wrote 
the drama Herzog Theodor von Gothland (1822). This, though 
showing considerable literary talent, lacks artistic form, and 
is morally repulsive. Ludwig Tieck, while encouraging the 
young author, pointed out its faults, and tried to reform Grabbe 
himself. In 1822 Grabbe removed to Berlin University, and in 
1824 passed his advocate's examination. He now settled in his 
native town as a lawyer and in 1827 was appointed a MilUar- 
auditeur. In 1833 he married, but in consequence of his drunken 
habits was dismissed from his office, and, separating from his 
wife, visited Dtisseldorf, where he was kindly received by Karl 
Immermann. After a serious quarrel with the latter, he returned 
to Detmold, where, as a result of his excesses, he died on the i2th 
of September 1836. 

Grabbe had real poetical gifts, and many of his dramas contain 
fine passages and a wealth of original ideas. They largely 
reflect his own life and character, and are characterized by 
cynicism and indelicacy. Their construction also is defective 
and little suited to the requirements of the stage. The boldly 
conceived Don Juan und Faust (1829) and the historical dramas 
Friedrich Barbarossa (1829), Heinrich VI. (1830), and Napoleon 
oder die Hundert Tage (1831), the last of which places the battle 
of Waterloo upon the stage, are his best works. Among others 
are the unfinished tragedies Marius and Sulla (continued by 
Erich Korn, Berlin, 1890); and Hannibal (1835, supplemented 
and edited by C. Spielmann, Halle, 1901); and the patriotic 
Hermannsschlacht or the battle between Arminius and Varus 
(posthumously published with a biographical notice, by E. 
Duller, 1838). 

Grabbe's works have been edited by O. Blumenthal (4 vols., 
1875), and E. Grisebach (4 vols., 1902). For further notices of his 
life, see K. Ziegler, Grabbes Leben und Charakter (1855); O. 
Blumenthal, Beitrdge zur Kenntnis Grabbes (1875); C. A. Piper, 
Grabbe (1898), and A. Ploch, Grabbes Stellung in der deutschen Litera- 
tur (1905). 

GRABE, JOHN ERNEST (1666-1711), Anglican divine, was 
born on the loth of July 1666, at Konigsberg, where his father, 
Martin Sylvester Grabe, was professor of theology and history. 
In his theological studies Grabe succeeded in persuading himself 
of the schismatical character of the Reformation, and accordingly 
he presented to the consistory of Samland in Prussia a memorial 
in which he compared the position of the evangelical Protestant 
churches with that of the Novatians and other ancient schis- 
matics. He had resolved to join the Church of Rome when a 
commission of Lutheran divines pointed out flaws in his written 
argument and called his attention to the English Church as 
apparently possessing that apostolic succession and manifesting 
thatifidelity to ancient institutions which he desired. He 
came to England, settled in Oxford, was ordained in 1700, and 
became chaplain of Christ Church. His inclination was towards 
the party of the nonjurors. The learned labours to which the 
remainder of his life was devoted were rewarded with an Oxford 
degree and a royal pension. He died on the 3rd of November 
1711, and in 1726 a monument was erected to him by Edward 
Harley, earl of Oxford, in Westminster Abbey. He was buried 
in St Pancras Church, London. 

Some account of Grabe's life is given in R. Nelson's Life of George 
Bull, and by George Hickes in a discourse prefixed to the pamphlet 
against W. Whiston's Collection of Testimonies against the True 



GRACCHUS 



307 



Deity of the Son and of the Holy Ghost. His works, which show him 
to have been learned and laborious but somewhat deficient in 
critical acumen, include a Spicilegium SS. Patrum et haereticorum 
(1698-1699), which was designed to cover the first three centuries 
of the Christian church, but was not continued beyond the close of 
the second. A second edition of this work was published in 1714. 
He brought out an edition of Justin Martyr's Apologia prima (1700), 
of Irenaeus, Adversus omnes haereses (1702), of the Septuagint, 
and of Bishop Bull's Latin works (1703). His edition of the Septua- 
gint was based on the Codex Alexandrinus; it appeared in 4 volumes 
(1707-1720), and was completed by Francis Lee and by George 
Wigan. 

GRACCHUS, in ancient Rome, the name of a plebeian family 
of the Sempronian gens. Its most distinguished representatives 
were .the famous tribunes of the people, Tiberius and Gaius 
Sempronius Gracchus, (4) and (5) below, usually called simply 
" the Gracchi." 

1. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, consul in 238 B.C., 
carried on successful operations against the Ligurian mountaineers, 
and, at the conclusion of the Carthaginian mercenary war, 
was in command of the fleet which at the invitation of the 
insurgents took possession of the island of Sardinia. 

2. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, probably the son of 
( i ), distinguished himself during the second Punic war. Consul 
in 215, he defeated the Capuans who had entered into an alliance 
with Hannibal, and in 214 gained a signal success over Hanno 
near Beneventum, chiefly owing to the wlones (slave- volunteers), 
to whom he had promised freedom in the event of victory. In 
213 Gracchus was consul a second time and carried on the war 
in Lucania; in the following year, while advancing northward 
to reinforce the consuls in their attack on Capua, he was betrayed 
into the hands of the Carthaginian Mago by a Lucanian of rank, 
who had formerly supported the Roman cause and was connected 
with Gracchus himself by ties of hospitality. Gracchus fell 
fighting bravely; his body was sent to Hannibal, who accorded 
him a splendid burial. 

3. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS (c. 210-151 B.C.), 
father of the tribunes, and husband of Cornelia, the daughter 
of the elder Scipio Africanus, was possibly the son of a Publius 
Sempronius Gracchus who was tribune in 189. Although a 
determined political opponent of the two Scipios (Asiaticus 
and Africanus), as tribune in 187 he interfered on their behalf 
when they were accused of having accepted bribes from the king 
of Syria after the war. In 185 he was a member of the commission 
sent to Macedonia to investigate the complaints made by Eumenes 
II. of Pergamum against Philip V. of Macedon. In his curule 
aedileship (182) he celebrated the games on so magnificent a scale 
that the burdens imposed upon the Italian and extra-Italian 
communities led to the official interference of the senate. In 
181 he went as praetor to Hither Spain, and, after gaining 
signal successes in the field, applied himself to the pacification 
of the country. His strict sense of justice and sympathetic 
attitude won the respect and affection of the inhabitants; the 
land had rest for a quarter of a century. When consul in 177, 
he was occupied in putting down a revolt in Sardinia, and brought 
back so many prisoners that Sardi venales (Sardinians for sale) 
became a proverbial expression for a drug in the market. In 
169 Gracchus was censor, and both he and his colleague (C. 
Claudius Pulcher) showed themselves determined opponents 
of the capitalists. They deeply offended the equestrian order 
by forbidding any contractor who had obtained contracts under 
the previous censors to make fresh offers. Gracchus stringently 
enforced the limitation of the freedmen to the four city tribes, 
which completely destroyed their influence in the comitia. In 
165 and 161 he went as ambassador to several Asiatic princes, 
with whom he established friendly relations. Amongst the 
places visited by him was Rhodes, where he delivered a speech 
in Greek, which he afterwards published. In 163 he was again 
consul. 

4. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS (163-133 B.C.), son of 
(3), was the elder of the two great reformers. He and his brother 
were brought up by their mother Cornelia, assisted by the 
rhetorician Diophanes of Mytilene and the Stoic Blossius of 
Cumae. In 147 he served under his brother-in-law the younger 



Scipio in Africa during the last Punic war, and was the first 
to mount the walls in the attack on Carthage. When quaestor 
in 137, he accompanied the consul C. Hostilius Mancinus to 
Spain. During the Numantine war the Roman army was saved 
from annihilation only by the efforts of Tiberius, with whom 
alone the Numantines consented to treat, out of respect for the 
memory of his father. The senate refused to ratify the agree- 
ment; Mancinus was handed over to the enemy as a sign that 
it was annulled, and only personal popularity saved Tiberius 
himself from punishment. In 133 he was tribune, and cham- 
pioned the impoverished farmer class and the lower orders. 
His proposals (see AGRARIAN LAWS) met with violent opposition, 
and were not carried until he had, illegally and unconstitutionally, 
secured the deposition of his fellow-tribune, M. Octavius, who 
had been persuaded by the optimates to veto them. The senate 
put every obstacle in the way of the three commissioners ap- 
pointed to carry out the provisions of the law, and Tiberius, in 
view of the bitter enmity he had aroused, saw that it was necessary 
to strengthen his hold on the popular favour. The legacy to 
the Roman people of the kingdom and treasures of Attalus III. 
of Pergamum gave him an opportunity. He proposed that the 
money realized by the sale of the treasures should be divided, 
for the purchase of implements and stock, amongst those to 
whom assignments of land had been made under the new law. 
He is also said to have brought forward measures for shortening 
the period of military service, for extending the right of appeal 
from the judices to the people, for abolishing the exclusive 
privilege of the senators to act as jurymen, and even for admit- 
ting the Italian allies to citizenship. To strengthen his position 
further, Tiberius offered himself for re-election as tribune for the 
following year. The senate declared that it was illegal to hold 
this office for two consecutive years; but Tiberius treated this 
objection with contempt. To win the sympathy of the people, 
he appeared in mourning, and appealed for protection for his 
wife and children, and whenever he left his house he was accom- 
panied by a bodyguard of 3000 men, chiefly consisting of the 
city rabble. The meeting of the tribes for the election of tribunes 
broke up in disorder on two successive days, without any result 
being attained, although on both occasions the first divisions 
voted in favour of Tiberius. A rumour reached the senate that 
he was aiming at supreme power, that he had touched his head 
with his hand, a sign that he was asking for a crown. An appeal 
to the consul P. Mucius Scaevola to order him to be put to death 
at once having failed, P. Scipio Nasica exclaimed that Scaevola 
was acting treacherously towards the state, and called upon 
those who agreed with him to take up arms and follow him. 
During the riot that followed, Tiberius attempted to escape, 
but stumbled on the slope of the Capitol and was beaten to death 
with the end of a bench. At night his body, with those of 300 
others, was thrown into the Tiber. The aristocracy boldly 
assumed the responsibility for what had occurred, and set up a 
commission to inquire into the case of the partisans of Tiberius, 
many of whom were banished and others put to death. Even 
the moderate Scaevola subsequently maintained that Nasica 
was justified in his action; and it was reported that Scipio, 
when he heard at Numantia of his brother-in-law's death, 
repeated the line of Homer " So perish all who do the like 
again." 

See Livy, Epit. 58; Appian, Bell. civ. i. 9-17; Plutarch, Tiberius 
Gracchus; Veil. Pat. ii. 2, 3. 

5. GAIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS (153-121 B.C.), younger 
brother of (4), was a man of greater abilities, bolder and more 
passionate, although possessed of considerable powers of self- 
control, and a vigorous and impressive orator. When twenty 
years of age he was appointed one of the commissioners to 
carry out the distribution of land under the provisions of his 
brother's agrarian law. At the time of Tiberius's death, Gaius 
was serving under his brother-in-law Scipio in Spain, but 
probably returned to Rome in the following year (132). In 
131 he supported the bill of C. Papirius Carbo, the object of 
which was to make it legal for a tribune to offer himself as candi- 
date for the office in two consecutive years, and thus to remove 



3 o8 



GRACE, W. G. 



one of the chief obstacles that had hampered Tiberius. The bil! 
was then rejected, but appears to have subsequently passed in 
a modified form, as Gaius himself was re-elected without any 
disturbance. Possibly, however, his re-election was illegal 
and he had only succeeded where his brother had failed. For 
the nex few years nothing is heard of Gaius. Public opinion 
pointed him out as the man to avenge his brother's death anc 
carry out his plans, and the aristocratic party, warned by the 
example of Tiberius, were anxious to keep him away from Rome 
In 126 Gaius accompanied the consul L. Aurelius Orestes as 
quaestor to Sardinia, then in a state of revolt. Here he made 
himself so popular that the senate in alarm prolonged the 
command of Orestes, in order that Gaius might be obliged to 
remain there in his capacity of quaestor. But he returned to 
Rome without the permission of the senate, and, when called 
to account by the censors, defended himself so successfully 
that he was acquitted of having acted illegally. The disappointed 
aristocrats then brought him to trial on the charge of being 
implicated in the revolt of Fregellae, and in other ways unsuccess- 
fully endeavoured to undermine his influence. Gaius then 
decided to act; against the wishes of his mother he became 
a candidate for the tribuneship, and, in spite of the determined 
opposition of the aristocracy, he was elected for the year 123, 
although only fourth on the list. The legislative proposals 1 
brought forward by him had for their object: the punish- 
ment of his brother's enemies; the relief of distress and the 
attachment to himself of the city populace; the diminution 
of the power of the senate and the increase of that of the equiies; 
the amelioration of the political status of the Italians and 
provincials. 

A law was passed that no Roman citizen should be tried in 
a matter affecting his life or political status unless the people had 
previously given its assent. This was specially aimed at Popilius 
Laenas, who had taken an active part in the prosecution of the 
adherents of Tiberius. Another law enacted that any magistrate 
who had been deprived of office by decree of the people should be 
incapacitated from holding office again. This was directed against 
M. Octavius, who had been illegally deprived of his tribunate 
through Tiberius. This unfair and vindictive measure was with- 
drawn at the earnest request of Cornelia. 

He revived his brother's agrarian law, which, although it 
had not been repealed, had fallen into abeyance. By his Lex 
Frumentaria every citizen resident in Rome was entitled to a certain 
amount of corn at about half the usual price; as the distribution 
only applied to those living in the capital, the natural result was 
that the poorer country citizens flocked into Rome and swelled the 
number of Gaius's supporters. No citizen was to be obliged to 
serve in the army before the commencement of his eighteenth year, 
and his military outfit was to be supplied by the state, instead of 
being deducted from his pay. Gaius also proposed the establishment 
of colonies in Italy (at Tarentum and Capua), and sent out to the 
site of Carthage 6000 colonists to found the new city of Junonia, 
the inhabitants of which were to possess the rights of Roman 
citizens; this was the first attempt at over-sea colonization. A new 
system of roads was constructed which afforded easier access to 
Rome. Having thus gained over the city proletariat, in order 
to secure a majority in the comitia by its aid, Gaius did away with 
the system of voting in the comitia centuriata, whereby the five 
property classes in each tribe gave their votes one after another 
and introduced promiscuous voting in an order fixed by lot. 

The judices in the standing commissions for the trial of par- 
ticular offences (the most important of which was that dealing 
with the trial of provincial magistrates for extortion, de repetundis) 
were in future to be chosen from the equites (q.v.), not as hitherto 
from the senate. The taxes of the new province of Asia were to be 
let out by the censors to Roman publicani (who belonged to the 
equestrian order) who paid down a lump sum for the right of 
collecting them. It is obvious that this afforded the equites ex- 
tensive opportunities for money-making and extortion, while the 
alteration in the appointment of the judices gave them the same 
practical immunity and perpetuated the old abuses, with the differ- 
ence that it was no longer senators, but equites, who could look 
forward with confidence to being leniently dealt with by men 
belonging to their own order ; Gaius also expected that this moneyed 
aristocracy, which had taken the part of the senate against Tiberius, 
would now support him against it. It was enacted that the pro- 
vinces to be assigned to the consuls, should be determined before, 

'These measures cannot be arranged in any definite chronological 
order nor can it be decided which belong to his first, which to his 
second tnbuneship. See W. Warde Fowler in Eng His I 
1905, pp. 209 sqq., 417 sqq. 



instead of after their election ; and the consuls themselves had to 
settle, by lot or other arrangement, which province each of them 
would take.* 

These measures raised Gaius to the height of his popularity, 
and during the year of his first tribuneship he may be considered 
the absolute ruler of Rome. He was chosen tribune for the second 
time for the year 122. To this period is probably to be assigned 
his proposal that the franchise should be given to all the Latin 
communities and that the status of the Latins should be con- 
ferred upon the Italian allies. In 125 M. Fulvius Flaccus had 
brought forward a similar measure, but he was got out of the way 
by the senate, who sent him to fight in Gaul. This proposal, 
more statesmanlike than any of the others, was naturally opposed 
by the aristocratic party, and lessened Gaius's popularity 
amongst his own supporters, who viewed with disfavour the 
prospect of an increase in the number of Roman citizens. The 
senate put up M. Livius Drusus to outbid him, and his absence 
from Rome while superintending the organization of the newly- 
founded colony, Junonia-Carthago, was taken advantage of by 
his enemies to weaken his influence. On his return he found his 
popularity diminished. He failed to secure the tribuneship 
for the third time, and his bitter enemy L. Opimius was elected 
consul. The latter at once decided to propose the abandonment 
of the new colony, which was to occupy the site cursed by 
Scipio, while its foundation had been attended by unmistakable 
manifestations of the wrath of the gods. On the day when the 
matter was to be put to the vote, a lictor named Antyllius, who 
had insulted the supporters of Gaius, was stabbed to death. 
This gave his opponents the desired opportunity. Gaius was 
declared a public enemy, and the consuls were invested with 
dictatorial powers. The Gracchans, who had taken up their 
position in the temple of Diana on the Aventine, offered little 
resistance to the attack ordered by Opimius. Gaius managed 
to escape across the Tiber, where his dead body was found on 
the following day in the grove of Furrina by the side of that 
of a slave, who had probably slain his master and then himself. 
The property of the Gracchans was confiscated, and a temple 
of Concord erected in the Forum from the proceeds. Beneath 
the inscription recording the occasion on which the temple had 
been built some one during the night wrote the words: "The 
work of Discord makes the temple of Concord." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. See Livy, Epit. 60; Appian, Bell. Civ. i. 21- 
Plutarch, Gaius Gracchus; Orosius v. 12; Aulus Gellius x. 3, 
xi. 10. For an account of the two tribunes see Mommsen, Hist, 
of Rome (Eng. trans.), bk. iv., chs. 2 and 3; C. Neumann, Geschichte 
Roms wdhrend des Verfalles der Republik (1881) ; A. H. J. Greenidge, 
History of Rome (1904); E. Meyer, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte 
der Gracchen (1894); G. E. Underbill, Plutarch's Lives of the Gracchi 
(1892); W. Warde Fowler in English Historical Review (1905), 
jp. 209 and 417; Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, chs. 10-13, 

~ l -3' conte'iinK.a careful examination of the ancient authorities; 

- F. Hertzberg in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopddie; 
C. W. Oman, Seven Roman Statesmen of the later Republic (lOtt): 
T. Lau, Die Gracchen und ihre Zeil (1854). The exhaustive mono- 
graph by C. W. Nitzsch, Die Gracchen und ihre ndchsten Vorgdnger 
(1847), also contains an account of the other members of the family, 
with full references to ancient authorities in the notes. (J. H. F.) 

GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848- ), English cricketer, 
was born at Downend, Gloucestershire, on the i8th of July 
1848. He found himself in an atmosphere charged with cricket, 
lis father (Henry Mills Grace) and his uncle (Alfred Pocock) 
being as enthusiastic over the game as his elder brothers, Henry, 
Alfred and Edward Mills; indeed, in E. M. Grace the family 
name first became famous. A younger brother, George Frederick, 
also added to the cricket reputation of the family. "W. G." 
witnessed his first great match when he was hardly six years 
old, the occasion being a game between W. Clarke's All-England 

leven and twenty-two of West Gloucestershire. He was 
indowed by nature with a splendid physique as well as with 
powers of self-restraint and determination. At the acme of his 
:areer he stood full 6 ft. 2 in., being powerfully proportioned, 
oose yet strong of limb. A non-smoker, and very moderate 

^ l } j' S su SK ested by W. Warde Fowler that Gracchus proposed 
o add a certain number of equites to the senate, thereby increasing 
t to 900, but the plan was never carried out. 



GRACE 



309 



in all matters, he kept himself in condition all the year round, 
shooting, hunting or running with the beagles as soon as the 
cricket season was over. He was also a fine runner, 440 yds. 
over 20 hurdles being his best distance; and it may be quoted 
as proof of his stamina that on the 3oth of July 1866 he scored 
224 not out for England v. Surrey, and two days later won a 
race in the National and Olympian Association meeting at the 
Crystal Palace. The title of " champion " was well earned by 
one who for thirty-six years (1865-1900 inclusive) was actively 
engaged in first-class cricket. In each of these years he was 
invited to represent the Gentlemen in their matches against the 
Players, and, when an Australian eleven visited England, to 
play for the mother country. As late as 1899 he played in the 
first of the five international contests; in 1900 he played against 
the players at the Oval, scoring 58 and 3. At fifty-three he 
scored nearly 1300 runs in first-class cricket, made 100 runs and 
over on three different occasions and could claim an average 
of 42 runs. Moreover, his greatest triumphs were achieved 
when only the very best cricket grounds received serious atten- 
tion; when, as some consider, bowling was maintained at a higher 
standard and when all hits had to be run out. He, with his two 
brothers, E. M. and G. F., assisted by some fine amateurs, made 
Gloucestershire in one season a first-class county; and it was 
he who first enabled the amateurs of England to meet the paid 
players on equal terms and to beat them. There was hardly a 
" record " connected with the game which did not stand to his 
credit. Grace was one of the finest fieldsmen in England, in his 
earlier days generally taking long-leg and cover-point, in later 
times generally standing point. He was, at his best, a fine 
thrower, fast runner and safe " catch." As a bowler he was 
long in the first flight, originally bowling fast, but in later times 
adopting a slowe r and more tricky style, frequently very effective. 
By profession he was a medical man. In later years he became 
secretary and manager of the London County Cricket Club. 
He was married in 1873 to Miss Agnes Day, and one of his sons 
played for two years in the Cambridge eleven. He was the 
recipient of two national testimonials: the first, amounting to 
1500, being presented to him in the form of a clock and a 
cheque at Lord's ground by Lord Charles Russell on the 22nd 
of July 1879; the second, collected by the M.C.C., the county 
of Gloucestershire, the Daily Telegraph and the Sportsman, 
amounted to about 10,000, and was presented to him in 1896. 
He visited Australia in 1873-1874 (captain), and in 1891-1892 
with Lord Sheffield's Eleven (captain); the United States and 
Canada in 1872, with R. A. -Fitzgerald's team. 

Dr Grace played his first great match in 1863. when, being only 
fifteen years of age, he scored 32 against the All-England Eleven 
and the bowling of Jackson, Tarrant and Tinley; but the scores 
which first made his name prominent were made in 1864, viz. 
1 70 and 56 not out for the South Wales Club against the Gentlemen 
of Sussex. It was in 1865 that he first took an active part in first- 
class cricket, being then 6 ft. in height, and 1 1 stone in weight, 
and playing twice for the Gentlemen . the Players, but his selection 
was mainly due to his bowling powers, the best exposition of which 
was his aggregate of 13 wickets for 84 runs for the Gentlemen of 
the South . the Players of the South. His highest score was 400 
not out, made in July 1876 against twenty-two of Grimsby; but 
on three occasions he was twice dismissed without scoring in matches 
against odds, a fate that never befell him in important cricket. 
In first-class matches his highest score was 344, made for the M.C.C. 
v. Kent at Canterbury, in August 1876; two days later he made 
177 for Gloucestershire r. Notts, and two days after this 318 not 
out for Gloucestershire v. Yorkshire, the two last-named opposing 
counties being possessed of exceptionally strong bowling; tnus in 
three consecutive innings Grace scored 839 runs, and was only got 
out twice. .His 344 was the third highest individual score made in 
a big match in England up to the end of 1901. He also scored 301 
for Gloucestershire v. Sussex at Bristol, in August 1896. He made 
over 200 runs on ten occasions, the most notable perhaps being in 
187 1 , when he performed the feat twice, each time in benefit matches, 
and each time in the second innings, having been each time got out 
in the first over of the first innings. He scored over loo runs on 
121 occasions, the hundredth score being 288, made at Bristol for 
Gloucestershire v. Somersetshire in 1895. He made every figure 
from o to 100, on one occasion " closing ' the innings when heliad 
made 93, the only total he had never made between these limits. 
In 1871 he made ten " centuries," ranging from 268 to 116. In the 
matches between the Gentlemen and {'layers he scored " three 



figures " fifteen times, and at every place where thee matches have 
been played. He made over 100 in each of his " fint appearance! " 
at Oxford and Cambridge. Three times he made over loo in each 
innings of the same match, viz. at Canterbury, in 1868, for South v. 
North of the Thames, 130 and 102 not out; at Clifton, in 1887, 
for Gloucestershire v. Kent, 101 and 103 not out; and at Clifton, 
in 1888, for Gloucestershire v. Yorkshire, 148 and 153. In 1869, 
playing at the Oval for the Gentlemen of the South v. the Players 
of the South, Grace and B. B. Cooper put on 283 runs for the first 
wicket, Grace scoring 180 and Cooper 101. In 1886 Grace and 
Scptton put on 170 runs for the first wicket of England v, Australia; 
this occurred at the Oval in August, and Grace s total score was 
170. In consecutive innings against the Players from 1871 to 1874 
he scored 217, 77 and 112, 117, 163, 158 and 70. He only twice scored 
over loo in a big match in Australia, nor did he ever make 200 at 
Lord's, his highest being 196 for the M.C.C. v. Cambridge University 
in 1894. His highest aggregates were 2739 (1871), 2622 (1876). 
2346 (1895), 2139 (1873), 2135 (1896) and 2062 (1887). He scored 
three successive centuries in first-class cricket in 1871, 1872, 1873, 
1874 and 1876. Playing against Kent at Gravescnd in 1895, he 
was batting, bowling or fielding during the whole time the game 
was in progress, his scores being 257 and 73 not out. He scored 
over 1000 runs and took over 100 wickets in seven different seasons, 
viz. in 1874, 1665 runs and 129 wickets; in 1875, 1498 runs, 193 
wickets; in 1876, 2622 runs, 124 wickets; in 1877, 1474 runs, 179 
wickets; in 1878, 1151 runs, 153 wickets; in 1885, 1688 runs. 
i iH wickets; in 1886, 1846 runs, 122 wickets. He never captured 
200 wickets in a season, his highest record being 192 in 1*75. Play- 
ing against Oxford University in 1886, he took all the wickets in 
the first innings, at a cost of 49 runs. In 1895 he not only made 
his hundredth century, but actually scored loop runs in the month 
of May alone, his chief scores in that month being 103, 288, 256, 73 
and 169, he being then forty-seven years old. He also made during 
that year scores of 125, 119, 118, 104 and 103 not put, hjs aggregate 
for the year being 2346 and his average 51; his innings of 118 
was made against the Players (at Lord's), the chief bowlers being 
Richardson, Mold, Peel and Attewell; he scored level with his 
partner, A. E. Stoddart (his junior by fifteen years), the pair making 
151 before a wicket fell, Grace making in all 118 out of 241. This 
may fairly be considered one of his most wonderful years. In 1808 
the match between Gentlemen v. Players was, as a special compli- 
ment, arranged by the M.C.C. committee to take place on his birth- 
day, and he celebrated the event by scoring 43 and 31 not out, 
though handicapped by lameness and an injured hand. In twenty- 
six different seasons he scored over 1000 runs, in three of these 
years being the only man to do so and five times being one out of 
two. 

During the thirty-six years up to and including 1900 he scored 
nearly 51,000 runs, with an average of 43; and in bowling he took 
more than 2800 wickets, at an average cost of about 20 runs per 
wicket. He made his highest aggregate (2739 runs) and had his 
highest average (78) in 1871 ; his average for the decade 1868-1877 
was 57 runs. His style as a batsman was more commanding than 
graceful, but as to its soundness and efficacy there were never 
two opinions; the severest criticism ever passed upon his powers 
was to the effect that he did not play slow bowling quite as well 
as fast. (W. J. F.) 

GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from gratus, beloved, pleasing; 
formed from the root era-, Gr. \aa-, cf. \aipu, x&ppa, xApts), 
a word of many shades of meaning, but always connoting the 
idea of favour, whether that in which one stands to others 
or that which one shows to others. The New English Dictionary 
groups the meanings of the word under three main heads: 
(i) Pleasing quality, gracefulness, (2) favour, goodwill, (3) 
gratitude, thanks. 

It is in the second general sense of " favour bestowed " that 
the word has its most important connotations. In this sense 
it means something given by superior authority as a concession 
made of favour and goodwill, not as an obligation or of right. 
Thus, a concession may be made by a sovereign or other public 
authority " by way of grace." Previous to the Revolution of 
1688 such concessions on the part of the crown were known in 
constitutional law as " Graces." " Letters of Grace " (gratiae, 
gratiosa rescripta) is the name given to papal rescripts granting 
special privileges, indulgences, exemptions and the like. In 
the language of the universities the word still survives in a 
shadow of this sense. The word " grace " was originally a 
dispensation granted by the congregation of the university, 
or by one of the faculties, from some statutable conditions re- 
quired for a degree. In the English universities these conditions 
ceased to be enforced, and the " grace " thus became an essential 
preliminary to any degree; so that the word has acquired the 
meaning of (o) the licence granted by congregation to take a 



GRACES, THE GRACIAN Y MORALES 



310 

degree, (ft) other decrees of the governing body (originally dis- 
pensations from statutes), all such degrees being called " graces " 
at Cambridge, (c) the permission which a candidate for a degree 
must obtain from his college or hall. 

To this general sense of exceptional favour belong the uses 
of the word in such phrases as " do me this grace," " to be in 
some one's good graces " and certain meanings of " the grace of 
God." The style " by the grace of God," borne by the king of 
Great Britain and Ireland among other sovereigns, though, 
as implying the principle of " legitimacy," it has been since the 
Revolution sometimes qualified on the continent by the addition 
of " and the will of the people," means in effect no more than the 
" by Divine Providence," which is the style borne by archbishops. 
To the same general sense of exceptional favour belong the 
phrases implying the concession of a right to delay in fulfilling 
certain obligations, e.g. " a fortnight's grace." In law the " days 
of grace " are the period allowed for the payment of a bill of 
exchange, after the term for which it has been drawn (in England 
three days), or for the payment of an insurance premium, &c. 
In religious language the " Day of Grace " is the period still 
open to the sinner in which to repent. In the sense of clemency 
or mercy, too, " grace " is still, though rarely used: " an Act 
of Grace " is a formal pardon or a free and general pardon granted 
by act of parliament. Since to grant favours is the prerogative 
of the great, " Your Grace," " His Grace," &c., became dutiful 
paraphrases for the simple " you " and " he. " Formerly used 
in the royal address (" the King's Grace," &c.), the style is in 
England now confined to dukes and archbishops, though the 
style of " his most gracious majesty " is still used. In Germany 
the equivalent, Euer Gnaden, is the style of princes who are not 
Durchlaucht (i.e. Serene Highness), and is often used as a polite 
address to any superior. 

In the language of theology, though in the English Bible the 
word is used in several of the above senses, " grace " (Gr. x<*P' s ) 
has special meanings. Above all, it signifies the spontaneous, 
unmerited activity of the Divine Love in the salvation of sinners, 
and the Divine influence operating in man for his regeneration 
and sanctification. Those thus regenerated and sanctified are 
said to be in a " state of grace." In the New Testament grace 
is the forgiving mercy of God, as opposed to any human merit 
(Rom. xi. 6; Eph. ii. 5; Col. i. 6, &c.); it is applied also to 
certain gifts of God freely bestowed , e.g. miracles, tongues, &c. 
(Rom. xv. 15; i Cor. xv. 10; Eph. iii. 8, &c.), to the Christian 
virtues, gifts of God also, e.g. charity, holiness, &c. (2 Cor. 
viii. 7; 2 Pet. iii. 18). It is also used of the Gospel generally, 
as opposed to the Law (John i. 17; Rom. vi. 14; i Pet. v. 12, 
&c.); connected with this is the use of the term " year of grace " 
for a year of the Christian era. 

The word " grace " is the central subject of three great 
theological controversies: (i) that of the nature of human 
depravity and regeneration (see PELAGIUS), (2) that of the 
relation between grace and free-will (see CALVIN, JOHN, and 
ARMINIUS, JACOBUS), (3) that of the " means of grace " between 
Catholics and Protestants, i.e. whether the efficacy of the 
sacraments as channels of the Divine grace is ex opere operate 
or dependent on the faith of the recipient. 

In the third general sense, of thanks for favours bestowed, 
" grace " survives as the name for the thanksgiving before or 
after meals. The word was originally used in the plural, and 
" to do, give, render, yield graces " was said, in the general 
sense of the French rendre graces or Latin gralias agere, of any 
giving thanks. The close, and finally exclusive, association 
of the phrase " to say grace " with thanksgiving at meals was 
possibly due to the formula " Gratias Deo agamus " (" let us 
give thanks to God ") with which the ceremony began in monastic 
refectories. The custom of saying grace, which obtained in 
pre-Christian times among the Jews, Greeks and Romans, and 
was adopted universally by Christian peoples, is probably less 
widespread in private houses than it used to be. It is, however, 
still maintained at public dinners and also in schools, colleges 
and institutions generally. Such graces are generally in Latin 
and of great antiquity: they are sometimes short, e.g. " Laus 



Deo," " Benedictus benedicat," and sometimes, as a't the 
Oxford and Cambridge colleges, of considerable length. In 
some countries grace has sunk to a polite formula; in Germany, 
e.g. it is usual before and after meals to bow to one's neighbours 
and say " Gesegnete Malzeit ! " (May your meal be blessed), 
a phrase often reduced in practice to " Malzeit " simply. 

GRACES, THE, (Gr. XApirts, Lat. Gratiae), in Greek mythology, 
the personification of grace and charm, both in nature and in 
moral action. The transition from a single goddess, Charis, to 
a number or group of Charites, is marked in Homer. In the 
Iliad one Charis is the wife of Hephaestus, another the promised 
wife of Sleep, while the plural Charites often occurs. The Charites 
are usually described as three in number Aglaia (brightness), 
Euphrosyne (joyfulness), Thalia (bloom) daughters of Zeus 
and Hera (or Eurynome, daughter of Oceanus), or of Helios 
and Aegle; in Sparta, however, only two were known, Cleta 
(noise) and Phaenna (light), as at Athens Auxo (increase) and 
Hegemone (queen). They are the friends of the Muses, with 
whom they live on Mount Olympus, and the companions of 
Aphrodite, of Peitho, the goddess of persuasion, and of Hermes, 
the god of eloquence, to each of whom charm is an indispensable 
adjunct. The need of their assistance to the artist is indicated 
by the union of Hephaestus and Charis. The most ancient 
seat of their cult was Orchomenus in Boeotia, where their oldest 
images, in the form of stones fallen from heaven, were set up 
in their temple. Their worship was said to have been instituted 
by Eteocles, whose three daughters fell into a well while dancing 
in their honour. At Orchomenus nightly dances took place, 
and the festival Charitesia, accompanied by musical contests, 
was celebrated; in Paros their worship was celebrated without 
music or garlands, since it was there that Minos, while sacrificing 
to the Charites, received the news of the death of his son 
Androgeus; at Messene they were revered together with the 
Eumenides; at Athens, their rites, kept secret from the profane, 
were held at the entrance to the Acropolis. It was by Auxo, 
Hegemone and Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops, that young 
Athenians, on first receiving their spear and shield, took the 
oath to defend their country. In works of art the Charites were 
represented in early times as beautiful maidens of slender form, 
hand in hand or embracing one another and wearing drapery; 
later, the conception predominated of three naked figures 
gracefully intertwined. Their attributes were the myrtle, the 
rose and musical instruments. In Rome the Graces were 
never the objects of special religious reverence, but were described 
and represented by poets and artists in accordance with Greek 
models. 

See F. H. Krause, Musen, Gratien, Horen, und Nymphen (1871), 
and the articles by Stoll and Furtwangler in Roscher's Lexikon der 
Mythologie, and by S. Gsell in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire 
des antiquMs, with the bibliography. 

GRACIAN Y MORALES, BALTASAR (1601-1658), Spanish 
prose writer, was born at Calatayud (Aragon) on the 8th of 
January 1601. Little is known of his personal history except 
that on May 14, 1619, he entered the Society of Jesus, and that 
ultimately he became rector of the Jesuit college at Tarazona, 
where he died on the 6th of December, 1658. His principal 
works are El Htroe (1630), which describes in apophthegmatic 
phrases the qualities of the ideal man; the Arte de ingenio, 
tratado de la Agudeza (1642), republished six years afterwards 
under the title of Agudeza, y arte de ingenio (1648), a system 
of rhetoric in which the principles of conceptismo as opposed 
to culteranismo are inculcated; El Discrete (1645), a delineation 
of the typical courtier; El Ordculo manual y arte de prudencia 
(1647), a system of rules for the conduct of life; and El Criticdn 
(1651-1653-1657), an ingenious philosophical allegory of human 
existence. The only publication which bears Gracian's name is 
El Comulgatorio (1655); his more important books were issued 
under the pseudonym of Lorenzo Gracian (possibly a brother 
of the writer) or under the anagram of Gracian de Marlones. 
Gracian was punished for publishing without his superior's 
permission El Criticdn (in which Defoe is alleged to have found 
the germ of Robinson Crusoe) ; but no objection was taken to 



CRACKLE GRADUATE 



its substance. He has been excessively praised by Schopenhauer, 
whose appreciation of the author induced him to translate the 
Or&culo manual, and he has been unduly depreciated by Ticknor 
and others. He is an acute thinker and observer, misled by his 
systematic misanthropy and by his fantastic literary theories. 

See Karl Borinski, Baltasar Gracidn und die Hoflitteratur in 
Deutschland (Halle, 1894) ; Benedetto Croce, / Trallatisti italiani del 
" concettismo " e Baltasar Gracidn (Napoli, 1899); Narciso Jos6 
Liflan y Heredia, Baltasar Gracidn (Madrid, 1902). Schopenhauer 
and Joseph Jacobs have respectively translated the Ordculo manual 
into German and English. 

GRACKLE (Lat. Graccidus or Gractdus), a word much used in 
ornithology, generally in a vague sense, though restricted to 
members of the families Sturnidae belonging to the Old World 
and Icteridae belonging to the New. Of the former those to which 
it has been most commonly applied are the species known as 
mynas, mainas, and minors of India and the adjacent countries, 
and especially the Gracida religiosa of Linnaeus, who, according 
to Jerdon and others, was probably led to confer this epithet 
upon it by confounding it with the Sturnus or Acridotheres 
tristis, 1 which is regarded by the Hindus as sacred to Ram Deo, 
one of their deities, while the true Gracida religiosa does not 
seem to be anywhere held in veneration. This last is about 10 in. 




Gracida religiosa. 

in length, clothed in a plumage of glossy black, with purple 
and green reflections, and a conspicuous patch of white on the 
quill-feathers of the wings. The bill is orange and the legs 
yellow, but the bird's most characteristic feature is afforded 
by the curious wattles of bright yellow, which, beginning behind 
the eyes, run backwards in form of a lappet on each side, and then 
return in a narrow stripe to the top of the head. Beneath each 
eye also is a bare patch of the same colour. This species is 
common in southern India, and is represented farther to the 
north, in Ceylon, Burma, and some of the Malay Islands by 
cognate forms. They are all frugivorous, and, being easily 
tamed and learning to pronounce words very distinctly, are 
favourite cage-birds. 2 

In America the name Crackle has been applied to several 
species of the genera Scolecophagus and Quiscalus, though- these 
are more commonly called in the United States and Canada 
" blackbirds," and some of them " boat-tails." They all belong 
to the family Icteridae. The best known of these are the rusty 
grackle, S. ferrugineus, which is found in almost the whole of 
North America, and Q. purpureus, the purple grackle or crow- 

1 By some writers the birds of the genera Acridotheres and Temenu- 
chus are considered to be the true mynas, and the species of Gracula 
are called hill mynas " by way of distinction. 

For a valuable monograph on the various species of Gracula and 
its allies see Professor Schlegel's " Bijdrage tot de Kennis von het 
Ueschlacht Beo (Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor de Dierkunde i. 1-9). 



blackbird, of more limited range, for though abundant in most 
parts to the east of the Rocky Mountains, it seems not to appear 
on the Pacific side. There is also Brewer's or the blue-headed 
grackle, 5. cyanocephalus, which has a more western range, not 
occurring to the eastward of Kansas and Minnesota. A fourth 
species, Q. major, inhabits the Atlantic States as far north as 
North Carolina. All these birds are of exceedingly omnivorous 
habit, and though destroying large numbers of pernicious 
insects are in many places held in bad repute from the mischief 
they do to the corn-crops. (A. N.) 

GRADISCA, a town of Austria, in the province of Gorz and 
Gradisca, 10 m. S.W. of Gorz by rail. Pop. (1900) 3843, mostly 
Italians. It is situated on the right bank of the Isonzo and was 
formerly a strongly fortified place. Its principal industry is silk 
spinning. Gradisca originally formed part of 'the margraviate 
of Friuli, came under the patriarchate of Aquileia in 1028, . 
and in 1420 to Venice. Between 1471 and 1481 Gradisca was 
fortified by the Venetians, but in 1511 they surrendered it to 
the emperor Maximilian I. In 1647 Gradisca and its territory, 
including Aquileia and forty-three smaller places, were erected 
into a separate countship in favour of Johann Anton von 
Eggenberg, duke of Krumau. On the extinction of his line 
in 1717, it reverted to Austria, and was completely incor- 
porated with Gorz in 1754. The name was revived by the 
constitution of 1861, which established the crownland of Gorz 
and Gradisca. 

GRADO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; 
ii m. W. by N. of the city of Oviedo, on the river Cubia, a 
left-hand tributary of the Nalon. Pop. (1000) 17,125. Grado 
is built in the midst of a mountainous, well-wooded and fertile 
region. It has some trade in timber, live stock, cider and 
agricultural produce. The nearest railway station is that of the 
Fabrica de Trubia, a royal cannon-foundry and small-arms 
factory, 5 m. S.E. 

GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or 
degrees; gradus, step), advancing or taking place by degrees 
or step by step; hence used of a slow progress or a gentle de- 
clivity or slope, opposed to steep or precipitous. As a sub- 
stantive, " gradual " (Med. Lat. graduale or gradale) is used of 
a service book or antiphonal of the Roman Catholic Church 
containing certain antiphons, called " graduals," sung at the 
service of the Mass after the reading or singing of the Epistle. 
This antiphon received the name either because it was sung 
on the steps of the altar or while the deacon was mounting the 
steps of the ambo for the reading or singing of the Gospel. For 
the so-called Gradual Psalms, cxx.-cxxxiv., the " songs of 
degrees," LXX. ($17 ava (SadftSiv, see PSALMS, BOOK OF. 

GRADUATE (Med. Lat. graduare, to admit to an academical 
degree, gradus), in Great Britain a verb now only used in the 
academical sense intransitively, i.e. " to take or proceed to a 
university degree," and figuratively of acquiring knowledge of, 
or proficiency in, anything. The original transitive sense of 
" to confer or admit to a degree " is, however, still preserved in 
America, where the word is, moreover, not strictly confined to 
university degrees, but is used also of those successfully com- 
pleting a course of study at any educational establishment. 
As a substantive, a " graduate " (Med. Lat. graduatus) is one 
who has taken a degree in a university. Those who have 
matriculated at a university, but not yet taken a degree, are 
known as "undergraduates." The word "student," used of 
undergraduates e.g. in Scottish universities, is never applied 
generally to those of the English and Irish universities. At 
Dxford the only "students" are the "senior students" (i.e. 
iellows) and " junior students " (i.e. undergraduates on the 
foundation, or " scholars ") of Christ Church. The verb " to 
graduate " is also used of dividing anything into degrees or parts 
in accordance with a given scale. For the scientific application 
see GRADUATION below. It may also mean " to arrange in 
gradations " or " to adjust or apportion according to a given 
scale." Thus by " a graduated income-tax " is meant the 
system by which the percentage paid differs according to the 
amount of income on a pre-arranged scale. 



312 



GRADUATION 



GRADUATION (see also GRADUATE), the art of dividing straight 
scales, circular arcs or whole circumferences into any required 
number of equal parts. It is the most important and difficult 
part of the work of the mathematical instrument maker, and is 
required in the construction of most physical, astronomical, 
nautical and surveying instruments. 

The art was first practised by clockmakers for cutting the 
teeth of their wheels at regular intervals; but so long as it was 
confined to them no particular delicacy or accurate nicety in 
its performance was required. This only arose when astronomy 
began to be seriously studied, and the exact position of the 
heavenly bodies to be determined, which created the necessity 
for strictly accurate means of measuring linear and angular 
magnitudes. Then it was seen that graduation was an art which 
required special talents and training, and the best artists gave 
great attention to the perfecting of astronomical instruments. 
Of these may be named Abraham Sharp (1651-1742), John 
Bird (1709-1776), John Smeaton (1724-1792), Jesse Ramsden 
(1735-1800), John Troughton, Edward Troughton (1753-1835), 
William Simms (1793-1860) and Andrew Ross. 

The first graduated instrument must have been done by the 
hand and eye alone, whether it was in the form of a straight- 
edge with equal divisions, or a screw or a divided plate; but, 
once in the possession of one such divided instrument, it was a 
comparatively easy matter to employ it as a standard. Hence 
graduation divides itself into two distinct branches, original 
graduation and copying, which latter may be done either by the 
hand or by a machine called a dividing engine. Graduation 
may therefore be treated under the three heads of original 
graduation, copying and machine graduation. 

Original Graduation. In regard to the graduation of straight 
scales elementary geometry provides the means of dividing 
a straight line into any number of equal parts by the method 
of continual bisection; but the practical realization of the 
geometrical construction is so difficult as to render the method 
untrustworthy. This method, which employs the common 
diagonal scale, was used in dividing a quadrant of 3 ft. radius, 
which belonged to Napier of Merchiston, and which only read 
to minutes a result, according to Thomson and Tait (Nat. 
Phil.), " giving no greater accuracy than is now attainable by 
the pocket sextants of Troughton and Simms, the radius of 
whose arc is little more than an inch." 

The original graduation of a straight line is done either by the 
method of continual bisection or by stepping. In continual bisection 
the entire length of the line is first laid down. Then, as nearly as 
possible, half that distance is taken in the beam-compass and marked 
off by faint arcs from each end of the line. Should these marks 
coincide the exact middle point of the line is obtained. If not, as 
will almost always be the case, the distance between the marks is 
carefully bisected by hand with the aid of a magnifying glass. The 
same process is again applied to the halves thus obtained, and so on 
in succession, dividing the line into parts represented by 2, 4, 8, 1 6, 
&c. till the desired divisions are reached. In the method of stepping 
the smallest division required is first taken, as accurately as possible, 
by spring dividers, and that distance is then laid off, by successive 
steps, from one end of the line. In this method, any error at starting 
will be multiplied at each division by the number of that division. 
Errors so made are usually adjusted by the dots being put either 
back or forward a little by means of the dividing punch guided by a 
magnifying glass. This is an extremely tedious process, as the dots, 
when so altered several times, are apt to get insufferably large and 
shapeless. 

The division of circular arcs is essentially the same in principle 
as the graduation of straight lines. 

The first example of note is the 8-ft. mural circle which was 
graduated by George Graham (1673-1751) for Greenwich Obser- 
vatory in 1725. In this two concentric arcs of radii 96-85 and 
95-8 in. respectively were first described by the beam-compass. On 
the inner of these the arc of 90 was to be divided into degrees and 
1 2th parts of a degree, while the same on the outer was to be divided 
into 96 equal parts and these again into i6th parts. The reason for 
adopting the latter was that, 96 and 16 being both powers of 2, the 
divisions could be got at by continual bisection alone, which, in 
Graham's opinion, who first employed it, is the only accurate 
method, and would thus serve as a check upon the accuracy of the 
divisions of the outer arc. With the same distance on the beam- 
compass as was used to describe the inner arc, laid off from o, 
the point 60 was at once determined. With the points o and 60 



as centres successively, and a distance on the beam-compass very 
nearly bisecting the arc of 60, two slight marks were made on the 
arc; the distance between these marks was divided by the hand 
aided by a lens.'and this gave the point 30. The chord of 60 
laid off from the point 30 gave the point 00, and the quadrant 
was now divided into three equal parts. Each of these parts was 
similarly bisected, and the resulting divisions again trisected, giving 
18 parts of 5 each. Each of these quinquesected gave degrees, the 
1 2th parts of which were arrived at by bisecting and trisecting as 
before. The outer arc was divided by continual bisection alone, 
and a table was constructed by which the readings of the one arc 
could be converted into those of the other. After the dots indi- 
cating the required divisions were obtained, either straight strokes 
all directed towards the centre were drawn through them by the 
dividing knife, or sometimes small arcs were drawn through them 
by the beam-compass having its fixed point somewhere on the line 
which was a tangent to the quadrantal arc at the point where a 
division was to be marked. 

The next important example of graduation was done by Bird in 
1767. His quadrant, which was also 8-ft. radius, was divided 
into degrees and 1 2th parts of a degree. He employed the method 
of continual bisection aided by chords taken from an exact scale of 
equal parts, which could read to -ooi of an inch, and which he had 
previously graduated by continual bisections. With the beam- 
compass an arc of radius 95-938 in. was first drawn. From this 
radius the chords of 30, 15, 10 20', 4 40' and 42 40' were com- 
puted, and each of them by means of the scale of equal parts laid 
off on a separate beam-compass to be ready. The radius laid off 
from o gave the point 60 ; by the chord of 30 the arc of 60 was 
bisected ; from the point 30 the radius laid off gave the point 90 ; 
the chord of 15 laid off backwards from 90 gave the point 75; 
from 75 was laid off forwards the chord of 10 20'; and from 90 
was laid off backwards the chord of 4 40'; and these were found to 
coincide in the point 85 20'. Now 85 20' being =5' X 1024 = 
5'X2 10 , the final divisions of 85 20' were found by continual bi- 
sections. For the remainder of the quadrant beyond 85 20', 
containing 56 divisions of 5' each, the chord of 64 such divisions 
was laid off from the point 85 40', and the corresponding arc 
divided by continual bisections as before. There was thus a severe 
check upon the accuracy of the points already found, viz. 15, 30, 
6, 75 , 90, which, however, were found to coincide with the 
corresponding points obtained by continual bisections. The short 
lines through the dots were drawn in the way already mentioned. 

The next eminent artists in original graduation are the brothers 
John and Edward Troughton. The former was the first to devise a 
means of graduating the quadrant by continual bisection without 
the aid of such a scale of equal parts as was used by Bird. His 
method was as follows: The radius of the quadrant laid off from 
O gave the point 60. This arc bisected and the half laid off from 
60 gave the point 90. The arc between 60 and 90 bisected gave 
75; the arc between 75 and 90 bisected gave the point 82 30', 
and the arc between 82 30' and 90 bisected gave the point 86 15'. 
Further, the arc between 82 30' and 86 15' trisected, and two- 
thirds of it taken beyond 82 30', gave the point 85, while the arc 
between 85 and 86 15' also trisected, and one-third part laid off 
beyond 85, gave the point 85 25'. Lastly, the arc between 85 
and 85 25' being quinquesected, and four-fifths taken beyond 85, 
gave 85 20', which as before is = 5'X2 10 , and so can be finally- 
divided by continual bisection. 

The method of original graduation discovered by Edward Trough- 
ton is fully described in the Philosophical Transactions for 1809, as 
employed by himself to divide a meridian circle of 4 ft. radius. The 
circle was first accurately turned both on its face and its inner and 
outer edges. _A roller was next provided, of such diameter that it 
revolved 16 times on its own axis while made to roll once round 
the outer edge of the circle. This roller, made movable on pivots, 
was attached to a frame-work, which could be slid freely, yet tightly, 
along the circle, the roller meanwhile revolving, by means of frictional 
contact, on the outer edge. The roller was also, after having been 
properly adjusted as to size, divided as accurately as possible into 
16 equal parts by lines parallel to its axis. While the frame carrying 
the roller was moved once round along the circle, the points of 
contact of the roller-divisions with the circle were accurately ob- 
served by two microscopes attached to the frame, one of which 
(which we shall call H) commanded the ring on the circle near its 
edge, which was to receive the divisions and the other viewed the 
roller-divisions. The points of contact thus ascertained were marked 
with faint dots, and the meridian circle thereby divided into 256 
very nearly equal parts. 

The next part of the operation was to find out and tabulate the 
errors of these dots, which are called apparent errors, in conse- 
quence of the error of each dot being ascertained on the supposition 
that its neighbours are all correct. For this purpose two micro- 
scopes (which we shall call A and B) were taken, with cross wires 
and micrometer adjustments, consisting of a screw and head divided 
into loo divisions, 50 of which read in the one and 50 in the opposite 
direction. These microscopes were fixed so that their cross-wires 
respectively bisected the dots o and 128, which were supposed to 
be diametrically opposite. The circle was now turned half-way 
round on its axis, so that dot 128 coincided with the wire of A, 



GRADUATION 



3*3 



and, should dot be found to coincide with B, then the two dots 
were 180 apart. If not, the cross wire of B was moved till it coin- 
cided with dot o, and the number of divisions of the micrometer 
head noted. Half this number gave clearly the error of dot 128, 
and it was tabulated + or according as the arcual distance between 
o and 128 was found to exceed or fall short of the remaining part 
of the circumference. The microscope B was now shifted, A re- 
maining opposite dot o as before, till its wire bisected dot 64, and, 
by giving the circle one quarter of a turn on its axis, the difference 
of the arcs between dots p and 64 and between 64 and 128 was 
obtained. The half of this difference gave the apparent error of 
dot 64, which was tabulated with its proper, sign. With the micro- 
scope A still in the same position the error of dot 192 was obtained, 
and in the same way by shifting B to dot 32 the errors of dots 32, 
96, 160 and 224 were successively ascertained. In this way the 
apparent errors of all the 256 dots were tabulated. 

From this table of apparent errors a table of real errors was 
drawn up by employing the following formula : 

i(^+*e)+2 = the real error of dot b, 

where x tt is the real error of dot o, x c the real error of dot c, and z 
the apparent error of dot b midway between o and c. Having got 
the real errors of any two dots, the table of apparent errors gives 
the means of finding the real errors of all the other dots. 

The last part of Troughton's process was to employ them to cut 
the final divisions of the circle, which were to be spaces of 5' each. 



Now the mean interval between any two dots is 36o/256 = 5'Xi6J, 
and hence, in the final division, this interval must be divided into 
J6| equal parts. To accomplish this a small instrument, called a 
subdividing sector, was provided. It was formed of thin brass and 
had a radius about four times that of the roller, but made adjustable 
as to length. The sector was placed concentrically on the axis, 
and rested on the upper end of the roller. It turned by frictional 
adhesion along with the roller, but was sufficiently loose to allow 
of its being moved back by hand to any position without affecting 
the roller. While the roller passes over an angular space equal to 
the mean interval between two dots, any point of the sector must 
pass over 16 times that interval, that is to say, over an angle re- 
presented by 36oXi6/256 = 22 30'. This interval was therefore 
divided by i6J, and a space equal to 16 of the parts taken. This was 
laid off on the arc of the sector and divided into 16 equal parts, each 
equal to 1 20'; and, to provide for the necessary fths of a division, 
there was laid off at each end of the sector, and beyond the 16 
equal parts, two of these parts each subdivided into 8 equal parts. 
A microscope with cross wires, which we shall call I, was placed on 
the main frame, so as to command a view of the sector divisions, 
just as the microscope H viewed the final divisions of the circle. 
Before the first or zero mark was cut, the zero of the sector was 
brought under I and then the division cut at the point on the circle 
indicated by H, which also coincided with the dot o. The frame 
was then slipped along the circle by the slow screw motion provided 
for the purpose, till the first sector-division, by the action of the 
roller, was brought under I. The second mark was then cut on the 
circle at the point indicated by H. That the marks thus obtained 
are 5' apart is evident when we reflect that the distance between 
them must be ^th of a division on the section which by construction 
is i 20'. In this way the first 16 divisions were cut; but before 
cutting the I7th it was necessary to adjust the micrometer wires 
of H to the real error of dot I, as indicated by the table, and bring 
back the sector, not to zero, but to Jth short of zero. Starting 
from this position the divisions between dots I and 2 were filled in, 
and then H was adjusted to the real error of dot 2, and the sector 
brought back to its proper division before commencing the third 
course. Proceeding in this manner through the whole circle, the 
microscope H was finally found with its wire at zero, and the sector 
with its l6th division under its microscope indicating that the 
circle had been accurately divided. 

Copying. In graduation by copying the pattern must be 
either an accurately divided straight scale, or an accurately 
divided circle, commonly called a dividing plate. 

In copying a straight scale the pattern and scale to be divided, 
usually called the work, are first fixed side by side, with their 
upper faces in the same plane. The dividing square, which closely 
resembles an ordinary joiner's square, is then laid across both, 
and the point of the dividing knife dropped into the zero division 
of the pattern. The square is now moved up close to the point 
of the knife; and, while it is held firmly in this position by the 
left hand, the first division on the work is made by drawing the 
knife along the edge of the square with the right hand. 

It frequently happens that the divisions required on a scale 
are either greater or less than those on the pattern. To meet 
this case, and still use the same pattern, the work must be fixed 
at a certain angle of inclination with the pattern. This angle 
is found in the following way. Take the exact ratio of a division 
on the pattern to the required division on the scale. Call this 



ratio a. Then, if the required divisions are longer than those 
of the pattern, the angle is cos^a, but, if shorter, the angle is 
sec~*a. In the former case two operations are required before 
the divisions are cut: first, the square is laid on the pattern, 
and the corresponding divisions merely notched very faintly 
on the edge of the work; and, secondly, the square is applied 
to the work and the final divisions drawn opposite each faint 
notch. In the second case, that is, when the angle is sec^o, the 
dividing square is applied to the work, and the divisions cut 
when the edge of the square coincides with the end of each 
division on the pattern. 

In copying circles use is made of the dividing plate. This 
is a circular plate of brass, of 36 in. or more in diameter, carefully 
graduated near its outer edge. It is turned quite flat, and has 
a steel pin fixed in its centre, and at right angles to its plane. 
For guiding the dividing knife an instrument called an index 
is employed. This is a straight bar of thin steel of length equal 
to the radius of the plate. A piece of metal, having a V notch 
with its angle a right angle, is riveted to one end of the bar in 
such a position that the vertex of the notch is exactly in a line 
with the edge of the steel bar. In this way, when the index is 
laid on the plate, with the notch grasping the central pin, the 
straight edge of the steel bar lies exactly along a radius. The 
work to be graduated is laid flat on the dividing plate, and fixed 
by two clamps in a position exactly concentric with it. The 
index is now laid on, with its edge coinciding with any required 
division on the dividing plate, and the corresponding division 
on the work is cut by drawing the dividing knife along the 
straight edge of the index. 

Machine Graduation. The first dividing engine was probably 
that of Henry Hindley of York, constructed in 1740, and chiefly 
used by him for cutting the teeth of clock wheels. This was 
followed shortly after by an engine devised by the due de 
Chaulnes ;but the first notable engine was that made by Ramsdea, 
of which an account was published by the Board of Longitude 
in 1777. He was rewarded by that board with a sum of 300, 
and a further sum of 3 1 5 was given to him on condition that he 
would divide, at a certain fixed rate, the instruments of other 
makers. The essential principles of Ramsden's machine have 
been repeated in almost all succeeding engines for dividing 
circles. 

Ramsden's machine consisted of a large brass prate 45 in. in dia- 
meter, carefully turned and movable on a vertical axis. The edge 
of the plate was ratched with 2160 teeth, into which a tangent 
screw worked, by means of which the plate could be made to turn 
through any required angle. Thus six turns of the screw moved 
the plate through i, and Vijth of a turn through lioth of a degree. 
On the axis of the tangent screw was placed a cylinder haying a 
spiral groove cut on its surface. A ratchet-wheel containing 60 
teeth was attached to this cylinder, and was so arranged that, when 
the cylinder moved in one direction, it carried the tangent screw 
with it, and so turned the plate, but when it moved in the opposite 
direction, it left the tangent screw, and with it the plate, stationary. 
Round the spiral groove of the cylinder a catgut band was wound, 
one end of which was attached to a treadle and the other to a counter- 
poise weight. When the treadle was depressed the tangent screw 
turned round, and when the pressure was removed it returned, in 
obedience to the weight, to its former position without affecting 
the screw. Provision was also made whereby certain stops could be 
placed in the way of the screw, which only allowed it the requisite 
amount of turning. The work to be divided was firmly fixed on the 
plate, and made concentric with it. The divisions were cut, while 
the screw was stationary, by means of a dividing knife attached to 
a swing frame, which allowed it to have only a radial motion. In 
this way the artist could divide very rapidly by alternately depress- 
ing the treadle and working the dividing knife. 

Ramsden also constructed alinear dividing engine on essentially 
the same principle. If we imagine the rim of the circular 
plate with its notches stretched out into a straight line and made 
movable in a straight slot, the screw, treadle, &c., remaining 
as before, we get a very good idea of the linear engine. 

In 1793 Edward Troughton finished a circular dividing 
engine, of which the plate was smaller than in Ramsden's, and 
which differed considerably in simplifying matters of detail. 
The plate was originally divided by Troughton's own method, 
already described, and the divisions so obtained were employed 



GRADUS GRAETZ 



to ratch the edge of the plate for receiving the tangent screw 
with great accuracy. Andrew Ross (Trans. Soc. Arts, 1830- 
1831) constructed a dividing machine which differs considerably 
from those of Ramsden and Troughton. 

The essential point of difference is that, in Ross_'s engine, the 
tangent screw does not turn the engine plate; that is done by an 
independent apparatus, and the function of the tangent screw is 
only to stop the plate after it has passed through the required 
angular interval between two divisions on the work to be graduated. 
Round the circumference of the plate are fixed 48 projections which 
just look as if the circumference had been divided into as many 
deep and somewhat peculiarly shaped notches or teeth. Through 
each of these teeth a hole is bored parallel to the plane of the plate 
and also to a tangent to its circumference. Into these holes are 
screwed steel screws with capstan heads and flat ends. The tangent 
screw consists only of a single turn of a large square thread which 
works in the teeth or notches of the plate. This thread is pierced 
by 90 equally distant holes, all parallel to the axis of the screw, 
and at the same distance from it. Into each of these holes is in- 
serted a steel screw exactly similar to those in the teeth, but with 
its end rounded. It is the rounded and flat ends of these sets of 
screws coming together that stop the engine plate at the desired 
position, and the exact point can be nicely adjusted by suitably 
turning the screws. 

A description is given of a dividing engine made by William 
Simms in the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, 1843. Simms 




Dividing Engine. 



became convinced that to copy upon smaller circles the divisions 
which had been put upon a large plate with very great accuracy 
was not only more expeditious but more exact than original 
graduation. His machine involved essentially the same prin- 
ciple as Troughton's. The accompanying figure is taken by 
permission. 

The plate A is 46 in. in diameter, and is composed of gun-metal 
cast in one solid piece. It has two sets of 5' divisions one very 
faint on an inlaid ring of silver, and the other stronger on the gun- 
metal. These were put on by original graduation, mainly on the 
plan of Edward Troughton. One very great improvement in this 
engine is that the axis B is tubular, as seen at C. The object of this 
hollow is to receive the axis of the circle to be divided, so that it 
can be fixed flat to the plate by the clamps E, without having first 
to be detached from the axis and other parts to which it has already 
been carefully fitted. This obviates the necessity for resetting, 
which can hardly be done without some error. D is the tangent 
screw, and F the frame carrying it, which turns on carefully polished 
steel pivots. The screw is pressed against the edge of the plate 
by a spiral spring acting under the end of the lever G, and by screw- 
ing the lever down the screw can be altogether removed from contact 
with the plate. The edge of the plate is ratched by 4320 teeth which 
were cut opposite the original division by a circular cutter attached 
to the screw frame. H is the spiral barrel round which the catgut 
band is wound, one end of which is attached to the crank L on the 
end of the axis J and the other to a counterpoise weight not seen. 
On the other end of J is another crank inclined to L and carrying a 
band and counterpoise weight seen at K. The object of this weight 
is to balance the former and give steadiness to the motion. On the 



axis J is seen a pair of bevelled wheels which move the rod I, which, 
by another pair of bevelled wheels attached to the box N, gives 
motion to the axis M, on the end of which is an eccentric for moving 
the bent lever O, which actuates the bar carrying the cutter. Be- 
tween the eccentric and the point of the screw P is an undulating 
plate by which long divisions can be cut. The cutting apparatus 
is supported upon the two parallel rails which can be elevated or 
depressed at pleasure by the nuts Q. Also the cutting apparatus 
can, be moved forward or backward upon these rails to suit circles 
of different diameters. The box N is movable upon the bar R, and 
the rod I is adjustable as to length by having a kind of telescope 
joint. The engine is self-acting, and can be driven either by hand 
or by a steam-engine or other motive power. It can be thrown in 
or out of gear at once by a handle seen at S. 

Mention may be made of Donkin's linear dividing engine, 
in which a compensating arrangement is employed whereby 
great accuracy is obtained notwithstanding the inequalities of 
the screw used to advance the cutting tool. Dividing engines 
have also been made by Reichenbach, Repsold and others in 
Germany, Gambey in Paris and by several other astronomical 
instrument-makers. A machine constructed by E. R. Watts 
& Son is described by G. T. McCaw, in the Monthly Not. R. A. S., 
January 1909. 

REFERENCES. Bird, Method of dividing Astronomical Instruments 
(London, 1767); Due de Chaulnes, Nouvelle Mtthode pour diviser 
les instruments de mathematique et d'astronomie (1768); Ramsden, 
Description of an Engine for dividing Mathematical Instruments 
(London, 1777); Troughton's memoir, Phil. Trans. (1809); Memoirs 
of the Royal Astronomical Society, v. 325, viii. 141, ix. 17, 35. 
See also J. E. Watkins, " On the Ramsden Machine," Smithsonian 
Rep. (1890), p. 721; and L. Ambronn, Astronomische Instrumenten- 
kunde (1899). (J. BL.) 

GRADUS, or GRADUS AD PARNASSUM (a step to Parnassus), 
a Latin (or Greek) dictionary, in which the quantities of the 
vowels of the words are marked. Synonyms, epithets and 
poetical expressions and extracts are also included under the 
more important headings, the whole being intended as an aid 
for students in Greek and Latin verse composition. The first 
Latin gradus was compiled in 1702 by the Jesuit Paul Aler 
(1656-1727), a famous schoolmaster. There is a Latin gradus 
by C. D. Yonge (1850); English-Latin by A. C. Ainger and 
H. G. Wintle (1890); Greek by J. Brasse (1828) and E. Maltby 
(1815), bishop of Durham. 

GRAETZ, HEINRICH (1817-1891), the foremost Jewish 
historian of modern times, was born in Posen in 1817 and died 
at Munich in 1891. He received a desultory education, and 
was largely self-taught. An important stage in his development 
was the period of three years that he spent at Oldenburg as 
assistant and pupil of S. R. Hirsch, whose enlightened orthodoxy 
was for a time very attractive to Graetz. Later on Graetz 
proceeded to Breslau, where he matriculated in 1842. Breslau 
was then becoming the headquarters of Abraham Geiger, the 
leader of Jewish reform. Graetz was repelled by Geiger's 
attitude, and though he subsequently took radical views of the 
Bible and tradition (which made him an opponent of Hirsch), 
Graetz remained a life-long foe to reform. He contended for 
freedom of thought; he had no desire to fight for freedom 
of ritual practice. He momentarily thought of entering the 
rabbinate, but he was unsuited to that career. For some years 
he supported himself as a tutor. He had previously won repute 
by his published essays, but in 1853 the publication of the 
fourth volume of his history of the Jews made him famous. This 
fourth volume (the first to be published) dealt with the Talmud. 
It was a brilliant resuscitation of the past. Graetz's skill in 
piecing together detached fragments of information, his vast 
learning and extraordinary critical acumen, were equalled by 
his vivid power of presenting personalities. No Jewish book 
of the igth century produced such a sensation as this, and 
Graetz won at a bound the position he still occupies as recog- 
nized master of Jewish history. His Geschichte der Juden, 
begun in 1853, was completed in 1875; new editions of the 
several volumes were frequent. The work has been translated 
into many languages; it appeared in English in five volumes 
in 1891-1895. The History is defective in its lack of objectivity; 
Graetz's judgments are sometimes biassed, and in particular he 
lacks sympathy with mysticism. But the history is a work 



GRAEVIUS GRAFE, K. F. VON 



of genius. Simultaneously with the publication of vol. iv. 
Graetz was appointed on the staff of the new Breslau Seminary, 
of which the first director was Z. Frankel. Graetz passed the 
remainder of his life in this office; in 1869 he was created pro- 
fessor by the government, and also lectured at the Breslau 
University. Graetz attained considerable repute as a biblical 
critic. He was the author of many bold conjectures as to the 
date of Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and other biblical books. 
His critical edition of the Psalms (1882-1883) was his chief con- 
tribution to biblical exegesis, but after his death Professor 
Bacher edited Graetz's Emendaliones to many parts of the 
Hebrew scriptures. 

A full bibliography of Graetz's works is given in the Jewish 
Quarterly Review, iv. 194; a memoir of Graetz is also to be found 
there. Another full memoir was prefixed to the " index " volume 
of the History in the American re-issue of the English translation 
in six volumes (Philadelphia, 1898). (I. A.) 

GRAEVIUS (properly GRAVE or GREFFE), JOHANN GE0RG 
(1632-1703), German classical scholar and critic, was born at 
Naumburg, Saxony, on the 2Qth of January 1632. He was 
originally intended for the law, but having made the acquaintance 
of j. F. Gronovius during a casual visit to Deventer, under his 
influence he abandoned jurisprudence for philology. He com- 
pleted his studies under D. Heinsius at Leiden, and under the 
Protestant theologians A. Morus and D. Blondel at Amsterdam. 
During his residence in Amsterdam, under Blondel's influence 
he abandoned Lutheranism and joined the Reformed Church; 
and in 1656 he was called by the elector of Brandenburg to 
the chair of rhetoric in the university of Duisburg. Two years 
afterwards, on the recommendation of Gronovius, he was chosen 
to succeed that .scholar at Deventer; in 1662 he was translated 
to the university of Utrecht, where he occupied first the chair 
of rhetoric, and from 1667 until his death (January nth, 1703) 
that of history and politics. Graevius enjoyed a very high 
reputation as a teacher, and his lecture-room was crowded 
by pupils, many of them of distinguished rank, from all parts 
of the civilized world. He was honoured with special recogni- 
tion by Louis XIV., and was a particular favourite of William III. 
of England, who made him historiographer royal. 

His two most important works are the Thesaurus antiquitatum 
Romanarum (1694-1699, in 12 volumes), and the Thesaurus anti- 
quitatum et historiarum Italiae published after his death, and 
continued by the elder Burmann (1704-1725). His editions of the 
classics, although they marked a distinct advance in scholarship, 
are now for the most part superseded. They include Hesiod (1667), 
Lucian, Pseudosophista (1668), Justin, Historiae Philippicae (1669), 
Suetonius (1672), Catullus, Tibullus et Propertius (1680), and 
several of the works of Cicero (his best production). He also edited 
many of the writings of contemporary scholars. The Oratio funebris 
by P. Burmann (1703) contains an exhaustive list of the works 
of this scholar; see also P. H. Kttlb in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine 
Encyklopddie, and J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, ii. 
(1908). 

GRAF, ARTURO (1848- ), Italian poet, of German ex- 
traction, was born at Athens. He was educated at Naples 
University and became a lecturer on Italian literature in Rome, 
till in 1882 he was appointed professor at Turin. He was one 
of the founders of the Giornale della letleratura italiana, and his 
publications include valuable prose criticism; but he is best 
known as a poet. His various volumes of verse Poesie e 
novelle (1874), Dopo il tramonto versi (1893), &c. give him a 
high place among the recent lyrical writers of his country. 

GRAF, KARL HEINRICH (1815-1869), German Old Testa- 
ment scholar and orientalist, was born at Miilhausen in Alsace 
on the 28th of February 1815. He studied Biblical exegesis 
and oriental languages at the university of Strassburg under 
E. Reuss, and, after holding various teaching posts, was made 
instructor in French and Hebrew at the Landesschule of Meissen, 
receiving in 1852 the title of professor. He died on the i6th of 
July 1869. Graf was one of the chief founders of Old Testament 
criticism. In his principal work, Die geschichtlichen Biicher 
des Allen Testaments (1866), he sought to show that the priestly 
legislation of Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers is of later origin 
than the book of Deuteronomy. He still, however, held the 
accepted view, that the Elohistic narratives formed part of the 



Grundschrifl and therefore belonged to the oldest portions of 
the Pentateuch. The reasons urged against the contention that 
the priestly legislation and the Elohistic narratives were separ- 
ated by a space of 500 years were so strong as to induce Graf, 
in an essay, " Die sogenannte Grundschrift des Pentateuchs," 
published shortly before his death, to regard the whole Grund- 
schrift as post-exilic and as the latest portion of the Pentateuch. 
The idea had already been expressed by E. Reuss, but since 
Graf was the first to introduce it into Germany, the theory, 
as developed by Julius Wellhausen, has been called the Graf- 
Wellhausen hypothesis. 

Graf also wrote, Der Segen Moses Deut.33 (1857) and Der Prophet 
Jeremia erklart ( 1 862) . See T. K. Chey ne, Founders of Old Testament 
Criticism (1893); and Otto Pfleiderer's book translated into English 
by J. F. Smith as Development of Theology (1890). 

GRAFE, ALBRECHT VON (1828-1870), German oculist, son 
of Karl Ferdinand von Grafe, was born at Berlin on the 22nd 
of May 1828. At an early age he manifested a preference for the 
study of mathematics, but this was gradually superseded by an 
interest in natural science, which led him ultimately to the study 
of medicine. After prosecuting his studies at Berlin, Vienna, 
Prague, Paris, London, Dublin and Edinburgh, and devoting 
special attention to ophthalmology he, in 1850, began practice 
as an oculist in Berlin, where he founded a private institution 
for the treatment of the eyes, which became the model of many 
similar ones in Germany and Switzerland. In 1853 he was 
appointed teacher of ophthalmology in Berlin university; in 
1858 he became extraordinary professor, and in 1866 ordinary 
professor. Grafe contributed largely to the progress of the 
science of ophthalmology, especially by the establishment in 
1855 of his Archivfiir Ophthalmologie, in which he had Ferdinand 
Arlt (1812-1887) and F. C. Donders (1818-1889) as collaborators. 
Perhaps his two most important discoveries were his method 
of treating glaucoma and his new operation for cataract. He 
was also regarded as an authority in diseases of the nerves 
and brain. He died at Berlin on the 2oth of July 1870. 

See Ein Wort der Erinnerung an Albrecht von Grafe (Halle, 1870) 
by his cousin, Alfred Grafe ( 1 830-1 899) , also a distinguished ophthal- 
mologist, and the author of Das Sehen der Schielenden (Wiesbaden, 
1897); and E. Michaelis, Albrecht von Grafe. Sein Leben und 
Wirken (Berlin, 1877). 

GRAFE, HEINRICH (1802-1868), German educationist, was 
born at Buttstadt in Saxe-Weimar on the 3rd of May 1802, 
He studied mathematics and theology at Jena, and in 1823 
obtained a curacy in the town church of Weimar. He was 
transferred to Jena as rector of the town school in 1825; in 1840 
he was also appointed extraordinary professor of the science 
of education (Padagogik) in that university; and in 1842 he 
became head of the Biirgerschttle (middle class school) in Cassel. 
After reorganizing the schools of the town, he became director 
of the new Realschule in 1843; and, devoting himself to the 
interests of educational reform in electoral Hesse, he became 
in 1849 a member of the school commission, and also entered 
the house of representatives, where he made himself somewhat 
formidable as an agitator. In 1852 for having been implicated 
in the September riots and in the movement against the unpopular 
minister Hassenpflug, who had dissolved the school commission, 
he was condemned to three years' imprisonment, a sentence 
afterwards reduced to one of twelve months. On his release he 
withdrew to Geneva, where he engaged in educational work 
till i8ss> when he was appointed director of the school of industry 
at Bremen. He died in that city on the 2ist of July 1868. 

Besides being the author of many text-books and occasional 
papers on educational subjects, he wrote Das Rechtsverhdltnis der 
Volksschule von innen und aussen (1829); Die Schulreform (1834); 
Schule und Unterricht (1839); Allgemeine Padagogik (1845); Die 
deutsche Volksschule (1847). Together with Naumann, he also edited 
theArchivfurdaspraktische Volksschulwesen (1828-1835). 

GRAFE, KARL FERDINAND VON (1787-1840), German 
surgeon, was born at Warsaw on the 8th of March 1787. He 
studied medicine at Halle and Leipzig, and after obtaining 
licence from the Leipzig university, he was in 1807 appointed 
private physician to Duke Alexius of Anhalt-Bernburg. In 
1811 he became professor of surgery and director of the surgical 



316 



GRAFFITO GRAFTON, DUKES OF 



clinic at Berlin, and during the war with Napoleon he was super- 
intendent of the military hospitals. When peace was concluded 
in 1815, he resumed his professorial duties. He was also appointed 
physician to the general staff of the army, and he became a 
director of the Friedrich Wilhelm Institute and of the Medico- 
Chirurgical Academy. He died suddenly on the 4th of July 1 840 
at Hanover, whither he had been called to operate on the eyes 
of the crown prince. Grafe did much to advance the practice 
of surgery in Germany, especially in the treatment of wounds. 
He improved the rhinoplastic process, and its revival was chiefly 
due to him. His lectures at the university of Berlin attracted 
students from all parts of Europe. 

The following are his principal works: Normen fur die Ablosung 
grosser Gliedmassen (Berlin, 1812); Rhinoplastik (1818); Neue Bei- 
trage zur Kunst Theile des Angesichts organisch zu ersetzen (1821); 
Die epidemisch-kontagiose Augenblennorrhoe Agyptens in den 
europdischen Befreiungsheeren (1824); and Jahresberichte iiber das 
klinisch-chirurgisch-augendrztliche Institut der Universitdt zu Berlin 
(1817-1834). He also edited, with Ph. von Walther, the Journal 
fur Chirurgie and A ugenheilkunde. See E. M ichaelis, Karl Ferdinand 
von Grafe in seiner jojdhrigen Wirken fur Stan-t und Wissenschaft 
(Berlin, 1840) 

GRAFFITO, plural graffiti, the Italian word meaning " scribb- 
ling " or " scratchings " (graffiare, to scribble, Gr. 7 pa<j>tiv) , 
adopted by archaeologists as a general term for the casual 
writings, rude drawings and markings on ancient buildings, 
in distinction from the more formal or deliberate writings known 
as " inscriptions." These " graffiti," either scratched on stone 
or plaster by a sharp instrument such as a nail, or, more rarely, 
written in red chalk or black charcoal, are found in great abund- 
ance, e.g. on the monuments of ancient Egypt. The best -known 
" graffiti " are those in Pompeii and in the catacombs and else- 
where in Rome. They have been collected by R. Garrucci 
(Graffiti di Pompei, Paris, 1856), and L. Correra (" Graffiti di 
Roma " in Bolletino della commissione municipale archaeologica, 
Rome, 1893; see also Corp. Ins. Lat. iv., Berlin, 1871). 
The subject matter of these scribblings is much the same as 
that of the similar scrawls made to-day by boys, street idlers 
and the casual " tripper." The schoolboy of Pompeii wrote out 
lists of nouns and verbs, alphabets and lines from Virgil for 
memorizing, lovers wrote the names of their beloved, " sports- 
men " scribbled the names of horses they had been " tipped," 
and wrote those of their favourite gladiators. Personal abuse 
is frequent, and rude caricatures are found, such as that of one 
Peregrinus with an enormous nose, or of Naso or Nasso with 
hardly any. Aulus Vettius Firmus writes up his election address 
and appeals to the pilicrepi or ball-players for their votes for 
him as aedile. Lines of poetry, chiefly suited for lovers in de- 
jection or triumph, are popular, and Ovid and Propertius appear 
to be favourites. Apparently private owners of property felt 
the nuisance of the defacement of their walls, and at Rome 
near the Porta Portuensis has been found an inscription begging 
people not to scribble (scariphare) on the walls. 

Graffiti are of some importance to the palaeographer and to 
the philologist as illustrating the forms and corruptions of the 
various alphabets and languages used by the people, and occasion- 
ally guide the archaeologist to the date of the building on which 
they appear, but they are chiefly valuable for the light they 
throw on the everyday life of the " man in the street " of the 
period, and for the intimate details of customs and institutions 
which no literature or formal inscriptions can give. The graffiti 
dealing with the gladiatorial shows at Pompeii are in this respect 
particularly noteworthy; the rude drawings such as that of 
the secular caught in the net of the retiarius and lying entirely 
at his mercy, give a more vivid picture of what the incidents 
of these shows were like than any account in words (see Garrucci, 
op. cit., Pis. x.-xiv.; A. Mau, Pompeii in Leben und Kunst, 2nd 
ed., 1908, ch. xxx.). In 1866 in the Trastevere quarter of Rome, 
near the church of S. Crisogono, was discovered the guard-house 
(excubitorium) of the seventh cohort of the city police (vigiles), 
the walls being covered by the scribblings of the guards, illustrat- 
ing in detail the daily routine, the hardships and dangers, and 
the feelings of the men towards their officers (W. Henzen, 



" L' Escubitorio della Settima coorte dei Vigili " in Bull. Inst., 
1867, and Annali Inst., 1874; see also R. Lanciani, Ancient 
Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries, 230, and Ruins and 
Excavations of Ancient Rome, 1897, 548). The most famous 
graffito yet discovered is that generally accepted as representing 
a caricature of Christ upon the cross, found on the walls of the 
Domus Gelotiana on the Palatine in 1857, and now preserved 
in the Kircherian Museum of the Collegio Romano. Deeply 
scratched in the wall is a figure of a man clad in the short tunica 
with one hand upraised in salutation to another figure, with 
the head of an ass, or possibly a horse, hanging on a cross; 
beneath is written in rude Greek letters " Anaxamenos worships 
(his) god." It has been suggested that this represents an 
adherent of some Gnostic sect worshipping one of the animal- 
headed deities of Egypt (see Ferd. Becker, Das Spottcrucifix 
der romischen Kaiser palaste, Breslau, 1866; F. X. Kraus, Das 
Spoltcrucifix vom Palatin, Freiburg in Breisgau, 1872; and 
Visconti and Lanciani, Guida del Palatine). 

There is an interesting article, with many quotations of graffiti, 
in the Edinburgh Review, October 1859, vol. ex. (C. WE.) 

GRAFLY, CHARLES (1862- ), American sculptor, was 
born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 3rd of December 
1862. He was a pupil of the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy 
of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and of Henri M. Chapu and Jean 
Dampt, and the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris. He received an 
Honorable Mention in the Paris Salon of 1891 for his " Mauvais 
Presage," now at the Detroit Museum of Fine Arts, a gold medal 
at the Paris Exposition, in 1900, and medals at Chicago, 1893, 
Atlanta, 1895, and Philadelphia (the gold Medal of Honor, 
Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts), 1899. In 1892 he 
became instructor in sculpture at the Pennsylvania Academy 
of the Fine Arts, also filling the same chair at the Drexel Institute, 
Philadelphia. He was elected a full member of the National 
Academy of Design in 1905. His better-known works include: 
" General Reynolds," Fairmount Park, Philadelphia; " Foun- 
tain of Man " (made for the Pan-American Exposition at 
Buffalo); "From Generation to Generation"; "Symbol of 
Life "; " Vulture of War," and many portrait busts. 

GRAFRATH, a town in Rhenish Prussia, on the Itterbach, 
14 m. E. of Dusseldorf on the railway Hilden-Vohwinkel. Pop. 
(1905) 9030. It has a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical 
churches, and there was an abbey here from 1185 to 1803. The 
principal industries are iron and steel, while weaving is carried 
on in the town. 

GRAFT (a modified form of the earlier " graff," through 
the French from the Late Lat. graphium, a stylus or pencil), 
a small branch, shoot or " scion," transferred from one plant or 
tree to another, the " stock," and inserted in it so that the two 
unite (see HORTICULTURE). The name was adopted from the 
resemblance in shape of the " graft " to a pencil. The transfer 
of living tissue from one portion of an organism to another part 
of the same or different organism where it adheres and grows 
is also known as " grafting," and is frequently practised in 
modern surgery. The word is applied, in carpentry, to an 
attachment of the ends of timbers, and, as a nautical term, to 
the " whipping " or " pointing " of a rope's end with fine twine 
to prevent unravelling. " Graft " is used as a slang term, in 
England, for a " piece of hard work." In American usage 
Webster's Dictionary (ed. 1904) defines the word as " the act of 
any one, especially an official or public employe, by which he 
procures money surreptitiously by virtue of his office or position; 
also the surreptitious gain thus procured." It is thus a word 
embracing blackmail and illicit commission. The origin of the 
English use of the word is probably an obsolete word " graft," 
a portion of earth thrown up by a spade, from the Teutonic root 
meaning " to dig," seen in German graben, and English " grave." 

GRAFTON, DUKES OF. The English dukes of Grafton are 
descended from HENRY FITZROY (1663-1690), the natural son 
of Charles II. by Barbara Villiers (countess of Castlemaine and 
duchess of Cleveland). In 1672 he was married to the daughter 
and heiress of the earl of Arlington and created earl of Euston; 
in 1675 he was created duke of Grafton. He was brought 



GRAFTON, R. GRAHAM, SIR G. 



3 1 ? 



up as a sailor, and saw military service at the siege of Luxemburg 
in 1684. At James II. 's coronation he was lord high constable. 
In the rebellion of the duke of Monmouth he commanded the 
royal troops in Somersetshire; but later he acted with Churchill 
(duke of Marlborough), and joined William of Orange against 
the king. He died of a wound received at the storming of Cork, 
while leading William's forces, being succeeded as 2nd duke 
by his son Charles (1682-1757). 

AUGUSTUS HENRY FITZROY, 3rd duke of Grafton (1735-1811), 
one of the leading politicians of his time, was the grandson of the 
and duke, and was educated at Westminster and Cambridge. He 
first became known in politics as an opponent of Lord Bute; in 
1765 he was secretary of state under the marquis of Rockingham; 
but he retired next year, and Pitt (becoming earl of Chatham) 
formed a ministry in which Grafton was first lord of the treasury 
(1766) but only nominally prime minister. Chatham's illness 
at the end of 1767 resulted in Grafton becoming the effective 
leader, but political differences and the attacks of " Junius " 
led to his resignation in January 1770. He became lord privy 
seal in Lord North's ministry (1771) but resigned in 1775, being 
in favour of conciliatory action towards the American colonists. 
In the Rockingham ministry of 1782 he was again lord privy 
seal. In later years he was a prominent Unitarian. 

Besides his successor, the 4th duke (1760-1844), and numerous 
other children, he was the father of General Lord Charles Fitz- 
roy (1764-1829), whose sons Sir Charles Fitzroy (1798-1858), 
governor of New South Wales, and Robert Fitzroy (g.v.), the 
hydrographer, were notable men. The 4th duke's son, who 
succeeded as sth duke, was father of the 6th and 7th dukes. 

The 3rd duke left in manuscript a Memoir of his public career, 
of which extracts have been printed in Stanhope's History, Walpole's 
Memories of George III. (Appendix, vol. iv.), and Campbell's Lives 
of the Chancellors. 

GRAFTON, RICHARD (d. 1572), English printer and chron- 
icler, was probably born about 1513. He received the freedom 
of the Grocers' Company in 1534. Miles Coverdale's version 
of the Bible had first been printed in 1535. Grafton was early 
brought into touch with the leaders of religious reform, and in 
1537 he undertook, in conjunction with Edward Whitchurch, 
to produce a modified version of Coverdale's text, generally 
known as Matthew's Bible (Antwerp, 1537). He went to Paris 
to reprint Coverdale's revised edition ( 1 538) . There Whitchurch 
and he began to print the folio known as the Great Bible by 
special licence obtained by Henry VIII. from the French govern- 
ment. Suddenly, however, the work was officially stopped and 
the presses seized. Grafton fled, but Thomas Cromwell eventu- 
ally bought the presses and type, and the printing was completed 
in England. The Great Bible was reprinted several times under 
his direction, the last occasion being 1553. In 1544 Grafton 
and Whitchurch secured the exclusive right of printing church 
service books, and on the accession of Edward VI. he was 
appointed king's printer, an office which he retained throughout 
the reign. In this capacity he produced The Booke of the Common 
Praier and Administration of the Sacramentes, and other Rites 
and Ceremonies of the Churehe: after the Use of the Churche of 
Englande (1549 fol.), and Actes of Parliament (1552 and 1553). 
In 1553 he printed Lady Jane Grey's proclamation and signed 
himself the queen's printer. For this he was imprisoned for a 
short time, and he seems thereafter to have retired from active 
business. His historical works include a continuation (1543) 
of Hardyng's Chronicle from the beginning of the reign of Edward 
IV. down to Grafton's own times. He is said to have taken 
considerable liberties with the original, and may practically be 
regarded as responsible for the whole work. He printed in 1 548 
Edward Hall's Union of the . . . Families of Lancastre and 
Yorke, adding the history of the years from 1532 to 1547. After 
he retired from the printing business he published An Abridge- 
ment of the Chronicles of England (1562), Manuell of the Chronicles 
of England (1565), Chronicle at large and meere Historye of the 
Ajfayres of England (1568). In these books he chiefly adapted 
the work of his predecessors, but in some cases he gives detailed 
accounts of contemporary events. His name frequently appears 



in the records of St Bartholomew's and Christ's hospitals, and 
in 1553 he was treasurer-general of the hospitals of King Edward's 
foundation. In 1553-1554 and 1556-1557 he represented the 
City in Parliament, and in 1562-1563 he sat for Coventry. 

An elaborate account of Grafton was written in 1901 by Mr J. A. 
Kingdon under the auspices of the Grocers' Company, with the title 
Richard Grafton, Citizen and Grocer of London, &c., in continuation 
of Incidents in the Lives of T. Poyntz and R. Grafton (1895). His 
Chronicle at large was reprinted by Sir Henry Ellis in 1809. 

GRAFTON, a city of Clarence county, New South Wales, 
lying on both sides of the Clarence river, at a distance of 45 m. 
from its mouth, 342 m. N.E. of Sydney by sea. Pop. (1901) 
4174, South Grafton, 976. The two sections, North Grafton 
and South Grafton, form separate municipalities. The river 
is navigable from the sea to the town for ships of moderate 
burden, and for small vessels to a point 35 m. beyond it. The 
entrance to the river has been artificially improved. Grafton 
is the seat of the Anglican joint-bishopric of Grafton and Armidale, 
and of a Roman Catholic bishopric created in 1888, both of which 
have fine cathedrals. Dairy-farming and sugar-growing are 
important industries, and there are several sugar-mills in the 
neighbourhood; great numbers of horses, also, are bred for the 
Indian and colonial markets. Tobacco, cereals and fruits are 
also grown. Grafton has a large shipping trade with Sydney. 
There is rail-connexion with Brisbane, &c. The city became a 
municipality in 1859. 

GRAFTON, a township in the S.E. part of Worcester county, 
Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1905) 5052 ; (1910) 5705. It is 
served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and the 
Boston & Albany railways, and by interurban electric lines. 
The township contains several villages (including Grafton, North 
Grafton, Saundersville, Fisherville and Farnumsville) ; the 
principal village, Grafton, is about 7 m. S.E. of Worcester. The 
villages are residential suburbs of Worcester, and attract many 
summer residents. In the village of Grafton there is a public 
library. There is ample water power from the Blackstone 
river and its tributaries, and among the manufactures of Grafton 
are cotton-goods, boots and shoes, &c. Within what is now 
Grafton stood the Nipmuck Indian village of Hassanamesit. 
John Eliot, the " apostle to the Indians," visited it soon after 
1651, and organized the third of his bands of " praying Indians " 
there; in 1671 he established a church for them, the second of 
the kind in New England, and also a school. In 1654 the Massa- 
chusetts General Court granted to the Indians, for their exclusive 
use, a tract of about 4 sq. m., of which they remained the sole 
proprietors until 1718, when they sold a small farm to Elisha 
Johnson, the first permanent white settler in the neighbourhood. 
In 1728 a group of residents of Marlboro, Sudbury, Concord and 
Stowe, with the permission of the General Court, bought from the 
Indians 7500 acres of their lands, and agreed to establish forty 
English families on the tract within three years, and to maintain 
a church and school of which the Indians should have free use. 
The township was incorporated in 1735, and was named in honour 
of the 2nd duke of Grafton. The last of the pure-blooded 
Indians died about 1825. 

GRAFTON, a city and the county-seat of Taylor county, West 
Virginia, U.S.A., on Tygart river, about 100 m. by rail S.E. of 
Wheeling. Pop. (1890) 3159; (1900) 5650, including 226 foreign- 
born and 162 negroes; (1910) 7563. It is served by four divisions 
of the Baltimore & Ohio railway, which maintains extensive car 
shops here. The city is about 1000 ft. above sea-level. It has 
a small national cemetery, and about 4 m. W., at Pruntytown, 
is the West Virginia Reform School. Grafton is situated near 
large coal-fields, and is supplied with natural gas. Among its 
manufactures are machine-shop and foundry products, window 
glass and pressed glass ware, and grist mill and planing-mill 
products. The first settlement was made about 1852, and 
Grafton was incorporated in 1856 and chartered as a city in 
1899. In 1903 the population and area of the city were increased 
by the annexation of the town of Fetterman (pop. in 1900, 796), 
of Beaumont (unincorporated), and of other territory. 

GRAHAM, SIR GERALD (1831-1899), British general, was 
born on the 27th of June 1831 at Acton, Middlesex. He was 



3 i8 



GRAHAM, SIR JAMES GRAHAM, T. 



educated at Dresden and Woolwich Academy, and entered the 
Royal Engineers in 1850. He served with distinction through 
the Russian War of 1854 to 1856, was present at the battles of 
the Alma and Inkerman, was twice wounded in the trenches 
before Sevastopol, and was awarded the Victoria Cross for 
gallantry at the attack on the Redan and for devoted heroism 
on numerous occasions. He also received the Legion of Honour, 
and was promoted to a brevet majority. In the China War of 
1860 he took part in the actions of Sin-ho and Tang-ku, the 
storming of the Taku Forts, where he was severely wounded, 
and the entry into Peking (brevet lieutenant-colonelcy and C.B.). 
Promoted colonel in 1869, he was employed in routine duties 
until 1877, when he was appointed assistant-director of works 
for barracks at the war office, a position he held until his promo- 
tion to major-general in 1881. In command of the advanced 
force in Egypt in 1882, he bore the brunt of the fighting, was 
present at the action of Magfar, commanded at the first battle 
of Kassassin, took part in the second, and led his brigade at 
Tell-el-Kebir. For his services in the campaign he received the 
K.C.B. and thanks of parliament. In 1884 he commanded the 
expedition to the eastern Sudan, and fought the successful 
battles of El Teb and Tamai. On his return home he received 
the thanks of parliament and was made a lieutenant-general 
for distinguished service in the field. In 1885 he commanded 
the Suakin expedition, defeated the Arabs at Hashin and 
Tamai, and advanced the railway from Suakin to Otao, when the 
expedition was withdrawn (thanks of parliament and G.C.M.G.). 
In 1896 he was made G.C.B., and in 1899 colonel-commandant 
Royal Engineers. He died on the I7th of December 1899. 
He published in 1875 a translation of Goetze's Operations of 
the German Engineers in 1870-1871, and in 1887 Last Words 
with Gordon. 

GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE, Bart. (1792- 
1861), British statesman, son of a baronet, was born at Naworth, 
Cumberland, on the ist of June 1792, and was educated at 
Westminster and Oxford. Shortly after quitting the university, 
while making the " grand tour " abroad, he became private 
secretary to the British minister in Sicily. Returning to England 
in 1818 he was elected to parliament as member for Hull in the 
Whig interest; but he was unseated at the election of 1820. 
In 1824 he succeeded to the baronetcy; and in 1826 he re-entered 
parliament as representative for Carlisle, a seat which he soon 
exchanged for the county of Cumberland. In the same year 
he published a pamphlet entitled " Corn and Currency," which 
brought him into prominence as a man of advanced Liberal 
opinions; and he became one of the most energetic advocates 
in parliament of the Reform Bill. On the formation of Earl 
Grey's administration he received the post of first lord of the 
admiralty, with a seat in the cabinet. From 1832 to 1837 he 
sat for the eastern division of the county of Cumberland. Dis- 
sensions on the Irish Church question led to his withdrawal 
from the ministry in 1834, and ultimately to his joining the 
Conservative party. Rejected by his former constituents in 
1837, he was in 1838 elected for Pembroke, and in 1841 for 
Dorchester. In the latter year he took office under Sir Robert 
Peel as secretary of state for the home department, a post he 
retained until 1846. As home secretary he incurred considerable 
odium in Scotland, by his unconciliating policy on the church 
question prior to the " disruption " of 1843; and in 1844 the 
detention and opening of letters at the post-office by his warrant 
raised a storm of public indignation, which was hardly allayed 
by the favourable report of a parliamentary committee of 
investigation. From 1846 to 1852 he was out of office; but in 
the latter year he joined Lord Aberdeen's cabinet as first lord 
of the admiralty, in which capacity he acted also for a short 
time in the Palmerston ministry of 1855. The appointment of 
a select committee of inquiry into the conduct of the Russian 
war ultimately led to his withdrawal from official life. He 
continued as a private member to exercise a considerable in- 
fluence on parliamentary opinion. He died at Netherby, 
Cumberland, on the 25th of October 1861. 

His Life, by C. S. Parker, was published in 1907. 



GRAHAM, SYLVESTER (1794-1851), American dietarian, 
was born in Suffield, Connecticut, in 1 794. He studied at Amherst 
College, and was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 1826, 
but he seems to have preached but little. He became an ardent 
advocate of temperance reform and of vegetarianism, having 
persuaded himself that a flesh diet was the cause of abnormal 
cravings. His last years were spent in retirement and he died 
at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the nth of September 
1851. His name is now remembered because of his advocacy 
of unbolted (Graham) flour, and as the originator of " Graham 
bread. " But his reform was much broader than this. He urged, 
primarily, physiological education, and in his Science of Human 
Life (1836; republished, with biographical memoir, 1858) 
furnished an exhaustive text-book on the subject. He had 
carefully planned a complete regimen including many details 
besides a strict diet. A Temperance (or Graham) Boarding 
House was opened in New York City about 1832 by Mrs Asenath 
Nicholson, who published Nature's Own Book (2nd ed., 1835) 
giving Graham's rules for boarders; and in Boston a Graham 
House was opened in 1837 at 23 Brattle Street. 

There were many Grahamites at Brook Farm, and the American 
Physiological Society published in Boston in 1837 and 1838 a weekly 




Graham wrote Essay on Cholera (1832); The Esculapian Tablets 
of the Nineteenth Century (1834); Lectures to Young Men on Chastity 
(2nd ed., 1837); and Bread and Bread Making; and projected a 
work designed to show that his system was not counter to 'the 
Holy Scriptures. 

GRAHAM, THOMAS (1805-1869), British chemist, born at 
Glasgow on the 2oth of December 1805, was the son of a merchant 
of that city. In 1819 he entered the university of Glasgow with 
the intention of becoming a minister of the Established Church. 
But under the influence of Thomas Thomson (1773-1852), 
the professor of chemistry, he developed a taste for experimental 
science and especially for molecular physics, a subject which 
formed his main preoccupation throughout his life. After 
graduating in 1824, he spent two years in the laboratory of 
Professor T. C. Hope at Edinburgh, and on returning to Glasgow 
gave lessons in mathematics, and subsequently chemistry, 
until the year 1829, when he was appointed lecturer in the 
Mechanics' Institute. In 1830 he succeeded Dr Andrew Ure 
(1778-1857) as professor of chemistry in the Andersonian Institu- 
tion, and in 1837, on the death of Dr Edward Turner, he was 
transferred to the chair of chemistry in University College, 
London. There he remained till 1855, when he succeeded Sir 
John Herschel as Master of the Mint, a post he held until his 
death on the i6th of September 1869. The onerous duties 
his work at the Mint entailed severely tried his energies, and 
in quitting a purely scientific career he was subjected to the 
cares of official life, for which he was not fitted by temperament. 
The researches, however, which he conducted between 1861 
and 1869 were as brilliant as any of those in which he engaged. 
Graham was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1836, 
and a corresponding member of the Institute of France in 1847, 
while Oxford made him a D. C. L. in 1855. He took a leading part 
in the foundation of the London Chemical and the Cavendish 
societies, and served as first president of both, in 1841 and 1846. 
Towards the close of his life the presidency of the Royal Society 
was offered him, but his failing health caused him to decline 
the honour. 

Graham's work is remarkable at once for its originality and 
for the simplicity of the methods employed in obtaining most 
important results. He communicated papers to the Philosophical 
Society of Glasgow before the work of that society was recorded 
in Transactions, but his first published paper, " On the Absorp- 
tion of Gases by Liquids," appeared in the Annals of Philosophy 
for 1826. The subject with which his name is most prominently 
associated is the diffusion of gases. In his first paper on this 
subject (1829) he thus summarizes the knowledge experiment 
had afforded as to the laws which regulate the movement of 
gases. " Fruitful as the miscibility of gases has been in in- 
teresting speculations, the experimental information we possess 



GRAHAME GRAHAM'S TOWN 



on the subject amounts to little more than the well-established 
fact that gases of a different nature when brought into contact 
do not arrange themselves according to their density, but they 
spontaneously diffuse through each other so as to remain in an 
intimate state of mixture for any length of time." For the 
fissured jar of J. W. Dobereiner he substituted a glass tube 
closed by a plug of plaster of Paris, and with this simple ap- 
pliance he developed the law now known by his name " that 
the diffusion rate of gases is inversely as the square root of their 
density." (See DIFFUSION.) He further studied the passage 
of gases by transpiration through fine tubes, and by effusion 
through a minute hole in a platinum disk, and was enabled to show 
that gas may enter a vacuum in three different ways: (i) by the 
molecular movement of diffusion, in virtue of which a gas pene- 
trates through the pores of a disk of compressed graphite; (2) 
by effusion through an orifice of sensible dimensions in a platinum 
disk the relative times of the effusion of gases in mass being 
similar to those of the molecular diffusion, although a gas is 
usually carried by the former kind of impulse with a velocity 
many thousand times as great as is demonstrable by the latter; 
and (3) by the peculiar rate of passage due to transpiration through 
fine tubes, in which the ratios appear to be in direct relation with 
no other known property of the same gases thus hydrogen has 
exactly double the transpiration rate of nitrogen, the relation of 
those gases as to density being as I 114. He subsequently 
examined the passage of gases through septa or partitions of india- 
rubber, unglazed earthenware and plates of metals such as 
palladium, and proved that gases pass through these septa 
neither by diffusion nor effusion nor by transpiration, but in virtue 
of a selective absorption which the septa appear to exert on the 
gases in contact with them. By this means (" atmolysis ") he 
was enabled partially to separate oxygen from air. 

His early work on the movements of gases led him to examine 
the spontaneous movements of liquids, and as a result of the 
experiments he divided bodies into two classes crystalloids, 
such as common salt, and colloids, of which gum-arabic is a type 
the former having high and the latter low diffusibility. He 
also proved that the process of liquid diffusion causes partial 
decomposition of certain chemical compounds, the potassium 
sulphate, for instance, being separated from the aluminium 
sulphate in alum by the higher diffusibility of the former salt. 
He also extended his work on the transpiration of gases to liquids, 
adopting the method of manipulation devised by J. L. M. Poise- 
uille. He found that dilution with water does not effect pro- 
portionate alteration in the transpiration velocities of different 
liquids, and a certain determinable degree of dilution retards 
the transpiration velocity. 

With regard to Graham's more purely chemical work, in 1833 
he showed that phosphoric anhydride and water form three 
distinct acids, and he thus established the existence of polybasic 
acids, in each of which one or more equivalents of hydrogen are 
replaceable by certain metals (see ACID). In 1835 he published 
the results of an examination of the properties of water of crys- 
tallization as a constituent of salts. Not the least interesting 
part of this inquiry was the discovery of certain definite salts with 
alcohol analogous to hydrates, to which the name of alcoholates 
was given. A brief paper entitled " Speculative Ideas on the 
Constitution of Matter " (1863) possesses special interest in con- 
nexion with work done since his death, because in it he ex- 
pressed the view that the various kinds of matter now recognized 
as different elementary substances may possess one and the same 
ultimate or atomic molecule in different conditions of movement. 

Graham's Elements of Chemistry, first published in 1833, went 
through several editions, and appeared also in German, remodelled 
under J. Otto's direction. His Chemical and Physical Researches 
were collected by Dr James Young and Dr Angus Smith, and 
printed " for presentation only " at Edinburgh in 1876, Dr Smith 
contributing to the volume a valuable preface and analysis of its 
contents. See also T. E. Thorpe, Essays in Historical Chemistry 
(1902) 

GRAHAME, JAMES (.1765-1811), Scottish poet, was born in 
Glasgow on the 22nd of April 1765, the son of a successful 
lawyer. After completing his literary course at Glasgow univer- 



sity, Grahame went in 1784 to Edinburgh, where he qualified 
as writer to the signet, and subsequently for the Scottish bar, 
of which he was elected a member in 1795. But his preferences 
nad always been for the Church, and when he was forty-four 
he took Anglican orders, and became a curate first at Shipton, 
Gloucestershire, and then at Sedgefield, Durham. His works 
include a dramatic poem, Mary Queen of Scots (1801), The 
Sabbath (1804), British Georgics (1804), The Birds of Scotland 
(1806), and Poems on the Abolition of the Slave Trade (1810). 
His principal work, The Sabbath, a sacred and descriptive poem 
in blank verse, is characterized by devotional feeling and by 
happy delineation of Scottish scenery. In the notes to his poems 
he expresses enlightened views on popular education, the criminal 
law and other public questions. He was emphatically a friend 
of humanity a philanthropist as well as a poet. He died in 
Glasgow on the i4th of September 1811. 

GRAHAM'S DYKE (or SHEUGH = trench), a local name for the 
Roman fortified frontier, consisting of rampart, forts and road, 
which ran across the narrow isthmus of Scotland from the Forth 
to the Clyde (about 36 m.), and formed from A.D. 140 till about 
185 the northern frontier of Roman Britain. The name is 
locally explained as recording a victorious assault on the defences 
by one Robert Graham and his men; it has also been connected 
with the Grampian Hills and the Latin surveying term groma. 
But, as is shown by its earliest recorded spelling, Grymisdyke 
(Fordun, A.D. 1385), it is the same as the term Grim's Ditch which 
occurs several times in England in connexion with early ramparts 
for example, near Wallingford in south Oxfordshire or between 
Berkhampstead (Herts) and Bradenham (Bucks). Grim seems 
to be a Teutonic god or devil, who might be credited with the 
wish to build earthworks in unreasonably short periods of time. 
By antiquaries the Graham's Dyke is usually styled the Wall 
of Pius or the Antonine Vallum, after the emperor Antoninus 
Pius, in whose reign it was constructed. See further BRITAIN: 
Roman. (F. J. H.) 

GRAHAM'S TOWN, a city of South Africa, the administrative 
centre for the eastern part of the Cape province, 106 m. by rail 
N.E. of Port Elizabeth and 43 m. by rail N.N.W. of Port Alfred. 
Pop. (1904) 13,887, of whom 7283 were whites and 1837 were 
electors. The town is built in a basin of the grassy hills forming 
the spurs of the Zuurberg, 1760 ft. above sea-level. It is a 
pleasant place of residence, has a remarkably healthy climate, 
and is regarded as the most English-like town in the Cape. The 
streets are broad, and most of them lined with trees. In the 
High Street are the law courts, the Anglican cathedral of St 
George, built from designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, and Commemora- 
tion Chapel, the chief place of worship of the Wesleyans, erected 
by the British emigrants of 1820. The Roman Catholic cathedral 
of St Patrick, a Gothic building, is to the left of the High Street. 
The town hall, also in the Gothic style, has a square clock tower 
built on arches over the pavement. Graham's Town is one 
of the chief educational centres in the Cape province. Besides 
the public schools and the Rhodes University College (which 
in 1904 took over part of the work carried on since 1855 by St 
Andrew's College), scholastic institutions are maintained by 
religious bodies. The town possesses two large hospitals, which 
receive patients from all parts of South Africa, and the govern- 
ment bacteriological institute. It is the centre of trade for an 
extensive pastoral and agricultural district. Owing to the sour 
quality of the herbage in the surrounding zuurveld, stock-breeding 
and wool-growing have been, however, to some extent replaced 
by ostrich-farming, for which industry Graham's Town is the 
most important entre.p6t. Dairy farming is much practised in 
the neighbourhood. 

In 1812 the site of the town was chosen as the headquarters 
of the British troops engaged in protecting the frontier of Cape 
Colony from the inroads of the Kaffirs, and it was named after 
Colonel John Graham (1778-1821), then commanding the forces. 
(Graham had commanded the light infantry battalion at the 
taking of the Cape by the British in the action of the 6th of 
January 1806. He also took part in campaigns in Italy and 
Holland during the Napoleonic wars.) In 1819 an attempt was 



320 



GRAIL, THE HOLY 



made by the Kaffirs to surprise Graham's Town, and 10,000 
men attacked it, but they were repulsed by the garrison, which 
numbered not more than 320 men, infantry and artillery, under 
Lieut.-Colonel (afterwards General Sir) Thomas Willshire. In 
1822 the town was chosen as the headquarters of the 4000 
British immigrants who had reached Cape Colony in 1820. It 
has maintained its position as the most important inland town 
of the eastern part of the Cape province. In 1864 the Cape 
parliament met in Graham's Town, the only instance of the 
legislature sitting elsewhere than in Cape Town. It is governed 
by a municipality. The rateable value in 1906 was 891,536 
and the rate levied 2|d. in the pound. 

See T. Sheffield, The Story of the Settlement . . . (2nd ed., 
Graham's Town, 1884); C. T. Campbell, British South Africa . . . 
with notices of some of the British Settlers of 1820 (London, 1897). 

GRAIL, THE HOLY, the famous talisman of Arthurian 
romance, the object of quest on the part of the knights of the 
Round Table. It is mainly, if not wholly, known to English 
readers through the medium of Malory's translation of the 
French Quete du Saint, Graal, where it is the cup or chalice of the 
Last Supper, in which the blood which flowed from the wounds 
of the crucified Saviour has been miraculously preserved. 
Students of the original romances are aware that there is in these 
texts an extraordinary diversity of statement as to the nature 
and origin of the Grail, and that it is extremely difficult to 
determine the precise value of these differing versions. 1 Broadly 
speaking the Grail romances have been divided into two main 
classes: (i) those dealing with the search for the Grail, the 
Quest, and (2) those relating to its early history. These latter 
appear to be dependent on the former, for whereas we may 
have a Quest romance without any insistence on the previous 
history of the Grail, that history is never found without some 
allusion to the hero who is destined to bring the quest to its 
successful termination. The Quest versions again fall into three 
distinct classes, differentiated by the personality of the hero 
who is respectively Gawain, Perceval or Galahad. The most 
important and interesting group is that connected with Perceval, 
and he was regarded as the original Grail hero, Gawain being, 
as it were, his understudy. Recent discoveries, however, point 
to a different conclusion, and indicate that the Gawain stories 
represent an early tradition, and that we must seek in them 
rather than in the Perceval versions for indications as to the 
ultimate origin of the Grail. 

The character of this talisman or relic varies greatly, as will 
be seen from the following summary. 

i. GAWAIN, included in the continuation to Chretien's Perceval 
by Wauchier de Denain, and attributed to Bleheris the Welshman, 
who is probably identical with the Bledhericus of Giraldus 
Cambrensis, and considerably earlier than Chretien de Troyes. 
Here the Grail is a food-providing, self-acting talisman, the pre- 
cise nature of which is not specified; it is designated as the 
" rich " Grail, and serves the king and his court sans serjanU 
ft sans seneschal, the butlers providing the guests with wine. 
In another version, given at an earlier point of the same con- 
tinuation, but apparently deriving from a later source, the 
Grail is borne in procession by a weeping maiden, and is called 
the " holy " Grail, but no details as to its history or character 
are given. In a third version, that of Diu Crdne, a long and con- 
fused romance, the origin of which has not been determined, 
the Grail appears as a reliquary, in which the Host is presented 
to the king, who once a year partakes alike of it and of the blood 
which flows from the lance. Another account is given in the 
prose Lancelot, but here Gawain has been deposed from his 
post as first hero of the court, and, as is to be expected from the 
treatment meted out to him in this romance, the visit ends 
in his complete discomfiture. The Grail is here surrounded with 
the atmosphere of awe and reverence familiar to us through the 

'The etymology of the O. Fr. graal or greal, of which "grail" 
is an adaptation, has been much discussed. The Low Lat. original, 
gradate or grasale, a flat dish or platter, has generally been taken to 
represent a diminutive cratetta of crater, bowl, or a lost cratale, 
formed from the same word (see W. W. Skeat, Preface to Joseph 
of Arimathie, Early Eng. Text Soc.). ED. 



Quete, and is regarded as the chalice of the Last Supper. These 
are the Gawain versions. 

2. PERCEVAL. The most important Perceval text is the 
Conte del Grael, or Perceval le Galois of Chr6tien de Troyes. 
Here the Grail is wrought of gold richly set with precious stones; 
it is carried in solemn procession, and the light issuing from it 
extinguishes that of the candles. What it is is not explained, 
but inasmuch as it is the vehicle in which is conveyed the Host 
on which the father of the Fisher king depends for nutriment, 
it seems not improbable that here, as in Diu Crone, it is to be 
understood as a reliquary. In the Parzival of Wolfram von 
Eschenbach, the ultimate source of which is identical with that 
of Chretien, on the contrary, the Grail is represented as a precious 
stone, brought to earth by angels, and committed to the guardian- 
ship of the Grail king and his descendants. It is guarded by a 
body of chosen knights, or templars, and acts alike as a life and 
youth preserving talisman no man may die within eight days 
of beholding it, and the maiden who bears it retains perennial 
youth and an oracle choosing its own servants, and indicating 
whom the Grail king shall wed. The sole link with the Christian 
tradition is the statement that its virtue is renewed every Good 
Friday by the agency of a dove from heaven. The discrepancy 
between this and the other Grail romances is most startling. 

In the short prose romance known as the " Didot " Perceval 
we have, for the first time, the whole history of the relic logically 
set forth. The Perceval forms the third and concluding section of 
a group of short romances, the two preceding being the Joseph 
of Arimathea and the Merlin. In the first we have the precise 
history of the Grail, how it was the dish of the Last Supper, 
confided by our Lord tp the care of Joseph, whom he miraculously 
visited in the prison to which he had been committed by the 
Jews. It was subsequently given by Joseph to his brother-in- 
law Brons, whose grandson Perceval is destined to be the final 
winner and guardian of the relic. The Merlin forms the con- 
necting thread between this definitely ecclesiastical romance and 
the chivalric atmosphere of Arthur's court; and finally, in the 
Perceval, the hero, son of Alain and grandson to Brons, is warned 
by Merlin of the quest which awaits him and which he achieves 
after various adventures. 

In the Perlesvaus the Grail is the same, but the working out of 
the scheme is much more complex; a son of Joseph of Arimathea, 
Josephe, is introduced, and we find a spiritual knighthood similar 
to that used so effectively in the Parzival. 

3. GALAHAD. The QuUe du Saint Graal, the only romance 
of which Galahad is the hero, is dependent on and a completion 
of the Lancelot development of the Arthurian cycle. Lancelot, 
as lover of Guinevere, could not be permitted to achieve so 
spiritual an emprise, yet as leading knight of Arthur's court it 
was impossible to allow him to be surpassed by another. Hence 
the invention of Galahad, son to Lancelot by the Grail king's 
daughter; predestined by his lineage to achieve the quest, 
foredoomed, the quest achieved, to vanish, a sacrifice to his 
father's fame, which, enhanced by connexion with the Grail- 
winner, could not risk eclipse by his presence. Here the Grail, 
the chalice of the Last Supper, is at the same time, as in the 
Gawain stories, self-acting and food-supplying. 

The last three romances unite, it will be seen, the quest and 
the early history. Introductory to the Galahad quest, and deal- 
ing only with the early history, is the Grand Saint Graal, a work 
of interminable length, based upon the Joseph of Arimathea, 
which has undergone numerous revisions and amplifications: 
its precise relation to the Lancelot, with which it has now much 
matter in common, is not easy to determine. 

To be classed also under the head of early history are certain 
interpolations in the MSS. of the Perceval, where we find the 
Joseph tradition, but in a somewhat different form, e.g. he is 
said to have caused the Grail to be made for the purpose of re- 
ceiving the holy blood. With this account is also connected the 
legend of the Volto Santo of Lucca, a crucifix said to have been 
carved by Nicodemus. In the conclusion to Chr6tien's poem, 
composed by Manessier some fifty years later, the Grail is said 
to have followed Joseph to Britain, how, is not explained. 



GRAIL, THE HOLY 



321 



Another continuation by Gerbert, interpolated between those of 
Wauchier and Manessier, relates how the Grail was brought 
lo Britain by Perceval's mother in the companionship of Joseph. 

It will be seen that with the exception of the Grand Saint 
Graal, which has now been practically converted into an introduc- 
tion to the Quite, no two versions agree with each other; indeed, 
with the exception of the oldest Gawain-Gra.il visit, that due to 
Bleheris, they do not agree with themselves, but all show, 
more or less, the influence of different and discordant versions. 
Why should the vessel of the Last Supper, jealously guarded at 
Castle Corbenic, visit Arthur's court independently? Why 
does a sacred relic provide purely material food? What connexion 
can there be between a precious stone, a baetylus, as Dr Hagen 
has convincingly shown, and Good Friday? These, and such 
questions as these, suggest themselves at every turn. 

Numerous attempts have been made to solve these problems, 
and to construct a theory of the origin of the Grail story, but so 
far the difficulty has been to find an hypothesis which would 
admit of the practically simultaneous existence of apparently 
contradictory features. At one time considered as an introduc- 
tion from the East, the theory of the Grail as an Oriental talisman 
has now been discarded, and the expert opinion of the day may 
be said to fall into two groups: (i) those who hold the Grail 
to have been from the first a purely Christian vessel which has 
accidentally, and in a manner never clearly explained, acquired 
certain folk-lore characteristics; and (2) those who hold, on the 
contrary, that the Grail is aborigine folk-lore and Celtic, and 
that the Christian development is a later and accidental rather 
than an essential feature of the story. The first view is set forth 
in the work of Professor Birch-Hirschfeld, the second in that of 
Mr Alfred Nutt, the two constituting the only travaux $ ensemble 
which have yet appeared on the subject. It now seems probable 
that both are in a measure correct, and that the ultimate solution 
will be recognized to lie in a blending of two originally inde- 
pendent streams of tradition. The researches of . Professor 
Mannhardt in Germany and of J. G. Frazer in England have 
amply demonstrated the enduring influence exercised on popular 
thought and custom by certain primitive forms of vegetation 
worship, of which the most noteworthy example is the so-called 
mysteries of Adonis. Here the ordinary processes of nature 
and progression of the seasons were symbolized under the figure 
of the death and resuscitation of the god. These rites are found 
all over the world, and in his monumental work, The Golden 
Bough, Dr Frazer has traced a host of extant beliefs and practices 
to this source. The earliest form of the Grail story, the Gawain- 
Bleheris version, exhibits a marked affinity with the characteristic 
features of the Adonis or Tammuz worship; we have a castle 
on the sea-shore, a dead body on a bier, the identity of which is 
never revealed, mourned over with solemn rites; a wasted 
country, whose desolation is mysteriously connected with the 
dead man, and which is restored to fruitfulness when the quester 
asks the meaning of the marvels he beholds (the two features 
of the weeping women and the wasted land being retained in 
versions where they have no significance) ; finally the mysterious 
food-providing, self-acting talisman of a common feast one 
and all of these features may be explained as survivals of the 
Adonis ritual. Professor Martin long since suggested that a key 
to the problems of the Arthurian cycle was to be found in a nature 
myth: Professor Rhys regards Arthur as an agricultural hero; 
Dr Lewis Mott has pointed out the correspondence between the 
so-called Round Table sites and the ritual of nature worship; but 
it is only with the discovery of the existence of Bleheris as reputed 
authority for Arthurian tradition, and the consequent recogni- 
tion that the Grail story connected with his name is the earliest 
form of the legend, that we have secured a solid basis for such 
theories. 

With regard to the religious form of the story, recent research 
has again aided us we know now that a legend similar in all 
respects to the Joseph of Arimathea Grail story was widely 
current at least a century before our earliest Grail texts. The 
story with Nicodemus as protagonist is told of the Saint-Sang 
relic at Fecamp; and, as stated already, a similar origin is 

XII. II 



ascribed to the Vollo Santo at Lucca. In this latter case the 
legend professes to date from the 8th century, and scholars who 
have examined the texts in their present form consider that there 
may be solid ground for this attribution. It is thus demonstrable 
that the material for our Grail legend, in its present form, 
existed long anterior to any extant text, and there is no impro- 
bability in holding that a confused tradition of pagan mysteries 
which had assumed the form of a popular folk-tale, became 
finally Christianized by combination with an equally popular 
ecclesiastical legend, the point of contact being the vessel of the 
common ritual feast. Nor can there be much doubt that in this 
process of combination the Fecamp legend played an important 
role. The best and fullest of the Perceval MSS. refer to a book 
written at Fecamp as source for certain Perceval adventures. 
What this book was we do not know, but in face of the fact that 
certain special Fecamp relics, silver knives, appear in the Grail 
procession of the Parzival, it seems most probable that it was a 
Perceval-GiaiL story. The relations between the famous Bene- 
dictine abbey and the English court both before and after the 
Conquest were of an intimate character. Legends of the part 
played by Joseph of Arimathea in the conversion of Britain are 
closely connected with Glastonbury, the monks of which founda- 
tion showed, in the 1 2th century, considerable literary activity, 
and it seems a by no means improbable hypothesis that the 
present form of the Grail legend may be due to a monk of Glaston- 
bury elaborating ideas borrowed from Fecamp. This much is 
certain, that between the Saint-Sang of Fecamp, the Volto Santo 
of Lucca, and the Grail tradition, there exists a connecting link, 
the precise nature of which has yet to be determined. The two 
former were popular objects of pilgrimage; was the third 
originally intended to serve the same purpose by attracting 
attention to the reputed burial-place of the apostle of the Grail, 
Joseph of Arimathea? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the Gawain Grail visits see the Potvin 
edition of the Perceval, which, however, only gives the Bleheris 
version; the second visit is found in the best and most complete 
MSS., such as 12,576 and 12,577 (Fondsfrangais) of the Paris library. 
Diu Crdne, edited by Scholl (Stuttgart, 1852), vol. vi. of Arthurian 
Romances (Nutt), gives a translation of the Bleheris, Diu Crone 
and Prose Lancelot visits. 

The Conte del Graal, or Perceval, is only accessible in the edition 
of M. Potvin (6 vols., 1866-1871). The Mons MS., from which this 
has been printed, has proved to be an exceedingly poor and un- 
trustworthy text. Parzival, by Wolfram von Eschenbach, has been 
frequently and well edited; the edition by Bartsch (1875-1877), 
in Deutsche Classiker des Mittelalters, contains full notes and a 

glossary. Suitable for the more advanced student are those by K. 
achmann (1891), Leitzmann (1902-1903) and E. Martin (1903). 
There are modern German translations by Simrock (very close to 
the original) and Hertz (excellent notes). English translation with 
notes and appendices by J. L. Weston. " Didot " Perceval, ed. 
Hucher, Le Saint Graal (1875-1878), vol. i. Perlesvaus was printed 
by Potvin, under the title of Perceval le Gallois, in vol. i. of the 
edition above referred to; a Welsh version from the Hengwert MS. 
was published with translation by Canon R. Williams (2 vols., 
1876-1892). Under the title of The High History of the Holy Grail 
a fine version was published by Dr Sebastian Evans in the Temple 
Classics (2 vols., 1898). The Grand Saint Graal was published by 
Hucher as given above ; this edition includes the Joseph of Arimathea. 
A 1 5th century metrical English adaptation by one Henry Lovelich, 
was printed by Dr Furnivall for the Roxburghe Club 1861-1863; 
a new edition was undertaken for the Early English Text Society. 
Quete du Saint Graal can best be studied in Malory's somewhat 
abridged translation, books xiii.-xviii. of the Morte Arthur. It 
has also been printed by Dr Furnivall for the Roxburghe Club, 
from a MS. in the British Museum. Neither of these texts is, 
however, very good, and the student whp can decipher old Dutch 
would do well to read it in the metrical translation published by 
Joenckbloet, Roman van Lanceloet, as the original here was con- 
siderably fuller. 

For general treatment of the subject see Legend of Sir Perceval, 
by J. L. Weston, Grimm Library, vol. xvii. (1906); Studies on the 
Legend of the Holy Grail, by A. Nutt (1888), and a more concise 
treatment of the subject by the same writer in No. 14 of Popular 
Studies (1902) ; Professor Birch-Hirschfeld's Die Sage vom Gral 
(1877). The late Professor Heinzel's Die alt-franzb'sischen Gral- 
Romane contains a mass of valuable matter, but is very confused 
and ill-arranged. For the Fecamp legend see Leroux de Lincey's 
Essai sur I'abbaye de Fescamp (1840); for the Volto Santo and 
kindred legends, Ernest von Dobscnutz, Christus-Bilder (Leipzig, 
1899). (J- L- W.) . 



322 



GRAIN GRAIN TRADE 



GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, 
from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears 
in the common Teutonic word " corn "), a word particularly 
applied to the seed, in botanical language the " fruit," of cereals, 
and hence applied, as a collective term to cereal plants generally, 
to which, in English, the term " corn " is also applied (see 
GRAIN TRADE). Apart from this, the chief meaning, the word 
is used of the malt refuse of brewing and distilling, and of many 
hard rounded small particles, resembling the seeds of plants, 
such as " grains " of sand, salt, gold, gunpowder, &c. " Grain " 
is also the name of the smallest unit of weight, both in the 
.United Kingdom and the United States of America. Its origin 
is supposed to be the weight of a grain of wheat, dried and 
gathered from the middle of the ear. The troy grain= 1/5760 
of a ft, the avoirdupois grain =1/7000 of a ft. In diamond 
weighing the grain = j of the carat, = -7925 of the troy 
grain. The word " grains " was early used, as also in French, 
of the small seed-like insects supposed formerly to be the 
berries of trees, from which a scarlet dye was extracted (see 
COCHINEAL and KERMES). From the Fr. en graine, literally in 
dye, comes the French verb engrainer, Eng. " engrain " or 
" ingrain," meaning to dye in any fast colour. From the further 
use of " grain " for the texture of substances, such as wood, 
meat, &c., " engrained " or " ingrained " means ineradicable, 
impregnated, dyed through and through. The " grain " of 
leather is the side of a skin showing the fibre after the hair has 
been removed. The imitating in paint of the grain of different 
kinds of woods is known as " graining " (see PAINTER- WORK). 
" Grain," or more commonly in the plural " grains," construed 
as a singular, is the name of an instrument with two or more 
barbed prongs, used for spearing fish. This word is Scandinavian 
in origin, and is connected with Dan. green, Swed. gren, branch, 
and means the fork of a tree, of the body, or the prongs of a fork, 
&c. It is not connected with " groin," the inguinal parts of the 
body, which in its earliest forms appears as grynde. 

GRAINS OF PARADISE, GUINEA GRAINS, or MELEGUETA 
PEPPER (Ger. Paradieskorner, Fr. graines de Paradis, mani- 
guette), the seeds of Amomum Melegueta, a reed-like plant of the 
natural order Zingiberaceae. It is a native of tropical western 
Africa, and of Prince's and St Thomas's islands in the Gulf of 
Guinea, is cultivated in other tropical countries, and may with 
ease be grown in hothouses in temperate climates. The plant 
has a branched horizontal rhizome; smooth, nearly sessile, 
narrowly lanceolate-oblong alternate leaves; large, white, pale 
pink or purplish flowers; and an ovate-oblong fruit, ensheathed 
in bracts, which is of a scarlet colour when fresh, and reaches 
under cultivation a length of 5 in. The seeds are contained in 
the acid pulp of the fruit, are commonly wedge-shaped and 
bluntly angular, are about i j lines in diameter and have a glossy 
dark-brown husk, with a conical light-coloured membranous 
caruncle at the base and a white kernel. They contain, accord- 
ing to Fliickiger and Hanbury, 0-3% of a faintly yellowish 
neutral essential oil, having an aromatic, not acrid taste, and 
a specific gravity at 15-5 C. of 0-825, and giving on analysis the 
formula C 2 oH 32 O, or CioHie+CioHieO; also 5-83 % of an 
intensely pungent, viscid, brown resin. 

Grains of paradise were formerly officinal in British phar- 
macopoeias, and in the I3th and succeeding centuries were used 
as a drug and a spice, the wine known as hippocras being 
flavoured with them and with ginger and cinnamon. In 1629 
they were employed among the ingredients of the twenty-four 
herring pies which were the ancient fee-favour of the city of 
Norwich, ordained to be carried to court by the lord of the 
manor of Carleton (Johnston and Church, Chem. of Common 
Life, p. 355, 1879). Grains of paradise were anciently brought 
overland from West Africa to the Mediterranean ports of the 
Barbary states, to be shipped for Italy. They are now exported 
almost exclusively from the Gold Coast. Grains of paradise are 
to some extent used illegally to give a fictitious strength to malt 
liquors, gin and cordials. By 56 Geo. III. c. 58, no brewer or 
dealer in beer shall have in his possession or use grains of paradise, 
under a penalty of 200 for each offence; and no druggist shall 



" e ' 



sell the same to a brewer under a penalty of 500. They are, 
however, devoid of any injurious physiological action, and are 
much esteemed as a spice by the natives of Guinea. 

See Bentley and Trimen, Medicinal Plants, tab. 268; Lanessan, 
Hist, des Drogues, pp. 456-460 (1878). 

GRAIN TRADE. The complexity of the conditions of life 
in the 20th century may be well illustrated from the grain trade 
of the world. The ordinary bread sold in Great Britain represents, 
for example, produce of nearly every country in the world 
outside the tropics. 

Wheat has been cultivated from remote antiquity. In a 
wild state it is practically unknown. It is alleged to have been 
found growing wild between the Euphrates and the 
Tigris; but the discovery has never been authenticated, enera ' 
and, unless the plant be sedulously cared for, the species 
dies out in a surprisingly short space of time. Modern 
experiments in cross-fertilization in Lancashire by the Carton 
Brothers have evolved the most extraordinary " sports," showing, 
it is claimed, that the plant has probably passed through stages 
of which until the present day there had been no conception. 
The tales that grains of wheat found in the cerements of Egyptian 
mummies have been planted and come to maturity are no longer 
credited, for the vital principle in the wheat berry is extremely 
evanescent; indeed, it is doubtful whether wheat twenty years 
old is capable of reproduction. The Carton artificial fertiliza- 
tion experiments have shown endless deviations from the ordinary 
type, ranging from minute seeds with a closely adhering husk 
to big berries almost as large as sloes and about as worthless. 
It is conjectured that the wheat plant, as now known, is a 
degenerate form of something much finer which flourished 
thousands of years ago, and that possibly it may be restored 
to its pristine excellence, yielding an increase twice or thrice 
as large as it now does, thus postponing to a distant period the 
famine doom prophesied by Sir W. Crookes in his presidential 
address to the British Association in 1898. Wheat well repays 
careful attention; contrast the produce of a carelessly tilled 
Russian or Indian field and the bountiful yield on a good Lincoln- 
shire farm, the former with its average yield of 8 bushels, the 
latter with its 50 bushels per acre; or compare the quality, 
as regards the quantity and flavour of the flour from a fine 
sample of British wheat, such as is on sale at almost every 
agricultural show in Great Britain, with the produce of an 
Egyptian or Syrian field; the difference is so great as to cause 
one to doubt whether the berries are of the same species. 

It may be stated roundly that an average quartern loaf in 
Great Britain is made from wheat grown in the following countries 
in the proportions named: 



U.S.A. 


U.K. 


s 


1 


-S3 


1 


-.S 


2 


4 






i 

M 


1 


~-a 


a 
CJ 


a 


3 


d 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


26 


'Or 


9 
expres 


sea in 


4 
percent 


3 
ages as 


2 

follow 


i 

5 I 


i 


40 


20 


14 


8 


6 


5 


3 


2 


2 



For details connected with grain and its handling see AGRI- 
CULTURE, CORN LAWS, GRANARIES, FLOUR, BAKING, WHEAT, &c. 

Wheat occupies of all cereals the widest region of any food- 
stuff. Rice, which shares with millet the distinction of being 
the principal food-stuff of the greatest number of human beings, 
is not grown nearly as widely as is wheat, the staple food of the 
white races. Wheat grows as far south as Patagonia, and as 
far north as the edge of the Arctic Circle; it flourishes throughout 
Europe, and across the whole of northern Asia and in Japan; 
it is cultivated in Persia, and raised largely in India, as far south 
as the Nizam's dominions. It is grown over nearly the whole of 
North America. In Canada a very fine wheat crop was raised 
in the autumn of 1898 as far north as the mission at Fort 
Providence, on the Mackenzie river, in a latitude above 62 
or less than 200 m. south of the latitude of Dawson City the 
period between seed-time and harvest having been ninety-one 



GRAIN TRADE 



323 



days. In Africa it was an article of commerce in the days of 
Jacob, whose son Joseph may be said to have run the first and 
only successful " corner " in wheat. For many centuries 
Egypt was famous as a wheat raiser; it was a cargo of wheat 
from Alexandria which St Paul helped to jettison on one of his 
shipwrecks, as was also, in all probability, that of the " ship of 
Alexandria whose sign was Castor and Pollux," named in the 
same narrative. General Gordon is quoted as having stated 
that the Sudan if properly settled would be capable of feeding 
the whole of Europe. Along the north coast of Africa are areas 
which, if properly irrigated, as was done in the days of Carthage, 
could produce enough wheat to feed half of the Caucasian race. 
For instance, the vilayet of Tripoli, with an area of 400,000 sq. m., 
or three times the extent of Great Britain and Ireland, according 
to the opinion of a British consul, could raise millions of acres of 
wheat. The cereal flourishes on all the high plateaus of South 
Africa, from Cape Town to the Zambezi. Land is being extens- 
ively put under wheat in the pampas of South America and 
in the prairies of Siberia. 

In the raising of the standard of farming to an English level 
the volume of the world's crop would be trebled, another fact 
which Sir William Crookes seems to have overlooked. The 
experiments of the late Sir J. B. Lawes in Hertfordshire have 
proved that the natural fruitfulness of the wheat plant can be 
increased threefold by the application of the proper fertilizer. 
The results of these experiments will be found in a compendium 
issued from the Rothamsted Agricultural Experimental Station. 

It is by no means, however, the wheat which yields the greatest 
number of bushels per acre which is the most valuable from a 
miller's standpoint, for the thinness of the bran and the fineness 
and strength of the flour are with him important considerations, 
too often overlooked by the farmer when buying his seed. 
Nevertheless it is the deficient quantity of the wheat raised in 
the British Islands, and not the quality of the grain, which has 
been the cause of so much anxiety to economists and statesmen. 

Sir J. Caird, writing in the year 1880, expressed the opinion 
that arable land in Great Britain would always command a 
substantial rent of at least 305. per acre. His figures 
were based on the assumption that wheat was imported 
duty free. He calculated that the cost of carriage from 
abroad of wheat, or the equivalent of the product of an acre of 
good wheat land in Great Britain, would not be less than 305. 
per ton. But freights had come down by 1900 to half the rates 
predicated by Caird; indeed, during a portion of the interval they 
ruled very close to zero, as far as steamer freights from America 
were concerned. In 1900 an all-round freight rate for wheat 
might be taken at 155. per Ion (a ton representing approximately 
the produce of an acre of good wheat land in England), say from 
los. for Atlantic American and Russian, to 303. for Pacific 
American and Australian; about midway between these two 
extremes we find Indian and Argentine, the greatest bulk 
coming at about the 153. rate. Inferior land bearing less than 
45 quarters per acre would not be protected to the same extent, 
and moreover, seeing that a portion of the British wheat crop 
has to stand a charge as heavy for land carriage across a county 
as that borne by foreign wheat across a continent or an ocean, 
the protection is not nearly so substantial as Caird would make 
but. The compilation showing the changes in the rates of charges 
for the railway and other transportation services issued by the 
Division of Statistics, Department of Agriculture, U.S.A. 
(Miscellaneous series, Bulletin No. 15, 1898), is a valuable 
reference book. From its pages are culled the following facts 
relating to the changes in the rates of freight up to the year 
1897.' In Table 3 the average rates per ton per mile in cents 
are shown since 1846. For the Fitchburg Railroad the rate for 
that year was 4-523 cents per ton per mile, since when a great 
and almost continuous fall has been taking place, until in 1897, 

1 Valuable information will afso be found In Bulletin No. 38 
(1905), " Crop Export Movement and Port Facilities ontheAtlantic 
and Gulf Coasts"; in Bulletin No. 49 (1907), "Cost of Hauling 
Crops from Farms to Shipping Points"; and in Bulletin No. 69 
(1908), " European Grain Trade." 



the latest year given, the rate had declined to -870 of a cent per 
ton per mile. The railway which shows the greatest fall is the 
Chesapeake & Ohio, for the charge has fallen from over 7 cents 
in 1862 and 1863 to -419 of a cent in 1897, whereas the Erie rates 
have fallen only from 1-948 in 1852 to -609 in 1897. Putting 
the rates of the twelve returning railways together, we find the 
average freight in the two years 1859-1860 was 3-006 cents per 
ton per mile, and that in 1896-1897 the average rate had fallen 
to -797 of a cent per ton per mile. This difference is very large 
compared with the smallness of the unit. Coming to the rates 
on grain, we find (in Table 23) a record for the forty years 1858- 
1897 of the charge on wheat from Chicago to New York, via 
all rail from 1858, and via lake and rail since 1868, the authority, 
being the secretary of the Chicago Board of Trade. From 1858 
to 1862 the rate varied between 42-37 and 34-80 cents per bushel 
for the whole trip of roundly 1000 m., the average rate in the 
quinquennium being 38-43. In the five years immediately prior 
to the time at which Sir J. Caird expressed the opinion that the 
cost of carriage from abroad would always protect the British 
grower, the average all-rail freight from Chicago to New York 
was 17-76 cents, while the summer rate (partly by water) was 
13-17 cents. These rates in 1897, the last year shown on the 
table, had fallen to 12-50 and 7-42 respectively. The rates have 
been as follows in quinquennial periods, via all rail: 
Chicago to New York in Cents per Bushel. 



1858- 
1862. 


1863- 
1867. 


1868- 
1872. 


1873- 
1877. 


1878- 
1882. 


1883- 
1887. 


1888- 
1892. 


1893- 
1897. 


38-43 


31-42 


27-91 


21-29 


16-77 


14-67 


I4-52 


12-88 



Calculating roundly a cent as equal to a halfpenny, and eight 
bushels to the quarter, the above would appear in English 
currency as follows: 

Chicago to New York in Shillings and Pence per Quarter. 



1858- 
1862. 


1863- 
1867. 


1868- 
1872. 


1873- 
1877- 


1878- 
1882. 


1883- 
1887. 


1888- 
1892. 


1893- 
1897. 


s. d. 

12 8 


s. d. 
10 6 


s. d. 
9 3 


s. d. 

7 I 


s. d. 
5 7 


s. d. 
4 ioj 


s. d. 
4 10 


s. d. 
4 3 



Another table (No. 38) shows the average rates from Chicago 
to New York by lakes, canal and river. These in their quin- 
quennial periods are given for the season as follows: 
In Cents per Bushel of 60 Ib. 



1857-1861. 


1876-1880. 


1893-1897. 


22-15 


10-47 


4-92 



In Shillings and Pence per Quarter of 480 Ib. 



1857-1861. 


1876-1880. 


1893-1897. 


s. d. 
7 4 


s. d. 
3 6 


s. d. 
i 7 



In Shillings and Pence per Ton of 2240 Ib. 



1857-1861. 


1876-1880. 


1893-1897. 


s. d. 
34 6 


s. d. 
16 6 


s. d. 
7 6 



This latter mode is the cheapest by which grain can be carried 
to the eastern seaboard from the American prairies, and it can 
now be done at a cost of 73. 6d. per ton. The ocean freight has 
to be added before the grain can be delivered free on the quay 
at Liverpool. A rate from New York to Liverpool of 2jd. 
per bushel, or 73. icd. per ton, a low rate, reached in Dec. 1900, 
is yet sufficiently high, it is claimed, to leave a profit; indeed, 
there have frequently been times when the rate was as low as id. 
per bushel, or 33. id. per ton; and in periods of great trade 
depression wheat is carried from New York to Liverpool as 
ballast, being paid for by the ship-owner. Another route worked 
more cheaply than formerly is that by river, from the centre of 
the winter wheat belt, say at St Louis, to New Orleans, and thence 
by steamer to Liverpool. The river rate has fallen below five 



324 



GRAIN TRADE 



cents per bushel, or ;s. per ton, 2240 Ib. In Table No. 71 the 
cost of transportation is compared year by year with the export 
price of the two leading cereals in the States as follows: 
Wheat and Corn Export Prices and Transportation Rates compared. 







Wheat. 






Corn. 




Year. 


Export 
Price per 
Bushel. 


Rate, Chi- 
cago to 
New York 
by Lake 
and Canal, 
perBushel. 


Number 
of Bushels 
carried 
for Price 
of One 
Bushel. 


Export 
Price per 
Bushel. 


Rate, Chi- 
cago to 
New York 
by Lake 
and Canal, 
perBushel. 


Number 
of Bushels 
carried 
for Price 
of One 
Bushel. 






Cents. 






Cents. 




1867 


$0-92 


15-95 


5-77 


$0-72 


14-58 


4-94 


1868 


36 


16-23 


8- 3 8 


84-1 


13-57 


6-2O 


1869 


5 


17-20 


6-10 


-72-8 


14-98 


4-86 


1870 


12 


14-85 


7-54 


80-5 


13-78 


5-84 


1871 


18 


17-75 


6-65 


67-9 


16-53 


4-n 


1872 


31 


21-55 


6-08 


61-8 


19-62 


3-15 


1873 


15 


16-89 


6-81 


54-3 


15-39 


3-53 


1874 


29 


12-75 


IO-I2 


64-7 


11-29 


5-73 


1875 


97 


9.90 


9-80 


73-8 


8-93 


8-26 


1876 


ii 


8-63 


12-86 


60-3 


7-93 


7-60 


1877 


12 


10-76 


10-41 


-56-0 


9-41 


5-95 


1878 


33 


9-10 


14-62 


55-8 


8-27 


6-75 


1879 


07 


11-60 


9-22 


47-1 


10-43 


4-52 


1880 


25 


12-27 


IO-I9 


54-3 


11-14 


4-87 


1881 


II 


8-19 


13-55 


55-2 


7-26 


7-60 


1882 


19 


7-89 


I5-08 


66-8 


7-23 


9-24 


1883 


13 


8-37 


I3-50 


68-4 


7-66 


8-93 


1884 


07 


6-31 


16-96 


61-1 


5-64 


10-83 


1885 


86 


5-87 


I4-65 


54-0 


5-38 


10-04 


1886 


87 


8-71 


9-99 


49-8 


7-98 


6-24 


1887 


89 


8-51 


10-46 


47-9 


7-88 


6-08 


1888 


85 


5'93 


14-33 


55-o 


5-41 


10-17 


1889 


90 


6-89 


13-06 


47-4 


6-19 


7-66 


1890 


83 


5-86 


14-16 


41-8 


5-io 


8-20 


1891 


93 


5-96 


15-60 


57-4 


5-36 


10-71 


1892 


1-03 


5-6i 


18-36 


55 


5-03 


10-93 


1893 


80 


6-31 


12-68 


53 


5-7i 


9-28 


1894 


67 


4.44 


15-09 


46 


3-99 


"53 


1895 


58 


4-n 


14-11 


53 


3-71 


14-29 


1896 


65 


5-38 


12-08 


38 


4-94 


7-69 


1897 


75 


4-35 


17-24 


31 


3-79 


8-18 



The farmers of the United States have now to meet a greatly 
increased output from Canada the cost of transport from that 
country to England being much the same as from the United 
States. So much improved is the position of the farmer in North 
America compared with what it was about 1870, that the trans- 
port companies in 1901 carried 175 bushels of his grain to the 
seaboard in exchange for the value of one bushel, whereas in 
1867 he had to give up one bushel in every six in return for the 
service. As regards the British farmer, it does not appear as if 
he had improved his position; for he has to send his wheat to 
greater distances, owing to the collapse of many country millers 
or their removal to the seaboard, while railway rates have fallen 
only to a very small extent; again the farmer's wheat is worth 
only half of what it was formerly; it may be said that the British 
farmer has to give up one bushel in nine to the railway company 
for the purpose of transportation, whereas in the 'seventies he 
gave up one in eighteen only. Enough has been said to prove 
that the advantage of position claimed for the British farmer 
by Caird was somewhat illusory. Speaking broadly, the Kansas 
or Minnesota farmer's wheat does not have to pay for carriage 
to Liverpool more than 23. 6d. to 73. 6d. per ton in excess of the 
rate paid by a Yorkshire farmer; this, it will be admitted, does 
not go very far towards enabling the latter to pay rent, tithes 
and rates and taxes. 

The subject of the rates of ocean carriage at different periods 
requires consideration if a proper understanding of the working 
of the foreign grain trade is to be obtained. Only a very small 
proportion of the decline in the price of wheat since 1880 is due 
to cheapened transport rates; for while the mileage rate has 
been falling, the length of haulage has been extending, until 
in 1900 the principal wheat fields of America were 2000 m. 
farther from the eastern seaboard than was the case in 1870, 
and consequently, notwithstanding the fall in the mileage rate 
of 30 to 75%, it still costs the United Kingdom nearly as much 
to have its quota of foreign wheat fetched from abroad as it did 



then. The difference in the cost of the operation is shown in 
the following tabular statement, both the cost in the aggregate 
on a year's imports and the cost per quarter: 

Quantity of Wheat and Wheaten Flour (as wheat) imported into the 
United Kingdom from various sources during the calendar year 
1900, together with the average rate of freight. 

1900. 



Countries of Origin. 


Buantities. 
rs. 480 Ib. 


Ocean Freight 
to United 
Kingdom. 
Per 480 Ib. 


Total Cost 
of Ocean 
Carriage. 






s. d. 





Atlantic America . 


11,171,100 


2 3 


1,257,100 


South Russia . 


569,000 


2 2 


62,000 


Pacific America 


2,389,900 


8 I 


966,000 


Canada 


1,877,100 


2 8 


250,000 


Rumania .... 


176,400 


2 6 


22,000 


Argentina and Uruguay 


4,322,300 


4 10 


1,045,000 


France 


251,900 


I 3 


16,000 


Bulgaria and Rumelia 


30,600 


2 6 


4,000 


India .... 


2,200 


4 o 


400 


Austria-Hungary . 


389,300 


i 9 


34,000 


Chile . ... 


6OO 






North Russia . 


462,700 


i"6 


35,ooo 


Germany .... 


438,700 


i 6 


33,000 


Australasia. 


883,900 


6 5 


284,000 


Minor Countries . 


225,100 


2 6 


28,000 


Total .... 


23,190,800 


Average 33. 6d. 


4,036,500 



Comparing these figures with a similar statement for the year 
1872, the most remote year for which similar facts are available, 
it will be found that the actual total cost per quarter for ocean 
carriage has not much decreased. 

Quantity of Wheat and Wheaten Flour (as wheat) imported into the 
United Kingdom from various sources during the calendar year 
1872, together with the average rate of freight. 

1872. 



Countries of Origin. 


Quantities. 
Qrs. 


Ocean Freight 
to United 
Kingdom. 
Per qr. 


Total Cost 
of Carriage. 


South Russia . 
United States . . . 
Germany .... 
France 
Egypt 
North Russia . 
Canada 


3,678,000 
2,030,000 
910,000 
660,000 
536,000 
490,000 
400,000 


s. d. 
8 6 
6 6 

2 O 

3 o 
4 6 

2 O 

7 6 



1,563,000 
659,000 
91,000 
99,000 
120,000 
49,000 
150,000 


Chile .... 


?^o.ooo 


12 O 


198 ooo 


Turkey 
Spain 


195,000 

130,000 


7 6 
3 6 


72,000 
23,000 


Scandinavia 


160,000 


2 O 


16,000 


Total, Chief Countries 


9,519,000 


Average 6s. 5d. 


3,040,000 



N.B. A trifling quantity of Californian and Australian wheat 
was imported in the period in question, but the Board of Trade 
records do not distinguish the quantities, therefore they cannot 
be given. The freight in that year from those countries averaged 
about 133. per quarter. 

The exact difference between the average freight for the years 
1872 and 1900 amounts to about 2s. nd. per quarter (480 Ib), 
a trifle in comparison with the actual fall in the price of wheat 
during the same years. 

The following data bearing upon the subject, for selected 
periods, are partly taken from the Corn Trade Year-Book: 



Year. 


United Kingdom 
Annual Imports. 
Wheat and Flour. 
Qrs. 


Ocean Freight 
to United 
Kingdom. 
Per qr. 


Aggregate Cost 
of Carriage. 


1872 
1882 
1894 

1895 
1896 
1900 


9,469,000 
14,850,000 
16,229,000 
25,197,000 
23,431,000 
23,196,000 


s. d. 
6 5 
7 4 
3 9 
3 o 
2 9 
3 6 



3,040,000 
5,420,000 
3,041,000 
3,825,000 
3,258,000 
4,036,000 



GRAM 



325 



In passing, it may be pointed out that for a period of four years, 
from 1871 to 1874, the price of wheat averaged 565. per quarter 
(or 73. per bushel), with the charge for ocean carriage at 6s. sd. 
per quarter, whereas in 1901 wheat was sold in. England at 285. 
(or 35. 6d. per bushel), and the charge for ocean carriage was 
35. 6d. per quarter; the ocean transport companies carried eight 
bushels of wheat across the seas in 1901 for the value of one 
bushel, or exactly at the same ratio as in 1872. 

The contrast between the case of railway freight and ocean 
freight is to be explained by the greater length of the present 
ocean voyage, which now extends to 10,000 miles in the case of 
Europe's importation of white wheat from the Pacific Coast of 
the United States and Australia, in contrast with the shoit 
voyage from the Black Sea or across the English Channel or 
German Ocean. It is largely due to the overlooking of this phase 
of the question that an American statistician has fallen into the 
error of stating that about i6s. per quarter of the fall in the price 
of wheat, which happened between 1880 and 1894, is attributable 
to the lessened cost of transport. 

Thus, whatever the cause of the decline in the price of wheat 
may be, it cannot be attributed solely to the fall in the rate of 
WHEAT PRICES 

The following figures show the fluctuations from year to year 
of English wheat, chiefly according to a record published by Mr T. 
Smith, Melford, the period covered being from 1656 to 1905: 

Price per Quarter 





s. d. 




s. d. 




s. d. 




s. d. 




s. d. 


1656 


38 2 


1706 


23 i 


1756 


40 i 


1806 


79 i 


1856 


69 2 


1657 


4i 5 


1707 


25 4 


1757 


53 4 


1807 


75 4 


1857 


56 4 


1658 


57 9 


1708 


36 10 


1758 


44 5 


1808 


84 4 


1858 


44 2 


1659 


58 8 


1709 


69 9 


1759 


35 3 


1809 


97 4 


1859 


43 9 


1660 


50 2 


1710 


69 4 


1760 


32 5 


1810 


106 5 


1860 


53 3 


1661 


62 2 


1711 


48 o 


1761 


26 9 


1811 


95 3 


1861 


55 4 


1662 


65 9 


1712 


41 2 


1762 


34 8 


1812 


126 6 


1862 


55 5 


1663 


50 8 


1713 


45 4 


1763 


36 i 


1813 


109 9 


1863 


44 9 


1664 


36 o 


1714 


44 9 


1764 


41 5 


1814 


74 4 


1864 


40 2 


1665 


43 10 


1715 


38 2 


1765 


48 o 


1815 


65 7 


1865 


41 10 


1666 


32 o 


1716 


42 8 


1766 


43 i 


1816 


78 6 


1866 


49 " 


1667 


32 o 


1717 


40 7 


1767 


57 4 


1817 


96 ii 


1867 


64 5 


1668 


35 6 


1718 


34 6 


1768 


53 9 


1818 


86 3 


1868 


63 9 


1669 


39 5 


1719 


31 i 


1769 


40 7 


1819 


74 6 


1869 


48 2 


1670 


37 o 


1720 


32 10 


1770 


43 6 


1820 


67 10 


1870 


46 ii 


1671 


37 4 


1721 


33 4 


1771 


47 2 


1821 


56 i 


1871 


56 8 


1672 


36 5 


1722 


32 


1772 


50 8 


1822 


44 7 


1872 


57 o 


1673 


41 5 


1723 


30 10 


1773 


51 o 


1823 


53 4 


1873 


58 8 


1674 


61 o 


1724 


32 10 


1774 


52 8 


1824 


63 ii 


1874 


55 9 


1675 


57 5 


1725 


43 i 


1775 


48 4 


1825 


68 6 


1875 


45 2 


1676 


33 9 


1726 


40 10 


1776 


38 2 


1826 


58 8 


1876 


46 2 


1677 


37 4 


1727 


37 4 


1777 


45 6 


1827 


58 6 


1877 


56 9 


1678 


52 5 


1728 


48 5 


1778 


42 o 


1828 


60 5 


1878 


46 5 


1679 


53 4 


1729 


41 7 


1779 


33 8 


1829 


66 3 


1879 


43 10 


1680 


40 o 


1730 


32 5 


1780 


35 8 


1830 


64 3 


1880 


44 4 


1681 


4i 5 


1731 


29 2 


1781 


44 8 


1831 


66 4 


1881 


45 4 


1682 


39 i 


1732 


23 8 


1782 


47 10 


1832 


58 8 


1882 


45 i 


1683 


35 6 


1733 


25 2 


1783 


52 8 


1833 


52 ii 


1883 


4i 7 


1684 


39 i 


1734 


34 6 


1784 


48 10 


1834 


46 2 


1884 


35 8 


1685 


41 5 


1735 


3 8 2 


1785 


51 10 


1835 


39 4 


1885 


32 10 


1686 


30 2 


1736 


35 10 


1786 


38 10 


1836 


48 6 


1886 


31 o 


1687 


22 4 


1737 


33 9 


1787 


41 2 


1837 


55 o 


1887 


32 6 


1688 


40 10 


1738 


31 6 


1788 


45 o 


1838 


64 7 


1888 


31 10 


1689 


26 8 


1739 


34 2 


1789 


51 2 


1839 


70 8 


1889 


29 9 


1690 


3 9 


1740 


45 i 


1790 


54 9 


1840 


66 4 


1890 


31 ii 


1691 


30 2 


1741 


41 5 


1791 


48 7 


1841 


64 4 


1891 


37 o 


1692 


41 5 


1742 


30 2 


1792 


43 o 


1842 


57 3 


1892 


30 3 


1693 


60 i 


1743 


22 I 


1793 


49 3 


1843 


50 i 


1893 


26 4 


1694 


56 10 


1744 


22 I 


1794 


52 3 


1844 


51 3 


1894 


22 IO 


1695 


47 i 


1745 


24 5 


1795 


75 2 


1845 


50 10 


1895 


23 I 


1696 


63 i 


1746 


34 8 


1796 


78 7 


1846 


54 8 


1896 


26 2 


1697 


53 4 


1747 


30 ii 


1797 


53 9 


1847 


69 9 


1897 


30 2 


1698 


60 9 


1748 


32 10 


1798 


51 10 


1848 


50 6 


1898 


34 o 


1699 


56 10 


'749 


32 10 


1799 


69 o 


1849 


44 3 


1899 


25 8 


1700 


35 6 


1750 


28 10 


1800 


113 10 


1850 


40 3 


1900 


26 II 


1701 


33 5 


1751 


34 2 


1801 


119 6 


1851 


38 6 


1901 


26 9 


1702 


26 2 


1752 


37 2 


1802 


69 10 


1852 


40 9 


1902 


28 I 


1703 


32 o 


'753 


39 8 


1803 


58 10 


1853 


53 3 


1903 


26 9 


1704 


41 4 


1754 


30 9 


1804 


62 3 


1854 


72 5 


1904 


28 4 


'70S 


26 8 


1755 


3 i 


1805 


89 9 


1855 


74 8 


1905 


29 8 


oj in 

^142 10 
ls,J 


36 o 


51 9 


65 10 


'42 7 


1 Average for 46 years only.' 



rail or ocean freights. Incidental charges are lower than they 
were in 1870; handling charges, brokers' commissions and 
insurance premiums have been in many instances reduced, but 
all these economies when combined only amount to about 2s. 
per quarter. Now if we add together all these savings in the 
rate of rail and ocean freights and incidental expenses, we arrive 
at an aggregate economy of 8s. per quarter, or not one-third 
of the actual difference between the average price of wheat 
in 1872 and 1900. To what the remaining difference was due 
it is difficult to say with certitude; there are some who argue 
that the tendency of prices to fall is inherent, and that the 
constant whittling away of intermediaries' profits is sufficient 
explanation, while bi-metallists have maintained that the 
phenomenon is clearly to be traced to the action of the German 
government in demonetizing silver in 1872. 

GRAM, or CHICK-PEA, called also Egyptian pea, or Bengal 
gram (from Port, grao, formerly gram, Lat. granum, Hindi 
Ghana, Bengali Chhola, Ital. cece, Span, garbanzo), the 
Cicer arielinum of Linnaeus, so named from the resemblance 
of its seed to a ram's head. It is a member of the natural order 
Leguminosae, largely cultivated as a pulse-food in the south of 
Europe, Egypt and western Asia as far as India, but is not known 
undoubtedly wild. The plant is an annual herb with flexuose 
branches, and alternately arranged pinnately compound leaves, 
with small, oval, serrated leaflets and small eared stipules. The 
flowers are borne singly in the leaf-axils on a stalk about half 
the length of the leaf and jointed and bent in the middle; the 
corolla is blue-purple. The inflated pod, i to 15 in. long, contains 
two roundish seeds. It was cultivated by the Greeks in Homer's 
time under the name erebinthos, and is also referred to by 
Dioscorides as krios from the resemblance of the pea to the head 
of a ram. The Romans called it deer, from which is derived 
the modern names given to it in the south of Europe. Names, 
more or less allied to one another, are in vogue among the peoples 
of the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, Armenia and Persia, and there 
is a Sanskrit name and several others analogous or different in 
modern Indian languages. The plant has been cultivated in 
Egypt from the beginning of the Christian era, but there is no 
proof that it was known to the ancient Egyptians. Alphonse de 
Candolle (Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 325) suggests that the 
plant originally grew wild in the countries to the south of the 
Caucasus and to the north of Persia. " The western Aryans 
(Pelasgians, Hellenes) perhaps introduced the plant into southern 
Europe, where, however, there is some probability that it was 
also indigenous. The western Aryans carried it to India." Gram 
is largely cultivated in the East, where the seeds are eaten raw 
or cooked in various ways, both in their ripe and unripe condition, 
and when roasted and ground subserve the same purposes as 
ordinary flour. In Europe the seeds are used as an ingredient 
in soups. They contain, in 100 parts without husks, nitrogenous 
substances 22-7, fat 3-76, starch 63-18, mineral matters 2-6 
parts, with water (Forbes Watson, quoted in Parkes's Hygiene). 
The liquid which exudes from the glandular hairs clothing the 
leaves and stems of the plant, more especially during the cold 
season when the seeds ripen, contains a notable proportion of 
oxalic acid. In Mysore the dew containing it is collected by 
means of cloths spread on the plant over night, and is used in 
domestic medicine. The steam of water in which the fresh plant 
is immersed is in the Deccan resorted to by the Portuguese 
for the treatment of dysmenorrhoea. The seed of Phaseolus 
Mungo, or green gram (Hind, and Beng. moong), a form of which 
plant with black seeds (P. Max of Roxburgh) is termed black 
gram, is an important article of diet among the labouring classes 
in India. The meal is an excellent substitute for soap, and is 
stated by Elliot to be an invariable concomitant of the Hindu 
bath. A variety, var. radiatus (P. Roxburghii, W. and Arn., 
or P. radiatus, Roxb.) (vern. urid, mashkalai), also known as 
green gram, is perhaps the most esteemed of the leguminous 
plants of India, where the meal of its seed enters into the com- 
position ( of the more delicate cakes and dishes. Horse gram, 
Dolichos biflorus (vern. ktdlhi), which supplies in Madras 
the place of the chick-pea, affords seed which, when boiled, is 



326 



GRAMMAR 



extensively employed as a food for horses and cattle in South 
India, where also it is eaten in curries. 

See W. Elliot, " On the Farinaceous Grains and the various kinds 
of Pulses used in Southern India," Edin. New Phil. Journ. xvi. 




Scope of 
grammar. 



GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. 
letter, from yp6.<t>tiv, to write) . By the grammar of a language is 
meant either the relations borne by the words of a sentence 
and by sentences themselves one to another, or the systematized 
exposition of these. The exposition may be, and frequently is, 
incorrect; but it always presupposes the existence of certain 
customary uses of words when in combination. In what follows, 
therefore, grammar will be generally employed in its primary 
sense, as denoting the mode in which words are connected in 
order to express a complete thought, or, as it is termed in logic, 
a proposition. 

The object of language is to convey thought, and so long 
as this object is attained the machinery for attaining it 
is of comparatively slight importance. The way in 
which we combine our words and sentences matters 
little, provided that our meaning is clear to others. 
The expressions " horseflesh " and " flesh of a horse " 
are equally intelligible to an Englishman and therefore are 
equally recognized by English grammar. The Chinese manner 
of denoting a genitive is by placing the defining word before 
that which it defines, as in koue jin, " man of the kingdom," 
literally " kingdom man," and the only reason why it would be 
incorrect in French or Italian is that such a combination would 
be unintelligible to a Frenchman or an Italian. Hence it is 
evident that the grammatical correctness or incorrectness of an 
expression depends upon its intelligibility, that is to say, upqn 
the ordinary use and custom of a particular language. Whatever 
is so unfamiliar as not to be generally understood is also un- 
grammatical. In other words, it is contrary to the habit of a 
language, as determined by common usage and consent. 

In this way we can explain how it happens that the grammar 
of a cultivated dialect and that of a local dialect in the same 
country so frequently disagree. Thus, in the dialect of West 
Somerset, thee is the nominative of the second personal pronoun, 
while in cultivated English the plural accusative you (A.-S. 
eow) has come to represent a nominative singular. Both 
are grammatically correct within the sphere of their respective 
dialects, but no further. You would be as ungrammatical in 
West Somerset as thee is in classical English; and both you and 
thee, as nominatives singular, would have been equally ungram- 
matical in Early English. Grammatical propriety is nothing 
more than the established usage of a particular body of speakers 
at a particular time in their history. 

It follows from this that the grammar of a people changes, 
like its pronunciation, from age to age. Anglo-Saxon or Early 
English grammar is not the grammar of Modern English, any 
more than Latin grammar is the grammar of modern Italian; 
and to defend an unusual construction or inflexion on the ground 
that it once existed in literary Anglo-Saxon is as wrong as to 
import a peculiarity of some local dialect into the grammar 
of the cultivated speech. It further follows that different 
languages will have different grammars, and that the differences 
will be more or less according to the nearer or remoter relation- 
ship of the languages themselves and the modes of thought 
of those who speak them. Consequently, to force the gram- 
matical framework of one language upon another is to miscon- 
ceive the whole nature of the latter and seriously to mislead 
the learner. Chinese grammar, for instance, can never be under- 
stood until we discard, not only the terminology of European 
grammar, but the very conceptions which underlie it, while 
the polysynthetic idioms of America defy all attempts to discover 
in them " the parts of speech " and the various grammatical 
ideas which occupy so large a place in our school-grammars. 
The endeavour to find the distinctions of Latin grammar in that 
of English has only resulted in grotesque errors, and a total 
misapprehension of the usage of the English language. 






It is to the Latin grammarians or, more correctly, to the 
Greek grammarians, upon whose labours those of the Latin 
writers were based that we owe the classification of 
the subjects with which grammar is commonly sup- Sub ~ 
posed to deal. The grammar of Dionysius Thrax, 
which he wrote for Roman schoolboys in the time 
of Pompey, has formed the starting-point for the innumer- 
able school-grammars which have since seen the light, and 
suggested that division of the matter treated of which they have 
followed. He defines grammar as a practical acquaintance with 
the language of literary men, and as divided into six parts 
accentuation and phonology, explanation of figurativeexpressions, 
definition, etymology, general rules of flexion and critical 
canons. Of these, phonology and accentuation, or prosody, 
can properly be included in grammar only in so far as the 
construction of a sentence and the grammatical meaning of a 
word are determined by accent or letter-change; the accentual 
difference in English, for example, between incense and incense 
belongs to the province of grammar, since it indicates a difference 
between noun and verb; and the changes of vowel in the Semitic 
languages, by which various nominal and verbal forms are 
distinguished from one another, constitute a very important 
part of their grammatical machinery. But where accent and 
pronunciation do not serve to express the relations of words 
in a sentence, they fall into the domain of phonology, not of 
grammar. The explanation of figurative expressions, again, 
must be left to the rhetorician, and definition to the lexicographer; 
the grammarian has no more to do with them than he has with 
the canons of criticism. 

In fact, the old subdivision of grammar, inherited from the 
grammarians of Rome and Alexandria, must be given up and 
a new one put in its place. What grammar really deals with 
are all those contrivances whereby the relations of words and 
sentences are pointed out. Sometimes it is position, sometimes 
phonetic symbolization, sometimes composition, sometimes 
flexion, sometimes the use of auxiliaries, which enables the 
speaker to combine his words in such a way that they shall be 
intelligible to another. Grammar may accordingly be divided 
into the three departments of composition or " word-building," 
syntax and accidence, by which is meant an exposition of the 
means adopted by language for expressing the relations of 
grammar when recourse is not had to composition or simple 
position. 

A systematized exposition of grammar may be intended for 
the purely practical purpose of teaching the mechanism of a 
foreign language. In this case all that is necessary 
is a correct and complete statement of the facts. But Moot* ' 
a correct and complete statement of the facts is by no mc nt. 
means so easy a matter as might appear at first sight. 
The facts will be distorted by a false theory in regard to them, 
while they will certainly not be presented in a complete form if 
the grammarian is ignorant of the true theory they presuppose. 
The Semitic verb, for example, remains unintelligible so long 
as the explanation of its forms is sought in the conjugation of 
the Aryan verb, since it has no tenses in the Aryan sense of the 
word, but denotes relation and not time. 

A good practical grammar of a language, therefore, should be 
based on a correct appreciation of the facts which it expounds, 
and a correct appreciation of the facts is only possible where 
they are examined and co-ordinated in accordance with the 
scientific method. A practical grammar ought, wherever it is 
possible, to be preceded by a scientific grammar. 

Comparison is the instrument with which science works, and 
a scientific grammar, accordingly, is one in which the comparative 
method has been applied to the relations of speech. If we would 
understand the origin and real nature of grammatical forms, 
and of the relations which they represent, we must compare them 
with similar forms in kindred dialects and languages, as well 
as with the forms under which they appeared themselves at an 
earlier period of their history. We shall thus have a comparative 
grammar and an historical grammar, the latter being devoted 
to tracing the history of grammatical forms and usages in the 



GRAMMAR 



327 



same language. Of course, an historical grammar is only 
possible where a succession of written records exists; where 
a language possesses no older literature we must be content 
with a comparative grammar only, and look to cognate idioms 
to throw light upon its grammatical peculiarities. In this case 
we have frequently to leave whole forms unexplained, or at 
most conjecturally interpreted, since the machinery by means of 
which the relations of grammar are symbolized is often changed 
so completely during the growth of a language as to cause its 
earlier shape and character to be unrecognizable. Moreover, 
our area of comparison must be as wide as possible; where we 
have but two or three languages to compare, we are in danger 
of building up conclusions on insufficient evidence. The gram- 
matical errors of the classical philologists of the i8th century 
were in great measure due to the fact that their area of comparison 
was confined to Latin and Greek. 

The historical grammar of a single language or dialect, which 
traces the grammatical forms and usages of the language as far 
back as documentary evidence allows, affords material to the 
comparative grammarian, whose task it is to compare the 
grammatical forms and usages of an allied group of tongues 
and thereby reduce them to their earliest forms and senses. 
The work thus carried out by the comparative grammarian 
within a particular family of languages is made use of by universal 
grammar, the object of which is to determine the ideas that under- 
lie all grammar whatsoever, as distinct from those that are 
peculiar to special families of speech. Universal grammar is 
sometimes known as " the metaphysics of language," and it 
has to decide such questions as the nature of gender or of the 
verb, the true purport of the genitive relation, or the origin of 
grammar itself. Such questions, it is clear, can only be answered 
by comparing the results gained by the comparative treatment 
of the grammars of various groups of language. What historical 
grammar is to comparative grammar, comparative grammar is 
to universal grammar. 

Universal grammar, as founded on the results of the scientific 
study of speech, is thus essentially different from that " universal 
grammar " so much in vogue at the beginning of the 
ipth century, which consisted of a series of a priori 
assumptions based on the peculiarities of European 
grammar and illustrated from the same source. But universal 
grammar, as conceived by modern science, is as yet in its infancy; 
its materials are still in the process of being collected. The 
comparative grammar of the Indo-European languages is alone 
in an advanced state, those of the Semitic idioms, of the Finno- 
Ugrian tongues and of the Bantu dialects of southern Africa 
are still in a backward condition; and the other families of 
speech existing in the world, with the exception of the Malayo- 
Polynesian and the Sonorian of North America, have not as yet 
been treated scientifically. Chinese, it is true, possesses an 
historical grammar, and Van Eys, in his comparative grammar 
of Basque, endeavoured to solve the problems of that interesting 
language by a comparison of its various dialects; but in both 
cases the area of comparison is too small for more than a limited 
success to be attainable. Instead of attempting the questions 
of universal grammar, therefore, it will be better to confine our 
attention to three points the fundamental differences in the 
grammatical conceptions of different groups of languages, the 
main results of a scientific investigation of Indo-European 
grammar, and the light thrown by comparative philology upon 
the grammar of our own tongue. 

The proposition or sentence is the unit and starting-point of 
speech, and grammar, as we have seen, consists in the relations 
Differ- ^ ** s severa ' parts one to another, together with the 
eaces la expression of them. These relations may be regarded 
grammar from various points of view. In the polysynthetic 
rf languages of America the sentence is conceived as a 
whole, not composed of independent words, but, like 
the thought which it expresses, one and indivisible. What we 
should denote by a series of words is consequently denoted by a 
single long compound kuligalchis in Delaware, for instance, 
signifying " give me your pretty little paw," and aglekkigiartor- 



Ualversal 
grammar. 



asuarnipok in Eskimo, " he goes away hastily and exerts himself 
to write." Individual words can be, and often are, extracted 
from the sentence; but in this case they stand, as it were, 
outside it, being represented by a pronoun within the sentence 
itself. Thus, in Mexican, we can say not only ni-sotsi-temoa, " I 
look for flowers," but also ni-k-temoa sotsitl, where the inter- 
polated guttural is the objective pronoun. As a necessary result 
of this conception of the sentence the American languages 
possess no true verb, each act being expressed as a whole by a 
single word. In Cherokee, for example, while there is no verb 
signifying " to wash " in the abstract, no less than thirteen 
words are used to signify every conceivable mode and object of 
washing. In the incorporating languages, again, of which 
Basque may be taken as a type, the object cannot be conceived 
except as contained in the verbal action. Hence every verbal 
form embodies an objective pronoun, even though the object 
may be separately expressed. If we pass to an isolating language 
like Chinese, we find the exact converse of that which meets us 
in the polysynthetic tongues. Here each proposition or thought 
is analysed into its several elements, and these are set over 
against one another as so many independent words. The 
relations of grammar are consequently denoted by position, the 
particular position of two or more words determining the relation 
they bear to each other. The analysis of the sentence has not 
been carried so far in agglutinative languages like Turkish. 
In these the relations of grammar are represented by individual 
words, which, however, are subordinated to the words expressing 
the main ideas intended to be in relation to one another. The 
defining words, or indices of grammatical relations, are, in a 
large number of instances, placed after the words which they 
define; in some cases, however, as, for example, in the Bantu 
languages of southern Africa, the relation is conceived from 
the opposite point of view, the defining words being prefixed. 
The inflexional languages call in the aid of a new principle. 
The relations of grammar are denoted symbolically either 
by a change of vowel or by a change of termination, more 
rarely by a change at the beginning of a word. Each 
idea, together with the relation which it bears to the other 
ideas of a proposition, is thus represented by a single word; 
that is to say, the ideas which make up the elements of a 
sentence are not conceived severally and independently, as in 
Chinese, but as always having a certain connexion with one 
another. Inflexional languages, however, tend to become 
analytical by the logical separation of the flexion from the idea 
to which it is attached, though the primitive point of view is 
never altogether discarded, and traces of flexion remain even in 
English and Persian. In fact, there is no example of a language 
which has wholly forsaken the conception of the sentence and 
the relation of its elements with which it started, although each 
class of languages occasionally trespasses on the grammatical 
usages of the others. In language, as elsewhere in nature, there 
are no sharp lines of division, no sudden leaps; species passes 
insensibly into species, class into class. At the same time the 
several types of speech polysynthetic, isolating, agglutinative 
and inflexional remain clear and fixed; and even where two 
languages belong to the same general type, as, for instance, an 
Indo-European and a Semitic language in the inflexional group, 
or a Bantu and a Turkish language in the agglutinative group, 
we find no certain example of grammatical interchange. A mixed 
grammar, in which the grammatical procedure of two distinct 
families of speech is intermingled, is almost, if not altogether, 
unknown. 

It is obvious, therefore, that grammar constitutes the surest 
and most important basis for a classification of languages. 
Words may be borrowed freely by one dialect from another, or, 
though originally unrelated, may, by the action of phonetic 
decay, come to assume the same forms, while the limited number 
of articulate sounds and conceptions out of which language was 
first developed, and the similarity of the circumstances by which 
the first speakers were everywhere surrounded, naturally produce 
a resemblance between the roots of many unconnected tongues. 
Where, however, the fundamental conceptions of grammar and 



3 28 



GRAMMAR 



the machinery by which they are expressed are the same, we 
may have no hesitation in inferring a common origin. 

The main results of scientific inquiry into the origin and 
primitive meaning of the forms of Indo-European grammar 
Forms ot mav De summed up as follows. We start with stems 
lado- or themes, by which are meant words of two or 
European more syllables which terminate in a limited number 
of sounds. These stems can be classed in groups of 
two kinds, one in which the groups consist of stems of similar 
meanings and similar initial syllables, and another in which 
the final syllables alone coincide. In the first case we have 
what are termed roots, the simplest elements into which 
words can be decomposed; in the second case stems proper, 
which may be described as consisting of suffixes attached to 
roots. Roots, therefore, are merely the materials out of which 
speech can be made, the embodiments of isolated conceptions 
with which the lexicographer alone has to deal, whereas stems 
present us with words already combined in a sentence and 
embodying the relations of grammar. If we would rightly 
understand primitive Indo-European grammar, we must conceive 
it as having been expressed or implied in the suffixes of the stems, 
and. in the order according to which the stems were arranged in 
a sentence. In other words, the relations of grammar were 
denoted partly by juxtaposition or syntax, partly by the suffixes 
of stems. 

These suffixes were probably at first unmeaning, or rather 
clothed with vague significations, which changed according to 
the place occupied in the sentence by the stem to which they 
were joined. Gradually this vagueness of signification dis- 
appeared, and particular suffixes came to be set apart to represent 
particular relations of grammar. What had hitherto been 
expressed by mere position now attached itself to the terminations 
or suffixes of stems, which accordingly became full-grown words. 
Some of the suffixes denoted purely grammatical ideas, that is 
to say, were flexions; others were classificatory, serving to 
distinguish nouns from verbs, presents from aorists, objects 
from agents and the like; while others, again, remained un- 
meaning adj uncts of the root. This origin of the flexions explains 
the otherwise strange fact that the same suffix may symbolize 
wholly different grammatical relations. In Latin, for instance, 
the context and dictionary will alone tell us that mus-as is the 
accusative plural of a noun, and am-as the second person singular 
of a verb, or that mus-a is the nominative singular of a feminine 
substantive, bon-a the accusative plural of a neuter adjective. 
In short, the flexions were originally merely the terminations of 
stems which were adapted to express the various relations of 
words to each other in a sentence, as these gradually presented 
themselves to the consciousness and were extracted from what 
had been previously implied by position. Necessarily, the same 
suffix might.be used sometimes in a classificatory, sometimes in a 
flexional sense, and sometimes without any definite sense at all. 
In the Greek dative-locative ir68-ta-ai, for example, the suffix 
-s is classificatory; in the nominative ir65-es it is flexional. 

When a particular termination or suffix once acquired a 
special sense, it would be separated in thought from the stem to 
which it belonged, and attached in the same sense to other stems 
and other terminations. Thus in modern English we can attach 
the suffix -ize to almost any word whatsoever, in order to give 
the latter a transitive meaning, and the Gr. TrbStavi, quoted 
above, really contains no less than three suffixes, -cs, -ffv and 
-t, the last two both denoting the locative, and coalescing, 
through af i, into a single syllable -ai. The latter instance shows 
us how two or more suffixes denoting exactly the same idea may 
be tacked on one to another, if the original force and signification 
of the first of them comes to be forgotten. Thus, in O. Eng. 
sang-estre was the feminine of sang-ere, " singer," but the meaning 
of the termination has so entirely died out of the memory that 
we have to add the Romanic -ess to it if we would still distinguish 
it from the masculine singer. A familiar example of the way 
in which the full sense of the exponent of a grammatical idea 
fades from the mind and has to be supplied by a new exponent 
is afforded by the use of expletives in conversational English 



to denote the superlative. " Very warm " expresses little more 
than the positive, and to represent the intensity of his feelings 
the Englishman has recourse to such expressions as " awfully 
warm " like the Ger. " schrecklich warm." 

Such words as " very," " awfully," " schrecklich," illustrate 
a second mode in which Indo-European grammar has found 
means of expression. Words may lose their true signification 
and become the mere exponents of grammatical ideas. Professor 
Earle divides all words into presentive and symbolic, the former 
denoting objects and conceptions, the latter the relations which 
exist between these. Symbolic words, therefore, are what the 
Chinese grammarians call " empty words " words, that is, which 
have been divested of their proper signification and serve a gram- 
matical purpose only. Many of the classificatory and some of 
the flexional suffixes of Indo-European speech can be shown 
to have had this origin. Thus the suffix tar, which denotes 
names of kinship and agency, seems to come from the same root 
as the Lat. terminus and trans, our through, the Sans, tar-ami, 
" I pass over," and to have primarily signified " one that goes 
through " a thing. Thus, too, the Eng. head or hood, in words 
like godhead and brotherhood, is the A.-S. hdd, " character " 
or "rank"; dom, in kingdom, the A.-S. d6m, "judgment"; 
and lock or ledge, in wedlock and knowledge, the A.-S. lac, " sport " 
or " gift." In all these cases the " empty words," after first 
losing every trace of their original significance, have followed 
the general analogy of the language and assumed the form and 
functions of the suffixes with which they had been confused. 

A third mode of representing the relations of grammar is 
by the symbolic use of vowels and diphthongs. In Greek, for 
instance, the distinction between the reduplicated present 8t5co/u 
and the reduplicated perfect diduKa is indicated by a distinction 
of vowel, and in primitive Aryan grammar the vowel a seems 
to have been set apart to denote the subjunctive mood just as 
ya or i was set apart to denote the potential. So, too, according 
to M. Hovelacque, the change of a into i or u in the parent Indo- 
European symbolized a change of meaning from passive to active. 
This symbolic use of the vowels, which is the purest application 
of the principle of flexion, is far less extensively carried out in 
the Indo-European than in the Semitic languages. The Semitic 
family of speech is therefore a much more characteristic type of 
the inflexional languages than is the Indo-European. 

The primitive Indo-European noun possessed at least eight 
cases nominative, accusative, vocative, instrumental, dative, 
genitive, ablative and locative. M. Bergaigne has attempted 
to show that the first three of these, the " strong cases " as 
they are termed, are really abstracts formed by the suffixes 
-as (-s), -an, -m, -t, -i, -a and -ya (-i), the plural being nothing 
more than an abstract singular, as may be readily seen by 
comparing words like the Gr. erro-s, and oire-s, which mean 
precisely the same. The remaining " weak " cases, formed by 
the suffixes -sma, -sya, -sya, -yd, -i, -an, -t, -bhi, -su, -i, -a and -a, 
are really adjectives and adverbs. No distinction, for example, 
can be drawn between " a cup of gold " and " a golden cup," 
and the instrumental, the dative, the ablative and the locative 
are, when closely examined, merely adverbs attached to a verb. 
The terminations of the strong cases do not displace the accent 
of the stem to which they are suffixed; the suffixes of the weak 
cases, on the other hand, generally draw the accent upon 
themselves. 

According to Hubschmann, the nominative, accusative and 
genitive cases are purely grammatical, distinguished from one 
another through the exigencies of the sentence only, whereas 
the locative, ablative and instrumental have a logical origin and 
determine the logical relation which the three other cases bear 
to each other and the verb. The nature of the dative is left 
undecided. The locative primarily denotes rest in a place, the 
ablative motion from a place, and the instrumental the means or 
concomitance of an action. The dative Hubschmann regards 
as " the case of the participant object." Like Hubschmann, 
Holzweissig divides the cases into two classes the one gram- 
matical and the other logical; and his analysis of their primitive 
meaning is the same as that of Hubschmann, except as regards 



GRAMMAR 



329 



the dative, the primary sense of which he thinks to have been 
motion towards a place. This is also the view of Delbriick, who 
makes it denote tendency towards an object. Delbriick, how- 
ever, holds that the primary sense of the ablative was that of 
separation, the instrumental originally indicating concomitance, 
while there was a double locative, one used like the ablative 
absolute in Latin, the other being a locative of the object. 

The dual was older than the plural, and after the development 
of the latter survived as a merely useless encumbrance, of which 
most of the Indo-European languages contrived in time to get 
rid. There are still many savage idioms in which the conception 
of plurality has not advanced beyond that of duality. In the 
Bushman dialects, for instance, the plural, or rather that which 
is more than one, is expressed by repeating the word; thus tu 
is " mouth," tutu " mouths." It may be shown that most of 
the suffixes of the Indo-European dual are the longer and more 
primitive forms of those of the plural which have grown out of 
them by the help of phonetic decay. The plural of the weak cases, 
on the other hand (the accusative alone excepted), was identical 
with the singular of abstract nouns; so far as both form and 
meaning are concerned, no distinction can be drawn between 
cwrfs and tiros. Similarly, humanity and men signify one and 
the same thing, and the use of English words like sheep or fish 
for both singular and plural shows to what an extent our apprecia- 
tion of number is determined by the context rather than by the 
form of the noun. The so-called " broken plurals " of Arabic 
and Ethiopic are really singular collectives employed to denote 
the plural. 

Gender is the product partly of analogy, partly of phonetic 
decay. In many languages, such as Eskimo and Choctaw,- its 
place is taken by a division of objects into animate and inanimate, 
while in other languages they are separated into rational and 
irrational. There are many indications that the parent Indo- 
European in an early stage of its existence had no signs of gender 
at all. The terminations of the names of father and mother, 
pater and mater, for example, are exactly the same, and in Latin 
and Greek many diphthongal stems, as well as stems in i or ya 
and u (like vavs and i/e/cus, iroXts and Xis), may be indifferently 
masculine and feminine. Even stems in o and a (of the second 
and first declensions), though the first are generally masculine 
and the second generally feminine, by no means invariably 
maintain the rule; and feminines like humus and 666s, or 
masculines like advena and TroXn-ijs, show that there was a time 
when these stems also indicated no particular gender, but owed 
their subsequent adaptation, the one to mark the masculine 
and the other to mark the feminine, to the influence of analogy. 
The idea of gender was first suggested by the difference between 
man and woman, male and female, and, as in so many languages 
at the present day, .was represented not by any outward sign 
but by the meaning of the words themselves. When once arrived 
at, the conception of gender was extended to other objects besides 
those to which it properly belonged. The primitive Indo- 
European did not distinguish between subject and object, but 
personified objects by ascribing to them the motives and powers 
of living beings. Accordingly they were referred to by different 
pronouns, one class denoting the masculine and another class 
the feminine, and the distinction that existed between these two 
classes of pronouns was after a time transferred to the nouns. 
As soon as the preponderant number of stems in o in daily use 
had come to be regarded as masculine on account of their mean- 
ing, other stems in o, whatever might be their signification, 
were made to follow the general analogy and were similarly 
classed as masculines. In the same way, the suffix i or ya 
acquired a feminine sense, and was set apart to represent the 
feminine gender. Unlike the Semites, the Indo-Europeans were 
not satisfied with these two genders, masculine and feminine. 
As soon as object and subject, patient and agent, were clearly 
distinguished from each other, there arose a need for a third 
gender, which should be neither masculine nor feminine, but 
denote things without life. This third gender was fittingly 
expressed either by the objective case used as a nominative (e.g. 
regnum), or by a stem without any case ending at all (e.g. virus). 



The adverbial meaning of so many of the cases explains the 
readiness with which they became crystallized into adverbs and 
prepositions. An adverb is the attribute of an attribute " the 
rose smells sweetly," for example, being resolvable into "the 
rose has the attribute of scent with the further attribute of 
sweetness." In our own language once, twice, needs, are all 
genitives; seldom is a dative. The Latin and Greek humi and 
Xdjutu are locatives, facillime (facillumed) and tvrvx&s ablatives, 
Tram; and o/ia instrumental, irdpos, $)$ and T?jXoD genitives. 
The frequency with which particular cases of particular nouns 
were used in a specifically attributive sense caused them to 
become, as it were, petrified, the other cases of the nouns in 
question passing out of use, and the original force of those that 
were retained being gradually forgotten. Prepositions are 
adverbs employed to define nouns instead of verbs and adjectives. 
Their appearance in the Indo-European languages is compara- 
tively late, and the Homeric poems allow us to trace their growth 
in Greek. The adverb, originally intended to define the verb, 
came to be construed with the noun, and the government of 
the case with which it was construed was accordingly transferred 
from the verb to the noun. Thus when we read in the Odyssey 
(iv. 43), avrovs 5' eiffrjyov Otlov Sonov, we see that eis is still an 
adverb, and that the accusative is governed by the verb; it is 
quite otherwise, however, with a line like 'Arpeldw 51 ytpovras 
doXXeas fjyev 'Kxauav ts K\urir)v (II. i. 89) where the adverb has 
passed into a preposition. The same process of transformation 
is still going on in English, where we can say indifferently, 
" What are you looking at ? " using " at " as an adverb, and 
governing the pronoun by the verb, and " At what are you 
looking?" where "at" has become a preposition. With the 
growth and increase of prepositions the need of the case-endings 
diminished, and in some languages the latter disappeared 
altogether. 

Like prepositions, conjunctions also are primarily adverbs 
used in a demonstrative and relative sense. Hence most of the 
conjunctions are petrified cases of pronouns. The relation 
between two sentences was originally expressed by simply setting 
them side by side, afterwards by employing a demonstrative 
at the beginning of the second clause to refer to the whole pre- 
ceding one. The relative pronoun can be shown to have been 
in the first instance a demonstrative; indeed, we can still use 
that in English in a relative sense. Since the demonstrative 
at the beginning of the second clause represented the first clause, 
and was consequently an attribute of the second, it had to stand 
in some case, and this case became a conjunction. How closely 
allied the adverb and the conjunction are may be seen from 
Greek and Latin, where cos or quum can be used as either the one 
or the other. Our own and, it may be observed, has probably 
the same root as the Greek locative adverb ?ri, and originally 
signified " going further." 

Another form of adverb is the infinitive, the adverbial force 
of which appears clearly in such a phrase as " A wonderful thing 
to see." Various cases, such as the locative, the dative or the 
instrumental, are employed in Vedic Sanskrit in the sense of 
the infinitive, besides the bare stem or neuter formed by the 
suffixes man and van. In Greek the neuter stem and the dative 
case were alone retained for the purpose. The first is found in 
infinitives like 86fi*v and <fxpft.v (for an earlier <txpt-Fa>) t the 
second in the infinitives in -at. Thus the Gr. dovvai answers 
letter for letter to the Vedic dative ddvdne, " to give," and the 
form \l/ti'8eadat. is explained by the Vedic vayodhai, for vayas-dhai, 
literally " to do living," dhai being the dative of a noun from 
the root dha, " to place " or " do." When the form ftiidtaOai 
had once come into existence, analogy was ready to create such 
false imitations as 7 pa.\f/ 0060.1 or ypa<j>6ria(ff6ai. The Latin 
infinitive in -re for -se has the same origin, amare, for instance, 
being the dative of an old stem amas. In fieri for fierei or fiesei, ' 
from the same root as our English be, the original length of the 
final syllable is preserved. The suffix in -urn is an accusative, like 
the corresponding infinitive of classical Sanskrit. This origin 
of the infinitive explains the Latin construction of the accusative 
and infinitive. When the Roman said, " Miror te ad me nihil 



330 



GRAMMAR 



scribere," all that he meant at first was, " I wonder at you for 
writing nothing to me," where the infinitive was merely a dative 
case used adverbially. 

The history of the infinitive makes it clear how little distinction 
must have been felt at the outset between the noun and the verb. 
Indeed, the growth of the verb was a slow process. There was a 
time in the history of Indo-European speech when it had not as 
yet risen to the consciousness of the speaker, and in the period 
when the noun did not possess a plural there was as yet also no 
verb. The attachment of the first and second personal pronouns, 
or of suffixes resembling them, to certain stems, was the first 
stage in the development of the latter. Like the Semitic verb, 
the Indo-European verb seems primarily to have denoted relation 
only, and to have been attached as an attribute to the subject. 
The idea of time, however, was soon put into it, and two tenses 
were created, the one expressinga present or continuous action, the 
other an aoristic or momentary one. The distinction of sense was 
symbolized by a distinction of pronunciation, the root-syllable 
of the aorist being an abbreviated form of that of the present. 
This abbreviation was due to a change in the position of the accent 
(which was shifted from the stem-syllable to the termination), 
and this change again was probably occasioned by the prefixing 
of the so-called augment to the aorist, which survived into his- 
torical times only in Sanskrit, Zend and Greek, and the origin of 
which is still a mystery. The weight of the first syllable in the 
aorist further caused the person-endings to be shortened, and so 
two sets of person-endings, usually termed primary and secondary, 
sprang into existence. By reduplicating the root-syllable of 
the present tense a perfect was formed; but originally no dis- 
tinction was made between present and perfect, and Greek verbs 
like 8i6(o/ji and ^/oo are memorials of a time when the difference 
between " I am come " and " I have come " was not yet felt. 
Reduplication was further adapted to the expression of intensity 
and desire (in the so-called intensive and desiderative forms) . 
By the side of the aorist stood the imperfect, which differed 
from the aorist, so far as outward form was concerned, only 
in possessing the longer and more original stem of the present. 
Indeed, as Benfey first saw, the aorist itself was primitively 
an imperfect, and the distinction between aorist and im- 
perfect is not older than the period when the stem-syllables of 
certain imperfects were shortened through the influence of the 
accent, and this differentiation of forms appropriated to denote 
a difference between the sense of the aorist and the imperfect 
which was beginning to be felt. After the analogy of the im- 
perfect, a pluperfect was created out of the perfect by prefixing 
the augment (of which the Greek e/wp/Koc is an illustration); 
though the pluperfect, too, was originally an imperfect formed 
from the reduplicated present. 

Besides time, mood was also expressed by the primitive 
Indo-European verb, recourse being had to symbolization for 
the purpose. The imperative was represented by the bare stem, 
like the vocative, the accent being drawn back to the first 
syllable, though other modes of denoting it soon came into 
vogue. Possibility was symbolized by the attachment of 
the suffix -ya to the stem, probability by the attachment of 
-a and -a, and in this way the optative and conjunctive moods 
first arose. The creation of a future by the help of the suffix 
-sya seems to belong to the same period in the history of the 
verb. This suffix is probably identical with that used to form 
a large class of adjectives and genitives (like the Greek Zmroto 
for iTnroffto); in this case future time will have been regarded 
as an attribute of the subject, no distinction being drawn, for 
instance, between " rising sun " and " the sun will rise." It 
is possible, however, that the auxiliary verb as, " to be," enters 
into the composition of the future; if so, the future will be 
the product of the second stage in the development of the Indo- 
European verb when new forms were created by means of 
composition. The sigmatic or first aorist is in favour of this 
view, as it certainly belongs to the age of Indo-European unity, 
and may be a compound of the verbal stem with the auxiliary as. 

After the separation of the Indo-European languages, com- 
position was largely employed in the formation of new tenses. 



Thus in Latin we have perfects like scrip-si and ama-vi, formed 
by the help of the auxiliaries as (sum) and fuo, while such forms 
as amaveram (amavi-erani) or amarem (ama-sem) bear their 
origin on their face. So, too, the future in Latin and Old Celtic 
(amabo, Irish carub) is based upon the substantive verb fuo, 
" to be," and the English preterite in -ed goes back to a suffixed 
did, the reduplicated perfect of do. New tenses and moods, 
however, were created by the aid of suffixes as well as by the 
aid of composition, or rather were formed from nouns whose 
stems terminated in the suffixes in question. Thus in Greek 
we have aorists and perfects in -/ca, and the characteristics of 
the two passive aorists, ye and the, are more probably the suffixes 
of nominal stems than the roots of the two verbs ya, " to go," 
and dhd, " to place," as Bopp supposed. How late some of these 
new formations were may be seen in Greek, where the Homeric 
poems are still ignorant of the weak future passive, the optative 
future, and the aspirated perfect, and where the strong future 
passive occurs but once and the desiderative but twice. On 
the other hand, many of the older tenses were disused and lost. 
In classical Sanskrit, for instance, of the modal aorist forms 
the precative and benedictive almost alone remain, while the 
pluperfect, of which Delbriick has found traces in the Veda, 
has wholly disappeared. 

The passive voice did not exist in the parent Indo-European 
speech. No need for it had arisen, since such a sentence as " I 
am pleased " could be as well represented by " This pleases me," 
or " I please myself." It was long before the speaker was able 
to imagine an action without an object, and when he did so, 
it was a neuter or substantival rather than a passive verb that 
he formed. The passive, in fact, grew out of the middle or 
reflexive, and, except in the two aorists, continued to be repre- 
sented by the middle in Greek. So, too, in Latin the second 
person plural is really the middle participle with estis understood, 
and the whole class of deponent or reflexive verbs proves that 
the characteristic r which Latin shares with Celtic could have 
had at the outset no passive force. 

Much light has been thrown on the character and construction 
of the primitive Indo-European sentence by comparative syntax. 
In contradistinction to Semitic, where the defining word follows 
that which is defined, the Indo-European languages place that 
which is defined after that which defines it; and Bergaigne 
has made it clear that the original order of the sentence was 
(i) object, (2) verb, and (3) subject. Greater complication of 
thought and its expression, the connexion of sentences by the 
aid of conjunctions, and rhetorical inversion caused that dis- 
location of the original order of the sentence which reaches its 
culminating point in the involved periods of Latin literature. 
Our own language still remains true, however, to the syntax 
of the parent Indo-European when it sets both adjective and 
genitive before the nouns which they define. In course of time 
a distinction came to be made between an attribute used as a 
mere qualificative and an attribute used predicatively, and 
this distinction was expressed by placing the predicate in op- 
position to the subject and accordingly after it. The opposition 
was of itself sufficient to indicate the logical copula or sub- 
stantive verb; indeed, the word which afterwards commonly 
stood for the latter at first signified " existence," and it was only 
through the wear and tear of time that a phrase like Deus bonus 
esl, " God exists as good," came to mean simply " God is good." 
It is needless to observe that neither of the two articles was 
known to the parent Indo-European; indeed, the definite article, 
which is merely a decayed demonstrative pronoun, has not yet 
been developed in several of the languages of the Indo-European 
family. 

We must now glance briefly at the results of a scientific in- 
vestigation of English grammar and the modifications they 
necessitate in our conception of it. The idea that i aves tiga- 
the free use of speech is tied down by the rules of tloa of 
the grammarian must first be given up; all that the English 
grammarian can do is to formulate the current uses f rammar - 
of his time, which are determined by habit and custom, 
and are accordingly in a perpetual state of flux. We must next 



GRAMMAR 



get rid of the notion that English grammar should be modelled 
after that of ancient Rome; until we do so we shall never 
understand even the elementary principles upon which it is 
based. We cannot speak of declensions, since English has no 
genders except in the pronouns of the third person, and no 
cases except the genitive and a few faint traces of an old dative. 
Its verbal conjugation is essentially different from that of an 
inflexional language like Latin, and cannot be compressed into 
the same categories. In English the syntax has been enlarged 
at the expense of the accidence; position has taken the place 
of forms. To speak of an adjective " agreeing " with its sub- 
stantive is as misleading as to speak of a verb " governing " 
a case. In fact, the distinction between noun and adjective 
is inapplicable to English grammar, and should be replaced 
by a distinction between objective and attributive words. In 
a phrase like " this is a cannon," cannon is objective; in a phrase 
like " a cannon-ball," it is attributive; and to call it a sub- 
stantive in the one case and an adjective in the other is only 
to introduce confusion. With the exception of the nominative, 
the various forms of the noun are all attributive; there is no 
difference, for example, between " doing a thing " and " doing 
badly." Apart from the personal pronouns, the accusative 
of the classical languages can be represented only by position; 
but if we were to say that a noun which follows a verb is in the 
accusative case we should have to define " king " as an accusative 
in such sentences as " he became king " or " he is king." In 
conversational English " it is me " is as correct as " c'est moi " 
in French, or " det er mig " in Danish; the literary " it is I " 
is due to the influence of classical grammar. The combination 
of noun or pronoun and preposition results in a compound 
attribute. As for the verb, Sweet has well said that " the really 
characteristic feature of the English finite verb is its inability 
to stand alone without a pronominal prefix." Thus " dream " 
by itself is a noun; " I dream " is a verb. The place of the 
pronominal prefix may be taken by a noun, though both poetry 
and vulgar English frequently insert the pronoun even when 
the noun precedes. The number of inflected verbal forms is 
but small, being confined to the third person singular and the 
special forms of the preterite and past participle, though the 
latter may with more justice be regarded as belonging to the 
province of the lexicographer rather than to that of the gram- 
marian. The inflected subjunctive (be, were, save in " God save 
the King," &c.) is rapidly disappearing. New inflected forms, 
however, are coming into existence; at all events, we have 
as good a right to consider wont, shant, cant new inflected forms 
as the French aimerai (amare habeo), aimer ais (amare habebam). 
If the ordinary grammars are correct in treating forms like 
" I am loving," " I was loving," " I did love," as separate 
tenses, they are strangely inconsistent in omitting to notice 
the equally important emphatic form '' I do love " or the negative 
form " I do not love " ("I don't love "), as well as the semi- 
inflexional " I'll love," " he's loving." It is true that these 
latter contracted forms are heard only in conversation and not 
seen in books; but the grammar of a language, it must be 
remembered, is made by those who speak it and not by the 
printers. 

Our school grammars are the inheritance we have received 
from Greece and Rome. The necessities of rhetoric obliged the 

Sophists to investigate the structure of the Greek 
History of language, and to them was accordingly due the first 
grammar, analysis of Greek grammar. Protagoras distinguished 

the three genders and the verbal moods, while Pro- 
dicus busied himself with the definition of synonyms. Aristotle, 
taking the side of Democritus, who had held that the meaning 
of words is put into them by the speaker, and that there is no 
necessary connexion between sound and sense, laid down that 
words " symbolize " objects according to the will of those who 
use them, and added to the ovopa or " noun," and the pijjua or 
" verb," the ovvSeafjas or " particle." He also introduced the 
term nrcocrts, " case," to denote any flexion whatsoever. He 
further divided nouns into simple and compound, invented for 
the neuter another name than that given by Protagoras, and 



starting from the termination of the nominative singular, en- 
deavoured to ascertain the rules for indicating a difference of 
gender. Aristotle was followed by the Stoics, who separated the 
apdpov or " article " from the particles, determined a fifth part 
of speech, the iravStKTTis or " adverb," confined the term " case " 
to the flexions of the nouns, distinguishing the four principal 
cases by names, and divided the verb into its tenses, moods 
and classes. Meanwhile the Alexandrian critics were studying 
the language of Homer and the Attic writers, and comparing 
it with the language of their own day, the result being a minute 
examination of the facts and rules of grammar. Two schools of 
grammarians sprang up) the Analogists, headed by Aristarchus, 
who held that a strict law of analogy existed between idea 
and word, and refused to admit exceptions to the grammatical 
rules they laid down, and the Anomalists, who denied general 
rules of any kind, except in so far as they were consecrated by 
custom. Foremost among the Anomalists was Crates of Mallos, 
the leader of the Pergamenian school, to whom we owe the first 
formal Greek grammar and collection of the grammatical facts 
obtained by the labours of the Alexandrian critics, as well as an 
attempt to reform Greek orthography. The immediate cause 
of this grammar seems to have been a comparison of Latin with 
Greek, Crates having lectured on the subject while ambassador 
of Attalus at Rome in 159 B.C. The zeal with which the Romans 
threw themselves into the study of Greek resulted in the school 
grammar of Dionysius Thrax, a pupil of Aristarchus, which he 
published at Rome in the time of Pompey and which is still 
in existence. Latin grammars were soon modelled upon it, 
and the attempt to translate the technical terms of the Greek 
grammarians into Latin was productive of numerous blunders 
which have been perpetuated to our own day. Thus tenues 
is a mistranslation of the Greek ^tXci, " unaspirated "; genetivus 
of ytviKri, the case " of the genus "; accusativus of amem/oj, 
the case " of the object "; infinitivus of a.Traptfj.(t>a.TOS, "without 
a secondary meaning " of tense or person. New names were 
coined to denote forms possessed by Latin and not by Greek; 
ablative, for instance, was invented by Julius Caesar, who also 
wrote a treatise De analogia. By the 2nd century of the Christian 
era the dispute between the Anomalists and the Analogists was 
finally settled, analogy being recognized as the principle that 
underlies language, though every rule admits of exceptions. 
Two eminent grammarians of Alexandria, Apollonius Dyscolus 
and his son Herodian, summed up the labours and controversies 
of their predecessors, and upon their works were based the Latin 
grammar composed by Aelius Donatus in the 4th century, and 
the eighteen books on grammar compiled by Priscian in the age 
of Justinian. The grammar of Donatus dominated the schools 
of the middle ages, and, along with the productions of Priscian, 
formed the type and source of the Latin and Greek school- 
grammars of modern Europe. 

A few words remain to be said, in conclusion, on the bearing 
of a scientific study of grammar upon the practical task of 
teaching and learning foreign languages. The grammar Learatag 
of a language is not to be confined within the rules O f 
laid down by grammarians, much less is it the creation grammar 
of grammarians, and consequently the usual mode ".' lore ^ g " s 
of making the pupil learn by heart certain fixed rules aogaages 
and paradigms not only gives a false idea of what grammar 
really is, but also throws obstacles in the way of acquiring it. 
The unit of speech is the sentence; and it is with the sentence 
therefore, and not with lists of words and forms, that the pupil 
should begin. When once a sufficient number of sentences has 
been, so to speak, assimilated, it will be easy to analyse them 
into their component parts, to show the relations that these 
bear to one another, and to indicate the nature and varieties of 
the latter. In this way the learn.er will be prevented from 
regarding grammar as a piece of dead mechanism or a Chinese 
puzzle^ of which the parts must be fitted together in accordance 
with certain artificial rules, and will realize that it is a living 
organism which has a history and a reason of its own. The 
method of nature and science alike is analytic; and if we would 
learn a foreign language properly we must learn it as we did 



332 



GRAMMICHELE GRAMONT, COMTE DE 



our mother-tongue, by first mastering the expression of a com- 
plete thought and then breaking up this expression into its 
several elements. (A. H. S.) 

See PHILOLOGY, and articles on the various languages. Also 
Steinthal, Charakteristik der hauptsachlichsten Typen des Sprach- 
baues (Berlin, 1860); Schleicher, Compendium of the Comparative 
Grammar of the Indo-European Languages, translated by H. Bendall 
(London, 1874); Pezzi, Aryan Philology according to the most recent 
Researches, translated by E. S. Roberts (London, 1879); Sayce, 
Introduction to the Science of Language (London, 1879) ; Lersch, Die 
Sprachphilosophie der Allen (Bonn, 1838-1841); Steinthal, Geschichte 
der Sprachwiisenschaft bei den Griechen und Romern mil besonderer 
Riicksicht auf die Logik (Berlin, 1863, 2nd ed. 1890); Delbruck, 
Ablativ localis instrumental im Altindischen, Lateinischen, Grie- 
chischen, und Deutschen (Berlin, 1864); Jolly, Bin Kapitel ver- 
gleichender Syntax (Munich, 1873); Hubschmann, Zur Casuslehre 
(Munich, 1875) ; Holzweissig, Wahrheit und Irrthum der localistischen 
Casustheorie (Leipzig, 1877); Draeger, Historische Syntax der 
lateinischen Sprache (Leipzig, 1874-1876); Sweet, Words, Logic, 
and Grammar (London, 1876) ; P. Giles, Manual of Comp. Philology 
(1901); C. Abel, Agypt.-indo-eur. Sprachverwandschaft (1903); 
Brugmann and Delbruck, Grundriss d. vergl. Gram. d. indogerm. Spr. 
(1886-1900); Fritz Mauthner, Beitrage zur einer Kritik der Sprache 
vol. iii. (1902) ; T. G. Tucker, Introd. to a Nat. Hist, of Language 
(1908). 

GRAMMICHELE, a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania, 
55 m. S.W. of it by rail and 31 m. direct. Pop. (1901) iS,75- 
It was built in 1693, after the destruction by an earthquake 
of the old town of Occhiala to the north; the latter, on account of 
the similarity of name, is generally identified with Echetla, a 
frontier city between Syracusan and Carthaginian territory 
in the time of Hiero II., which appears to have been originally 
a Sicel city in which Greek civilization prevailed from the 5th 
century onwards. To the east of Grammichele a cave shrine 
of Demeter, with fine votive terra-cottas, has been discovered. 
See Man. Lincei, vii. (1897), 201 ; Not. degli scam (1902), 223. 
GRAMMONT (the Flemish name Gheeraardsbergen more 
clearly reveals its etymology Gerardi-mons) , a town in East 
Flanders, Belgium, near the meeting point with the provinces of 
Brabant and Hainaut. It is on the Bender almost due south 
of Alost, and is chiefly famous because the charter of Grammont 
given by Baldwin VI., count of Flanders, in A.D. 1068 was the first 
of its kind. This charter has been styled " the most ancient 
written monument of civil and criminal laws in Flanders." The 
modern town is a busy industrial centre. Pop. (1904) 12,835. 

GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGENOR ALFRED, Due DE, Due DE 
GUICHE, PRINCE DE BIDACHE (1819-1880), French diplomatist 
and statesman, was born at Paris on the I4th of August 1819, of 
one of the most illustrious families of the old noblesse, a cadet 
branch of the viscounts of Aure, which took its name from 
the seigniory of Gramont in Navarre. His grandfather, Antoine 
Louis Marie, due de Gramont (1755-1836), had emigrated during 
the Revolution, and his father, Antoine Heraclius Genevieve 
Agenor (1789-1855), due de Gramont and de Guiche, fought under 
the British flag in the Peninsular War, became a lieutenant- 
general in the French army in 1823, and in 1830 accompanied 
Charles X. to Scotland. The younger generation, however, 
were Bonapartist in sympathy; Gramont's cousin Antoine 
Louis Raymond, comte de Gramont (1787-1825), though also 
the son of an emigre, served with distinction in Napoleon's 
armies, while Antoine Agenor, due de Gramont, owed his career 
to his early friendship for Louis Napoleon. 

Educated at the Ecole Polytechnique, Gramont early gave 
up the army for diplomacy. It was not, however, till after the 
coup d'etat of the 2nd of December 1851, which made Louis 
Napoleon supreme in France, that he became conspicuous as 
a diplomat. He was successively minister plenipotentiary at 
Cassel and Stuttgart (1852), at Turin (1853), ambassador at 
Rome (1857) and at Vienna (1861). On the isth of May 1870 
he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in the Ollivier 
cabinet, and was thus largely, though not entirely, responsible 
for the bungling of the negotiations between France and Prussia 
arising out of the candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern 
for the throne of Spain, which led to the disastrous war of 
1870-71. The exact share of Gramont in this responsibility has 
been the subject of much controversy. The last word may be 



said to have been uttered by M. Emile Ollivier himself in his 
L' Empire liberal (tome xii., 1909, passim). The famous declara- 
tion read by Gramont in the Chamber on the 6th of July, the 
" threat with the hand on the sword-hilt," as Bismarck called 
it, was the joint work of the whole cabinet; the original draft 
presented by Gramont was judged to be too "elliptical" in its 
conclusion and not sufficiently vigorous; the reference to a 
revival of the empire of Charles V. was suggested by Ollivier; 
the paragraph asserting that France would not allow a foreign 
power to disturb to her own detriment the actual equilibrium 
of Europe was inserted by the emperor. So far, then, as this 
declaration is concerned, it is clear that Gramont's responsiblity 
must be shared with his sovereign and his colleagues (Ollivier 
op. cit. xii. 107; see also the two projets de declaration given 
on p. 570). It is clear, however that he did not share the 
passion" of his colleagues for "peace with honour," clear 
also that he wholly misread the intentions of the European 
powers in the event of war. That he reckoned upon the active 
alliance of Austria was due, according to M. Ollivier, to the fact 
that for nine years he had been a persona grata in the aristocratic 
society of Vienna, where the necessity for revenging the humilia- 
tion of 1866 was an article of faith. This confidence made him 
less disposed than many of his colleagues to make the best of the 
renunciation of the candidature made, on behalf of his son, 
by the prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. It was Gramont 
who pointed out to the emperor, on the evening of the i2th, 
the dubious circumstances of the act of renunciation, and on 
the same night, without informing M. Ollivier, despatched to 
Benedetti at Ems the fatal telegram demanding the king of 
Prussia's guarantee that the candidature would not be revived. 
The supreme responsibility for this act must rest with the 
emperor, " who imposed it by an exercise of personal power on 
the only one cf his ministers who could have lent himself to such 
a forgetfulness of the safeguards of a parliamentary regime." 
As for Gramont, he had " no conception of the exigencies of 
this regime; he remained an ambassador accustomed to obey 
the orders of his sovereign ; in all good faith he had no idea that 
this was not correct, and that, himself a parliamentary minister, 
he had associated himself with an act destructive of the authority 
of parliament." ' " On his part," adds M. Ollivier, " it was the 
result only of obedience, not of warlike, premeditation " (op. cit. 
p. 262). The apology may be taken for what it is worth. To 
France and to the world Gramont was responsible for the policy 
which put his country definitely into the wrong in the eyes of 
Europe, and enabled Bismarck to administer to her the " slap 
in the face " (soufflet) as Gramont called it in the Chamber 
by means of the mutilated " Ems telegram," which was the 
immediate cause of the French declaration of war on the isth. 

After the defeat of Weissenburg (August 4) Gramont resigned 
office with the rest of the Ollivier ministry (August 9), and after 
the revolution of September he went to England, returning after 
the war to Paris, where he died on the i8th of January 1880. 
His marriage in 1848 with Miss Mackinnon, a Scottish lady, 
remained without issue. During his retirement he published 
various apologies for his policy in 1870, notably La France el 
la Prusse avant la guerre (Paris, 1872). 

Besides M. Ollivier's work quoted in the text, see L. Thouvenel, 
Le Secret de I'empereur, correspondance . . . echangee entre M. 
Thouvenel, le due de Gramont, et le general comte de Flahaut 1860^- 
1863 (2nd ed., 2 vols., 1889). A small pamphlet containing his 
Souvenirs 1848-1850 was published in 1901 by his brother Antoine 
L6on Philibert Auguste de Gramont, due de Lesparre. 

GRAMONT, PHILIBERT, COMTE DE (1621-1707), the subject 
of the famous Memoirs, came of a noble Gascon family, said 
to have been of Basque origin. His grandmother, Diane 
d'Andouins, comtesse de Gramont, was " la belle Corisande," 
one of the mistresses of Henry IV. The grandson assumed that 

1 Compare with this Bismarck's remarks to Hohenlohe (Hohenlohe, 
Denkwurdigkeiten, ii. 71): "When Gramont was made minister, 
Bismarck said to Benedetti that this indicated that the emperor 
was meditating something evil, otherwise he would not have made 
so stupid a person minister. Benedetti replied that the emperor 
knew too little of him, whereupon Bismarck said that the emperor 
had once described Gramont to him as ' un ancien bellStre.' " 



GRAMOPHONE GRAMPOUND 



333 



his father Antoine II. de Gramont, viceroy of Navarre, was the 
son of Henry IV., and regretted that he had not claimed the 
privileges of royal birth. Philibert de Gramont was the son of 
Antoine II. by his second marriage with Claude de Montmorency, 
and was born in 1621, probably at the family seat of Bidache. 
He was destined for the church, and was educated at the college 
of Pau, in Beam. He refused the ecclesiastical life, however, 
and joined the army of Prince Thomas of Savoy, then besieging 
Trino in Piedmont. He afterwards served under his elder 
half-brother, Antoine, marshal de Gramont, and the prince 
of Conde. He was present at Fribourg and Nordlingen, and 
also served with distinction in Spain and Flanders in 1647 and 
1648. He favoured Conde's party at the beginning of the 
Fronde, but changed sides before he was too severely com- 
promised. In spite of his record in the army he never received 
any important commission either military or diplomatic, perhaps 
because of an incurable levity in his outlook. He was, however, 
made a governor of the Pays d'Aunis and lieutenant of Beam. 
During the Commonwealth he visited England, and in 1662 
he was exiled from Paris for paying court to Mademoiselle de la 
Motte Houdancourt, one of the king's mistresses. He went to 
London, where he found at the court of Charles II. an atmosphere 
congenial to his talents for intrigue, gallantry and pleasure. 
He married in London, under pressure from her two brothers. 
Elizabeth Hamilton, the sister of his future biographer. She 
was one of the great beauties of the English court, and was, 
according to her brother's optimistic account, able to fix the 
count's affections. She was a woman of considerable wit, and 
held her own at the court of Louis XIV., but her husband pursued 
his gallant exploits to the close of a long life, being, said Ninon 
de 1'Enclos, the only old man who could affect the follies of 
youth without being ridiculous. In 1664 he was allowed to 
return to France. He revisited England in 1670 in connexion 
with the sale of Dunkirk, and again in 1671 and 1676. In 1688 
he was sent by Louis XIV. to congratulate James II. on the 
birth of an heir. From all these small diplomatic missions he 
succeeded in obtaining considerable profits, being destitute 
of scruples whenever money was in question. At the age of 
seventy-five he had a dangerous illness, during which he became 
reconciled to the church. His penitence does not seem to have 
survived his recovery. He was eighty years old when he supplied 
his brother-in-law, Anthony Hamilton (?..), with the materials 
for his Memoires. Hamilton said that they had been dictated 
to him, but there is no doubt that he was the real author. The 
account of Gramont's early career was doubtless provided by 
himself, but Hamilton was probably more familiar with the 
history of the court of Charles II., which forms the most interest- 
ing section of the book. Moreover Gramont, though he had a 
reputation for wit, was no writer, and there is no reason to 
suppose that he was capable of producing a work which remains 
a masterpiece of style and of witty portraiture. When the 
MSmoires were finished it is said that Gramont sold the MS. 
for 1 500 francs, and kept most of the money himself. Fontenelle, 
then censor of the press, refused to license the book from con- 
siderations of respect to the strange old man, whose gambling, 
cheating and meannesses were so ruthlessly exposed. But 
Gramont himself appealed to the chancellor and the prohibition 
was removed. He died on the loth of January 1707, and the 
Memoires appeared six years later. 

Hamilton was far superior to the comte de Gramont, but he 
relates the story of his hero without comment, and no condemna- 
tion of the prevalent code of morals is allowed to appear, unless 
in an occasional touch of irony. The portrait is drawn with 
such skill that the count, in spite of his biographer's candour, 
imposes by his grand air on the reader much as he appears to 
have done on his contemporaries. The book is the most entertain- 
ing of contemporary memoirs, and in no other book is there a 
description so vivid, truthful, and graceful of the licentious court 
of Charles II. There are other and less flattering accounts of 
the count. His scandalous tongue knew no restraint, and he 
was a privileged person who was allowed to state even the most 
unpleasing truths to Louis XIV. Saint-Simon in his memoirs 



describes the relief that was felt at court when the old man's 
death was announced. 

Mtmoires de la vie du comte de Grammont contenant particulierement 
I'histoire amoureuse de la cour d'Angleterre sous le regne de Charles II 
was printed in Holland with the inscription Cologne, 1713. Other 
editions followed in 1715 and 1716. Memoirs of the Life of Count de 
Grammont . . . translated out of the French by Mr [Abel] Boyer 
(17^14), was supplemented by a " com pleat key" in 1719. The 
Memoires " augmente'es de notes et d'eclaircissemens " was edited 
by Horace Walpole in 1772. In 1793 appeared in London an edition 
adorned with portraits engraved after originals in the royal collec- 
tion. An English edition by Sir Walter Scott was published by 
H. G. Bohn (1846), and this with additions was reprinted in 1889, 
1890, 1896, &c. Among other modern editions are an excellent one 
in the Bibliotheque Charpentier edited by M. Gustave Brunei (1859) ; 
Mtmoires . . . (Paris, 1888) with etchings by L. Boisson after C. 
Delort and an introduction by H. Gausseron; Memoirs . . . 
(1889), edited by Mr H. Vizetelly; and Memoirs . . . (1903), 
edited by Mr Gordon Goodwin. 

GRAMOPHONE (an invented word, formed on an inversion 
of "phonogram"; favri, sound, ypanna., letter), an instrument 
for recording and reproducing sounds. It depends on the same 
general principles as the phonograph (q.v.), but it differs in 
certain details of construction, especially in having the sound- 
record cut spirally on a flat disk instead of round a cylinder. 

GRAMPIANS, THE, a mass of mountains in central Scotland. 
Owing to the number of ramifications and ridges it is difficult 
to assign their precise limits, but they may be described as 
occupying the area between a line drawn from Dumbartonshire 
to the North Sea at Stonehaven, and the valley of the Spey or 
even Glenmore (the Caledonian Canal). Their trend is from 
south-west to north-east, the southern face forming the natural 
division between the Lowlands and Highlands. They lie in the 
shires of Argyll, Dumbarton, Stirling, Perth, Forfar, Kincardine, 
Aberdeen, Banff and Inverness. Among the highest summits 
are Ben Nevis, Ben Macdhui, and Cairngorms, Ben Lawers, Ben 
More, Ben Alder, Ben Cruachan and Ben Lomond. The principal 
rivers flowing from the watershed northward are the Findhorn, 
Spey, Don, Dee and their tributaries, and southward the South 
Esk, Tay and Forth with their affluents. On the north the mass 
is wild and rugged; on the south the slope is often gentle, afford- 
ing excellent pasture in many places, but both sections contain 
some of the finest deer-forests in Scotland. They are crossed 
by the Highland, West Highland and Callander toOban railways, 
and present some of the finest scenery in the kingdom. The 
rocks consist chiefly of granite, gneiss, schists, quartzite, porphyry 
and diorite. Their fastnesses were originally inhabited by the 
northern Picts, the Caledonians who, under Galgacus, were 
defeated by Agricola in A.D. 84 at Mons Graupius the false 
reading of which, Grampius, has been perpetuated in the name 
of the mountains the site of which has not been ascertained. 
Some authorities place it at Ardoch; others near the junction 
of the Tay and Isla, or at Dalginross near Comrie; while some, 
contending for a position nearer the east coast, refer it to a site 
in west Forfarshire or to Raedykes near Stonehaven. 

GRAMPOUND, a small market town in the mid-parliamentary 
division of Cornwall, England, 9 m. E.N.E. of Truro, and 2 m. 
from its station (Grampound Road) on the Great Western 
railway. It is situated on the river Fal, and has some industry 
in tanning. It retains an ancient town hall; there is a good 
market cross; and in the neighbourhood, along the Fal, are 
several early earthworks. 

Grampound (Ponsmure, Graundpont, Grauntpount, Graund- 
pond) and the hundred, manor and vill of Tibeste were formerly 
so closely associated that in 1400 the former is found styled the 
vill of Grauntpond called Tibeste. At the time of the Domesday 
Survey Tibeste was amongst the most valuable of the manors 
granted to the count of Mortain. The burgensic character of 
Ponsmure first appears in 1299. Thirty-five years later John 
of Eltham granted to the burgesses the whole town of Graunt- 
pount. This grant was confirmed in 1378 when its extent and 
jurisdiction were defined. It was provided that the hundred 
court of Powdershire should always be held there and two fairs at 
the feasts of St Peter in Cathedra and St Barnabas, both of 
which are still held, and a Tuesday market (now held on Friday) 



334 



GRAMPUS GRANADA 



and that it should be a free borough rendering a yearly rent to 
the earl of Cornwall. Two members were summoned to parlia- 
ment by Edward VI. in 1553. The electors consisted of an 
indefinite number of freemen, about 50 in all, indirectly nomin- 
ated by the mayor and corporation, which existed by prescription. 
The venality of the electors became notorious. In 1780 3000 
was paid for a seat: in 1812 each supporter of one of the 
candidates received 100. The defeat of this candidate in 1818 
led to a parliamentary inquiry which disclosed a system of 
wholesale corruption, and in 1821 the borough was disfranchised. 
A former woollen trade is extinct. 

GRAMPUS (Oreo gladiator, or Orca area), a cetacean belonging 
to the Delphinidae or dolphin family, characterized by its rounded 
head without distinct beak, high dorsal fin and large conical 
teeth. The upper parts are nearly uniform glossy black, and 
the under parts white, with a strip of the same colour over 
each eye. The 0. Fr. word was grapois, graspeis or craspeis, 
from Med. Lat. crassus piscis, fat fish. This was adapted into 
English as grapeys, graspeys, &c., and in the i6th century becomes 
graunde pose as if from grand poisson. The final corruption to 
" grampus " appears in the i8th century and was probably 
nautical in origin. The animal is also known as the " killer," 
in allusion to its ferocity in attacking its prey, which consists 
largely of seals, porpoises and the smaller dolphins. Its fierce- 
ness is only equalled by its voracity, which is such that in a 
specimen measuring 21 ft. in length, the remains of thirteen 
seals and thirteen porpoises were found, in a more or less digested 
state, while the animal appeared to have been choked in the 
endeavour to swallow another seal, the skin of which was found 
entangled in its teeth. These cetaceans sometimes hunt in packs 
or schools, and commit great havoc among the belugas or white 
whales, which occasionally throw themselves ashore to escape 
their persecutors. The grampus is an inhabitant of northern 
seas, occurring on the shores of Greenland, and having been 
caught, although rarely, as far south as the Mediterranean. 
There are numerous instances of its capture on the British coasts. 
(See CETACEA.) 

GRANADA, LUIS DE (1504-1588), Spanish preacher and 
ascetic writer, born of poor parents named Sarria at Granada. 
He lost his father at an early age and his widowed mother was 
supported by the charity of the Dominicans. A child of the 
Alhambra, he entered the service of the alcalde as page, and, 
his ability being discovered, received his education with the 
sons of the house. When nineteen he entered the Dominican 
convent and in 1525 took the vows; and, with the leave of his 
prior, shared his daily allowance of food with his mother. He 
was sent to Valladolid to continue his studies and then was 
appointed procurator at Granada. Seven years after he was 
elected prior of the convent of Scala Caeli in the mountains of 
Cordova, which after eight years he succeeded in restoring from 
its ruinous state, and there he began his work as a zealous 
reformer. His preaching gifts were developed by the orator 
Juan de Avila, and he became one of the most famous of Spanish 
preachers. He was invited to Portugal in 1555 and became 
provincial of his order, declining the offer, of the archbishopric 
of Braga but accepting the position of confessor and counsellor 
to Catherine, the queen regent. At the expiration of his tenure 
of the provincialship, he retired to the Dominican convent at 
Lisbon, where he lived till his death on the last day of 1588. 
Aiming, both in his sermons and ascetical writings, at develop- 
ment of the religious view, the danger of the times as he saw it 
was not so much in the Protestant reformation, which was an 
outside influence, but in the direction that religion had taken 
among the masses. He held that in Spain the Catholic faith 
was not understood by the people, and that their ignorance was 
the pressing danger. He fell under the suspicion of the In- 
quisition; his mystical teaching was said to be heretical, and 
his most famous book, the Guia de Peccadores, still a favourite 
treatise and one that has been translated into nearly every 
European tongue, was put on the Index of the Spanish Inquisi- 
tion, together with his book on prayer, in 1559. His great 
opponent was the restless and ambitious Melchior Cano, who 



stigmatized the second book as containing grave errors smacking 
of the heresy of the Alumbrados and manifestly contradicting 
Catholic faith and teaching. But in 1576 the prohibition was 
removed and the works of Luis de Granada, so prized by St 
Francis de Sales, have never lost their value. The friend of St 
Teresa, St Peter of Alcantara, and of all the noble minds of Spain 
of his day, no one among the three hundred Spanish mystics 
excels Luis de Granada in the beauty of a didactic style, variety 
of illustration and soberness of statement. 

The last collected edition of his works is that published in 9 vols. 
at Antwerp in 1578. A biography by L. Monoz, La Vida y virtudes 
de Luis de Granada (Madrid, 1639); a study of his system by P. 
Rousselot in Mystiques espa^noles (Paris, 1867); Ticknor, History 
of Spanish Literature (vol. iii.), and Fitzmaurice Kelly, History 
of Spamsn Literature, pp. 200-202 (London, 1898), may also be 
consulted. 

GRANADA, the capital of the department of Granada, 
Nicaragua; 32 m. by rail S.E. of Managua, the capital of the 
republic. Pop. (1900) about 25,000. Granada is built on the 
north-western shore of Lake Nicaragua, of which it is the principal 
port. Its houses are of the usual central American type, con- 
structed of adobe, rarely more than one storey high, and sur- 
rounded by courtyards with ornamental gateways. The suburbs, 
scattered over a large area, consist chiefly of cane huts occupied 
by Indians and half-castes. There are several ancient churches 
and convents, in one of which the interior of the chancel roof 
is inlaid with mother-of-pearl. An electric tramway connects the 
railway station and the adjacent wharves with the market, 
about i m. distant. Ice, cigars, hats, boots and shoes are 
manufactured, but the characteristic local industry is the pro- 
duction of " Panama chains," ornaments made of thin gold wire. 
In the neighbourhood there are large cocoa plantations; and the 
city has a thriving trade in cocoa, coffee, hides, cotton, native 
tobacco and indigo. 

Granada was founded in 1523 by Francisco Fernandez de 
Cordoba. It became one of the wealthiest of central American 
cities, although it had always a keen commercial rival in Leon, 
which now surpasses it in size and importance. In the i7th 
century it was often raided by buccaneers, notably in 1606, 
when it was completely sacked. In 1855 it was captured and 
partly burned by the adventurer William Walker (see CENTRAL 
AMERICA: History). 

GRANADA, a maritime province of southern Spain, formed 
in 1833 of districts belonging to Andalusia, and coinciding with 
the central parts of the ancient kingdom of Granada. Pop. 
(1900) 492,460; area, 4928 sq. m. Granada is bounded on the 
N. by Cordova, Jaen and Albacete, E. by Murcia and Almeria, 
S. by the Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Malaga. It includes the 
western and loftier portion of the Sierra Nevada (?..), a vast 
ridge rising parallel to the sea and attaining its greatest altitudes 
in the Cerro de Mulhacen (11,421 ft.) and Picacho de la Veleta 
(11,148), which overlook the city of Granada. Lesser ranges, 
such as the Sierras of Parapanda, Alhama, Almijara or Harana, 
adjoin the main ridge. From this central watershed the three 
principal rivers of the province take their rise, viz. : the Guadiana 
Menor, which, flowing past Guadix in a northerly direction, falls 
into the Guadalquivir in the neighbourhood of Ubeda; the 
Genii which, after traversing the Vega, or Plain of Granada, leaves 
the province a little to the westward of Loja and joins the Guadal- 
quivir between Cordova and Seville; and the Rio Grande or 
Guadalfeo, which falls into the Mediterranean at Motril. The 
coast is little indented and none of its three harbours, Almufiecar, 
Albunol and Motril, ranks high in commercial importance. 
The climate in the lower valleys and the narrow fringe along the 
coast is warm, but on the higher grounds of the interior is 
somewhat severe; and the vegetation varies accordingly from 
the subtropical to the alpine. The soil of the plains is very 
productive, and that of the Vega of Granada is considered the 
richest in the whole peninsula; from the days of the Moors it 
has been systematically irrigated, and it continues to yield in 
great abundance and in good quality wheat, barley, maize, wine, 
oil, sugar, flax, cotton, silk and almost every variety of fruit. 
In the mountains immediately surrounding the city of Granada 



GRANADA 



335 



occur many kinds of alabaster, some very fine; there are also 
quantities of jasper and other precious stones. Mineral waters 
chiefly chalybeate and sulphurous, are abundant, the most 
important springs being those of Alhama, which have a tempera- 
ture of 112 F. There are valuable iron mines, and small 
quantities of zinc, lead and mercury are obtained. The cane 
and beet sugar industries, for which there are factories at Loja, 
at Motril, and in the Vega, developed rapidly after the loss of 
the Spanish West Indies and the Philippine Islands in 1898, 
with the consequent decrease in competition. There are also 
tanneries, foundries and manufactories of woollen, linen, cotton, 
and rough frieze stuffs, cards, soap, spirits, gunpowder and 
machinery. Apart from the great highways traversing the pro- 
vince, which are excellent, the roads are few and ill-kept. The 
railway from Madrid enters the province on the north and 
bifurcates north-west of Guadix; one branch going eastward 
to Almen'a, the other westward to Loja, Malaga and Algeciras. 
Baza is the terminus of a railway from Lorca. The chief towns 
include Granada, the capital (pop. 1900, 75,900) with Alhama 
de Granada (7697), Baza (12,770), Guadix (12,652), Loja (19,143), 
Montefrio (10,725), and Motril (18,528). These are described in 
separate articles. Other towns with upwards of 7000 inhabitants 
are Albunol (8646), Almunecar (8022), Cullar de Baza (8007), 
Huescar (7763), Illora (9496) and Puebla de Don Fadrique 
(7420). The history of the ancient kingdom is inseparable from 
that of the city of Granada (?.i>.). 

GRANADA, the capital of the province, and formerly of the 
kingdom of Granada, in southern Spain ; on the Madrid-Granada- 
Algeciras railway. Pop. (1900) 75,900. Granada is magnifi- 
cently situated, 2195 ft. above 'the sea, on the north-western 
slope of the Sierra Nevada, overlooking the fertile lowlands 
known as the Vega de Granada on the west and overshadowed 
by the peaks of Veleta (11,148 ft.) and Mulhacen (11,421 ft.) on 
the south-east. The southern limit of the city is the river Genii, 
the Roman Singilis and Moorish Shenil, a swift stream flowing 
westward from the Sierra Nevada, with a considerable volume 
of water in summer, when the snows have thawed. Its tributary 
the Darro, the Roman Salon and Moorish Hadarro, enters 
Granada on the east, flows for upwards of a mile from east to 
west, and then turns sharply southward to join the main river, 
which is spanned by a bridge just above the point of confluence. 
The waters of the Darro are much reduced by irrigation works 
along its lower course, and within the city it has been canalized 
and partly covered with a roof. 

Granada comprises three main divisions, the Antequeruela, 
the Albaicin (or Albaycin), and Granada properly so-called. 
The first division, founded by refugees from Antequera in 1410, 
consists of the districts enclosed by the Darro, besides a small 
area on its right, or western bank. It is bounded on the east 
by the gardens and hill of the Alhambra (q.v.) , the most celebrated 
of all the monuments left by the Moors. The Albaicin (Moorish 
Rabad al Bayazin, " Falconers' Quarter ") lies north-west of 
the Antequeruela. Its name is sometimes associated with that 
of Baeza, since, according to one tradition, it was colonized by 
citizens of Baeza, who fled hither in 1246, after the capture 
of their town by the Christians. It was long the favourite 
abode of the Moorish nobles, but is now mainly inhabited by 
gipsies and artisans. Granada, properly so-called, is north 
of the Antequeruela, and west of the Albaicin. The origin of 
its name is obscure; it has been sometimes, though with little 
probability, derived from granada, a pomegranate, in allusion 
to the abundance of pomegranate trees in the neighbourhood. 
A pomegranate appears on the city arms. The Moors, however, 
called Granada Karnatlah or Karnatlah-al- Yahud, and possibly 
the name is composed of the Arabic words kurn, " a hill," and 
naltah, " stranger," the " city " or " hill of strangers." 

Although the city has been to some extent modernized, the 
architecture of its more ancient quarters has many Moorish 
characteristics. The streets are, as a rule, ill-lighted, ill-paved 
and irregular; but there are several fine squares and avenues, 
such as the Bibarrambla, where tournaments were held by the 
Moors; the spacious Plaza del Trionfo, adjoining the bull-ring, 



on the north; the Alameda, planted with plane trees, and the 
Paseo del Salon. The business centre of the city is the Puerta 
Real, a square named after a gate now demolished. 

Granada is the see of an archbishop. Its cathedral, which 
commemorates the reconquest of southern Spain from the Moors, 
is a somewhat heavy classical building, begun in 1529 by Diego 
de Siloe, and only finished in 1703. It is profusely ornamented 
with jasper and coloured marbles, and surmounted by a dome. 
The interior contains many paintings and sculptures by Alonso 
Cano (1601-1667), the architect of the fine west facade, and other 
artists. In one of the numerous chapels, known as the Chapel 
Royal (Capilla Real), is the monument of Philip I. of Castile 
(1478-1506), and his queen Joanna; with the tomb of Ferdinand 
and Isabella, the first rulers of united Spain (1452-1516). The 
church of Santa Maria (1705-1759), which may be regarded as 
an annexe of the cathedral, occupies the site of the chief 
mosque of Granada. This was used as a church until 1661. 
Santa Ana (1541) also replaced a mosque; Nuestra Senora de 
las Angustias (1664-1671) is noteworthy for its fine towers, and 
the rich decoration of its high altar. The convent of San 
Geronimo (or Jeronimo), founded in 1492 by Ferdinand and 
Isabella, was converted into barracks in 1810; its church contains 
the tomb of the famous captain Gonsalvo or Gonzalo de Cordova 
(1453-1515). The Cartuja, or Carthusian monastery north of 
the city, was built in 1516 on Gonzalo's estate, and in his memory. 
It contains several fine paintings, and an interesting church of 
the 1 7th and i8th centuries. 

After the Alhambra, and such adjacent buildings as the 
Generalife and Torres Bermejas, which are more fitly described 
in connexion with it, the principal Moorish antiquities of Granada 
are the 13th-century villa known as the Cuarto Real de San 
Domingo, admirably preserved, and surrounded by beautiful 
gardens; the Alcazar de Genii, built in the middle of the i4th 
century as a palace for the Moorish queens; and the Casa del 
Cabildo, a university of the same period, converted into a ware- 
house in the igth century. Few Spanish cities possess a greater 
number of educational and charitable establishments. The 
university was founded by Charles V. in 1531, and transferred 
to its present buildings in 1769. It is attended by about 600 
students. In 1900, the primary schools of Granada numbered 
22, in addition to an ecclesiastical seminary, a training-school 
for teachers, schools of art and jurisprudence, and museums of 
art and archaeology. There were twelve hospitals and orphanages 
for both sexes, including a leper hospital in one of the convents. 
Granada has an active trade in the agricultural produce of the 
Vega, and manufactures liqueurs, soap, paper and coarse linen 
and woollen fabrics. Silk-weaving was once extensively 
carried on, and large quantities of silk were exported to Italy, 
France, Germany and even America, but this industry died 
during the igth century. 

History. The identity of Granada with the Iberian city of 
Iliberris or Iliberri, which afterwards became a flourishing 
Roman colony, has never been fully established; but Roman 
tombs, coins, inscriptions, &c., have been discovered in the 
neighbourhood. With the rest of Andalusia, as a result of the 
great invasion from the north in the 5th century, Granada fell 
to the lot of the Vandals. Under the caliphs of Cordova, onwards 
from the 8th century, it rapidly gained in importance, and 
ultimately became the seat of a provincial government, which, 
after the fall of the Omayyad dynasty in 1031, or, according to 
some authorities, 1038, ranked with Seville, Jaen and others 
as an independent principality. The family of the Zeri, Ziri 
or Zeiri maintained itself as the ruling dynasty until 1090; 
it was then displaced by the Almohades, who were in turn 
overthrown by the Almoravides, in 1154. The dominion of 
the Almoravides continued unbroken, save for an interval of 
one year (1160-1161), until 1229. From 1229 to 1238 Granada 
formed part of the kingdom of Murcia; but in the last-named 
year it passed into the hands of Abu Abdullah Mahommed Ibn 
Al Ahmar, prince of Jaen and founder of the dynasty of the 
Nasrides. Al Ahmar was deprived of Jaen in 1246, but united 
Granada, Almeria and Malaga under his sceptre, and, as the 



336 



GRANADILLA GRANARIES 



fervour of the Christian crusade against the Moors had temporarily 
abated, he made peace with Castile, and even aided the Christians 
to vanquish the Moslem princes of Seville. At the same time 
he offered asylum to refugees from Valencia, Murcia and other 
territories in which the Moors had been overcome. Al Ahmar 
and his successors ruled over Granada until 1492, in an unbroken 
line of twenty-five sovereigns who maintained their independence 
partly by force, and partly by payment of tribute to their stronger 
neighbours. Their encouragement of commerce notably the 
silk trade with Italy rendered Granada the wealthiest of 
Spanish cities; their patronage of art, literature and science 
attracted many learned Moslems, such as the historian Ibn 
Khaldun and the geographer Ibn Batuta, to their court, and 
resulted in a brilliant civilization, of which the Alhambra is 
the supreme monument. 

The kingdom of Granada, which outlasted all the other 
Moorish states in Spain, fell at last through dynastic rivalries 
and a harem intrigue. The two noble families of the Zegri and 
the Beni Serraj (better known in history and legend as the 
Abencerrages) encroached greatly upon the royal prerogatives 
during the middle years of the isth century. A crisis arose 
in 1462, when an endeavour to control the Abencerrages resulted 
in the dethronement of Abu Nasr Saad, and the accession of his 
son, Muley Abu'l Hassan, whose name is preserved in that of 
Mulhacen, the loftiest peak of the Sierra Nevada, and in a score 
of legends. Muley Hassan weakened his position by resigning 
Malaga to his brother Ez Zagal, and incurred the enmity of 
his first wife Aisha by marrying a beautiful Spanish slave, 
Isabella de Solis, who had adopted the creed of Islam and taken 
the name of Zorayah, " morning star." Aisha or Ayesha, who 
thus saw her sons Abu Abdullah Mahommed (Boabdil) and Yusuf 
in danger of being supplanted, appealed to the Abencerrages, 
whose leaders, according to tradition, paid for their sympathy 
with their lives (see ALHAMBRA). In 1482 Boabdil succeeded 
in deposing his father, who fled to Malaga, but the gradual 
advance of the Christians under Ferdinand and Isabella forced 
him to resign the task of defence into the more warlike hands 
of Muley Hassan and Ez Zagal (1483-1486). In 1491 after the 
loss of these leaders, the Moors were decisively beaten; Boabdil, 
who had already been twice captured and liberated by the 
Spaniards, was compelled to sign away his kingdom; and on 
the 2nd of January 1492 the Spanish army entered Granada, 
and the Moorish power in Spain was ended. The campaign 
had aroused intense interest throughout Christendom; when 
the news reached London a special thanksgiving service was held 
in St Paul's Cathedral by order of Henry VII. 

GRANADILLA, the name applied to Passiflora quadrangularis, 
Linn., a plant of the natural order Passifloreae, a native of 
tropical America, having smooth, cordate, ovate or acuminate 
leaves; petioles bearing from 4 to 6 glands; an emetic and 
narcotic root; scented flowers; and a large, oblong fruit, 
containing numerous seeds, imbedded in a subacid edible pulp. 
The granadilla is sometimes grown in British hothouses. The 
fruits of several other species of Passiflora are eaten. P. 
laurifolia is the " water lemon," and P. maliformis the " sweet 
calabash " of the West Indies. 

GRANARIES, From ancient times grain has been stored in 
greater or lesser bulk. The ancient Egyptians made a practice 
of preserving grain in years of plenty against years of scarcity, 
and probably Joseph only carried out on a large scale an habitual 
practice. The climate of Egypt being very dry, grain could be 
stored in pits for a long time without sensible loss of quality. 
The silo pit, as it has been termed, has been a favourite way of 
storing grain from time immemorial in all oriental lands. In 
Turkey and Persia usurers used to buy up wheat or barley when 
comparatively cheap, and store it in hidden pits against seasons 
of dearth. Probably that custom is not yet dead. In Malta 
a relatively large stock of wheat is always preserved in some 
hundreds of pits (silos) cut in the rock. A single silo will store 
from 60 to 80 tons of wheat, which, with proper precautions, 
will keep in good condition for four years or more. The silos 
are shaped like a cylinder resting on a truncated cone, and 



surmounted by the same figure. The mouth of the pit is round 
and small and covered by a stone slab, and the inside is lined 
with barley straw and kept very dry. Samples are occasionally 
taken from the wheat as from the hold of a ship, and at any 
signs of fermentation the granary is cleared and the wheat 
turned over, but such is the dryness of these silos that little 
trouble of this kind is experienced. 

Towards the close of the igth century warehouses specially 
intended for holding grain began to multiply in Great Britain, 
but America is the home of great granaries, known there as 
elevators. There are climatic difficulties in the way of storing 
grain in Great Britain on a large scale, but these difficulties 
have been largely overcome. To preserve grain in good condition 
it must be kept as much as possible from moisture and heat. 
New grain when brought into a warehouse has a tendency to 
sweat, and in this condition will easily heat. If the heating is 
allowed to continue the quality of the grain suffers. An effectual 
remedy is to turn out the grain in layers, not too thick, on a 
floor, and to keep turning it over so as to aerate it thoroughly. 
Grain can thus be conditioned for storage in silos. There is 
reason to think that grain in a sound and dry condition can be 
better stored in bins or dry pits than in the open air; from a 
series of experiments carried out on behalf of the French govern- 
ment it would seem that grain exposed to the air is decomposed 
at 35 times the rate of grain stored in silo or other bins. 

In comparing the grain-storage system of Great Britain with 
that of North America it must be borne in mind that whereas 
Great Britain raises a comparatively small amount of grain, 
which is more or less rapidly consumed, grain-growing is one of 
the greatest industries of the United States and of Canada. 
The enormous surplus of wheat and maize produced in America 
can only be profitably dealt with by such a system of storage 
as has grown up there since the middle of the igth century. 
The American farmer can store his wheat or maize at a moderate 
rate, and can get an advance on his warrant if he is in need of 
money. A holder of wheat in Chicago can withdraw a similar 
grade of wheat from a New York elevator. 

Modern granaries are all built on much the same plan. The 
mechanical equipment for receiving and discharging grain is 
very similar in all modern warehouses. A granary is usually 
erected on a quay at which large vessels can lie and discharge. 
On the land side railway sidings connect the warehouse with 
the chief lines in its district; accessibility to a canal is an ad- 
vantage. Ships are usually cleared by bucket elevators which are 
dipped into the cargo, though in some cases pneumatic elevators 
are substituted (see CONVEYORS). A travelling band with throw- 
off carriage will speedily distribute a heavy load of grain. 
Band conveyors serve equally well for charging or discharging 
the bins. Bins are invariably provided with hopper bottoms, 
and any bin can be effectively cleared by the band, which runs 
underneath, either in a cellar or in a specially constructed 
tunnel. All granaries should be provided with a sufficient 
plant of cleaning machinery to take from the grain impurities 
as would be likely to be detrimental to its storing qualities. 
Chief among such machines are the warehouse separators 
which work by sieves and air currents (see FLOUR AND FLOUR 
MANUFACTURE). 

The typical grain warehouse is furnished with a number of 
chambers for grain storage which are known as silos, and may 
be built of wood, brick, iron or ferro-concrete. Wood silos 
are usually square, made of flat strips of wood nailed one on top 
of the other, and so overlapping each other at the corners that 
alternately a longitudinal and a transverse batten extends 
past the corner. The gaps are filled by short pieces of timber 
securely nailed, and the whole silo wall is thus solid. This type 
of bin was formerly in great favour, but it has certain draw- 
backs, such as the possibility of dry rot, while weevils are apt 
to harbour in the interstices unless lime washing is practised. 
Bricks and cement are good materials for' constructing silos 
of hexagonal form, but necessitate deep foundations and sub- 
stantial walls. Iron silos of circular form are used to some 
extent in Great Britain, but are more common in North and 



GRANARIES 



337 



South America. In their case the walls are much thinner than 
with any other material, but the condensation against the inner 
wall in wet weather is a drawback in damp climates. Cylindrical 
tank silos have also been made of fire-proof tiles. Ferro-concrete 
silos have been built on both the Monier and the Hennebique 
systems. In the earlier type the bin was made of an iron or 
steel framework filled in with concrete, but more recent struc- 
tures are composed entirely of steel rods embedded in cement. 
Granaries built of this material have the great advantage, if 
properly constructed, of being free from any risk of failure even 
in case of uneven expansion of the material. With brick silos 
collapses through pressure of the stored material are not unknown. 

One of the largest and most complete grain elevators or ware- 
houses in the world belongs to the Canadian Northern Railway 
_ Company, and was erected at Port Arthur, Canada, in 

Arth r 1901-1904. It has a total storage capacity of 7,000,000 
Canada bushels, or 875,000 qrs. of 480 Ib. The range of buildings 
and bins forms an oblong, and consists of two storage 
houses, B and C, placed between two working or receiving houses 
A and D (fig. i). The receiving houses are fed by railway sidings. 
House A, for example, has two sidings, one running through it and 



repaired since they can be removed and replaced without affecting 
the main bin walls. It is claimed that these facers constitute the 
best possible protection against fire. A steel framework, covered 
with tiles, crowns these circular bins and contains the conveyors 
and spouts which are used to fill the bins. Five tunnels in the 
concrete bedding that supports the bins carry the belt conveyors 
which bring back the grain to the working house for cleaning or 
shipment. There are altogether in each of the storage houses 80 
circular bins, each 21 ft. in diameter, and so grouped as to form 
63 smaller interspace bins, or 143 bins in all. Each bin will store 
grain in a column 85 ft. deep, and the whole group has a capacity 
of 2,500,000 bushels. These bins were all constructed by the Barnett 
& Record Company of Minneapolis, Minnesota, U.S.A., in ac- 
cordance with the Johnson & Record patent system of fire-proof 
tile grain storage construction. In case one of the working houses 
is attacked by fire the fire-proof storage houses protect not only 
their own contents but also the other working house, and in the 
event of its disablement or destruction the remaining one can be 
easily connected with both the storage houses and handle their 
contents. 

Circular tank silos have not been extensively adopted in Great 
Britain, but a typical silo tank installation exists at the Walmsley 
& Smith flour mills which stand beside the Devonshire dock at 
Barrow-in-Furness. There four circular bins, built of riveted steel 




FIG. i. 



the other beside it. Each siding serves five receiving pits, and a 
receiving elevator of 10,000 Ib capacity per minute, or 60,000 
bushels per hour, can draw grain from either of two pits. Five 
elevators of 12,000 bushels per hour on the other side of the house 
serve five warehouse separators, and all the grain received or dis- 
charged is weighed, there being ten sets of automatic scales in the 
upper part of the house, known as the cupola. The hopper of each 
weigher can take a charge of 1400 bushels (84,000 Ib). Grain can 
be conveyed either vertically or horizontally to any part of the 
house, into any of the bins in the annex B, or into any truck or lake 
steamer. This house is constructed of timber and roofed with 
corrugated iron. The conveyor belts are 36 in. wide; those at the 
top of the house are provided with throw-off carriages. The dust 
from the cleaning machinery is carefully collected and spouted to 
the furnace under the boiler house, where it is consumed. The 
cylindrical silo bins in the storage houses consist of hollow tiles of 
burned clay which, it is claimed, are fire-proof. The tiles are laid 
on end and are about 12 in. by 12 in. and from 4 in. to 6 in. in thick- 
ness according to the size of the bin. Each alternate course consists 
of grooved blocks of channel tile forming a continuous groove or 
belt round the bin. This groove receives a steel band acting as a 
tension member and resisting the lateral pressure of the grain. 
The steel bands once in position, the groove is completely filled with 
cement grout by which the steel is encased and protected. Usually 
the bottoms of the bins are furnished with self-discharging hoppers 
of weak cinder or gravel concrete finished with cement mortar. 
For the foundation or supporting floor reinforced concrete is fre- 
quently used. The tiles already described are faced with tiles J to 
I in. thick, which are laid solid in cement mortar covering the whole 
exterior of the bin. Any damage to the facing tiles can easily be 



Clates, stand in a group on a quadrangle close to the mill ware- 
ouse. A covered gantry, through which passes a band conveyor, 
runs from the mill warehouse to the working silo house _ 
which stands in the central space amid the four steel . 
tanks. The tanks are 70 ft. high, with a diameter of 45 ft., Furaet* 
and rest on foundations of concrete and steel. Each has a 
separate conical roof and they are flat-bottomed, the grain resting 
directly on the steel and concrete foundation bed. As the load of 
the full tank is very heavy its even distribution on the bed is con- 
sidered a point of importance. Each tank can hold about 2500 tons 
of wheat, which gives a total storage capacity for the four bins of 
over 45,000 qrs. of 480 Ib. Attached to the mill warehouse is a skip 
elevator with a discharging capacity of 75 tons an hour. The grain 
is cleared by this elevator from the hold or holds of the vessel to be 
unloaded, and is delivered to the basement of the warehouse. Thence 
it is elevated to an upper storey and passed through an automatic 
weigher capable of taking a charge of I ton. From the weighing 
machine it can be taken, with or without a preliminary cleaning, 
to any floor of the warehouse, which has a total storing capacity 
of 8000 tons, or it can be carried by the band conveyor through the 
gantry to the working house of the silo installation and distributed 
to any one of the four tank silos. There is also a connexion by a 
band conveyor running through a covered gantry into the mill, 
which stands immediately in the rear. It is perfectly easy to turn 
over the contents of any tank into any other tank. The whole 
intake and wheat handling plant is moved by two electro-motors of 
35 H.P. each, one installed in the warehouse and the other in the 
silo working house. Steel silo tanks have the advantage of storing 
a heavy stock of wheat at comparatively small capital outlay. 
On an average an ordinary silo bin will not hold more than 500 to 



GRANARIES 



1000 qrs., but each of the bins at Barrow will contain 2500 tons or 
over uoo qrs. The steel construction also reduces the risk of fire 
and consequently lessens the fire premium. 

The important granaries at the Liverpool docks date from 1868, 
but have since been brought up to modern requirements. The 
Liverpool. ware h uses on the Waterloo docks have an aggregate 

storage area of 11} acres, while the sister warehouses on 
the Birkenhead side, which stand on the margin of the great float, 
have an area of 1 1 acres. The total capacity of these warehouses 
is about 200,000 qrs. 

The grain warehouse of the Manchester docks at Trafford wharf 
is locally known as the grain elevator, because it was built to a 

great extent on the model of an American elevator. 

Some of the mechanical equipment was supplied by a 

Chicago firm. The total capacity is 1,500,000 bushels or 
40,000 tons of grain, which is stored in 226 separate bins. The 
granary proper stands about 340 ft. from the side of the dock, but 
is directly connected with the receiving tower, which rises at the 



Man- 
chester. 



per hour; weighing in the tower; conveying grain into the ware- 
house and distributing it into any of the 226 bins; moving grain 
from bin to bin either for aerating or delivery, and simultaneously 
weighing in bulk at the rate of 500 tons per hour; sacking grain, 
weighing and loading the sacks into 40 railway trucks and 10 carts 
simultaneously; loading grain from the warehouse into barges or 
coasting craft at the rate of 150 tons per hour in bulk or of 250 sacks 
per hour. This warehouse is equipped with a dryer of American 
construction, which can deal with 50 tons of damp grain at one time, 
and is connected with the whole bin system so that grain can be 
readily moved from any bin to the dryer or conversely. 

A grain warehouse at the Victoria docks, London, belonging to the 
London and India Docks Company (fig. 2) has a storing capacity 
of about 25,000 qrs. or 200,000 bushels. It is over London. 
ipo ft. high, and is built on the American plan of interlaced 
timbers resting on iron columns. The walls are externally cased 
with steel plates. The grain is stored in 56 silos, most of which are 
about 10 ft. square by 50 ft. deep. The intake plant has a capacity 



Dock Companu'3 




FIG. 2. 

water's edge, by a band conveyor protected by a gantry. The 
main building is 448 ft. long by 80 ft. wide; the whole of the super- 
structure was constructed of wood with an external casing of brick- 
work and tiles. The receiving tower is fitted with a bucket elevator 
capable, within fairly wide limits, of adjustment to the level of the 
hold to be unloaded. The elevator has the large unloading capacity 
of 350 tons per hour, assuming it to be working in a full hold. It 
is supplemented by a pneumatic elevator (Duckham system) which 
can raise 200 tons per hour and is used chiefly in dealing with parcels 
of grain or in clearing grain out of holds which the ordinary elevator 
cannot reach. The power required to work the large elevator as 
well as the various band conveyors is supplied by two sets of hori- 
zontal Corliss compound engines of 500 H.P. jointly, which are fed 
by two Galloway boilers working at 100 Ib pressure. The pneumatic 
elevator is driven by two sets of triple expansion vertical engines 
of 600 H.P. fed by three boilers working at a pressure of 160 Ib. 
The grain received in the tower is automatically weighed. From 
the receiving tower the grain is conveyed into the warehouse where 
it is at once elevated to the top of a central tower, and is thence 
distributed to any of the bins by band conveyors in the usual way. 
The mechanical equipment of this warehouse is very complete, 
and the following several operations can be simultaneously effected : 
discharging grain from vessels in the dock at the rate of 350 tons 



of 100 tons of wheat an hour, and in- 
cludes six automatic grain scales, each 
of which can weigh off one sack at a 
time. The main delivery floor of the 
warehouse is at a convenient height 
above the ground level. Portable 
automatic weighing machines can be 
placed under any bin. The whole of 
the plant is driven by electric motors, 
one being allotted to each machine. 

The transit silos of the London Grain 
Elevator Company, also at the Victoria 
docks, consist of four complete and in- 
dependent installations standing on 
three tongues of land which project 
into the water (figs. 2 and 3). Each 
silo house is furnished with eight bins, 
each of which, 12 ft. square by 80 ft. 
deep, has a capacity of 1000 qrs. 
of grain. A kind of well in the middle 
of each silo house contains the neces- 
sary elevators, staircases, &c. The silo 
bins in each granary are erected on a 
massive cast iron tank forming a sort 
of cellar, which rests on a concrete 
foundation 6 ft. thick. The base of 
the tank is 30 ft. below the water level. 
The silos are formed of wooden battens 
nailed one on top of the other, the 
pieces interlacing. Rolled steel girders 
resting on cast iron columns support 
the silos. To ensure a clean discharge 
the hopper bottoms were designed so 
as to avoid joints and thus to be 
free from rivets or similar protuber- 
ances. The exterior of each silo house is covered with corru- 
gated iron, and the same material is used for the roofing. No 
conveyors serve the silo bins, as the elevators which rise above the 
tops of the silos can feed any one of them by gravity. There are 
three delivery elevators to each granary, one with a capacity of 
120 tons and the other two of 100 tons each an hour. Each silo 
house is served by a large elevator with a capacity of 120 tons per 
hour, which discharges into the elevator well inside the house. 
The delivery elevators discharge into a receiving shed in which 
there is a large hopper feeding six automatic weighing machines. 
Each charge as it is weighed empties itself automatically into sacks, 
which are then ready for loading. Each pair of warehouses is pro- 
vided with a conveyor band 308 ft. long, used either for carrying 
sacks from the weighing sheds to railway trucks or for carrying 
grain in bulk to barges or trucks. Each silo house has an identical 
mechanical equipment apart from the delivery band it shares with 
its fellow warehouse. All operations in connexion with the silo 
houses are effected under cover. The silos are normally fed by a 
fleet of twenty-six of Philip's patent self-discharging lighters. These 
craft are hopper-bottomed and fitted with band conveyors of the 
ordinary type, running between the double keelson of the lighter and 
delivering into an elevator erected at the stern of the lighter. By 
this means little trimming is required after the barge, which holds 



General Plan of Storage & Transit Silos, 
Victoria Docks, London. 

Scale, 140 feet = I inch. 



GRANARIES 



339 



about 200 tons of grain, has been cleared. Ocean steamers of such 
draft as to preclude their entry into any of the up river docks are 
cleared at Tilbury by these lighters. It is said that grain loaded 
at Tilbury into these lighters can be delivered from the transit silos 
to railway trucks or barges in about six hours. The total storage 
capacity of the silos amounts to 32,000 qrs. The motive power is 
furnished by 14 gas engines of a total capacity of 366 H.P. 

Two of the largest granaries on the continent of Europe are 
situated at the mouth of the Danube, at Braila and Galatz, in 
Rumania R uma P a > an d serve for both the reception and discharge 
of grain. At the edge of the quay on which these ware- 
houses are built there are rails with a gauge of nj ft., upon which 
run two mechanical loading and unloading appliances. The first 
consists of a telescopic elevator which raises the grain and delivers 
it to one of the two band conveyors at the head of the apparatus. 
Each of these bands feeds automatic weighing machines with an 
hourly capacity of 75 tons. From these weighers the grain is either 
discharged through a manhole in the ground to a band conveyor 
running in a tunnel parallel to the quay wall, or it is raised by a 
second elevator (part of the same unloading apparatus), set at an 
inclined angle, which delivers at a sufficient height to load railway 
trucks on the siding running parallel to the quay. A turning gear 
is provided so as to reverse, if required, the operation of the whole 
apparatus, that the portion overhanging the water can be turned 
to the land side. The unloading capacity is 150 tons of grain per 
hour. If it be desired to load a ship the telescopic elevator has 
only to be turned round and dipped into any one of 15 wells, which 



A. Barge Elevator? 

B. Receiving Elevators 

C. S//o Bins 

D. Delivery Elevators 

B. Weiah Haute* 

P. Automatic Scales 

C. Sack Sard Oaatrf 




capacity of the elevators and conveyors is 100 tons of grain per hour. 
The mechanical equipment is so complete that four distinct opera- 
tions are claimed as possible. A ship may be unloaded into silos 
or into the granary floors, and may simultaneously be loaded either 
from silos or floors with different kinds of grain. Again, a cargo may 
be discharged either into silos or upon the floors, and simultaneously 
the grain may be cleaned. Grain may also be cleared from a vessel, 
mixed with other grain already received, and then distributed to 
any desired point. With equal facility grain may be cleaned, blended 
with other varieties, re-stored in any section of the granary, and 
transferred from one ship to another. 

A granary with special features of interest, erected on the quay 
at Dortmund, Germany, by a co-operative society, is built of brick 
on a base of hewn stone, with beams and supports of _ 
timber. It is 78 ft. high and consists of seven floors, Dortn """ 1 - 
including basement and attic. Here again there are two sections, 
the larger being devoted to the storage of grain in low bins, while 
the smaller section consists of an ordinary silo house. Grain in 
sacks may be stored in the basement of the larger section which has 
a capacity of 1675 tons as compared with 825 tons in the silo depart- 
ment. Thus the total storage capacity is 2500 tons. In the silo 
house the bins, constructed of planks nailed one over the other, are 
of varying size and are capable of storing grain to a depth of 42 to 
47 ft. Some of the bins nave been specially adapted lor receiving 
damp grain by being provided internally with transverse wooden 
arms which form square or lozenge-shaped sections. The object of 
this arrangement is to break up and aerate the stored grain. The 



Transit Silos of the 

London Grain Elevator Co. Ltd., 

Victoria Docks, London. 




Longitudinal Elevation looking towards Barge Elevators. 

FIG. 3- 



Cross Section through Transit Silos. 



can be filled up with grain from the land side. The capacity of 
each granary is 233,333 qrs. 

Many large granaries have been built, in which grain is stored 
on open floors, in bulk or in sacks. A notable instance is the ware- 
house of the city of Stuttgart. This is a structure of 
Stuttgart. ggyen floors, including a basement and entresol. An 
engine house accommodates two gas engines as well as an 
hydraulic installation for the lifts. The grain is received by an 
elevator from the railway trucks, and is delivered to a weighing 
machine from which it is carried by a second elevator to the top 
storey, where it is fed to a band running the length of the building. 
A system of pipes runs from floor to floor, and by means of the 
band conveyor with its movable throw-off carriage grain can be 
shot to any floor. A second band conveyor is installed in the 
entresol floor, and serves to convey grain either to the elevator, 
if it is desired to elevate it to the top floor, or to the loading shed. 
A second elevator runs through the centre of the building, and is 
provided with a spout by means of which grain can be delivered 
into the hopper feeding the cleaning machine, whence the grain 
passes into a second hopper under which is an automatic weigher; 
directly under this weigher the grain is sacked. 

A good example of a grain warehouse on the combined silo bin 
and floor storage system is afforded by the granary at Mannheim 
..on the Rhine, which has the storage capacity of 2100 
' tons. The building is 370 ft. in length, 78 ft. wide and 
78 ft. high, and by means of transverse walls it is divided into three 
sections; of these one contains silos, in another section grain is 
stored on open floors, while the third, which is situated between 
the other two, is the grain-cleaning department. This granary 
stands by the quay side, and a ship elevator of great capacity, 
which serves the cleaning department, can rapidly clear any ship 
or barge beneath. The central or screening house section contains 
machinery specially designed for cleaning barley as well as wheat. 
The barley plant has a capacity of 5 tons per hour. There are four 
main elevators in this warehouse, while two more serve the screen 
house. The usual band conveyors fitted with throw-off carriages 
are provided, and are supplemented by an elaborate system of pipes 
which receive grain from the elevators and bands and distribute 
it at any required point. The plant is operated by_ electric motors. 
If desirea the floors of the non-silo section can be utilized for storing 
other goods than grain, and to this end a lift with a capacity of I 
ton runs from the basement to the top storey. The combined 



arms are of triangular section and are slightly hollowed at the base 
so as to bring a -current of air into direct contact with the grain. 
The air can be warmed if necessary. The other and larger section of 
the granary is provided with 105 bins of moderate height arranged 
in groups of 21 on the five floors between the basement and attic. 
On the intermediate floors and the bottom floor each bin lies exactly 
under the bin above. Grain is not stored in these bins to a greater 
depth than 5 ft. The bins are fitted with removable side walls, 
and damp grain is only stored in certain bins aerated for half the 
area of their side walls through a wire mesh. The arrangements 
for distributing grain in this warehouse are very complete. The 
uncleaned grain is taken by the receiving elevator, with a lifting 
capacity of 20 tons per hour, to a warehouse separator, whence it is 
passed through an automatic weigher and is then either sacked or 
spouted to the main elevator (capacity 25 tons per hour) and ele- 
vated to the attic. From the head of this main elevator the grain 
can either be fed to a bin in one or other of the main granary floors, 
or shot to one of the bins in the silo house. In the attic the grain is 
carried by a spout and belt conveyor to one or other of the turn- 
tables, as the appliances may be termed, which serve to distribute 
through spouts the grain to any one of the floor or silo bins. Alter- 
natively, the grain may be shot into the basement and there fed 
back into the main elevator by a band conveyor. In this way the 
grain may be turned over as often as it is deemed necessary. At 
the bottom of each bin are four apertures connected by spouts, 
both with the bin below and with the central vertical pipe which 
passes down through the centre of each group of bins. To regulate 
the course of the grain from bin to bin or from bin to central pipe, 
the connecting spouts are fitted with valves of ingenious yet simple 
construction which deflect the grain in any desired direction, so 
that the contents of two or more bins may be blended, or grain 
may be transferred from a bin on one floor to a bin on a lower 
floor, missing the bin on the floor between. The valves are con- 
trolled by chains from the basement. 

With reference to the floor bins used at Dortmund, it may be 
observed that there are granariej built on a similar principle in the 
United Kingdom. It is probable that bins of moderate height are 
more suitable for storing grain containing a considerable amount of 
moisture than deep silos, whether made of wood, ferro-concrete or 
other material. For one thing floor bins of the Dortmund pattern 
can be more effectually aerated than deep silos. German wheat 
has many characteristics in common with British, and, especially 



340 



GRANARIES 



""' " 



in north Germany, is not infrequently harvested in a more or less 
damp condition. In the United Kingdom, Messrs Spencer & Co., of 
Melksham, have erected several granaries on the floor-bin principle, 
and have adopted an ingenious system of " telescopic " spouting, 
by means of which grain may be discharged from one bin to another 
or at any desired point. This spouting can be applied to bins 
either with level floors or with hoppered bottoms, if they are arranged 
one above the other on the different floors, and is so constructed that 
an opening can be effected at certain points by simply sliding 
upwards a section of the spout. 

National Granaries. Wheat forms the staple food of a large 
proportion of the population of the British Isles, and of the total 
amount consumed about four-fifths is sea-borne. The stocks 
normally held in the country being limited, serious consequences 
might result from any interruption of the supply, such as might 
occur were Great Britain involved in war with a power or powers 
commanding a strong fleet. To meet this contingency it has 
been suggested that the State should establish granaries contain- 
ing a national reserve of wheat for use in emergency, or should 
adopt measures calculated to induce merchants, millers, &c., to 
hold larger stocks than at present and to stimulate the production 
of home-grown wheat. 

Stocks of wheat (and of flour expressed in its equivalent weight 
of wheat) are held by merchants, millers and farmers. Merchants' 
stocks are kept in granaries at ports of importation 
are known as first-hand stocks. Stocks of wheat 
and flour in the hands of millers and of flour held by 
bakers are termed second-hand stocks, while farmers' stocks only 
consist of native wheat. Periodical returns are generally made 
of first-hand or port stocks, nor should a wide margin of error be 
possible in the case of farmers' stocks, but second-hand stocks are 
more difficult to gauge. Since the last decade of the igth century 
the storage capacity of British mills has considerably increased. 
As the number of small mills has diminished the capacity of the 
bigger ones has increased, and proportionately their warehousing 
accommodation has been enlarged. At the present time first-hand 
stocks tend to diminish because a larger proportion of millers' 
holdings are in mill granaries and silo houses. The immense 
preponderance of steamers over sailing vessels in the grain trade 
has also had the effect of greatly diminishing stocks. With his 
cargo or parcel on a steamer a corn merchant can tell almost to a 
day when it will be due. In fact foreign wheat owned by British 
merchants is to a great extent stored in foreign granaries in 
preference to British warehouses. The merchant's risk is thereby 
lessened to a certain extent. When his wheat has been brought 
into a British port, to send it farther afield means extra expense. 
But wheat in an American or Argentine elevator may be ordered 
wherever the best price can be obtained for it. Options or 
" futures," too, have helped to restrict the size of wheat stocks 
in the United Kingdom. A merchant buys a cargo of wheat on 
passage for arrival at a definite time, and, lest the market value 
of grain should have depreciated by the time it arrives, he sells 
an option against it. In this way he hedges his deal, the option 
serving as insurance against loss. This is why the British corn 
trade finds it less risky to limit purchases to bare needs, protecting 
itself by option deals, than to store large quantities which may 
depreciate and involve their owners in loss. 

Varying estimates have been made of the number of weeks' 
supply of breadstuffs (wheat and flour) held by millers at various 
seasons of the year. A table compiled by the secretary of the 
National Association of British and Irish Millers from returns 
for 1902 made by 170 milling firms showed 4-7, 4-9, 4-9 and 
5 weeks' supply at the end of March, June, September and 
December respectively. These 170 mills were said to represent 
46% of the milling capacity of the United Kingdom, and claimed 
to have ground 12,000,000 qrs. out of 25,349,000 qrs. milled in 
1902. These were obviously large mills; it is probable that the 
other mills would not have shown anything like such a proportion 
of stock of either raw or finished material. A fair estimate of the 
stocks normally held by millers and bakers throughout the 
United Kingdom would be about four weeks' supply. First-hand 
stocks vary considerably, but the limits are definite, ranging from 
1,000,000 to 3,500,000 qrs., the latter being a high figure. The 



tendency is for first-hand stocks to decline, but two weeks' supply 
must be a minimum. Farmers' stocks necessarily vary with the 
size of the crop and the period of the year; they will range from 
9 or 10 weeks on the ist of September to a half week on the ist of 
August. Taking all the stocks together, it is very exceptional 
for the stock of breadstuffs to fall below 7 weeks' supply. Be- 
tween the cereal years 1893-1894 and 1903-1904, a period of 
570 weeks, the stocks of all kinds fell below 7 weeks' supply in 
only 9 weeks; of these 9 weeks 7 were between the beginning of 
June and the end of August 1898. This was immediately after 
the Leiter collapse. In seven of these eleven years there is no 
instance of stocks falling below 8 weeks' supply. In 21 out of 
these 570 weeks and in 39 weeks during the same period stocks 
dropped below 75 and 8 weeks' supply respectively. Roughly 
speaking the stock of wheat available for bread-making varies 
from a two to four months' supply and is at times well above 
the latter figure. 

The formation of a national reserve of wheat, to be held at 
the disposal of the state in case of urgent need during war, is 
beset by many practical difficulties. The father of 
the scheme was probably The Miller, a well-known reserve. 
trade journal. In March and April 1886 two articles 
appeared in that paper under the heading " Years of Plenty 
and State Granaries," in which it was urged that to meet the 
risk of hostile cruisers interrupting the supplies it would be 
desirable to lay up in granaries on British soil and under govern- 
ment control a stock of wheat sufficient for 12 or alternatively 
6 months' consumption. This was to be national property, not 
to be touched except when the fortune of war sent up the price 
of wheat to a famine level or caused severe distress. The State 
holding this large stock a year's supply of foreign grain would 
have meant at least 15,000,000 qrs., and have cost about 
25,000,000 exclusive of warehousing was in peace time to sell 
no wheat except when it became necessary to part with stock 
as a precautionary measure. In that case the wheat sold was to 
be replaced by the same amount of new grain. The idea was 
to provide the country with a supply of wheat until sufficient 
wheat-growing soil could be broken up to make it practically 
self-sufficing in respect of wheat. The original suggestion fell 
quite flat. Two years later Captain Warren, R.N., read a paper 
on " Great Britain's Corn Supplies in War," before the London 
Chamber of Commerce, and accepted national granaries as the 
only practicable safeguard against what appeared to him a great 
peril. The representatives of the shipping interest opposed the 
scheme, probably because it appeared to them likely to divert 
the public from insisting on an all-powerful navy. The corn 
trade opposed the project on account of its great practical 
difficulties. But constant contraction of the British wheat 
acreage kept the question alive, and during the earlier half of the 
'nineties it was a favourite theme with agriculturists. Some 
influential members of parliament pressed the matter on the 
government, who, acting, no doubt, on the advice of their military 
and naval experts, refused either a royal commission or a depart- 
mental committee. While the then technical advisers of the 
government were divided on the advisability of establishing 
national granaries as a defensive measure, the balance of expert 
opinion was adverse to the scheme. Lord Wolseley, then 
commander-in-chief, publicly stigmatized the theory that Great 
Britain might in war be starved into submission as " unmitigated 
humbug." 

In spite of official discouragement the agitation continued, 
and early in 1897 the council of the Central and Associated 
Chambers of Agriculture, at the suggestion to a 
great extent of Mr R. A. Yerburgh, M.P., nominated 
a committee to examine the question of national mlttee. 
wheat stores. This committee held thirteen sittings 
and examined fifty-four witnesses. Its report, which was 
published (L. G. Newman & Co., 12 Finsbury Square, London, 
E.G.) with minutes of the evidence taken, practically recom- 
mended that a national reserve of wheat on the lines already 
sketched should be formed and administered by the State, and 
that the government should be strongly urged to obtain the 



GRANBY 



appointment of a royal commission, comprising representatives 
of agriculture, the corn trade, shipping, and the army and navy, 
to conduct an exhaustive inquiry into the whole subject of the 
national food-supply in case of war. This recommendation was 
ultimately carried into effect, but not till nearly five years had 
elapsed. Of two schemes for national granaries put before the 
Yerburgh committee, one was formulated by Mr Seth Taylor, 
a London miller and corn merchant, who reckoned that a store 
of 10,000,000 qrs. of wheat might be accumulated at an average 
cost of 403. per qr. this was in the Leiter year of high prices 
and distributed in six specially constructed granaries to be 
erected at London, Liverpool, Hull, Bristol, Glasgow and 
Dublin. The cost of the granaries was put at 7,500,000. Mr 
Taylor's scheme, all charges included, such as a|% interest on 
capital, cost of storage (at 6d. per qr.), and 23. per qr. for cost 
of replacing wheat, involved an annual expenditure of 1,250,000. 
The Yerburgh committee also considered a proposal to stimulate 
the home supply of wheat by offering a bounty to farmers for 
every quarter of wheat grown. This proposal has taken different 
shapes; some have suggested that a bounty should be given 
on every acre of land covered with wheat, while others would 
only allow the bounty on wheat raised and kept in good condition 
up to a certain date, say the beginning of the following harvest. 
It is obvious that a bounty on the area of land covered by 
wheat, irrespective of yield, would be a premium on poor farming, 
and might divert to wheat-growing land unsuitable for that 
purpose. The suggestion to pay a bounty of say 35. to 55. per qr. 
for all wheat grown and stacked for a certain time stands on a 
different basis; it is conceivable that a bounty of 55. might 
expand the British production of wheat from say 7,000,000 to 
9,000,000 qrs., which would mean that a bounty of 2,250,000 
per annum, plus costs of administration, had secured an extra 
home production of 2,000,000 qrs. Whether such a price would 
be worth paying is another matter; the Yerburgh committee's 
conclusion was decidedly in the negative. It has also been 
suggested that the State might subsidize millers to the extent 
of 2s. 6d. per sack of 280 ft. per annum on condition that each 
maintained a minimum supply of two months' flour. This may 
be taken to mean that for keeping a special stock of flour over 
and above his usual output a miller would be entitled to an 
annual subsidy of 25. 6d. per sack. An extra stock of 10,000,000 
sacks might be thus kept up at an annual cost of 1,250,000, 
plus the expenditure of administration, which would probably 
be heavy. With regard to this suggestion, it is very probable 
that a few large mills which have plenty of warehouse accom- 
modation and depots all over the country would be ready to 
keep up a permanent extra stock of 100,000 sacks. Thus a mill 
of 10,000 sacks' capacity per week, which habitually maintains 
a total stock of 50,000 sacks, might bring up its stock to 150,000 
sacks. Such a mill, being a good customer to railways, could 
get from them the storage it required for little or nothing. But 
the bulk of the mills have no such advantages. They have little 
or no spare warehousing room, and are not accustomed to keep 
any stock, sending their flour out almost as fast as it is milled. 
It is doubtful therefore if a bounty of 23. 6d. per sack would 
have the desired effect of keeping up a stock of 10,000,000 sacks, 
sufficient for two to three months' bread consumption. 

The controversy reached a climax in the royal commission 
appointed in 1903, to which was also referred the importation 
of raw material in war time. Its report appeared in 
missi^a," 1 ' I 9S- To the question whether the unquestioned 
I903-I90S. dependence of the United Kingdom on an uninterrupted 
supply of sea-borne breadstuffs renders it advisable or 
not to maintain at all times a six months' stock of wheat and 
flour, it returned no decided answer, or perhaps it would be 
more correct to say that the commission was hopelessly divided. 
The main report was distinctly optimistic so far as the liability 
of the country to harass and distress at the hands of a hostile 
naval power or combination of powers was concerned. But 
there were several dissentients, and there was hardly any 
portion of the report in chief which did not provoke some 
reservation or another. That a maritime war would cause 



freights and insurance to rise in a high degree was freely admitted, 
and it was also admitted that the price of bread must also rise 
very appreciably. But, provided the navy did not break down, 
the risk of starvation was dismissed. Therefore all the proposals 
for providing national granaries or inducing merchants and 
millers to carry bigger stocks were put aside as unpractical and 
unnecessary. The commission was, however, inclined to consider 
more favourably a suggestion for providing free storage for 
wheat at the expense of the State. The idea was that if the State 
would subsidize any large granary company to the extent of 6d. 
or 5d. per qr., grain now warehoused in foreign lands would be 
attracted to the British Isles. But on the whole the commission 
held that the main effect of the scheme would be to saddle the 
government with the rent of all grain stored in public warehouses 
in the United Kingdom without materially increasing stocks. 
The proposal to offer bounties to farmers to hold stocks for a 
longer period and to grow more wheat met with equally little 
favour. 

To sum up the advantages of national granaries, assuming 
any sort of disaster to the navy, the possession of a reserve 
of even six months' wheat-supply in addition to ordinary stocks 
would prevent panic prices. On the other hand, the difficulties 
in the way of forming and administering such a reserve are very 
great. The world grows no great surplus of wheat, and to form 
a six months', much more a twelve months', stock would be 
the work of years. The government in buying up the wheat 
would have to go carefully if they would avoid sending up 
prices with a rush. They would have to buy dearly, and when 
they let go a certain amount of stock they would be bound to 
sell cheaply. A stock once formed might be held by the State 
with little or no disturbance of the corn market, although the 
existence of such an emergency stock would hardly encourage 
British farmers to grow more wheat. The cost of erecting, 
equipping and keeping in good order the necessary warehouses 
would be, probably, much heavier than the most liberal estimate 
hitherto made by advocates of national granaries. (G. F. Z.) 

GRANBY, JOHN MANNERS, MARQUESS OF (1721-1770), 
British soldier, was the eldest son of the third duke of Rutland. 
He was born in 1721 and educated at Eton and Trinity College, 
Cambridge, and was returned as member of parliament for 
Grantham in 1741. Four years later he received a commission 
as colonel of a regiment raised by the Rutland interest in and 
about Leicester to assist in quelling the Highland revolt of 1745. 
This corps never got beyond Newcastle, but young Granby 
went to the front as a volunteer on the duke of Cumberland's 
staff, and saw active service in the last stages of the insurrection. 
Very soon his regiment was disbanded. He continued in parlia- 
ment, combining with it military duties, making the campaign 
of Flanders (1747). Promoted major-general in 1755, three 
years later he was appointed colonel of the Royal Horse Guards 
(Blues). Meanwhile he had married the daughter of the duke 
of Somerset, and in 17 54 had begun his parliamentary connexion 
with Cambridgeshire, for which county he sat until his death. 
The same year that saw Granby made colonel of the Blues, 
saw also the despatch of a considerable British contingent to 
Germany. Minden was Granby's first great battle. At the head 
of the Blues he was one of the cavalry leaders halted at the 
critical moment by Sackville, and when in consequence that 
officer was sent home in disgrace, Lieut.-General Lord 
Granby succeeded to the command of the British contingent 
in Ferdinand's army, having 32,000 men under his orders at 
the beginning of 1760. In the remaining campaigns of the Seven 
Years' War the English contingent was more conspicuous by its 
conduct than the Prussians themselves. On the 3ist of July 
1760 Granby brilliantly stormed Warburg at the head of the 
British cavalry, capturing 1500 men and ten pieces of artillery. 
A year later (isth of July 1761) the British defended the heights 
of Vellinghausen with what Ferdinand himself styled " indescrib- 
able bravery." In the last campaign, at Gravenstein und 
Wilhelmsthal, Homburg and Cassel, Granby's men bore the brunt 
of the fighting and earned the greatest share of the glory. 

Returning to England in 1763 the marquess found himself 



342 



GRAN CHACO GRAND ALLIANCE 



the popular hero of the war. It is said that couriers awaited 
his arrival at all the home ports to offer him the choice of the 
Ordnance or the Horse Guards. His appointment to the Ordnance 
bore the date of the ist of July 1763, and three years later he 
became commander-in-chief. In this position he was attacked 
by " Junius," and a heated discussion arose, as the writer had 
taken the greatest pains in assailing the most popular member 
of the Graf ton ministry. In 1770 Granby, worn out by political 
and financial trouble, resigned all his offices, except the colonelcy 
of the Blues. He died at Scarborough on the i8th of October 
1770. He had been made a privy councillor in 1760, lord 
lieutenant of Derbyshire in 1762, and LL.D. of Cambridge in 
1769. 

Two portraits of Granby were painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, 
one of which is now in the National Gallery. His contemporary 
popularity is indicated by the number of inns and public-houses 
which took his name and had his portrait as sign-board. 

GRAN CHACO, an extensive region in the heart of South 
America belonging to the La Plata basin, stretching from 20 
to 29 S. lat., and divided between the republics of Argentine, 
Bolivia and Paraguay, with a small district of south-western 
Matto Grosso (Brazil). Its area is estimated at from 250,000 
to 425,000 sq. m., but the true Chaco region probably does not 
exceed 300,000 sq. m. The greater part is covered with marshes, 
lagoons and dense tropical jungle and forest, and is still un- 
explored. On its southern and western borders there are ex- 
tensive tracts of open woodland, intermingled with grassy plains, 
while on the northern side in Bolivia are large areas of open 
country subject to inundations in the rainy season. In general 
terms the Gran Chaco may be described as a great plain sloping 
gently to the S.E., traversed in the same direction by two great 
rivers, the Pilcomayo and Bermejo, whose sluggish courses are 
not navigable because of sand-banks, barriers of overturned trees 
and floating vegetation, and confusing channels. This excludes 
that part of eastern Bolivia belonging to the Amazon basin, 
which is sometimes described as part of the Chaco. The greater 
part of its territory is occupied by nomadic tribes of Indians, 
some of whom are still unsubdued, while others, like the Matacos, 
are sometimes to be found on neighbouring sugar estates and 
estancias as labourers during the busy season. The forest wealth 
of the Chaco region is incalculable and apparently inexhaustible, 
consisting of a great variety of palms and valuable cabinet 
woods, building timber, &c. Its extensive tracts of " quebracho 
Colorado " (Loxopterygium Lorentzii) are of very great value 
because of its use in tanning leather. Both the wood and its 
extract are largely exported. Civilization is slowly gaining 
footholds in this region along the southern and eastern borders. 

GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE (alternatively called the 
War of the League of Augsburg), the third 1 of the great aggressive 
wars waged by Louis XIV. of France against Spain, the Empire, 
Great Britain, Holland and other states. The two earlier wars, 
which are redeemed from oblivion by the fact that in them 
three great captains, Turenne, Conde and Montecucculi, played 
leading parts, are described in the article DUTCH WARS. In 
the third war the leading figures are : Henri de Montmorency- 
Boutteville, duke of Luxemburg, the former aide-de-camp of 
Conde and heir to his daring method of warfare; William of 
Orange, who had fought against both Conde and Luxemburg 
in the earlier wars, and was now king of England; Vauban, 
the founder of the sciences of fortification and siegecraft, and 
Catinat, the follower of Turenne's cautious and systematic 
strategy, who was the first commoner to receive high command 
in the army of Louis XIV. But as soldiers, these men except 
Vauban are overshadowed by the great figures of the preceding 
generation, and except for a half-dozen outstanding episodes, 
the war of 1689-97 was an affair of positions and manoeuvres. 

It was within these years that the art and practice of war 
began to crystallize into the form called " linear " in its strategic 

1 The name " Grand Alliance " is applied to the coalition against 
Louis XIV. begun by the League of Augsburg. This coalition not 
only waged the war dealt with in the present article, but (with only 
slight modifications and with practically unbroken continuity) the 
war of the SPANISH SUCCESSION (g..) that followed. 



and tactical aspect, and " cabinet-war " in its political and moral 
aspect. In the Dutch wars, and in the minor wars that pre- 
ceded the formation of the League of Augsburg, there were 
still survivals of the loose organization, violence and wasteful 
barbarity typical of the Thirty Years' War; and even in the 
War of the Grand Alliance (in its earlier years) occasional 
brutalities and devastations showed that the old spirit died hard. 
But outrages that would have been borne in dumb misery in 
the old days now provoked loud indignation, and when the 
fierce Louvois disappeared from the scene it became generally 
understood that barbarity was impolitic, not only as alienating 
popular sympathies, but also as rendering operations a physical 
impossibility for want of supplies. 

Thus in 1700, so far from terrorizing the country people 
into submission, armies systematically conciliated them by 
paying cash and bringing trade into the country. 
Formerly, wars had been fought to compel a people 
to abjure their faith or to change sides in some 
personal or dynastic quarrel. But since 1648 this had no 
longer been the case. The Peace of Westphalia established 
the general relationship of kings, priests and peoples on a basis 
that was not really shaken until the French Revolution, and 
in the intervening hundred and forty years the peoples at large, 
except at the highest and gravest moments (as in Germany in 
1689, France in 1709 and Prussia in 1757) held aloof from active 
participation in politics and war. This was the beginning of 
the theory that war was an affair of the regular forces only, 
and that intervention in it by the civil population was a punish- 
able offence. Thus wars became the business of the professional 
soldiers in the king's own service, and the scarcity and costliness 
of these soldiers combined with the purely political character 
of the quarrels that arose to reduce a campaign from an " intense 
and passionate drama " to a humdrum affair, to which only 
rarely a few men of genius imparted some degree of vigour, and 
which in the main was an attempt to gain small ends by a small 
expenditure of force and with the minimum of risk. As between 
a prince and his subjects there were still quarrels that stirred 
the average man the Dragonnades, for instance, or the English 
Revolution but foreign wars were " a stronger form of diplo- 
matic notes," as Clausewitz called them, and were waged with 
the object of adding a codicil to the treaty of peace that had 
closed the last incident. 

Other causes contributed to stifle the former ardour of war. 
Campaigns were no longer conducted by armies of ten to thirty 
thousand men. Large regular armies had come into fashion, 
and, as Guibert points out, instead of small armies charged with 
grand operations we find grand armies charged with small 
operations. The average general, under the prevailing conditions 
of supply and armament, was not equal to the task of commanding 
such armies. Any real concentration of the great forces that 
Louis XIV. had created was therefore out of the question, and 
the field armies split into six or eight independent fractions, 
each charged with operations on a particular theatre of war. 
From such a policy nothing remotely resembling the crushing 
of a great power could be expected to be gained. The one 
tangible asset, in view of future peace negotiations, was therefore 
a fortress, and it was on the preservation or capture of fortresses 
that operations in all these wars chiefly turned. The idea of 
the decisive battle for its own sake, as a settlement of the quarrel, 
was far distant; for, strictly speaking, there was no quarrel, 
and to use up highly trained and exceedingly expensive soldiers 
in gaining by brute force an advantage that might equally well 
be obtained by chicanery was regarded as foolish. 

The fortress was, moreover, of immediate as well as contingent 
value to a state at war. A century of constant warfare had 
impoverished middle Europe, and armies had to spread over a 
large area if they desired to " live on the country." This was 
dangerous in the face of the enemy (cf. the Peninsular War), 
and it was also uneconomical. The only way to prevent the 
country people from sending their produce into the fortresses 
for safety was to announce beforehand that cash would be paid, 
at a high rate, for whatever the army needed. But even promises 



GRAND ALLIANCE 



343 






rarely brought this about, and to live at all, whether on supplies 
brought up from the home country and stored in magazines 
(which had to be guarded) or on local resources, an army had 
as a rule to maintain or to capture a large fortress. Sieges, 
therefore, and manoeuvres are the features of this form of war, 
wherein armies progressed not with the giant strides of modern 
war, but in a succession of short hops from one foothold to the 
next. This was the procedure of the average commander, and 
even when a more intense spirit of conflict was evoked by the 
Luxemburgs and Marlboroughs it was but momentary and 
spasmodic. 

The general character of the war being borne in mind, nine- 
tenths of its marches and manoeuvres can be almost " taken as 
read " ; the remaining tenth, the exceptional and abnormal 
part of it, alone possesses an interest for modern readers. 

In pursuance of a new aggressive policy in Germany Louis XIV. 
sentjiis troops, as a diplomatic menace rather than for conquest, 
into that country in the autumn of 1688. Some of their raiding 
parties plundered the country as far south as Augsburg, for the 
political intent of their advance suggested terrorism rather than 
conciliation as the best method. The league of Augsburg at 
once took up the challenge, and the addition of new members 
(Treaty of Vienna, May 1689) converted it into the " Grand 
Alliance " of Spain, Holland, Sweden, Savoy and certain Italian 
states, Great Britain, the emperor, the elector of Branden- 
burg, &c. 

" Those who condemned the king for raising up so many 
enemies, admired him for having so fully prepared to defend 
himself and even to forestall them," says Voltaire. Louvois 
had in fa'ct completed the work of organizing the French army 
on a regular and permanent basis, and had made it not merely 
the best, but also by far the most numerous in Europe, for Louis 
disposed in 1688 of no fewer than 375,000 soldiers and 60,000 
sailors. The infantry was uniformed and drilled, and the socket 
bayonet and the flint-lock musket had been introduced. The 
only relic of the old armament was the pike, which was retained 
for one-quarter of the foot, though it had been discarded by the 
Imperialists in the course of the Turkish wars described below. 
The first artillery regiment was created in 1684, to replace the 
former semi-civilian organization by a body of artillerymen 
susceptible of uniform training and amenable to discipline 
and orders. 

In 1689 Louis had six armies on foot. That in Germany, 
which had executed the raid of the previous autumn, was not 
Devasta- i n a position to resist the principal army of the coalition 
tionofthe so far from support. Louvois therefore ordered it 
Palatinate, to i av wa ste the Palatinate, and the devastation of 
the country around Heidelberg, Mannheim, Spires, 
Oppenheim and Worms was pitilessly and methodically carried 
into effect in January and February. There had been devasta- 
tions in previous wars, even the high-minded Turenne had 
used the argument of fire and sword to terrify a population 
or a prince, while the whole story of the last ten years of the 
great war had been one of incendiary armies leaving traces 
of their passage that it took a century to remove. But here the 
devastation was a purely military measure, executed systemati- 
cally over a given strategic front for no other purpose than to 
delay the advance of the enemy's army. It differed from the 
method of Turenne or Cromwell in that the sufferers were not 
those people whom it was the purpose of the war to reduce to 
submission, but others who had no interest in the quarrel. It 
differed from Wellington's laying waste of Portugal in 1810 in 
that it was riot done for the defence of the Palatinate against 
a national enemy, but because the Palatinate was where it was. 
The feudal theory that every subject of a prince at war was an 
armed vassal, and therefore an enemy of the prince's enemy, 
had in practice been obsolete for two centuries past; by 1690 
the organization of war, its causes, its methods and its instru- 
ments had passed out of touch with the people at large, and it 
had become thoroughly understood that the army alone was 
concerned with the army's business. Thus it was that this 
devastation excited universal reprobation, and that, in the words 



of a modern French writer, the " idea of Germany came to 
birth in the flames of the Palatinate." 

As a military measure this crime was, moreover, quite unprofit- 
able; for it became impossible for Marshal Duras, the French 
commander, to hold out on the east side of the middle Rhine, 
and he could think of nothing better to do than to go farther 
south and to ravage Baden and the Breisgau, which was not 
even a military necessity. The grand army of the Allies, coming 
farther north, was practically unopposed. Charles of Lorraine 
and the elector of Bavaria lately comrades in the Turkish war 
(see below) invested Mainz, the elector of Brandenburg Bonn. 
The latter, following the evil precedent of his enemies, shelled 
the town uselessly instead of making a breach in its walls and 
overpowering its French garrison, an incident not calculated 
to advance the nascent idea of German unity. Mainz, valiantly 
defended by Nicolas du Ble, marquis d'Uxelles, had to surrender 
on the 8th of September. The governor of Bonn, baron d'Asfeld, 
not in the least intimidated by the bombardment, held out till 
the army that had taken Mainz reinforced the elector of Branden- 
burg, and then, rejecting the hard terms of surrender offered 
him by the latter, he fell in resisting a last assault on the I2th 
of October. Only 850 men out of his 6000 were left to surrender 
on the i6th, and the duke of Lorraine, less truculent than the 
elector, escorted them safely to Thionville. Boufflers; with 
another of Louis's armies, operated from Luxemburg (captured 
by the French in 1684 and since held) and Trarbach towards the 
Rhine, but in spite of a minor victory at Kochheim on the 2ist 
of August, he was unable to relieve either Mainz or Bonn. 

In the Low Countries the French marshal d'Humieres, being 
in superior force, had obtained special permission to offer battle 
to the Allies. Leaving the garrison of Lille and Tournay to 
amuse the Spaniards, he hurried from Maubeuge to oppose the 
Dutch, who from Namur had advanced slowly on Philippeville. 
Coming upon their army (which was commanded by the prince 
of Waldeck) in position behind the river Heure, with an advanced 
post in the little walled town of Walcourt, he flung his advanced 
guard against the bridge and fortifications of this place to clear 
the way for his deployment beyond the river Heure (27th 
August). After wasting a thousand brave men in this attempt, 
he drew back. For a few days the two armies remained face 
to face, cannonading one another at intervals, but no further 
righting occurred. Humieres returned to the region of the 
Scheldt fortresses, and Waldeck to Brussels. For the others 
of Louis' six armies the year's campaign passed off quite 
uneventfully. 

Simultaneously with these operations, the Jacobite cause was 
being fought to an issue in Ireland. War began early in 1689 with 
desultory engagements between the Orangemen of the 
north and the Irish regular army, most of which the earl 
of Tyrconnel had induced to declare for King James. 
The northern struggle after a time condensed itself into 
the defence of Deny and Enniskillen. The siege of the former 
place, begun by James himself and carried on by the French 
general Rosen, lasted 105 days. In marked contrast to the sieges 
of the continent, this was resisted by the townsmen themselves, 
under the leadership of the clergyman George Walker. But the 
relieving force (consisting of two frigates, a supply ship and a force 
under Major-general Percy Kirke) was dilatory, and it was not 
until the defenders were in the last extremity that Kirke actually 
broke through the blockade (July 31st}. Enniskillen was less 
closely invested, and its inhabitants, organized by Colonel Wolseley 
and other officers sent by Kirke, actually kept the open field and 
defeated the Jacobites at Newtown Butler (July 3ist). A few days 
later the Jacobite army withdrew from the north. But it was long 
before an adequate army could be sent over from England to deal 
with it. Marshal Schomberg (q.v.), one of the most distinguished 
soldiers of the time, who had been expelled from the French service 
as a Huguenot, was indeed sent over in August, but the army he 
brought, some 10,000 strong, was composed of raw recruits, and 
when it was assembled in camp at Dundalk to be trained for its 
work, it was quickly ruined by an epidemic of fever. But James 
failed to take advantage of his opportunity to renew the war in the 
north, and the relics of Schomberg's army wintered in security, 
covered by the Enniskillen troops. In the spring of 1690, however, 
more troops, this time experienced regiments from Holland, Denmark 
and Brandenburg, were sent, and in June, Schomberg in Ireland and 
Major-general Scravemore in Chester having thoroughly organized 
and equipped the field army, King William assumed the command 



344 



GRAND ALLIANCE 



himself. Five days after his arrival he began his advance from 
Loughbrickland near Newry, and on the 1st of July he engaged 
James's main army on the river Boyne, close to Drogheda. Schom- 
berg was killed and William himself wounded, but the Irish army 
was routed. 

No stand was made by the defeated party either in the Dublin 
or in the Waterford district. Lauzun, the commander of the French 
auxiliary corps in James's army, and Tyrconnel both discounten- 
anced any attempt to defend Limerick, where the Jacobite forces 
had reassembled; but Patrick Sarsfield (earl of Lucan), as the 
spokesman of the younger and more ardent of the Irish officers, 
pleaded for its retention. He was left, therefore, to hold Limerick, 
while Tyrconnel and Lauzun moved northward into Galway. Here, 
as in the north, the quarrel enlisted the active sympathies of the 
people against the invader, and Sarsfield not only surprised and 
destroyed the artillery train of William's army, but repulsed every 
assault made on the walls that Lauzun had said " could be battered 
down by rotten apples." William gave up the siege on the 3Oth 
of August. The failure was, however, compensated in a measure by 
the arrival in Ireland of an expedition under Lord Marlborough, 
which captured Cork and Kinsale, and next year (1691) the Jacobite 
cause was finally crushed by William's general Ginckell (afterwards 
earl of Athlone) in the battle of Aughrim in Galway (July I2th), 
in which St Ruth, the French commander, was killed and the 
Jacobite army dissipated. Ginckell, following up his victory, be- 
sieged Limerick afresh. Tyrconnel died of apoplexy while organizing 
the defence, and this time the town was invested by sea as well as 
by land. After six weeks' resistance the defenders offered to 
capitulate, and with the signing of the treaty of Limerick on the 
1st of October the Irish war came to an end. Sarsfield and the 
most energetic of King James's supporters retired to France and 
were there formed into the famous " Irish brigade." Sarsfield was 
killed at the battle of Neerwinden two years later. 

The campaign of 1690 on the continent of Europe is marked 
by two battles, one of which, Luxemburg's victory of Fleurus, 
belongs to the category of the world's great battles. It is 
described under FLEURUS, and the present article only deals 
summarily with the conditions in which it was fought. These, 
though they in fact led to an encounter that could, in itself, 
fairly be called decisive, were in closer accord with the general 
spirit of the war than was the decision that arose out of them. 

Luxemburg had a powerful enemy in Louvois, and he had 
consequently been allotted only an insignificant part in the first 
campaign. But after the disasters of 1680 Louis re-arranged 
the commands on the north-east frontier so as to allow Humieres, 
Luxemburg and Boufflers to combine for united action. " I 
will take care that Louvois plays fair," Louis said to the duke 
when he gave him his letters of service. Though apparently 
Luxemburg was not authorized to order such a combination 
himself, as senior officer he would automatically take command 
if it came about. The whole force available was probably close 
on 100,000, but not half of these were present at the decisive 
battle, though Luxemburg certainly practised the utmost 
" economy of force " as this was understood in those days (see 
also NEERWINDEN). On the remaining theatres of war, the 
dauphin, assisted by the due de Lorge, held the middle Rhine, 
and Catinat the Alps, while other forces wereinRoussillon,&c., 
as before. Catinat's operations are briefly described below. 
Those of the others need no description, for though the Allies 
formed a plan for a grand concentric advance on Paris, the 
preliminaries to this advance were so numerous and so closely 
interdependent that on the most favourable estimate the winter 
would necessarily find the Allied armies many leagues short of 
Paris. In fact, the Rhine offensive collapsed when Charles of 
Lorraine died (lyth April), and the reconquest of his lost duchy 
ceased to be a direct object of the war. 

Luxemburg began operations by drawing in from the Sambre 
country, where he had hitherto been stationed, to the Scheldt 
and " eatin S U P " tne country between Oudenarde 
an d Ghent in the face of a Spanish army concentrated 
at the latter place (isth May-i2th June). He then 
left Humieres with a containing force in the Scheldt region and 
hurried back to the Sambre to interpose between the Allied 
army under Waldeck and the fortress of Dinant which Waldeck 
was credited with the intention of besieging. His march from 
Tournay to 'Gerpinnes was counted a model of skill the locus 
classicus for the maxim that ruled till the advent of Napoleon 
" march always in the order in which you encamp, or purpose 



Fleams 



to encamp, or fight." For four days the army marched across 
country in close order, covered in all directions by reconnoitring 
cavalry and advanced, flank and rear guards. Under these 
conditions eleven miles a day was practically forced marching, 
and on arriving at Jeumont-sur-Sambre the army was given 
three days' rest. Then followed a few leisurely marches in the 
direction of Charleroi, during which a detachment of Boufflers's 
army came in, and the cavalry explored the country to the north. 
On news of the enemy's army being at Trazegnies, Luxemburg 
hurried across a ford of the Sambre above Charleroi, but this 
proved to be a detachment only, and soon information came 
in that Waldeck was encamped near Fleurus. Thereupon 
Luxemburg, without consulting his subordinate generals, took 
his army to Velaine. He knew that the enemy was marking 
time till the troops of Liege and the Brandenburgers from the 
Rhine were near enough to co-operate in the Dinant enterprise, 
and he was determined to fight a battle at once. From Velaine, 
therefore, on the morning of the ist of July, the army moved 
forward to Fleurus and there won one of the most brilliant 
victories in the history of the Royal army. But Luxemburg 
was not allowed to pursue his advantage. He was ordered to 
hold his army in readiness to besiege either Namur, Mons, 
Charleroi or Ath, according as later orders dictated; and to 
send back the borrowed regiments to Boufflers, who was being 
pressed back by the Brandenburg and Liege troops. Thus 
Waldeck reformed his army in peace at Brussels, where William 
III. of England soon afterwards assumed command of the 
Allied forces in the Netherlands, and Luxemburg and the other 
marshals stood fast for the rest of the campaign, being forbidden 
to advance until Catinat in Italy should have won a battle. 

In this quarter the armed neutrality of the duke of Savoy 
had long disquieted the French court. His personal connexions 
with the imperial family and his resentment against staffarda 
Louvois, who had on some occasion treated him with 
his usual patronizing arrogance, inclined him to join the 
Allies, while on the othe* hand he could hope for extensions 
of his scanty territory only by siding with Louis. In view of 
this doubtful condition of affairs the French army under Catinat 
had for some time been maintained on the Alpine frontier, and 
in the summer of 1690 Louis XIV. sent an ultimatum to Victor 
Amadeus to compel him to take one side or the other actively 
and openly. The result was that Victor Emmanuel threw in 
his lot with the Allies and obtained help from the Spaniards 
and Austrians in the Milanese. Catinat thereupon advanced 
into Piedmont, and won, principally by virtue of his own watchful- 
ness and the high efficiency of his troops, the important victory 
of Staffarda (August i8th, 1690). This did not, however, enable 
him to overrun Piedmont, and as the duke was soon reinforced, 
he had to be content with the methodical conquest of a few 
frontier districts. On the side of Spain, a small French army 
under the due de Noailles passed into Catalonia and there lived 
at the enemy's expense for the duration of the campaign. 

In these theatres of war, and on the Rhine, where the disunion 
of the German princes prevented vigorous action, the following 
year, 1691, was uneventful. But in the Netherlands there 
were a siege, a war of manoeuvres and a cavalry combat, each 
in its way somewhat remarkable. The siege was that of Mons, 
which was, like many sieges in the former wars, conducted with 
much pomp by Louis XIV. himself, with Boufflers and Vauban 
under him. On the surrender of the place, which was hastened 
by red-hot shot (April 8th), Louis returned to Versailles and 
divided his army between Boufflers and Luxemburg, the former 
of whom departed to the Meuse. There he attempted by bom- 
bardment to enforce the surrender of Liege, but had to desist when 
the elector of Brandenburg threatened Dinant. The principal 
armies on either side faced one another under the command 
respectively of William III. and of Luxemburg. The Allies 
were first concentrated to the south of Namur, and Luxemburg 
hurried thither, but neither party found any tempting opportunity 
for battle, and when the cavalry had consumed all the forage 
available in the district, the two armies edged away gradually 
towards Flanders. The war of manoeuvre continued, with a 



GRAND ALLIANCE 



345 



slight balance of advantage on Luxemburg's side, until September, 
when William returned to England, leaving Waldeck in command 
of the Allied army, with orders to distribute it in winter quarters 
amongst the garrison towns. This gave the momentary oppor- 
tunity for which Luxemburg had been watching, and at Leuze 
(aoth Sept.) he fell upon the cavalry of Waldeck's rearguard 
and drove it back in disorder with heavy losses until the pursuit 
was checked by the Allied infantry. 

In 1692 * the Rhine campaign was no more decisive than 
before, although Lorge made a successful raid into Wiirttemberg 
in September and foraged his cavalry in German territory till 
the approach of winter. The Spanish campaign was unimportant, 
but on the Alpine side the Allies under the duke of Savoy drove 
back Catinat into Dauphine, which they ravaged with fire and 
sword. But the French peasantry were quicker to take arms 
than the Germans, and, inspired by the local gentry amongst 
whom figured the heroine, Philis de la Tour du Pin (1645-1708), 
daughter of the marquis de la Charce they beset every road 
with such success that the small regular army of the invaders 
was powerless. Brought practically to a standstill, the Allies 
soon consumed the provisions that could be gathered in, and 
then, fearing lest the snow should close the passes behind them, 
they retreated. 

In the Low Countries the campaign as before began with a 
great siege. Louis and Vauban invested Namur on the 26th 

of May. The place was defended by the prince de 

Barbancon (who had been governor of Luxemburg 
1692. when that place was besieged in 1684) and Coehoorn 

(q.v.), Vauban's rival in the science of fortification. 
Luxemburg, with a small army, manoeuvred to cover the siege 
against William III.'s army at Louvain. The place fell on the 
5th of June, 2 after a very few days of Vauban's " regular " 
attack, but the citadel held out until the 23rd. Then, as before, 
Louis returned to Versailles, giving injunctions to Luxemburg 
to " preserve the strong places and the country, while opposing 
the enemy's enterprises and subsisting the army at his expense." 
This negative policy, contrary to expectation, led to a hard- 
fought battle. William, employing a common device, announced 
his intention of retaking Namur, but set his army in motion 
for Flanders and the sea-coast fortresses held by the French. 
Luxemburg, warned in time, hurried towards the Scheldt, and 
the two armies were soon face to face again, Luxemburg about 
steenkirk Steenkirk, William in front of Hal. William then 

formed the plan of surprising Luxemburg's right 
wing before it could be supported by the rest of his army, 
relying chiefly on false information that a detected spy 
at his headquarters was forced to send, to mislead the duke. 
But Luxemburg had the material protection of a widespread 
net of outposts as well as a secret service, and although ill in 
bed when William's advance was reported, he shook off his 
apathy, mounted his horse and, enabled by his outpost reports 
to divine his opponent's plan, he met it (3rd August) by a swift 
concentration of his army, against which the Allies, whose 
advance and deployment had been mismanaged, were powerless 
(see STEENKIRK). In this almost accidental battle both sides 
suffered enormous losses, and neither attempted to bring about, 
or even to risk, a second resultless trial of* strength. Boufflers's 
army returned to the Sambre and Luxemburg and William 
established themselves for the rest of the season at Lessines 
and Ninove respectively, 13 m. apart. After both armies 
had broken up into their winter quarters, Louis ordered 
Boufflers to attempt the capture of Charleroi. But a bombard- 
ment failed to intimidate the garrison, and when the Allies 
began to re-assemble, the attempt was given up (igth-2ist Oct.). 
This failure was, however, compensated by the siege and capture 
of Fumes (28th Dec. 1692-7111 Jan. 1693). 

In 1693, the culminating point of the war was reached. It 
began, as mentioned above, with a winter enterprise that at 

1 Louvois died in July 1691. 

1 A few days before this the great naval reverse of La Hogue put 
an end to the projects of invading England hitherto entertained at 
Versailles. 






least indicated the aggressive spirit of the French generals. 
The king promoted his admiral, Tourville, and Catinat, the 
rolurier, to the marshalship, and founded the military order of 
St Louis on the i oth of April. The grand army in the Netherlands 
this year numbered 120,000, to oppose whom William III. had 
only some 40,000 at hand. But at the very beginning of opera- 
tions Louis, after reviewing this large force at Gembloux, broke 
it up, in order to send 30,000 under the dauphin to Germany, 
where Lorge had captured Heidelberg and seemed able, if re- 
inforced, to overrun south Germany. But the imperial general 
Prince Louis of Baden took up a position near Heilbronn so 
strong that the dauphin and Lorge did not venture to attack 
him. Thus King Louis sacrificed a reality to a dream, and for 
the third time lost the opportunity, for which he always longed, 
of commanding in chief in a great battle. He himself, to judge 
by his letter to Monsieur on the 8th of June, regarded his action 
as a sacrifice of personal dreams to tangible realities. And, 
before the event falsified predictions, there was much to be said 
for the course he took, which accorded better with the prevailing 
system of war than a Fleurus or a Neerwinden. In this system 
of war the rival armies, as armies, were almost in a state of 
equilibrium, and more was to be expected from an army dealing 
with something dissimilar to itself a fortress or a patch of land 
or a convoy than from its collision with another army of equal 
force. 

Thus Luxemburg obtained his last and greatest opportunity. 
He was still superior in numbers, but William at Louvain had 
the advantage of position. The former, authorized 
by his master this year " non settlement d'emptcher les 
ennemis de rien entreprendre, mais d'emporter quelques 
ava.nta.ges sur eux," threatened Liege, drew William over to its 
defence and then advanced to attack him. The Allies, however, 
retired to another position, between the Great and Little Geete 
rivers, and there, in a strongly entrenched position around 
Neerwinden, they were attacked by Luxemburg on the 29th of 
July. The long and doubtful battle, one of the greatest victories 
ever won by the French army, is briefly described under NEER- 
WINDEN. It ended in a brilliant victory for the assailant, but 
Luxemburg's exhausted army did not pursue; William was as 
unshaken and determined as ever; and the campaign closed, 
not with a treaty of peace, but with a few manceuvres which, 
by inducing William to believe in an attack on Ath, enabled 
Luxemburg to besiege and capture Charleroi (October). 

Neerwinden was not the only French victory of the year. 
Catinat, advancing from Fenestrelle and Susa to the relief of 
Pinerolo (Pignerol), which the duke of Savoy was 
besieging, took up a position in formal order of battle 
north of the village of Marsaglia. Here on the 4th of 
October the duke of Savoy attacked him with his whole army, 
front to front. But the greatly superior regimental efficiency 
of the French, and Catinat's minute attention to details 3 in 
arraying them, gave the new marshal a victory that was a not 
unworthy pendant to Neerwinden. The Piedmontese and their 
allies lost, it is said, 10,000 killed, wounded and prisoners, as 
against Catinat's 1800. But here, too, the results were trifling, 
and this year of victory is remembered chiefly as the year in 
which " people perished of want to the accompaniment of 
Te Deums." 

In 1694 (late in the season owing to the prevailing distress and 
famine) Louis opened a fresh campaign in the Netherlands. The 
armies were larger and more ineffective than ever, and William 
offered no further opportunities to his formidable opponent. In 
September, after inducing William to desist from his intention of 
besieging Dunkirk by appearing on his flank with a mass of cavalry, 4 
which had ridden from the Meuse, 100 m., in 4 days, Luxemburg 
gave up his command. He died on the 4th of January following, 
and with him the tradition of the Cond6 school of warfare dis- 
appeared from Europe. In Catalonia the marshal de Noailles won 
a victory (27th May) over the Spaniards at the ford of the Ter 

3 Marsaglia is, if not the first, at any rate, one of the first, instances 
of a bayonet charge by a long deployed line of infantry. 

4 Hussars figured here for the first time in western Europe: A 
regiment of them had been raised in 1692 from deserters from the 
Austrian service. 






34-6 



GRAND ALLIANCE 



Later 
campaigns 
of the war. 



(Torroella, 5 m. above the mouth of the river), and in consequence 
captured a number of walled towns. 

In 1695 William found Marshal Villeroi a far less formidable 
opponent than Luxemburg had been, and easily succeeded in 
keeping him in Flanders while a corps of the Allies in- 
vested Namur. Coehoorn directed the siege-works, and 
Boufflers the defence. Gradually, as in 1692, the de- 
fenders were dislodged from the town, the citadel 
outworks and the citadel itself, the last being assaulted with 
success by the " British grenadiers," as the song commemorates, 
on the 3Oth of August. Boufflers was rewarded for his sixty-seven 
days' defence by the grade of marshal. 

By 1696 necessity had compelled Louis to renounce his vague 
and indefinite offensive policy, and he now frankly restricted his 
efforts to the maintenance of what he had won in the preceding 
campaigns. In this new policy he met with much success. 
Boufflers, Lorge, Noailles and even the incompetent Villeroi held 
the field in their various spheres of operations without allowing the 
Allies to inflict any material injury, and also (by having recourse 
again to the policy of living by plunder) preserving French soil 
from the burden of their own maintenance. In this, as before, they 
were powerfully assisted by the disunion and divided counsels of 
their heterogeneous enemies. In Piedmont, Catinat crowned his 
work by making peace and alliance with the duke of Savoy, and 
the two late enemies having joined forces captured one of the 
fortresses of the Milanese. The last campaign was in 1697. Catinat 
and Vauban besieged Ath. This siege was perhaps the most regular 
and methodical of the great engineer's career. It lasted 23 days 
and cost the assailants only 50 men. King William did not stir 
from his entrenched position at Brussels, nor did Villeroi dare to 
attack him there. Lastly, in August 1697 Vendome, Noailles' 
successor, captured Barcelona. The peace of Ryswijk, signed on 
the 3Oth of October, closed this war by practically restoring the 
status quo ante; but neither the ambitions of Louis nor the Grand 
Alliance that opposed them ceased to have force, and three years 
later the struggle began anew (seeSPANisn SUCCESSION, WAR OFTHE). 
Concurrently with these campaigns, the emperor had been en- 
gaged in a much more serious war on his eastern marches against 
Austm- t ^ e ld enemy, the Turks. This war arose in 1682 out 
Turkish ^ i nterna ! disturbances in Hungary. The campaign of 
wars, the following year is memorable for all time as the last 

1682-1699. great wave of Turkish invasion. Mahommed IV. ad- 
vanced from Belgrade in May, with 200,000 men, drove 
back the small imperial army of Prince Charles of Lorraine, 
and early in July invested Vienna itself. The two months' defence 
of Vienna by Count Rudiger Starhemberg (1635-1701) and the 
brilliant victory of the relieving army led by John Sobieski, king of 
Poland, and Prince Charles on the I2th of September 1683, were 
events which, besides their intrinsic importance, possess the romantic 
interest of an old knightly crusade against the heathen. 

But the course of the war, after the tide of invasion had ebbed, 
differed little from the wars of contemporary western Europe. 
Turkey figured rather as a factor in the balance of power than as 
**" " infidel," and although the battles and sieges in Hungary were 



the 



characterized by the bitter personal hostility of Christian to Turk 
which had no counterpart in the West, the war as a whole was as 
methodical and tedious as any Rhine or Low Countries campaign. 
In 1684 Charles of Lorraine gained a victory at Waitzen on the 27th 
of June and another at Eperies on the i8th of September, and 
unsuccessfully besieged Budapest. 

In 1685 the Germans were uniformly successful, though a victory 
at Gran (August l6th) and the storming of Neuhausel (August igth) 
were the only outstanding incidents. In 1686 Charles, assisted by 
the elector Max Emanuel of Bavaria, besieged and stormed Buda- 
pest (Sept. 2nd). In 1687 they followed up their success by a great 
victory at Mohacz (Aug. I2th). In 1688 the Austrians advanced 
still further, took Belgrade, threatened Widin and entered Bosnia. 
The margrave Louis of Baden, who afterward became one of the 
most celebrated of the methodical generals of the day, won a victory 
at Derbent on the 5th of September 1688, and next year, in spite of 
the outbreak of a general European war, he managed to win another 
battle at Nisch (Sept. 24th), to capture Widin (Oct. I4th) and to 
advance to the Balkans, but in 1690, more troops having to be 
withdrawn for the European war, the imperialist generals lost 
Nisch, Widin and Belgrade one after the other. There was, however, 
no repetition of the scenes of 1683, for in 1691 Louis won the battle 
of Szlankamen (Aug. igth). After two more desultory if successful 
campaigns he was called to serve in western Europe, and for three 
years more the war dragged on without result, until in 1697 the 
young Prince Eugene was appointed to command the imperialists 
and won a great and decisive victory at Zenta on the Theiss (Sept. 
nth). This induced a last general advance of the Germans east- 
ward, which was definitively successful and brought about the 
peace of Carlowitz (January 1699). (C. F. A.) 

NAVAL OPERATIONS 

The naval side of the war waged by the powers of western 
Europe from 1689 to 1697, to reduce the predominance of King 



Louis XIV., was not marked by any very conspicuous exhibition 
of energy or capacity, but it was singularly decisive in its results. 
At the beginning of the struggle the French fleet kept the sea 
in face of the united fleets of Great Britain and Holland. It 
displayed even in 1690 a marked superiority over them. Before 
the struggle ended it had been fairly driven into port, and though 
its failure was to a great extent due to the exhaustion of the 
French finances, yet the inability of the French admirals to 
make a proper use of their fleets, and the incapacity of the king's 
ministers to direct the efforts of his naval officers to the most 
effective aims, were largely responsible for the result. 

When the war began in 1689, the British Admiralty was still 
suffering from the disorders of the reign of King Charles II., 
which had been only in part corrected during the short reign of 
James II. The first squadrons were sent out late and in in- 
sufficient strength. The Dutch, crushed by the obligation to 
maintain a great army, found an increasing difficulty in preparing 
their fleet for action early. Louis XIV., a despotic monarch, 
with as yet unexhausted resources, had it within his power to 
strike first. The opportunity offered him was a very tempting 
one. Ireland was still loyal to King James II., and would there- 
fore have afforded an admirable basis of operations to a French 
fleet. No serious attempt was made to profit by the advantage 
thus presented. In March 1689 King James was landed and 
reinforcements were prepared for him at Brest. A British 
squadron under the command of Arthur Herbert (afterwards 
Lord Torrington), sent to intercept them, reached the French 
port too late, and on returning to the coast of Ireland sighted 
the convoy off the Old Head of Kinsale on the loth of May. 
The French admiral Chateaurenault held on to Bantry Bay, 
and an indecisive encounter took place on the nth of May. 
The troops and stores for King James were successfully landed. 
Then both admirals, the British and the French, returned home, 
and neither in that nor in the following year was any serious 
effort made by the French to gain command of the sea between 
Ireland and England. On the contrary, a great French fleet 
entered the Channel, and gained a success over the combined 
British and Dutch fleets on the loth of July 1690 (see BEACHY 
HEAD, BATTLE or), which was not followed up by vigorous 
action. In the meantime King William III. passed over to 
Ireland and won the battle of the Boyne. During the following 
year, while the cause of King James was being finally ruined 
in Ireland, the main French fleet was cruising in the Bay of 
Biscay, principally for the purpose of avoiding battle. During 
the whole of 1689, 1690 and 1691, British squadrons were active 
on the Irish coast. One raised the siege of Londonderry in July 
1689, and another convoyed the first British forces sent over 
under the duke of Schomberg. Immediately after Beachy 
Head in 1690, a part of the Channel fleet carried out an expedition 
under the earl (afterwards duke) of Marlborough, which took 
Cork and reduced a large part of the south of the island. In 
1691 the French did little more than help to carry away the 
wreckage of their allies and their own detachments. In 1692 
a vigorous but tardy attempt was made to employ their fleet 
to cover an invasion of England (see LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF). 
It ended in defeat, and the allies remained masters of the Channel. 
The defeat of La Hogue did not do so much harm to the naval 
power of King Louis as has sometimes been supposed. In the 
next year, 1693, he was able to strike a severe blow at the Allies. 
The important Mediterranean trade of Great Britain and 
Holland, called for convenience the Smyrna convoy, having 
been delayed during the previous year, anxious measures were 
taken to see it safe on its road in 1693. But the arrangements 
of the allied governments and admirals were not good. They 
made no effort to blockade Brest, nor did they take effective steps 
to discover whether or not the French fleet had left the port. 
The convoy was seen beyond the Scilly Isles by the main fleet. 
But as the French admiral Tourville had left Brest for the Straits 
of Gibraltar with a powerful force and had been joined by a 
squadron from Toulon, the whole convoy was scattered or taken 
by him, in the latter days of June, near Lagos. But though 
this success was a very fair equivalent for the defeat at La 



GRAND CANARY GRAND CANYON 



347 



Hogue, it was the last serious effort made by the navy of Louis 
XIV. in this war. Want of money compelled him to lay his 
fleet up. The allies were now free to make full use of their own, 
to harass the French coast, to intercept French commerce, and 
to co-operate with the armies acting against France. Some of 
the operations undertaken by them were more remarkable for 
the violence of the effort than for the magnitude of the results. 
The numerous bombardments of French Channel ports, and the 
attempts to destroy St Malo, the great nursery of the active 
French privateers, by infernal machines, did little harm. A 
British attack on Brest in June 1694 was beaten off with heavy 
loss. The scheme had been betrayed by Jacobite correspondents. 
Yet the inability of the French king to avert these enterprises 
showed the weakness of his navy and the limitations of his power. 
The protection of British and Dutch commerce was never com- 
plete, for the French privateers were active to the end. But 
French commerce was wholly ruined. 

It was the misfortune of the allies that their co-operation 
with armies was largely with the forces of a power so languid 
and so bankrupt as Spain. Yet the series of operations directed 
by Russel in the Mediterranean throughout 1694 and 1695 
demonstrated the superiority of the allied fleet, and checked 
the advance of the French in Catalonia. Contemporary with 
the campaigns in Europe was a long series of cruises against the 
French in the West Indies, undertaken by the British navy, 
with more or less help from the Dutch and a little feeble assistance 
from the Spaniards. They began with the cruise of Captain 
Lawrence Wright in 1690-1691, and ended with that of Admiral 
Nevil in 1696-1697. It cannot be said that they attained to any 
very honourable achievement, or even did much to weaken the 
French hold on their possessions in the West Indies and North 
America. Some, and notably the attack made on Quebec by 
Sir William Phips in 1690, with a force raised in the British 
colonies, ended in defeat. None of them was so triumphant 
as the plunder of Cartagena in South America by the Frenchman 
Pointis, in 1697, at the head of a semi-piratical force. Too often 
there was absolute misconduct. In the buccaneering and piratical 
atmosphere of the West Indies, the naval officers of the day, 
who were still infected with the corruption of the reign of Charles 
II., and who calculated on distance from home to secure them 
immunity, sank nearly to the level of pirates and buccaneers. 
The indifference of the age to the laws of health, and its ignorance 
of them, caused the ravages of disease to be frightful. In the 
case of Admiral NeviPs squadron, the admiral himself and all 
his captains except one, died during the cruise, and the ships 
were unmanned. Yet it was their own vices which caused 
these expeditions to fail, and not the strength of the French 
defence. When the war ended, the navy of King Louis XIV. 
had disappeared from the sea. 

See Burchett, Memoirs of Transactions at Sea during the War 
with France, 1688-1697 (London, 1703); Lediard, Naval History 
(London, 1735), particularly valuable for the quotations in his 
notes. For the West Indian voyages, Tronde, Batailles navales de 
la France (Paris, 1867); De Yonghe, Geschiedenis van het Neder- 
landsche Zeewezen (Haarlem, 1860). (D. H.) 

GRAND CANARY (Gran Canaria), an island in the Atlantic 
Ocean, forming part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary 
Islands (?..). Pop. (1900) 127,471; area 523 sq. m. Grand 
Canary, the most fertile island of the group, is nearly circular 
in shape, with a diameter of 24 m. and a circumference of 75 m. 
The interior is a mass of mountain with ravines radiating to 
the shore. Its highest peak, Los Pexos, is 6400 ft. Large 
tracts are covered with native pine (P. canariensis) . There are 
several mineral springs on the island. Las Palmas (pop. 44,51 7), 
the capital, is described in a separate article. Telde (8978), 
the second place in the island, stands on a plain, surrounded 
by palm trees. At Atalaya, a short distance from Las Palmas, 
the making of earthenware vessels employs some hundreds 
of people, who inhabit holes made in the tufa. 

GRAND CANYON, a profound gorge in the north-west corner 
of Arizona, in the south-western part of the United States of 
America, carved in the plateau region by the Colorado river. 
Of it Captain Dutton says: " Those who have long and carefully 



studied the Grand Canyon of the Colorado do not hesitate for 
a moment to pronounce it by far the most sublime of all 
earthly spectacles "; and this is also the verdict of many who 
have only viewed it in one or two of its parts. 

The Colorado river is made by the junction of two large streams, 
the Green and Grand, fed by the rains and snows of the Rocky 
Mountains. It has a length of about 2000 m. and a drainage 
area of 255,000 sq. m., emptying into the head of the Gulf of 
California. In its course the Colorado passes through a mountain 
section; then a plateau section; and finally a desert lowland 
section which extends to its mouth. It is in the plateau section 
that the Grand Canyon is situated. Here the surface of the 
country lies from 5000 to 9000 ft. above sea-level, being a table- 
land region of buttes and mesas diversified by lava intrusions, 
flows and cinder cones. The region consists in the main of 
stratified rocks bodily uplifted in a nearly horizontal position, 
though profoundly faulted here and there, and with some 
moderate folding. For a thousand miles the river has cut a 
series of canyons, bearing different names, which reach their 
culmination in the Marble Canyon, 66 m. long, and the contiguous 
Grand Canyon which extends for a distance of 217 m. farther 
down stream, making a total length of continuous canyon from 
2000 to 6000 ft. in depth, for a distance of 283 m., the longest 
and deepest canyon in the world. This huge gash in the earth 
is the work of the Colorado river, with accompanying weathering, 
through long ages; and the river is still engaged in deepening 
it as it rushes along the canyon bottom. 

The higher parts of the enclosing plateau have sufficient 
rainfall for forests, whose growth is also made possible in part 
by the cool climate and consequently retarded evaporation; 
but the less elevated portions have an arid climate, while the 
climate in the canyon bottom is that of the true desert. Thus 
the canyon is really in a desert region, as is shown by the fact 
that only two living streams enter the river for a distance of 
500 m. from the Green river to the lower end of the Grand 
Canyon; and only one, the Kanab Creek, enters the Grand 
Canyon itself. This, moreover, is dry during most of the year. 
In spite of this lack of tributaries, a large volume of water flows 
through the canyon at all seasons of the year, some coming 
from the scattered tributaries, some from springs, but most 
from the rains and snows of the distant mountains about the 
headwaters. Owing to enclosure between steeply rising canyon 
walls, evaporation is retarded, thus increasing the possibility 
of the long journey of the water from the mountains to the sea 
across a vast stretch of arid land. 

The river in the canyon varies from a few feet to an unknown 
depth, and at times of flood has a greatly increased volume. 
The river varies in width from 50 ft. in some of the narrow 
Granite Gorges, where it bathes both rock walls, to 500 or 600 
ft. in more open places. In the 283 m. of the Marble and Grand 
Canyons, the river falls 2330 ft., and at one point has a fall of 
210 ft. in 10 m. The current velocity varies from 3 to 20 or 
more miles per hour, being increased in places by low falls and 
rapids; but there are no high falls below the junction of the 
Green and Grand. 

Besides the canyons of the main river, there are a multitude 
of lateral canyons occupied by streams at intervals of heavy 
rain. As Powell says, the region " is a composite of thousands, 
and tens of thousands of gorges." There are " thousands of 
gorges like that below Niagara Falls, and there are a thousand 
Yosemites." The largest of all, the Grand Canyon, has an 
average depth of 4000 ft. and a width of 45 to 12 m. For a 
long distance, where crossing the Kaibab plateau, the depth 
is 6000 ft. For much of the distance there is an inner narrower 
gorge sunk in the bottom of a broad outer canyon. The narrow 
gorge is in some places no more than 3500 ft. wide at the top. 
To illustrate the depth of the Grand Canyon, Powell writes: 
" Pluck up Mount Washington (6293 ft. high) by the roots to 
the level of the sea, and drop it head first into the Grand Canyon, 
and the dam will not force its waters over the wall." 

While there are notable differences in the Grand Canyon 
from point to point, the main elements are much alike throughout 



348 



GRAND-DUKE 



its length, and are due to the succession of rock strata revealed 
in the canyon walls. At the base, for some 800 ft., there is a 
complex of crystalline rocks of early geological age, consisting 
of gneiss, schist, slate and other rocks, greatly plicated and 
traversed by dikes and granite intrusions. This is an ancient 
mountain mass, which has been greatly denuded. On it rest 
a series of durable quartzite beds inclined to the horizontal, 
forming about 800 ft. more of the lower canyon wall. On this 
come first 500 ft. of greenish sandstones and then 700 ft. of 
bedded sandstone and limestone strata, some massive and some 
thin, which on weathering form a series of alcoves. These beds, 
like those above, are in nearly horizontal position. Above this 
comes 1600 ft. of limestone often a beautiful marble, as in the 
Marble Canyon, but in the Grand Canyon stained a brilliant 
red by iron oxide washed from overlying beds. Above this 
" red wall " are 800 ft. of grey and bright red sandstone beds 
looking " like vast ribbons of landscape." At the top of the 
canyon is 1000 ft. of limestone with gypsum and chert, noted 
for the pinnacles and towers which denudation has developed. 
It is these different rock beds, with their various colours, and 
the differences in the effect of weathering upon them, that give 
the great variety and grandeur to the canyon scenery. There 
are towers and turrets, pinnacles and alcoves, cliffs, ledges, 
crags and moderate talus slopes, each with its characteristic 
colour and form according to the set of strata in which it lies. 
The main river has cleft the plateau in a huge gash ; innumerable 
side gorges have cut it to right and left; and weathering has 
etched out the cliffs and crags and helped to paint it in the gaudy 
colour bands that stretch before the eye. There is grandeur 
here and weirdness in abundance, but beauty is lacking. Powell 
puts the case graphically when he writes: " A wall of homo- 
geneous granite like that in the Yosemite is but a naked wall, 
whether it be 1000 or 5000 ft. high. Hundreds and thousands of 
feet mean nothing to the eye when they stand in a meaningless 
front. A mountain covered by pure snow 10,000 ft. high has 
but little more effect on the imagination than a mountain of 
snow 1000 ft. high it is but more of the same thing; but a 
facade of seven systems of rock has its sublimity multiplied 
sevenfold." 

To the ordinary person most of the Grand Canyon is at 
present inaccessible, for, as Powell states, " a year scarcely 
suffices to see it all"; and "it is a region more difficult to 
traverse than the Alps or the Himalayas." But a part of the 
canyon is now easily accessible to tourists. A trail leads from 
the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railway at Flagstaff, Arizona; 
and a branch line of the railway extends from Williams, Arizona, 
to a hotel on the very brink of the canyon. The plateau, which 
in places bears an open forest, mainly of pine, varies in elevation, 
but is for the most part a series of fairly level terrace tops with 
steep faces, with mesas and buttes here and there, and, especially 
near the huge extinct volcano of San Francisco mountain, 
with much evidence of former volcanic activity, including 
numerous cinder cones. The traveller comes abruptly to the 
edge of the canyon, at whose bottom, over a mile below, is seen 
the silvery thread of water where the muddy torrent rushes 
along on its never-ceasing task of sawing its way into the depths 
of the earth. Opposite rise the highly coloured and terraced 
slopes of the other canyon wall, whose crest is fully 12 m. distant. 

Down by the river are the folded rocks of an ancient mountain 
system, formed before vertebrate life appeared on the earth, 
then worn to an almost level condition through untold ages of 
slow denudation. Slowly, then, the mountains sank beneath the 
level of the sea, and in the Carboniferous Period about the 
time of the formation of the coal-beds sediments began to 
bury the ancient mountains. This lasted through other untold 
ages until the Tertiary Period through much of the Palaeozoic 
and all of the Mesozoic time and a total of from 1 2,000 to 16,000 
ft. of sediments were deposited. Since then erosion has been 
dominant, and the river has eaten its way down to, and into, 
the deeply buried mountains, opening the strata for us to read, 
like the pages of a book. In some parts of the plateau region as 
much as 30,000 ft. of rock have been stripped away, and over 



an area of 200,000 sq. m. an average of over 6000 ft. has been 
removed. 

The Grand Canyon was probably discovered by G.L. de Cardenas 
in 1540, but for 329 years the inaccessibility of the region 
prevented its .exploration. Various people visited parts of it 
or made reports regarding it; and the Ives Expedition of 1858 
contains a report upon the canyon written by Prof. J. S. New- 
berry. But it was not until 1869 that the first real exploration 
of the Grand Canyon was made. In that year Major J. W. 
Powell, with five associates (three left the party in the Grand 
Canyon), made the complete journey by boat from the junction 
of the Green and Grand rivers to the lower end of the Grand 
Canyon. This hazardous journey ranks as one of the most 
daring and remarkable explorations ever undertaken in North 
America; and Powell's descriptions of the expedition are 
among the most fascinating accounts of travel relating to the 
continent. Powell made another expedition in 1871, but did 
not go the whole length of the canyon. The government survey 
conducted by Lieut. George M. Wheeler also explored parts 
of the canyon, and C. E. Button carried on extensive 
studies of the canyon and the contiguous plateau region. 
In 1800 Robert B. Stanton, with six associates, went through 
the canyon in boats, making a survey to determine the 
feasibility of building a railway along its base. Two other 
parties, one in 1896 (Nat. Galloway and William Richmond) 
the other in 1897 (George F. Flavell and companion), have 
made the journey through the canyon. So far as there is 
record these are the only four parties that have ever made 
the complete journey through the Grand Canyon. It has 
sometimes been said that James White made the passage of 
the canyon before Powell did; but this story rests upon no 
real basis. 

For accounts of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado see J. W. 
Powell, Explorations of the Colorado River of the West and its Tribu- 
taries (Washington, 1875) ; J. W. Powell, Canyons of the Colorado 
(Meadville, Pa., 1895); F. S. Dellenbaugh, The Romance of the 
Colorado River (New York, 1902) ; Capt. C. E. Dutton, Tertiary 
History of the Grand Canyon District, with Atlas (Washington, 1882), 
being Monograph No.2, U.S. Geological Survey. See also the excellent 
topographic map of the Grand Canyon prepared by F. E. Matthes 
and published by the U.S. Geological Survey. (R. S. T.) 

GRAND-DUKE (Fr. grand-due, Ital. granduca, Ger. Gross- 
hcrzog) , a title borne by princes ranking between king and duke. 
The dignity was first bestowed in 1567 by Pope Pius V. on Duke 
Cosimo I. of Florence, his son Francis obtaining the emperor's 
confirmation in 1576; and the predicate "Royal Highness" 
was added in 1699. In 1806 Napoleon created his brother-in-law 
Joachim Murat, grand-duke of Berg, and in the same year the 
title was assumed by the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, the 
elector of Baden, and the new ruler of the secularized bishopric 
of Wiirzburg (formerly Ferdinand III., grand-duke of Tuscany) 
on joining the Confederation of the Rhine. At the present time, 
according to the decision of the Congress of Vienna, the title is 
borne by the sovereigns of Luxemburg, Saxe-Weimar (grand- 
duke of Saxony), Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 
and Oldenburg (since 1829), as well as by those of Hesse-Darm- 
stadt and Baden. The emperor of Austria includes among his 
titles those of grand-duke of Cracow and Tuscany, and the king 
of Prussia those of grand-duke of the Lower Rhine and Posen. 
The title is also retained by the dispossessed Habsburg-Lorraine 
dynasty of Tuscany. 

Grand-duke is also the conventional English equivalent of 
the Russian velikiy knyaz, more properly " grand-prince " (Ger. 
Grossfurst), at one time the title of the rulers of Russia, who, 
as the eldest born of the house of Rurik, exercised overlordship 
over the udyelniye knyazi or local princes. On the partition of 
the inheritance of Rurik, the eldest of each branch assumed 
the title of grand-prince. Under the domination of the Golden 
Horde the right to bestow the title velikiy knyaz was reserved by 
the Tatar Khan, who gave it to the prince of Moskow. In 
Lithuania this title also symbolized a similar overlordship, and 
it passed to the kings of Poland on the union of Lithuania with 
the Polish republic. The style of the emperor of Russia now 



GRANDEE GRANDMONTINES 



349 



includes the titles of grand-duke (oellkiy knyaz) of Smolensk, 
Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia and Finland. Until 1886 this 
title grand-duke or grand-duchess, with the style " Imperial 
Highness," was borne by all descendants of the imperial house. 
It is now confined to the sons and daughters, brothers and sisters, 
and male grandchildren of the emperor. The other members of 
the imperial house bear the title of prince (knyaz) and princess 
(knyaginya, if married, knyazhna, if unmarried) with the style of 
" Highness." The emperor of Austria, as king of Hungary, 
also bears this title as " grand-duke " of Transylvania, which 
was erected into a " grand-princedom " (Grossftirstentum) in 
1765 by Maria Theresa. 

GRANDEE (Span. Grande), a title of honour borne by the 
highest class of the Spanish nobility. It would appear to have 
been originally assumed by the most important nobles to dis- 
tinguish them from the mass of the ricos hombres, or great barons 
of the realm. It was thus, as Selden points out, not a general 
term denoting a class, but " an additional dignity not only to 
all dukes, but to some marquesses and condes also " (Titles of 
Honor, ed. 1672, p. 478). It formerly implied certain privileges; 
notably that of sitting covered in the royal presence. Until 
the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, when the power of the 
territorial nobles was broken, the grandees had also certain more 
important rights, e.g. freedom from taxation, immunity from 
arrest save at the king's express command, and even in certain 
cases the right to renounce their allegiance and make war on 
the king. Their number and privileges were further restricted 
by Charles I. (the emperor Charles V.), who reserved to the 
crown the right to bestow the title. The grandees of Spain were 
further divided into three classes: (i) those who spoke to the 
king and received his reply with their heads covered; (2) those 
who addressed him uncovered, but put on their hats to hear his 
answer; (3) those who awaited the permission of the king before 
covering themselves. All grandees were addressed by the king 
as " my cousin " (mi primo), whereas ordinary nobles were 
only qualified as " my kinsman " (mi parienle). The title of 
" grandee," abolished under King Joseph Bonaparte, was revived 
in 1834, when by the Estatudo real grandees were given precedence 
in the Chamber of Peers. The designation is now, however, 
purely titular, and implies neither privilege nor power. 

GRAND FORKS, a city in the Boundary district of British 
Columbia; situated at the junction of the north and south forks 
of the Kettle river, 2 m. N. of the international boundary. Pop. 
(1908) about 2500. It is in a good agricultural district, but 
owes its importance largely to the erection here of the extensive 
smelting plant of the Granby Consolidated Company, which 
smelts the ores obtained from the various parts of the Boundary 
country, but chiefly those from the Knob Hill and Old Ironsides 
mines. The Canadian Pacific railway, as well as the Great 
Northern railway, runs to Grand Forks, which thus has excellent 
railway communication with the south and east. 

GRAND FORKS, a city and the county-seat of Grand Forks 
county, North Dakota, U.S.A., at the junction of the Red river 
(of the North) and Red Lake river (whence its name), about 
80 m. N. of Fargo. Pop. (1900) 7652, of whom 2781 were 
foreign-born; (1005) 10,127; (1010) 27,888. i It is served by the 
Northern Pacific and the Great Northern railways, and has a 
considerable river traffic, the Red river (when dredged) having a 
channel 60 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep at low water below Grand 
Forks. At University, a small suburb, is the University of 
North Dakota (co-educational; opened 1884). Affiliated with 
it is Wesley College (Methodist Episcopal), now at Grand Forks 
(with a campus adjoining that of the University), but formerly 
the Red River Valley University at Wahpeton, North Dakota. 
In 1907-1908 the University had 57 instructors and 861 students; 
its library had 25,000 bound volumes and 5000 pamphlets. At 
Grand Forks, also, are St Bernard's Ursuline Academy (Roman 
Catholic) and Grand Forks College (Lutheran). Among the 
city's principal buildings are the public library, the Federal 
building and a Y.M.C.A. building. As the centre of the great 
wheat valley of the Red river, it has a busy trade in wheat, flour 
and agricultural machinery and implements, as well as large 



jobbing interests. There are railway car-shops here, and among 
the manufactures are crackers, brooms, bricks and tiles and 
cement. The municipality owns its water-works and an electric 
lighting plant for street lighting. In 1801 John Cameron (d. 1804) 
erected a temporary trading post for the North-West Fur 
Company on the site of the present city; it afterwards became 
a trading post of the Hudson's Bay Company. The first per- 
manent settlement was made in 1871, and Grand Forks was 
reached by the Northern Pacific and chartered as a city in 1881. 

GRAND HAVEN, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of 
Ottawa county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan, at the 
mouth of Grand river, 30 m. W. by N. of Grand Rapids and 
78 m. E. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1900) 4743, of whom 1277 were 
foreign-born; (1904) 5239; (1910) 5856. It is served by the 
Grand Trunk and the Pere Marquette railways, and by steamboat 
lines to Chicago, Milwaukee and other lake ports, and is connected 
with Grand Rapids and Muskegon by an electric line. The 
city manufactures pianos, refrigerators, printing presses and 
leather; is a centre for the shipment of fruit and celery; and 
has valuable fisheries near fresh, salt and smoked fish, especially 
whitefish, are shipped in considerable quantities. Grand Haven 
is the port of entry for the Customs District of Michigan, and has 
a small export and import trade. The municipality owns and 
operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant. A trading 
post was established here about 1821 by an agent of the American 
Fur Company, but the permanent settlement of the city did not 
begin until 1834. Grand Haven was laid out as a town in 1836, 
and was chartered as a city in 1867. 

GRANDIER, URBAN (1590-1634), priest of the church of 
Sainte Croix at Loudun in the department of Vienne, France, was 
accused of witchcraft in 1632 by some hysterical novices of 
the Carmelite Convent, where the trial, protracted for two 
years, was held. Grandier was found guilty and burnt alive 
at Loudun on the i8th of August 1634. 

GRAND ISLAND,- a city and the county-seat of Hall county, 
Nebraska, U.S.A., on the-Platte river, about 154 m. W. by S. 
of Omaha. Pop. (1900) 7554 (1339 foreign-born) ; (1910) 10,326. 
It is served by the Union Pacific, the Chicago, Burlington & 
Quincy, and the St Joseph & Grand Island railways, being the 
western terminus of the last-named line and a southern terminus 
of a branch of the Union Pacific. The city is situated on a slope 
skirting the broad, level bottom-lands of the Platte river, in the 
midst of a fertile farming region. Grand Island College (Baptist ; 
co-educational) was established in 1892 and the Grand Island 
Business and Normal College in 1890; and the city is the seat 
of a state Sailors' and Soldiers' Home, established in 1888. 
Grand Island has a large wholesale trade in groceries, fruits, &c. ; 
is an important horse-market, and has large stock-yards. There 
are shops of the Union Pacific in the city, and among its manu- 
factures are beet-sugar Grand Island is in one of the principal 
beet-sugar-growing districts of the state brooms, wire fences, 
confectionery and canned corn. The most important industry 
of the county is the raising and feeding of sheep and neat cattle. 
A " Grand Island " was founded in 1857, and was named from 
a large island (nearly 50 m. long) in the Platte opposite its site; 
but the present city was laid out by the Union Pacific in 1866. 
It was chartered as a city in 1873. 

GRANDMONTINES, a religious order founded by St Stephen 
of Thiers in Auvergne towards the end of the nth century. 
St Stephen was so impressed by the lives of the hermits whom he 
saw in Calabria that he desired to introduce the same manner 
of life into his native country. He was ordained, and in 1073 
obtained the pope's permission to establish an order. He 
betook himself to Auvergne, and in the desert of Muret, near 
Limoges, he made himself a hut of branches of trees and lived 
there for some time in complete solitude. A few disciples 
gathered round him, and a community was formed. The rule 
was not reduced to writing until after Stephen's death, 1124. 
The life was eremitical and very severe in regard to silence, 
diet and bodily austerities; it was modelled after the rule of 
the Camaldolese, but various regulations were adopted from 
the Augustinian canons. The superior was called the "Corrector." 



350 



GRAND RAPIDS GRANET 



About 1150 the hermits, being compelled to leave Muret, settled 
in the neighbouring desert of Grandmont, whence the order 
derived its name. Louis VII. founded a house at Vincennes 
near Paris, and the order had a great vogue in France, as many 
as sixty houses being established by 1170, but it seems never to 
have found favour out of France; it had, however, a couple of 
cells in England up to the middle of the isth century. The 
system of lay brothers was introduced on a large scale, and the 
management of the temporals was in great measure left in their 
hands; the arrangement did not work well, and the quarrels 
between the lay brothers and the choir monks were a constant 
source of weakness. Later centuries witnessed mitigations and 
reforms in the life, and at last the order came to an end just 
before the French Revolution. There were two or three convents of 
Grandmontine nuns. The order played n<3 great part in history. 

See Helyot, Hist, des ordres religieux (1714), vii. cc. 54, 55; Max 
Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen (1896), i. 31; and the 
art. in Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexicon (ed. 2), and in Herzog, 
Realencyklopadie (ed. 3). (E. C. B.) 

GRAND RAPIDS, a city and the county-seat of Kent county, 
Michigan, U.S.A., at the head of navigation on the Grand river, 
about 30 m. from Lake Michigan and 145 m. W.N.W. of Detroit. 
Pop. (1890) 60,278; (1900) 87,565, of whom 23,896 were 
foreign-born and 604 were negroes; (1910 census) 112,571. 
Of the foreign-born population in 1900, 11,137 were Hollanders; 
3318 English-Canadians; 3253 Germans; 1137 Irish; 1060 from 
German Poland; and 1026 from England. Grand Rapids is 
served by the Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan 
Southern, the Grand Trunk, the Pere Marquette and the Grand 
Rapids & Indiana railways, and by electric interurban railways. 
The valley here is about 2 m. wide, with a range of hills on 
either side, and about midway between these hills the river flows 
over a limestone bed, falling about 18 ft. in i m. Factories and 
mills line both banks, but the business blocks are nearly all 
along the foot of the E. range of hills; the finest residences 
command picturesque views from the hills farther back, the 
residences on the W. side being less pretentious and standing 
on bottom-lands. The principal business thoroughfares are 
Canal, Monroe and Division streets. Among the important 
buildings are the United States Government building (Grand 
Rapids is the seat of the southern division of the Federal judicial 
district of western Michigan), the County Court house, the city 
hall, the public library (presented by Martin A. Ryerson of 
Chicago), the Manufacturer's building, the Evening Press 
building, the Michigan Trust building and several handsome 
churches. The principal charitable institutions are the municipal 
Tuberculosis Sanatorium; the city hospital; the Union Benevo- 
lent Association, which maintains a home and hospital for the 
indigent, together with a training school for nurses; Saint 
John's orphan asylum (under the superintendence of the 
Dominican Sisters); Saint Mary's hospital (in charge of the 
Sisters of Mercy) ; Butterworth hospital (with a training school 
for nurses); the Woman's Home and Hospital, maintained 
largely by the Woman's Christian Temperance Union; the 
Aldrich Memorial Deaconess' Home; the D. A. Blodgett 
Memorial Children's Home, and the Michigan Masonic Home. 
About i m. N. of the city, overlooking the river, is the Michigan 
Soldiers' Home, with accommodation for 500. On the E. 
limits of the city is Reed's Lake, a popular resort during the 
summer season. The city is the see of Roman Catholic and 
Protestant Episcopal bishops. In 1907-1908, through the 
efforts of a committee of the Board of Trade, interest was aroused 
in the improvement of the city, appropriations were made for 
a " city plan," and flood walls were completed for the protection 
of the lower parts of the city from inundation. The large 
quantities of fruit, cereals and vegetables from the surrounding 
country, and ample facilities for transportation by rail and by 
the river, which is navigable from below the rapids to its mouth, 
make the commerce and trade of Grand Rapids very important. 
The manufacturing interests are greatly promoted by the fine 
water-power, and as a furniture centre the city has a world-wide 
reputation the value of the furniture manufactured within its 



limits in 1904 amounted to $9,409,097, about 5-5% of the value 
of all furniture manufactured in the United States. Grand 
Rapids manufactures carpet sweepers a large proportion of 
the whole world's product, flour and grist mill products, 
foundry and machine-shop products, planing-mill products, 
school seats, wood-working tools, fly paper, calcined plaster, 
barrels, kegs, carriages, wagons, agricultural implements and 
bricks and tile. The total factory product in 1904 was valued 
at $31,032,589, an increase of 39-6% in four years. 

On the site of Grand Rapids there was for a long time a large 
Ottawa Indian village, and for the conversion of the Indians a 
Baptist mission was established in 1824. Two years later a trad- 
ing post joined the mission, in 1833 a saw mill was built, and for 
the next few years the growth was rapid. The settlement was 
organized as a town in 1834, was incorporated as a village in 1838, 
and was chartered as a city in 1850, the city charter being revised 
in 1857, 1871, 1877 and 1905. 

GRAND RAPIDS, a city and the county-seat of Wood county, 
Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both sides of the Wisconsin river, about 
137 m. N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1900) 4493, of whom 1073 
were foreign-born; (1905) 6157; (1910) 6521. It is served 
by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Green Bay & 
Western, the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, Mil- 
waukee & St Paul railways. It is a railway and distributing 
centre, and has manufactories of lumber, sash, doors and blinds, 
hubs and spokes, woodenware, paper, wood-pulp, furniture and 
flour. The public buildings include a post office, court house, city 
hall, city hospital and the T. B. Scott Free Public Library (1892). 
The city owns and operates its water-works; the electric-lighting 
and telephone companies are co-operative. Grand Rapids was 
first chartered as a city in 1869. That part of Grand Rapids on 
the west bank of the Wisconsin river was formerly the city of 
Centralia (pop. in 1890, 1435); it was annexed in 1900. 

GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee), a town in the Swiss canton of 
Vaud, near the south-western end of the, Lake of Neuchatel, 
and by rail 20 m. S.W. of Neuchatel and 3 m. N. of Yverdon. 
Its population in 1900 was 1771, mainly French-speaking and 
Protestant. Its ancient castle was long the home of a noted race 
of barons, while in the very old church (once belonging to a 
Benedictine monastery) there are a number of Roman columns, 
&c., from Avenches and Yverdon. It has now a tobacco factory. 
Its lords were vassals of the house of Savoy, till in 1475 the castle 
was taken by the Swiss at the beginning of their war with Charles 
the Bold, duke of Burgundy, whose ally was the duchess of Savoy. 
It was retaken by Charles in February 1476, and the garrison 
put to death. The Swiss hastened to revenge this deed, and in 
a famous battle (2nd March 1476) defeated Charles with great 
loss, capturing much booty. The scene of the battle was between 
Concise and Corcelles, north-east of the town, and is marked by 
several columns, perhaps ancient menhirs. Grandson was thence- 
forward till 1798 ruled in common by Berne and Fribourg, and 
then was given to the canton du Leman, which in 1803 became 
that of Vaud. 

See F. Chabloz, La Bataille de Grandson (Lausanne, 1897). 

GRANET, FRANCOIS MARIUS (1777-1849), French painter, 
was born at Aix in Provence, on the I7th of December 1777; his 
father was a small builder. The boy's strong desires led his 
parents to place him after some preliminary teaching from 
a passing Italian artist in a free school of art directed by 
M. Constantin, a landscape painter of some reputation. In 1793 
Granet followed the volunteers of Aix to the siege of Toulon, 
at the close of which he obtained employment as a decorator in 
the arsenal. Whilst a lad he had, at Aix, made the acquaintance 
of the young comte de Forbin, and upon his invitation Granet, 
in the year 1797, went to Paris. De Forbin was one of the 
pupils of David, and Granet entered the same studio. Later he 
got possession of a cell in the convent of Capuchins, which, 
having served for a manufactory of assignats during the Revolu- 
tion, was afterwards inhabited almost exclusively by artists. 
In the changing lights and shadows of the corridors of the 
Capuchins, Granet found the materials for that one picture to 
the painting of which, with varying success, he devoted his life. 



GRANGE GRANITE 



In 1802 he left Paris for Rome, where he remained until 1819, 
when he returned to Paris, bringing with him besides various 
other works one of fourteen repetitions of his celebrated Choeur 
des Capucins, executed in 1811. The figures of the monks 
celebrating mass are taken in this subject as a substantive part 
of the architectural effect, and this is the case with all Granet's 
works, even with those in which the figure subject would seem 
to assert its importance, and its historical or romantic interest. 
" Stella painting a Madonna on his Prison Wall," 1810 (Leuchten- 
berg collection); " Sodoma a I'h&pital," 1815 (Louvre); 
" Basilique basse de St Francois d'Assise," 1823 (Louvre); 
" Rachat de prisonniers," 1831 (Louvre); " Mort de Poussin," 
1834 (Villa Demidoff, Florence), are among his principal works; 
all are marked by the same peculiarities, everything is sacrificed 
to tone. In 1819 Louis Philippe decorated Granet, and after- 
wards named him Chevalier de 1'Ordre St Michel, and Conser- 
vateur des tableaux de Versailles (1826). He became member of 
the institute in 1830; but in spite of these honours, and the 
ties which bound him to M. de Forbin, then director of the Louvre, 
Granet constantly returned to Rome. After 1848 he retired to 
Aix, immediately lost his wife, and died himself on the 2ist of 
November 1849. He bequeathed to his native town the greater 
part of his fortune and all his collections, now exhibited in the 
Musee, together with a very fine portrait of the donor painted 
by Ingres in 1811. 

GRANGE (through the A.-Fr. graunge, from the Med. Lat. 
granea, a place for storing grain, granum), properly a granary 
or barn. In the middle ages a " grange " was a detached portion 
of a manor with farm-houses and barns belonging to a lord or to 
a religious house; in it the crops could be conveniently stored for 
the purpose of collecting rent or tithe. Thus, such barns are often 
known as " tithe-barns." In many cases a chapel was included 
among the buildings or stood apart as a separate edifice. The 
word is still used as a name for a superior kind of farm-house, 
or for a country-house which has farm-buildings and agricultural 
land attached to it. 

Architecturally considered, the " grange " was usually a long 
building with high wooden roof, sometimes divided by posts or 
columns into a sort of nave and aisles, and with walls strongly 
buttressed. Sometimes these granges were of very great extent; 
one at St Leonards, Hampshire, was originally 225 ft. long by 
75 ft. wide, and a still larger one (303 ft. long) existed at Chertsey. 
Ancient granges, or tithe-barns, still exist at Glastonbury, 
Bradford-on-Avon, St Mary's Abbey, York, and at Coxwold. 
A fine example at Peterborough was pulled down at the end of 
the ipth century. In France there are many examples in stone of 
the 1 2th, i3th and i4th centuries; some divided into a central 
and two side aisles by arcades in stone. Externally granges are 
noticeable on account of their great roofs and the slight elevation 
of the eaves, from 8 to 10 ft. only in height. In the I5th century 
they were sometimes protected by moats and towers. At 
Ardennes in Normandy, where the grange was 154 ft. long; 
Vauclerc near Laon, Picardy, 246 ft. long and in two storeys; 
at Perrieres, St Vigor, near Bayeux, and Ouilly near Falaise, all 
in Normandy; and at St Martin-au-Bois (Oise) are a series of 
fine examples. Attached to the abbey of Longchamps, near 
Paris, is one of the best-preserved granges in France, with walls 
in stone and internally divided into three aisles in oak timber 
of extremely fine construction. 

In the social economic movement in the United States of 
America, which began in 1867 and was known as the " Farmers' 
Movement," " grange " was adopted as the name for a local 
chapter of the Order of the Patrons of Husbandry, and the move- 
ment is thus often known as the " Grangers' Movement "(see 
FARMERS' MOVEMENT). There are a National Grange at Wash- 
ington, supervising the local divisions, and state granges in 
most states. 

GRANGEMOUTH, a police burgh and seaport of Stirlingshire, 
Scotland. Pop. (1901) 8386. It is situated on the south shore 
of the estuary of the Forth, at the mouth of the Carron and also 
of Grange Burn, a right-hand tributary of the Carron, 3 m. N.E. 
of Falkirk by the North British and Caledonian railways. It 



is the terminus of the Forth and Clyde Canal, from the opening 
of which (1789) its history may be dated. The principal buildings 
are the town hall (in the Greek style), public hall, public institute 
and free library, and there is a public park presented by the 
marquess of Zetland. Since 1810, when it became a head port, it 
has gradually attained the position of the chief port of the Forth 
west of Leith. The first dock (opened in 1846), the second 
(1859) and the third (1882) cover an area of 28 acres, with timber 
ponds of 44 acres and a total quayage of 2500 yards. New 
docks, 93 acres in extent, with an entrance from the firth, were 
opened in 1905 at a cost of more than 1,000,000. The works 
rendered it necessary to divert the influx of the Grange from the 
Carron to the Forth. Timber, pig-iron and iron ore are the lead- 
ing imports, and coal, produce and iron the chief exports. The 
industries include shipbuilding, rope and sail making and iron 
founding. There is regular steamer communication with London, 
Christiania, Hamburg, Rotterdam and Amsterdam. Experi- 
ments in steam navigation were carried out in 1802 with the 
" Charlotte Dundas " on the Forth and Clyde Canal at Grange- 
mouth. Kersa House adjoining the town on the S.W. is a seat 
of the marquess of Zetland. 

GRANGER, JAMES (1723-1776), English clergyman and print- 
collector, was born in Dorset in 1723. He went to Oxford, 
and then entered holy orders, becoming vicar of Shiplake; but 
apart from his hobby of portrait-collecting, which resulted in 
the principal work associated with his name, and the publication 
of some sermons, his life was uneventful. Yet a new word was 
added to the language " to grangerize " on account of him. 
In 1769 he published in two quarto volumes a Biographical 
History of England " consisting of characters dispersed in different 
clashes, and adapted to a methodical catalogue of engraved 
British heads"; this was "intended as an essay towards re- 
ducing our biography to a system, and a help to the knowledge 
of portraits." The work was supplemented in later editions by 
Granger, and still further editions were brought out by the Rev. 
Mark Noble, with additions from Granger's materials. Blank 
leaves were left for the filling in of engraved portraits for extra 
illustration of the text, and it became a favourite pursuit to 
discover such illustrations and insert them in a Granger, so that 
" grangerizing " became a term for such an extra-illustration 
of any work, especially with cuts taken from other books. The 
immediate result of the appearance of Granger's own work was 
the rise in value of books containing portraits, which were cut out 
and inserted in collector's copies. 

GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granito, grained; Lat. 
granum, grain), the group designation for a family of igneous 
rocks whose essential characteristics are that they are of acid 
composition (containing high percentages of silica), consist 
principally of quartz and felspar, with some mica, hornblende 
or augite, and are of holocrystalline or " granitoid " structure. 
In popular usage the term is given to almost any crystalline rock 
which resembles granite in appearance or properties. Thus 
syenites, diorites, gabbros, diabases, porphyries, gneiss, and even 
limestones and dolomites, are bought and sold daily as "granites." 
True granites are common rocks, especially among the older 
strata of the earth's crust. They have great variety in colour 
and general appearance, some being white or grey, while others 
are pink, greenish or yellow: this depends mainly on the state 
of preservation of their felspars, which are their most abundant 
minerals, and partly also on the relative proportion in which 
they contain biotite and other dark coloured silicates. Many 
granites have large rounded or angular crystals of felspar (Shap 
granite, many Cornish granites), well seen on polished faces. 
Others show an elementary foliation or banding (e.g. Aberdeen 
granite). Rounded or oval dark patches frequently appear in 
the granitic matrix of many Cornish rocks of this group. 

In the field granite usually occurs in great masses, covering 
wide areas. These are generally elliptical or nearly circular 
and may be 20 m. in diameter or more. In the same district 
separate areas or " bosses " of granite may be found, all having 
much in common in their mineralogical and structural features, 
and such groups have probably all proceeded from the same 



352 



GRANITE 



focus or deep-seated source. Towards their margins these 
granite outcrops often show modifications by which they pass into 
diorite or syenite, &c.; they may also be finer grained (like 
porphyries) or rich in tourmaline, or intersected by many veins of 
pegmatite. From the main granite dikes or veins often run out 
into the surrounding rocks, thus proving that the granite is 
intrusive and has forced its way upwards by splitting apart the 
strata among which it lies. Further evidence of this is afforded 
by the alteration which the granite has produced through a zone 
which varies from a few yards to a mile or more in breadth 
around it. In the vicinity of intrusive granites slates become 
converted into hornfelses containing biotite, chiastolite or 
andalusite, sillimanite and a variety of other minerals; lime- 
stones recrystallize as marbles, and all rocks, according to their 
composition, are more or less profoundly modified in such a way 
as to prove that they have been raised to a high temperature by 
proximity to the molten intrusive mass. Where exposed in 
cliffs and other natural sections many granites have a rudely 
columnar appearance. Others weather into large cuboidal 
blocks which may produce structures resembling cyclopean 
masonry. The tors of the west of England are of this nature. 
These differences depend on the disposition of the joint cracks 
which traverse the rock and are opened up by the action of 
frost and weathering. 

The majority of granites are so coarse in grain that their 
principal component minerals may be identified in the hand 
specimens by the unaided eye. The felspar is pearly, white 
or pink, with smooth cleaved surfaces; the quartz is usually 
transparent, glassy with rough irregular fractures; the micas 
appear as shining black or white flakes. Very coarse granites 
are called pegmatite or giant granite, while very fine granites 
are known as microgranites (though the latter term has also been 
applied to certain porphyries). Many granites show pearly 
scales of white mica; others contain dark green or black horn- 
blende in small prisms. Reddish grains of sphene or of garnet 
are occasionally visible. In the tourmaline granites prisms of 
black schorl occur either singly or in stellate groups. The 
parallel banded structures of many granites, which may be 
original or due to crushing, connect these rocks with the granite 
gneisses or orthogneisses. 

Under the microscope the felspar is mainly orthoclase with 
perthite or microcline, while a small amount of plagioclase 
(ranging from oligoclase to albite) is practically never absent. 
These minerals are often clouded by a deposit of fine mica and 
kaolin, due to weathering. The quartz is transparent, irregular 
in form, destitute of cleavage, and is filled with very small 
cavities which contain a fluid, a mobile bubble and sometimes 
a minute crystal. The micas, brown and white, are often in 
parallel growth. The hornblende of granites is usually pale 
green in section, the augite and enstatite nearly colourless. 
Tourmaline may be brown, yellow or blue, and often the same 
crystal shows zones of different colours. Apatite, zircon and 
iron oxides, in small crystals, are always present. Among the 
less common accessories may be mentioned pinkish garnets; 
andalusite in small pleochroic crystals ; colourless grains of 
topaz; six-sided compound crystals of cordierite, which weather 
to dark green pinite; blue-black hornblende (riebeckite), beryl, 
tinstone, orthite and pyrites. 

The sequence of crystallization in the granites is of .a normal 
type, and may be ascertained by observing the perfection with 
which the different minerals have crystallized and the order in 
which they enclose one another. Zircon, apatite and iron oxides 
are the first; their crystals are small, very perfect and nearly 
free from enclosures; they are followed by hornblende and 
biotite; if muscovite is present it succeeds the brown mica. 
Of the felspars -the plagioclase separates first and forms well- 
shaped crystals of which the central parts may be more basic 
than the outer zones. Last come orthoclase, quartz, microcline 
and micropegmatite, which fill up the irregular spaces left 
between the earlier minerals. Exceptions to this sequence are 
unusual; sometimes the first of the felspars have preceded the 
hornblende or biotite which may envelop them in ophitic manner. 



An earlier generation of felspar, and occasionally also of quartz, 
may be represented by large and perfect crystals of these minerals 
giving the rock a porphyritic character. 

Many granites have suffered modification by the action of 
vapours emitted during cooling. Hydrofluoric and boric 
emanations exert a profound influence on granitic rocks; their 
felspar is resolved into aggregates of kaolin, muscovite and 
quartz; tourmaline appears, largely replacing the brown mica; 
topaz also is not uncommon. In this way the rotten granite or 
china stone, used in pottery, originates; and over considerable 
areas kaolin replaces the felspar and forms valuable sources of 
china clay. Veins of quartz, tourmaline and chlorite may 
traverse the granite, containing tinstone often in workable 
quantities. These veins are the principal sources of tin in Corn- 
wall, but the same changes may appear in the body of the 
granite without being restricted to veins, and tinstone occurs 
also as an original constituent of some granite pegmatites. 

Granites may also be modified by crushing. Their crystals 
tend to lose their original forms and to break into mosaics of 
interlocking grains. The latter structure is very well seen in the 
quartz, which is a brittle mineral under stress. White mica 
develops in the felspars. The larger crystals are converted into 
lenticular or elliptical " augen," which may be shattered through- 
out or may have a peripheral seam of small detached granules 
surrounding a still undisintegrated core. Streaks of " granu- 
litic " or pulverized material wind irregularly through the rock, 
giving it a roughly foliated character. 

The interesting structural variation of granite in which there 
are spheroidal masses surrounded by a granitic matrix is known 
as " orbicular granite." The spheroids range from a fraction 
of an inch to a foot in diameter, and may have a felspar crystal 
at the centre. Around this there may be several zones, alternately 
lighter and darker in colour, consisting of the essential minerals 
of the rock in different proportions. Radiate arrangement is 
sometimes visible in the crystals of the whole or part of the 
spheroid. Spheroidal granites of this sort are found in Sweden, 
Finland, Ireland, &c. In other cases the spheroids are simply 
dark rounded lumps of biotite, in fine scales. These are probably 
due to the adhesion of the biotite crystals to one another as 
they separated from the rock magma at an early stage in its 
crystallization. The Rapakiwi granites of Finland have many 
round or ovoidal felspar crystals scattered through a granitic 
matrix. These larger felspars have no crystalline outlines and 
consist of orthoclase or microcline surrounded by borders of 
white oligoclase. Often they enclose dark crystals of biotite 
and hornblende, arranged zonally. Many of these granites 
contain tourmaline, fluorite and monazite. In most granite 
masses, especially near their contacts with the surrounding rocks, 
it is common to find enclosures of altered sedimentary or igneous 
materials which are more or less dissolved and permeated by 
the granitic magma. 

The chemical composition of a few granites from different parts 
of the world is given below : 





SiO,. 


A1 2 O 3 . 


Fe 2 O 3 . 


FeO. 


MgO. 


CaO. 


Na 2 O. 


K 2 O. 


I. 
II. 
III. 

IV. 
V. 
VI. 


74-69 
71-33 
72-93 
76-12 
73-90 
68-87 


16-21 
11-18 

13-87 
12-18 
13-65 
16-62 


3-96 
1-94 

I-2I 

0-28 
o-43 


1-16 

1-45 
0-79 
0-72 
0-42 
2-72 


0-48 
0-88 
0-51 

I-I2 
0-14 
I -6O 


0-28 

2-IO 

0-74 

i-54 
0-23 
0-71 


1-18 

3-5i 
3-68 

2-55 
2-53 
i -80 


3-64 
3-49 
3-74 
3-21 

7-99 
6-48 



I. Carn Brea, Cornwall (Phillips); II. Mazaruni, Brit. Guiana 
(Harrison); III. Rodo, near Alno, Vesternorrland, Sweden (Holm- 
quist) ; IV. Abruzzen, a group of hills in the Riesengebirge (Milch) ; 
V. Pikes Peak, Colorado (Matthews); VI. Wilson's Creek, near 
Omeo, Victoria (Hpwitt). 

Only the most important components are shown in the table, 
but all granites contain also small amounts of zirconia, titanium 
oxide, phosphoric acid, sulphur, oxides of barium, strontium, 
manganese and water. These are in all cases less than I %, and 
usually much less than this, except the water, which may be 2 or 
3 % in weathered rocks. From the chemical composition it may be 
computed that granites contain, on an average, 35 to 55 % of quartz, 
20 to 30% of orthoclase, 20 to 30% of plagioclase felspar (including 
the albite of microperthite) and 5 to 10% of ferromagnesian 



GRAN SASSO D'lTALIA GRANT, SIR F. 



353 



silicates and minor accessories such as apatite, zircon, sphene and 
iron oxides. The aplites, pegmatites, graphic granites and musco- 
vite granites are usually richest in silica, while with increase of biotite 
and hornblende, augite and enstatite the analyses show the presence 
of more magnesia, iron and lime. 

In the weathering of granite the quartz suffers little change; 
the felspar passes into dull cloudy, soft aggregates of kaolin, mus- 
covite and secondary quartz, while chlorite, quartz and calcite 
replace the biotite, hornblende and augite. The rock often assumes 
a rusty brown colour from the liberation of the oxides of iron, and 
the decomposed mass is friable and can easily be dug with a spade; 
where the granite has been cut by joint planes not too close together 
weathering proceeds from their surfaces and large rounded blocks 
may be left embedded in rotted materials. The amount of water 
in the rock increases and part of the alkalis is carried away in 
solution; they form valuable sources of mineral food to plants. 
The chemical changes are shown by the following analyses: 





H 2 O. 


SiO 2 . 


TiO 2 . 


A1 2 3 . 


FeO. 


Fe 2 0,. 


CaO. 


MgO. 


Na 2 O. 


K 2 O. 


P 2 6 . 


I. 
II. 

III. 


1-22 

3-27 
4-70 


69-33 
66-82 

65-69 


n.d. 
n.d. 
0-31 


H-33 
15-62 

15-23 


3-60 
1-69 


1-88 
4-39 


3'2i 

3-13 
2-63 


2-44 
2-76 
2-64 


2-70 
2-58 

2-12 


2-67 

2-44 

2-OO 


0-10 

n.d. 
0-06 



Analyses of I., fresh grey granite; II. brown moderately firm 
granite; III. residual sand, produced by the weathering of the 
same mass (anal. G. P. Merrill). 

The differences are surprisingly small and are principally 
an increase in the water and a diminution in the amount of 
alkalis and lime together with the oxidation of the ferrous 
oxide. (J. S. F.) 

GRAN SASSO D'lTALIA (" Great Rock of Italy "), a mountain 
of the Abruzzi, Italy, the culminating point of the Apennines, 
9560 ft. in height. In formation it resembles the limestone Alps 
of Tirol and there are on its elevated plateaus a number of doline 
or funnel-shaped depressions into which the melted snow and 
the rain sink. The summit is covered with snow for the greater 
part of the year. Seen from the Adriatic, Monte Corno, as it is 
sometimes called, from its resemblance to a horn, affords a 
magnificent spectacle ; the Alpine region beneath its summit 
is still the home of the wild boar, and here and there are dense 
woods of beech and pine. The group has numerous other lofty 
peaks, of which the chief are the Pizzo d Intermesole (8680 ft.), 
the Corno Piccolo (8650 ft.), the Pizzo Cefalone (8307 ft.) and 
the Monte della Portella (7835 ft.). The most convenient 
starting-point for the ascent is Assergi, 10 m. N.E. of Aquila, 
at the S. foot of the Gran Sasso. The Italian Alpine Club has 
erected a hut S.W. of the principal summit, and has published a 
special guidebook (E. Abbate, Guida al Gran Sasso d' Italia, 
Rome, 1888). The view from the summit extends to the 
Tyrrhenian Sea on the west and the mountains of Dalmatia on 
the east in clear weather. The ascent was first made in 1794 
by Orazio Delfico from the Teramo side. In Assergi is the 
interesting church of Sta. Maria Assunta, dating from 1150, 
with later alterations (see Gavini, in L'Arte, 1901, 316, 391). 

GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER, 8th Bart. (1826-1884), British 
scholar and educationalist, was born in New York on the i3th of 
September 1826. After a childhood spent in the West Indies, 
he was educated at Harrow and Oxford. He entered Oxford 
as scholar of Balliol, and subsequently held a fellowship at Oriel 
from 1849 to 1860. He made a special study of the Aristotelian 
philosophy, and in 1857 published an edition of the Ethics 
(4th ed. 1885) which became a standard text-book at Oxford. 
In 1855 he was one of the examiners for the Indian Civil Service, 
and in 1856 a public examiner in classics at Oxford. In the 
latter year he succeeded to the baronetcy. }n 1859 he went to 
Madras with Sir Charles Trevelyan, and was appointed inspector 
of schools ; the next year he removed to Bombay, to fill the post 
of Professor of History and Political Economy in the Elphinstone 
College. Of this he became Principal in 1862; and, a year 
later, vice-chancellor of Bombay University, a post he held from 
1863 to 1865 and again from 1865 to 1868. In 1865 he took upon 
himself also the duties of Director of Public Instruction for 
Bombay Presidency. In 1868 he was appointed a member of 
the Legislative Council. In the same year, upon the death of 
Sir David Brewster,.he was appointed Principal of Edinburgh 

XII. 12 



University, which had conferred an honorary LL.D. degree upon 
him in 1865. From that time till his death (which occurred in 
Edinburgh on the 3Oth of November 1884) his energies were 
entirely devoted to the well-being of the University. The 
institution of the medical school in the University was almost 
solely due to his initiative; and the Tercentenary Festival, 
celebrated in 1884, was the result of his wisely directed ethu- 
siasm. In that year he published The Story of the University of 
Edinburgh during its First Three Hundred Years. He was 
created Hon. D.C.L. of Oxford in i88o v and an honorary fellow 
of Oriel College in 1882. 

GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838), Scottish writer, generally known 
as Mrs Grant of Laggan, was born in Glasgow, on the 2ist of 
February 1755. Her childhood was spent in America, her father, 
Duncan MacVicar, being an army officer on 
service there. In 1768 the family returned 
to -Scotland, and in 1779 Anne married 
James Grant, an army chaplain, who was 
also minister of the parish of Laggan, near 
Fort Augustus, Inverness, where her father 
was barrack-master. On her husband's death in 1801 she 
was left with a large family and a small income. In 1802 she 
published by subscription a volume of Original Poems, with 
some Translations from the Gaelic, which was favourably received. 
In 1806 her Letters from the Mountains, with their spirited descrip- 
tion of Highland scenery and legends, awakened much interest. 
Her other works are Memoirs of an American Lady, with Sketches 
of Manners and Scenery in America as they existed previous to 
the Revolution (1808), containing reminiscences of her childhood; 
Essays on the Superstitions of the Highlanders of Scotland (1811); 
and Eighteen Hundred and Thirteen, a Poem (1814). In 1810 
she went to live in Edinburgh. For the last twelve years of her 
life she received a pension from government. She died on the 
7th of November 1838. 

See Memoir and Correspondence of Mis Grant of Laggan, edited 
by her son J. P. Grant (3 vols., 1844). 

GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823), British politician, was born 
at Aldourie, Inverness-shire, on the i6th of April 1746, the day 
on which his father, Alexander Grant, was killed whilst fighting 
for the Jacobites at Culloden. When a young man Charles 
went to India, where he became secretary, and later a member 
of the board of trade. He returned to Scotland in 1 790, and in 
1802 was elected to parliament as member for the county of 
Inverness. In the House of Commons his chief interests were in 
Indian affairs, and he was especially vigorous in his hostility 
to the policy of the Marquess Wellesley. In 1805 he was chosen 
chairman of the directors of the East India Company and he 
retired from parliament in 1818. A friend of William Wilberforce, 
Grant was a prominent member of the evangelical party in the 
Church of England; he was a generous supporter of the church's 
missionary undertakings. He was largely responsible for the 
establishment of the East India college, which was afterwards 
erected at Haileybury. He died in London on the 3 ist of October 
1823. His eldest son, Charles, was created a peer in 1835 as 
Baron Glenelg. 

See Henry Morris, Life of Charles Grant (1904). 

GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878), English portrait-painter, 
fourth son of Francis Grant of Kilgraston, Perthshire, was born 
at Edinburgh in 1803. He was educated for the bar, but at the 
age of twenty-four he began at Edinburgh systematically to 
study the practice of art. On completing a course of instruction 
he removed to London, and as early as 1843 exhibited at the 
Royal Academy. At the beginning of his career he utilized his 
sporting experiences by painting groups of huntsmen, horses 
and hounds, such as the " Meet of H.M. Staghounds " and the 
" Melton Hunt "; but his position in society gradually made 
him a fashionable portrait-painter. In drapery he had the taste 
of a connoisseur, and rendered the minutest details of costume 
with felicitous accuracy. In female portraiture he achieved 
considerable success, although rather in depicting the high- 
born graces and external characteristics than the true personality. 
Among his portraits of this class may be mentioned Lady 



GRANT, G. M. GRANT, SIR J. H. 



354 

Glenlyon, the marchioness of Waterford, Lady Rodney and Mrs 
Beauclerk. In his portrait? of generals and sportsmen he 
proved himself more equal to his subjects than in those of states- 
men and men of letters. He painted many of the principal 
celebrities of the time, including Scott, Macaulay, Lockhart, 
Disraeli, Hardinge, Gough, Derby, Palmerston and Russell, his 
brother Sir J. Hope Grant and his friend Sir Edwin Landseer. 
From the first his career was rapidly prosperous. In 1842 he 
was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1851 an 
Academician; and in 1866 he was chosen to succeed Sir C. 
Eastlake in the post of president, for which his chief recom- 
mendations were his social distinction, tact, urbanity and 
friendly and liberal consideration of his brother artists. Shortly 
after his election as president he was knighted, and in 1870 the 
degree of D.C.L. was conferred upon him by the university of 
Oxford. He died on the 5th of October 1878. 

GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835-1902), principal of Queen's 
University, Kingston, Ontario, was born in Nova Scotia in 1835. 
He was educated at Glasgow university, where he had a brilliant 
academic career; and having entered the ministry of the 
Presbyterian Church, he returned to Canada and obtained a 
pastoral charge in Halifax, Nova Scotia, which he held from 
1863 to 1877. He quickly gained a high reputation as a preacher 
and as an eloquent speaker on political subjects. When Canada 
was confederated in 1867 Nova Scotia was the province most 
strongly opposed to federal union. Grant threw the whole 
weight of his great influence in favour of confederation, and his 
oratory played an important part in securing the success of 
the movement. When the consolidation of the Dominion by 
means of railway construction was under discussion in 1872, 
Grant travelled from the Atlantic to the Pacific with the engineers 
who surveyed the route of the Canadian Pacific railway, and his 
book Ocean to Ocean (1873) was one of the first things that opened 
the eyes of Canadians to the value of the immense heritage 
they enjoyed. He never lost an opportunity, whether in the 
pulpit or on the platform, of pressing on his hearers that the 
greatest future for Canada lay in unity with the rest of the 
British Empire; and his broad statesman-like judgment made him 
an authority which politicians of all parties were glad to consult. 
In 1877 Grant was appointed principal of Queen's University, 
Kingston, Ontario, which through his exertions and influence 
expanded from a small denominational college into a large and 
influential educational centre; and he attracted to it an excep- 
tionally able body of professors whose influence in speculation 
and research was widely felt during the quarter of a century that 
he remained at its head. In 1888 he visited Australia, New 
Zealand and South Africa, the effect of this experience being to 
strengthen still further the Imperialism which was the guiding 
principle of his political opinions. On the outbreak of the South 
African War in 1899 Grant was at first disposed to be hostile 
to the policy of Lord Salisbury and Mr Chamberlain; but his 
eyes were soon opened to the real nature of President Kruger's 
government, and he enthusiastically welcomed and supported the 
national feeling which sent men from the outlying portions of the 
Empire to assist in upholding British supremacy in South Africa. 
Grant did not live to see the conclusion of peace, his death occur- 
ring at Kingston on the loth of May 1902. At the time of his 
death The Times observed that " it is acknowledged on all hands 
that in him the Dominion has lost one of the ablest men that it 
has yet produced." He was the author of a number of works, of 
which the most notable besides Ocean to Ocean are, Advantages of 
Imperial Federation (1889), Our National Objects and Aims (1890) , 
Religions of the World in Relation to Christianity (1894) and 
volumes of sermons and lectures. Grant married in 1872 Jessie, 
daughter of William Lawson of Halifax. 

GRANT, JAMES (1822-1887), British novelist, was born in 
Edinburgh on the ist of August 1822. His father, John Grant, was 
a captain in the 92nd Gordon Highlanders and had served through 
the Peninsular War. For several years James Grant was in New- 
foundland with his father, but in 1839 he returned to England, 
and entered the 62nd Foot as an ensign. In 1843 he resigned 
his commission and devoted himself to writing, first magazine 



articles, but soon a profusion of novels, full of vivacity and 
incident, and dealing mainly with military scenes and characters. 
His best stories, perhaps, were The Romance of War (his first, 
1845), Bolhwell (1851), Frank Hilton; or, The Queen's Own (18$$), 
The Phantom Regiment and Harry Ogilvie (1856), Lucy Arden 
(1858), The White Cockade (1867), Only an Ensign (1871), Shall 
I Win Her? (1874), Playing with Fire (1887). Grant also wrote 
British Battles on Land and Sea (1873-1875) and valuable books 
on Scottish history. Permanent value attaches to his great 
work, in three volumes, on Old and New Edinburgh (1880). 
He was the founder and energetic promoter of the National 
Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights. In 1875 he 
became a Roman Catholic. He died on the sth of May 1887. 

GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827-1892), Scottish explorer 
of eastern equatorial Africa, was born at Nairn, where his father 
was the parish minister, on the nth of April 1827. He was 
educated at the grammar school and Marischal College, Aberdeen, 
and in 1846 joined the Indian army. He saw active service in the 
Sikh War (1848-49), served throughout the mutiny of 1857, 
and was wounded in the operations for the relief of Lucknow. 
He returned to England in 1858, and in 1860 joined J. H. Speke 
(q.v.) in the memorable expedition which solved the problem of 
the Nile sources. The expedition left Zanzibar in October 1860 
and reached Gondokoro, where the travellers were again in touch 
with civilization, in February 1863. Speke was the leader, but 
Grant carried out several investigations independently and made 
valuable botanical collections. He acted throughout in absolute 
loyalty to his comrade. In 1864 he published, as supplementary 
to Speke's account of their journey, A Walk across Africa, in 
which he dealt particularly with " the ordinary life and pursuits, 
the habits and feelings of the natives " and the economic value 
of the countries traversed. In 1864 he was awarded the patron's 
medal of the Royal Geographical Society, and in 1866 given the 
Companionship of the Bath in recognition of his services in 
the expedition. He served in the intelligence department of the 
Abyssinian expedition of 1868; for this he was made C.S.I, and 
received the Abyssinian medal. At the close of the war he re- 
tired from the army with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He had 
married in 1865, and he now settled down at Nairn, where he 
died on the nth of February 1892. He made contributions to 
the journals of various learned societies, the most notable being 
the " Botany of the Speke and Grant Expedition " in vol. xxix. 
of the Transactions of the Linnaean Society. 

GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808-1875), English general, 
fifth and youngest son of Francis Grant of Kilgraston, Perthshire, 
and brother of Sir Francis Grant, P.R.A., was born on the 22nd 
of July 1808. He entered the army in 1826 as cornet in the 9th 
Lancers, and became lieutenant in 1828 and captain in 1835. 
In 1842 he was brigade-major to Lord Saltoun in the Chinese War, 
and specially distinguished himself at the capture of Chin-Kiang, 
after which he received the rank of major and the C.B. In the 
first Sikh War of 1845-46 he took part in the battle of Sobraon; 
and in the Punjab campaign of 1848-49 he commanded 
the 9th Lancers, and won high reputation in the battles of 
Chillianwalla and Guzerat (Gujarat). He was promoted brevet 
lieutenant-colonel and shortly afterwards to the same substantive 
rank. In 1854 he became brevet-colonel, and in 1856 brigadier 
of cavalry. He took a leading part in the suppression of the 
Indian mutiny of 1857, holding for some time the command 
of the cavalry division, and afterwards of a movable column of 
horse and foot. After rendering valuable service in the operations 
before Delhi and in the final assault on the city, he directed the 
victorious march of the cavalry and horse artillery despatched in 
the direction of Cawnpore to open up communication with the 
commander-in-chief Sir Colin Campbell, whom he met near the 
Alambagh, and who raised him to the rank of brigadier-general, 
and placed the whole force under his command during what 
remained of the perilous march to Lucknow for the relief of the 
residency. After the retirement towards Cawnpore he greatly 
aided in effecting there the total rout of the rebel troops, by 
making a detour which threatened their rear; and following in 
pursuit with a flying column, he defeated them with the loss of 



GRANT, SIR P. GRANT, U. S. 



355 



nearly all their guns at Serai Ghat. He also took part in the 
operations connected with the recapture of Lucknow, shortly 
after which he was promoted to the rank of major-general, 
and appointed to the command of the force employed for the final 
pacification of India, a position in which his unwearied energy, 
and his vigilance and caution united to high personal daring, 
rendered very valuable service. Before the work of pacification 
was quite completed he was created K.C.B. In 1859 he was 
appointed, with the local rank of lieutenant-general, to the com- 
mand of the British land forces in the united French and British 
expedition against China. The object of the campaign was 
accomplished within three months of the landing of the forces at 
Pei-tang (ist of August 1860). The Taku Forts had been carried 
by assault, the Chinese defeated three times in the open and 
Peking occupied. For his conduct in this, which has been called 
the " most successful and the best carried out of England's 
little wars," he received the thanks of parliament and was 
gazetted G.C.B. In 1861 he was made lieutenant-general and 
appointed commander-in-chief of the army of Madras; on his 
return to England in 1865 he was made quartermaster-general 
at headquarters; and in 1870 he was transferred to the command 
of the camp at Aldershot, where he took a leading part in the 
reform of the educational and training systems of the forces, 
which followed the Franco-German War. The introduction of 
annual army manoeuvres was largely due to Sir Hope Grant. 
In 1872 he was gazetted general. He died in London on the 
7th of March 1875. 

Incidents in the Sepoy War of 1857-58, compiled from the Private 
Journal of General Sir Hope Grant, K.C.B. , together with some ex- 
planatory chapters by Capt. H. Knollys, Royal A rtillery, was published 
in 1873, and Incidents in the China War of 1860 appeared posthum- 
ously under the same editorship in 1875. 

GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895), British field marshal, was 
the second son of Major John Grant, 97th Foot, of Auchterblair, 
Inverness-shire, where he was born on the nth of September 
1804. He entered the Bengal native infantry as ensign in 1820, 
and became captain in 1832. He served in Oudh from 1834 to 
1838, and raised the Hariana Light Infantry. Employed in the 
adjutant-general's department of the Bengal army from 1838 
until 1854, he became adjutant-general in 1846. He served 
under Sir Hugh Gough at the battle of Maharajpur in 1843, 
winning a brevet majority, was adjutant-general of the army 
at the battles of Moodkee in 1845 (twice severely wounded), 
and of Ferozshah and Sobraon in 1846, receiving the C.B. and the 
brevet rank of lieutenant-colonel. He took part in the battles 
of Chillianwalla and Gujarat in 1849, gaining further promotion, 
and was appointed aide-de-camp to the queen. He served also 
in Kohat in 1851 under Sir Charles Napier. Promoted major- 
general in 1854, he was commander-in-cnief of the Madras army 
from 1856 to 1861. He was made K.C.B. in 1857, and on General 
Anson's death was summoned to Calcutta to take supreme 
command of the army in India. From Calcutta he directed 
the operations against the mutineers, sending forces under 
Havelock and Outram for the relief of Cawnpore and Lucknow, 
until the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell from England as com- 
mander-in-chief, when he returned to Madras. On leaving 
India in 1861 he was decorated with the G.C.B. He was promoted 
lieutenant-general in 1862, was governor of Malta from 1867 to 
1872, was made G.C.M.G. in 1868, promoted general in 1870, 
field marshal in 1883 and colonel of the Royal Horse Guards 
and gold-stick-in-waiting to the queen in 1885. He married as 
his second wife, in 1844, Frances Maria, daughter of Sir Hugh 
(afterwards Lord) Gough. He was governor of the Royal 
Hospital, Chelsea, from 1874 until his death there on the 28th 
of March 1895. 

GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892), British astronomer, was born 
at Grantown, Scotland, on the I7th of June 1814. At the age 
of thirteen the promise of a brilliant career was clouded by a 
prolonged illness of such a serious character as to incapacitate 
him from all school-work for six years. At twenty, however, 
his health greatly improved, and he set himself resolutely, without 
assistance, to repair his earlier disadvantages by the diligent 
study of Greek, Latin, Italian and mathematics. Astronomy 



also occupied his attention, and it was stimulated by the return 
of Halley's comet in 1835, as well as by his success in observing 
the annular eclipse of the sun of the isth of May 1836. After 
a short course at King's College, Aberdeen, he obtained in 1841 
employment in his brother's counting-house in London. During 
this period the idea occurred to him of writing a history of 
physical astronomy. Before definitely beginning the work he 
had to search, amongst other records, those of the French 
Academy, and for that purpose took up his residence in Paris 
in 1845, supporting himself by giving lessons in English. He 
returned to London in 1847. The History of Physical Astronomy 
from the Earliest Ages to the Middle of the Nineteenth Century was 
first published in parts in The Library of Useful Knowledge, but 
after the issue of the ninth part this mode of publication was 
discontinued, and the work appeared as a whole in 1852. The 
main object of the work is, in the author's words, " to exhibit 
a view of the labours of successive inquirers in establishing a 
knowledge of the mechanical principles which regulate the 
movements of the celestial bodies, and in explaining the various 
phenomena relative to their physical constitution which observa- 
tion with the telescope has disclosed." The lucidity and complete- 
ness with which a great variety of abstruse subjects were treated, 
the extent of research and the maturity of judgment it displayed, 
were the more remarkable, when it is remembered that this was 
the first published work of one who enjoyed no special oppor- 
tunities, either for acquiring materials, or for discussing with 
others engaged in similar pursuits the subjects it treats of. 
The book at once took a leading place in astronomical literature, 
and earned for its author in 1856 the award of the Royal 
Astronomical Society's gold medal. In 1859 he succeeded John 
Pringle Nichol as professor of astronomy in the University of 
Glasgow. From time to time he contributed astronomical 
papers to the Monthly Notices, Astronomische Nachrichten, 
Comptes rendus and other scientific serials; but his principal 
work at Glasgow consisted in determining the places of a large 
number of stars with the Ertel transit-circle of the Observatory. 
The results of these labours, extending over twenty-one years, 
are contained in the Glasgow Catalogs of 6415 Stars, published 
in 1883. This was followed in 1892 by the Second Glasgow 
Catalogue of 21 $6 Stars, published a few weeks after his death, 
which took place on the 24th of October 1892. 

See Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society, liii., 210 (E. Dunkin); 
Nature, Nov. 10, 1892; The Times, Nov. 2, 1892; Roy. Society's 
Catalogue of Scient. Papers. (A. A. R.*) 

GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885), American soldier, 
and eighteenth president of the United States, was born at 
Point Pleasant, Ohio, on the 27th of April 1822. He was a 
descendant of Matthew Grant, a Scotchman, who settled in 
Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1630. His earlier years were 
spent in helping his father, Jesse R. Grant, upon his farm in 
Ohio. In 1839 he was appointed to a place in the military 
academy at West Point, and it was then that his name assumed 
the form by which it is generally known. He was christened 
Hiram, after an ancestor, with Ulysses for a middle name. 
As he was usually called by his middle name, the congressman 
who recommended him for West Point supposed it to be his 
first name, and added thereto the name of his mother's family, 
Simpson. Grant was the best horseman of his class, and took 
a respectable place in mathematics, but at his graduation in 
1843 he only ranked twenty-first in a class of thirty-nine. In 
September 1845 he went with his regiment to join the forces of 
General Taylor in Mexico; there he took part in the battles of 
Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma and Monterey, and, after his transfer 
to General Scott's army, which he joined in March 1847, served 
at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Churubusco, Molino del Rey and at 
the storming of Chapultepec. He was breveted first lieutenant 
for gallantry at Molino del Rey and captain for gallantry at 
Chapultepec. In August 1848, after the close of the war, he 
married Julia T. Dent (1826-1902), and was for a while stationed 
in California and Oregon, but in 1854 he resigned his commission. 
His reputation in the service had suffered from allegations of 
intemperate drinking, which, whether well founded or not, 



35 6 



GRANT, U. S. 



certainly impaired his usefulness as a soldier. For the next 
six years he lived in St Louis, Missouri, earning a scanty subsist- 
ence by farming and dealings in real estate. In 1860 he removed 
to Galena, Illinois, and became a clerk in a leather store kept 
by his father. At that time his earning capacity seems not to 
have exceeded $800 a year, and he was regarded by his friends 
as a broken and disappointed man. He was living at Galena 
at the outbreak of hostilities between the North and South. 

[For the history of the Civil War, and of Grant's battles and 
campaigns, the reader is referred to the article AMERICAN CIVIL 
WAR. To the " call to arms " of 1861 Grant promptly 
CM? 'war res P n( Jed. After some delay he was commissioned 
career. colonel of the 2ist Illinois regiment and soon after- 
wards brigadier-general. He was shortly assigned to 
a territorial command on the Mississippi, and first won distinction 
by his energy in seizing, on his own responsibility, the important 
point of Paducah, Kentucky, situated at the confluence of 
the two great waterways of the Tennessee and the Ohio (6th 
Sept. 1861). On the 7th of November he fought his first 
battle as a commander, that of Belmont (Missouri), which, if 
it failed to achieve any material result, certainly showed him 
to be a capable and skilful leader. Early in 1862 he was en- 
trusted by General H. W. Halleck with the command of a large 
force to clear the lower reaches of the Cumberland and the 
Tennessee, and, whatever criticism may be passed on the general 
strategy of the campaign, Grant himself, by his able and 
energetic work, thoroughly deserved the credit of his brilliant 
success of Fort Donelson, where 15,000 Confederates were forced 
to capitulate. Grant and his division commanders were pro- 
moted to the rank of major-general U.S.V. soon afterwards, 
but Grant's own fortunes suffered a temporary eclipse owing to a 
disagreement with Halleck. When, after being virtually under 
arrest, he rejoined his army, it was concentrated about Savannah 
on the Tennessee, preparing for a campaign towards Corinth, 
Miss. On the 6th of April 1862 a furious assault on Grant's 
camps brought on the battle of Shiloh (q. v.). After two days' 
desperate fighting the Confederates withdrew before the com- 
bined attack of the Army of the Tennessee under Grant and the 
Army of the Ohio under Buell. But the Army of the Tennessee 
had been on the verge of annihilation on the evening of the first 
day, and Grant's leadership throughout was by no means equal 
to the emergency, ' though he displayed his usual personal 
bravery and resolution. In the grand advance of Halleck's 
armies which followed Shiloh, Grant was relieved of all important 
duties by his assignment as second in command of the whole 
force, and was thought by the army at large to be in disgrace. 
But Halleck soon went to Washington as general-in-chief, and 
Grant took command of his old army and of Rosecrans' Army 
of the Mississippi. Two victories (luka and Corinth) were won 
in the autumn of 1862, but the credit of both fell to Rosecrans, 
who commanded in the field, and the nadir of Grant's military 
fortunes was reached when the first advance on Vicksburg (q.v.), 
planned on an unsound basis, and complicated by a series of 
political intrigues (which had also caused the adoption of the 
original scheme), collapsed after the minor reverses of Holly 
Springs and Chickasaw Bayou (December 1862). 

It is fair to assume that Grant would have followed other 
unsuccessful generals into retirement, had he not shown that, 
whatever his mistakes or failures, and whether he was or was 
not sober and temperate in his habits, he possessed the iron 
determination and energy which in the eyes of Lincoln and 
Stanton, 1 and of the whole Northern people, was the first requisite 
of their generals. He remained then with his army near Vicks- 

1 President Lincoln was Grant's most unwavering supporter. 
Many amusing stories are told of his replies to various deputations 
which waited upon him to ask for Grant's removal. On one occasion 
he asked the critics to ascertain the brand of whisky favoured by 
Grant, so that he could send kegs of it to the other generals. The 
question of Grant's abstemiousness was and is of little importance. 
The cause at stake over- rode every prejudice and the people of the 
United States, since the war, have been in general content to leave 
the question alone, as was evidenced by the outcry raised in 1908, 
when President Taft reopened it in a speech at Grant's tomb. 



burg, trying one plan after another without result, until at last 
after months of almost hopeless work his perseverance was 
crowned with success a success directly consequent upon a 
strange and bizarre campaign of ten weeks, in which his daring 
and vigour were more conspicuous than ever before. On the 
4th of July 1863 the great fortress surrendered with 29,491 men, 
this being one of the most important victories won by the Union 
arms in the whole war. Grant was at once made a major-general 
in the regular army. A few months later the great reverse of 
Chickamauga created an alarm in the North commensurate with 
the elation that had been felt at the double victory of Vicksburg 
and Gettysburg, and Grant was at once ordered to Chattanooga, 
to decide the fate of the Army of the Cumberland in a second 
battle. Four armies were placed under his command, and 
three of these concentrated at Chattanooga. On the 25th of 
November 1863 a great three-days' battle ended with the 
crushing defeat of the Confederates, who from this day had no 
foothold in the centre and west. 

After this, in preparation for a grand combined effort of all 
the Union forces, Grant was placed in supreme command, and 
the rank of lieutenant-general revived for him (March 1864). 
Grant's headquarters henceforth accompanied the Army of the 
Potomac, and the lieutenant-general directed the campaign in 
Virginia. This, with Grant's driving energy infused into the 
best army that the Union possessed, resolved itself into a 
series, almost uninterrupted, of terrible battles. Tactically the 
Confederates were almost always victorious, strategically, Grant, 
disposing of greatly superior forces, pressed back Lee and the 
Army of Northern Virginia to the lines of Richmond and Peters- 
burg, while above all, in pursuance of his explicit policy of 
" attrition," the Federal leader used his men with a merciless 
energy that has few, if any, parallels in modern history. At 
Cold Harbor six thousand men fell in one useless assault lasting 
an hour, and after two months the Union armies lay before 
Richmond and Petersburg indeed, but had lost no fewer than 
72,000 men. But Grant was unshaken in his determination. 
" I purpose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all summer," 
was his message from the battlefield of Spottsylvania to the 
chief of staff at Washington. Through many weary months he 
never relaxed his hold on Lee's army, and, in spite of repeated 
partial reverses, that would have been defeats for his predeces- 
sors, he gradually wore down his gallant adversary. The terrible 
cost of these operations did not check him: only on one occasion 
of grave peril were any troops sent from his lines to serve else- 
where, and he drew to himself the bulk of the men whom the 
Union government was recruiting by thousands for the final 
effort. Meanwhile all the other campaigns had been closely 
supervised by Grant, preoccupied though he was with the 
operations against his own adversary. At a critical moment 
he actually left the Virginian armies to their own commanders, 
and started to take personal command in a threatened quarter, 
and throughout he was in close touch with Sherman and Thomas, 
who conducted the campaigns on the south-east and the centre. 
That he succeeded in the efficient exercise of the chief command 
of armies of a total strength of over one million men, operating 
many thousands of miles apart from each other, while at the 
same time he watched and manoeuvred against a great captain 
and a veteran army in one field of the war, must be the greatest 
proof of Grant's powers as a general. In the end complete success 
rewarded the sacrifices and efforts of the Federals on every theatre 
of war; in Virginia, where Grant was in personal control, the 
merciless policy of attrition wore down Lee's army until a mere 
remnant was left for the final surrender. 

Grant had thus brought the great struggle to an end, and was 
universally regarded as the saviour of the Union. A careful 
study of the history of the war thoroughly bears out the popular 
view. There were soldiers more accomplished, as was McClellan, 
more brilliant, as was Rosecrans, and more exact, as was Buell, 
but it would be difficult to prove that these generals, or indeed 
any others in the service, could have accomplished the task 
which Grant brought to complete success. Nor must it be sup- 
posed that Grant learned little from three years' campaigning 



GRANT, U. S. 



357 



in high command. There is less in common than is often supposed 
between the buoyant energy that led Grant to Shiloh and the 
grim plodding determination that led him to Vicksburg and 
to Appomattox. Shiloh revealed to Grant the intensity of the 
struggle, and after that battle, appreciating to the full the 
material and moral factors with which he had to deal, he gradually 
trained his military character on those lines which alone could 
conduce to ultimate success. Singleness of purpose, and relent- 
less vigour in the execution of the purpose, were the qualities 
necessary to the conduct of the vast enterprise of subduing the 
Confederacy. Grant possessed or acquired both to such a degree 
that he proved fully equal to the emergency. If in technical 
finesse he was surpassed by many of his predecessors and his 
subordinates, he had the most important qualities of a great 
captain, courage that rose higher with each obstacle, and the 
clear judgment to distinguish the essential from the minor 
issues in war. (C. F. A.)] 

After the assassination of President Lincoln a disposition was 
shown by his successor, Andrew Johnson, to deal severely with 
the Confederate leaders, and it was understood that indictments 
for treason were to be brought against General Lee and others. 
Grant, however, insisted that the United States government 
was bound by the terms accorded to Lee and his army at 
Appomattox. He went so far as to threaten to resign his com- 
mission if the president disregarded his protest. This energetic 
action on Grant's part saved the United States from a foul 
stain upon its escutcheon. In July 1866 the grade of general was 
created, for the first time since the organization of the govern- 
ment, and Grant was promoted to that position. In the follow- 
ing year he became involved in the deadly quarrel between 
President Johnson and Congress. To tie the president's hands 
Congress had passed the Tenure of Office Act, forbidding the 
president to remove any cabinet officer without the consent of 
the Senate; but in August 1867 President Johnson suspended 
Secretary Stanton and appointed Grant secretary of war ad 
interim until the pleasure of the Senate should be ascertained. 
Grant accepted the appointment under protest, and held it 
until the following January, when the Senate refused to confirm 
the president's' action, and Secretary Stanton resumed his 
office. President Johnson was much disgusted at the readiness 
with which Grant turned over the office to Stanton, and a bitter 
controversy ensued between Johnson and Grant. Hitherto 
Grant had taken little part in politics. The only vote which 
he had ever cast for a presidential candidate was in 1856 for 
James Buchanan; and leading Democrats, so late as 
the beginning of 1868, hoped to make him their can- 
1868?' didate in the election of that year; but the effect of 
the controversy with President Johnson was to bring 
Grant forward as the candidate of the Republican party. At the 
convention in Chicago on the zoth of May 1868 he was unani- 
mously nominated on the first ballot. The Democratic party 
nominated the one available Democrat who had the smallest 
chance of beating him Horatio Seymour, lately governor of 
New York, an excellent statesman, but at that time hopeless 
as a candidate because of his attitude during the war. The 
result of the contest was at no time in doubt; Grant received 
214 electoral votes and Seymour 80. 

The most important domestic event of Grant's first term as 
president was the adoption of the fifteenth amendment to the 
Constitution on the 3Oth of March 1870, providing that suffrage 
throughout the United States should not be restricted on account 
of race, colour or previous condition of servitude. The most 
important event in foreign policy was the treaty with Great 
Britain of the 8th of May 1871, commonly known as the Treaty 
of Washington, whereby several controversies between the 
United States and Great Britain, including the bitter questions 
as to damage inflicted upon the United States by the "Alabama" 
and other Confederate cruisers built and equipped in England, 
were referred to arbitration. In 1869 the government of Santo 
Domingo (or the Dominican Republic) expressed a wish for 
annexation by the United States, and such a step was favoured 



by Grant, but a treaty negotiated with this end in view failed 
to obtain the requisite two-thirds vote in the Senate. In May 
1872 something was done towards alleviating the odious Recon- 
struction laws for dragooning the South, which had been passed 
by Congress in spite of the vetoes of President Johnson. The 
Amnesty Bill restored civil rights to all persons in the South, 
save from 300 to 500 who had held high positions under the 
Confederacy. As early as 1870 President Grant recommended 
measures of civil service reform, and succeeded in obtaining an 
act authorizing him to appoint a Civil Service commission. 
A commission was created, but owing to the hostility of the 
politicians in Congress it accomplished little. During the fifty 
years since Crawford's Tenure of Office Act was passed in 1820, 
the country had been growing more and more familiar with the 
spectacle of corruption in high places. The evil rose to alarming 
proportions during Grant's presidency, partly because of the 
immense extension of the civil service, partly because of the 
growing tendency to alliance between spoilsmen and the persons 
benefited by protective tariffs, and partly because the public 
attention was still so much absorbed in Southern affairs that little 
energy was left for curbing rascality in the North. The scandals, 
indeed, were rife in Washington, and affected persons in close 
relations with the president. Grant was ill-fitted for coping 
with the difficulties of such a situation. Along with high in- 
tellectual powers in certain directions, he had a simplicity of 
nature charming in itself, but often calculated to render him 
the easy prey of sharpers. He found it almost impossible to 
believe that anything could be wrong in persons to whom he 
had given his friendship, and on several occasions such friends 
proved themselves unworthy of him. The feeling was widely 
prevalent in the spring of 1872 that the interests of pure govern- 
ment in the United States demanded that President Grant should 
not be elected to a second term. This feeling led a number of 
high-minded gentlemen to form themselves into an organization 
under the name of Liberal Republicans. They held a convention 
at Cincinnati in May with the intention of nominating for the 
presidency Charles Francis Adams, who had ably represented 
the United States at the court of St James's during the Civil 
War. The convention, was, however, captured by politicians 
who converted the whole affair into a farce by nominating 
Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, who represented 
almost anything rather than the object for which the convention 
had been called together. The Democrats had despaired of 
electing a candidate of their own, and hoped to achieve success 
by adopting the Cincinnati nominee, should he prove to be an 
eligible person. The event showed that while their defeat in 
1868 had taught them despondency, it had not taught them 
wisdom; it was still in their power to make a gallant fight by 
nominating a person for whom Republican reformers could 
vote. But with almost incredible fatuity, they adopted Greeley 
as their candidate. As a natural result Grant was re-elected 
by an overwhelming majority. 

The most important event of his second term was his veto 
of the Inflation Bill in 1874 followed by the passage of the 
Resumption Act in the following year. The country 
was still labouring under the curse of an inconvertible 
paper currency originating with the Legal Tender Act deacy. 
of 1862. There was a considerable party in favour of 
debasing the currency indefinitely by inflation, and a bill with 
that object was passed by Congress in April 1874. It was 
promptly vetoed by President Grant, and two months later he 
wrote a very sensible letter to Senator J. P. Jones of Nevada 
advocating a speedy return to specie payments. The passage of 
the Resumption Act in January 1875 was largely due to his con- 
sistent advocacy, and for these measures he deserves as high 
credit as for his victories in the field. In spite of these great 
services, popular dissatisfaction with the Republican party 
rapidly increased during the years 1874-1876. The causes were 
twofold: firstly, there was great dissatisfaction with the troubles 
in the Southern states, owing to the harsh Reconstruction 
laws and the robberies committed by the carpet-bag govern- 
ments which those laws kept in power; secondly, the scandals at 



358 



GRANT GRANTH 



Washington, comprising wholesale frauds on the public revenue, 
awakened lively disgust. In some cases the culprits were so near 
to President Grant that many persons found it difficult to avoid 
the suspicion that he was himself implicated, and never perhaps 
was his hold upon popular favour so slight as in the summer 
and autumn of 1876. 

After the close of his presidency in the spring of 1877 Grant 
started on a journey round the world, accompanied by his wife 
and one son. He was received with distinguished 
honours in England and on the continent of Europe, 
whence he made his way to India, China and Japan. 
After his return to America in September 1880 he went back to 
his old home in Galena, Illinois. A faction among the managers 
of the Republican party attempted to secure his nomination for 
a third term as president, and in the convention at Chicago in 
June 1880 he received a vote exceeding 300 during 36 consecutive 
ballots. Nevertheless, his opponents made such effective use of 
the popular prejudice against third terms that the scheme was 
defeated, and Garfield was named in his stead. In August 1881 
General Grant bought a house in the city of New York. His 
income was insufficient for the proper support of his family, and 
accordingly he had become partner in a banking house in which 
one of his sons was interested along with other persons. The 
name of the firm was Grant and Ward. The ex-president 
invested in it all his available property, but paid no attention to 
the management of the business. His facility in giving his con- 
fidence to unworthy people was now to be visited with dire 
calamity. In 1884 the firm became bankrupt, and it was dis- 
covered that two of the partners had been perpetrating systematic 
and gigantic frauds. This severe blow left General Grant 
penniless, just at the time when he was beginning to suffer 
acutely from the disease which finally caused his death. Down 
to this time he had never made any pretensions to literary skill 
or talent, but on being approached by the Century Magazine 
with a request for some articles he undertook the work in order 
to keep the wolf from the door. It proved a congenial task, and 
led to the writing of his Personal Memoirs, a frank, modest 
and charming book, which ranks among the best standard 
military biographies. The sales earned for the general and his 
family something like half a million dollars. The circumstances 
in which it was written made it an act of heroism comparable 
with any that Grant ever showed as a soldier. During most of 
the time he was suffering tortures from cancer in the throat, and 
it was only four days before his death that he finished the manu- 
script. In the spring of 1885 Congress passed a bill creating him 
a general on the retired list ; and in the summer he was removed 
to a cottage at Mount M'Gregor, near Saratoga, where he passed 
the last five weeks of his life, and where he died on the 23rd of 
July 1885. His body was placed in a temporary tomb in 
Riverside Drive, in New York City, overlooking the Hudson 
river. 1 

Grant showed many admirable and lovable traits. There was 
a charming side to his trustful simplicity, which was at times 
almost like that of a sailor set ashore. He abounded in kindli- 
ness and generosity, and if there was anything especially difficult 
for him to endure, it was the sight of human suffering, as was 
shown on the night at Shiloh, where he lay out of doors in the 
icy rain rather than stay in a comfortable room where the 
surgeons were at work. His good sense was strong, as well as his 
sense of justice, and these qualities stood him in good service as 
president, especially in his triumphant fight against the green- 
back monster. Altogether, in spite of some shortcomings, 
Grant was a massive, noble and lovable personality, well fit to 
be remembered as one of the heroes of a great nation. (J. Fi.) 

1 The permanent tomb is of white granite and white marble and 
is 150 ft. high with a circular cupola topping a square building 
90 ft. on the side and 72 ft. high ; the sarcophagus, in the centre 
of the building, is of red Wisconsin porphyry. The cornerstone 
was laid by President Harrison in 1802, and the tomb was dedicated 
on the 27th of April 1897 with a splendid parade and addresses by 
President McKinley and General Horace Porter, president of the 
Grant Monument Association, which from 90,000 contributions 
raised the funds for the tomb. 



General Grant's son, FREDERICK DENT GRANT (b. 1850), 
graduated at the U.S. Military Academy in 1871, was aide-de- 
camp to General Philip Sheridan in 1873-1881, and resigned from 
the army in 1881, after having attained the rank of lieutenant- 
colonel. He was U.S. minister to Austria in 1889-1893, and 
police commissioner of New York city in 1894-1898. He served 
as a brigadier-general of volunteers in the Spanish-American 
War of 1898, and then in the Philippines, becoming brigadier- 
general in the regular army in February 1901 and major-general 
in February 1906. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Adam Badeau's Military History of U. S. Grant 
(3 vols., New York, 1867-1881), and Grant in Peace (Hartford, 
1887), are appreciative but lacking in discrimination. William 
Conant Church's Ulysses S. Grant and the Period of National Pre- 
servation and Reconstruction (New York, 1897) is a good succinct 
account. Hamlin Garland's Ulysses S. Grant, His Life and Char- 
acter (New York, 1898) gives especial attention to the personal 
traits of Grant and abounds in anecdote. See also Grant's Personal 
Memoirs (2 vols., New York, 1885-1886); J. G. Wilson's Life and 
Public Services of U. S. Grant (New York, 1886); J. R. Young's 
Around the World with General Grant (New York, 1880); Horace 
Porter's Campaigning with Grant (New York, 1897); James Ford 
Rhodes's History of the United States (vols. iii.-vii., New York, 1896^- 
1906) ; James K. Hosmer's Appeal to Arms and Outcome of the Civil 
War (New York, 1907) ; John Eaton's Grant, Lincoln, and the 
Freedmen (New York, 1907), and various works mentioned in the 
articles AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, WILDERNESS CAMPAIGN, &c. 

GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, 
popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to 
believe, trust), originally permission, acknowledgment, hence the 
gift of privileges, rights, &c., specifically in law, the transfer of 
property by an instrument in writing, termed a deed of grant. 
According to the old rule of common law, the immediate freehold 
in corporeal hereditaments lay in livery (see FEOFFMENT), 
whereas incorporeal hereditaments, such as a reversion, re- 
mainder, advowson, &c., lay in grant, that is, passed by the 
delivery of the deed of conveyance or grant without further 
ceremony. The distinction between property lying in livery and 
in grant is now abolished, the Real Property Act 1845 providing 
that all corporeal tenements and hereditaments shall be trans- 
ferable as well by grant as by livery (see CONVEYANCING). A 
grant of personal property is properly termed an assignment or 
bill of sale. 

GRANTH, the holy scriptures of the Sikhs, containing the 
spiritual and moral teaching of Sikhism (<?..). The book is called 
the Adi Granth Sahib by the Sikhs as a title of respect, because it 
is believed by them to be an embodiment of the gurus. The title 
is generally applied to the volume compiled by the fifth guru 
Arjan, which contains the compositions of Guru Nanak, the 
founder of the Sikh religion; of his successors, Guru Angad, 
Amar Das, Ram Das and Arjan; hymns of the Hindu bhagats or 
saints, Jaidev, Namdev, Trilochan, Sain, Ramanand, Kabir, 
Rai Das, Pipa, Bhikhan, Beni, Parmanand Das, Sur Das, Sadhna 
and Dhanna Jat; verses of the Mahommedan saint called Farid; 
and panegyrics of the gurus by bards who either attended them or 
admired their characters. The compositions of the ninth guru, 
Teg Bahadur, were subsequently added to the Adi Granth by 
Guru Govind Singh. One recension of the sacred volume pre- 
served at Mangat in the Gujrat district contains a hymn com- 
posed by Mira Bai, queen of Chitor. The Adi Granth contains 
passages of great picturesqueness and beauty. The original 
copy is said to be in Kartarpur in the Jullundur district, but the 
chief copy in use is now in the Har Mandar or Golden Temple 
at Amritsar, where it is daily read aloud by the attendant 
Granthis or scripture readers. 

There is also a second Granth which was compiled by the 
Sikhs in 1734, and popularly known as the Granth of the tenth 
Guru, but it has not the same authority as the Adi Granth. It 
contains Guru Govind Singh's Japji, the Akal Ustit or Praise of 
the Creator, thirty-three sawaias (quatrains containing some of 
the main tenets of the guru and strong reprobation of idolatry 
and hypocrisy), and the Vachitar Natak or wonderful drama, in 
which the guru gives an account of his parentage, divine mission 
and the battles in which he was engaged. Then come three 
abridged translations by different hands of the Devi Mahatamya, 



GRANTHAM, LORD 



359 



an episode in the Markandeya Puran, in praise of Durga, the 
goddess of war. Then follow the Cyan Parbodh or awakening of 
knowledge, accounts of twenty-four incarnations of the deity, 
selected because of their warlike character; the Hazare de 
Shabd; the Shastar Nam Mala, which is a list of offensive and 
defensive weapons used in the guru's time, with special reference 
to the attributes of the Creator; the Tria Charitar or tales illus- 
trating the qualities, but principally the deceit of women; the 
Kabil, compositions of a miscellaneous character; the Zafarnama 
containing the tenth guru's epistle to the emperor Aurangzeb, and 
several metrical tales in the Persian language. This Granth is 
only partially the composition of the tenth guru. The greater 
portion of it was written by bards in his employ. 

The two volumes are written in several different languages 
and dialects. The Adi Granth is largely in old Punjabi and Hindi, 
but Prakrit, Persian, Mahratti and Gujrati are also 
Form of represented. The Granth of the Tenth Guru is written 
'anatb. in tne ld and very difficult Hindi affected by literary 
men in the Patna district in the i6th century. In 
neither of these sacred volumes is there any separation of words. 
As there is no separation of words in Sanskrit, the gyanis or 
interpreters of the guru's hymns prefer to follow the ancient 
practice of junction of words. This makes the reading of the Sikh 
scriptures very difficult, and is one of the causes of the decline 
of the Sikh religion. 

The hymns in. the Adi Granth are arranged not according to 
the gurus or bhagats who compose them, but according to rags 
or musical measures. There are thirty-one such measures in 
the Adi Granth, and the hymns are arranged according to the 
neasures to which they are composed. The gurus who composed 
hymns, namely the first, second, third, fourth, fifth and ninth 
gurus, all used the name Nanak as their nom-de-plume. Their 
compositions are distinguished by mahallas or wards. Thus the 
compositions of Guru Nanak are styled mahalla one, the com- 
positions of Guru Angad are styled mahalla two, and so on. 
After the hymns of the gurus are found the hymns of the bhagats 
under their several musical measures. The Sikhs generally dis- 
like any arrangement of the Adi Granth by which the composi- 
tions of each guru or bhagat should be separately shown. 

All the doctrines of the Sikhs are found set forth in the two 

Granths and in compositions called Rahit Namas and Tanakhwah 

Namas, which are believed to have been the utterances 

The of the tenth guru. The cardinal principle of the sacred 

Doctrines. DO ks is the unity of God, and starting from this 

premiss the rejection of idolatry and superstition. 

Thus Guru Govind Singh writes: 

" Some worshipping stones, put them on their heads; 

Some suspend lingams from their necks; 
Some see the God in the South ; some bow their heads to the 

West. 

Some fools worship idols, others busy themselves with wor- 
shipping the dead. 

The whole world entangled in false ceremonies hath not found 
God's secret." 

Next to the unity of God comes the equality of all men in His 
sight, and so the abolition of caste distinctions. Guru Nanak 
says: 

" Caste hath no power in the next world; there is a new order of 

beings, 
Those whose accounts are honoured are the good." 

The concremation of widows, though practised in later times by 
Hinduized Sikhs, is forbidden in the Granth. Guru Arjan 
writes: 

" She who considereth her beloved as her God, 
Is the blessed sati who shall be acceptable in God's Court." 

It is a common belief that the Sikhs are allowed to drink wine 
and other intoxicants. This is not the case. Guru Nanak 
wrote: 

" By drinking wine man committeth many sins." 
Guru Arjan wrote: 

" The fool who drinketh evil wine is involved in sin." 
And in the Rahit Nama of Bhai Desa Singh there is the follow- 
ing: 



" Let a Sikh take no intoxicant ; it makcth the body lazy ; it 
diverteth men from their temporal and spiritual duties, and inciteth 
them to evil deeds." 

It is also generally believed that the Sikhs are bound to 
abstain from the flesh of kine. This, too, is a mistake, arising 
from the Sikh adoption of Hindu usages. The two Granths of 
the Sikhs and all their canonical works are absolutely silent on 
the subject. The Sikhs are not bound to abstain from any flesh, 
except that which is obviously unfit for human food, or what is 
killed in the Mahommedan fashion by jagging an animal's throat 
with a knife. This flesh-eating practice is one of the main sources 
of their physical strength. Smoking is strictly prohibited by 
the Sikh religion. Guru Teg Bahadur preached to his host as 
follows: 

" Save the people from the vile drug, and employ thyself in the 
service of Sikhs and holy men. When the people abandon the 
degrading smoke and cultivate their lands, their wealth and pro- 
sperity shall increase, and they shall want for nothing . . . but 
when they smoke the vile vegetable, they shall grow poor and lose 
their wealth." 

Guru Govind Singh also said : 

" Wine is bad, bhang destroyeth one generation, but tobacco 
destroyeth all generations." 

In addition to these prohibitions Sikhism inculcates most 
of the positive virtues of Christianity, and specially loyalty to 
rulers, a quality which has made the Sikhs valuable servants of 
the British crown. 

The Granth was translated by Dr Trumpp, a German missionary, 
on behalf of the Punjab government in 1877, but his rendering is 
in many respects incorrect, owing to insufficient knowledge of the 
Punjabi dialects. The Sikh Religion, &c., in 6 vols. (London, 1909) is 
an authoritative version prepared by M. Macauliffe, in concert with 
the modern leaders of the Sikh sect. (M. M.) 

GRANTHAM, THOMAS ROBINSON, ist BARON (c. 1695-1770), 
English diplomatist and politician, was a younger son of Sir 
William Robinson, Bart. (1655-1736) of Newby, Yorkshire, 
who was member of parliament for York from 1697 to 1722. 
Having been a scholar and minor fellow of Trinity College, 
Cambridge, Thomas Robinson gained his earliest diplomatic 
experience in Paris and then went to Vienna, where he was 
English ambassador from 1730 to 1748. During 1741 he sought 
to make peace between the empress Maria Theresa and Frederick 
the Great, but in vain, and in 1748 he represented his country 
at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. Returning to England he 
sat in parliament for Christchurch from 1749 to 1761. In 1754 
Robinson was appointed a secretary of state and leader of the 
House of Commons by the prime minister, the duke of Newcastle, 
and it was on this occasion that Pitt made the famous remark 
to Fox, " the duke might as well have sent us his jackboot 
to lead us." In November 1755 he resigned, and in April 1761 
he was created Baron Grantham. He was master of the wardrobe 
from 1749 to 1754 and again from 1755 to 1760, and was joint 
postmaster-general in 1765 and 1766. He died in London on the 
30th of September 1770. 

Grantham's elder son, THOMAS ROBINSON (1738-1786), who 
became the 2nd baron, was born at Vienna on the 3Oth of 
November 1738. Educated at Westminster School and at Christ's 
College, Cambridge, he entered parliament as member for Christ- 
church in 1 76 1 , and succeeded to the peerage ini77o. In 1771 he 
was sent as ambassador to Madrid and retained this post until 
war broke out between England and Spain in 1779. From 1780 
to 1782 Grantham was first commissioner of the board of trade 
and foreign plantations, and from July 1782 to April 1783 
secretary for the foreign department under Lord Shelburne. 
He died on the 2Oth of July 1786, leaving two sons, Thomas 
Philip, who became the 3rd baron, and Frederick John after- 
wards ist earl of Ripon. 

THOMAS PHILIP ROBINSON, 3rd Baron Grantham (1781-1859), 
in 1803 took the name of Weddell instead of that of Robinson. 
In May 1833 he became Earl de Grey of Wrest on the death of 
his maternal aunt, Amabell Hume-Campbell, Countess de Grey 
(1751-1833), and he now took the name of de Grey. He was 
first lord of the admiralty under Sir Robert Peel in 1834-1835, 



3 6 



GRANTHAM GRANULITE 



and from 1841 to 1844 lord-lieutenant of Ireland. On his death 
without male issue his nephew, George Frederick Samuel Robin- 
son, afterwards marquess of Ripon (?.*.), succeeded as Earl de 
Grey. 

GRANTHAM, a municipal and parliamentary borough of 
Lincolnshire, England; situated in a pleasant undulating 
country on the river Witham. Pop. (1901) 17,593. It is an 
important junction of the Great Northern railway, 105 m. N. 
by W. from London, with branch lines to Nottingham, Lincoln 
and Boston; while there is communication with Nottingham 
and the Trent by the Grantham canal. The parish church of St 
Wulfram is a splendid building, exhibiting all the Gothic styles, 
but mainly Early English and Decorated. The massive and 
ornate western tower and spire, about 280 ft. in height, are of 
early Decorated workmanship. There is a double Decorated 
crypt beneath the lady chapel. The north and south porches are 
fine examples of a later period of the same style. The delicately 
carved font is noteworthy. Two libraries, respectively of the 
i6th and i;th centuries, are preserved in the church. At the 
King Edward VI. grammar school Sir Isaac Newton received 
part of his education. A bronze statue commemorates him. 
The late Perpendicular building is picturesque, and the school was 
greatly enlarged in 1904. The Angel Hotel is a hostelry of the 
iSth century, with a gateway of earlier date. A conduit dating 
from 1597 stands in the wide market-place. Modern public 
buildings are a gild hall, exchange hall, and several churches 
and chapels. The Queen Victoria Memorial home for nurses was 
erected in 1902-1903. The chief industries are malting and the 
manufacture of agricultural implements. Grantham returns one 
member to parliament. The borough falls within the S. Kesteven 
or Stamford division of the county. Grantham was created a 
suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Lincoln in 1905. The 
municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 
councillors. Area, 1726 acres. 

Although there is no authentic evidence of Roman occupation, 
Grantham (Graham, Granham in Domesday Book) from its 
situation on the Ermine Street, is supposed to have been a 
Roman station. It was possibly a borough in the Saxon period, 
and by the time of the Domesday Survey it was a royal borough 
with in burgesses. Charters of liberties existing now only in 
the confirmation charter of 1377 were granted by various kings. 
From the first the town was governed by a bailiff appointed 
by the lord of the manor, but by the end of the I4th century the 
office of alderman had come into existence. Finally government 
under a mayor and alderman was granted by Edward IV. in 
1463, and Grantham became a corporate town. Among later 
charters, that of James II., given in 1685, changed the title to 
that of government by a mayor and 6 aldermen, but this was 
afterwards reversed and the old order resumed. Grantham 
was first represented in parliament in 1467, and returned two 
members; but by the Redistribution Act of 1885 the number 
was reduced to one. Richard III. in 1483 granted a Wednesday 
market and two fairs yearly, namely on the feast of St Nicholas 
the Bishop, and the two following days, and on Passion Sunday 
and the day following. At the present day the market is held 
on Saturday, and fairs are held on the Monday, Tuesday and 
Wednesday following the fifth Sunday in Lent; a cherry fair 
on the 1 1 th of July and two stock fairs on the 26th of October 
and the i7th of December. 

GRANTLEY, FLETCHER NORTON, IST BARON (1716-1789), 
English politician, was the eldest son of Thomas Norton of 
Grantley, Yorkshire, where he was born on the 23rd of Jurie 1716. 
He became a barrister in 1739, and, after a period of inactivity, 
obtained a large and profitable practice, becoming a K.C. in 
1754, and afterwards attorney-general for the county palatine 
of Lancaster. In 1756 he was elected member of parliament for 
Appleby; he represented Wigan from 1761 to 1768, and was 
appointed solicitor-general for England and knighted in 1762. 
He took part in the proceedings against John Wilkes, and, 
having become attorney -general in 1763, prosecuted the 5th 
Lord Byron for the murder of William Chaworth, losing his 
office when the marquess of Rockingham came into power in 



July 1765. In 1769, being now member of parliament for 
Guildford, Norton became a privy councillor and chief justice 
in eyre of the forests south of the Trent, and in 1770 was chosen 
Speaker of the House of Commons. In 1777, when presenting 
the bill for the increase of the civil list to the king, he told 
George III. that parliament has " not only granted to your 
majesty a large present supply, but also a very great additional 
revenue ; great beyond example; great beyond your majesty's 
highest expense." This speech aroused general attention and 
caused some irritation; but the Speaker was supported by Fox 
and by the city of London, and received the thanks of the House 
of Commons. George, however, did not forget these plain words, 
and after the general election of 1780, the prime minister, Lord 
North, and his followers declined to support the re-election of the 
retiring Speaker, alleging that his health was not equal to the 
duties of the office, and he was defeated when the voting took 
place. In 1782 he was made a peer as Baron Grantley of 
Markenfield. He died in London on the ist of January 1789. 
He was succeeded as Baron Grantley by his eldest son William 
(1742-1822). Wraxall describes Norton as "a bold, able and 
eloquent, but not a popular pleader," and as Speaker he was 
aggressive and indiscreet. Derided by satirists as " Sir Bullface 
Doublefee," and described by Horace Walpole as one who " rose 
from obscure infamy to that infamous fame which will long stick 
to him," his character was also assailed by Junius, and the general 
impression is that he was a hot-tempered, avaricious and un- 
principled man. 

See H. Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of George ///.."edited by 
G. F. R. Barker (1894); Sir N. W. Wraxall, Historical and Post- 
humous Memoirs, edited by H. B. Wheatley (1884); and J. A. 
Manning, Lives of the Speakers (1850). 

GRANTOWN, the capital of Speyside, Elginshire, Scotland. 
Pop. (1901) 1568. It lies on the left bank of the Spey, 235 m. 
S. of Forres by the Highland railway, with a station on the Great 
North of Scotland's Speyside line connecting Craigellachie with 
Boat of Garten. It was founded in 1776 by Sir James Grant of 
Grant, and became the chief seat of that ancient family, who had 
lived on their adjoining estate of Freuchie (Gaelic, fraochach, 
"heathery") since the beginning of the I5th century, and 
hence were usually described as the lairds of Freuchie. The 
public buildings include the town hall, court house and orphan 
hospital; and the industries are mainly connected with the 
cattle trade and the distilling of whisky. The town, built of grey 
granite, presents a handsome appearance, and being delightfully 
situated in the midst of the most beautiful pine and birch woods 
in Scotland, with pure air and a bracing climate, is an attractive 
resort. Castle Grant, immediately to the north, is the principal 
mansion of the earl of Seafield, the head of the Clan Grant. 
In a cave, still called " Lord Huntly's Cave," in a rocky glen in 
the vicinity, George, marquess of Huntly, lay hid during 
Montrose's campaign in 1644-45. 

GRANULITE (Lat. granulum, a little grain), a name used by 
petrographers to designate two distinct classes of rocks. Accord- 
ing to the terminology of the French school it signifies a granite 
in which both kinds of mica (muscovite and biotite) occur, and 
corresponds to the German Granit, or to the English " muscovite 
biotite granite." This application has not been accepted 
generally. To the German petrologists " granulite " means a 
more or less banded fine-grained metamorphic rock, consisting 
mainly of quartz and felspar in very small irregular crystals, 
and containing usually also a fair number of minute rounded 
pale-red garnets. Among English and American geologists the 
term is generally employed in this sense. The granulites are 
very closely allied to the gneisses, as they consist of nearly the 
same minerals, but they are finer grained, have usually less 
perfect foliation, are more frequently garnetiferous, and have 
some special features of microscopic structure. In the rocks of 
this group the minerals, as seen in a microscopic slide, occur as 
small rounded grains forming a mosaic closely fitted together. 
The individual crystals have never perfect form, and indeed 
rarely any traces of it. In some granulites they interlock, with 
irregular borders; in others they have been drawn out and 



GRANVELLA 



361 



flattened into tapering lenticles by crushing. In most cases they 
are somewhat rounded with smaller grains between the larger. 
This is especially true of the quartz and felspar which are the 
predominant minerals; mica always appears as flat scales 
(irregular or rounded but not hexagonal). Both muscovite and 
biotite may be present and vary considerably in abundance; 
very commonly they have their flat sides parallel and give the 
rock a rudimentary schistosity, and they may be aggregated 
into bands in which case the granulites are indistinguishable 
from certain varieties of gneiss. The garnets are very generally 
larger than the above-mentioned ingredients, and easily visible 
with the eye as pink spots on the broken surfaces of the rock. 
They usually are filled with enclosed grains of the other minerals. 

The felspar of the granulites is mostly orthoclase or crypto- 
perthite; microcline, oligoclase and albite are also common. 
Basic felspars occur only rarely. Among accessory minerals, in 
addition to apatite, zircon, and iron oxides, the following may 
be mentioned: hornblende (not common), riebeckite (rare), 
epidote and zoisite, calcite, sphene, andalusite, sillimanite, 
kyanite, hercynite (a green spinel), rutile, orthite and tourmaline. 
Though occasionally we may find larger grains of felspar, quartz 
or epidote, it is more characteristic of these rocks that all the 
minerals are in small, nearly uniform, imperfectly shaped 
individuals. 

On account of the minuteness with which it has been described 
and the important controversies on points of theoretical geology 
which have arisen regarding it, the granulite district of Saxony 
(around Rosswein, Penig, &c.) may be considered the typical 
region for rocks of this group. It should be remembered that 
though granulites are probably the commonest rocks of this 
country, they are mingled with granites, gneisses, gabbros, 
amphibolites, mica schists and many other petrographical types. 
All of these rocks show more or less metamorphism either of a 
thermal character or due to pressure and crushing. The granites 
pass into gneiss and granulite; the gabbros into flaser gabbro and 
amphibolite; the slates often contain andalusite or chiastolite, 
and show transitions to mica schists. At one time these rocks 
were regarded as Archean gneisses of a special type. Johannes 
Georg Lehmann propounded the hypothesis that their present 
state was due principally to crushing acting on them in a solid 
condition, grinding them down and breaking up their minerals, 
while the pressure to which they were subjected welded them 
together into coherent rock. It is now believed, however, that 
they are comparatively recent and include sedimentary rocks, 
partly of Palaeozoic age, and intrusive masses which may be 
nearly massive or may have gneissose, flaser or granulitic 
structures. These have been developed largely by the injection 
of semi-consolidated highly viscous intrusions, and the varieties 
of texture are original or were produced very shortly after the 
crystallization of the rocks. Meanwhile, however, Lehmann's 
advocacy of post-consolidation crushing as a factor in the 
development of granulites has been so successful that the terms 
granulitization and granulitic structures are widely employed 
to indicate the results of dynamometamorphism acting on rocks 
at a period long after their solidification. 

The Saxon granulites are apparently for the most part igneous 
and correspond in composition to granites and porphyries. 
There are, however, many granulites which undoubtedly were 
originally sediments (arkoses, grits and sandstones) . A large part 
of the highlands of Scotland consists of paragranulites of this 
kind, which have received the group name of " Moine gneisses." 

Along with the typical acid granulites above described, in 
Saxony, India, Scotland and other countries there occur dark- 
coloured basic granulites (" trap granulites "). These are 
fine-grained rocks, not usually banded, nearly black in colour 
with small red spots of garnet. Their essential minerals are 
pyroxene, plagioclase and garnet: chemically they resemble 
the gabbros. Green augite and hypersthene form a considerable 
part of these rocks, they may contain also biotite, hornblende and 
quartz. Around the garnets there is often a radial grouping of 
small grains of pyroxene and hornblende in a clear matrix of 
felspar: these " centric " structures are frequent in granu- 



lites. The rocks of this group accompany gabbro and serpen- 
tine, but the exact conditions under which they are formed 
and the significance of their structures is not very clearly 
understood. (J. S. F.) 

GRANVELLA, ANTOINE PERRENOT, CARDINAL DE (1517- 
1586), one of the ablest and most influential of the princes of 
the church during the great political and ecclesiastical movements 
which immediately followed the appearance of Protestantism 
in Europe, was born on the zoth of August 1517 at Besancon, 
where his father, Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella (1484-1550), 
who afterwards became chancellor of the empire under Charles V., 
was practising as a lawyer. Later Nicolas held an influential 
position in the Netherlands, and from 1530 until his death he 
was one of the emperor's most trusted advisers in Germany. 
On the completion of his studies in law at Padua and in divinity 
at Louvain, Antoine held a canonry at Besangon, but he was 
promoted to the bishopric of Arras when barely twenty-three 
(1540). In his episcopal capacity he attended several diets of 
the empire, as well as the opening meetings of the council of 
Trent; and the influence of his father, now chancellor, led to 
his being entrusted with many difficult and delicate pieces of 
public business, in the execution of which he developed a rare 
talent for diplomacy, and at the same time acquired an intimate 
acquaintance with most of the currents of European politics. 
One of his specially noteworthy performances was the settlement 
of the terms of peace after the defeat of the league of Schmalkalden 
at Miihlberg in 1547, a settlement in which, to say the least, 
some particularly sharp practice was exhibited. In 1550 he 
succeeded his father in the office of secretary of state; in this 
capacity he attended Charles in the war with Maurice, elector 
of Saxony, accompanied him in the flight from Innsbruck, and 
afterwards drew up the treaty of Passau (August 1552). In the 
following year he conducted the negotiations for the marriage 
of Mary of England and Philip II. of Spain, to whom, in 1555, 
on the abdication of the emperor, he transferred his services, 
and by whom he was employed in the Netherlands. In April 
1559 Granvella was one of the Spanish commissioners who 
arranged the peace of Cateau Cambresis, and on Philip's with- 
drawal from the Netherlands in August of the same year he 
was appointed prime minister to the regent, Margaret of Parma. 
The policy of repression which in this capacity he pursued 
during the next five years secured for him many tangible rewards, 
in 1560 he was elevated to the archiepiscopal see of Malines, 
and in 1561 he received the cardinal's hat; but the growing 
hostility of a people whose religious convictions he had . set 
himself to trample under foot ultimately made it impossible 
for him to continue in the Low Countries; and by the advice 
of his royal master he, in March 1564, retired to Franche Comt6. 
Nominally this withdrawal was only of a temporary character, 
but it proved to be final. The following six years were spent 
in comparative quiet, broken, however, by a visit to Rome in 
1565; but in 1570 Granvella, at the call of Philip, resumed 
public life by accepting another mission to Rome. Here he 
helped to arrange the alliance between the Papacy, Venice and 
Spain against the Turks, an alliance which was responsible for 
the victory of Lepanto. In the same year he became viceroy 
of Naples, a post of some difficulty and danger, which for five 
years he occupied with ability and success. He was summoned 
to Madrid in 1575 by Philip II. to be president of the council 
for Italian affairs. Among the more delicate negotiations of 
his later years were those of 1580, which had for their object 
the ultimate union of the crowns of Spain and Portugal, and 
those of 1584, which resulted in a check to France by the marriage 
of the Spanish infanta Catherine to Charles Emmanuel, duke of 
Savoy. In the same year he was made archbishop of Besancon, 
but meanwhile he had been stricken with a lingering disease; 
he was never enthroned, but died at Madrid on the zist of 
September 1586. His body was removed to Besancon, where 
his father had been buried. Granvella was a man of great 
learning, which was equalled by his industry, and these qualities 
made him almost indispensable both to Charles V. and to 
Philip II. 



362 



GRANVILLE, EARLS 



Numerous letters and memoirs of Granvella are preserved in the 
archives of Besancon. These were to some extent made use of by 
Prosper Leveque in his M6moires pour senrir (1753). as well as by 
the Abb(5 Boisot in the Tresor de Granvella. A commission for 
publishing the whole of the letters and memoirs was appointed by 
Guizot in 1834, and the result has been the issue of nine volumes 
of the Papiers d'Etat du cardinal de Granvelle, edited by C. Weiss 



Correspondence _. , 

Poullet and G. J. C. Piot (12 vols., Brussels, 1878-1896). See also 
the anonymous Histoire du cardinal de GranvUle, attributed to 
Courchetet D'Esnans (Paris, 1761); J. L. Motley, Rise of the Dutch 
Republic; M. Philippson, Ein Ministerium unter Philipp II. (Berlin, 
1895); and the Cambridge Modern History (vol. iii. 1904). 

GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE GEORGE LEVESON-GOWER, 

2ND EARL (1815-1891), English statesman, eldest son of the 
ist Earl Granville (1773-1846), by his marriage with Lady 
Harriet, daughter of the duke of Devonshire, was born in London 
on the nth of May 1815. His father, Granville Leveson-Gower, 
was a younger son of Granville, 2nd Lord Gower and ist marquess 
of Stafford (1720-1803), by his third wife; an elder son by the 
second wife (a daughter of the ist duke of Bridgwater) became 
the 2nd marquess of Stafford, and his marriage with the daughter 
and heiress of the 1 7th earl of Sutherland (countess of Sutherland 
in her own right) led to the merging of the Gower and Stafford 
titles in that of the dukes of Sutherland (created 1833), who 
represent the elder branch of the family. As Lord Granville 
Leveson-Gower, the ist Earl Granville (created viscount in 
1815 and earl in 1833) entered the diplomatic service and was 
ambassador at St Petersburg (1804-1807) and at Paris (1824- 
1841). He was a Liberal in politics and an intimate friend of 
Canning. The title of Earl Granville had been previously held 
in the Carteret family. 

After being at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, young Lord 
Leveson went to Paris for a short time under his father, and in 
1836 was returned to parliament in the Whig interest for Morpeth. 
For a short time he was under-secretary for foreign affairs in 
Lord Melbourne's ministry. In 1840 he married Lady Acton 
(Marie Louise Pelline de Dalberg, widow of Sir Richard Acton; 
see ACTON and DALBERG). From 1841 till his father's death 
in 1846, when he succeeded to the title, he sat for Lichfield. 
In the House of Lords he signalized himself as a Free Trader, 
and Lord John Russell made him master of the buckhounds 
(1846). He proved a useful member of the party, and his 
influence and amiable character were valuable in all matters 
needing diplomacy and good breeding. He became vice- 
president of the Board of Trade in 1848, and took a prominent 
part in promoting the great exhibition of 1851. In the latter 
year, having already been admitted to the cabinet, he succeeded 
Palmerston at the foreign office until Lord John Russell's defeat 
in 1852; and when Lord Aberdeen formed his government at 
the end of the year, he became first president of the council, 
and then chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster (1854). Under 
Lord Palmerston (1855) he was president of the council. His 
interest in education (a subject associated with this office) led 
to his election (1856) as chancellor of the London University, 
a post he held for thirty -five years; and he was a prominent 
champion of the movement for the admission of women, and 
also of the teaching of modern languages. From 1855 Lord 
Granville led the Liberals in the Upper House, both in office, 
and, after Palmerston's resignation in 1858, in opposition. 
He went in 1856 as head of the British mission to the tsar's 
coronation in Moscow. In June 1859 the queen, embarrassed 
by the rival ambitions of Palmerston and Russell, sent for him 
to form a ministry, but he was unable to do so, and Palmerston 
again became prime minister, with Lord John as foreign secretary 
and Granville as president of the council. In 1860 his wife 
died, and to this heavy loss was shortly added that of his great 
friends Lord and Lady Canning and of his mother (1862); but 
he devoted himself to his political work, and retained his office 
when, on Palmerston's death in 1865, Lord Russell (now a peer) 
became prime minister and took over the leadership in the 
House of Lords. He was made Lord Warden of the Cinque 



Ports, and in the same year married again, his second wife 
being Miss Castalia Campbell. From 1866 to 1868 he was in 
opposition, but in December 1868 he became colonial secretary 
in Gladstone's first ministry. His tact was invaluable to the 
government in carrying the Irish Church and Land Bills through 
the House of Lords. On the 27th of June 1870, on Lord 
Clarendon's death, he was transferred to the foreign office. 
Lord Granville's name is mainly associated with his career as 
foreign secretary (1870-1874 and 1880-1885); but tne Liberal 
foreign policy of that period was not distinguished by enterprise 
or " backbone." Lord Granville personally was patient and 
polite, but his courteous and pacific methods were somewhat 
inadequate in dealing with the new situation then arising in 
Europe and outside it; and foreign governments had little 
scruple in creating embarrassments for Great Britain, and rely- 
ing on the disinclination of the Liberal leaders to take strong 
measures. The Franco-German War of 1870 broke out within 
a few days of Lord Granville's quoting in the House of Lords 
(nth of July) the curiously unprophetic opinion of the per- 
manent under-secretary (Mr Hammond) that " he had never 
known so great a lull in foreign affairs." Russia took advantage 
of the situation to denounce the Black Sea clauses of the treaty 
of Paris, and Lord Granville's protest was ineffectual. In 1871 
an intermediate zone between Asiatic Russia and Afghanistan 
was agreed on between him and Shuvalov; but in 1873 Russia 
took possession of Khiva, within the neutral zone, and Lord 
Granville had to accept the aggression. When the Conservatives 
came into power in 1874, his part for the next six years was to 
criticize Disraeli's " spirited " foreign policy, and to defend his 
own more pliant methods. He returned to the foreign office in 
1880, only to find an anti-British spirit developing in German 
policy which the temporizing methods of the Liberal leaders 
were generally powerless to deal with. Lord Grarrville failed 
to realize in time the importance of the Angra Pequena question 
in 1883-1884, and he was forced, somewhat ignominiously, to 
yield to Bismarck over it. Whether in Egypt, Afghanistan 
or equatorial and south-west Africa, British foreign policy was 
dominated by suavity rather than by the strength which com- 
mands respect. Finally, when Gladstone took up Home Rule 
for Ireland, Lord Granville, whose mind was similarly receptive 
to new ideas, adhered to his chief (1886), and gracefully gave 
way to Lord Rosebery when the latter was preferred to the foreign 
office; the Liberals had now realized that they had lost ground 
in the country by Lord Granville's occupancy of the post. He 
went to the Colonial Office for six months, and in July 1886 
retired from public life. He died in London on the 3 ist of March 
1891, being succeeded in the title by his son, born in 1872. 
Lord Granville was a man of much charm and many friendships, 
and an admirable after-dinner speaker. He spoke French like 
a Parisian, and was essentially a diplomatist; but he has no 
place in history as a constructive statesman. 

The life of Lord Granville (1905), by Lord Fitzmaurice, is full of 
interesting material for the history of the period, but being written 
by a Liberal, himself an under-secretary for foreign affairs, it 
explains rather than criticizes Lord Granville's work in that depart- 
ment. (H. CH.) 

GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET, EARL (1690-1763), English 
statesman, commonly known by his earlier title as Lord Carteret, 
born on the 22nd of April 1690, was the son of George, ist Lord 
Carteret, by his marriage with Grace Granville, daughter of 
Sir John Granville, ist earl of Bath, and great grandson of 
the Elizabethan admiral, Sir Richard Grenville, famous for his 
death in the " Revenge." The family of Carteret was settled 
in the Channel Islands, and was of Norman descent. John 
Carteret was educated at Westminster, and at Christ Church, 
Oxford. Swift says that " with a singularity scarce to be 
justified he carried away more Greek, Latin and philosophy 
than properly became a person of his rank." Throughout life 
Carteret not only showed a keen love of the classics, but a taste 
for, and a knowledge of, modern languages and literatures. 
He was almost the only Englishman of his time who knew 
German. Harte, the author of the Life of Gustavus Adolphus, 
acknowledged the aid which Carteret had given him. On the 



GRANVILLE 



I7th of October 1710 he married at Longleat Lady Frances 
Worsley, grand-daughter of the first Viscount Weymouth. 
He took his scat in the Lords on the 2 sth of May 1711. Though 
his family, on both sides, had been devoted to the house of 
Stuart, Carteret was a steady adherent of the Hanoverian 
dynasty. He was a friend of the Whig leaders Stanhope and 
Sunderland, took a share in defeating the Jacobite conspiracy 
of Bolingbroke on the death of Queen Anne, and supported the 
passing of the Septennial Act. Carteret's interests were however 
in foreign, and not in domestic policy. His serious work in 
public life began with his appointment, early in 1719, as 
ambassador to Sweden. During this and the following year 
he was employed in saving Sweden from the attacks of Peter 
the Great, and in arranging the pacification of the north. His 
efforts were finally successful. During this period of diplomatic 
work he acquired an exceptional knowledge of the affairs of 
Europe, and in particular of Germany, and displayed great tact 
and temper in dealing with the Swedish senate, with Queen 
Ulrica, with the king of Denmark and Frederick William I. 
of Prussia. But he was not qualified to hold his own in the 
intrigues of court and parliament in London. Named secretary 
of state for the southern department on his return home, he soon 
became helplessly in conflict with the intrigues of Townshend 
and Sir Robert Walpole. To Walpole, who looked upon every 
able colleague, or subordinate, as an enemy to be removed, 
Carteret was exceptionally odious. His capacity to speak 
German with the king would alone have made Sir Robert detest 
him. When, therefore, the violent agitation in Ireland against 
Wood's halfpence (see SWIFT, JONATHAN) made it necessary 
to replace the duke of Grafton as lord lieutenant, Carteret was 
sent to Dublin. He landed in Dublin on the 23rd of October 
1724, and remained there till 1730. In the first months of his 
tenure of office he had to deal with the furious opposition to 
Wood's halfpence, and to counteract the effect of Swift's 
Draper's Letters. The lord lieutenant had a strong personal 
liking for Swift, who was also a friend of Lady Carteret's family. 
It is highly doubtful whether Carteret could have reconciled 
his duty to the crown with his private friendships, if government 
had persisted in endeavouring to force the detested coinage 
on the Irish people. Wood's patent was however withdrawn, 
and Ireland settled down. Carteret was a profuse and 
popular lord lieutenant who pleased both the " English interest " 
and the native Irish. He was at all times addicted to lavish 
hospitality, and according to the testimony of contemporaries 
was too fond of burgundy. When he returned to London in 
1730, Walpole was firmly established as master of the House of 
Commons, and as the trusted minister of King George II. He 
had the full confidence of Queen Caroline, whom he prejudiced 
against Carteret. Till the fall of Walpole in 1742, Carteret 
could take no share in public affairs except as a leader of opposi- 
tion of the Lords. His brilliant parts were somewhat obscured 
by his rather erratic conduct, and a certain contempt, partly 
aristocratic and partly intellectual, for commonplace men and 
ways. He endeavoured to please Queen Caroline, who loved 
literature, and he has the credit, on good grounds, of having 
paid the expenses of the first handsome edition of Don Quixote 
to please her. But he reluctantly, and most unwisely, allowed 
himself to be entangled in the scandalous family quarrel between 
Frederick, prince of Wales, and his parents. Queen Caroline 
was provoked into classing him and Bolingbroke, as " the two 
most worthless men of parts in the country." Carteret took 
the popular side in the outcry against Walpole for not making 
war on Spain. When the War of the Austrian Succession ap- 
proached, his sympathies were entirely with Maria Theresa 
mainly on the ground that the fall of the house of Austria would 
dangerously increase the power of France, even if she gained 
no accession of territory. These views made him welcome to 
George II., who gladly accepted him as secretary of state in 1742. 
In 1743 he accompanied the king of Germany, and was present 
at the battle of Dettingen on the 27th of June. He held the 
secretaryship till November 1744. He succeeded in promoting 
an agreement between Maria Theresa and Frederick. He under- 



stood the relations of the European states, and the interests 
of Great Britain among them. But the defects which had 
rendered him unable to baffle the intrigues of Walpole made him 
equally unable to contend with the Pelhams. His support of 
the king's policy was denounced as subservience to Hanover. 
Pitt called him " an execrable, a sole minister who had renounced 
the British nation." A few years later Pitt adopted an identical 
policy, and professed that whatever he knew he had learnt 
from Carteret. On the i8th of October 1744 Carteret became 
Earl Granville on the death of his mother. His first wife died 
in June 1743 at Aschaffenburg, and in April 1744 he married 
Lady Sophia Fermor, daughter of Lord Pomfret a fashionable 
beauty and " reigning toast " of London society, who was 
younger than his daughters. " The nuptials of our great 
Quixote and the fair Sophia," and Granville's ostentatious 
performance of the part of lover, were ridiculed by Horace 
Walpole. The countess Granville died on the 7th of October 
1745, leaving one daughter Sophia, who married Lord Shelburne, 
ist marquis of Lansdowne. This marriage may have done 
something to increase Granville's reputation for eccentricity. 
In February 1746 he allowed himself to be entrapped by the 
intrigues of the Pelhams into accepting the secretaryship, but 
resigned in forty-eight hours. In June 1 7 5 1 he became president 
of the council, and was still liked and trusted by the king, but 
his share in government did not go beyond giving advice, and 
endeavouring to forward ministerial arrangements. In 1756 
he was asked by Newcastle to become prime minister as the 
alternative to Pitt, but Granville, who perfectly understood 
why the offer was made, declined and supported Pitt. When 
in October 1761 Pitt, who had information of the signing of 
the " Family Compact " wished to declare war on Spain, and 
declared his intention to resign unless his advice was accepted, 
Granville replied that " the opinion of the majority (of the 
Cabinet) must decide." He spoke in complimentary terms of 
Pitt, but resisted his claim to be considered as a " sole minister " 
or, in the modern phrase, " a prime minister." Whether he used 
the words attributed to him in the Annual Register for 1761 
is more than doubtful, but the minutes of council show that they 
express his meaning. Granville remained in office as president 
till his death. His last act was to listen while on his death-bed 
to the reading of the preliminaries of the treaty of Paris. He 
was so weak that the under-secret ary, Robert Wood, author 
of an essay on The Original Genius of Homer, would have post- 
poned the business, but Granville said that it " could not pro- 
long his life to neglect his duty," and quoted the speech of 
Sarpedon from Iliad xii. 322-328, repeating the last word 
(top^v) " with a calm and determined resignation." He died 
in his house in Arlington Street, London, on the 22nd of January 
1763. The title of Granville descended to his son Robert, who 
died without issue in 1776, when the earldom of this creation 
became extinct. 

A somewhat partisan life of Granville was published in 1887, by 
Archibald Ballantyne, under the title of Lord Carteret, a Political 
Biography. 

GRANVILLE, a town of Cumberland county, New South 
Wales, 13 m. by rail W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 5094. It is 
an important railway junction and manufacturing town, pro- 
ducing agricultural implements, tweed, pipes, tiles and bricks; 
there are also tanneries, flour-mills, and kerosene and meat 
export works. It became a municipality in 1885. 

GRANVILLE, a fortified sea-port and bathing-resort of north- 
western France, in the department of Manche, at the mouth of 
the Bosq, 85 m. S. by W. of Cherbourg by rail. Pop. (1906) 
10,530. Granville consists of two quarters, the upper town 
built on a promontory jutting into the sea and surrounded 
by ramparts, and the lower town and harbour lying below it. 
The barracks and the church of Notre-Dame, a low building 
of granite, partly Romanesque, partly late Gothic in style, are in 
the upper town. The port consists of a tidal harbour, two 
floating basins and a dry dock. Its fleets take an active part 
in deep sea fishing, including the cod-fishing off Newfoundland, 
and oyster-fishing is carried on. It has regular communication 



3 6 4 



GRANVILLE GRAPHITE 



with Guernsey and Jersey, and with the islands of St Pierre 
and Miquelon. The principal exports are eggs, vegetables and 
fish; coal, timber and chemical manures are imported. The 
industries include ship-building, fish-salting, the manufacture 
of cod-liver oil, the preserving of vegetables, dyeing, metal- 
founding, rope-making and the manufacture of chemical 
manures. Among the public institutions are a tribunal and 
a chamber of commerce. In the commune are included the 
lies Chausey about 7^ m. N.W. of Granville (see CHANNEL 
ISLANDS). Granville, before an insignificant village, was fortified 
by the English in 1437, taken by the French in 1441, bombarded 
and burned by the English in 1695, and unsuccessfully besieged 
by the Vendean troops in 1793. It was again bombarded by 
the English in 1803. 

GRANVILLE, a village in Licking county, Ohio, U.S.A., in 
the township of Granville, about 6 m. W. of Newark and 27 m. 
E. by N. of Columbus. Pop. of the village (1910) 1394; of the 
township (1910) 2442. Granville is served by the Toledo & Ohio 
Central and the Ohio Electric railways, the latter reaching 
Newark (where it connects with the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, 
Chicago & St Louis and the Baltimore & Ohio railways),Columbus, 
Dayton, Zanesville and Springfield. Granville is the seat of 
Denison University, founded in 1831 by the Ohio Baptist 
Education Society and opened as a manual labour school, called 
the Granville Literary and Theological Institution. It was 
renamed Granville College in 1845, and took its present name 
in 1854 in honour of William S. Denison of Adamsville, Ohio, 
who had given $10,000 to the college. The university comprised 
in 1907-1908 five departments: Granville College (229 students), 
the collegiate department for men; Shepardson College (246 
students, including 82 in the preparatory department), the col- 
legiate department for women, founded as the Young Ladies' 
Institute of Granville in 1859, given to the Baptist denomination 
in 1887 by Dr Daniel Shepardson, its principal and owner, 
and closely affiliated for scholastic purposes, since 1900, with the 
university, though legally it is still a distinct institution ; 
Doane Academy (137 students), the preparatory department 
for boys, established in 1831, named Granville Academy in 
1887, and renamed in 1895 in honour of William H. Doane of 
Cincinnati, who gave to it its building; a conservatory of music 
(137 students) ; and a school of art (38 students). 

In 1805 the Licking Land Company, organized in the preceding 
year in Granville, Massachusetts, bought 29,040 acres of land 
in Ohio, including the site of Granville; the town was laid out, 
and in the last months of that year settlers from Granville, Mass., 
began to arrive. By January 1806 the colony numbered 234 
persons; the township was incorporated in 1806 and the village 
was incorporated in 1831. There are several remarkable Indian 
mounds near Granville, notably one shaped like an alligator. 

SeeHenryBushnell, History of Granville, Ohio (Columbus, O., 1889). 

GRAPE, the fruit of the vine (<?..). The word is adopted 
from the O. Fr. grape, mod. grappe, bunch or cluster of flowers 
or fruit, grappes de raisin, bunch of grapes. The French word 
meant properly a hook; cf. M.H.G. krapfe, Eng. " grapnel," and 
" cramp." The development of meaning seems to be vine-hook, 
cluster of grapes cut with a hook, and thence in English a single 
grape of a cluster. The projectile called " grape " or " grape- 
shot," formerly used with smooth-bore ordnance, took its name 
from its general resemblance to a bunch of grapes. It consisted 
of a number of spherical bullets (heavier than those of the con- 
temporary musket) arranged in layers separated by thin iron 
plates, a bolt passing through the centre of the plates binding 
the whole together. On being discharged the projectile delivered 
the bullets in a shower somewhat after the fashion of case-shot. 

GRAPHICAL METHODS, devices for representing by geometri- 
cal figures the numerical data which result from the quantitative 
investigation of phenomena. The simplest application is met 
with in the representation of tabular data such as occur in 
statistics. Such tables are usually of single entry, i.e. to a certain 
value of one variable there corresponds one, and only one, value 
of the other variable. To construct the graph, as it is called, 
of such a table, Cartesian co-ordinates are usually employed. 



Two lines or axes at right angles to each other are chosen, inter- 
secting at a point called the origin; the horizontal axis is the 
axis of abscissae, the vertical one the axis of ordinates. Along 
one, say the axis of abscissae, distances are taken from the origin 
corresponding to the values of one of the variables; at these 
points perpendiculars are erected, and along these ordinates 
distances are taken corresponding to the related values of the 
other variable. The curve drawn through these points is the 
graph. A general inspection of the graph shows in bold relief 
the essential characters of the table. For example, if the world's 
production of corn over a number of years be plotted, a poor 
yield is represented by a depression, a rich one by a peak, a 
uniform one over several years by a horizontal line and so on. 
Moreover, such graphs permit a convenient comparison of two 
or more different phenomena, and the curves render apparent 
at first sight similarities or differences which can be made out from 
the tables only after close examination. In making graphs for 
comparison, the scales chosen must give a similar range of 
variation, otherwise the correspondence may not be discerned. 
For example, the scales adopted for the average consumption of 
tea and sugar must be ounces for the former and pounds for the 
latter. Cartesian graphs are almost always yielded by automatic 
recording instruments, such as the barograph, meteorograph, 
seismometer, &c. The method of polar co-ordinates is more 
rarely used, being only specially applicable when one of the 
variables is a direction or recorded as an angle. A simple case is 
the representation of photometric data, i.e. the value of the 
intensity of the light emitted in different directions from a 
luminous source (see LIGHTING). 

The geometrical solution of arithmetical and algebraical problems 
is usually termed graphical analysis; the application to problems 
in mechanics is treated in MECHANICS, 5, Graphic Statics, and 
DIAGRAM. A special phase is presented in VECTOR ANALYSIS. 

GRAPHITE, a mineral species consisting of the element 
carbon crystallized in the rhombohedral system. Chemically, 
it is thus indentical with the cubic mineral diamond, but between 
the two there are very wide differences in physical characters. 
Graphite is black and opaque, whilst diamond is colourless and 
transparent; it is one of the softest (H=i) of minerals, and 
diamond the hardest of all; it is a good conductor of electricity, 
whilst diamond is a bad conductor. The specific gravity is 2-2, 
that of diamond is 3-5. Further, unlike diamond, it never 
occurs as distinctly developed crystals, but only as imperfect 
six-sided plates and scales. There is a perfect cleavage parallel 
to the surface of the scales, and the cleavage flakes are flexible 
but not elastic. The material is greasy to the touch, and soils 
everything with which it comes into contact. The lustre is 
bright and metallic. In its external characters graphite is thus 
strikingly similar to molybdenite (?..). 

The name graphite, given by A. G. Werner in 1789, is from 
the Greek ypa<t>eu>, " to write," because the mineral is used for 
making pencils. Earlier names, still in common use, are plum- 
bago and black-lead, but since the mineral contains no lead these 
names are singularly inappropriate. Plumbago (Lat. plumbum, 
lead) was originally used for an artificial product obtained from 
lead ore, and afterwards for the ore (galena) itself; it was con- 
fused both with graphite and with molybdenite. The true 
chemical nature of graphite was determined by K. W. Scheele 
in 1779. 

Graphite occurs mainly in the older crystalline rocks gneiss, 
granulite, schist and crystalline limestone and also sometimes in 
granite: it is found as isolated scales embedded in these rocks, 
or as large irregular masses or filling veins. It has also been 
observed as a product of contact-metamorphism in carbonaceous 
clay-slates near their contact with granite, and where igneous 
rocks have been intruded into beds of coal; in these cases the 
mineral has clearly been derived from organic matter. The 
graphite found in granite and in veins in gneiss, as well as that 
contained in meteoric irons, cannot have had such an origin. 
As an artificial product, graphite is well known as dark lustrous 
scales in grey pig-iron, and in the " kish " of iron furnaces: 
it is also produced artificially on a large scale, together with 



GRAPTOLITES 



365 



carborundum, in the electric furnace (see below). The graphite 
veins in the older crystalline rocks are probably akin to metalli- 
ferous veins and the material derived from deep-seated sources; 
the decomposition of metallic carbides by water and the reduction 
of hydrocarbon vapours have been suggested as possible modes 
of origin. Such veins often attain a thickness of several feet, and 
sometimes possess a columnar structure perpendicular to the 
enclosing walls; they are met with in the crystalline limestones 
and other Laurentian rocks of New York and Canada, in the 
gneisses of the Austrian Alps and the granulites of Ceylon. 
Other localities which have yielded the mineral in large amount 
are the Alibert mine in Irkutsk, Siberia and the Borrowdale 
mine in Cumberland. The Santa Maria mines of Sonora, Mexico, 
probably the richest deposits in the world, supply the American 
lead pencil manufacturers. The graphite of New York, Penn- 
sylvania and Alabama is " flake " and unsuitable for this purpose. 

Graphite is used for the manufacture of pencils, dry lubricants, 
grate polish, paints, crucibles and for foundry facings. The 
material as mined usually does not contain more than 20 to 
50% of graphite: the ore has therefore to be crushed and the 
graphite floated off in water from the heavier impurities. Even 
the purest forms contain a small percentage of volatile matter 
and ash. The Cumberland graphite, which is especially suitable 
for pencils, contains about 12 % of impurities. (L. J. S.) 

Artificial Manufacture. The alteration of carbon at high 
temperatures into a material resembling graphite has long been 
known. In 1893 Girard and Street patented a furnace and a 
process by which this transformation could be effected. Carbon 
powder compressed into a rod was slowly passed through a tube 
in which it was subjected to the action of one or more electric 
arcs. E. G. Acheson, in 1896, patented an application of his 
carborundum process to graphite manufacture, and in 1899 
the International Acheson Graphite Co. was formed, employing 
electric current from the Niagara Falls. Two procedures are 
adopted: (i) graphitization of moulded carbons; (2) graphitiza- 
tion of anthracite en masse. The former includes electrodes, 
lamp carbons, &c. Coke, or some other form of amorphous 
carbon, is mixed with a little tar, and the required article moulded 
in a press or by a die. The articles are stacked transversely in a 
furnace, each being packed in granular coke and covered with 
carborundum. At first the current is 3000 amperes at 220 volts, 
increasing to 9000 amperes at 20 volts after 20 hours. In graphi- 
tizing en masse large lumps of anthracite are treated in the 
electric furnace. A soft, unctuous form results on treating 
carbon with ash or silica in special furnaces, and this gives the 
so-called " deflocculated " variety when treated with gallo- 
tannic acid. These two modifications are valuable lubricants. 
The massive graphite is very easily machined and is widely used 
for electrodes, dynamo brushes, lead pencils and the like. 

See " Graphite and its Uses," Bull. Imperial Institute, (1906) 
P- 353. (1907) P- 7 ; F. Cirkel, Graphite (Ottawa, 1907). (W. G. M.) 

GRAPTOLITES, an assemblage of extinct zoophytes whose 
skeletal remains are found in the Palaeozoic rocks, occasionally 
in great abundance. They are usually preserved as branching 
or unbranching carbonized bodies, tree-like, leaf-like or rod-like in 
shape, their edges regularly toothed or denticulated. Most 
frequently they occur lying on the bedding planes of black 
shales; less commonly they are met with in many other kinds of 
sediment, and when in limestone they may retain much of their 
original relief and admit of a detailed microscopic study. 

Each Graptolite represents the common horny or chitinous 
investment or supporting structure of a colony of zooids, each 
tooth-like projection marking the position of the sheath or theca 
of an individual zooid. Some of the branching forms have a 
distinct outward resemblance to the polyparies of Sertularia and 
Plumularia among the recent Hydroida (Calypioblastea); in 
none of the unbranching forms, however, is the similarity by 
any means close. 

The Graptolite polyparies vary considerably in size: the 
majority range from i in. to about 6 in. in length; few examples 
have been met with having a length of more than 30 in. 

Very different views have been held as to the systematic 



place and rank of the Graptolites. Linnaeus included them 
in his group of false fossils (Graptolithus = written stone). At 
one time they were referred by some to the Polyzoa (Bryozoa), 
and later, by almost general consent, to the Hydroida (Calypto- 
blastea) among the Hydrozoa (Hydromedusae). Of late years 
an opinion is gaining ground that they may be regarded as 
constituting collectively an independent phylum of their own 
(Graptolithina). 

There are two main groups, or sub-phyla: the Graptoloidea 
or Graptolites proper, and the Dendroidea or tree-like Graptolites; 
the former is typified by the unbranched genus Monograptus 
and the latter by the many-branched genus Dendrograptus. 

A Monograptus makes its first appearance as a minute dagger-like 
body (the sicula), which represents the flattened covering of the 
primary or embryonic zooid of the colony. This sicula, which had 
originally the shape of a hollow cone, is formed of two portions or 
regions an upper and smaller (apical or embryonic) portion, marked 
by delicate longitudinal lines, and having a fine tabular thread 
(the nemo) proceeding from its apex; and a lower (thecal or apertural) 
portion, marked by transverse lines of growth and widening in the 
direction of the mouth, the lip or apertural margin of which forms 
the broad end of the sicula. This margin is normally furnished with 
a perpendicular spine (virgella) and occasionally with two shorter 
lateral spines or lobes. 

A bud is given off from the sicula at a variable distance along its 
length. From this bud is developed the first zooid and first serial 
theca of the colony. This theca grows in the direction of the apex of 
the sicula, to which it adheres by its dorsal wall. Thus while the 
mouth of the sicula is directed downwards, that of the first serial 
theca is pointed upwards, making a theoretical angle of about 180 
with the direction of that of the sicula. 

From this first theca originates a second, opening in the same 
direction, and from the second a third, and so on, in a continuous linear 
series until the polypary is complete. Each zooid buds from the one 
immediately preceding it in the series, and intercommunication is 
effected by all the budding orifices (including that in the wall of the 
sicula) remaining permanently open. The sicula itself ceases to grow 
soon after the earliest theca have been developed; it remains 
permanently attached to the dorsal wall of the polypary, of which it 
forms the proximal end, its apex rarely reaching beyond the third 
or fourth theca. 

A fine cylindrical rod or fibre (the so-called solid axis or 
virgula) becomes developed in a median groove in the dorsal wall 
of the polypary, and is sometimes continued distally as a naked 
rod. It was formerly supposed that a virgula was present in 
all the Graptoloidea; hence the term Rhabdophora sometimes 
employed for the Graptoloidea in general, and rhabdosome for the 
individual polypary; but while the virgula is present in many 
(Axonophora) it is absent as sucli in others (Axonolipa). 

The GRAPTOLOIDEA are arranged in eight families, each named 
after a characteristic genus: (i) Dichograptidae; (2) Lepto- 
graptidae; (3) Dicranograptidae; (4) Diplograptidae; (5) 
Glossograptidae (sub-family, Lasiograptidae) ; (6) Retiolitidae; 
(7) Dimorphograptidae; (8) Monograptidae. 

In all these families the polypary originates as in Monograptus 
from a nema-bearing sicula, which invariably opens downwards 
and gives off only a single bud, such branching as may take 
place ocoirring at subsequent stages in the growth of the poly- 
pary. In some species young examples have been met with in 
which the nema ends above in a small membranous disk, which 
has been interpreted as an organ of attachment to the underside 
of floating bodies, probably sea weeds, from which the young 
polypary hung suspended. 

Broadly speaking, these families make their first appearance 
in time in the order given above, and show a progressive morpho- 
logical evolution along certain special lines. There is a tendency 
for the branches to become reduced in number, and for the serial 
thecae to become directed more and more upwards towards the 
line of the nema. In the oldest family Dichograptidae in 
which the branching polypary is bilaterally symmetrical and 
the thecae uniserial (monoprionidian) there is a gradation 
from earlier groups with many branches to later groups with 
only two; and from species in which all the branches and their 
thecae are directed downwards, through species in which the 
branches become bent back more and more outwards and 
upwards, until in some the terminal thecae open almost vertically. 
In the genus Phyllograptus the branches have become reduced 



366 



GRAPTOLITES 




I, 

2, 



40, 
46, 

5. 
6, 

7- 
8, 
9- 

10, 
ii, 



13. 
14. 

15, 
16, 

17 

18, 
19, 



Diptograptus, young sicula. 20, 

Monograptus dubius, sicula 21, 

and first serial theca (partly 22, 

restored). 

Young form (all above after 23, 

Wiman). 

Older form. 24, 
Showing virgula (after Holm). 
Rastrites distans. ) 

Base of Diptograptus (after 25, 

Wiman). 

D. calcaratus. 26, 
Dimorphograptus. 

Base of Didymograptus minu- 27, 

lus (after Holm). 28, 
Young Dictyograptus, with 

primary disk. S, 

Ibid. Diptograptus (after , 

Ruedemann). /, 

a-b, Base and transverse sec- m, 

tion, Retiolites Geinitzianus N, 

(after Holm). nn, 

Bryograptus Kjerulfi. V, 

Dichograptus octobrachiatus, m, 

with central disk. zz, 
Didymograptus Murchisoni. T, 
D. gibberulus. C, 
a-b, Phyllograptus and trans- 
verse section. G, 
Nemagraptus gracilis. g, 
Dicranograptus ramosus. b, 



Climacograptus Scharenbergi. 

Glossograptus Hincksii. 

Lasiograplus costatus (after 

Elles and Wood). 
Dictyonema (-graptus)flabelli- 
fprme (-is). 

Dictyonema (-dendron) pel- 
tatunt with base of attach- 
ment. 

D. cervicorne, branches (after 
Holm). 

D. rarum (section after 
Wiman). 

Dendrograptus Hallianus. 

Synrhabdosome of Dipto- 
graptus (after Ruedemann). 

Sicula. 

Upper or apical portion. 

Lower or apertural. 

Mouth. 

Nema. 

Nemacaulus or virgular tube. 

Virgula. 

Virgella. 

Septal strands. 

Theca. 

Common canal (in Retio- 
lites). 

Gonangium. 

Gonotheca. 

Budding theca. 



to four and these coalesce by their dorsal walls along the line of 
the nema, and the sicula becomes embedded in the base of the 



polypary. In the family of the Diplograptidae the branches are 
reduced to two; these also coalesce similarly by their dorsal 
walls, and the polypary thus becomes biserial (diprionidian) , and 
the line of the nema is taken by a long axial tube-like structure, 
the nemacaulus or virgular tube. Finally, in the latest family, 
the Monograptidae, the branches are theoretically reduced to 
one, the polypary is uniserial throughout, and all the thecae 
are directed outwards and upwards. 

The thecae in the earliest family Dichograptidae are so similar in 
form to the sicula itself that the polypary has been compared to a' 
colony of siculae; there is the greatest variation in shape in 
those of the latest family Monograptidae in some species of which 
the terminal portion of each theca becomes isolated (Rastrites) and 
in some coiled into a rounded lobe. The thecae in several of the 
families are occasionally provided with spines or lateral processes: 
the spines are especially conspicuous at the base in some biserial 
forms: in the Lasiograptidae the lateral processes originate a 
marginal meshwork surrounding the polypary. 

Histologically, the perisarc or test in the Graptoloidea appears 
to be composed of three layers, a middle layer of variable structure, 
and an overlying and an underlying layer of remarkable tenuity. 
The central layer is usually thick and marked by lines of growth; 
but in Glossograptus and Lasiograptus it is thinned down to a fine 
membrane stretched upon a skeleton framework of lists and fibres, 
and in Retiolites this membrane is reduced to a delicate network. 
The groups typified by these three genera are sometimes referred to, 
collectively, as the Retioloidea, and the structure as relioloid. 

It is the general practice of palaeontologists to regard each 
graptolite polypary (rhabdosome) developed from a single sicula 
as an individual of the highest order. Certain American forms, 
however, which are preserved as stellate groups, have been 
interpreted as complex umbrella-shaped colonial stocks, indivi- 
duals of a still higher order (synrhabdosomes) , composed of a 
number of biserial polyparies (each having a sicula at its outer 
extremity) attached by their nemacauli to a common centre of 
origin, which is provided with two disks, a swimming bladder and 
a ring of capsules. 

In the DENDROIDEA, as a rule, the polypary is non-symmetrical 
in shape and tree-like or shrub-like in habit, with numerous 
branches irregularly disposed, and with a distinct stem-like or 
short basal portion ending below in root-like fibres or in a mem- 
branous disk or sheet of attachment. An exception, however, 
is constituted by the comprehensive genus Dictyonema, which 
embraces species composed of a large number of divergent and 
sub-parallel branches, united by transverse dissepiments into 
a symmetrical cone-like or funnel-shaped polypary, and includes 
some forms (Dictyograptus) which originate from a nema-bearing 
sicula and have been claimed as belonging to the Graptoloidea. 

Of the early development of the polypary in the Dendroidea 
little is known, but the more mature stages have been fully 
worked out. In Dictyonema the branches show thecae of two 
kinds: (i) the ordinary tubular thecae answering to those of 
the Graptoloidea and occupied by the nourishing zooids; and 
(2) the so-called bithecae, birdnest-like cups (regarded by their 
discoverers as gonothecae) opening alternately right and left 
of the ordinary thecae. Internally, there existed a third set of 
thecae, held to have been inhabited by the budding individuals. 
In the genus Dendrograptus the gonothecae open within the walls 
of the ordinary thecae, and the branches present an outward 
resemblance to those of the uniserial Graptoloidea. But in 
striking contrast to what obtains among the Graptoloidea in 
general, the budding orifices in the Dendroidea become closed, 
and all the various cells shut off from each other. 

The classification of the Dendroidea is as yet unsatisfactory: 
the families most conspicuous are those typified by the genera 
Dendrograptus, Dictyonema, Inocaulis and Thamnograptus. 

As regards the modes of reproduction among the Graptoliles little is 
known. In the Dendroidea, as already pointed out, the bithecae 
were possibly gonothecae, but they have been interpreted by some 
as nematophores. In the Graptoloidea certain lateral and vesicular 
appendages of the polypary in the Lasiograptidae have been looked 
upon as connected with the reproductive system; and in the 
umbrella-shaped synrhabdosomes already referred to, the common 
centre is surrounded by a ring of what have been regarded as ovarian 
capsules. The theory of the gonangial nature of the vesicular bodies 
in the Graptoloidea is, however, disputed by some authorities, and 
it has been suggested that the zooid of the sicula itself is not the 



GRASLITZ GRASS AND GRASSLAND 



367 



product of the normal or sexual mode of propagation in the group, 
but owes its origin to a peculiar type of budding or non-sexual 
reproduction, in which, as temporary resting or protecting structures, 
the vesicular bodies may have had a share. 

As respects the mode of life of the Graptolites there can be 
little doubt that the Dendroidea were, with some exceptions, 
sessile or benthonic animals, their polyparies, like those of the 
recent Calyptoblastea, growing upwards, their bases remaining 
attached to the sea floor or to foreign bodies, usually fixed. The 
Graptoloidea have also been regarded by some as benthonic 
organisms. A more prevalent view, however, is that the majority 
were pseudo-planktonic or drifting colonies, hanging from the 
underside of floating seaweeds; their polyparies being each 
suspended by the nema in the earliest stages of growth, and, in 
later stages, some by the nemacaulus, while others became 
adherent above by means of a central disk or by parts of their 
dorsal walls. Some of these ancient seaweeds may have remained 
permanently rooted in the littoral regions, while others may 
have become broken off and drifted, like the recent Sargassum, 
at the mercy of the winds and currents, carrying the attached 
Graptolites into all latitudes. The more complex umbrella- 
shaped colonies of colonies (synrhabdosomes) described as 
provided with a common swimming bladder (pneumatophore?) 
may have attained a holo-planktonic or free-swimming mode 
of existence. 

The range of the Graptolites in time extends from the Cambrian 
to the Carboniferous. The Dendroidea alone, however, have 
this extended range, the Graptoloidea becoming extinct at the 
close of Silurian time. Both groups make their first appearance 
together near the end of the Cambrian; but while in the succeed- 
ing Ordovician and Silurian the Dendroidea are comparatively 
rare, the Graptok>idea become the most characteristic and, 
locally, the most abundant fossils of these systems. 

The species of the Graptoloidea have individually a remarkably 
short range in geological time; but the geographical distribution 
of the group as a whole, and that of many of its species, is almost 
world-wide. This combination of circumstances has given the 
Graptoloidea a paramount stratigraphical importance aspalaeon- 
tological indices of the detailed sequence and correlation of the 
Lower Palaeozoic rocks in general. Many Graptolite zones, 
showing a constant uniformity of succession, paralleled in this 
respect only by the longer known Ammonite zones of the Jurassic, 
have been distinguished in Britain and northern Europe, each 
marked by a characteristic species. Many British species and 
associations of genera and species, occurring on corresponding 
horizons to those on which they are found in Britain, have been 
met with in the graptolite-bearing Lower Palaeozoic formations 
of other parts of Europe, in America, Australia, New Zealand 
and elsewhere. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Linnaeus, Systema naturae (i2th ed". 1768); 
Hall, Graptolites of the Quebec Group (1865); Barrande, Graptolites 
de Boheme (1850); Carruthers, Revision of the British Graptolites 
(1868); H. A. Nicholson, Monograph of British Graptolites, pt. I 
(1872); id. and J. E. Marr, Phylogeny of the Graptolites (1895); 
Hopkinson, On British Graptolites (1869); Allman, Monograph of 
Gymnoblastic Hydroids (1872) ; Lapworth, An Improved Classification 
of the Rhabdophora (1873); The Geological Distribution of the Rhabdo- 
phora (1879, 1880); Walther, Lebensweise fossiler Meerestiere 
(1897); Tullberg, Skanes Graptoliter (1882, 1883); Tornquist, 
Graptolites Scanian Rastrites Beds (1899); Wiman, Die Graptolithen 
(1895); Holm, Gotlands Graptoliter (1890); Perner, Graptolites de 
Boheme (1894-1899) ; R. Ruedemann, Development and Mode of Growth 
of Diplograptus (1895-1896) ; Graptolites of New York, vol. i. (1904), 
vol. ii. (1908) ; Freeh, Lethaea palaeozoica, Graptolithiden (1897) ; Elles 
and Wood, Monograph of British Graptolites (1901-1909). (C. L.*) 

GRASLITZ (Czech, Kraslice), a town of Bohemia, on the 
Zwodau, 145 m. N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,803, 
exclusively German. Graslitz is one of the most important 
industrial towns of Bohemia, its specialities being the manu- 
facture of musical instruments, carried on both as a factory and 
a domestic industry, and lace-making. Next in importance are 
cotton-spinning and weaving, machine embroidery, brewing, 
and the mother-of-pearl industry. 

GRASMERE, a village and lake of Westmorland, in the heart 
of the English Lake District. The village (pop. of urban district 



in 1901, 781) lies near the head of the lake, on the small river 
Rothay and the Keswick-Ambleside road, 12$ m. from Keswick 
and 4 from Ambleside. The scenery is very beautiful ; the valley 
about the lakes of Grasmere and Rydal Water is in great part 
wooded, while on its eastern flank there rises boldly the range 
of hills which includes Rydal Fell, Fairfield and Seat Sandal, 
and, farther north, Helvellyn. On the west side are Loughrigg 
Fell and Silver How. The village has become a favourite centre 
for tourists, but preserves its picturesque and sequestered 
appearance. In a house still standing William Wordsworth 
lived from 1799 to 1808, and it was subsequently occupied by 
Thomas de Quincey and by Hartley Coleridge. Wordsworth's 
tomb, and also that of Coleridge, are in the churchyard of the 
ancient church of St Oswald, which contains a memorial to 
Wordsworth with an inscription by John Keble. A festival 
called the Rushbearing takes place on the Saturday within the 
octave of St Oswald's day (August sth), when a holiday is 
observed and the church decorated with rushes, heather and 
flowers. The festival is of early origin, and has been derived by 
some from the Roman Floralia, but appears also to have been 
made the occasion for carpeting the floors of churches, unpaved 
in early times, with rushes. Moreover, in a procession which 
forms part of the festivities at Grasmere, certain Biblical stories 
are symbolized, and in this a connexion with the ancient miracle 
plays may be found (see H. D. Rawnsley, A Rambler's Note-Book 
at the English Lakes, Glasgow, 1902). Grasmere is also noted for 
an athletic meeting in August. 

The lake of Grasmere is just under i m. in length, and has 
an extreme breadth of 766 yds. A ridge divides the basin from 
north to south, and rises so high as to form an island about the 
middle. The greatest depth of the lake (75 ft.) lies to the east 
of this ridge. 

GRASS AND GRASSLAND, in agriculture. The natural 
vegetable covering of the soil in most countries is " grass " 
(for derivation see GRASSES) of various kinds. Even where 
dense forest or other growth exists, if a little daylight penetrates 
to the ground grass of some sort or another will grow. On 
ordinary farms, or wherever farming of any kind is carried out, 
the proportion of the land not actually cultivated will either 
be in grass or will revert naturally to grass in time if left alone, 
after having been cultivated. 

Pasture land has always been an important part of the farm, 
but since the " era of cheap corn " set in its importance has 
been increased, and much more attention has been given to the 
study of the different species of grass, their characteristics, the 
improvement of a pasture generally, and the " laying down " 
of arable land into grass where tillage farming has not paid. 
Most farmers desire a proportion of grass-land on their farms 
from a third to a half of the area and even on wholly arable 
farms there are usually certain courses in the rotation of crops 
devoted to grass (or clover). Thus the Norfolk 4-course rotation 
is corn, roots, corn, clover; the Berwick s-course is corn, .roots, 
corn, grass, grass; the Ulster 8-course, corn, flax, roots, corn, 
flax, grass, grass, grass; and so on, to the point where the grass 
remains down for 5 years, or is left indefinitely. 

Permanent grass may be grazed by live-stock and classed 
as pasture pure and simple, or it may be cut for hay. In the 
latter case it is usually classed as " meadow " land, and often 
forms an alluvial tract alongside a stream, but as grass is often 
grazed and hayed in alternate years, the distinction is not a hard 
and fast one. 

There are two classes of pasturage, temporary and permanent. 
The latter again consists of two kinds, the permanent grass 
natural to land that has never been cultivated, and the pasture 
that has been laid down artificially on land previously arable 
and allowed to remain and improve itself in the course of time. 
The existence of ridge and furrow on many old pastures in 
Great Britain shows that they were cultivated at one time, 
though perhaps more than a century ago. Often a newly laid 
down pasture will decline markedly in thickness and quality 
about the fifth and sixth year, and then begin to thicken and 
improve year by year afterwards. This is usually attributed 



3 68 



GRASS AND GRASSLAND 



to the fact that the unsuitable varieties die out, and the " natur- 
ally " suitable varieties only come in gradually. This trouble 
can be largely prevented, however, by a judicious selection 
of seed, and by subsequently manuring with phosphatic manures, 
with farmyard or other bulky " topdressings," or by feeding 
sheep with cake and corn over the field. 

All the grasses proper belong to the natural order Gramineae 
(see GRASSES), to which order also belong all the " corn " plants 
cultivated throughout the world, also many others, such as 
bamboo, sugar-cane, millet, rice, &c. &c., which yield food for 
mankind. Of the grasses which constitute pastures and hay- 
fields over a hundred species are classified by botanists in Great 
Britain, with many varieties in addition, but the majority of 
these, though often forming a part of natural pastures, are 
worthless or inferior for farming purposes. The grasses of good 
quality which should form a " sole " in an old pasture and pro- 
vide the bulk of the forage on a newly laid down piece of grass 
are only about a dozen in number (see below) , and of these there are 
only some six species of the very first importance and indispensable 
in a " prescription " of grass seeds intended for laying away land 
in temporary or permanent pasture. Dr W. Fream caused a 
botanical examination to be made of several of the most cele- 
brated pastures of England, and, contrary to expectation, found 
that their chief constituents were ordinary perennial ryegrass and 
white clover. Many other grasses and legumes were present, but 
these two formed an overwhelming proportion of the plants. 

In ordinary usage the term grass, pasturage, hay, &c., includes 
many varieties of clover and other members of the natural order 
Leguminosae as well as other " herbs of the field," which, though 
not strictly " grasses," are always found in a grass field, and 
are included in mixtures of seeds for pasture and meadows. 
The following is a list of the most desirable or valuable agri- 
cultural grasses and clovers, which are either actually sown or, in 
the case of old pastures, encouraged to grow by draining, liming, 
manuring, and so on: 

Grasses. 

Meadow foxtail. 

Sweet vernal grass. 

Tall oat-grass. 

Golden oat-grass. 

Crested dogstail. 

Cocksfoot. 

Hard fescue. 

Tall fescue. 

Sheep's fescue. 

Meadow fescue. 

Italian ryegrass. 

Timothy or catstail. 

Wood meadow-grass. 

Smooth meadow-grass. 

Rough meadow-grass. 



Alopecurus pratensis 
Anthoxanthum odoraturn 
Avena elatior 
Avena flavescens 
Cynosurus cristatus. 
Dactylis glomerata . 
Festuca duriuscula . 
Festuca elatior . 
Festuca ovina . 
Festuca pratensis . 
I .nl in in italicum. 
Phleum pratense 
Poa nemoralis 
Poa pratensis 
Poa trivialis . 



Clovers, &c. 

Medicago lupulina . . . Trefoil or " Nonsuch." 
Lucerne (Alfalfa). 
Alsike clover. 



Medicago sativa. 

Trifolium hybridum 
pratense . 
pratense ) 
perenne $ 
mcarnatum 
procumbens 
repens 

Achillea Millefolium. 

Anthyllis vulneraria. 



Broad red clover. 
Perennial clover. 



. Crimson clover or " Trifolium." 

. Yellow Hop-trefoil. 

. White or Dutch clover. 

. Yarrow or Milfoil. 

. Kidney-vetch. 

Lotus major Greater Birdsfoot Trefoil. 

Lotus corniculatus . . . Lesser 

Carum petroselinum . . Field parsley. 

Plantago lanceolata. . . Plantain. 

Cichonum intybus . . . Chicory. 

Poterium officinale . . . Burnet. 

The predominance of any particular species -is largely deter- 
mined by climatic circumstances, the nature of the soil and the 
treatment it receives. In limestone regions sheep's fescue has 
been found to predominate; on wet clay soil the dog's bent 
(Agrostis canina) is common; continuous manuring with nitro- 
genous manures kills out the leguminous plants and stimulates 
such grasses as cocksfoot; manuring with phosphates stimulates 
the clovers and other legumes; and so on. Manuring with 



basic slag at the rate of from 5 to 10 cwt. per acre has been found 
to give excellent results on poor clays and peaty soils. Basic 
slag is a by-product of the Bessemer steel process, and is rich in a 
soluble form of phosphate of lime (tetra-phosphate) which specially 
stimulates the growth of clovers and other legumes, and has 
renovated many inferior pastures. 

In the Rothamsted experiments continuous manuring with 
" mineral manures " (no nitrogen) on an old meadow has reduced 
the grasses from 71 to 64% of the whole, while at the same time 
it has increased the Leguminosae from 7% to 24%. On the 
other hand, continuous use of nitrogenous manure in addition to 
" minerals " has raised the grasses to 94% of the total and 
reduced the legumes to less than i%. 

As to the best kinds of grasses, &c., to sow in making a pasture 
out of arable land, experiments at Cambridge, England, have 
demonstrated that of the many varieties offered by seedsmen 
only a very few are of any permanent value. A complex mixture 
of tested seeds was sown, and after five years an examination of 
the pasture showed that only a few varieties survived and made 
the " sole " for either grazing or forage. These varieties in the 
order of their importance were: 

Cocksfoot 26 

Perennial rye grass 16 

Meadow fescue . .13 

Hard fescue 9 

Crested dogstail 8 

Timothy 6 

White clover 4 

Meadow foxtail 2 

The figures represent approximate percentages. 

Before laying down grass it is well to examine the species already 
growing round the hedges and adjacent fields. An inspection of 
this sort will show that the Cambridge experiments are very 
conclusive, and that the above species are the only ones to be 
depended on. Occasionally some other variety will be pro- 
minent, but if so there will be a special local reason for this. 

On the other hand, many farmers when sowing down to grass 
like to have a good bulk of forage for the first year or two, and 
therefore include several of the clovers, lucerne, Italian ryegrass, 
evergreen ryegrass, &c., knowing that these will die out in the 
course of years and leave the ground to the more permanent 
species. 

There are also several mixtures of " seeds " (the technical 
name given on the farm to grass-seeds) which have been adopted 
with success in laying down permanent pasture in some localities. 













II 








c 


fc 




bo^j 


g 8! Si 




bo 

a 

3 


3 


I 

1 


4 


i 2 


!! 




o 


Q 


Jj 


5 


i I 
u 


a i 


Cocksfoot ... 




8 


4 


8 


8 


4 


Perennial ryegrass . 






2 




6 


10 


Meadow fescue. 




6 


2 




5 




Hard fescue 




i 


I 


2 


3 




Crested dogstail 


3 


2 




I 


3 




Timothy 




3 


I 




2 


2 


Meadow foxtail 




10 






I 


I 


Tall fescue . 




3 


I 


3i 




2 


Tall oat grass . 






I 


3 






Italian ryegrass 






2 






5 


Smooth meadow grass 








i 






Rough meadow grass 




I 




i 






Golden oat grass . 






1 


i 






Sheep's fescue . 




i 










Broad red clover . 




i 








2 


Perennial red clover 




I 




'i 




2 


Alsike .... 




I 


'i 


i 




2 


Lucerne (Alfalfa) . 












8 


White clover 


4 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


Kidney vetch . 
Sheep's parsley. 


6 






I 






Yarrow 


I 


i 


'i 


I 






Burnet 


8 




4 


g 






Chicory 








2* 






Plantain 


4 






* a 






Total ft per acre 


30 


40 


17 


40 


3 


40 



GRASSE, COMTE DE GRASSES 



369 



Arthur Young more than 100 years ago made out one to suit 
chalky hillsides; Mr Faunce de Laune (Sussex) in our days was 
the first to study grasses and advocated leaving out ryegrass of 
all kinds; Lord Leicester adopted a cheap mixture suitable for 
poor land with success; Mr Elliot (Kelso) has introduced many 
deep-rooted " herbs " in his mixture with good results. Typical 
examples of such mixtures are given on preceding page.' 

Temporary pastures are commonly resorted to for rotation 
purposes, and in these the bulky fast-growing and short-lived 
grasses and clovers are given the preference. Three examples of 
temporary mixtures are given below. 





One 

year. 


Two 
years. 


Three 
or four 
years. 


Italian ryegrass 


14 


IO 


6 


Cocksfoot . 


2 


4 


6 


Timothy . . 




2 


3 


Broad red clover . 


8 


5 


3 


Alsike 


3 


2 


2 


Trefoil .... 


3 


2 


2 


Perennial ryegrass 




5 


10 


Meadow fescue 




2 


2 


Perennial red clover 




2 


2 


White clover . 




I 


2 


Meadow foxtail 




I 


2 


Total Ib per acre . 


3 


36 


40 



Where only a one-year hay is required, broad red clover is 
often grown, either alone or mixed with a little Italian ryegrass, 
while other forage crops, like trefoil and trifolium, are often grown 
alone. 

In Great Britain a heavy clay soil is usually preferred for 
pasture, both because it takes most kindly to grass and because 
the expense of cultivating it makes it unprofitable as arable land 
when the price of corn is low. On light soil the plant frequently 
suffers from drought in summer, the want of moisture preventing 
it from obtaining proper root-hold. On such soil the use of a 
heavy roller is advantageous, and indeed on any soil excepting 
heavy clay frequent rolling is beneficial to the grass, as it pro- 
motes the capillary action of the soil-particles and the consequent 
ascension of ground-water. 

In addition, the grass on the surface helps to keep the moisture 
from being wasted by the sun's heat. 

The graminaceous crops of western Europe generally are 
similar to those enumerated. Elsewhere in Europe are found 
certain grasses, such as Hungarian brome, which are suitable for 
introduction into the British Isles. The grasses of the American 
prairies also include many plants not met with in Great Britain. 
Some half-dozen species are common to both countries: Kentucky 
" blue-grass " is the British Poa pratensis; couch grass (Triticum 
repens) grows plentifully without its underground runners; 
bent (Agrostis vulgaris) forms the famous " red-top," and so on. 
But the American buffalo-grass, the Canadian buffalo-grass, the 
" bunch " grasses, " squirrel-tail " and many others which have 
no equivalents in the British Islands, form a large part of the 
prairie pasturage. There is not a single species of true clover 
found on the prairies, though cultivated varieties can be intro- 
duced. (P. McC.) 

GRASSE, FRANQOIS JOSEPH PAUL, MARQUIS DE GRASSE- 
TILLY, COMTE DE (1722-1788), French sailor, was born at Bar, 
in the present department of the Alpes Maritimes. In 1734 he 
took service on the galleys of the order of Malta, and in 1740 
entered the service of France, being promoted to chief of squadron 
in 1779. He took part in the naval operations of the American 
War of Independence, and distinguished himself in the battles of 
Dominica and Saint Lucia (1780), and of Tobago (1781). He 
was less fortunate at St Kitts, where he was defeated by Admiral 
Hood. Shortly afterwards, in April 1782, he was defeated and 
taken prisoner by Admiral Rodney. Some months later he re- 
turned to France, published a Memoire justificalif, and was 
acquitted by a court-martial (1784). He died at Paris in January 
1788. 



His son Alexandre de Grasse, published a Notice bibliographique 
sur Vamiral comte de Grasse d'apres les documents inedits in 1840. 
See G. Lacour-Gayet, La Marine militaire de la France sous le regne 
de Louis XV (Paris, 1902). 

GRASSE, a town in the French department of the Alpes 
Maritimes (till 1860 in that of the Var) , 1 1\ m. by rail N. of Cannes. 
Pop. (1906) town, 13,958; commune, 20,305. It is built in a 
picturesque situation, in the form of an amphitheatre and at a 
height of 1066 ft. above the sea, on the southern slope of a hill, 
facing the Mediterranean. In the older (eastern) part of the town 
the streets are narrow, steep and winding, but the new portion 
(western) is laid out in accordance with modern French ideas. 
It possesses a remarkably mild and salubrious climate, and is 
well supplied with water. That used for the purpose of the 
factories comes from the fine spring of Foux. But the drinking 
water used in the higher portions of the town flows, by means of 
a conduit, from the Foulon stream, one of the sources of the 
Loup. Grasse was from 1244 (when the see was transferred 
hither from Antibes) to 1790 an episcopal see, but was then 
included in the diocese of Frejus till 1860, when politically as 
well as ecclesiastically, the region was annexed to the newly- 
formed department of the Alpes Maritimes. It still possesses a 
12th-century cathedral, now a simple parish church; while an 
ancient tower, of uncertain date, rises close by near the town 
hall, which was formerly the bishop's palace (i3th century). 
There is a good town library, containing the muniments of the 
abbey of Lerins, on the island of St Honorat opposite Cannes. 
In the chapel of the old hospital are three pictures by Rubens. 
The painter J. H. Fragonard (1732-1806) was a native of Grasse, 
and some of his best works were formerly to be seen here (now 
in America). Grasse is particularly celebrated for its perfumery. 
Oranges and roses are cultivated abundantly in the neighbour- 
hood. It is stated that the preparation of attar of roses (which 
costs nearly 100 per 2 Ib) requires alone nearly 7,000,000 roses 
a year. The finest quality of olive oil is also manufactured at 
Grasse. (W. A. B. C.) 

GRASSES, 1 a group of plants possessing certain characters in 
common and constituting a family (Gramineae) of the class 
Monocotyledons. It is one of the largest and most widespread 
and, from an economic point of view, the most important family 
of flowering plants. No plant is correctly termed a grass which 
is not a member of this family, but the word is in common 
language also used, generally in combination, for many plants of 
widely different affinities which possess some resemblance (often 
slight) in foliage to true grasses; e.g. knot-grass (Polygonum 
aviculare), cotton-grass (Eriophorum) , rib-grass (Plantago), 
scorpion-grass (Myosotis), blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchium) , sea- 
grass (Zoslera). The grass-tree of Australia (Xanlhorrhoea) is a 
remarkable plant, allied to the rushes in the form of its flower, but 
with a tall, unbranched, soft-woody, palm-h'ke trunk bearing a 
crown of long, narrow, grass-like leaves and stalked heads of 
small, densely-crowded flowers. In agriculture the word has an 
extended signification to include the various fodder-plants, 
chiefly leguminous, often called " artificial grasses." Indeed, 
formerly grass (also spelt spurs, gres, gyrs in the old herbals) 
meant any green herbaceous plant of small size. 

Yet the first attempts at a classification of plants recognized 
and separated a group of Gramina, and this, though bounded by 
nothing more definite than habit and general appearance, 
contained the Gramineae of modern botanists. The older group, 
however, even with such systematists as Ray (1703), Scheuchzer 
(1719), and Micheli (1729), embraced in addition the Cyperaceae 

1 The word " grass " (O. Eng. gars, grass) is common to Teutonic 
languages, cf. Dutch Ger. Goth, gras, Dan. grees; the root is the 
O. Teut. gra-, gro-, to increase, whence " grow," and " green," the 
typical colour of growing vegetation. The Indo-European root is 
seen in Lat._ gramen. The O. Eng. grasian, formed from trees, gives 
" to graze," of cattle feeding on growing herbage, also grazier," 
one who grazes or feeds cattle for the market; "to graze," to 
abrade, to touch lightly in passing, may be a development of this 
from the idea of close cropping ; if it is to be distinguished a possible 
connexion may be found with " glace " (Fr. glacer, glide, slip, Lat. 
tlacies, ice), to glance off, the change in form being influenced by 

grate," to scrape, scratch (Fr. gratter, Ger. kratzen). 



370 



GRASSES 



(Sedge family), Juncaceae (Rush family), and some other mono- 
cotyledons with inconspicuous flowers. Singularly enough, the 
sexual system of Linnaeus (1735) served to mark off more dis- 
tinctly the true grasses from these allies, since very nearly all 
of the former then known fell under his Triandria Digynia, whilst 
the latter found themselves under his other classes and orders. 

I. STRUCTURE. The general type of true grasses is familiar in 
the cultivated cereals of temperate climates wheat, barley, 
rye, oats, and in the smaller plants which make up pastures and 
meadows and form a principal factor of the turf of natural 
downs. Less familiar are the grains of warmer climates rice, 
maize, millet and sorgho, or the sugar-cane. Still farther re- 
moved are the bamboos of the tropics, the columnar stems of 
which reach to the height of forest trees. All are, however, 
formed on a common plan. 

Root. Most cereals and many other grasses are annual, and 
possess a tuft of very numerous slender root-fibres, much branched 
and of great length. The majority of the members of the family 
are of longer duration, and have the roots also fibrous, but fewer, 
thicker and less branched. In such cases they are very generally 
given off from just above each node (often in a circle) of the lower 
part of the stem or rhizome, perforating the leaf-sheaths. In 
some bamboos they are very numerous from the lower nodes of 
the erect culms, and pass downwards to the soil, whilst those from 
the upper nodes shrivel up and form circles of spiny fibres. 

Stem. The underground stern or rootstock (rhizome) of 
perennial grasses is usually well developed, and often forms very 




FIG. i. rRhizome of Bamboo. A, B, C, D, successive series of axes, 
the last bearing aerial culms. Much reduced. 

long creeping or subterranean rhizomes, with elongated inter- 
nodes and sheathing scales; the widely-creeping, slender 
rhizomes in Marram-grass (Psamma), Agropyrum junceum, 
Elymus arenarius, and other sand-loving plants render them 
useful as sand-binders. It is also frequently short, with the 
nodes crowded. The turf-formation, which is characteristic 
of open situations in cool temperate climates, results from an 
extensive production of short stolons, the branches and the 
fibrous roots developed from their nodes forming the dense 
" sod." The very large rhizome of the bamboos (fig. i) is also 
a striking example of " definite " growth; it is much branched, 
the short, thick, curved branches being given off below the apex 
of the older ones and at right angles to them, the whole forming 
a series of connected arched axes, truncate at their ends, which 
were formerly continued into leafy culms. The rhizome is always 
solid, and has the usual internal structure of the monocotyle- 
donous stem. In the cases of branching just cited the branches 
break directly through the sheath of the leaf in connexion with 
which they arise. In other cases the branches grow upwards 
through the sheaths which they ultimately split from above, 
and emerging as aerial shoots give a tufted habit to the plant. 
Good examples are the oat, cock's-foot (Dactylis) and other 
British grasses. This mode of growth is the cause of the " tiller- 
ing " of cereals, or the production of a large number of erect 
growing branches from the lower nodes of the young stem. 
Isolated tufts or tussocks are also characteristic of steppe and 
savanna vegetation and open places generally in the warmer 
parts of the earth. 



The aerial leaf-bearing branches (culms) are a characteristic 
feature of grasses. They are generally numerous, erect, cylin- 
drical (rarely flattened) and conspicuously jointed with evident 
nodes. The nodes are solid, a strong plate of tissue passing 
across the stem, but the internodes are commonly hollow, although 
examples of completely solid stems are not uncommon (e.g. maize, 
many Andropogons, sugar-cane). The swollen nodes are a 
characteristic feature. In wheat, barley and most of the 
British native grasses they are a development, not of the culm, 
but of the base of the leaf-sheath. The function of the nodes 
is to raise again culms which have become bent down; they are 
composed of highly turgescent tissue, the cells of which elongate 
on the side next the earth when the culm is placed in a horizontal 
or oblique position, and thus raise the culm again to an erect 
position. The internodes continue to grow in length, especially 
the upper ones, for some time; the increase takes place in a zone 
at the extreme base, just above the node. The exterior of the 
culms is more or less concealed by the leaf -sheaths ; it is usually 
smooth and often highly polished, the epidermal cells containing 
an amount of silica sufficient to leave after burning a distinct 
skeleton of their structure. Tabasheer is a white substance 
mainly composed of silica, found in the joints of several bamboos. 
A few of the lower internodes may become enlarged and sub- 
globular, forming nutriment-stores, and grasses so characterized 
are termed " bulbous " (Arrhenatherum, Poa bulbosa, &c.). In 
internal structure grass-culms, save in being hollow, conform 
to that usual in monocotyledons; the vascular bundles run 
parallel in the internodes, but a horizontal interlacement occurs 
at the nodes. In grasses of temperate climates branching is 
rare at the upper nodes of the culm, but it is characteristic of 
the bamboos and many tropical grasses. The branches are 
strictly distichous. In many bamboos they are long and spread- 
ing or drooping and copiously ramified, in others they are 
reduced to hooked spines. One genus (Dinochloa, a native 
of the Malay archipelago) is scandent, and climbs over trees 
100 ft. or more in height, Olyra latifolia, a widely-spread 
tropical species, is also a climber on a humbler scale. 

Grass-culms grow with great rapidity, as is most strikingly 
seen in bamboos, where a height of over 100 ft. is attained in 
from two to three months, and many species grow two, three or 
even more feet in twenty-four hours. Silicic hardening does not 
begin till the full height is nearly attained. The largest bamboo 
recorded is 170 ft., and the diameter is usually reckoned at about 
4 in. to each 50 ft. 

Leaves. These present special characters usually sufficient 
for ordinal determination. They are solitary at each node and 
arranged in two rows, the lower often crowded, forming a basal 
tuft. They consist of two distinct portions, the sheath and the 
blade. The sheath is often of great length, and generally com- 
pletely surrounds the culm, forming a firm protection for the 
internode, the younger basal portion of which, including the 
zone of growth, remains tender for some time. As a rule it is 
split down its whole length, thus differing from that of Cyperaceae 
which is almost invariably (Eriospora is an exception) a complete 
tube; in some grasses, however (species of Poa, Bromus and 
others), the edges are united. The sheaths are much dilated 
in Alopecurus vaginatus and in a species of Potamochloa, in the 
latter, an East Indian aquatic grass, serving as floats. At the 
summit of the sheath, above the origin of the blade, is the 
ligule, a usually membranous process of small size (occasionally 
reaching i in. in length) erect and pressed around the culm. 
It is rarely quite absent, but may be represented by a tuft of 
hairs (very conspicuous in Pariana). It serves to prevent 
rain-water, which has run down the blade, from entering the 
sheath. Melica uniflora has in addition to the ligule, a green 
erect tongue-like process, from the line of junction of the edges 
of the sheath. 

The blade is frequently wanting or small and imperfect !n 
the basal leaves, but in the rest is long and set on to the sheath 
at an angle. The usual form is familiar sessile, more or less 
ribbon-shaped, tapering to a point, and entire at the edge. 
The chief modifications are the articulation of the deciduous 



GRASSES 




blade on to the sheath, which occurs in all the Bambuseae 
(except Planolia) and in Sparlina stricta; and the interposition 
of a petiole between the sheath and the blade, as in bamboos, 
Leptaspis, Pharus, Pariana, Lophatherum and others. In the 
latter case the leaf usually becomes oval, ovate or even cordate 
or sagittate, but these forms are found in sessile leaves also 
(Olyra, Panicum). The venation is strictly parallel, the midrib 
usually strong, and the other ribs more slender. In Anomochloa 
there are several nearly equal ribs and in some broad-leaved 
grasses (Bambuseae, Pharus, Leptaspis) the venation becomes 

tesselated by transverse 
connecting veins. The 
tissue is often raised 
above the veins, form- 
ing longitudinal ridges, 
FIG. 2. Magnified transverse section generally on the upper 
of one-half of a leaf-blade of Festuca f ace; the stomata are in 
rubra. The dark portions represent ,- th intervening 
supporting and conducting tissue; the " nf 

upper face bears furrows, at the bottom furrows. The thick pro- 
of each of which are seen the motor minent veins in Agro- 
cells m. pyrum occupy the whole 
upper surface of the leaf. Epidermal appendages are rare, 
the most frequent being marginal, saw-like, cartilaginous 
teeth, usually minute, but occasionally (Danthonia scabra, 
Panicum serratum) so large as to give the margin a serrate 
appearance. The leaves are occasionally woolly, as in Alopecurus 
lanatus and one or two Panicums. The blade is often twisted, 
frequently so much so that the upper and under faces become 
reversed. In dry-country grasses the blades are often folded 
on the midrib, or rolled up. The rolling is effected by bands of 
large wedge-shaped cells motor-cells between the nerves, 
the loss of turgescence by which, as the air dries, causes the 
blade to curl towards the face on which they occur. The rolling 
up acts as a .protection from too great loss of water, the exposed 
surface being specially protected to this end by a strong cuticle, 
the majority or all of the stomata occurring on the protected 
surface. The stiffness of the blade, which becomes very marked 
in dry-country grasses, is due to the development of girders of 
thick-walled mechanical tissue which follow the course of all 
or the principal veins (fig. 2). 

Inflorescence. This possesses an exceptional importance in 
grasses, since, their floral envelopes being much reduced and the 
sexual organs of very great uniformity, the characters employed 
for classification are mainly derived from the arrangement of 
the flowers and their investing bracts. Various interpretations 
have been given to these glumaceous organs and different terms 
employed for them by various writers. It may, however, be 





FIG. 3. One-flowered FIG. 4. Two-flowered spikelet 
spikelet of Agrostis. of Aira. 

b, Barren glumes ; /, flowering glumes. (Both enlarged.) 

considered as settled that the whole of the bodies known as 
glumes and paleae, and distichously arranged externally to 
the flower, form no part of the floral envelopes, but are of the 
nature of bracts. These are arranged so as to form spikelets 
(locustae), and each spikelet may contain one, as in Agrostis 
(fig. 3) two, as in Aira (fig. 4) three, or a great number of 
flowers, as in Briza (fig. 5) Triticum (fig. 6) ; in some species of 
Eragroslis there are nearly 60. The flowers are, as a rule, placed 
laterally on the a.xis(rachilla)ol the spikelet, but in one-flowered 
spikelets they appear to be terminal, and are probably really 



so in Anthoxiinthum (fig. 7) and in two anomalous genera, 
Anomochloa and Streptochaela. 

In immediate relation with the flower itself, and often entirely 
concealing it, is the palea or pale (" upper pale " of most syste- 
matic agrostologists) . This organ (fig. 13, i) is peculiar to grasses 






FIG. 7. Spikelet of Antho- 
xanthum (enlarged) without the 
two lower barren glumes, show- 
ing the two upper awned barren 
glumes (g) and the flower. 



FIG. 5. Spikelet of Briza. FIG. 6. Spikelet of Triticum. 
(Both enlarged.) 

among Glumiflorae (the series to which belong the two families 
Gramineae and Cyperaceae), and is almost always present, 
certain Oryzeae and Phalarideae 
being the only exceptions. It is 
of thin membranous consistence, 
usually obtuse, often bifid, and 
possesses no central rib or nerve, 
but has two lateral ones, one on 
either side; the margins are fre- 
quently folded in at the ribs, 
which thus become placed at the 
sharp angles. This structure was ' 
formerly regarded as pointing to 
the fusion of two organs, and 
the pale was considered by 
Robert Brown to represent two 
portions soldered together of a 
trimerous perianth - whorl, the 
third portion being the " lower 
pale." The pale is now gener- 
ally considered to represent the 
single bracteole, characteristic 
of Monocotyledons, the binerved 
structure being the result of the pressure of the axis of the 
spikelet during the development of the pale, as in Iris and others. 

The flower with its pale is sessile, and is placed in the axil of 
another bract in such a way that the pale is exactly opposed 
to it, though at a slightly higher level. It is this second bract 
or flowering glume which has been generally called by systemat- 
ists the " lower pale," and with the " upper pale " was formerly 
considered to form an outer floral envelope (" calyx," Jussieu; 
" perianthium," Brown). The two bracts are, however, on 
different axes, one secondary to the other, and cannot therefore 
be parts of one whorl of organs. They are usually quite unlike 
one another, but in some genera (e.g. most Festuceae) are very 
similar in shape and appearance. 

The flowering glume has generally a more or less boat-shaped 
form, is of firm consistence, and possesses a well-marked central 
midrib and frequently several lateral ones. The midrib in a 
large proportion of genera extends into an appendage termed 
the awn (fig. 4), and the lateral veins more rarely extend beyond 
the glume as sharp points (e.g. Pappophorum). The form of the 
flowering glume is very various, this organ being plastic and 
extensively modified in different genera. It frequently extends 
downwards a little on the rachilla, forming with the latter a 
swollen callus, which is separated from the free portion by a 
furrow. In Leptaspis it is formed into a closed cavity by the 
union of its edges, and encloses the flower, the styles projecting 
through the pervious summit. Valuable characters for dis- 
tinguishing genera are obtained from the awn. This presents 
itself variously developed from a mere subulate point to an 
organ several inches in length, and when complete (as in Andro- 
pogoneae, Aveneae and Stipeae) consists of two well-marked 
portions, a lower twisted part and a terminal straight portion, 



372 



GRASSES 



usually set in at an angle with the former, sometimes trifid and 
occasionally beautifully feathery (fig. 8). The lower part is most 
often suppressed, and in the large group of the Paniceae awns 
of any sort are very rarely seen. The awn may be either terminal 
or may come off from the back of the flowering glume, and 
Duval Jouve's observations have shown that it represents the 
blade of the leaf of which the portion of the 
flowering glume below its origin is the sheath; 
the twisted part (so often suppressed) corre- 
sponds with the petiole, and the portion of 
the glume extending beyond the origin of 
the awn (very long in some species, e.g. of 
Danthonia) with the ligule of the developed 
foliage-leaf. When terminal the awn has 
three fibro-vascular bundles, when dorsal 
only one; it is covered with stomate-bearing 
epidermis. 

The flower with its palea is thus sessile in 
the axil of a floriferous glume, and in a few 
grasses (Leersia (fig. 9), Coleanthus, Nardus) 
the spikelet consists of nothing more, but 
usually (even in uniflorous spikelets) other 
glumes are present. Of these the two placed 
distichously opposite each other at the base 
of the spikelet never bear any flower in their 
axils, and are called the empty or barren 
glumes (figs. 3, 8). They are the " glumes " 
of most writers, and together form what 
was called the " gluma " by R. Brown. 
They rarely differ much from one another, 
but one may be smaller or quite 
absent (Panicum, Setaria (fig. 10), Pas- 
palum, Lolium), or both be altogether 
suppressed, as above noticed. They are 
commonly firm and strong, often enclose 
the spikelet, and are rarely provided with 
long points or imperfect awns. Gener- 
ally speaking they do not share in the 
special modifications of the flowering 
glumes, and rarely themselves undergo 
modification, chiefly in hardening of 
portions (Sclerachne, Manisuris, Anthe- 





FIG. 8. Spikelet of 
Stipa pennata. The pair 
of barren glumes (6) 
are separated from the 
flowering glume, which FIG. Q. FIG. ip. Spikelet of 
bears a long awn, Spikelet of Leer- Setaria, with an abortive 
twisted below the knee sta. f, Flower- branch (h) beneath it. b, 
and feathery above, ing glume; p, Barren glumes; /.flower- 
About I nat. size. pale. ing glume ; p, pale. 

phora, Peltophorum), so as to afford greater protection to the 
flowers or fruit. But it is usual to find, besides the basal glumes, 
a few other empty ones, and these are in two- or more-flowered 
spikelets (see Triticum, fig. 6) at the top of the rhachilla (numer- 
ous in Lophatherum) , or in uniflorous ones (fig. 10) below and 
interposed between the floral glume and the basal pair. 

The axis of the spikelet is frequently jointed and breaks up 
into articulations above each flower. Tufts or borders of hairs 
are frequently present (Calamagrostis, Phragmites, Andropogon), 
and are often so long as to surround and conceal the flowers 
(fig. n). The axis is often continued beyond the last flower or 
glume as a bristle or stalk. 

Involucres or organs outside the spikelets also occur, and are 



formed in various ways. Thus in Setaria (fig. 10), Pennisetum, 
&c., the one or more circles of simple or feathery hairs represent 
abortive branches of the inflorescence; in Cenchrus (fig. 12) 
these become consolidated, and the inner ones flattened so as 
to form a very hard globular spiny case to the spikelets. The 
cup-shaped involucre of Cornucopia 
is a dilatation of the axis into 
a hollow receptacle with a raised 
border. In Cynosurus (Dog's tail) 
the pectinate involucre which con- 
ceals the spikelet is a barren or 
abortive spikelet. Bracts of a more 
general character subtending branches 
of the inflorescence are singularly 
rare in Gramineae, in marked con- 
trast with Cyperaceae, where they are 
so conspicuous. They however occur 
in a whole section of Andropogon, in 
Anomochloa, and at the base of the 
spike in Sesleria. The remarkable 
ovoid involucre of Coix, which be- 
comes of stony hardness, white and 
polished (then known as " Job's 
tears," q.v.), is also a modified bract 
or leaf-sheath. It is closed except at 




a 



b 



c, c, 



FIG. ii. Spikelet of 
Reed (Phragmites corn- 
mums) opened out. 
a, b, Barren glumes. 

Fertile glumes, each 
enclosing one 
flower with its 
pale d. 

Note the zigzag axis 
(rhachilla) bearing 
long silky hairs. 



the apex, and contains the female 

spikelet, the stalks of the male inflorescence and the long styles 

emerging through the small apical orifice. 

Any number of spikelets may compose the inflorescence, and 
their arrangement is very various. In the spicate forms, with 
sessile spikelets on the main axis, the latter is often dilated and 
flattened (Paspalum), or is more or less 
thickened and hollowed out (Stenotaphrum, 
Rottboellia, Tripsacum), when the spikelets 
are sunk and buried within the cavities. 
Every variety of racemose and paniculate 
inflorescence obtains, and the number of 
spikelets composing those of the large kinds 
is often immense. Rarely the inflorescence 
consists of very few flowers; thus Lygeum FIG. 12. Spikelet 
Spartum, the most anomalous of European of Cenchrus echinatus 
grasses, has but two or three large uni- enclosed in a bristly 
florous spikelets, which are fused together " 
at the base, and have no basal glumes, but are enveloped in a 
large, hooded, spathe-like bract. 

Flower. This is characterized by remarkable uniformity. 
The perianth is represented by very rudimentary, small, fleshy 
scales arising below the ovary, called lodicules; they are elongated 





FIG. 13. Flowers of Grasses (enlarged). I, Piptatherum, with the 
palea p; 2, Poa; 3, Oryza; I, Lodicule. 

or truncate, sometimes fringed with hairs, and are in contact 
with the ovary. Their usual number is two, and they are placed 
collaterally at the anterior side of the flower (fig. 13,) that is, 
within the flowering glume. They are generally considered to 
represent the inner whorl of the ordinary monocotyledonous 



GRASSES 



373 



(liliaceous) perianth, the outer whorl of these being suppressed 
as well as the posterior member of the inner whorl. This latter 
is present almost constantly in Stlpeae and Bambuseae, which 
have three lodicules, and in the latter group they are occasionally 
more numerous. In AnomoMoa they are represented by hairs. 
In Streplochaeta there are six lodicules, alternately arranged 
in two whorls. Sometimes, as in Anthoxanlhum, they are 
absent. In Mdica there is one large anterior lodicule resulting 
presumably from the union of the two which are present in allied 
genera. Professor E. Hackel, however, regards this as an 
undivided second pale, which in the majority of the grasses is 
split in halves, and the posterior lodicule, when present, as a 
third pale. On this view the grass-flower has no perianth. 
The function of the lodicules is the separation of the pale and 
glume to allow the protrusion of stamens and stigmas; they 
effect this by swelling and thus exerting pressure on the base of 
these two structures. Where, as in Anthoxanthum, there are no 
lodicules, pale and glume do not become laterally separated, 
and the stamens and stigmas protrude only at the apex of the 
floret (fig. 7). Grass-flowers are usually hermaphrodite, but 
there are very many exceptions. Thus it is common to find one 
or more imperfect (usually male) flowers in the same spikelet 
with bisexual ones, and their relative position is important 
in classification. Holcus and Arrhenatherum are examples in 
English grasses; and as a rule in species of temperate regions 
separation of the sexes is not carried further. In warmer 
countries monoecious and dioecious grasses are more frequent. 
In such cases the male and female spikelets and inflorescence 
may be very dissimilar, as in maize, Job's tears, Euchlaena, 
Spinifex, &c.; and in some dioecious species this dissimilarity 
has led to the two sexes being referred to different genera (e.g. 
Anthephora axillifiora is the female of Buchloe dactyloides, 
and Neurachne paradoxa of a species of Spinifex). In other 
grasses, however, with the sexes in different plants (e.g. Brizo- 
pyrum, DistiMis, Eragrostis capitata, Gynerium), no such 
dimorphism obtains. Amphicarpum is remarkable in having 
cleistogamic flowers borne on long radical subterranean peduncles 
which are fertile, whilst the conspicuous upper paniculate ones, 
though apparently perfect, never produce fruit. Something 
similar occurs in Leersia oryzoides, where the fertile spikelets 
are concealed within the leaf-sheaths. 

Androecium. In the vast majority there are three stamens 
alternating with the lodicules, and therefore one anterior, i.e. 
opposite the flowering glume, the other two being posterior and 
in contact with the palea (fig. 13, i and 2). They are hypo- 
gynous, and have long and very delicate filaments, and large, 
linear or oblong two-celled anthers, dorsifixed and ultimately 
very versatile, deeply indented at each end, and commonly 
exserted and pendulous. Suppression of the anterior stamen 
sometimes occurs (e.g. Anthoxanthum, fig. 7), or the two posterior 
ones may be absent (Uniola, Cinna, Phippsia,Festuca bromoid.es). 
There is in some genera (Oryza, most Bambuseae) another row of 
three stamens, making six in all (fig. 13, 3); and AnomoMoa and 
Tetrarrhena possess four. The stamens become numerous (ten 
to forty) in the male flowers of a few monoecious genera (Pariana, 
Luziola). In Ochlandra they vary from seven to thirty, and in 
GigantoMoa they are monadelphous. 

Gynoecium. The pistil consists of a single carpel, opposite the 
pale in the median plane of the spikelet. The ovary is small, 
rounded to elliptical, and one-celled, and contains a single 
slightly bent ovule sessile on the ventral suture (that is, springing 
from the back of the ovary); the micropyle points downwards. 
It bears usually two lateral styles which are quite distinct or 
connate at the base, sometimes for a greater length (fig. 14, i), 
each ends in a densely hairy or feathery stigma (fig. 14). Occa- 
sionally there is but a single style, as in Nardus (fig. 14, 7), which 
corresponds to the midrib of the carpel. The very long and 
apparently simple stigma of maize arises from the union of two. 
Many of the bamboos have a third, anterior, style. 

Comparing the flower of Gramineae with the general mono- 
cotyledonous plan as represented by Liliaceae and other families 
(fig. 1 5), it will be seen to differ in the absence of the outer row and 



the posterior member of the inner row of the perianth-leaves, of 
the whole inner row of stamens, and of the two lateral carpels, 





FIG. 15. Diagrams of the ordinary Grass- 
flower. 

1, Actual condition ; 

2, Theoretical, with 

the suppressed 

organs supplied. 
a, Axis. 

6, Flowering glume. 
c, 



d, Outer row of peri- 

anth leaves. 

e, Inner row. 

/, Outer row of 
stamens. 

f, Inner row. 
, Pistil. 



FIG. 14. Pistils of Grasses (much enlarged), i, Alopecurus; I 
Bromus; 3, Arrhenatherum; 4, Glyceria; 5, Melica; 6, Mibora; 
7, Nardus. 

whilst the remaining members of the perianth are in a rudiment- 
ary condition. But each or any of the usually missing organs 
are to be found a 9a 

normally in differ- 
ent genera, or as 
occasional develop- 
ments. 

Pollination. 
Grasses are gener- 
ally wind - pollin- 
ated, though self- 
fertilization some- 
times occurs. A few 
species, as we have 
seen, are mono- 
ecious or dioecious, 
while many are 
polygamous (having 
unisexual as well 
as bisexual flowers 
as in many members of the tribes Andropogoneae, fig. 18, 
and Paniceae), and in these the male flower of a spikelet 
always blooms later than the hermaphrodite, so that its 
pollen can only effect cross-fertilization upon other spikelets 
in the same or another plant. Of those with only bisexual 
flowers, many are strongly protogynous (the stigmas protrud- 
ing before the anthers are ripe), such as Alopecurus and 
Anthoxanthum (fig. 7), but generally the anthers protrude first 
and discharge the greater part of their pollen before the stigmas 
appear. The filaments elongate rapidly at flowering-time, and 
the lightly versatile anthers empty an abundance of finely 
granular smooth pollen through a longitudinal slit. Some 
flowers, such as rye, have lost the power of effective self-fertiliza- 
tion, but in most cases both forms, self- and cross-fertilization, 
seem to be possible. Thus the species of wheat are usually self- 
fertilized, but cross-fertilization is possible since the glumes are 
open above, the stigmas project laterally, and the anthers empty 
only about one-third of their pollen in their own flower and 
the rest into the air. In some cultivated races of barley, cross- 
fertilization is precluded, as the flowers never open. Reference 
has already been made to cleistogamic species which occur in 
several genera. 

Fruit and Seed. The ovary ripens into a usually small ovoid 
or rounded fruit, which is entirely occupied by the single large 
seed, from which it is not to be distinguished, the thin pericarp 
being completely united to its surface. To this peculiar 
fruit the term caryopsis has been applied (more familiarly 
"grain"); it is commonly furrowed longitudinally down one 
side (usually the inner, but in Coix and its allies, the outer), and 
an additional covering is not unfrequently provided by the 
adherence of the persistent palea, or even also of the flowering 



374 



GRASSES 




FIG. 16. 



the dehiscent 
pericarp and 
seed. 



glume (" chaff " of cereals). From this type are a few deviations 
thus in Sporobolus, &c. (fig. 16), the pericarp is not united with 
the seed but is quite distinct, dehisces, and allows the loose seed to 
escape. Sometimes the pericarp is membranous, sometimes hard, 
forming a nut, as in some genera of Bambuseae, while in other 
Bambuseae it becomes thick and fleshy, forming a berry often as 
large as an apple. In Melocanna the berry forms 
an edible fruit 3 or 4 in. long, with a pointed 
beak of 2 in. more; it is indehiscent, and the 
small seed germinates whilst the fruit is still 
attached to the tree, putting out a tuft of roots 
and a shoot, and not falling till the latter is 6 in. 
Fruit oSSporo- long. The position of the embryo is plainly 
bolus, showing visible on the front side at the base of the grain. 
On the other, posterior, side of the grain is a 
more or less evident, sometimes punctiform, 
sometimes elongated or linear mark, the hilum, 
the place where the ovule was fastened to the wall of the ovary. 
The form of the hilum is constant throughout a genus, and 
sometimes also in whole tribes. 

The testa is thin and membranous but occasionally coloured, 
and the embryo small, the great bulk of the seed being occupied 
by the hard farinaceous endosperm (albumen) on which the 
nutritive value of the grain depends. The outermost layer of 
endosperm, the aleuron-Iayer, consists of regular cells filled with 
small proteid granules; the rest is made up of large polygonal 
cells containing numerous starch-grains in a matrix of proteid 
which may be continuous (horny endosperm) or granular (mealy 
endosperm). The embryo presents many points of interest. Its 
position is remarkable, closely applied to the surface of the 
endosperm at the base of its outer side. This character is 
absolute for the whole order, and effectually separates Gramineae 
from Cyperaceae. The part in contact with the endosperm is 
plate-like, and is known as the scutellum; the surface in contact 
with the endosperm forms an absorptive epithelium. In some 
grasses there is a small scale-like appendage opposite the scutel- 
lum, the epiblast. There is some difference of opinion as to which 
structure or structures represent the cotyledon. Three must be 
considered: (i) the scutellum, connected by vascular tissue 
with the vascular cylinder of the main axis of the embryo which 
it more or less envelops; it never leaves the seed, serving 
merely to prepare and absorb the food-stuff in the endosperm; 
(2) the cellular outgrowth of the axis, the epiblast, small and 
inconspicuous as in wheat, or larger as in Slipa; (3) the pileole 
or germ-sheath, arising on the same side of the axis and above the 
scutellum, enveloping the plumule in the seed and appearing 
above ground as a generally colourless sheath from the apex of 
which the plumule ultimately breaks (fig. 17,4,6). The develop- 
ment of these structures (which was investigated by van Tieghem) , 




FIG. 17. A Grain of Wheat. I, back, and 2, front view; 3, 
vertical section, showing (b) the endosperm, and (a) embryo; 4, 
beginning of germination, showing (6) the pileole and (c) the radicle 
and secondary rootlets surrounded by their coleorrhizae. 

especially in relation to the origin of the vascular bundles which 
supply them, favours the view that the scutellum and pileole are 
highly differentiated parts of a single cotyledon,and this view is in 
accord with a comparative study of the seedling of grasses and 
of other monocotyledons. The epiblast has been regarded as 
representing a second cotyledon, but this is a very doubtful 
interpretation. 

Germination. In germination the coleorhiza lengthens, 
ruptures the pericarp, and fixes the grain to the ground by 



developing numerous hairs. The radicle then breaks through 
the coleorhiza, as do also the secondary rootlets where, as in 
the case of many cereals, these have been formed in the embryo 
(fig. 17, 4). The germ-sheath grows vertically upwards, its 
stiff apex pushing through the soil, while the plumule is hidden 
in its hollow interior. Finally the plumule escapes, its leaves 
successively breaking through at the tip of the germ-sheath. 
The scutellum meanwhile feeds the developing embryo from 
the endosperm. The growth of the primary root is limited; 
sooner or later adventitious roots develop from the axis above 
the radicle which they ultimately exceed in growth. 

Means of Distribution. Various methods of scattering the 
grain have been adopted, in which parts of thespikelet or in- 
florescence are concerned. Short spikes may fall from the 
culm as a whole; or the axis of a spike or raceme is jointed so 
that one spikelet falls with each joint as in many Andropogoneae 
and Hordeae. In many-flowered spikelets the rachilla is often 
jointed and breaks into as many pieces as there are fruits, each 
piece bearing a glume and pale. One-flowered spikelets may 
fall as a whole (as in the tribes Paniceae and Andropogoneae), 
or the axis is jointed above the barren glumes so that only the 
flowering glume and pale fall with the fruit. These arrange- 
ments are, with few exceptions, lacking in cultivated cereals 
though present in their wild forms, so far as these are known. 
Such arrangements are disadvantageous for the complete gather- 
ing of the fruit, and therefore varieties in which they are not 
present would be preferred for cultivation. The persistent 
bracts (glume and pale) afford an additional protection to the 
fruit; they protect the embryo, which is near the surface, from 
too rapid wetting and, when once soaked, from drying up again. 
They also decrease the specific gravity, so that the grain is more 
readily carried by the wind, especially when, as in Briza, the glume 
has a large surface compared with the size of the grain, or when, 
as in Holcus, empty glumes also take part; in Canary grass 
(Phalaris) the large empty glumes bear a membranous wing 
on the keel. In the sugar-cane (Saccharum) and several allied 
genera the separating joints of the axis bear long hairs below 
the spikelets; in others, as in Arundo (a reed-grass), the flowering 
glumes are enveloped in long hairs. The awn which is frequently 
borne on the flowering glume is also a very efficient means of 
distribution, catching into fur of animals or plumage of birds, 
or as often in Stipa (fig. 8) forming a long feather for wind- 
carriage. In Tragus the glumes bear numerous short hooked 
bristles. The fleshy berries of some Bambuseae favour distribu- 
tion by animals. 

The awn is also of use in burying the fruit in the soil. Thus 
in Stipa, species of Avena, Heleropogon and others the base of 
the glume forms a sharp point which will easily penetrate the 
ground; above the point are short stiff upwardly pointing hairs 
which oppose its withdrawal. The.long awn, which is bent and 
closely twisted below the bend, acts as a driving organ; it is 
very hygroscopic, the coils untwisting when damp and twisting 
up when dry. The repeated twisting and untwisting, especi- 
ally when the upper part of the awn has become fixed in the 
earth or caught in surrounding vegetation, drives the point 
deeper and deeper into the ground. Such grasses often cause 
harm to sheep by catching in the wool and boring through 
the skin. 

A peculiar method of distribution occurs in some alpine and 
arctic grasses, which grow under conditions where ripening of 
the fruit is often uncertain. The entire spikelet, or single 
[lowers, are transformed into small-leaved shoots which fall 
Erom the axes and readily root in the ground. Some species, 
such as Poa stricta, are known only in this viviparous 
condition; others, like our British species Festuca ovina 
and Poa alpina, become viviparous under the special climatic 
conditions. 

II. CLASSIFICATION. Gramineae are sharply defined from 
all other plants, and there are no genera as to which it is possible 
:o feel a doubt whether they should be referred to it or not. 
The only family closely allied is Cyperaceae, and the points of 
difference between the two may be here brought together. The 



GRASSES 



375 



best distinctions are found in the position of the embryo in 
relation to the endosperm lateral in grasses, basal in Cyperaceae 
and in the possession by Gramineae of the 2-nerved palea 
below each flower. Less absolute characters, but generally 
trustworthy and more easily observed, are the feathery stigmas, 
the always distichous arrangement of the glumes, the usual 
absence of more general bracts in the inflorescence, the split 
leaf-sheaths, and the hollow, cylindrical, jointed culms some 
or all of which are wanting in all Cyperaceae. The same char- 
acters will distinguish grasses from the other glumiferous orders, 
Restiaceae, and Eriocaulonaceae, which are besides further 
removed by their capsular fruit and pendulous ovules. To other 
monocotyledonous families the resemblances are merely of 
adaptive or vegetative characters. Some Commelinaceae and 
Marantaceae approach grasses in foliage; the leaves of Allium, 
&c., possess a ligule; the habit of some palms reminds one of 
the bamboos; and Juncaceae and a few Liliaceae possess an 
inconspicuous scarious perianth. There are about 300 genera 
containing about 3500 well-defined species. 

The great uniformity among the very numerous species of this 
vast family renders its classification very difficult. The difficulty 
has been increased by the confusion resulting from the multiplica- 
tion of genera founded on slight characters, and from the descrip- 
tion (in consequence of their wide distribution) of identical 
plants under several different genera. 

No characters for main divisions can be obtained from the 
flower proper or fruit (with the exception of the character of 
the hilum), and it has therefore been found necessary to trust 
to characters derived from the usually less important inflor- 
escence and bracts. 

Robert Brown suggested two primary divisions Paniceae 
and Poaceae, according to the position of the most perfect 
flower in the spikelet; this is the upper (apparently) terminal 
one in the first, whilst in the second it occupies the lower position, 
the more imperfect ones (if any) being above it. Munro supple- 
mented this by another character easier of verification, and of 
even greater constancy, in the articulation of the pedicel in the 
Paniceae immediately below the glumes; whilst in Poaceae 
this does not occur, but the axis of the spikelet frequently 
articulates above the pair of empty basal glumes. Neither of 
these great divisions will well accommodate certain genera 
allied to Phalaris, for which Brown proposed tentatively a 
third group (since named Phalarideae); this, or at least the 
greater part of it, is placed by Bentham .under the Poaceae.' 

The following arrangement has been proposed by Professor 
Eduard Hackel in his recent monograph on the order. 

A. Spikelets one-flowered, rarely two-flowered as in Zea, falling 
from the pedicel entire or with certain joints of the rachis at maturity. 
Rachilla not produced beyond the flowers. 

a. Hilum a point; spikelets not laterally compressed. 

a Fertile glume and pale hyaline; empty glumes thick, 
membranous to coriaceous or cartilaginous, the lowest 
the largest. Rachis generally jointed and breaking up 
when mature. 

1. Spikelets unisexual, male and female in separate 

inflorescences or on different parts of the same 
inflorescence. I. Maydeae. 

2. Spikelets bisexual, or male and bisexual, each male 

standing close to a bisexual. 2. Andropogoneae. 
Fertile glume and pale cartilaginous, coriaceous or papery ; 
empty glumes more delicate, usually herbaceous, the 
lowest usually smallest. Spikelets falling singly from the 
unjointed rachis of the spike or the ultimate branches of 
the panicle. 3. Paniceae. 

b. Hilum a line ; spikelets laterally compressed. 

4. Oryzeae. 

B. Spikelets one- to indefinite-flowered; in the one-flowered the 
rachilla frequently produced beyond the flower; rachilla generally 
jointed above the empty glumes, which remain after the fruiting 
glumes have fallen. When more than one-flowered, distinct inter- 
nodes are developed between the flowers. 

a. Culm herbaceous, annual ; leaf -blade sessile, and not jointed 

to the sheath. 
a Spikelets upon disdnct pedicels and arranged in panicles or 

racemes. 
I. Spikelets one-flowered. 

i. Empty glumes 4. 5. Phalarideae. 

ii. Empty glumes 2. 6. Agrostideae. 



II. Spikelets more than one-flowered. 

i. Fertile glumes generally shorter than the empty 
glumes, usually with a bent awn on the back. 

7. Aveneae. 

ii. Fertile glumes generally longer than the empty, un- 
awned or with a straight, terminal awn. 

9. Fesluceae. 

Spikelets crowded in two close rows, forming a one-sided 

spike or raceme with a continuous (not jointed) rachis. 

8. Chlorideae. 

1 Spikelets in two opposite rows forming an equal-sided spike. 

10. Hordeae. 

b. Culm woody, at any rate at the base, leaf-blade jointed to the 
sheath, often with a short, slender petiole. 

11. Bambuseae. 
Tribe i. Maydeae (7 genera in the warmer parts of the earth). 

Zea Mays (maize, q.v., or Indian corn) (q.v.). Tripsacum, 2 or 3 species 
in subtropical America north of the equator; Tr. dactyloides (gama 
grass) extends northwards to Illinois and Connecticut ; it is used for 
fodder and as an ornamental plant. Coix Lacryma- Jobi (Job's 
tears) q.v. 

Tribe 2. Andropogoneae (25 genera, mainly tropical). The 
spikelets are arranged in spike-like racemes, generally in pairs con- 
sisting of a sessile and stalked spikelet at each joint of the rachis 
(fig. 18). Many are savanna grasses, in various parts of the tropics, 
for instance the large genus Andropogon, Elionurus and others. 
Saccharum officinarum (sugar-cane) (q.v.). Sorghum, an important 
tropical cereal known as black millet or durra (q.v.). Miscanthus and 
Enanthus, nearly allied to Saccharum, are tall reed-like grasses, 
with large silky flower-panicles, which are 
grown for ornament. Imperata, another 
ally, is a widespread tropical genus; one 
species /. arundinacea is the principal grass 
of the alang-alang fields in the Malay Archi- 
pelago; it is used for thatch. Vossia, an 
aquatic grass, often floating, is found in 
western India and tropical Africa. In the 
swampyT lands of the upper Nile it forms, 
along with a species of Saccharum, huge 
floating grass barriers. Elionurus, a wide- 
spread savanna grass in tropical and sub- 
tropical America, and also in the tropics of 
the old world, is rejected by cattle probably 
on account of its aromatic character, the 
spikelets having a strong balsam-like smell. 
Other aromatic members are Andropogon 
Nardus, a native of India, but also cultivated, 
the rhizome, leaves and especially the spike- 
lets of which contain a volatile oil, which on 
distillation yields the citronella oil of com- 
merce. A closely allied species, A. Schoen- 

anthus (lemon-grass), yields lemon-grass oil; __ i 

a variety is used by the negroes in western spikelets of Andrd- 
Africa for haemorrhage. Other species of pogon. 
the same genus are used as stimulants and 

cosmetics in various parts of the tropics. The species of Hetero- 
pogon, a cosmopolitan genus in the warmer parts of the world, have 
strongly awned spikelets. Themeda Forskalii, which occurs from the 
Mediterranean region to South Africa and Tasmania, is the kangaroo 
grass of Australia, where, as in South Africa, it often covers wide 
tracts. 

Tribe 3. Paniceae (about 25 genera, tropical to subtropical; 
a few temperate), a second flower, generally male, rarely herma- 
phrodite, is often present below the fertile flower. Paspalum, is a 
large tropical genus, most abundant in America, especially on the 
pampas and campos; many species are good forage plants, and the 
grain is sometimes used for food. Amphicarpum, native in the south- 
eastern United States, has fertile cleistogamous spikelets on filiform 
runners at the base of the culm, those on the terminal panicle are 
sterile. Panicum, a very polymorphic genus, and one of the largest 
in the order, is widely spread in all warm countries; together with 
species of Paspalum they form good forage grasses in the South 
American savannas and campos. Panicum Crus-galli is a poly- 
morphic cosmopolitan grass, which is often grown for fodder; in one 
form (P. frumentaceum) it is cultivated in India for its grain. P. 
plicatum, with broad folded leaves, is an ornamental greenhouse grass. 
P. miliaceum is millet (q.v.), and P. altissimum, Guinea grass. In 
the closely allied genus Digitaria, which is sometimes regarded as 
a section of Panicum, the lowest barren glume is reduced to a point ; 
D. sanguinalis is a very widespread grass, in Bohemia it is cultivated 
as a food-grain ; it is also the crab-grass of the southern United States, 
where it is used for fodder. 

In Setaria and allied genera the spikelet is subtended by an 
involucre of bristles or spines which represent sterile branches of the 
inflorescence. Setaria italica, Hungarian grass, is extensively grown 
as a food-grain both in China and Japan, parts of India and western 
Asia, as well as in Europe, where its culture dates from prehistoric 
times; it is found in considerable quantity in the lake dwellings of 
the Stone age. 

In Cenchrus the bristles unite to form a tough spiny capsule 




FIG. 18. A pair of 



376 



GRASSES 




FIG. 19. Phalarideae. Spike- 
let of Hierochloe. 



fig. 12); C. tribuloides (bur-grass) and other species are troublesome 
weeds in North and South America, as the involucre clings to the 
wool of sheep and is removed with great difficulty. Pennisetum 
typhoideum is widely cultivated as a grain in tropical Africa. Spini- 
fex, a dioecious grass, is widespread on the coasts of Australia and 
eastern Asia, forming an important sand-binder. The female heads 
are spinose with long pungent bracts, fall entire when ripe and are 
carried away by wind or sea, becoming finally anchored in the sand 
and falling to pieces. 

Tribe 4. Oryzeae (16 genera, mainly tropical and subtropical). 
The spikelets are sometimes unisexual, and there are often six 
stamens. Leersia is a genus of swamp grasses, one of which L. 
oryzoides occurs in the north temperate zone of both old and new 
worlds, and is a rare grass in Surrey, Sussex and Hampshire. Zizania 
aquatica (Tuscarora or Indian rice) is a reed-like grass growing over 
large areas on banks of streams and lakes in North America and north- 
east Asia. The Indians collect the grain for food. Oryza saliva 
(rice) (q.v.). Lygeum Spartum, with a creeping stem and stiff rush- 
like leaves, is common on rocky soil on the high plains bordering the 
western Mediterranean, and is one of the sources of esparto. 

Tribe 5. Phalarideae (6 genera, 
three of which are South African 
and Australasian; the others are 
more widely distributed, and re- 
presented in our flora). Phalaris 
arundinacea, is a reed-grass found 
on the banl f s of British rivers and 
lakes; a variety with striped leaves 
known as ribbon-grass is grown for 
ornament. P. canariensis (Canary 
grass, a native of southern Europe 
and the Mediterranean area) is 
grown for bird-food and some- 
times as a cereal. Anthoxanthum 
odoratum, the sweet vernal grassof 
our flora, owes its scent to the 
presence of coumarin, which is also present in the closely allied 
genus Hierochloe (fig. 19), which occurs throughout the temperate 
and frigid zones. 

Tribe 6. Agrostideae (about 35 genera, occurring in all parts of 
the world; eleven are British). Aristida and Stipa are large and 
widely distributed genera, occurring especially on open plains and 
steppes; the conspicuously awned persistent flowering glume forms 
an efficient means of dispersing the grain. Stipa pennata is a char- 
acteristic species of the Russian steppes. St. spartea (porcupine 
grass) and other species are plentiful on the North American prairies. 
St. tenacissima is the Spanish esparto grass (q.v.), known in North 
Africa as halfa or alfa. Phleum has a cylindrical spike-like inflores- 
cence; P. pratense (timothy) is a valuable fodder grass, as also is 
Alopecurus pratensis (foxtail). Sporobolus, a large genus _in the 
wanner parts of both hemispheres, but chiefly America, derives its 
name from the fact that the seed is ultimately expelled from the 
fruit. Agrostis is a large world-wide genus, but especially developed 
in the north temperate zone, where it includes important meadow- 
grasses. Calamagrostis and Deyeuxia are tall, often reed-like grasses, 
occurring throughout the temperate and arctic zones and upon high 
mountains in the tropics. Ammophila arundinacea (or Psamma 
arenaria) (Marram grass) with its long creeping stems forms a useful 
sand-binder on the coasts of Europe, North Africa and the Atlantic 
states of America. 

Tribe 7. Aveneae (about 24 genera, seven of which are British). 
Holcus lanatus (Yorkshire fog, soft grass) is a common meadow and 
wayside grass with woolly or downy leaves. Aira is a genus of 
delicate annuals with slender hair-like branches of the panicle. 
Deschampsia and Trisetum occur in temperate and cold regions or on 
high mountains in the tropics; T. pratense (Avena flavescens) with 
a loose panicle and yellow shining spikelets is a valuable fodder- 
grass. Avena fatua is the wild oat and A. saliva the cultivated oat 
(q.v.). Arrhenatherum avenaceum, a perennial field grass, native in 
Britain and central and southern Europe, is cultivated in North 
America. 

Tribe 8. CUorideae (about 30 genera, chiefly in warm countries). 
The only British representative is Cynodon Dactylon (dog's tooth, 
Bermuda grass) found on sandy shores in the south-west of England ; 
it is a cosmopolitan, covering the ground in sandy soils, and forming 
an important forage grass in many dry climates (Bermuda grass of 
the southern United States, and known as durba, dub and other 
names in India). Species of Chloris are grown as ornamental grasses. 
Bouteloua with numerous species (mesquite grass, grama grass) on 
the plains of the south-western United States, afford good grazing. 
Eleusine indica is a common tropical weed ; the nearly allied species 
E. Coracana is a cultivated gram in the warmer parts of Asia and 
throughout Africa. Buchloe dactyloides is the buffalo grass of the 
North American prairies, a valuable fodder. 

Tribe 9. Festuceae (about 83 genera, including tropical, temperate, 
arctic and alpine forms) many are important meadow-grasses; IJ 
are British. Gynerium argenteum (pampas grass) is a native ol 
southern Brazil and Argentina. Arundo and Phragmites are tal! 
reed-grasses (see REED). Several species of Triodia cover large areas 
of the interior of Australia, and from their stiff, sharply pointed leaves 




are very troublesome. Eragrostis, one of the larger genera of the 

order, is widely distributed in the warmer parts of the earth ; many 

species are grown for ornament and E. abyssinica is an important 

:ood-plant in Abyssinia. 

Koeleria cristata is a 

"odder-grass. Briza 

tiedia (quaking grass) 

is a useful meadow- 

jrass. Dactylis glo- 

merata (cock's-foot), a 

perennial grass with a 

dense panicle, common 

in pastures and waste 

places is a useful 

meadow-grass. It has 

become naturalized in 

North America, where 

it is known as orchard 

grass, as it will grow 

in shade. Cynosurus 

cristatus (dog's tail) is 

a common pasture- 

grass. Poa, a large 
;enus widely distri- 
mted in temperate and 

cold countries, includes 

many meadow and 

alpine grasses; eight 

species are British; P. 

annua (fig. 20) is the 

very common weed in 

paths and waste places; 

P. pratensis and P. tri- 

viatis are also common 
;rasses of meadows, 
lanks and pastures, the 

former is the " June 

grass " or " Kentucky 

blue grass " of North 

America ; P. alpina 

is a mountain grass of 

the northern hemi- 

sphere and found also 

in the Arctic region. FIG. 20. Poa annua. Plant in Flower; 

The largest species of about * nat. size. I, one spikelet. 

the genus is Poa flabel- 

lata which forms great 

tufts 6-7 ft. high with leaves arranged like a fan; it is a native 

of the Falkland and certain antarctic islands where it is known as 

tussock grass. Glyceria fluitans, manna-grass, so- 

called from the sweet grain, is one of the best fodder 

grasses for swampy meadows; the grain is an article 
of food in central Europe. Festuca (fescue) is also 
a large and widely distributed genus, but found 

especially in the temperate and cold zones; it 
includes valuable pasture grasses, such as F. ovina 
(sheep's fescue), F. rubra; nine species are British. 
The closely allied genus Bromus (brome grass) is 
also widely distributed but most abundant in the 
north temperate zone; B. erectus is a useful forage 
grass on dry chalky soil. 

Tribe 10. Hordeae (about 19 genera, widely 
distributed; six are British). Nardus stricta (mat- 
weed), found on heaths and dry pastures, is a small 
perennial with slender rigid stem and leaves, it is 
a useless grass, crowding out better sorts. Lolium 
perenne, ray- (or by corruption rye-) grass, is 
common in waste places and a valuable pasture- 
grass; L. italicum is the Italian ray-grass; L. 
temulentum (darnel) contains a narcotic principle 
in the grain. Secale cereale, rye (q.v.), is cultivated 
mainly in. northern Europe. Agropyrum repens 
(couch grass) has a long creeping underground stem, 
and is a troublesome weed in cultivated land; the 
widely creeping stem of A. junceum, found on 
sandy sea-shores, renders it a useful sand-binder. 
Triticum sativum is wheat (q.v.) (fig. 21), and Hor- 
deum sativum, barley (q.v.). H. murinum, wild 
barley, is a common grass in waste places. Elymus 
arenarius (lyme grass) occurs on sandy sea-shores in 
the north temperate zone and is a useful sand-binder, gnike of Wheat 
Tribe n. Bambuseae. Contains 23 genera, mainly forHicum S ati 
tropical. See BAMBOO. 

III. DISTRIBUTION. Grasses are the most n at - 
universally diffused of all flowering plants. 
There is no district in which they do not occur, and in nearly 
all they are a leading feature of the flora. In number of 
species Gramineae comes considerably after Compositae and 



FIG. 2i. 



,). About \ 



GRASSHOPPER 



377 



Leguminosae, the two most numerous orders of phanerogams, 
but in number of individual plants it probably far exceeds 
either; whilst from the wide extension of many of its 
species, the proportion of Gramineae to other orders in the 
various floras of the world is much higher than its number of 
species would lead one to expect. In tropical regions, where 
Leguminosae is the leading order, grasses closely follow as the 
second, whilst in the warm and temperate regions of the northern 
hemisphere, in which Compositae takes the lead, Gramineae 
again occupies the second position. 

While the greatest number of species is found in the tropical 
zone, the number of individuals is greater in the temperate 
zones, where they form extended areas of turf. Turf- or meadow- 
formation depends upon uniform rainfall. Grasses also char- 
acterize steppes and savannas, where they form scattered tufts. 
The bamboos are a feature of tropical forest vegetation, especially 
in the monsoon region. As the colder latitudes are entered the 
grasses become relatively more numerous, and are the leading 
family in Arctic and Antarctic regions. The only countries 
where the order plays a distinctly subordinate part are some 
extra-tropical regions of the southern hemisphere, Australia, 
the Cape, Chili, &c. The proportion of graminaceous species 
to the whole phanerogamic flora in different countries is found 
to vary from nearly |th in the Arctic regions to about -jVth at 
the Cape; in the British Isles it is about rVh. 

The principal climatic cause influencing the number of gramin- 
aceous species appears to be amount of moisture. A remarkable 
feature of the distribution of grasses is its uniformity; there are 
no great centres for the order, as in Compositae, where a marked 
preponderance of endemic species exists; and the genera, 
except some of the smallest or monotypic ones, have usually 
a' wide distribution. 

The distribution of the tropical tribe Banfouseae is interesting. 
The species are about equally divided between the Indo-Malayan 
region and tropical America, only one species being common 
to both. The tribe is very poorly represented in tropical Africa; 
one species Oxyienanthera abyssinica has a wide range, and three 
monotypic genera are endemic in western tropical Africa. None 
is recorded for Australia, though species may perhaps occur 
on the northern coast. One species of Arundinaria reaches 
northwards as far as Virginia, and the elevation attained in the 
Andes by some species of Chusquea is very remarkable, one, 
C. aristata, being abundant from 15,000 ft. up to nearly the level 
of perpetual snow. 

Many grasses are almost cosmopolitan, such as the common 
reed, Phragmites communis; and many range throughout the 
warm regions of the globe, e.g. Cynodon Dactylon, Eleusine 
indica, Imperata arundinacea, Sporobolus indicus, &c., and such 
weeds of cultivation as species of Setaria, Echinochloa. Several 
species of the north temperate zone, such as Poo. nemoralis, 
P. pratensis, Festuca ovina, F. rubra and others, are absent in 
the tropics but reappear in the antarctic regions; others (e.g. 
Phleum alpinum) appear in isolated positions on high mountains 
in the intervening tropics. No tribe is confined to one hemisphere 
and no large genus to any one floral region ; facts which indicate 
that the separation of the tribes goes back to very ancient times. 
The revision of the Australian species by Bentham well exhibits 
the wide range of the genera of the order in a flora generally so 
peculiar and restricted as that of Australia. Thus of the 90 
indigenous genera (many monotypic or very small) only 14 are 
endemic, i extends to South Africa, 3 are common to Australia 
and New Zealand, 18 extend also into Asia, whilst no fewer than 
54 are found in both the Old and New Worlds, 26 being chiefly 
tropical and 28 chiefly extra-tropical. 

Of specially remarkable species Lygeum is found on the 
sea-sand of the eastern half of the Mediterranean basin, and the 
minute Colcanthus occurs in three or four isolated spots in 
Europe (Norway, Bohemia, Austria, Normandy), in North-east 
Asia (Amur) and on the Pacific coast of North America (Oregon, 
Washington). Many remarkable endemic genera occur in 
tropical America, including Anomochloa of Brazil, and most of 
the large aquatic species with separated sexes are found in this 



region. The only genus of flowering plants peculiar to the arctic 
regions is the beautiful and rare grass Pleuropogon Sabinii, of 
Melville Island. 

Fossil Grasses. While numerous remains of grass-like leaves 
are a proof that grasses were widespread and abundantly 
developed in past geological ages, especially in the Tertiary 
period, the fossil remains are in most cases too fragmentary and 
badly preserved for the determination of genera, and conclusions 
based thereon in explanation of existing geographical distribution 
are most unsatisfactory. There is, however, justification for 
referring some specimens to Arundo,. Phragmites, and to the 
Bambuseae. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. E. Hackel, The True Grasses (translated" from 
Engler and Prantl, Die natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien, by F. Lamson 
Scribner and E. A. Southworth) ; and Andropogoneae in de Candolle's 
Monographiae phanerogamarum (Paris, 1889); K. S. Kunth, 
Revision des graminees (Paris, 1829-1835) and Agrostographia 
(Stuttgart, 1 833) ; J.C. Doll in Martius and Eichler, Flora Brasuiensis, 
ii. Pts. II. and III. (Munich, 1871-1883); A. W. Eichler, Bluthen- 
diagramme i. 119 (Leipzig, 1875); Bentham and Hooker, Genera 
plantarum, iii. 1074 (London, 1883) ; H. Baillon, Histoire des 
plantes, xii. 136 (Paris, 1893) ; J. S. Gamble, " Bambuseae of British 
India" in Annals Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, vii. (1896); 
John Percival, Agricultural Botany (chapters on " Grasses," 2nd ed., 
London, 1902). See also accounts of the family in the various great 
floras, such as Ascherson and Graebner, Synopsis der mitteleuropaischen 
Flora; N. L. Britton and A. Brown, Illustrated Flora of the Northern 
United Stales and Canada (New York, 1896); Hooker's Flora of 
British India; Flora Capensis (edited by W. Thiselton-Dyer); 
Boissier, Flora orientalis, &c. &c. 

GRASSHOPPER (Fr. sauterelle, "Ital. grille, Get. Gras/tupfer, 
Heuschrecke, Swed. Griishoppa), names applied to orthopterous 
insects belonging to the families Locus tidae and Acridiidae. 
They are especially remarkable for their saltatory powers, due 
to the great development of the hind legs, which are much longer 
than the others and have stout and powerful thighs, and also for 
their stridulation, which is not always an attribute of the male 
only. The distinctions between the two families may be briefly 
stated as follows: The Locttsiidae have very long thread-like 
antennae, four-jointed tarsi, a long ovipositor, the auditory 
organs on the tibiae of the first leg and the stridulatory organ 
in the wings; the Acridiidae have short stout antennae, three- 
jointed tarsi, a short ovipositor, the auditory organs on the first 
abdominal segment, and the stridulatory organ between the 
posterior leg and the wing. The term " grasshopper " is almost 
synonymous with LOCUST (q.v.). Under both " grasshopper " 
and " locust " are included members of both families above 
noticed, but the majority belong to the Acridiidae in both cases. 
In Britain the term is chiefly applicable to the large green 
grasshopper (Locusta or Phasgonura viridissima) common in 
most parts of the south of England, and to smaller and much 
better-known species of the genera Stenobothrus, Gomphocerus 
and Tettix, the latter remarkable for the great extension of the 
pronotum, which often reaches beyond the extremity of the body. 
All are vegetable feeders, and, as in all orthopterous insects, 
have an incomplete metamorphosis, so that their destructive 
powers are continuous from the moment of emergence from 
the egg till death. The migratory locust (Pachytylus cinerascens) 
may be considered only an exaggerated grasshopper, and the 
Rocky Mountain locust (Caloptenus spretus) is still more entitled 
to the name. In Britain the species are not of sufficient size, 
nor of sufficient numerical importance, to do any great damage. 
The colours of many of them assimilate greatly to those of their 
habitats; the green of the Locusta viridissima is wonderfully 
similar to that of the herbage amongst which it lives, and those 
species that frequent more arid spots are protected in the same 
manner. Yet many species have brilliantly coloured under-wings 
(though scarcely so in English forms), and during flight are almost 
as conspicuous as butterflies. Those that belong to the Acridiidae 
mostly lay their eggs in more or less cylindrical masses, sur- 
rounded by a glutinous secretion, in the ground. Some of the 
Locustidae also lay their eggs in the ground, but others deposit 
them in fissures in trees and low plants, in which the female is 
aided by a long flattened ovipositor, or process at the extremity 
of the abdomen, whereas in the Acridiidae there is only an 



378 



GRASS OF PARNASSUS GRATIANUS 



apparatus of valves. The stridulation or " song " in the latter 
is produced by friction of the hind legs against portions of the 
wings or wing-covers. To a practised ear it is perhaps possible 
to distinguish the " song " of even closely allied species, and some 
are said to produce a sound differing by day and night. 

GRASS OF PARNASSUS, in botany, a small herbaceous plant 
known as Parnassia palustris (natural order Saxifragaceae) , 
found on wet moors and bogs in Britain but less common in the 
south. The white regular flower is rendered very attractive 




Grass of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris) half nat. size. I, One of 
the gland-bearing scales enlarged. 

by a circlet of scales, opposite the petals, each of which bears a 
fringe of delicate filaments ending in a yellow knob. These 
glisten in the sunshine and look like a drop of honey. Honey is 
secreted by the base of each of the scales. 

GRATE (from Lat. crates, a hurdle), the iron or steel receptacle 
for a domestic fire. When coal replaced logs and irons were found 
to be unsuitable for burning the comparatively small lumps, and 
for this reason and on account of the more concentrated heat of 
coal it became necessary to confine the area of the fire. Thus a 
basket or cage came into use, which, as knowledge of the scientific 
principles of heating increased, was succeeded by the small 
grate of iron and fire-brick set close into the wall which has since 
been in ordinary use in England. In the early part of the ipth 
century polished steel grates were extensively used, but the 
labour and difficulty of keeping them bright were considerable, 
and they were gradually replaced by grates with a polished black 
surface which could be quickly renewed by an application of 
black-lead. The most frequent form of the iSth-century grate 
was rather high from the hearth, with a small hob on each side. 
The brothers Adam designed many exceedingly elegant grates 
in the shape of movable baskets ornamented with the paterae 



and acanthus leaves, the swags and festoons characteristic of 
their manner. The modern dog-grate is a somewhat similar 
basket supported upon dogs or andirons, fixed or movable. 
In the closing years of the igth century a " well-grate " was 
invented, in which the fire burns upon the hearth, combustion 
being aided by an air-chamber below. 

GRATIAN (FLAVIUS GRATIANUS AUGUSTUS), Roman emperor 
375-383, son of Valentinian I. by Severa, was born at Sirmium 
in Pannonia, on the i8th of April (or 23rd of May) 359. On the 
24th of August 367 he received from his father the title of 
Augustus. On the death of Valentinian (i7th of November 375) 
the troops in Pannonia proclaimed his infant son (by a second 
wife Justina) emperor under the title of Valentinian II. (?..). 
Gratian acquiesced in their choice; reserving for himself the 
administration of the Gallic provinces, he handed over Italy, 
Illyria and Africa to Valentinian and his mother, who fixed their 
residence at Milan. The division, however, was merely nominal, 
and the real authority remained in the hands of Gratian. The 
eastern portion of the empire was under the rule of his uncle 
Valens. In May 378 Gratian completely defeated the Lentienses, 
the southernmost branch of the Alamanni, at Argentaria, near 
the site of the modern Colmar. When Valens met his death 
fighting against the Goths near Adrianople on the 9th of August 
in the same year, the government of the eastern empire devolved 
upon Gratian, but feeling himself unable to resist unaided the 
incursions of the barbarians, he ceded it to Theodosius (January 
379). With Theodosius he cleared the Balkans of barbarians. 
For some years Gratian governed the empire with energy and 
success, but gradually he sank into indolence, occupied himself 
chiefly with the pleasures of the chase, and became a tool in the 
hands of the Prankish general Merobaudes and bishop Ambrose. 
By taking into his personal service a body of Alani, and appearing 
in public in the dress of a Scythian warrior, he aroused the 
contempt and resentment of his Roman troops. A Roman named 
Maximus took advantage of this feeling to raise the standard of 
revolt in Britain and invaded Gaul with a large army, upon which 
Gratian, who was then in Paris, being deserted by his troops, fled 
to Lyons, where, through the treachery of the governor, he was 
delivered over to one of the rebel generals and assassinated on 
the 25th of August 383. 

The reign of Gratian forms an important epoch in ecclesiastical 
history, since during that period orthodox Christianity for the 
first time became dominant throughout the empire. In dealing 
with pagans and heretics Gratian, who during his later years was 
greatly influenced by Ambrose, bishop of Milan, exhibited 
severity and injustice at variance with his usual character. He 
prohibited heathen worship at Rome; refused to wear the 
insignia of the pontifex maximus as unbefitting a Christian; 
removed the altar of Victory from the senate-house at Rome, 
in spite of the remonstrance of the pagan members of the senate, 
and confiscated its revenues; forbade legacies of real property 
to the Vestals; and abolished other privileges belonging to them 
and to the pontiffs. For his treatment of heretics see the church 
histories of the period. 

AUTHORITIES. Ammianus Marcellinus xxvii. - xxxi. ; Aurelius 
Victor, Epit. 47; Zosimus iv. vi. ; Ausonius (Gratian's tutor), 
especially the Gratiarum actio pro consulate; Symmachus x. epp. 
2 and 61 ; Ambrose, De fide, prolegomena to Epistolae n, 17, 21, 
Consolatio de obitu Valentiniani ; H. Richter, Das westromische 
Reich, besonders unter den Kaisern Gratian, Valentinian II. und 
Maximus (1865); A. de Broglie, L'Eglise et Vempire remain an IV" 
stecle (4th ed., 1882) ; H. Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, 
in., iv. 31-33; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. 27; R. Gumpoltsberger, 
Kaiser Gratian (Vienna, 1879); T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders 
(Oxford, 1892), vol. i.; Tillemont, Hist, des empereurs, v.; J. Words- 
worth in Smith's Dictionary of Christian Biography. (J. H. F.) 

GRATIANUS, FRANCISCUS, compiler of the Concordia dis- 
cordanlium canonum or Decrelum Gratiani, and founder of the 
science of canon law, was born about the end of the nth century 
at Chiusi in Tuscany or, according to another account, at Carraria 
near Orvieto. In early life he appears to have been received into 
the Camaldulian monastery of Classe near Ravenna, whence he 
afterwards removed to that of San Felice in Bologna, where he 
spent many years in the preparation of the Concordia. The 



GRATRY GRATTAN 



379 



precise date of this work cannot be ascertained, but it contains 
references to the decisions of the Lateran council of 1139, and 
there is fair authority for believing that it was completed while 
Pope Alexander III. was still simply professor of theology at 
Bologna, in other words, prior to 1 1 50. The labours of Gratian 
are said to have been rewarded with the bishopric of Chiusi, but 
if so he appears never to have been consecrated; at least his 
name is not in any authentic list of those who have occupied 
that see. The year of his death is unknown. 

For some account of the Decretum Gratiani and its history see 
CANON LAW. The best edition is that of Friedberg (Corpus juris 
canonici, Leipzig, 1879). Compare Schultze, Zur Geschichte der 
Litteratur uber das Decret Gratians (1870), Die Glosse zum Decret 
Gratians (1872), and Geschichte der Quellen und Litteratur des kano- 
nischen Rechts (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1875). 

GRATRY, AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE (1805-1872), 
French author and theologian, was born at Lille on the loth of 
March 1805. He was educated at the ficole Polytechnique, 
Paris, and, after a period of mental struggle which he has 
described in Souvenirs de ma jeunesse, he was ordained priest 
in 1832. After a stay at Strassburg as professor of the Petit 
Seminaire, he was appointed director of the College Stanislas 
in Paris in 1842 and, in 1847, chaplain of the ficole Normale 
Superieure. He became vicar-general of Orleans in 1861, 
professor of ethics at the Sorbonne in 1862, and, on the death of 
Barante, a member of the French Academy in 1867, where he 
occupied the seat formerly held by Voltaire. Together with M. 
Petetot, cure of Saint Roch, he reconstituted the Oratory of the 
Immaculate Conception, a society of priests mainly devoted to 
education. Gratry was one of the principal opponents of the 
definition of the dogma of papal infallibility, but in this respect 
he submitted to the authority of the Vatican Council. He died 
at Montreux in Switzerland on the 6th of February 1872. 

His chief works are: De la connaissance de Dieu, opposing 
Positivism (1855); La Logique (1856); Les Sources, conseils pour 
la conduite de I'esprit (1861-1862); La Philpsophie du credo (1861); 
Commentaire sur I'evangile de Saint Matthieu (1863); Jesus-Christ, 
lettres a M. Renan (1864) ; Les Sophistes et la critique (in controversy 
with E. Vacherot) (1864); La Morale et la hi de I'histoire, setting 
forth his social views (1868); Mgr. I'eveque d' Orleans et Mgr. 
Varcheveque de Malines (1869), containing a clear exposition of the 
historical arguments against the doctrine of papal infallibility. 
There is a selection of Gratry's writings and appreciation of his style 
by the Abb6 Pichot, in Pages choisies des Grands Ecrivains series, 
published by Armand-Colin (1897). See also the critical study by 
the oratorian A. Chauvin, L'Abbe Gratry (1901); Le Pere Gratry 
(1900), and Les Derniers Jours du Pere Gratry et son testament spirituel, 
(1872), by Cardinal Adolphe Perraud, Gratry's friend and disciple. 

GRATTAN, HENRY (1746-1820), Irish statesman, son of 
James Grattan, for many years recorder of Dublin, was born 
in Dublin on the 3rd of July 1746. He early gave evidence 
of exceptional gifts both of intellect and character. At 
Trinity College, Dublin, where he had a distinguished career, he 
began a lifelong devotion to classical literature and especially 
to the great orators of antiquity. He was called to the Irish 
bar in 1772, but never seriously practised the law. Like Flood, 
with whom he was on terms of friendship, he cultivated his 
natural genius for eloquence by study of good models, including 
Bolingbroke and Junius. A visit to the English House of Lords 
excited boundless admiration for Lord Chatham, of whose style 
of oratory Grattan contributed an interesting description to 
Baratariana (see FLOOD, HENRY). The influence of Flood did 
much to give direction to Grattan's political aims; and it was 
through no design on Grattan's part that when Lord Charlemont 
brought him into the Irish parliament in 1775, in the very session 
in which Flood damaged his popularity by accepting office, 
Grattan quickly superseded his friend in the leadership of the 
national party. Grattan was well qualified for it. His oratorical 
powers were unsurpassed among his contemporaries. He 
conspicuously lacked, indeed, the grace of gesture which he so 
much admired in Chatham; he had not the sustained dignity 
of Pitt; his powers of close reasoning were inferior to those of 
Fox and Flood. But his speeches were packed with epigram, 
and expressed with rare felicity of phrase; his terse and telling 
sentences were richer in profound aphorisms and maxims of 
political philosophy than those of any other statesman save 



Burke; he possessed the orator's incomparable gift of conveying 
bis own enthusiasm to his audience and convincing them of the 
loftiness of his aims. 

The principal object of the national party was to set the Irish 
parliament free from constitutional bondage to the English 
privy council. By virtue of Poyning's Act, a celebrated statute 
of Henry VII., all proposed Irish legislation had to be submitted 
to the English privy council for its approval under the great 
seal of England before being passed by the Irish parliament. 
A bill so approved might be accepted or rejected, but not 
amended. More recent English acts had further emphasized 
the complete dependence of the Irish parliament, and the 
appellate jurisdiction of the Irish House of Lords had also been 
annulled. Moreover, the English Houses claimed and exercised 
the power to legislate directly for Ireland without even the 
nominal concurrence of the parliament in Dublin. This was 
the constitution which Molyneux and Swift had denounced, 
which Flood had attacked, and which Grattan was to destroy. 
The menacing attitude of the Volunteer Convention at Dungannon 
greatly influenced the decision of the government in 1782 to 
resist the agitation no longer. It was through ranks of volunteers 
drawn up outside the parliament house in Dublin that Grattan 
passed on the i6th of April 1782, amidst unparalleled popular 
enthusiasm, to move a declaration of the independence of the 
Irish parliament. " I found Ireland on her knees," Grattan 
exclaimed, " I watched over her with a paternal solicitude; 
I have traced her progress from injuries to arms, and from arms 
to liberty. Spirit of Swift, spirit of Molyneux, your genius has 
prevailed! Ireland is now a nation!" After a month of 
negotiation the claims of Ireland were conceded. The gratitude 
of his countrymen to Grattan found expression in a parliamentary 
grant of 100,000, which had to be reduced by one half before 
he would consent to accept it. 

One of the first acts of " Grattan's parliament " was to prove 
its loyalty to England by passing a vote for the support of 
20,000 sailors for the navy. Grattan himself never failed in 
loyalty to the crown and the English connexion. He was, 
however, anxious for moderate parliamentary reform, and, 
unlike Flood, he favoured Catholic emancipation. It was, 
indeed, evident that without reform the Irish House of Commons 
would not be able to make much use of its newly won independence. 
Though now free from constitutional control it was no less subject 
than before to the influence of corruption, which the English 
government had wielded through the Irish borough owners, 
known as the " undertakers," or more directly through the great 
executive officers. " Grattan's parliament " had no control 
over the Irish executive. The lord lieutenant and his chief 
secretary continued to be appointed by the English ministers; 
their tenure of office depended on the vicissitudes of English, 
not Irish, party politics; the royal prerogative was exercised 
in Ireland on the advice of English ministers. The House of 
Commons was in no sense representative of the Irish people. 
The great majority of the people were excluded as Roman 
Catholics from the franchise; two-thirds of the members of 
the House of Commons were returned by small boroughs at the 
absolute disposal of single patrons, whose support was bought 
by a lavish distribution of peerages and pensions. It was to 
give stability and true independence to the new constitution 
that Grattan pressed for reform. Having quarrelled with Flood 
over " simple repeal " Grattan also differed from him on the 
question of maintaining the Volunteer Convention. He opposed 
the policy of protective duties, but supported Pitt's famous 
commercial propositions in 1785 for establishing free trade 
between Great Britain and Ireland, which, however, had to be 
abandoned owing to the hostility of the English mercantile 
classes. In general Grattan supported the government for a 
time after 1782, and in particular spoke and voted for the 
stringent coercive legislation rendered necessary by the Whiteboy 
outrages in 1785; but as the years passed without Pitt's 
personal favour towards parliamentary reform bearing fruit 
in legislation, he gravitated towards the opposition, agitated 
for commutation of tithes in Ireland, and supported the Whigs 



3 8o 



GRATTAN 



on the regency question in 1788. In 1792 he succeeded in 
carrying an Act conferring the franchise on the Roman Catholics; 
in 1794 in conjunction with William Ponsonby he introduced 
a reform bill which was even less democratic than Flood's bill 
of 1783. He was as anxious as Flood had been to retain the 
legislative power in the hands of men of property, for " he had 
through the whole of his life a strong conviction that while 
Ireland could best be governed by Irish hands, democracy in 
Ireland would inevitably turn to plunder and anarchy." * At 
the same time he desired to admit the Roman Catholic gentry 
of property to membership of the House of Commons, a proposal 
that was the logical corollary of the Relief Act of 1792. The 
defeat of Grattan's mild proposals helped to promote more 
extreme opinions, which, under French revolutionary influence, 
were now becoming heard in Ireland. 

The Catholic question had rapidly become of the first im- 
portance, and when a powerful section of the Whigs joined 
Pitt's ministry in 1794, and it became known that the lord- 
lieutenancy was to go to Lord Fitzwilliam, who shared Grattan's 
views, expectations were raised that the question was about to 
be settled in a manner satisfactory to the Irish Catholics. Such 
seems to have been Pitt's intention, though there has been much 
controversy as to how far Lord Fitzwilliam (<?..) had been 
authorized to pledge the government. After taking Grattan 
into his confidence, it was arranged that the latter should bring 
in a Roman Catholic emancipation bill, and that it should then 
receive government support. But finally it appeared that the 
viceroy had either misunderstood or exceeded his instructions; 
and on the igth of February 1795 Fitzwilliam was recalled. 
In the outburst of indignation, followed by increasing disaffec- 
tion in Ireland, which this event produced, Grattan acted with 
conspicuous moderation and loyalty, which won for him warm 
acknowledgments from a member of the English cabinet. 2 
That cabinet, however, doubtless influenced by the wishes of 
the king, was now determined firmly to resist the Catholic 
demands, with the result that the country rapidly drifted to- 
wards rebellion. Grattan warned the government in a series 
of masterly speeches of the lawless condition to which Ireland 
had been driven. But he could now count on no more than 
some forty followers in the House of Commons, and his words 
were unheeded. He retired from parliament in May 1797, and 
departed from his customary moderation by attacking the govern- 
ment in an inflammatory "Letter to the citizens of Dublin." 

At this time religious animosity had almost died out in Ireland, 
and men of different faiths were ready to combine for common 
political objects. Thus the Presbyterians of the north, who were 
mainly republican in sentiment, combined with, a section of the 
Roman Catholics to form the organization of the United Irishmen, 
to promote revolutionary ideas imported from France; and a 
party prepared to welcome a French invasion soon came into 
existence. Thus stimulated, the increasing disaffection cul- 
minated in the rebellion of 1798, which was sternly and cruelly 
repressed. No sooner was this effected than the project of a 
legislative union between the British and Irish parliaments, 
which had been from time to time discussed since the beginning 
of the 1 8th century, was taken up in earnest by Pitt's govern- 
ment. Grattan from the first denounced the scheme with 
implacable hostility. There was, however, much to be said in 
its favour. The constitution of Grattan's parliament offered no 
security, as the differences over the regency question had made 
evident that in matters of imperial interest the policy of the 
Irish parliament and that of Great Britain would be in agreement; 
and at a moment when England was engaged in a life and death 
struggle with France it was impossible for the ministry to ignore 
the danger, which had so recently been emphasized by the fact 
that the independent constitution of 1782 had offered no safe- 
guard against armed revolt. The rebellion put an end to the 
growing reconciliation between Roman Catholics and Protestants ; 
religious passions were now violently inflamed, and the Orange- 
men and Catholics divided the island into two hostile factions. 

1 W. E. H. Lecky, Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland, i. 127 
(enlarged edition, 2 vols., 1903). 2 Ibid. i. 204. 



It is a curious circumstance, in view of the subsequent history of 
Irish politics, that it was from the Protestant Established 
Church, and particularly from the Orangemen, that the bitterest 
opposition to the union proceeded; and that the proposal 
found support chiefly among the Roman Catholic clergy and 
especially the bishops, while in no part of Ireland was it received 
with more favour than in the city of Cork. This attitude of the 
Catholics was caused by Pitt's encouragement of the expectation 
that Catholic emancipation, the commutation of tithes, and the 
endowment of the Catholic priesthood, would accompany or 
quickly follow the passing of the measure. 

When in 1 799 the government brought forward their bill it 
was defeated in the Irish House of Commons. Grattan was still 
in retirement. His popularity had temporarily declined, and 
the fact that his proposals for parliamentary reform and Catholic 
emancipation had become the watchwords of the rebellious 
United Irishmen had brought upon him the bitter hostility of 
the governing classes. He was dismissed from the privy council; 
his portrait was removed from the hall of Trinity College; the 
Merchant Guild of Dublin struck his name off their rolls. But 
the threatened destruction of the constitution of 1782 quickly 
restored its author to his former place in the affections of the 
Irish people. The parliamentary recess had been effectually 
employed by the government in securing by lavish corruption a 
majority in favour of their policy. On the isth of January 
1800 the Irish parliament met for its last session; on the same 
day Grattan secured by purchase a seat for Wicklow; and at a 
late hour, while the debate was proceeding, he appeared to take 
his seat. "There was a moment's pause, an electric thrill passed 
through the House, and a long wild cheer burst from the 
galleries." 3 Enfeebled by illness, Grattan's strength gave way 
when he rose to speak, and he obtained leave to address the House 
sitting. Nevertheless his speech was a superb effort of oratory; 
for more than two hours he kept his audience spellbound by a 
flood of epigram, of sustained reasoning, of eloquent appeal. 
After prolonged debates Grattan, on the 26th of May, spoke 
finally against the committal of the bill, ending with an im- 
passioned peroration in which he declared, " I will remain 
anchored here with fidelity to the fortunes of my country, 
faithful to her freedom, faithful to her fall." 4 These were the 
last words spoken by Grattan in the Irish parliament. 

The bill establishing the union was carried through its final 
stages by substantial majorities. The people remained listless, 
giving no indications of any eager dislike of the government 
policy. "There were absolutely none of the signs which are 
invariably found when a nation struggles passionately against 
what it deems an impending tyranny, or rallies around some 
institution which it really loves." 6 One of Grattan's main 
grounds of opposition to the union had been his dread of seeing 
the political leadership in Ireland pass out of the hands of the 
landed gentry; and he prophesied that the time would come 
when Ireland would send to the united parliament " a hundred 
of the greatest rascals in the kingdom." 6 Like Flood before him, 
Grattan had no leaning towards democracy; and he anticipated 
that by the removal of the centre of political interest from Ireland 
the evil of absenteeism would be intensified. 

For the next five years Grattan took no active part in public 
affairs; it was not till 1805 that he became a member of the 
parliament of the United Kingdom. He modestly took his seat 
on one of the back benches, till Fox brought him forward to a 
seat near his own, exclaiming, " This is no place for the Irish 
Demosthenes ! " His first speech was on the Catholic question, 
and though some doubt had been felt lest Grattan, like Flood, 
should belie at Westminster the reputation made in Dublin, all 
agreed with the description of his speech by the Annual Register 
as " one of the most brilliant and eloquent ever pronounced 
within the walls of parliament." When Fox and Grenville 
came into power in 1806 Grattan was offered, but refused to 

8 Ibid. i. 241. 4 Grattan's Speeches, iv. 23. 

6 W. E. H. Lecky, History of England in the Eighteenth Century, 
viii. 491. Cf. Cornwallis Correspondence, iii. 250. 

6 W. E. H. Lecky, Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland, i. 270. 



GRATTIUS GRAUN 



accept, an office in the government. In the following year he 
showed the strength of his judgment and character by supporting, 
in spite of consequent unpopularity in Ireland, a measure for 
increasing the powers of the executive to deal with Irish disorder. 
Roman Catholic emancipation, which he continued to advocate 
with unflagging energy though now advanced in age, became 
complicated after 1808 by the question whether a veto on the 
appointment of Roman Catholic bishops should rest with the 
crown. Grattan supported the veto, but a more extreme Catholic 
party was now arising in Ireland under the leadership of Daniel 
O'Connell, and Grattan's influence gradually declined. He 
seldom spoke in parliament after 1810, the most notable excep- 
tion being in 1815, when he separated himself from the Whigs 
and supported the final struggle against Napoleon. His last 
speech of all, in 1819, contained a passage referring to the union 
he had so passionately resisted, which exhibits the statesmanship 
and at the same time the equable quality of Grattan's character. 
His sentiments with regard to the policy of the union remained, 
he said, unchanged; but "the marriage having taken place it is 
now the duty, as it ought to be the inclination, of every individual 
to render it as fruitful, as profitable and as advantageous as 
possible." In the following summer, after crossing from Ireland 
to London when out of health to bring forward the Catholic 
question once more, he became seriously ill. On his death-bed 
he spoke generously of Castlereagh, and with warm eulogy of 
his former rival, Flood. He died on the 6th of June 1820, and 
was buried in Westminster Abbey close to the tombs of Pitt and 
Fox. His statue is in the outer lobby of the Houses of Parliament 
at Westminster. Grattan had married in 1782 Henrietta Fitz- 
gerald, a lady descended from the ancient family of Desmond, 
by whom he had two sons and two daughters. 

The most searching scrutiny of his private life only increases the 
respect due to the memory of Grattan as a statesman and the 
greatest of Irish orators. His patriotism was untainted by self- 
seeking; he was courageous in risking his popularity for what his 
sound judgment showed him to be the right course. As Sydney 
Smith said with truth of Grattan soon after his death: " No 
government ever dismayed him. The world could not bribe 
him. He thought only of Ireland; lived for no other object; 
dedicated to her his beautiful fancy, his elegant wit, his manly 
courage, and all the splendour of his astonishing eloquence." * 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Henry Grattan, Memoirs of the Life and Times of 
the Right Hon. H. Grattan (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); Grattan's 
Speeches (ed. by H. Grattan, junr., 1822); Irish Parl. Debates; 
W. E. H. Lecky, History of England in the Eighteenth Century (8 vols., 
London, 1878-1890) and Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland 
(enlarged edition, 2 vols., 1903). For the controversy concerning the 
recall of Lord Fitzwilliam see, in addition to the foregoing, Lord 
Rosebery, Pitt (London, 1891); Lord Ashbourne, Pitt: Some 
Chapters of his Life (London, 1898); The Pelham Papers (Brit. Mus. 
Add. MSS., 33118); Carlisle Correspondence; Beresford Correspond- 
ence; Stanhope Miscellanies; for the Catholic question, W. I. 
Amhurst, History of Catholic Emancipation (2 vols., London, 1886); 
Sir Thomas Wyse, Historical Sketch of the late Catholic Association 
of Ireland (London, 1829); W. J. MacNeven, Pieces of Irish History 
(New York, 1807) containing an account of the United Irishmen; 
for the volunteer movement Thomas MacNevin, History of the 
Volunteers of 1782 (Dublin, 1845); Proceedings of the Volunteer 
Delegates of Ireland 1784 (Anon. Pamph. Brit. Mus.). See also F. 
Hardy, Memoirs of Lord Charlemont (London, 1812); Warden 
Flood, Memoirs of Henry Flood (London, 1838); Francis Plowden, 
Historical Review of the State of Ireland (London, 1803); Alfred 
Webb, Compendium of Irish Biography (Dublin, 1878); Sir Jonah 
Barrington, Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation (London, 1833); W. J. 
O'Neill Daunt, Ireland and her Agitators; Lord Mountmorres, 
History of the Irish Parliament (2 vols., London, 1792); Horace 
Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of George III. (4 vols., London, 1845 
and 1894); Lord Stanhope, Life of William Pitt (4 vols., London, 
1861); Thomas Davis, Life of J. P. Curran (Dublin, 1846) this 
contains a memoir of Grattan by D. O. Madden, and Grattan's reply 
to Lord Clare on the question of the Union ; Char|es Phillips, Recollec- 
tions of Curran and some of his Contemporaries (London, 1822); 
J.A.Froude, The English in Ireland (London, 1881); J.G. McCarthy, 
Henry Grattan: an Historical Study (London, 1886); Lord Mahon's 
History of England, vol. vii. (1858). With special reference to the 
Union see Castlereagh Correspondence; Cornwallis Correspondence; 
Westmorland Papers (Irish State Paper Office). (R. J. M.) 

'Sydney Smith's Works, ii. 166-167. 



GRATTIUS [FALISCUS], Roman poet, of the age of Augustus, 
author of a poem on hunting (Cynegelica), of which 541 hexa- 
meters remain. He was possibly a native of Falerii. The only 
reference to him in any ancient writer is incidental (Ovid, Ex 
Ponlo, iv. 16. 33). He describes various kinds of game, methods 
of hunting, the best breeds of horses and dogs. 

There are editions by R. Stern (1832); E. Bah'rens in Poetae 
Latini Minores (i., 1879) and G. G. Curcio in Poeti Latini Minori (i., 
1902), with bibliography; see also H. Schenkl, Zur Kritik des G. 
(1898). There is a translation by Christopher Wase (1654). 

GRAUDENZ (Polish Grudziadz), a town in the kingdom of 
Prussia, province of West Prussia, on the right bank of the 
Vistula, 18 m. S.S.W. of Marienwerder and 37 m. by rail N.N.E. 
of Thorn. Pop. (1885) 17,336, (1905) 35,988. It has two Pro- 
testant and three Roman Catholic churches, and a synagogue. 
It is a place of considerable manufacturing activity. The town 
possesses a museum and a monument to Guillaume Rene Cour- 
biere (1733-1811), the defender of the town in 1807. It has 
fine promenades along the bank of the Vistula. Graudenz is 
an important place in the German system of fortifications, and 
has a garrison of considerable size. 

Graudenz was founded about 1250, and received civic rights in 
1291. At the peace of Thorn in 1466 it came under the lordship 
of Poland. From 1665 to 1759 it was held by Sweden, and in 
1772 it came into the possession of Prussia. The fortress of 
Graudenz, which since 1873 has been used as a barracks and 
a military depot and prison, is situated on a steep eminence about 
i \ m. north of the town and outside its limits. It was completed 
by Frederick the Great in 1776, and was rendered famous 
through its defence by Courbiere against the French in 1807. 

GRAUN, CARL HEINRICH (1701-1759), German musical 
composer, the youngest of three brothers, all more or less musical, 
was born on the 7th of May 1701 at Wahrenbriick in Saxony. 
His father held a small government post and he gave his children 
a careful education. Graun's beautiful soprano voice secured 
him an appointment in the choir at Dresden. At an early age he 
composed a number of sacred cantatas and other pieces for the 
church service. He completed his studies under Johann Christoph 
Schmidt (1664-1728), and profited much by the Italian operas 
which were performed at Dresden under the composer Lotti. 
After his voice had changed to a tenor, he made his debut at 
the opera of Brunswick, in a work by Schiirmann, an inferior 
composer of the day ; but not being satisfied with the arias assigned 
him he re-wrote them, so much to the satisfaction of the court 
that he was commissioned to write an opera for the next season. 
This work, Polydorus (1726), and five other operas written for 
Brunswick, spread his fame all over Germany. Other works, 
mostly of a sacred character, including two settings of the 
Passion, also belong to the Brunswick period. Frederick the 
Great, at that time crown prince of Prussia, heard the singer in 
Brunswick in 1735, and immediately engaged him for his private 
chapel at Rheinsberg. There Graun remained for five years, 
and wrote a number of cantatas, mostly to words written by 
Frederick himself in French, and translated into Italian by 
Boltarelli. On his accession to the throne in 1740, Frederick 
sent Graun to Italy to engage singers for a new opera to be 
established at Berlin. Graun remained a year on his travels, 
earning universal applause as a singer in the chief cities of Italy. 
After his return to Berlin he was appointed conductor of the 
royal orchestra (Kapellmeister) with a salary of 2000 thalers 
(300). In this capacity he wrote twenty-eight operas, all to 
Italian words, of which the last, Merope (1756), is perhaps the 
most perfect. It is probable that Graun was subjected to con- 
siderable humiliation from the arbitrary caprices of his royal 
master, who was never tired of praising the operas of Hasse and 
abusing those of his Kapellmeister. In his oratorio The Death 
of Jesus Graun shows his skill as a contrapuntist, and his origin- 
ality of melodious invention. In the Italian operas he imitates 
the florid style of his time, but even in these the recitatives 
occasionally show considerable dramatic power. Graun died 
on the 8th of August 1759, at Berlin, in the same house in which, 
thirty-two years later, Meyerbeer was born. 



3 82 



GRAVAMEN GRAVELINES 



GRAVAMEN (from Lat. gravare, to weigh down; gravis, 
heavy), a complaint or grievance, the ground of a legal action, 
and particularly the more serious part of a charge against an 
accused person. In English the term is used chiefly in ecclesi- 
astical cases, being the technical designation of a memorial 
presented from the Lower to the Upper House of Convocation, 
setting forth grievances to be redressed, or calling attention to 
breaches in church discipline. 

GRAVE, (i) (From a common Teutonic verb, meaning " to 
dig "; in O. Eng. grafan; cf. Dutch graven, Ger. graberi), a place 
dug out of the earth in which a dead body is laid for burial, and 
hence any place of burial, not necessarily an excavation (see 
FUNERAL RITES and BURIAL). The verb " to grave," meaning 
properly to dig, is particularly used of the making of incisions 
in a hard surface (see ENGRAVING). (2) A title, now obsolete, 
of a local administrative official for a township in certain parts 
of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire; it also sometimes appears in the 
form " grieve," which in Scotland and Northumberland is used 
for sheriff (q.v.), and also for a bailiff or under-steward. The 
origin of the word is obscure, but it is probably connected with 
the German graf, count, and thus appears as the second part of 
many Teutonic titles, such as landgrave, burgrave and margrave. 
" Grieve," on the other hand, seems to be the northern repre- 
sentative of O.E. gerefa, reeve; cf. " sheriff " and " count." 
(3) (From the Lat. grams, heavy), weighty, serious, particularly 
with the idea of dangerous, as applied to diseases and the like, 
of character or temperament as opposed to gay. It is also applied 
to sound, low or deep, and is thus opposed to " acute." In 
music the term is adopted from the French and Italian, and 
applied to a movement which is solemn or slow. (4) To clean a 
snip's bottom in a specially constructed dock, called a " graving 
dock." The origin of the word is obscure; according to the 
New English Dictionary there is no foundation for the connexion 
with " greaves " or " graves," the refuse of tallow, in candle or 
soap-making, supposed to be used in " graving " a ship. It may 
be connected with an O. Fr. grave, mod. greve, shore. 

GRAVEL, or PEBBLE BEDS, the name given to deposits of 
rounded, subangular, water-worn stones, mingled with finer 
material such as sand and clay. The word " gravel " is adapted 
from the O. Fr. gravele, mod. gravelle, dim. of grave, coarse sand, 
sea-shore, Mod. Fr. greve. The deposits are produced by the 
attrition of rock fragments by moving water, the waves and 
tides of the sea and the flow of rivers. Extensive beds of gravel 
are forming at the present time on many parts of the British 
coasts where suitable rocks are exposed to the attack of the 
atmosphere and of the sea waves during storms. The flint 
gravels of the coast of the Channel, Norfolk, &c., are excellent 
examples. When the sea is rough the lesser stones are washed up 
and down the beach by each wave, and in this way are rounded, 
worn down and finally reduced to sand. These gravels are 
constantly in movement, being urged forward by the shore 
currents especially during storms. Large banks of gravel may 
be swept away in a single night, and in this way the coast is laid 
bare to the erosive action of the sea. Moreover, the movement 
of the gravel itself wears down the subjacent rocks. Hence in 
many places barriers have been erected to prevent the drift of 
the pebbles and preserve the land, while often it has been found 
necessary to protect the shores by masonry or cement work. 
Where the pebbles are swept along to a projecting cape they may 
be carried onwards and form a long spit or submarine bank, 
which is constantly reduced in size by the currents and tides 
which flow across it (e.g. Spurn Head at the mouth of the 
Humber). The Chesil Bank is the best instance in Britain of 
a great accumulation of pebbles constantly urged forward by 
storms in a definite direction. In the shallower parts of the North 
Sea considerable areas are covered with coarse sand and pebbles. 
In deeper water, however, as in the Atlantic, beyond the 100 
fathom line pebbles are very rare, and those which are found 
are mostly erratics carried southward by floating icebergs, or 
volcanic rocks ejected by submarine volcanoes. 

In many parts of Britain, Scandinavia and North America 
there are marine gravels, in every essential resembling those of 



the sea-shore, at levels considerably above high tide. These 
gravels often lie in flat-topped terraces which may be traced 
for great distances along the coast. They are indications that 
the sea at one time stood higher than it does at present, and 
are known to geologists as " raised beaches." In Scotland such 
beaches are known 25, 50 and 100 ft. above the present shores. 
In exposed situations they have old shore cliffs behind them; 
although their deposits are mainly gravelly there is much fine 
sand and silt in the raised beaches of sheltered estuaries and near 
river mouths. 

River gravels occur most commonly in the middle and upper 
parts of streams where the currents in times of flood are strong 
enough to transport fairly large stones. In deltas and the lower 
portions of large rivers gravel deposits are comparatively rare 
and indicate periods when the volume of the stream was tem- 
porarily greatly increased. In the higher torrents also, gravels 
are rare because transport is so effective that no considerable 
accumulations can form. In most countries where the drainage 
is of a mature type, river gravels occur in the lower parts of the 
courses of the rivers as banks or terraces which lie some distance 
above the stream level. Individual terraces usually do not 
persist for a long space but are represented by a series of benches 
at about the same altitude. These were once continuous, and 
have been separated by the stream cutting away the intervening 
portions as it deepened and broadened its channel. Terraces 
of this kind often occur in successive series at different heights, 
and the highest are the oldest because they were laid down at 
a time when the stream flowed at their level and mark the 
various stages by which the valley has been eroded. While 
marine terraces are nearly always horizontal, stream terraces 
slope downwards along the course of the river. 

The extensive deposits of river gravels in many parts of 
England, France, Switzerland, North America, &c., would 
indicate that at some former time the rivers flowed in greater 
volume than at the present day. This is believed to be connected 
with the glacial epoch and the augmentation of the streams 
during those periods when the ice was melting away. Many 
changes in drainage have taken place since then; consequently 
wide sheets of glacial and fluvio-glacial gravel lie spread out 
where at present there is no stream. Often they are commingled 
with sand, and where there were temporary post-glacial lakes 
deposits of silt, brick clay and mud have been formed. These 
may be compared to the similar deposits now forming in Green- 
land, Spitzbergen and other countries which are at present in a 
glacial condition. 

As a rule gravels consist mainly of the harder kinds of stone 
because these alone can resist attrition. Thus the gravels formed 
from chalk consist almost entirely of flint, which is so hard that 
the chalk is ground to powder and washed away, while the flint 
remains little affected. Other hard rocks such as chert, quartzite, 
felsite, granite, sandstone and volcanic rocks very frequently 
are largely represented in gravels, while coal, limestone and 
shale are far less common. The size of the pebbles varies from a 
fraction of an inch to several feet; it depends partly on the 
fissility of the original rocks and partly on the strength of the 
currents of water; coarse gravels indicate the action of powerful 
eroding agents. In the Tertiary systems gravels occur on many 
horizons, e.g. the Woolwich and Reading beds, Oldhaven beds 
and Bagshot beds of the Eocene of the London basin. They do 
not essentially differ from recent gravel deposits. But in course 
of time the action of percolating water assisted by pressure tends 
to convert gravels in to firm masses of conglomerate by depositing 
carbonate of lime, silica and other substances in their interstices. 
Gravels are not usually so fossiliferous as finer deposits of the 
same age, partly because their porous texture enables organic 
remains to be dissolved away by water, and partly because 
shells and other fossils are comparatively fragile and would be 
broken up during the accumulation of the pebbles. The rock 
fragments in conglomerates, however, sometimes contain fossils 
which have not been found elsewhere. (J. S. F.) 

GRAVELINES (Flem. Gravelinghe), a fortified seaport town of 
northern France, in the department of Nord and arrondissement 



GRAVELOTTE GRAVINA 



3*3 



of Dunkirk, 15 m. S.W. of Dunkirk on the railway to 
Calais. Pop. (1906) town, 1858; commune, 6284. Gravelines 
is situated on the Aa, ij m. from its mouth in the North Sea. 
It is surrounded by a double circuit of ramparts and by a tidal 
moat. The river is canalized and opens out beneath the fortifica- 
tions into a floating basin. The situation of the port is one of 
the best in France on the North Sea, though its trade has suffered 
owing to the nearness of Calais and Dunkirk and the silting up 
of the channel to the sea. It is a centre for the cod and herring 
fisheries. Imports consist chiefly of timber from Northern 
Europe and coal from England, to which eggs and fruit are 
exported. Gravelines has paper-manufactories, sugar-works, 
fish-curing works, salt-refineries, chicory-roasting factories, a 
cannery for preserved peas and other vegetables and an important 
timber-yard. The harbour is accessible to vessels drawing 18 ft. 
at high tides. The greater part of the population of the commune 
of Gravelines dwells in the maritime quarter of Petit-Fort- 
Philippe at the mouth of the Aa, and in the village of Les Huttes 
(to the east of the town), which is inhabited by the fisher-folk. 

The canalization of the Aa by a count of Flanders about the 
middle of the I2th century led to the foundation of Gravelines 
(grave-linghe, meaning " count's canal."). In 1558 it was the 
scene of the signal victory of the Spaniards under the count of 
Egmont over the French. It finally passed from the Spaniards 
to the French by the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. 

GRAVELOTTE, a village of Lorraine between Metz and the 
French frontier, famous as the scene of the battle of the i8th 
of August 1870 between the Germans under King William of 
Prussia and the French under Marshal Bazaine (see METZ and 
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). The battlefield extends from the 
woods which border the Moselle above Metz to Roncourt, near 
the river Orne. Other villages which played an important part 
in the battle of Gravelotte were Saint Privat, Amanweiler or 
Amanvillers and Sainte-Marie-aux-Chenes, all lying to the N. 
of Gravelotte. 

GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846- ), Irish writer, 
was born in Dublin, the son of the bishop of Limerick. He was 
educated at Windermere College, and took high honours at 
Dublin University. In 1869 he entered the Civil Service as 
clerk in the Home Office, where he remained until he became in 
1874 an inspector of schools. He was a constant contributor of 
prose and verse to the Spectator, The Athenaeum, John Bull, and 
Punch, and took a leading part in the revival of Irish letters. 
He was for several years president of the Irish Literary Society, 
and is the author of the famous ballad of " Father O'Flynn " 
and many other songs and ballads. In collaboration with Sir 
C. V. Stanford he published Songs of Old Ireland (1882), Irish 
Songs and Ballads (1893), the airs of which are taken from the 
Petrie MSS.; the airs of his Irish Folk-Songs (1897) were arranged 
by Charles Wood, with whom he also collaborated in Songs of 
Erin (1901). 

His brother, Charles L. Graves (b. 1856), educated at Marl- 
borough and at Christ Church, Oxford, also became well known 
as a journalist, author of two volumes of parodies, The Haivarden 
Horace (1894) and More Hawarden Horace (1896), and of skits 
in prose and verse. An admirable musical critic, his Life and 
Letters of Sir George Grove (1903) is a model biography. 

GRAVESEND, a municipal and parliamentary borough, 
river-port and market town of Kent, England, on the right bank 
of the Thames opposite Tilbury Fort, 22 m. E. by S. of London 
by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 27,196. 
It extends about 2 m. along the river bank, occupying a slight 
acclivity which reaches its summit at Windmill Hill, whence 
extensive views are obtained of the river, with its windings and 
shipping. The older and lower part of the town is irregularly 
built, with narrow and inconvenient streets, but the upper and 
newer portion contains several handsome streets and terraces. 
Among several piers are the town pier, erected in 1832, and the 
terrace pier, built in 1845, at a time when local river-traffic by 
steamboat was specially prosperous. Gravesend is a favourite 
resort of the inhabitants of London, both for excursions and as 
a summer residence; it is also a favourite yachting centre. 



The principal buildings are the town-hall, the parish church of 
Gravesend, erected on the site of an ancient building destroyed 
by fire in 1727; Milton parish church, a Decorated and Perpen- 
dicular building erected in the time of Edward II.; and the 
county courts. Milton Mount College is a large institution for 
the daughters of Congregational ministers. East of the town 
are the earthworks designed to assist Tilbury Fort in obstructing 
the passage up river of an enemy's force. They were originally 
constructed on Vauban's system in the reign of Charles II. 
Rosherville Gardens, a popular resort, are in the western suburb 
of Rosherville, a residential quarter named after James Rosher, 
an owner of lime works. They were founded in 1843 by George 
Jones. Gravesend, which is within the Port of London, has some 
import trade in coal and timber, and fishing, especially of 
shrimps, is carried on extensively. The principal other industries 
are boat-building, ironfounding, brewing and soap-boiling. 
Fruit and vegetables are largely grown in the neighbourhood 
for the London market. Since 1867 Gravesend has returned a 
member to parliament, the borough including Northfleet to the 
west. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 
councillors. Area, 1259 acres. 

In the Domesday Survey " Gravesham " is entered among the 
bishop of Bayeux's lands, and a " hythe " or landing-place is 
mentioned. In 1401 Henry IV. granted the men of Gravesend 
the sole right of conveying in their own vessels all persons 
travelling between London and Gravesend, and this right was 
confirmed by Edward IV. in 1462. In 1562 the town was 
granted a charter of incorporation by Elizabeth, which vested 
the government in 2 portreeves and 12 jurats, but by a later 
charter of 1568 one portreeve was substituted for the two. 
Charles I. incorporated the town anew under the title of the 
mayor, jurats and inhabitants of Gravesend, and a further 
charter of liberties was granted by James II. in 1687. A 
Thursday market and fair on the i3th of October were granted 
to the men of Gravesend by Edward III. in 1367; Elizabeth's 
charters gave them a Wednesday market and fairs on the 24th 
of June and the i3th of October, with a court of pie-powder; 
by the charter of Charles I. Thursday and Saturday were made 
the market days, and these were changed again to Wednesday 
and Saturday by a charter of 1694, which also granted a fair 
on the 23rd of April; the fairs on these dates have died out, but 
the Saturday market is still held. 

From the beginning of the i7th century Gravesend was the 
chief station for East Indiamen; most of the ships outward 
bound from London stopped here to victual. A customs house 
was built in 1782. Queen Elizabeth established Gravesend as 
the point where the corporation of London should welcome in 
state eminent foreign visitors arriving by water. State proces- 
sions by water from Gravesend to London had previously taken 
place, as in 1522, when Henry VIII. escorted the emperor 
Charles V. A similar practice was maintained until modern 
times; as when, on the 7th of March 1863, the princess Alexandra 
was received here by the prince of Wales (King Edward VII.) 
three days before their marriage. Gravesend parish church 
contains memorials to " Princess " Pocahontas, who died when 
preparing to return home from a visit to England in 1617, and 
was buried in the old church. A memorial pulpit from the state 
of Indiana, U.S.A., made of Virginian wood, was provided in 
1904, and a fund was raised for a stained-glass window by ladies 
of the state of Virginia. 

GRAVINA, GIOVANNI VINCENZO (1664-1718), Italian 
litterateur and jurisconsult, was born at Roggiano, a small town 
near Cosenza, in Calabria, on the 2oth of January 1664. He was 
descended from a distinguished family, and under the direction 
of his maternal uncle, Gregorio Caloprese, who possessed some 
reputation as a poet and philosopher, received a learned educa- 
tion, after which he studied at Naples civil and canon law. In 
1689 he came to Rome, where in 1695 he united with several 
others of literary tastes in forming the Academy of Arcadians. 
A schism occurred in the academy in 1711, and Gravina and his 
followers founded in opposition to it the Academy of Quirina. 
From Innocent XII. Gravina received the offer of various 



384 



GRAVINA GRAVITATION 



ecclesiastical honours, but declined them from a disinclination 
to enter the clerical profession. In 1699 he was appointed to 
the chair of civil law in the college of La Sapienza, and in 1703 
he was transferred to the chair of canon law. He died at Rome 
on the 6th of January 1718. He was the adoptive father of 
Metastasio. 

Gravina is the author of a number of works of great erudition, the 
principal being his Origines juris civilis, completed in 3 vpls. (1713) 
and his De Romano imperio (1712). A French translation of the 
former appeared in 1775, of which a second edition was published 
in 1822. His collected works were published at Leipzig in 1737, 
and at Naples, with notes by Mascovius, in 1756. 

GRAVINA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the 
province of Bari, from which it is 63 m. S.W. by rail (29 m. direct), 
1148 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 18,197. The town is 
probably of medieval origin, though some conjecture that it 
occupies the site of the ancient Blera, a post station on the Via 
Appia. The cathedral is a basilica of the i5th century. The 
town is surrounded with walls and towers, and a castle of the 
emperor Frederick II. rises above the town, which later belonged 
to the Orsini, dukes of Gravina; just outside it are dwellings 
and a church (S. Michele) all hewn in the rock, and now 
abandoned. 

Prehistoric remains in the district (remains of ancient settlements, 
tumuli, &c.) are described by V. di Cicco in Notizie degli scam 
(1901), p. 217. 

GRAVITATION (from Lat. grams, heavy), in physical science, 
that mutual action between masses of matter by virtue of which 
every such mass tends toward every other with a force varying 
directly as the product of the masses and inversely as the square 
of their distances apart. Although the law was first clearly and 
rigorously formulated by Sir Isaac Newton, the fact of the 
action indicated by it was more or less clearly seen by others. 
Even Ptolemy had a vague conception of a force tending toward 
the centre of the earth which not only kept bodies upon its 
surface, but in some way upheld the order of the universe. John 
Kepler inferred that the planets move in their orbits under some 
influence or force exerted by the sun; but the laws of motion 
were not then sufficiently developed, nor were Kepler's ideas of 
force sufficiently clear, to admit of a precise statement of the 
nature of the force. C. Huygens and R. Hooke, contemporaries 
of Newton, saw that Kepler's third law implied a force tending 
toward the sun which, acting on the several planets, varied 
inversely as the square of the distance. But two requirements 
necessary to generalize the theory were still wanting. One was 
to show that the law of the inverse square not only represented 
Kepler's third law, but his first two laws also. The other was to 
show that the gravitation of the earth, following one and the 
same law with that of the sun, extended to the moon. Newton's 
researches showed that the attraction of the earth on the moon 
was the same as that for bodies at the earth's surface, only 
reduced in the inverse square of the moon's distance from the 
earth's centre. He also showed that the total gravitation of 
the earth, assumed as spherical, on external bodies, would be 
the same as if the earth's mass were concentrated in the centre. 
This led at once to the statement of the law in its most general 
form. 

The law of gravitation is unique among the laws of nature, 
not only in its wide generality, taking the whole universe in its 
scope, but in the fact that, so far as yet known, it is absolutely 
unmodified by any condition or cause whatever. All other forms 
of action between masses of matter, vary with circumstances. 
The mutual action of electrified bodies, for example, is affected 
by their relative or absolute motion. But no conditions to 
which matter has ever been subjected, or under which it has 
ever been observed, have been found to influence its gravitation 
in the slightest degree. We might conceive the rapid motions 
of the heavenly bodies to result in some change either in the 
direction or amount of their gravitation towards each other at 
each moment; but such is not the case, even in the most rapidly 
moving bodies of the solar system. The question has also been 
raised whether the action of gravitatiori is absolutely instant- 
aneous. If not, the action would not be exactly in the line 



adjoining the two bodies at the instant, but would be affected 
by the motion of the line joining them during the time required 
by the force to pass from one body to the other. The result of 
this would be seen in the motions of the planets around the sun; 
but the most refined observations show no such effect. 'It is 
also conceivable that bodies might gravitate differently at 
different temperatures. But the most careful researches have 
failed to show any apparent modification produced in this way 
except what might be attributed 1 to the surrounding conditions. 
The most recent and exhaustive experiment was that of J. H. 
Poynting and P. Phillips (Proc. Roy. Soc., 76*., p. 445). The 
result was that the change, if any, was less than -fa of the force 
for one degree change of temperature, a result too minute to be 
established by any measures. 

Another cause which might be supposed to modify the action 
of gravitation between two bodies would be the interposition of 
masses of matter between them, a cause which materially 
modifies the action of electrified bodies. The question whether 
this cause modifies gravitation admits of an easy test from 
observation. If it did, then a portion of the earth's mass or of 
that of any other planet turned away from the sun would not be 
subjected to the same action of the sun as if directly exposed to 
that action. Great masses, as those of the great planets, would 
not be attracted with a force proportional to the mass because 
of the hindrance or other effect of the interposed portions. 
But not the slightest modification due to this cause is shown. 
The general conclusion from everything we see is that a mass of 
matter in Australia attracts a mass in London precisely as it 
would if the earth were not interposed between the two masses. 

We must therefore regard the law in question as the broadest 
and most fundamental one which nature makes known to us. 

It is not yet experimentally proved that variation as the 
inverse square is absolutely true at all distances. Astronomical 
observations extend over too brief a period of time to show any 
attraction between different stars except those in each other's 
neighbourhood. But this proves nothing because, in the case 
of distances so great, centuries or even thousands of years of 
accurate observation will be required to show any action. On 
the other hand the enigmatical motion of the perihelion of 
Mercury has not yet found any plausible explanation except on 
the hypothesis that the gravitation of the sun diminishes at 
a rate slightly greater than that of the inverse square the most 
simple modification being to suppose that instead of the exponent 
of the distance being exactly - 2, it is -2-000 ooo 161 2. 

The argument is extremely simple in form. It is certain that, 
in the general average, year after year, the force with which 
Mercury is drawn toward the sun does vary from the exact 
inverse square of its distance from the sun. The most plausible 
explanation of this is that one or more masses of matter move 
around the sun, whose action, whether they are inside or outside 
the orbit of Mercury, would produce the required modification in 
the force. From an investigation of all the observations upon 
Mercury and the other three interior planets, Simon Newcomb 
found it almost out of the question that any such mass of matter 
could exist without changing either the figure of the sun itself 
or the motion of the planes of the orbits of either Mercury or 
Venus. The qualification " almost " is necessary because so 
complex a system of actions comes into play, and accurate 
observations have extended through so short a period, that the 
proof cannot be regarded as absolute. But the fact that careful 
and repeated search for a mass of matter sufficient to produce 
the desired effect has been in vain, affords additional evidence of 
its non-existence. The most obvious test of the reality of the 
required modifications would be afforded by two other bodies, 
the motions of whose pericentres should be similarly affected. 
These are Mars and the moon. Newcomb found an excess of 
motions in the perihelion of Mars amounting to about 5* per 
century. But the combination of observations and theory on 
which this is based is not sufficient fully to establish so slight a 
motion. In the case of the motion of the moon around the earth, 
assuming the gravitation of the latter to be subject to the 
modification in question, the annual motion of the moon's 



GRAVITATION 



385 



perigee should be greater by 1-5" than the theoretical motion. 
E. W. Brown is the first investigator to determine the theoretical 
motions with this degree of precision; and he finds that there 
is no such divergence between the actual and the computed 
motion. There is therefore as yet no ground for regarding any 
deviation from the law of inverse square- as more than a possi- 
bility. (S. N.) 

GRAVITATION CONSTANT AND MEAN DENSITY OF THE EARTH 

The law of gravitation states that two masses Mi and M 2 , 
distant d from each other, are pulled together each with a force 
G. MI M 2 /(f, where G is a constant for all kinds of matter the 
gravitation constant. The acceleration of M 2 towards Mi or the 
force exerted on it by MI per unit of its mass is therefore GM\/d?. 
Astronomical observations of the accelerations of different 
planets towards the sun, or of different satellites towards the 
same primary, give us the most accurate confirmation of the 
distance part of the law. By comparing accelerations towards 
different bodies we obtain the ratios of the masses of those 
different bodies and, in so far as the ratios are consistent, we 
obtain confirmation of the mass part. But we only obtain the 
ratios of the masses to the mass of some one member of the 
system, say the earth. We do not find the mass in terms of 
grammes or pounds. In fact, astronomy gives us the product 
GM, but neither G nor M. For example, the acceleration of the 
earth towards the sun is about 0-6 cm/sec. 2 at a distance from 
it about isXio 12 cm. The acceleration of the moon towards 
the earth is about 0-27 cm/sec. 2 at a distance from it about 
4Xio 10 cm. If S is the mass of the sun and E the mass of the 
earth we have o-6 = GS/ (isXio 12 ) 2 and o-27 = GE/ foXio 10 ) 2 
giving us GS and GE, and the ratio S/E = 300,000 roughly; 
but we do not obtain either S or E in grammes, and we do not 
find G. 

The aim of the experiments to be described here may be 
regarded either as the determination of the mass of the earth 
in grammes, most conveniently expressed by its mass-;- its 
volume, that is by its " mean density " A, or the determination 
of the " gravitation constant " G. Corresponding to these two 
aspects of the problem there are two modes of attack. Suppose 
that a body of mass m is suspended at the earth's surface where 
it is pulled with a force w vertically downwards by the earth its 
weight. At the same time let it be pulled with a force p by a 
measurable mass M which may be a mountain, or some measur- 
able part of the earth's surface layers, or an artificially prepared 
mass brought near m, and let the pull of M be the same as if 
it were concentrated at a distance d. The earth pull may be 
regarded as the same as if the earth were all concentrated at its 
centre, distant R. 
Then w = G.jirR 3 Aj/R 2 = G.J7rRAm, . . . . (i) 

and 

p = GMm/d* ....... ( 2 ) 

By division 



If then we can arrange to observe w/p we obtain A, the'mean 
density of the earth. 

But the same observations give us G also. For, putting 
m=w/g in (2), we get 

r & P 

[= M-T 

In the second mode of attack the pull p between two artificially 
prepared measured masses Mi, M 2 is determined when they are 
a distance d apart, and since / = G.MiM 2 /'rf 2 we get at once 
G = />d 2 /MiM 2 . But we can also deduce A. For putting w=mg 
in (i) we get 



Experiments of the first class in which the pull of a known mass 
is compared with the pull of the earth maybe termed experiments 
on the mean density of the earth, while experiments of the 
second class in which the pull between two known masses is 
HI. 13 



directly measured may be termed experiments on the gravitation 
constant. 

We shall, however, adopt a slightly different classification 
for the purpose of describing methods of experiment, viz: 

1 . Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of a natural 

mass as in the Schiehallion experiment. 

2. Determination of the attraction between two artificial masses 

as in Cavendish's experiment. 

3. Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of an 

artificial mass as in experiments with the common balance. 

It is interesting to note that the possibility of gravitation 
experiments of this- kind was first considered by Newton, and 
in both of the forms (i) and (2). In the System of the World 
(3rd ed., 1737, p. 40) he calculates that the deviation by a hemi- 
spherical mountain, of the earth's density and with radius 3 m., 
on a plumb-line at its side will be less than 2 minutes. He also 
calculates (though with an error in his arithmetic) the accelera- 
tion towards each other of two spheres each a foot in diameter 
and of the earth's density, and comes to the conclusion that in 
either case the effect is too small for measurement. In the 
Principia, bk. iii., prop, x., he makes a celebrated estimate 
that the earth's mean density is five or six times that of water. 
Adopting this estimate, the deviation by an actual mountain 
or the attraction of two terrestrial spheres would be of the orders 
calculated, and regarded by Newton as immeasurably small. 

Whatever method is adopted the force to be measured is very 
minute. This may be realized if we here anticipate the results 
of the experiments, which show that in round numbers A=S-S 
and = 1/15,000,000 when the masses are in grammes and the 
distances in centimetres. 

Newton's mountain, which would probably have density about 
A/2 would deviate the plumb-line not much more than half a 
minute. Two spheres 30 cm. in diameter (about i ft.) and of 
density n (about that of lead) just not touching would pull 
each other with a force rather less than 2 dynes, and their 
acceleration would be such that they would move into contact 
if starting i cm. apart in rather over 400 seconds. 

From these examples it will be realized that in gravitation 
experiments extraordinary precautions must be adopted' to 
eliminate disturbing forces which may easily rise to be com- 
parable with the forces to be measured. We shall not attempt 
to give an account of these precautions, but only seek to set 
forth the general principles of the different experiments which 
have been made. 

I. Comparison of the Earth Pull with that of a Natural Mass. 

Bouguer's Experiments. The earliest experiments were made 
by Pierre Bouguer about 1740, and they are recorded in his 
Figure de la terre (1749). They were of two kinds. In the first 
he determined the length of the seconds pendulum, and thence 
g at different levels. Thus at Quito, which may be regarded 
as on a table-land 1466 toises (a toise is about 6-4 ft.) above 
sea-level, the seconds pendulum was less by 1/1331 than on the 
Isle of Inca at sea-level. But if there were no matter above the 
sea-level, the inverse square law would make the pendulum less 
by i/in8 at the higher level. The value of g then at the higher 
level was greater than could be accounted for by the attraction 
of an earth ending atsea-level by the difference 1/1118-1/1331 = 
1/6983, and this was put down to the attraction of the plateau 
1466 toises high; or the attraction of the whole earth was 
6983 times the attraction of the plateau. Using the rule, now 
known as " Young's rule," for the attraction of the plateau, 
Bouguer found that the density of the earth was 4-7 times that 
of the plateau, a result certainly much too large. 

In the second kind of experiment he attempted to measure 
the horizontal pull of Chimborazo, a mountain about 20,000 ft. 
high, by the deflection of a plumb-line at a station on its south 
side. Fig. i shows the principle of the method. Suppose that 
two stations are fixed, one on the side of the mountain due south 
of the summit, and the other on the same latitude but some 
distance westward, away from the influence of the mountain. 
Suppose that at the second station a star is observed to pass the 
meridian, for simplicity we will say directly overhead, then a 



386 



GRAVITATION 



I" Stihoo 
Out. South el 
SummironSlopt 



i 




" 2" 11 Station 
OutWtiUf 

fcrst Stihon 




plumb-line will hang down exactly parallel to the observing 
telescope. If the mountain were away it would also hang paralle 
to the telescope at the first station when directed to the same 
star. But the mountain pulls the plumb-line towards it anc 
the star appears to the north of the zenith and evidently 

mountain pull/earth pull = tan- 
gent of angle of displacement 
of zenith. 

Bouguer observed the meridian 
altitude of several stars at the 
two stations. There was still 
some deflection at the second 
station, a deflection which he 
estimated as 1/14 that at the 
first station, and he found on 
allowing for this that his observa- 
tions gave a deflection of 8 seconds 
at the first station. From the 
form and size of the mountain he 
found that if its density were that 
of the earth the deflection should 
be 103 seconds, or the earth was 

FIG. i.-Bouguer's Plumb- nearly f V times f dense as the 
line Experiment on the at- mountain, a result several times 
traction of Chimborazo. too large. But the work was 

carried on under enormous diffi- 
culties owing to the severity of the weather, and no exactness 
could be expected. The importance of the experiment lay in its 
proof that the method was possible. 

Maskelyne's Experiment. In 1774 Nevil Maskelyne (Phil. 
Trans., 1775, p. 495) made an experiment on the deflection of the 
plumb-line by Schiehallion, a mountain in Perthshire, which has 
a short ridge nearly east and west, and sides sloping steeply on 
the north and south. He selected two stations on the same 
meridian, one on the north, the other on the south slope, and by 
means of a zenith sector, a telescope provided with a plumb-bob, 
he determined at each station the meridian zenith distances of 
a number of stars. From a survey of the district made in the 
years 1774-1776 the geographical difference of latitude between 
the two stations was found to be 42-94 seconds, and this would 
have been the difference in the meridian zenith difference of the 
same star at the two stations had the mountain been away. 
But at the north station the plumb-bob was pulled south and the 
zenith was deflected northwards, while at the south station the 
effect was reversed. Hence the angle between the zeniths, or the 
angle between the zenith distances of the same star at the two 
stations was greater than the geographical 42-94 seconds. The 
mean of the observations gave a difference of 54-2 seconds, or 
the double deflection of, the plumb-line was 54-2-42-94, say 
11-26 seconds. 

The computation of the attraction of the mountain on the 
supposition that its density was that of the earth was made by 
Charles Button from the results of the survey (Phil. Trans., 
1778, p. 689), a computation carried out by ingenious and 
importantVmethods. He found that the deflection should have 
been greater in the ratio 17804 19933 say 9 : 5, whence the 
density of the earth comes out at 9/5 that of the mountain. 
Hutton took the density of the mountain at 2-5, giving the mean 
density of the earth 4-5. A revision of the density of the moun- 
tain from a careful survey of the rocks composing it was made 
by John Playfair many years later (PhiL Trans., 1811, p. 347), 
and the density of the earth was given as lying between 4-5588 
and 4-867. 

Other experiments have been made on the attraction of 
mountains by Francesco Carlini (Milano E/em. Ast., 1824, 
p. 28) on Mt. Blanc in 1821, using the pendulum method after 
the manner of Bouguer, by Colonel Sir Henry James and Captain 
A. R. Clarke (Phil. Trans., 1856, p. 591), using the plumb-line 
deflection at Arthur's Seat, by T. C. Mendenhall (Amer. Jour, of 
Sci. xxi. p. 99), using the pendulum method on Fujiyama in 
Japan, and by E. D. Preston (U.S. Coast and Geod. Survey Rep., 
1893, p. 513) in Hawaii, using both methods. 



Airy's Experiment. In 1854 Sir G. B. Airy (Phil. Trans., 
1856, p. 297) carried out at Harton pit near South Shields an 
experiment which he had attempted many years before in con- 
junction with W. Whewell and R. Sheepshanks at Dolcoath. 
This consisted in comparing gravity at the top and at the bottom 
of a mine by the swings of the same pendulum, and thence finding 
the ratio of the pull of the intervening strata to the pull of the 
whole earth. The principle of the method may be understood 
by assuming that the earth consists of concentric spherical shells 
each homogeneous, the last of thickness h equal to the depth 
of the mine. Let the radius of the earth to the bottom of the 
mine be R, and the mean density up to that point be A. This 
will not differ appreciably from the mean density of the whole. 
Let the density of the strata of depth h be 8. Denoting the 
values of gravity above and below by g a and gi we have 



irR 3 A 



= G.|jrRA, j 



rR 3 A 



and 



(since the attraction of a shell h thick on a point just outside it is 

G.4ir(R+h) 2 h8/(R+h)*= G.+whS). 

Therefore 

I. = G.JTRA(I -^+^|) nearly, 

whence 

JE=,_2* + 2* 8 
gb R ^ R A' 

and 



Stations were chosen in the same vertical, one near the pit 
bank, another 1250 ft. below in a disused working, and a " com- 
parison " clock was fixed at each station. A third clock was 
placed at the upper station connected by an electric circuit to 
the lower station. It gave an electric signal every 15 seconds 
by which the rates of the two comparison clocks could be accur- 
ately compared. Two " invariable " seconds pendulums were 
swung, one in front of the upper and the other in front of the 
lower comparison clock after the manner of Kater, and these 
invariables were interchanged at intervals. From continuous 
observations extending over three weeks and after applying 
various corrections Airy obtained gt/g a = 1-00005 185. Making 
corrections for the irregularity of the neighbouring strata he 
found A/5 = 2-6266. W. H. Miller made a careful determination 
of 8 from specimens of the strata, finding it 2-5. The final 
result taking into account the ellipticity and rotation of the earth 
is A = 6-s6s. 

Von Slerneck's Experiments. (Mitth. des K.U.K. Mil. Geog. 
Inst. zu Wien, ii., 1882, p. 77; 1883, p. 59; vi., 1886, p. 97). 
R. von Sterneck repeated the mine experiment in 1882-1883 
at the Adalbert shaft at Pribram in Bohemia and in 1885 at the 
Abraham shaft near Freiberg. He used two invariable half- 
seconds pendulums, one swung at the surface, the other below 
at the same time. The two were at intervals interchanged. 
Von Sterneck introduced a most important improvement by 
comparing the swings of the two invariables with the same clock 
which by an electric circuit gave a signal at each station each 
second. This eliminated clock rates. His method, of which it 
s not necessary to give the details here, began a new era in the 
determinations of local variations of gravity. The values which 
von Sterneck obtained for A were not consistent, but increased 
with the depth of the second station. This was probably due 
to local irregularities in the strata which could not be directly 
detected. 

All the experiments to determine A by the attraction of 
natural masses are open to the serious objection that we cannot 
determine the distribution of density in the neighbourhood 
with any approach to accuracy. The experiments with artificial 
masses next to be described give much more consistent results, 
and the experiments with natural masses are now only of use 



GRAVITATION 



in showing the existence of irregularities in the earth's superficial 

strata when they give results deviating largely from the accepted 

value. 

II. Determination of the Attraction between two Artificial Masses. 

Cavendish's Experiment (Phil. Trans., 1798, p. 469). This 
celebrated experiment was planned by the Rev. John Michell. 
He completed an apparatus for it but did not live to begin work 
with it. After Michell's death the apparatus came into the 
possession of Henry Cavendish, who largely reconstructed it, 
but still adhered to Michell's plan, and in 1797-1798 he carried 
out the experiment. The essential feature of it consisted in the 
determination of the attraction of a lead sphere 1 2 in. in diameter 
on another lead sphere 2 in. in diameter, the distance between 
the centres being about 9 in., by means of a torsion balance. 
Fig. 2 shows how the experiment was carried out. A torsion 
rod hh 6 ft. long, tied from its ends to a vertical piece mg, was 




FIG. 2. Cavendish's Apparatus. 

h h, torsion rod hung by wire I g, ; x,x, attracted balls hung from 
its ends; WW, attracting masses. 

hung by a wire Ig. From its ends depended two lead balls xx each 
2 in. in diameter. The position of the rod was determined by a 
scale fixed near the end of the arm, the arm itself carrying a 
vernier moving along the scale. This was lighted by a lamp and 
viewed by a telescope T from the outside of the room containing 
the apparatus. The torsion balance was enclosed in a case 
and outside this two lead spheres WW each 12 in. in diameter 
hung from an arm which could turn round an axis Pp in the line 
of gl. Suppose that first the spheres are placed so that one is 
just in front of the right-hand ball x and the other is just behind 
the left-hand ball x. The two will conspire to pull the balls so 
that the right end of the rod moves forward. Now let the big 
spheres be moved round so that one is in front of the left ball 
and the other behind the right ball. The pulls are reversed 
and t he right end moves backward. The angle between its two 
positions is (if we neglect cross attractions of right sphere on 
left ball and left sphere on right ball) four times as great as the 
deflection of the rod due to approach of one sphere to one ball. 

The principle of the experiment may be set forth thus. Let 20 
be the length of the torsion rod, m the mass of a ball, M the mass of 
a large sphere, d the distance between the centres, supposed the same 
on each side. Let 6 be the angle through which the rod moves round 
when the spheres WW are moved from the first to the second of the 
positions described above. Let M be the couple required to twist 
the rod through i radian. Then ft8 = 4.GMma/tP. But / can be 
found from the time of vibration of the torsion system when we 
know its moment of inertia I, and this can be determined. If T 
is the period ^=4^1/1^, whence G=ir 2 d z Ie/T 2 Mta, or putting the 
result in terms of the mean density of the earth A it is easy to show 
that, if L, the length of the seconds pendulum, is put for g/ir 2 , and C 
for 2irR, the earth's circumference, then 

,L MmoT 1 



The original account by Cavendish is still well worth studying 



on account of the excellence of his methods. His work was 
undoubtedly very accurate for a pioneer experiment and has 
only really been improved upon within the last generation. 
Making various corrections of which it is not necessary to give 
a description, the result obtained (after correcting a mistake 
first pointed out by F. Baily) is A = 5-448. In seeking the origin 
of the disturbed motion of the torsion rod Cavendish made a very 
important observation. He found that when the masses were 
left in one position for a time the attracted balls crept now in 
one direction, now in another, as if the attraction were varying. 
Ultimately he found that this was due to convection currents 
in the case containing the torsion rod, currents produced by 
temperature inequalities. When a large sphere was heated the 
ball near it tended to approach and when it was cooled the ball 
tended to recede. Convection currents constitute the chief 
disturbance and the chief source of error in all attempts to 
measure small forces in air at ordinary pressure. 

Reich's Experiments ( Versuche tiber die mittlere Dichtigkeit 
der Erde mittelst der Drehwage, Freiberg, 1838; " Neue 
Versuche mit der Drehwage," Leipzig Abh. Math. Phys. i., 
1852, p. 383). In 1838 F. Reich published an account of a 
repetition of the Cavendish experiment carried out on the 
same general lines, though with somewhat smaller apparatus. 
The chief differences consisted in the methods of measuring 
the times of vibration and the deflection, and the changes 
were hardly improvements. His result after revision was 
A= 5-49. In 1852 he published an account of further work 
giving as result A =5- 58. It is noteworthy that in his 
second paper he gives an account of experiments suggested 
by J. D. Forbes in which the deflection was not observed 
directly, but was deduced from observations of the time 
of vibration when the attracting masses were in different 
positions. 

Let Ti be the time of vibration when the masses are in one 
of the usual attracting positions. Let d be the distance between 
the centres of attracting mass and attracted ball, and & the 
distance through which the ball is pulled. If a is the half length 
of the torsion rod and the deflection, 5=00. Now let the 
attracting masses be put one at each end of the torsion rod 
with their centres in the line through the centres of the balls 
and d from them, and let T 2 be the time of vibration. Then 
it is easy to show that 

S[d=ae/d = (Ti - 



This gives a value of 6 which may be used in the formula. The 
experiments by this method were not Consistent, and the mean 
result was A = 6-25. 

Baily' s Experiment (Memoirs of the Royal Astron. Soc. xiv.). 
In 1841-1842 Francis Baily made a long series of determinations 
by Cavendish's 'method a'nd with apparatus nearly of the same 
dimensions. The attracting masses were i2-in. lead spheres 
and as attracted balls he used various masses, lead, zinc, glass, 
ivory, platinum, hollow brass, and finally the torsion rod alone 
without balls. The suspension was also varied, sometimes 
consisting of a single wire, sometimes being bifilar. There were 
systematic errors running through Baily's work, which it is 
impossible now wholly to explain. These made the resulting 
value of A show a variation with the nature of the attracted 
masses and a variation with the temperature. His final result 
A = 5-6747 is not of value compared with later results. 

Cornu and Bailie's Experiment (Comptes rendus, Ixxvi., 
l8 73> P- 954; Ixxxvi., 1878, pp. 571, 699, 1001; xcvi., 1883, 
p. 1493)- In 1870 MM. A. Cornu and ]. Bailie commenced 
an experiment by the Cavendish method which was never 
definitely completed, though valuable studies of the behaviour 
of the torsion apparatus were made. They purposely departed 
from the dimensions previously used. The torsion balls were of 
copper about 100 gm. each, the rod was 50 cm. long, and the 
suspending wire was 4 metres long. On each side of each ball 
was a hollow iron sphere. Two of these were filled with mercury 
weighing 12 kgm., the two spheres of mercury constituting the 
attracting masses. When the position of a mass was to be 
changed the mercury was pumped from the sphere on one side 
to that on the other side of a ball. To avoid counting time a 



388 



GRAVITATION 



method of electric registration on a chronograph was adopted. 
A provisional result was A =5- 56. 

Boys's Experiment (Phil. Trans., A., 1895, pt. i., p. i). 
Professor C. V. Boys having found that it is possible to draw 
quartz fibres of practically any degree of fineness, of great 
strength and true in their elasticity, determined to repeat the 
Cavendish experiment, using his newly invented fibres for 
the suspension of the torsion rod. He began by an inquiry 
as to the best dimensions for the apparatus. He saw that if 
the period of vibration is kept constant, that is, if the moment 
of inertia I is kept proportional to the torsion couple per radian 
/i, then the deflection remains the same however the linear 
dimensions are altered so long as they are all altered in the same 
proportion. Hence we are driven to conclude that the dimen- 
sions should be reduced until further reduction would make the 
linear quantities too small to be measured with exactness, for 
reduction in the apparatus enables variations in temperature 
and the consequent air disturbances to be reduced, and the 
experiment in other ways becomes more manageable. Professor 
Boys took as the exactness to be sought for i in 10,000. He 
further saw that reduction in length of the torsion rod with 
given balls is an advantage. For if the rod be halved the moment 
of inertia is one-fourth, and if the suspending fibre is made 
finer so that the torsion couple per radian is also one-fourth 
the time remains the same. But the moment of the attracting 
force is halved only, so that the deflection against one-fourth 
torsion is doubled. In Cavendish's arrangement there would 

be an early limit 
to the advantage 
in reduction of 
rod in that the 
mass opposite 
one ball would 
begin seriously to 
attract the other 
ball. But Boys 
avoided this 
difficulty by sus- 
pending the balls 
from the ends of 
the torsion rod at 
different levels 
and by placing 
the attracting 
masses at these 
different levels. 
Fig. 3 represents 
diagrammatic- 
ally a vertical 
section of the 
a rrangement 
used on a scale 
of about i/io. 
The torsion rod 
was a small rect- 
angular mirror 
about 2-4 cm. 
wide hung by a 
quartz fibre 
about 43 cm. 

long. From the sides of this mirror the balls were hung by quartz 
fibres at levels differing by 1 5 cm. The balls were of gold either 
about 5 mm. in diameter and weighing about 1-3 gm. or about 
6-5 mm. in diameter and weighing 2-65 gm. The attracting 
masses were lead spheres, about 10 cm. in diameter and weighing 
about 7-4 kgm. each. These were suspended from the top of 
the case which could be rotated round the central tube, and they 
were arranged so that the radius to the centre from the axis of 
the torsion system made 65 with the torsion rod, the position in 
which the moment of the attraction was a maximum. The 
torsion rod mirror reflected a distant scale by which the deflection 
could be read. The time of vibration was recorded on a chrono- 




Fig. 3. Diagram of a Section of Professor 
Boys's Apparatus. 



graph. The result of the experiment, probably the best yet made, 
was A = 5>527; G = 6-6s8Xio~ 8 . 

Braun's Experiment (Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.- 
naturw. Cl. 64, p. 187, 1896). In 1896 Dr K. Braun, S.J., gave 
an account of a very careful and excellent repetition of the 
Cavendish experiment with apparatus much smaller than was 
used in the older experiments, yet much larger than that used 
by Boys. A notable feature of the work consisted in the suspen- 
sion of the torsion apparatus in a receiver exhausted to about 
4 mm. of mercury, a pressure at which convection currents 
almost disappear while " radiometer " forces have hardly 
begun. For other ingenious arrangements the original paper 
or a short abstract in Nature, Ivi., 1897, p. 127, may be con- 
sulted. The attracted balls weighed 54 gm. each and were 
25 cm. apart. The attracting masses were spheres of mercury 
each weighing 9 kgm. and brought into position outside the 
receiver. Braun used both the deflection method and the time 
of vibration method suggested to Reich by Forbes. The methods 
gave almost identical results and his final values are to three 
decimal places the same as those obtained by Boys. 

G. K. Burgess's Experiment (Theses presentees d, la jaculte 
des sciences de Paris pour obtenir le litre de docteur de I'universite 
de Paris, 1901). This was a Cavendish experiment in which 
the torsion system was buoyed up by a float in a mercury bath. 
The attracted masses could thus be made large, and yet the 
suspending wire could be kept fine. The torsion beam was 1 2 cm. 
long, and the attracted balls were lead spheres each 2 kgm. From 
the centre of the beam depended a vertical steel rod with a 
varnished copper hollow float at its end, entirely immersed in 
mercury. The surface of the mercury was covered with dilute 
sulphuric acid to remove irregularities due to varying surface 
tension acting on the steel rod. The size of the float was adjusted 
so that the torsion fibre of quartz 35 cm. long had only to carry 
a weight of 5 to 10 gm. The time of vibration was over one 
hour. The torsion couple per radian was determined by pre- 
liminary experiments. The attracting masses were each 10 kgm. 
turning in a circle 18 cm. in diameter. The results gave A= 5-55 
andG = 6-64Xio~ 8 . 

Eotvos's Experiment (Ann. der Physik und Cltemie, 1896, 59, 
P- 354)- I n the course of investigations on local variations 
of gravity by means of the torsion balance, R. Eotvos devised 
a method for determining G somewhat like the vibration method 
used by Reich and Braun. Two pillars were built up of lead 
blocks 30 cm. square in cross section, 60 cm. high and 30 cm. 
apart. A torsion rod somewhat less than 30 cm. long with 
small weights at the ends was enclosed in a double-walled brass 
case of as little depth as possible, a device which secured great 
steadiness through freedom from convection currents. The 
suspension was a platinum wire about 150 cm. long. The 
torsion rod was first set in the line joining the centres of the 
pillars and its time of vibration was taken. Then it was set 
with its length perpendicular to the line joining the centres and 
the time again taken. From these times Eotvos was able to 
deduce G = 6-6sXio~ 8 whence A=s>53. This is only a pro- 
visional value. The experiment was only as it were a by-product 
in the course of exceedingly ingenious work on the local variation 
in gravity for which the original paper should be consulted. 

W Using' s Experiment (Publ. des astrophysikalischen Obseru. zu 
Potsdam, 1887, No. 22, vol. vi. pt. ii.; pt. iii. p. 133). We may 
perhaps class with the Cavendish type an experiment made by 
J. Wilsing, in which a vertical " double pendulum " was used 
in place of a horizontal torsion system. Two weights each 540 
gm. were fixed at the ends of a rod i metre long. A knife edge 
was fixed on the rod just above its centre of gravity, and this 
was supported so that the rod could vibrate about a vertical 
position. Two attracting masses, cast-iron cylinders each 325 
kgm., were placed, say, one in front of the top weight on the 
pendulum and the other behind the bottom weight, and the 
position of the rod was observed in the usual mirror and scale 
way. Then the front attracting mass was dropped to the level 
of the lower weight and the back mass was raised to that of the 
upper weight, and the consequent deflection of the rod was 



GRAVY 



39 



observed. By taking the time of vibration of the pendulum 
first as used in the deflection experiment and then when a small 
weight wasiemoved from the upper end a known distance from 
the knife edge, the restoring couple per radian deflection could 
be found. The final result gave A = 5-579. 

/. Joly's suggested Experiment (Nature xli., 1890, p. 256). 
Joly has suggested that G might be determined by hanging a 
simple pendulum in a vacuum, and vibrating outside the case 
two massive pendulums each with the same time of swing as the 
simple pendulum. The simple pendulum would be set swinging 
by the varying attraction and from its amplitude after a known 
number of swings of the outside pendulums G could be found. 

III. Comparison of the Earth Pull on a body with the Pull of an 
Artificial Mass by Means oj the Common Balance. 

The principle of the method is as follows: Suppose a sphere 
of mass m and weight w to be hung by a wire from one arm of 
a balance. Let the mass of the earth be E and its radius be R. 
Then w = GEm/R 2 . Now introduce beneath m a sphere of 
mass M and let d be the distance of its centre from that of m. 
Its pull increases the apparent weight of m say by Sw. Then 
5w = GMm[d 2 >. Dividing we obtain 5w/w=MR?jE,d?, whence 
E = MR^ivjd^Sw; and since g = GE/R 2 , G can be found when E is 
known. 

Von Jolly's Experiment (Abhand. der k. bayer. Akad. der Wiss. 
2 Cl. xiii. Bd. i Abt. p. 157, and xiv. Bd. 2 Abt. p. 3). In the 
first of these papers Ph. von Jolly described an experiment in 
which he sought to determine the decrease in weight with increase 
of height from the earth's surface, an experiment suggested by 
Bacon (Nov. Org. Bk. 2, 36), in the form of comparison of rates 
of two clocks at different levels, one driven by a spring, the other 
by weights. The experiment in the form carried out by von 
Jolly was attempted by H. Power, R. Hooke, and others in the 
early days of the Royal Society (Mackenzie, The Laws of Gravita- 
tion). Von Jolly fixed a balance at the top of his laboratory and 
from each pan depended a wire supporting another pan 5 metres 
below. Two i-kgm. weights were first balanced in the upper pans 
and then one was moved from an upper to the lower pan on the 
same side. A gain of 1-5 mgm. was observed after correction 
for greater weight of air displaced at the lower level. The inverse 
square law would give a slightly greater gain and the deficiency 
was ascribed to the configuration of the land near the laboratory. 
In the second paper a second experiment was described in which 
a balance was fixed at the top of a tower and provided as before 
with one pair of pans just below the arms and a second pair 
hung from these by wires 21 metres below. Four glass globes 
were prepared equal in weight and volume. Two of these were 
filled each with 5 kgm. of mercury and then all were sealed up. 
The two heavy globes were then placed in the upper pans and 
the two light ones in the lower. The two on one side were now 
interchanged and a gain in weight of about 31-7 mgm. was 
observed. Air corrections were eliminated by the use of the 
globes of equal volume. Then a lead sphere about i metre radius 
was built up of blocks under one of the lower pans and the 
experiment was repeated. Through the attraction of the lead 
sphere on the mass of mercury when below the gain was greater 
by 0-589 mgm. This result gave A= 5-692. 

Experiment of Richarz and Krigar-Menzel (Anhang zu den 
Abhand. der k. preuss. Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin, 1808). In 
1884 A Konig and F. Richarz proposed a similar experiment 
which was ultimately carried out by Richarz and O. Krigar- 
Menzel. In this experiment a balance was supported somewhat 
more than 2 metres above the floor and with scale pans above 
and below as in von Jolly's experiment. Weights each i kgm. 
were placed, say, in the top right pan and the bottom left pan. 
Then they were shifted to the bottom right and the top left, the 
result being, after corrections for change in density of air dis- 
placed through pressure and temperature changes, a gain in 
weight of 1-2453 mgm. on the right due to change in level of 
2.2628 metres. Then a rectangular column of lead 210 cm. 
square cross section and 200 cm. high was built up under the 
balance between the pairs of pans. The column was perforated 



with two vertical tunnels for the passage of the wires supporting 
the lower pans. On repeating the weighings there was now a 
decrease on the right when a kgm. was moved on that side from 
top to bottom while another was moved on the left from bottom 
to top. This decrease was 0-1211 mgm. showing a total change 
due to the lead mass of 1-2453 + 0-1211 = 1-3664 mgm. and this 
is obviously four times the attraction of the lead mass on one 
kgm. The changes in the positions of the weights were made 
automatically. The results gave A = 5-osandG = 6-685Xio~ 8 . 

Poynting's Experiment (Phil. Trans., vol. 182, A, 1891, 
p. 565). In 1878 J. H. Poynting published an account of a 
preliminary experiment which he had made to show that the 
common balance was available for gravitational work. The 
experiment was on the same lines as that of von Jolly but on a 
much smaller scale. In 1891 he gave an account of the full 
experiment carried out with a larger balance and with much 
greater care. The balance had a 4-ft. beam. The scale pans 
were removed, and from the two arms were hung lead spheres 
each weighing about 20 kgm. at a level about 120 cm. below the 
beam. The balance was supported in a case above a horizontal 
turn-table with axis vertically below the central knife edge, and 
on this turn-table was a lead sphere weighing 150 kgm. the 
attracting mass. The centre of this sphere was 30 cm. below the 
level of the centres of the hanging weights. The turn-table 
could be rotated between stops so that the attracting mass was 
first immediately below the hanging weight on one side, and then 
immediately under that on the other side. On the same turn- 
table but at double the distance from the centre was a second 
sphere of half the weight introduced merely to balance the 
larger sphere and keep the centre of gravity at the centre of the 
turn-table. Before the introduction of this sphere errors were 
introduced through the tilting of the floor of the balance room 
when the turn-table was rotated. Corrections of course had 
to be made for the attraction of this second sphere. The removal 
of the large mass from left to right made an increase in weight 
on that side of about i mgm. determined by riders in a special 
way described in the paper. To eliminate the attraction on the 
beam and the rods supporting the hanging weights another 
experiment was made in which these weights were moved up 
the rods through 30 cm. and on now moving the attracting 
sphere from left to right the gain on the right was only about 
% mgm. The difference, $ mgm., was due entirely to change in 
distance of the attracted masses. After all corrections the results 
gave A= 5-493 and G = 6-698 X io~ 8 . 

Final Remarks. The earlier methods in which natural masses 
were used have disadvantages, as already pointed out, which 
render them now quite valueless. Of later methods the 
Cavendish appears to possess advantages over the common 
balance method in that it is more easy to ward off temperature 
variations, and so avoid convection currents, and probably more 
easy to determine the actual value of the attracting force. For 
the present the values determined by Boys and Braun may be 
accepted as having the greatest weight and we therefore take 
Mean density of the earth A= 5-527 
Constant of gravitation G = 6-658 X io~ 8 . 
Probably A = 5-53 and G = 6-66 X io~ 8 are correct to i in 500. 

AUTHORITIES. J. H. Poynting, The Mean Density of the Earth 
(1894), gives an account of all work up to the date of publication 
with a bibliography; A. Stanley Mackenzie, The Laws of Gravita- 
tion (1899), gives annotated extracts from various papers, some 
historical notes and a bibliography. A Bibliography of Geodesy, 
Appendix 8, Report for 1902 of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in- 
cludes a very complete bibliography of gravitational work. (J.H.P.) 

GRAVY, a word usually confined to the natural juices which 
come from meat during cooking. In early uses (in the New 
English Dictionary the quotations date from the end of the I4th 
to the beginning of the i6th centuries) it meant a sauce of broth 
flavoured with spices and almonds. The more modern usage 
seems to date from the end of the i6th century. The word is 
obscure in origin. It has been connected with "graves" or 
" greaves," the refuse of tallow in the manufacture of soap or 
candles. The more probable derivation is from the French. 
In Old French the word is almost certainly grant, and is derived 



390 



GRAY, A. GRAY, E. 



from grain, " something used in cooking." The word was early 
read and spelled with a u or v instead of n, and the corruption 
was adopted in English. 

GRAY, ASA (1810-1888), American botanist, was born at 
Paris, Oneida county, N.Y., on the i8th of November 1810. 
He was the son of a farmer, and received no formal education 
except at the Fairfield (N.Y.) academy and the Fairfield medical 
school. From Dr James Hadley, the professor of chemistry and 
materia medico, he obtained his first instruction in science (1825- 
1826). In the spring of 1827 he first began to collect and identify 
plants. His formal education, such as it was, ended in February 
1831, when he took the degree of M.D. His first contribution to 
descriptive botany appeared in 1835, and thereafter an un- 
interrupted series of contributions to systematic botany flowed 
from his pen for fifty-three years. In 1836 his first botanical 
text-book appeared under the title Elements of Botany, followed 
in 1839 by his Botanical Text-Book for Colleges, Schools, and 
Private Students which developed into his Structural Botany. 
He published later First Lessons in Botany and Vegetable Physi- 
ology (1857); How Plants Grow (1858); Field, Forest, and Garden 
Botany (1869); How Plants Behave (1872). These books served 
the purpose of developing popular interest in botanical studies. 
His most important work, however, was his Manual of the Botany 
of the Northern United States, the first edition of which appeared 
in 1847. This manual has passed through a large number of 
editions, is clear, accurate and compact to an extraordinary 
degree, and within its geographical limits is an indispensable 
book for the student of American botany. 

Throughout his life Gray was a diligent writer of reviews of 
books on natural history subjects. Often these reviews were 
elaborate essays, for which the books served merely as texts; 
often they were clear and just summaries of extensive works; 
sometimes they were sharply critical, though never ill-natured 
or unfair; always they were interesting, lively and of literary as 
well as scientific excellence. The greater part of Gray's strictly 
scientific labour was devoted to a Flora of North America, the 
plan of which originated with his early teacher and associate, 
John Torrey of New York. The second volume of Torrey and 
Gray's Flora was completed in 1843; but for forty years there- 
after Gray gave up a large part of his time to the preparation of 
his Synoptical Flora (1878). He lived at the period when the flora 
of North America was being discovered, described and systemat- 
ized; and his enthusiastic labours in this fresh field placed 
him at the head of American botanists and on a level with the 
1 most famous botanists of the world. In 1856 he published a 
paper on the distribution of plants under the title Statistics of 
the Flora of the Northern United States; and this paper was 
followed in 1859 by a memoir on the botany of Japan and its 
relations to that of North America, a paper of which Sir J. D. 
Hooker said that " in point of originality and far-reaching results 
[it] was its author's opus magnum." It was Gray's study of 
plant distribution which led to his intimate correspondence with 
Charles Darwin during the years in which Darwin was elaborating 
the doctrines that later became known as Darwinism. From 
1855 to 1875 Gray was both a keen critic and a sympathetic 
exponent of the Darwinian principles. His religious views were 
those of the Evangelical bodies in the Protestant Church; so 
that, when Darwinism was attacked as equivalent to atheism, 
he was in position to answer effectively the unfounded allegation 
that it was fatal to the doctrine of design. He taught that " the 
most puzzling things of all to the old-school teleologists are the 
principia of the Darwinian." He openly avowed his conviction 
that the present species are not special creations, but rather 
derived from previously existing species; and he made his 
avowal with frank courage, when this truth was scarcely recog- 
nized by any naturalists, and when to the clerical mind evolution 
meant atheism. 

In 1842 Gray accepted the Fisher professorship of natural 
history in Harvard University. On his accession to this chair 
the university had no herbarium, no botanical library, few plants 
of any value, and but a small garden, which for lack of money 
had never been well stocked or well arranged. He soon brought 



together, chiefly by widespread exchanges, a valuable herbarium 
and library, and arranged the garden; and thereafter the 
development of these botanical resources was part of his regular 
labours. The herbarium soon became the largest and most 
valuable in America, and on account of the numerous type 
specimens it contains it is likely to remain a collection of national 
importance. Nothing of what Gray did for the botanical 
department of the university has been lost; on the contrary, 
his labours were so well directed that everything he originated 
and developed has been enlarged, improved and placed on stable 
foundations. He himself made large contributions to the 
establishment by giving it all his own specimens, many books 
and no little money, and by his will he gave it the royalties on 
his books. During his long connexion with the university he 
brought up two generations of botanists and he always took a 
strong personal interest in the researches and the personal 
prospects of the young men who had studied under him. His 
scientific life was mainly spent in the herbarium and garden in 
Cambridge; but his labours there were relieved by numerous 
journeys to different parts of the United States and to Europe, 
all of which contributed to his work on the Synoptical Flora. 
He lived to a good age long enough, indeed, to receive from 
learned societies at home and abroad abundant evidence of their 
profound respect for his attainments and services. He died 
at Cambridge, Mass., on the 3oth of January 1888. 

His Letters (1893) were edited by his wife; and his Scientific 
Papers (1888) by C. S. Sargent. (C. W. E.) 

GRAY, DAVID (1838-1861), Scottish poet, the son of a hand- 
loom weaver, was born at Merkland, near Glasgow, on the 2gth 
of January 1838. His parents resolved to educate him for the 
church, and through their self-denial and his own exertions as a 
pupil teacher and private tutor he was able to complete a course 
of four sessions at the university of Glasgow. He began to write 
poetry for The Glasgow Citizen and began his idyll on the Luggie, 
the little stream that ran through Merkland. His most intimate 
companion at this time was Robert Buchanan, the poet; and in 
May 1860 the two agreed to proceed to London, with the idea 
of finding literary employment. Shortly after his arrival in 
London Gray introduced himself to Monckton Milnes, after- 
wards Lord Houghton, with whom he had previously corre- 
sponded. Lord Houghton tried to persuade him to return to 
Scotland, but Gray insisted on staying in London. He was 
unsuccessful in his efforts to place Gray's poem, " The Luggie," 
in The Cornhill Magazine, but gave him some light literary work. 
He also showed him great kindness when a cold which had seized 
him assumed the serious form of consumption, and sent him to 
Torquay; but as the disease made rapid progress, an irresistible 
longing seized Gray to return to Merkland, where he arrived in 
January 1861, and died on the 3rd of December following, having 
the day before had the gratification of seeing a printed specimen 
copy of his poem " The Luggie," published eventually by the 
exertions of Sydney Dobell. He was buried in the Auld Aisle 
Churchyard, Kirkintilloch, where in 1865 a monument was 
erected by " friends far and near " to his memory. 

" The Luggie," the principal poem of Gray, is a kind of reverie 
in which the scenes and events of his childhood and his early 
aspirations are mingled with the music of the stream which 
he celebrates. The series of sonnets, " In the Shadows," was 
composed during the latter part of his illness. Most of his poems 
necessarily bear traces of immaturity, and lines may frequently 
be found in them which are mere echoes from Thomson, Words- 
worth or Tennyson, but they possess, nevertheless, distinct 
individuality, and show a real appreciation of natural beauty. 

The Luggie and other Poems, with an introduction by R. Monckton 
Milnes, and a brief memoir by James Hedderwick, was published 
in 1862; and a new and enlarged edition of Gray's Poetical Works, 
edited by Henry Glassford Bell, appeared in 1874. See also David 
Gray and oilier Essays, by Robert Buchanan (1868), and the same 
writer's poem on David Gray, in Idyls and Legends of Inverburn. 

GRAY, ELISHA (1835-1901), American electrician, was born 
in Barnesville, Belmont county, Ohio, on the 2nd of August 
1835. He worked as a carpenter and in a machine shop, reading 



GRAY, H. P. GRAY, LORD 



39 1 



in physical science at the same time, and for five years studied 
at Oberlin College, where he taught for a time. He then in- 
vestigated the subject of telegraphy, and in 1867 patented a 
telegraphic switch and annunciator. Experimenting in the 
transmittal of electro-tones and of musical tones by wire, he 
utilized in 1874 animal tissues in his receivers, and filed, on 
the i4th of February 1876, a caveat for the invention of a 
telephone, only a few hours after the filing of an application for a 
patent by Alexander Graham Bell. (See TELEPHONE.) The caveat 
was disregarded; letters patent No. 174, 465 were granted to Bell, 
whose priority of invention was upheld in 1888 by the United 
States Supreme Court (see Molecular Telephone Co. v. American 
Bell Telephone Co., 126 U.S. i). Gray's experiments won for him 
high praise and the decoration of the Legion of Honour at the 
Paris Exposition of 1878. He was for a time a manufacturer of 
electrical apparatus, particularly of his own inventions; and 
was chief electrical expert of the Western Electric Company of 
Chicago. At the Columbian Exposition of 1893 Gray was chair- 
man of the International Congress of Electricians. He died at 
Newtonville, Massachusetts, on the 2ist of January 1901. 
Among his later inventions were appliances for multiplex 
telegraphy and the telautograph, a machine for the electric 
transmission of handwriting. He experimented in the submarine 
use of electric bells for signalling. 

Gray wrote, besides scientific addresses and many monographs, 
Telegraphy and Telephony (1878) and Electricity and Magnetism 
(1900). 

GRAY, HENRY PETERS (1819-1877), American portrait 
and genre painter, was born in New York on the 23rd of June 
1819. He was a pupil of Daniel Huntington there, and sub- 
sequently studied in Rome and Florence. Elected a member of 
the National Academy of Design in 1842, he succeeded 
Huntington as president in 1870, holding the position until 1871. 
The later years of his life were devoted to portrait work. He 
was strongly influenced by the old Italian masters, painting in 
mellow colour with a classical tendency. One of his notable 
canvases was an allegorical composition called " The Birth of 
our Flag " (1875). He died in New York City on the I2th of 
November 1877. 

GRAY, HORACE (1828-1902), American jurist, was born in 
Boston, Massachusetts, onthe24th of Marchi828. Hegraduated 
at Harvard in 1845; was admitted to the bar in 1851, and in 
1854-1861 was reporter to the Supreme Court of Massachusetts. 
He practised law, first in partnership with Ebenezer Rockwood 
Hoar, and later with Wilder Dwight (1823-1862) and Charles F. 
Blake; was appointed associate justice of the state Supreme 
Court on the 23rd of August 1864, becoming chief-justice on the 
5th of September 1873; and was associate justice of the Supreme 
Court of the United States from December 1881 to August 1902, 
resigning only a few weeks before his death at Nahant, Mass., 
on the 1 5th of September 1902. Gray had a fine sense of the 
dignity of the bench, and a taste for historical study. His 
judgments were unmistakably clear and contained the essence 
of earlier opinions. A great case lawyer, he was a much greater 
judge, the variety of his knowledge and his contributions to 
admiralty and prize law and to testamentary law being particu- 
larly striking; in constitutional law he was a " loose " rather 
than a " strict " constructionist. 

See Francis C. Lowell, " Horace Gray," in Proceedings of the 
American Academy, vol. 39, pp. 627-637 (Boston, 1904). 

GRAY, JOHN DE (d. 1214), bishop of Norwich, entered 
Prince John's service, and at his accession (1199) was rapidly 
promoted in the church till he became bishop of Norwich in 
September 1200. King John's attempt to force him into the 
primacy in 1205 started the king's long and fatal quarrel with 
Pope Innocent III. De Gray was a hard-working royal official, 
in finance, in justice, in action, using his position to enrich himself 
and his family. In 1209 he went to Ireland to govern it as 
justiciar. He adopted a forward policy, attempting to extend 
the English frontier northward and westward, and fought a 
number of campaigns on the Shannon and in Fermanagh. But 
in 1 21 2 he suffered a great defeat. He assimilated the coinage of 



Ireland to that of England, and tried to effect a similar reform 
in Irish law. De Gray was a good financier, and could always 
raise money: this probably explains the favour he enjoyed from 
King John. In 1213 he is found with 500 knights at the great 
muster at Barham Downs, when Philip Augustus was threatening 
to invade England. After John's reconciliation with Innocent 
he was one of those exempted from the general pardon, and was 
forced to go in person to Rome to obtain it. At Rome he so 
completely gained over Innocent that the pope sent him back 
with papal letters recommending his election to the bishopric of 
Durham (1213); but he died at St Jean d'Audely in Poitou 
on his homeward journey (October 1214). 

GRAY, JOHN EDWARD (1800-1875), English naturalist, 
born at Wals^.11, Staffordshire, in 1800, was the eldest of the 
three sons of S. F. Gray, of that town, druggist and writer on 
botany, and author of the Supplement to the Pharmacopoeia, &c., 
his grandfather being S. F. Gray, who translated the Philosophia 
Botanica of Linnaeus for the Introduction to Botany of James 
Lee (1715-1795). Gray studied at St Bartholomew's and other 
hospitals for the medical profession, but at an early age was 
attracted to the pursuit of botany. He assisted his father by 
collecting notes on botany and comparative anatomy and 
zoology in Sir Joseph Banks's library at the British Museum, 
aided by Dr W. E. Leach, assistant keeper, and the systematic 
synopsis of the Natural Arrangement of British Plants, 2 vols., 
1821, was prepared by him, his father writing the preface and 
introduction only. In consequence of his application for member- 
ship of the Linnaean Society being rejected in 1822, he turned 
to the study of zoology, writing on zoophytes, shells, Mollusca 
and Papilionidae, still aided by Dr Leach at the British Museum. 
In December 1824 he obtained the post of assistant in that 
institution; and from that date to December 1839, when J. G. 
Children retired from the keepership, he had so zealously applied 
himself to the study, classification and improvement of the 
national collection of zoology that he was selected as the fittest 
person to be entrusted with its charge. Immediately on his 
appointment as keeper, he took in hand the revision of the 
systematic arrangement of the collections; scientific catalogues 
followed in rapid succession; the department was raised in 
importance; its poverty as well as its wealth became known, 
and whilst increased grants, donations and exchanges made 
good many deficiencies, great numbers of students, foreign as 
well as English, availed themselves of its resources to enlarge the 
knowledge of zoology in all its branches. In spite of numerous 
obstacles, he worked up the department, within a few years of 
his appointment as keeper, to such a state of excellence as to 
make it the rival of the cabinets of Leiden, Paris and Berlin; 
and later on it was raised under his management to the dignity 
of the largest and most complete zoological collection in the 
world. Although seized with paralysis in 1870, he continued to 
discharge the functions of keeper of zoology, and to contribute 
papers to the A nnals of Natural History, his favourite journal,and 
to the transactions of a few of the learned societies; but at 
Christmas 1874, having completed half a century of official 
work, he resigned office, and died in London on the 7th of March 
1875- 

Gray was an exceedingly voluminous writer, and his 
interests were not confined to natural history only, for he took 
an active part in questions of public importance of his day, such 
as slave emancipation, prison discipline, abolition of imprison- 
ment for debt, sanitary and municipal organizations, the decimal 
system, public education, extension of the opening of museums, 
&c. He began to publish in 1820, and continued till the year 
of his death. 

The titles of the books, memoirs and miscellaneous papers written 
by him, accompanied by a few notes, fill a privately printed list of 56 
octavo pages with 1162 entries. 

GRAY, PATRICK GRAY, 6xn BARON (d. 1612), was descended 
from Sir Andrew Gray (c. 1390-1469) of Broxmouth and Foulis, 
who was created a Scottish peer as Lord Gray, probably in 1445. 
Andrew was a leading figure in Scottish politics during the reigns 
of James I. and his two successors, and visited England as a 



392 



GRAY, R. GRAY, THOMAS 



hostage, a diplomatist and a pilgrim. The 2nd Lord Gray was 
his grandson Andrew (d. 1514), and the 4th lord was the latter's 
grandson Patrick (d. 1582), a participant in Scottish politics 
during the stormy time of Mary, queen of Scots. Patrick's son, 
Patrick, the sth lord (d. 1609), married Barbara, daughter of 
William, 2nd Lord Ruthven, and their son Patrick, known as 
the " Master of Gray," is the subject of this article. Educated 
at Glasgow University and brought up as a Protestant, young 
Patrick was married early in life to Elizabeth Lyon, daughter 
of Lord Glamis, whom he repudiated almost directly; and 
afterwards went to France, where he joined the friends of Mary, 
queen of Scots, became a Roman Catholic, and assisted the 
French policy of the Guises in Scotland. He returned and took 
up his residence again in Scotland in 1583, and, immediately 
began a career of treachery and intrigue, gaining James's favour 
by disclosing to him his mother's secrets, and acting in agreement 
with James Stewart, earl of Arran, in order to keep Mary a 
prisoner in England. In 1584 he was sent as ambassador to 
England, to effect a treaty between James and Elizabeth 
and to exclude Mary. His ambition incited him at the same 
time to promote a plot to secure the downfall of Arran. 
This was supported by Elizabeth, and was finally accomplished 
by letting loose the lords banished from Scotland for their 
participation in the rebellion called the Raid of Ruthven, who, 
joining Gray, took possession of the king's person at Stirling in 
1585, the league with England being ratified by the parliament 
in December. Gray now became the intermediary between the 
English government and James on the great question of Mary's 
execution, and in 1587 he was despatched on an embassy to 
Elizabeth, ostensibly to save Mary's life. Gray had, however, 
previously advised her secret assassination and had endeavoured 
to overcome all James's scruples; and though he does not appear 
to have carried treachery so far as to advise her death on this 
occasion, no representations made by him could have had any 
force or weight. The execution of Mary caused his own downfall 
and loss of political power in Scotland; and after his return he 
was imprisoned on charges of plots against Protestantism, of 
endeavouring to prevent the king's marriage, and of having been 
bribed to consent to Mary's death. He pleaded guilty of sedition 
and of having obstructed the king's marriage, and was declared 
a traitor; but his life was spared by James and he was banished 
from the country, but permitted to return in 1589, when he was 
restored to his office of master of the wardrobe to which he had 
been appointed in 1585. His further career was marked by 
lawlessness and misconduct. In 1592, together with the 5th 
Lord Bothwell, he made an unsuccessful attempt to seize the 
king at Falkland, and the same year earned considerable dis- 
credit by bringing groundless accusations against the Presby- 
terian minister, Robert Bruce; while after the king's accession 
to the English throne he was frequently summoned before 
the authorities on account of his conduct. Notwithstanding, 
he never lost James's favour. In 1609 he succeeded his father as 
6th Baron Gray, and died in 1612. 

Gray was an intimate friend of Sir Philip Sidney, but, if one 
of the ablest, handsomest and most fascinating, he was beyond 
doubt one of the most unscrupulous men of his day. He married 
as his second wife in 1585 Mary Stewart, daughter of Robert, 
earl of Orkney, and had by her, besides six daughters, a son, 
Andrew (d. 1663), who succeeded him as 7th Baron Gray. 
Andrew, who served for a long time in the French army, was a 
supporter, although not a very prominent one, of Charles I. and 
afterwards of Charles II. He was succeeded as Sth Lord Gray 
by Patrick (d. 1711), a son of his daughter Anne, and Patrick's 
successor was his kinsman and son-in-law John (d. 1724). On 
the extinction of John's direct line in 1878 the title of Lord Gray 
passed to George Stuart, earl of Moray. In 1606 Gray had been 
ranked sixth among the Scottish baronies. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Article in Diet, of Nat. Biog., and authorities 
there quoted; Gray's relation concerning the surprise at Stirling 
(Bannatyne Club Publns. i. 131, 1827); Andrew Lang, History of 
Scotland, vol. ii. (1902) ; Peter Gray, The Descent and Kinship of 
Patrick, Master of Gray (1903); Gray Papers (Bannatyne Club, 
1835); Hist. MSS. Comm., M.arq. of Salisbury's MSS. 



GRAY, ROBERT (1809-1872), first bishop of Cape Town and 
metropolitan of South Africa, was born at Bishop Wearmouth, 
Durham, and was the son of Robert Gray, bishop of Bristol. 
He was educated at Eton and Oxford, and took orders in 1833. 
After holding the livings of Whitworth, Durham, 1834-1845, and 
Stockton-on-Tees 1845-1847, he was consecrated bishop of Cape 
Town in 1847; the bishopric having been endowed through the 
liberality of Miss (afterwards Baroness) Burdett-Coutts. Until 
1853 he was a suffragan of Canterbury, but in that year he 
formally resigned his see and was reappointed by letters patent 
metropolitan of South Africa in view of the contemplated 
establishment of the suffragan dioceses of Graham's Town and 
Natal. In that capacity his coercive jurisdiction was twice 
called in question, and in each case the judicial committee of the 
privy council decided against him. The best-known case is that 
of Bishop Colenso, whom Gray deposed and excommunicated in 
1863. The spiritual validity of the sentence was upheld by-the 
convocation of Canterbury and the Pan-Anglican synod of 1867, 
but legally Colenso remained bishop of Natal. The privy council 
decisions declared, in effect, that the Anglican body in South 
Africa was on the footing of a voluntary religious society. Gray, 
accepting this position, obtained its recognition by the mother 
church as the Church of the Province of South Africa, in full 
communion with the Church of England. The first provincial 
synod was held in 1870. During his episcopate Bishop Gray 
effected a much-needed organization of the South African church, 
to which he added five new bishoprics, all carved out of the 
original diocese of Cape Town. It was also chiefly owing to his 
suggestions that the universities' mission to Central Africa was 
founded. 

GRAY, SIR THOMAS (d. c. 1369), English chronicler, was a 
son of Sir Thomas Gray, who was taken prisoner by the Scots 
at Bannockburn and who died about 1344. The younger Thomas 
was present at the battle of Neville's Cross in 1346; in 1355, 
whilst acting as warden of Norham Castle, he was made a prisoner, 
and during his captivity in Edinburgh Castle he devoted his 
time to studying the English chroniclers, Gildas, Bede, Ranulf 
Higdon and others. Released in 1357 he was appointed warden 
of the east marches towards Scotland in 1367, and he died about 
1369. Gray's work, the Scalacronica (so tailed, perhaps, from 
the scaling-ladder in the crest of the Grays), is a chronicle of 
English history from the earliest times to about the year 1362. 
It is, however, only valuable for the reigns of Edward I. and 
Edward II. and part of that of Edward III., being especially 
so for the account of the wars between England and Scotland, in 
which the author's father and the author himself took part. 
Writing in Norman-French, Gray tells of Wallace and Bruce, 
of the fights at Bannockburn, Byland and Dupplin, and makes 
some mention of the troubles in England during the reign of 
Edward II. He also narrates the course of the war in France 
between 1355 and 1361; possibly he was present during some 
of these campaigns. 

The Scalacronica was summarized by John Leland in the i6th 
century; the part dealing with the period from 1066 to the end, 
together with the prologue, was edited for the Maitland Club by 
J. Stevenson (1836) ; and the part from 1274 to 1362 was translated 
into English by Sir Herbert Maxwell (Glasgow, 1907). In the 
extant manuscript, which is in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, 
there is a gap extending from about 1340 to 1355, and Gray's 
account of this period is only known from Leland's summary. 

GRAY, THOMAS (1716-1771), English poet, the fifth and sole 
surviving child of Philip and Dorothy Gray, was born in London 
on the 26th of December 1716. His mother's maiden name was 
Antrobus, and in partnership with her sister Mary she kept a 
millinery shop in Cornhill. This and the house connected with 
it were the property of Philip Gray, a money-scrivener, who 
married Dorothy in 1706 and lived with her in the house, the 
sisters renting the shop from him and supporting themselves 
by its profits. Philip Gray had impaired the fortune which he 
inherited from his father, a wealthy London merchant; yet he 
was sufficiently well-to-do, and at the close of his life was building 
a house upon some property of his own at Wanstead. But he 
was selfish and brutal, and in 1735 his wife took some abortive 



GRAY, THOMAS 



393 



steps to obtain a separation from him. At this date she had 
given birth to twelve children, of whom Thomas was the only 
survivor. He owed his life as well as his education to this 
" careful, tender mother," as he calls her. The child was 
suffocating when she opened one of his veins with her own hand. 
He went at her expense to Eton in 1727, and was confided 
to the care of her brother, William Antrobus, one of the assistant- 
masters, during some part at least of his school-life. 

At Eton Gray's closest friends were Horace Walpole, Richard 
West (son of the lord chancellor of Ireland and grandson of the 
famous Bishop Burnet), and Thomas Ashton, afterwards fellow 
of Eton. This little coterie was dubbed " the Quadruple 
Alliance "; its members were studious and literary, and took 
little part in the amusements of their fellows. In 1734 Gray 
matriculated at Peterhouse, Cambridge, of which his uncle, 
Robert Antrobus, had been a fellow. At Cambridge he had once 
more the companionship of Walpole and Ashton who were at 
King's, but West went to Christchurch, Oxford. Gray made at 
this time the firmest and most constant friendship of his life 
with Thomas Wharton (not the poet Warton) of Pembroke 
College. He was maintained by his mother, and his straitened 
means were eked out by certain small exhibitions from his 
college. His conspicuous abilities and known devotion to study 
perhaps atoned in the eyes of the authorities for his indifference 
to the regular routine of study; for mathematics in particular 
he had an aversion which was the one exception to his almost 
limitless curiosity in other directions. During his first Cambridge 
period he learnt Italian " like any dragon," and made translations 
from Guarini, Dante and Tasso, some of which have been pre- 
served. In September 1738 he is in the agony of leaving college, 
nor can we trace his movements with any certainty for a while, 
though it may be conjectured that he spent much time with 
Horace Walpole, and made in his company some fashionable 
acquaintances in London. On the 29th of March 1739, he 
started with Walpole for a long continental tour, for the expenses 
of which it is probable that his father, for once, came in some 
measure to his assistance. In Paris, Gray visited the great with 
his friend, studied the picture-galleries, -went to tragedies, 
comedies, operas and cultivated there that taste for the French 
classical dramatists, especially Racine, whom he afterwards tried 
to imitate in the fragmentary " Agrippina." It is characteristic 
of him that he travels through France with Caesar constantly 
in his hands, ever noting and transcribing. In the same way, in 
crossing the Alps and in Piedmont, he has " Livy in the chaise 
with him and Silius Italicus too." In Italy he made a long 
sojourn, principally at Florence, where Walpole's life-long 
correspondent, Horace Mann, was British envoy, and received 
and treated the travellers most hospitably. But Rome and 
Naples are also described in Gray's letters, sometimes vividly, 
always amusingly, and in his notes are almost catalogued. 
Herculaneum, an object of intense interest to the young poet 
and antiquary, had been discovered the year before. At 
length in April 1741 Gray and Walpole set out northwards for 
Reggio. Here they quarrelled. Gray, " never a boy," was a 
student, and at times retiring; Walpole, in his way a student 
too, was at this time a very social being, somewhat too frivolous, 
and, what was worse, too patronizing. He good-humouredly 
said at a later date, " Gray loves to find fault," and this fault- 
finding was expressed, no doubt with exaggeration, in a letter 
to Ashton, who violated Gray's confidence. The rupture 
followed, and with two friends, John Chute of the Vyne, Hamp- 
shire, and the young Francis Whithed, Gray went to Venice to 
see the doge wed the Adriatic on Ascension Day. Thence he 
returned home attended only by a laquais de voyage, visiting 
once more the Grande Chartreuse where he left in the album of 
the brotherhood those beautiful alcaics, O Tu severa Religio 
loci, which reveal his characteristic melancholy (enhanced by 
solitude and estrangement) and that sense of the glory as distinct 
from the horror of mountain scenery to which perhaps he was 
the first of Englishmen to give adequate expression. On the 
i8th of September 1741 we find him in London, astonishing the 
street boys with his deep ruffles, large bag-wig and long sword, 



and " mortified " under the hands of the English barber. On 
the 6th of November his father died; Philip Gray had, it is 
evident, been less savage and niggardly at last to those who 
were dependent upon him, and his death left his wife and son 
some measure of assured peace and comfort. 

London was Gray's headquarters for more than a year, with 
occasional visits to Stoke Poges, to which his mother and Mary 
Antrobus had retired from business to live with their sister, 
Mrs Rogers. At Stoke he heard of the death of West, to whom 
he had sent the " Ode on Spring," which was returned to him 
unopened. It was an unexpected blow, shocking in all its 
circumstances, especially if we believe the story that his friend's 
frail life was brought to a close by the discovery that the mother 
whom he tenderly loved had been an unfaithful wife, and, as 
some say, poisoned her husband. About this tragedy Gray 
preserved a mournful silence, broken only by the pathetic sonnet, 
and some Latin lines, in which he laments his loss. The year 
1742, was, for him, fruitful in poetic effort, of which, however, 
much was incomplete. The "Agrippina," the De principiis 
Cogitandi, the splenetic " Hymn to Ignorance " in which he 
contemplates his return to the university, remain fragments; 
but besides the two poems already mentioned, the " Ode on a 
Distant Prospect of Eton College " and the " Hymn to Adver- 
sity," perhaps the most faultless of his poems, were written 
before the close of the summer. After hesitating between 
Trinity Hall and Peterhouse, he returned to the latter, probably 
as a fellow-commoner. He had hitherto neglected to read for a 
degree; he proceeded to that of LL.B. in 1744. In 1745 a 
reconciliation with Walpole, long desired probably on both sides, 
was effected through the kind offices of Chute's sister. In 1746 
he spent his time between Cambridge, Stoke and London; was 
much with Walpole; graphically describes the trial of the 
Scottish rebel lords, and studied Greek with avidity; but " the 
muse," which by this time perhaps had stimulated him to begin 
the " Elegy," " has gone, and left him in much worse company." 
In town he finds his friends Chute and Whithed returned to 
England, and " flaunts about " in public places with them. 
The year 1747 produced only the ode on Walpole's cat, and we 
gather that he is mainly engaged in reading with a very critical 
eye, and interesting himself more in the troubles of Pembroke 
College, in which he almost seems to live, than in the affairs of 
Peterhouse. In this year also he made the acquaintance of 
Mason, his future biographer. In 1748 he first came before the 
public, but anonymously, in Dodsley's Miscellany, in which 
appeared the Eton ode, the ode on spring, and that on the cat. 
In the same year he sent to Wharton the beginning of the didactic 
poem, " The Alliance of Education and Government," which 
remains a fragment. His aunt, Mary Antrobus, died in 1749. 

There is little to break the monotony of his days till 1750, 
when from Stoke he sent Walpole " a thing to which he had at 
last put an end." The " thing " was the " Elegy." It was 
shoWn about in manuscript by his admiring friend; it was 
impudently pirated, and Gray had it printed by Dodsley in 
self-defence. Even thus it had " a pinch or two in its cradle," 
of which it long bore the marks. The publication led to the one 
incident in Gray's life which has a touch of romance. At Stoke- 
house had come to live the widowed Lady Cobham, who learnt 
that the author of the " Elegy " was her neighbour. At her 
instance, Lady Schaub, her visitor, and Miss Speed, her protegee, 
paid him a call; the poet was out, and his quiet mother and 
aunts were somewhat flustered at the apparition of these women 
of fashion, whose acquaintance Gray had already made in town. 
Hence the humorous " Long Story." A platonic affection 
sprang up between Gray and Miss Speed; rumour, upon the 
death of Lady Cobham, said that they were to be married, but 
the lady escaped this mild destiny to become the Baroness de la 
Pcyriere, afterwards Countess Viry, and a dangerous political 
intriguante. 

In 1753 all Gray's completed poems, except the sonnet on the 
death of West, were published by Dodsley in a handsome volume 
illustrated by Richard Bentley, the son of the celebrated master 
of Trinity. To these designs we owe the verses to the artist 



394 



GRAY, THOMAS 



which were posthumously published from a MS. torn at the end. 
In the same year Gray's mother died and was buried in the 
churchyard at Stoke Poges, the scene of the " Elegy," in the 
same grave with Mary Antrobus. A visit to his friend Dr 
Wharton at Durham later in the year revives his earlier impres- 
sions of that bolder scenery which is henceforth to be in the 
main the framework of his muse. Already in 1752 he had 
almost completed " The Progress of Poesy," in which, and in 
" The Bard," the imagery Is largely furnished forth by mountain 
and torrent. The latter poem long held fire; Gray was stimu- 
lated to finish it by hearing the blind Welsh harper Parry at 
Cambridge. Both odes were the first-fruits of the press which 
Walpole had set up at Strawberry Hill, and were printed together 
there in 1757. They are genuinely Pindaric, that is, with corre- 
sponding strophes, antistrophes and epodes. As the Greek 
motto prefixed to them implies, they were vooil to the intelligent 
only; and these at first were few. But the odes, if they did not 
attain the popularity of the " Elegy," marked an epoch in 
the history of English poetry, and the influence of " The Bard " 
may be traced even in that great but very fruitful imposture, 
the pseudo-Ossian of Macpherson. Gray yields to the impulse 
of the Romantic movement; he has long been an admirer of 
ballad poetry; before he wrote " The Bard " he had begun to 
study Scandinavian literature, and the two " Norse Odes," 
written in 1761, were in style and metrical form strangely 
anticipative of Coleridge and Scott. Meanwhile his Cambridge 
life had been vexed by the freaks of the fellow-commoners of 
Peterhouse, a peculiarly riotous set. He had suffered great 
inconvenience for a time by the burning of his property in 
Cornhill, and so nervous was he on the subject of fire that he 
had provided himself with a rope-ladder by which he might 
descend from his college window. Under this window a hunting- 
party of these rude lads raised in the early morning the cry 
of fire; the poet's night-capped head appeared and was at 
once withdrawn. This, or little more than this, was the simple 
fact out of which arose the legend still current at Cambridge. 
The servile authorities of Peterhouse treated Gray's complaints 
with scant respect, and he migrated to Pembroke College. " I 
left my lodgings," he said, "because the rooms were noisy, and 
the people of the house dirty." 

In 1758 died Mrs Rogers, and Gray describes himself as 
employed at Stoke in " dividing nothing " between himself and 
the surviving aunt, Mrs Oliffe, whom he calls " the spawn of 
Cerberus and the Dragon of Wantley." In 1759 he availed 
himself of the MS. treasures of the British Museum, then for the 
first time open to the public, made a very long sojourn in town, 
and in 1761 witnessed the coronation of George III., of which 
to his friend Brown of Pembroke he wrote a very vivacious 
account. In his last years he revealed a craving for a life less 
sedentary than heretofore. He visited various picturesque 
districts of Great Britain, exploring great houses and ruined 
abbeys; he was the pioneer of the modern tourist, noting and 
describing in the spirit now of the poet, now of the art-critic, 
now of the antiquary. In 1762 he travelled in Yorkshire and 
Derbyshire; in 1764 in the Lowlands of Scotland, and thence 
went to Southampton and its neighbourhood. In 1765 he 
revisits Scotland; he is the guest of Lord Strathmore at Glamis; 
and revels in " those monstrous creatures of God," the Highland 
mountains. His most notable achievement in this direction 
was his journey among the English lakes, of which he wrote an 
interesting account to Wharton; and even in 1770, the year 
before his death, he visited with his young friend Norton Nicholls 
"five of the most beautiful counties of the kingdom," and 
descended the Wye for 40 m. In all these quests he displays a 
physical energy which surprises and even perplexes us. His 
true academic status was worthily secured in 1768, when the 
duke of Grafton offered him the professorship of modern history 
which in 1762 he had vainly endeavoured to obtain from Bute. 
He wrote in 1769 the " Installation Ode " upon the appointment 
of Grafton as chancellor of the university. It was almost the 
only instance in which he successfully executed a task, not, in 
the strictest sense, self-imposed; the great founders of the 



university are tactfully memorized and pass before us in a kind 
of heraldic splendour. He bore with indifference the taunts 
to which, from Junius and others, he was exposed for this 
tribute to his patron. He was contemplating a journey to 
Switzerland to visit his youthful friend de Bonstetten when, in 
the summer of 1771, he was conscious Of a great decline in his 
physical powers. He was seized with a sudden illness when 
dining in his college hall, and died of gout .in the stomach on the 
3oth of July 1771. His last moments were attended by his 
cousin Mary Antrobus, postmistress through his influence at 
Cambridge and daughter of his Eton tutor; and he was laid 
beside his beloved mother in the churchyard of Stoke Poges. 

Owing to his shyness and reserve he had few intimate friends, 
but to these his loss was irreparable; for to them he revealed 
himself either in boyish levity and banter, or wise and sympa- 
thetic counsel and tender and yet manly consolation; to them 
he imparted his quiet but keen observation of passing events 
or the stores of his extensive reading in literature ancient, 
medieval or modern; and with Proteus-like variety he writes 
at one time as a speculative philosopher, at another as a critic 
in art or music, at another as a meteorologist and nature-lover. 
His friendship with the young, after his migration to Pembroke 
College, is a noteworthy trait in his character. With Lord 
Strathmore and the Lyons and with William Palgrave he con- 
versed as an elder brother, and Norton Nicholls of Trinity Hall 
lost in him a second father, who had taught him to think and feel. 
The brilliant young foreigner, de Bonstetten, looked back after 
a long and chequered career with remembrance still vivid to the 
days in which the poet so soon to die taught him to read Shake- 
speare and Milton in the monastic gloom of Cambridge. With 
the elderly " Levites " of the place he was less in sympathy; 
they dreaded his sarcastic vein; they were conscious that he 
laughed at them, and in the polemics of the university he was 
somewhat of a free lance, fighting for his own hand. Lampoons 
of his were privately circulated with effect, and that he could be 
the fiercest of satirists the " Cambridge Courtship " on the 
candidature of Lord Sandwich for the office of high steward, and 
the verses on Lord Holland's mimic ruins at Westgate, sufficiently 
prove. The faculty which he displayed in humour and satire 
was denied to his more serious muse; there all was the fruit of 
long delay; of that higher inspiration he had a thin but very 
precious vein, and the sublimity which he undoubtedly attained 
was reached by an effort of which captious and even sympathetic 
criticism can discover the traces. In his own time he was 
regarded as an innovator, for like Collins he revived the poetic 
diction of the past, and the adverse judgments of Johnson and 
others upon his work are in fact a defence of the current literary 
traditions. Few men have published so little to so much effect; 
few have attained to fame with so little ambition. His favourite 
maxim was " to be employed is to be happy," but he was always 
employed in the first instance for the satisfaction of his own soul, 
and to this end and no other he made himself one of the best 
Greek scholars at Cambridge in the interval between Bentley 
and Porson. His genius was receptive rather than creative, 
and it is to be regretted that he lacked energy to achieve that 
history of English poetry which he once projected, and for which 
he possessed far more knowledge and insight than the poet 
Thomas Warton, to whom he resigned the task. He had a fine 
taste in music, painting and architecture; and his correspondence 
includes a wide survey of such European literature as was 
accessible to him, with criticisms, sometimes indeed a little 
limited and insular, yet of a singularly fresh and modern cast. 
In person he was below the middle height, but well-made, and 
his face, in which the primness of his features was redeemed 
by his flashing eyes, was the index of his character. There was 
a touch of affectation in his demeanour, and he was sometimes 
reticent and secretive even to his best friends. He was a refined 
Epicurean in his habits, and a deist rather than a Christian in 
his religious beliefs; but his friend, Mrs Bonfoy, had " taught 
him to pray " and he was keenly alive to the dangers of a flippant 
scepticism. In a beautiful alcaic stanza he pronounces the man 
supremely happy who in the depths of the heart is conscious 



GRAY, W. DE GRAZ 



395 



of the " fount of tears," and his characteristic melancholy, 
except in the few hours when it was indeed black, was not a 
pitiable state; rather, it was one secret of the charm both of 
the man and of the poet. 

A very complete bibliography of Gray will be found in Dr. Brad- 
shaw's edition of the poems in the Aldine series. Dodsley published 
ten of the poems, exclusive of the " Long Story," in 1768. Mason's 
Life of Gray (1778) included the poems and some hitherto unpub- 
lished fragments, with a selection from his letters, much garbled. 
Mathias in 1814 reprinted Mason's edition and added much from 
Gray's MS. commentaries together with some more of his transla- 
tions. The most exhaustive edition of Gray's writings was achieved 
by the Rev. John Mitford, who first did justice to the correspondence 
with Wharton and Norton Nicholls (5 vols., Pickering, 1836-1843; 
correspondence of Gray and Mason, Bentley, 1853); see also the 
edition of the works by Edmund Gosse (4 vols. 1884); the Life 
by the same in Eng. Men of Letters (2nd ed., 1889) ; some further 
relics are given in Cray and His Friends by D. C. Tovey (Cambridge, 
1890); and a new edition of the letters copiously annotated by D. 
C. Tovey is in the Standard Library (1900-1907). Nicholl's 
Illustrations, vol. vi. p. 805, quoted by Professor Kittredge in the 
Nation, Sept. I2th, 1900, gives the true story of Gray's migration 
to Pembroke College. Matthew Arnold's essay on Gray in Ward's 
English Poets is one of the minor classics of literary criticism. 

(D. C. To.) 

GRAY (or GREY), WALTER DE (d. 1255), English prelate and 
statesman, was a nephew of John de Gray, bishop of Norwich, 
and was educated at Oxford. He owed his early and rapid 
preferment in church and state to the favour of King John, 
becoming the king's chancellor in 1205, and being chosen bishop 
of Lichfield in 1210. He was, however, not allowed to keep this 
bishopric, but he became bishop of Worcester in 1214, resigning 
his office as chancellor in the same year. Gray was with John 
when the king signed Magna Carta in June 1215; soon after 
this event he left England on the king's business, and it was 
during his absence that he was forced into the archbishopric 
of York, owing his election to the good offices of John and of 
Pope Innocent III. He took a leading part in public affairs 
during the minority of Henry III., and was regarded with much 
favour by this king, who employed him on important errands 
to foreign potentates, and left him as guardian of England when 
he went to France in 1242. Afterwards the archbishop seems 
to have been less favourably disposed towards Henry, and for a 
time he absented himself from public business; however, in 
1255, he visited London to attend a meeting of parliament, and 
died at Fulham on the ist of May 1255. Gray was always 
anxious to assert his archiepiscopal authority over Scotland, 
and to maintain it against the archbishop of Canterbury, but 
in neither case was he very successful. He built the south 
transept of the minster at York and bought for his see the 
village, afterwards called Bishopthorpe, which is still the residence 
of the archbishop of York. He was also generous to the church 
at Ripon. Gray was regarded by his contemporaries as an 
avaricious, but patriotic man. 

GRAY, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement 
in the department of Haute-Saone, situated on the declivity of 
a hill on the left bank of the Sa6ne, 36 m. S.W. of Vesoul by the 
Eastern railway. Pop. (1906) 5742. The streets of the town are 
narrow and steep, but it possesses broad and beautiful quays 
and has a busy port. Three bridges, one dating from the i8th 
century, unite it to suburbs on the right bank of the river, on 
which is the railway-station from which lines branch off to 
Auxonne, Dijon, Besanfon and Culmont-Chalindrey. The 
principal buildings are the Gothic church, restored in the style 
of the Renaissance but with a modern portal, and the hfitel de 
ville, built by the Spaniards in 1568. The latter building has a 
handsome facade decorated with columns of red granite. Gray 
is the seat of a subprefect and has tribunals of first instance 
and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a communal college 
and a small museum. It has large flour-mills; among the other 
industries is the manufacture of machinery and iron goods. 
There is also a considerable transit traffic in goods from the 
south of France and the colonies, and trade in iron, corn, pro- 
visions, vegetables, wine, wood, &c., much of which is carried 
by river. Gray was founded in the 7th century. Its fortifications 
were destroyed by Louis XIV. During the Franco-German War 



General von Werder concentrated his army corps in the town 
and held it for a month, making it the point d'appui of move- 
ments towards Dijon and Langres, as well as towards Besanjon. 

Gray gave its name to the distinguished English family of 
de Gray, Gray or Grey, Anschitel de Gray being mentioned as 
an Oxfordshire tenant in Domesday. 

GRAYLING (Thymallus), fishes belonging to the family 
Salmonidae. The best known are the " poisson bleu " of the 
Canadian voyageurs, and the European species, Thymallus 
vulgaris (the Asch or Asche of Germany, ombre of France, and 
temola of Upper Italy). This latter species is esteemed on 
account of its agreeable colours (especially of the dorsal fin), its 
well-flavoured flesh, and the sport it affords to anglers. The 
grayling differ from the genus Salmo in the smaller mouth with 
comparatively feeble dentition, in the larger scales, and especially 
in the much greater development of the dorsal fin, which contains 
20 to 24 rays. These beautiful fishes, of which five or six species 
are known, inhabit the fresh waters of Europe, Siberia and the 
northern parts of North America. The European species, 
T. vulgaris or vexillifer, attains, though rarely, a length of 2 ft. 
The colours during life are remarkably changeable and iridescent ; 
small dark spots are sometimes present on the body; the very 
high dorsal fin is beautifully marked with purplish bands and 
ocelli. In England and Scotland the grayling appears to have 
had originally a rather irregular distribution, but it has now 
been introduced into a great number of rivers; it is not found in 
Ireland. It is more generally distributed in Scandinavia and 
Russia, and the mountain streams of central Europe southwards 
to the Alpine water of Upper Italy. Specimens attaining to a 
weight of 4 lb are very scarce. 

GRAYS THURROCK, or GRAYS, an urban district in the south- 
eastern parliamentary division of Essex, England, on the Thames, 
20 m. E. by S. from London by the London, Tilbury & Southend 
railway. Pop. (1901) 13,834. The church of St Peter and St 
Paul, wholly rebuilt, retains some Norman work. The town 
takes its name from a family of Gray who held the manor for 
three centuries from 1149. There are an endowed and two 
training ship schools. Roman remains have been found in the 
vicinity; and the geological formations exhibiting the process 
of silting up of a former river channel are exposed in the quarries, 
and contain large mammalian remains. The town has trade in 
bricks, lime and cement. 

GRAZ [GRATZ], the capital of the Austrian duchy and crown- 
land of Styria, 140 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 
138,370. It is picturesquely situated on both banks of the Mur, 
just where this river enters a broad and fertile valley, and the 
beauty of its position has given rise to the punning French 
description, La Ville des grdces sur la riviere de I' amour. The main 
town lies on the left bank of the river at the foot of the Schloss- 
berg (1545 ft.) which dominates the town. The beautiful valley 
traversed by the Mur, known as the Grazer Feld and bounded 
by the Wildonerberge, extends to the south; to the S.W. rise 
the Bacher Gebirge and the Koralpen; to the N. the Schockel 
(4745 ft.), and to the N.W. the Alps of Upper Styria. On the 
Schlossbcrg, which can be ascended by a cable tramway, beautiful 
parks have been laid out, and on its top is the bell-tower, 60 ft. 
high, and the quaint clock-tower, 52 ft. high, which bears a 
gigantic clock-dial. At the foot of the Schlossberg is the Stadt- 
Park. 

Among the numerous churches of the city the most important 
is the cathedral of St Aegidius, a Gothic building erected by the 
emperor Frederick III. in 1450-1462 on the site of a previous 
church mentioned as early as 1157. It has been several times 
modified and redecorated, more particularly in 1718. The 
present copper spire dates from 1663. The interior is richly 
adorned with stained-glass windows of modern date, costly 
shrines, paintings and tombs. In the immediate neighbourhood 
of the cathedral is the mausoleum church erected by the emperor 
Ferdinand II. Worthy of mention also are the parish church, a 
Late Gothic building, finished in 1520, and restored in 1875, 
which possesses an altar piece by Tintoretto; the Augustinian 
church, appropriated to the service of the university since 1827; 



39 6 



GRAZZINI GREAT AWAKENING 



the small Leech Kirche, an interesting building in Early Gothic 
style, dating from the i3th century, and the Herz Jesu-Kirche, 
a building in Early Gothic style, finished in 1891, with a tower 
360 ft. high. Of the secular buildings the most important is the 
Landhaus, where the local diet holds its sittings, erected in the 
i6th century in the Renaissance style. It possesses an interesting 
portal and a beautiful arcaded court, and amongst the curiosities 
preserved here is the Styrian hat. In its neighbourhood is the 
Zeughaus or arsenal, built in 1644, which contains a very rich 
collection of weapons of the isth-i7th centuries, and which is 
maintained exactly in the same condition as it was 250 years ago. 
The town hall, built in 1807, and rebuilt in 1892 in the German 
Renaissance style, and the imperial castle, dating from the nth 
century, now used as government offices, are also worth notice. 

At the head of the educational institutions is the university 
founded in 1586 by the Austrian archduke Charles Francis, and 
restored in 1817 after an interruption of 45 years. It is now 
housed 'in a magnificent building, finished in 1895, and is endowed 
with numerous scientific laboratories and a rich library. It 
had in 1901 a teaching staff of 161 professors and lecturers, 
and 1652 students, including many Italians from the Kiistenland 
and Dalmatia. The Joanneum Museum, founded in 1811 by the 
archduke John Baptist, has become very rich in many depart- 
ments, and an additional huge building in the rococo style was 
erected in 1895 for its accommodation. The technical college, 
founded in 1814 by the archduke John Baptist, had in 1901 
about 400 pupils. 

An active trade, fostered by abundant railway communications, 
is combined with manufactures of iron and steel wares, paper, 
chemicals, vinegar, physical and optical instruments, besides 
artistic printing and lithography. The extensive workshops 
of the Southern railway are at Graz, and since the opening of the 
railway to the rich coal-fields of Koflach the number of industrial 
establishments has greatly increased. 

Amongst the numerous interesting places in the neighbourhood 
are: the Hilmteich, with the Hilmwarte, about 100 ft. high; 
and the Rosenberg (1570 ft.), whence the ascent of the Platte 
(2136 ft.) with extensive view is made. At the foot of the 
Rosenberg is Maria Griin, with a large sanatorium. All these 
places are situated to the N. of Graz. On the left bank of the 
Mur is the pilgrimage church of Maria Trost, built in 1714; 
on the right bank is the castle of Eggenberg, built in the i7th 
century. To the S.W. is the Buchkogel (2150 ft.), with a magnifi- 
cent view, and a little farther south is the watering-place of 
Tobelbad. 

History. Graz may possibly have been a Roman site, but 
the first mention of it under its present name is in a document 
of A.D. 881, after which it became the residence of the rulers 
of the surrounding district, known later as Styria. Its privileges 
were confirmed by King Rudolph I. in 1281. Surrounded with 
walls and fosses in 1435, it was able in 1481 to defend itself 
against the Hungarians under Matthias Corvinus, and in 1529 
and 1532 the Turks attacked it with as little success. As early 
as 1530 the Lutheran doctrine was preached in Graz by Seifried 
and Jacob von Eggenberg, and in 1540 Eggenberg founded the 
Paradies or Lutheran school, in which Kepler afterwards taught. 
But the archduke Charles burned 20,000 Protestant books in 
the square of the present lunatic asylum, and succeeded by his 
oppressive measures in bringing the city again under the authority 
of Rome. From the earlier part of the isth century Graz was 
the residence of one branch of the family of Habsburg, a branch 
which succeeded to the imperial throne in 1619 in the person 
of Ferdinand II. New fortifications were constructed in the end 
of the 1 6th century by Franz von Poppendorf, and in 1644 the 
town afforded an asylum to the family of Ferdinand III. The 
French were in possession of the place in 1797 and again in 1805 ; 
and in 1809 Marshal Macdonald having, in accordance with the 
terms of the peace of Vienna, entered the citadel which he had 
vainly besieged, blew it all up with the exception of the bell- 
tower and the citizens' or clock tower. It benefited greatly 
during the igth century from the care of the archduke John and 
received extended civic privileges in 1860. 



See Ilwof and Peters, Graz, Geschichte und Topographic der Stadt 
(Graz, 1875); G. Fels, Graz und seine Umgebung (Graz, 1898); L. 
Mayer, Die Stadt der Grazien (Graz, 1897), and Hofrichter, Riickblicke 
in die Vergangenheit von Graz (Graz, 1885). 

GRAZZINI, ANTONIO FRANCESCO (1503-1583), Italian 
author, was born at Florence on the 22nd of March 1 503, of good 
family both by his father's and mother's side. Of his youth 
and education all record appears to be lost, but he probably 
began early to practise as an apothecary. In 1540 he was one 
of the founders of the Academy of the Humid (degli Umidi) 
afterwards called " della Fiorentina," and later took a prominent 
part in the establishment of the more famous Accademia della 
Crusca. In both societies he was known as // Lasca or Leuciscus, 
and this pseudonym is still frequently substituted for his proper 
name. His temper was what the French happily call a difficult 
one, and his life was consequently enlivened or disturbed by 
various literary quarrels. His Humid brethren went so far as 
to expel him for a time from the society the chief ground 
of offence being apparently his ruthless criticism of the 
" Arameans," a party of the academicians who maintained 
that the Florentine or Tuscan tongue was derived from the 
Hebrew, the Chaldee, or some other branch of the Semitic. 
He was readmitted in 1 566, when his friend Salviati was" consul " 
of the academy. His death took place on the i8th of February 
1583. II Lasca ranks as one of the great masters of Tuscan 
prose. His style is copious and flexible; abundantly idiomatic, 
but without any affectation of being so, it carries with it the 
force and freshness of popular speech, while it lacks not at the 
same time a flavour of academic culture. His principal works 
are Le Cene (1756), a collection of stories in the manner of 
Boccaccio, and a number of prose comedies, LaGelosia (1568), La 
Spiritata (i 561), / Parentadi, La Arenga, La Sibilla, LaPinzochera, 
L' Arzigogolo. The stories, though of no special merit as far 
as the plots are concerned, are told with verve and interest. 
A number of miscellaneous poems, a few letters and Four 
Orations to the Cross complete the list of Grazzini's extant works. 

He also edited the works of Berni, and collected Tutti i trionfi, 
larri, -mascherate, e canti carnascialaschi, andati per Firenze dal 
tempo del magnifico Lorenzo de' Medici fino all' anno 1559. In 1868 
Adamo Rossi published in his Ricerche per. le biblioteche di Perugia 
three " novelle" by Grazzini, from a MS. of the i6th century in the 
"Comunale" of Perugia: and in 1870 a small collection of those 
poems which have been left unpublished by previous editors appeared 
at Poggibonsi, Alcune Poesie inedite. See Pietro Fanfani's "Vita 
del Lasca," prefixed to his edition of the Opere di A. Grazzini 
(Florence, 1857). 

GREAT AWAKENING, the name given to a remarkable 
religious revival centring in New England in 1740-1743, but 
covering all the American colonies in 1740-1750. The word 

awakening " in this sense was frequently (and possibly first) 
used by Jonathan Edwards at the time of the Northampton 
revival of 1734-1735, which spread through the Connecticut 
Valley and prepared the way for the work in Rhode Island, 
Massachusetts and Connecticut(i74o-i74i)of George Whitefield, 
who had previously been preaching in the South, especially 
at Savannah, Georgia. He, his immediate follower, Gilbert 
Tennent (i 703-1 764), other clergymen, such as James Davenport, 
and many untrained laymen who took up the work, agreed 
in the emotional and dramatic character of their preaching, 
in rousing their hearers to a high pitch of excitement, often 
amounting to frenzy, in the undue stress they put upon " bodily 
effects " (the physical manifestations of an abnormal psychic 
state) as proofs of conversion, and in their unrestrained attacks 
upon the many clergymen who did not join them and whom 
they called " dead men," unconverted, unregenerate and 
careless of the spiritual condition of their parishes. Jonathan 
Edwards, Benjamin Colman (1673-1747), and Joseph Bellamy, 
recognized the viciousness of so extreme a position. Edwards 
personally reprimanded Whitefield for presuming to say of any 
one that he was unconverted, and in nis Thoughts Concerning 
the Present Revival of Religion devoted much space to " showing 
what things are to be corrected, or avoided, in promoting this 
work." Edwards' famous sermon at Enfield in 1741 so affected 
his audience that they cried and groaned aloud, and he found 



GREAT BARRIER REEF GREAT BASIN 



397 



it necessary to bid them be still that he might go on; but 
Davenport and many itinerants provoked and invited shouting 
and even writhing, and other physical manifestations. At its 
May session in 1742 the General Court of Massachusetts forbade 
itinerant preaching save with full consent from the resident 
pastor; in May 1743 the annual ministerial convention, by a 
small plurality, declared against " several errors in doctrine 
and disorders in practice which have of late obtained in various 
parts of the land," against lay preachers and disorderly revival 
meetings; in the same year Charles Chauncy, who disapproved 
of the revival, published Seasonable Thoughts on the Slate of 
Religion in New England; and in 1744-1745 Whitefield, upon 
his second tour in New England, found that the faculties of 
Harvard and Yale had officially " testified " and " declared " 
against him and that most pulpits were closed to him. Some 
separatist churches were formed as a result of the Awakening; 
these either died out or became Baptist congregations. To 
the reaction against the gross methods of the revival has been 
ascribed the religious apathy of New England during the last 
years of the i8th century; but the martial and political excite- 
ment, beginning with King George's War (i.e. the American 
part of the War of the Austrian Succession) and running through 
the American War of Independence and the founding of the 
American government, must be reckoned at the least as contri- 
buting causes. . 
See Joseph Tracy, The Great Awakening (Boston, 1842) ; Samuel 
P. Hayes, " An Historical Study of the Edwardean Revivals," in 
The American Journal of Psychology, vol. 13 (Worcester, Mass., 
1902); and Frederick M. Davenport, Primitive Traits in Religious 
Revivals (New York, 1905), especially chapter viii. pp. 94-131. 

(R. WE.) 

GREAT BARRIER REEF, a vast coral reef extending for 
1200 m. along the north-east coast of Australia (q.v.). The 
channel within it is protected from heavy seas by the reef, and 
is a valuable route of communication for coasting steamers. 
The reef itself is also traversed by a number of navigable passages. 

GREAT HARRINGTON, a township of Berkshire county, 
Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Housatonic river, in the Berkshire 
hills, about 25 m. S.W. of Pittsfield. Pop. (1890) 4612; (1900) 
5854. of whom 1187 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 5926. 
Its area is about 45 sq. m. The township is traversed by 
a branch of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad, and 
the Berkshire Street railway (controlled by the N.Y., N.H. & H.) 
has its southern terminus here. Within the township are 
three villages Great Barrington (the most important), Housa- 
tonic and Van Deusenville; the first two are about 5 m. apart. 
The village of Great Barrington, among the hills, is well known 
as a summer resort. The Congregational church with its magnifi- 
cent organ (3954 pipes) is worthy of mention. There is a public 
library in the village of Great Barrington and another in the 
village of Housatonic. Monument Mt. (1710 ft.), partly in 
Stockbridge, commands a fine view of the Berkshires and the 
Housatonic Valley. The Sedgwick School (for boys) was removed 
from Hartford, Connecticut, to Great Barrington in 1869. 
There are various manufactures, including cotton-goods (in the 
village of Housatonic), and electric meters, paper, knit goods 
and counterpanes (in the village of Great Barrington); and 
marble and blue stone are quarried here; but the township is 
primarily given over to farming. The fair of the Housatonic 
Agricultural Society is held here annually during September; 
and the district court of South Berkshire sits here. The township 
was incorporated in 1761, having been, since 1743, the " North 
Parish of Sheffield "; the township of Sheffield, earlier known 
as the " Lower Housatonic Plantation " was incorporated in 
1733. Great Barrington was named in honour of John Shute 
(1678-1734), Viscount Barrington of Ardglass (the adjective 
" Great " being added to distinguish it from another township 
of the same name). In 1761-1787 it was the shire-town. Great 
Barrington was a centre of the disaffection during Shays's 
rebellion, and on the I2th of September 1786 a riot here pre- 
vented the sitting of court. Samuel Hopkins, one of the most 
eminent of American theologians, was pastor here in 1743-1769; 
Genera] Joseph Dwight (1703-1765), a merchant, lawyer and 



brigadier-general of Massachusetts militia, who took part in 
the Louisburg expedition in 1745 and later in the French and 
Indian War, lived here from 1758 until his death; and William 
Cullen Bryant lived here as a lawyer and town clerk in 1816-1825. 
See C. J. Taylor, History of Great Barrington (Great Barrington, 
1882). 

GREAT BASIN, an area in the western Cordilleran region of 
the United States of America, about 200,000 sq. m. in extent, 
characterized by wholly interior drainage, a peculiar mountain 
system and extreme aridity. Its form is approximately that 
of an isosceles triangle, with the sharp angle extending into 
Lower California, W. of the Colorado river; the northern edge 
being formed by the divide of the drainage basin of the Columbia 
river, the eastern by that of the Colorado, the western by the 
central part of the Sierra Nevada crest, and by other high 
mountains. The N. boundary and much of the E. is not con- 
spicuously uplifted, being plateau, rather than mountain. The 
W. half of Utah, the S.W. corner of Wyoming, the S.E. corner 
of Idaho, a large area in S.E. Oregon, much of S. California, 
a strip along the E. border of the last-named state, and almost 
the whole of Nevada are embraced within .the limits of the 
Great Basin. 

The Great Basin is not, as its name implies, a topographic cup. 
Its surface is of varied character, with many independent closed 
basins draining into lakes or "playas," none of which, however, 
has outlet to the sea. The mountain chains, which from their 
peculiar geologic character are known as of the " Basin Range 
type " (not exactly conterminous in distribution with the Basin), 
are echeloned in short ranges running from N. to S. Many of 
them are fault block mountains, the crust having been broken 
and the blocks tilted so that there is a steep face on one side 
and a gentle slope on the other. This is the Basin Range type of 
mountain. These mountains are among the most recent in the 
continent, and some of them, at least, are still growing. In 
numerous instances clear evidence of recent movements along 
the fault planes has been discovered; and frequent earthquakes 
testify with equal force to the present uplift of the mountain 
blocks. The valleys between the tilted mountain blocks are 
smooth and often trough-like, and are often the sites of shallow 
salt lakes or playas. By the rain wash and wind action detritus 
from the mountains is carried to these valley floors, raising their 
level, and often burying low mountain spurs, so as to cause 
neighbouring valleys to coalesce. The plateau " lowlands " in 
the centre of the Basin are approximately 5000 ft. in altitude. 
Southward the altitude falls, Death valley and Coahuila valley 
being in part below the level of the sea. The whole Basin is 
marked by three features of elevation the Utah basin, the 
Nevada basin and, between them, the Nevada plateau. 

Over the lowlands of the Basin, taken generally, there is an 
average precipitation of perhaps 6-7 in., while in the Oregon 
region it is twice as great, and in the southern parts even less. 
The mountains receive somewhat more. The annual evaporation 
from water surfaces is from 60 to 150 in. (60 to 80 on the Great 
Salt Lake). The reason for the arid climate differs in different 
sections. In the north it is due to the fact that the winds from 
the Pacific lose most of their moisture, especially in winter, on 
the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada; in the south it is due 
to the fact that the region lies in a zone of calms, and light, 
variable winds. Precipitation is largely confined to local showers, 
often of such violence as to warrant the name " cloud bursts," 
commonly applied to the heavy down-pours of this desert 
region. It is these heavy rains, of brief duration, when great 
volumes of water rapidly run off from the barren slopes, that 
cause the deep channels, or arroyas, which cross the desert. 
Permanent streams are rare. Many mountains are quite without 
perennial streams, and some lack even springs. Few of the 
mountain creeks succeed in reaching the arid plains, and those 
that do quickly disappear by evaporation or by seepage into 
the gravels. In the N.W. there are many permanent lakes 
without outlet fed by the mountain streams; others, snow fed, 
occur among the Sierra Nevada; and some in the larger mountain 
masses of the middle region. Almost all are saline. The largest 



398 



GREAT BEAR LAKE GREATHEAD 



of all, Great Salt Lake, is maintained by the waters of the 
Wasatch and associated plateaus. No lakes occur south of 
Owens in the W. and Sevier in the E. (39) ; evaporation below 
these limits is supreme. Most of the small closed basins, how- 
ever, contain " playas," or alkali mud flats, that are overflowed 
when the tributary streams are supplied with storm water. 

Save where irrigation has reclaimed small areas, the whole 
region is a vast desert, though locally only some of the interior 
plains are known as " deserts." Such are the Great Salt Lake 
and Carson deserts in the north, the Mohave and Colorado and 
Amargosa (Death Valley) deserts of the south-west. Straggling 
forests, mainly of conifers, characterize the high plateaus of 
central Utah. The lowlands and the lower mountains, especially 
southward, are generally treeless. Cottonwoods line the streams, 
salt-loving vegetation margins the bare playas, low bushes and 
scattered bunch-grass grow over the lowlands, especially in the 
north. Gray desert plants, notably cactuses and other thorny 
plants, partly replace in the south the bushes of the north. 
Except on the scattered oases, where irrigation from springs and 
mountain streams has reclaimed small patches, the desert is 
barren and forbidding in the extreme. There are broad plains 
covered with salt and alkali, and others supporting only scattered 
bunch grass, sage bush, cactus and other arid land plants. 
There are stony wastes, or alluvial fans, where mountain streams 
emerge upon the plains, in time of flood, bringing detritus in 
their torrential courses from the mountain canyons and depositing 
it along the mountain base. The barrenness extends into the 
mountains themselves, where there are bare rock cliffs, stony 
slopes and a general absence of vegetation. With increasing 
altitude vegetation becomes more varied and abundant, until the 
tree limit is reached; then follows a forest belt, which in the 
highest mountains is limited above by cold as it is below by 
aridity. 

The successive explorations of B. L. E. Bonneville, J. C. 
Fremont and Howard Stansbury (1806-1863) furnished a 
general knowledge of the hydrographic features and geological 
lacustrine history of the Great Basin, and this knowledge was 
rounded out by the field work of the U.S. Geological Survey from 
1879 to 1883, under the direction of Grove Karl Gilbert. The 
mountains are composed in great part of Paleozoic strata, 
often modified by vulcanism and greatly denuded and sculptured 
by wind and water erosion. The climate in late geologic time 
was very different from that which prevails to-day. In the 
Pleistocene period many large lakes were formed within the Great 
Basin; especially, by the fusion of small catchment basins, 
two great confluent bodies of water Lake Lahontan (in the 
Nevada basin) and Lake Bonneville (in the Utah basin). The 
latter, the remnants of which are represented to-day by Great 
Salt, Sevier and Utah Lakes, had a drainage basin of some 
54,000 sq. m. 

See G. K. Gilbert in Wheeler Survey, U.S. Geographical Survey 
West of the Hundredth Meridian, vol. iii. ; Clarence King and others 
in the Report of the Fortieth Parallel Survey (U.S. Geol. Exploration 
of the Fortieth Parallel); G. K. Gilbert's Lake Bonneville (U.S. 
Geological Survey, Monographs, No. I, 1890), also I. C. Russell's 
Lake Lahontan (Same, No. 1 1, 1885), with references to other publica- 
tions of the Survey. For reference to later geological literature, and 
discussion of the Basin Ranges, see J. E. Spurr, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 
vol. 12, 1901, p. 217; and G. D. Louderback, same, vol. 15, 1904, 
p. 280; also general bibliographies issued by the U.S. Geol. Survey 
(e.g. Bull. 301, 372 and 409). 

GREAT BEAR LAKE, an extensive sheet of fresh water in 
the north-west of Canada, between 65 and 67 N., and 117 and 
123 W. It is of very irregular shape, has an estimated area 
of 11,200 sq. m., a depth of 270 ft., and is upwards of 200 ft. 
above the sea. It is 175 m. in length, and from 25 to 45 in 
breadth, though the greatest distance between its northern and 
southern arms is about 180 m. The Great Bear river discharges 
its waters into the Mackenzie river. It is full of fish, and the 
neighbouring country, though barren and uncultivated, contains 
quantities of game. 

GREAT CIRCLE. The circle in which a sphere is cut by a 
plane is called a " great circle," when the cutting plane passes 
through the centre of sphere. Treating the earth as a sphere, 



the meridians of longitude are all great circles. Of the parallels 
of latitude, the equator only is a great circle. The shortest line 
joining any two points is an arc of a great circle. For " great 
circle sailing " see NAVIGATION. 

GREAT FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Cascade county, 
Montana, U.S.A., 99 m. (by rail) N.E. of Helena, on the S. bank 
of the Missouri river, opposite the mouth of the Sun river, at an 
altitude of about 3300 ft. It is 10 m. above the Great Falls 
of the Missouri, from which it derives its name. Pop. (1890) 
3979; (1900) 14,930, of whom 4692 were foreign-born; (1910 
census) 13,948. It has an area of about 8 sq. m. It is served 
by the Great Northern and the Billings & Northern (Chicago, 
Burlington & Quincy system) railways. The city has a splendid 
park system of seven parks (about 530 acres) with 15 m. of 
boulevards. 1 Among the principal buildings are a city hall, 
court house, high school, commercial college, Carnegie library, 
the Columbus Hospital and Training School for Nurses (under 
the supervision of the Sisters of Charity), and the Montana 
Deaconess hospital. There is a Federal land office in the city. 
Great Falls lies in the midst of a region exceptionally rich in 
minerals copper, gold, silver, lead, iron, gypsum, limestone, 
sapphires and bituminous coal being mined in the neighbourhood. 
Much grain is grown in the vicinity, and the city is an important 
shipping point for wool, live-stock and cereals. Near Great 
Falls the Missouri river, within -]\ m., contracts from a width of 
about 900 to 300 yds. and falls more than 500 ft., the principal 
falls being the Black Eagle Falls (50 ft.), from which power is 
derived for the city's street railway and lighting plant, the 
beautiful Rainbow Falls (48 ft.) and Great Falls (92 ft.). Giant 
Spring Fall, about 20 ft. high, is a cascade formed by a spring 
on the bank of the river near Rainbow Falls. The river furnishes 
very valuable water-power, partly utilized by large manufactur- 
ing establishments, including flour mills, plaster mills, breweries, 
iron works, mining machinery shops, and smelting and reduction 
works. The Boston & Montana copper smelter is one of the 
largest in the world; it has a chimney stack 506 ft. high, and in 
1908 employed 1200 men in the smelter and 2500 in its mining 
department. Great Falls ranked second (to Anaconda) among 
the cities of the state in the value of the factory product of 1905, 
which was $13, 291,979, showing an increase of 42-4% since 1900. 
The city owns and operates its water-supply system. Great Falls 
was settled in 1884, and was chartered as a city in 1888. 

GREAT HARWOOD, an urban district in the Darwen parlia- 
mentary division of Lancashire, England, 45 m. N.E. of Black- 
burn, on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 
12,015. It is of modern growth, a township of cotton operatives, 
with large collieries in the vicinity. An agricultural society 
is also maintained. 

GREATHEAD, JAMES HENRY (1844-1896), British engineer, 
was born at Grahamstown, Cape Colony, on the 6th of August 
1844. He migrated to England in 1859, and in 1864 was a pupil 
of P. W. Barlow, from whom he became acquainted with the 
shield system of tunnelling with which his name is especially 
associated. Barlow, indeed, had a strong belief in the shield, 
and was the author of a scheme for facilitating the traffic of 
London by the construction of underground railways running 
in cast-iron tubes constructed by its aid. To show what the 
method could do, it was resolved to make a subway under 
the Thames near the Tower, but the troubles encountered 
by Sir M. I. Brunei in the Thames Tunnel, where also a shield was 
employed, made engineers hesitate to undertake the subway, 
even though it was of very much smaller dimensions (6 ft. 7 in. 

1 Great Falls was a pioneer among the cities of the state in the 
development of a park system. When the city was first settled its 
site was a " barren tract of sand, thinly covered with buffalo-grass 
and patches of sage brush." The first settler, Paris Gibson, of 
Minneapolis, began the planting of trees, which, though not indi- 
genous, grew well. The city's sidewalks are bordered by strips of 
lawn, in which there is a row of trees, and the city maintains a large 
nursery where trees are grown for this purpose. A general state law 
(1901) placing the parking of cities on a sound financial basis is due 
very largely to the impulse furnished by Great Falls. See an article, 
" Great Falls, the Pioneer Park City of Montana," by C. H. Forbes- 
Lindsay, in the Craftsman for November 1908. 



GREAT LAKES 



399 



internal diameter) than the tunnel. At this juncture Greathead 
came forward and offered to take up the contract; and he 
successfully carried it through in 1869 without finding any 
necessity to resort to the use of compressed air, which Barlow 
in 1867 had suggested might be employed in water-bearing strata. 
After this he began to practise on his own account, and mainly 
divided his time between railway construction and taking out 
patents for improvements in his shield, and for other inventions 
such as the " Ejector " fire-hydrant. Early in the 'eighties he 
began to work in conjunction with a company whose aim was 
to introduce into London from America the Hallidie system of 
cable traction, and in 1884 an act of Parliament was obtained 
authorizing what is now the City & South London Railway 
a tube-railway to be worked by cables. This was begun in 1886, 
and the tunnels were driven by means of the Greathead shield, 
compressed air being used at those points where water-bearing 
gravel was encountered. During the progress of the works 
electrical traction became so far developed as to be superior 
to cables; the idea of using the latter was therefore abandoned, 
and when the railway was opened in 1890 it was as an electrical 
one. Greathead was engaged in two other important under- 
ground lines in London the Waterloo & City and the Central 
London. He lived to see the tunnels of the former completed 
under the Thames, but the latter was scarcely begun at the time 
of his death, which happened at Streatham, in the south of 
London, on the 2ist of October 1896. 

GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA, THE. The connected 
string of five fresh-water inland seas, Lakes Superior, Michigan, 
Huron, Erie and Ontario, lying in the interior of North America, 
between the Dominion of Canada on the north and the United 
States of America on the south, and forming the head-waters of 
the St Lawrence river system, are collectively and generally 
known as " The Great Lakes." From the head of lake Superior 
these lakes are navigable to Buffalo, at the foot of lake Erie, 
a distance of 1023 m., for vessels having a draught of 20 ft.; 
from Buffalo to Kingston, 191 m. farther, the draught is limited, 
by the depth in the Welland canal, to 14 ft.; lake Superior, the 
largest and.most westerly of the lakes, empties, through the river 
St Mary, 55 m. long, into lake Huron. From Point Iroquois, 
which may be considered the foot of the lake, to Sault Ste 
Marie, St Mary's Falls, St Mary's Rapids or the Soo, as it is 
variously called, a distance of 14 m., there is a single channel, 
which has been dredged by the United States government, at 
points which required deepening, to give a minimum width 
of 800 ft. and a depth of 23 ft. at mean stage water. Below the 
Sault, the river, on its course to lake Huron, expands into several 
lakes, and is divided by islands into numerous contracted 
passages. There are two navigated channels; the older one, 
following the international boundary-line by way of lake George, 



195 ft., the height varying as the lakes change in level. The 
enormous growth of inter-lake freight traffic has justified the 
construction of three separate locks, each overcoming the rapids 
by a single lift two side by side on the United States and one 
on the Canadian side of the river. These locks, the largest in 
the world, are all open to Canadian and United States vessels 
alike, and are operated free from all taxes or tolls on shipping. 
The Canadian ship canal, opened to traffic on the gth of 
September 1895, was constructed through St Mary Island, on 
the north side of the rapids, by the Canadian government, at a 
cost of $3,684,227, to facilitate traffic and to secure to Canadian 
vessels an entrance to lake Superior without entering United 
States territory. The canal is 5967 ft. long between the ex- 
tremities of the entrance piers, has one lock 900 ft. long and 
60 ft. wide, with a depth on the sills at the lowest known water- 
level of 203 ft. The approaches to the canal are dredged to 
1 8 ft. deep, and are well buoyed and lighted. On the United 
States side of the river the length of the canal is if m., the 
channel outside the locks having a width varying from 108 to 
600 ft. and depth of 25 ft. The locks of 1855 were closed in 1886, 
to give place to the Poe lock. The Weitzel lock, opened to 
navigation on the ist of September 1881, was built south of the 
old locks, the approach being through the old canal. Its chamber 
is 515 ft. long between lock gates, and 80 ft. wide, narrowing 
to 60 ft. at the gates. The length of the masonry walls is 71 7 ft., 
height 395 ft., with 17 ft. over mitre sills at mean stage of water. 
The Poe lock, built because the Weitzel lock, large and fully 
equipped as it is, was insufficient for the rapidly growing traffic, 
was opened on the 3rd of August 1896. Its length between gates 
is 800 ft.; width 100 ft.; length of masonry walls noo ft.; 
height 435 to 45 ft., with 22 ft. on the mitre sill at mean stage. 

The expenditure by the United States government on the 
canal, with its several locks, and on improving the channel 
through the river, aggregated fourteen million dollars up to the 
end of 1906.' Plans were prepared in 1907 for a third United 
States lock with a separate canal approach. 

The canals are closed every winter, the average date of opening 
up to 1893 being the ist of May, and of closing the ist of 
December. The pressure of business since that time, aided 
possibly by some slight climatic modification, has extended 
the season, so that the average date of opening is now ten days 
earlier and of closing twelve days later. The earliest opening 
was in 1902 on the ist of April, and the latest closing in 1904 on 
the 2oth of December. 

The table below gives the average yearly commerce for periods 
of five years, and serves to show the rapid increase in freight growth. 

Around the canals have grown up two thriving towns, one 
on the Michigan, the other on the Ontario side of the river, with 
manufactories driven by water-power derived from the Sault. 



Statement of the commerce through the several Sault Ste Marie canals, averaged for every five years. 2 



Years. 


Pass- 
ages. 


Registered 
Tonnage. 


Passen- 
gers. 


Coal. 
Net Tons. 


Flour. 
Barrels. 


Wheat. 
Bushels. 


Other 
Grains. 
Bushels. 


General 
Merchan- 
dise. 
Net Tons. 


Salt. 
Barrels. 


Iron Ore. 
Net Tons. 


Lumber. 
M.ft. 
B.M. 


Total 
Freight. 
Net Tons. 


I855-I859 3 
1880-1884 
1885-1889 
1890-1894 
1895-1899 
1900-1904 
1906 alone 


387 
4457 
7,908 
11,965 
18,352 
19-374 
22,155 


192,207 
2,267,166 
4,901,105 
9,912,589 
18,451,447 
26,199,795 
41,098,324 


6,206 
34, 6 07 
29,434 
24,609 
40,289 
54,093 
63,033 


4,672 

463,431 
1,398,441 
2,678,805 
3,270,842 

5,457,019 
8,739,630 


19,555 
681,726 

1,838,325 
5,764,766 

8,319,699 
7,021,839 

6,495,35 


None. 
5,435,601 
18,438,085 

34,875-971 
57,227,269 
56,269,265 
84,271,358 


34-612 
936,346 
1,213,815 
1,738,706 

23,349-134 
26,760,533 

54,343,155 


2,249 
81,966 
74,447 
87,540 
164,426 
646,277 
1,134,851 


1,248 
107,225 
175,725 
231-178 
282,156 
407,263 
468,162 


27,206 
867,999 
2,497,403 
4-939,909 
10,728,075 
20,020,487 
35-357-042 


320 

79,144 
197,605 
510,482 
832,968 

999,944 
900,631 


55,797 
2,184,731 
5,441,297 
10,627,349 
19,354.974 
31,245.565 
51,751,080 



has a width of 150 to 300 ft., and a depth of 17 ft.; it is buoyed 
but not lighted, and is not capable of navigation by modern 
large freighters; the other, some 12 m. shorter, an artificial 
channel dredged by the United States government in their own 
territory, has a minimum width of 300 ft. and depth of 20 ft. 
It is elaborately lighted throughout its length. A third channel, 
west of all the islands, was designed for steamers bound down, 
the older channel being reserved for upbound boats. 

Between lake Superior and lake Huron there is a fall of 20 ft. 
of which the Sault, in a distance of % m., absorbs from 18 to 



The outlet of lake Michigan, the only lake of the series lying 
wholly in United States territory, is at the Strait of Mackinac, 
near the point where the river St Mary reaches lake Huron. 
With lake Michigan are connected the Chicago Sanitary and 
Ship canal, the Illinois and Michigan, and the Illinois and Missis- 
sippi canals, for which see ILLINOIS. With lake Huron is always 

1 Statistical report of lake commerce passing through canals. Col. 
Chas. E. L. B. Davis, U.S.A., engineer in charge, 1907. 

1 Statistical report of lake commerce passing through canals, 
published annually by the U.S. engineer officer in charge. 

3 The first five years of operation. 



4-oo 



GREAT LAKES 



included Georgian Bay as well as the channel north of Manitoulin 
Island. As it is principally navigated as a connecting waterway 
between lakes Superior and Michigan and lake Erie it has no 
notable harbours on it. It empties into lake Erie through the 
river St Clair, lake St Clair and the river Detroit. On these con- 
necting waters are-several important manufacturing and shipping 
towns, and through this chain passes nearly all the traffic of the 
lakes, both that to and from lake Michigan ports, and also that of 
lake Superior. The tonnage of a single short season of navigation 
exceeds in the aggregate 60,000,000 tons. Extensive dredging 
and embankment works have been carried on by the United 
States government in lake St Clair and the river Detroit, and a 
2o-ft. channel now exists, which is being constantly improved. 
Lake St Clair is nearly circular, 25 m. in diameter, with the north- 
east quadrant filled by the delta of the river St Clair. It has a 
very flat bottom with a general depth of only 21 ft., shoaling very 
gradually, usually to reed beds that line the low swampy shores. 
To enter the lake from river St Clair two channels have been 
provided, with retaining walls of cribwork, one for upward, the 
other for downward bound vessels. Much dredging has also been 
necessary at the outlet of the lake into river Detroit. A critical 
point in that river is at Limekiln crossing, a cut dredged through 
limestone rock above the Canadian town of Amherstburg. The 
normal depth here before improvement was 125-15 ft.; by a 
project of 1902 a channel 600 ft. wide and 2 1 ft. deep was planned; 
there are separate channels for up- and down-bound vessels. To 
prevent vessels from crowding together in the cut, the Canadian 
government maintains a patrol service here, while the United 
States government maintains a similar patrol in the St Mary 
channel. 

The Grand Trunk railway opened in 1891 a single track 
tunnel under the river St Clair, from Sarnia to Port Huron. 
It is 6026 ft. long, a cylinder 20 ft. in diameter, lined with 
cast iron in flanged sections. A second tunnel was undertaken 
between Detroit and Windsor, under the river Detroit. 

From Buffalo, at the foot of lake Erie, the river Niagara runs 
northwards 36 m. into lake Ontario. To overcome the difference 
of 327 ft. in level between lakes Erie and Ontario, the Welland 
canal, accommodating vessels of 255 ft. in length, with a draught 
of 14 ft., was built, and is maintained by Canada. The Murray 
canal extends from Presqu'ile Bay, on the north shore of lake 
Ontario, a distance of 65 m., to the headquarters of the Bay of 
Quinte. Trent canal is a term applied to a series of water 
stretches in the interior of Ontario which are ultimately designed 
to connect lake Huron and lake Ontario. At Peterboro a 
hydraulic balance-lock with a lift of 65 ft., 140 ft. in length and 
33 ft. clear in width, allowing a draught of 8 ft., has been con- 
structed. The ordinary locks are 134 by 33 ft. with a draught 
of 6 ft. When the whole route of 200 m. is completed, there will 
not be more than 15 m. of actual canal, the remaining portion 
of the waterway being through lakes and rivers. For the Erie 
canal, between that lake and the Hudson river, see ERIE and 
NEW YORK. 

The population of the states and provinces bordering on the 
Great Lakes is estimated to be over 3 5,000,000. In Pennsylvania 
and Ohio, south of lake Erie, there are large coal-fields. Sur- 
rounding lake Michigan and west of lake Superior are vast 
grain-growing plains, and the prairies of the Canadian north- 
west are rapidly increasing the area and quantity of wheat 
grown; while both north and south of lake Superior are the 
most extensive iron mines in the world, from which 35 million 
tons of ore were shipped in 1906. The natural highway for the 
shipment of all these products is the Great Lakes, and over 
them coal is distributed westwards and grain and iron ore are 
concentrated eastwards. The great quantity of coarse freights, 
that could only be profitably carried long distances by water, 
has revolutionized the type of vessel used for its transportation, 
making large steamers imperative, consolidating interests and 
cheapening methods. It is usual for the vessels in the grain 
trade and in the iron-ore trade to make their up trips empty; 
but in consequence of the admirable facilities provided at 
terminal points, they make very fast time, and carry freight very 



cheaply. The cost of freight per ton-mile fell from 23/100 cent 
in 1887 to 8/100 cent in 1898; since then the rate has slightly 
risen, but keeps well below i/io cent per ton-mile. 

The traffic on the lakes may be divided into three classes, 
passenger, package freight and bulk freight. Of passenger 
boats the largest are 380 ft. long by 44 ft. beam, having a 
speed of over 20 m. an hour, making the round trip between 
Buffalo and Chicago 1800 m., or Buffalo and Duluth 2000 m., 
every week. They carry no freight. The Canadian Pacific 
railway runs a line of fine Tyne-built passenger and freight 
steamers between Owen Sound and Fort William, and these 
two lines equal in accommodation transatlantic passenger 
steamers. On lake Michigan many fine passenger boats run out 
of Chicago, and on lake Ontario there are several large and fast 
Canadian steamers on routes radiating from Toronto. The 
package freight business, that is, the transportation of goods 
in enclosed parcels, is principally local; all the through business 
of this description is controlled by lines run by the great trunk 
railways, and is done in boats limited in beam to 50 ft. to admit 
them through bridges over the rivers at Chicago and Buffalo. 
By far the greatest number of vessels on the lakes are bulk 
freighters, and the conditions of the service have developed a 
special type of vessel. Originally sailing vessels were largely 
used, but these have practically disappeared, giving place to 
steamers, which have grown steadily in size with every increase 
in available draught. In 1.894 there was no vessel on the lakes 
with a capacity of over 5000 tons; in 1906 there were 254 vessels 
of a greater capacity, 12 of them carrying over 12,000 tons each. 
For a few years following 1890 many large barges were built, 
carrying up to 8000 tons each, intended to be towed by a 
steamer. It was found, however, that the time lost by one boat 
of the pair having to wait for the other made the plan unprofit- 
able and no more were built. Following 1888 some 40 whale- 
back steamers and barges, having oval cross-sections without 
frames or decks, were built, but experience failed to demonstrate 
any advantage in the type, and their construction has ceased. 
The modern bulk freighter is a vessel 600 ft. long, 58 ft. beam, 
capable of carrying 14,000 tons on 20 ft. draught, built with a 
midship section practically. rectangular, the coefficient frequently 
as high as -08, with about two-thirds of the entire length 
absolutely straight, giving a block coefficient up to -87. The 
triple-expansion machinery and boilers, designed to drive the 
boat at a speed of 12 m. an hour, are in the extreme stern, and 
the pilot house and quarters in the extreme bow, leaving all 
the cargo space together. Hatches are spaced at multiples 
of 12 ft. throughout the length and are made as wide as possible 
athwartships to facilitate loading and unloading. The vessels 
are built on girder frames and fitted with double bottoms for 
strength and water ballast. This type of vessel can be loaded 
in a few minutes, and unloaded by self-filling grab buckets up to 
ten tons capacity, worked hydraulically, in six or eight hours. 
The bulk freight generally follows certain well-defined routes; 
iron ore is shipped east from ports on both sides of lake Superior 
and on the west side of lake Michigan to rail shipping points 
on the south shore of lake Erie. Wheat and other grains from 
Duluth find their way to Buffalo, as do wheat, corn (maize) 
and other grains from Chicago. Wheat from the Canadian 
north-west is distributed from Fort William and Port Arthur 
to railway terminals on Georgian Bay, to Buffalo, and to Port 
Colborne for trans-shipment to canal barges for Montreal, 
and coal is distributed from lake Erie to all western points. The 
large shipping trade is assisted by both governments by a system 
of aids to navigation that mark every channel and danger. 
There are also life-saving stations at all dangerous points. 

The Great Lakes never freeze over completely, but the harbours 
and often the connecting rivers are closed by ice. The navigable 
season at the Sault is about 75 months; in lake Erie it is 
somewhat longer. The season of navigation has been slightly 
lengthened since 1905, by using powerful tugs as ice-breakers 
in the spring and autumn, the Canadian government undertaking 
the service at Canadian terminal ports, chiefly at Fort William 
and Port Arthur, the most northerly ports, where the season 



GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS 



401 



is naturally shortest, and the Lake Carriers' Association, a 
federation of the freighting steamship owners, acting in the river 
St Mary. Car ferries run through the winter across lake Michigan 
and the Strait of Mackinac, across the rivers St Clair and Detroit, 
and across the middle of lakes Erie and Ontario. The largest 
of these steamers is 350 ft. long by 56 ft. wide, draught 14 ft., 
horse power 3500, speed 13 knots. She carries on four tracks 30 
freight cars, with i35otonsof freight. Certain passenger steamers 
run on lake Michigan, from Chicago north, all the winter. 

The level of the lakes varies gradually, and is affected by the 
general character of the season, and not by individual rainfalls. 
The variations of level of the several lakes do not necessarily 
synchronize. There is an annual fluctuation of about i ft. in 
the upper lakes, and in some seasons over 2 ft. in the lower 
lakes; the lowest point being at the end of winter and the highest 
in midsummer. In lake Michigan the level has ranged from a 
maximum in the years 1859, 1876 and 1886, to a minimum 
nearly 5 ft. lower in 1896. In lake Ontario there is a range of 
Si ft. between the maximum of May 1870 and the minimum of 
November 1895. In consequence of the shallowness of lake Erie, 
its level is seriously disturbed by a persistent storm; a westerly 
gale lowers the water at its upper end exceptionally as much 
as 7 ft., seriously interfering with the navigation of the .river 
Detroit, while an easterly gale produces a similar'effect at Buffalo. 
(For physiographical details see articles on the several lakes, 
and UNITED STATES.) 

There is geological evidence to show that the whole basin of 
the lakes has in recent geological times gradually changed in 
level, rising to the north and subsiding southwards; and it is 
claimed that the movement is still in gradual progress, the rate 
assigned being -42 ft. per 100 m. per century. The maintenance 
of the level of the Great Lakes is a matter of great importance 
to the large freight boats, which always load to the limit of depth 
at critical points in the dredged channels or in the harbours. 
Fears have been entertained that the water power canals at 
Sault Ste Marie, the drainage canal at Chicago and the dredged 
channel in the river Detroit will permanently lower the levels 
respectively of lake Superior and of the Michigan-Huron-Erie 
group. An international deep-waterway commission exists 
for the consideration of this question, and army engineers 
appointed by the United States government have worked on the 
problem. 1 Wing dams in the rivers St Mary and Niagara, to 
retard the discharges, have been proposed as remedial measures. 
The Great Lakes are practically tideless, though some observers 
claim to find true tidal pulsations, said to amount to 3! in. at 
spring tide at Chicago. Secondary undulations of a few minutes 
in period, ranging from i to 4 in., are well marked. 

The Great Lakes are well stocked with fish of commercial 
value. These are largely gathered from the fishermen by 
steam tenders, and taken fresh or in frozen condition to railway 
distributing points. In lakes Superior and Huron salmon-trout 
(Salvelinus namaycush, Walb) are commercially most important. 
They ordinarily range from 10 to 50 Ib in weight, and are often 
larger. In Georgian Bay the catches of whitefish (Coregonus 
dupeiformis, Mitchill) are enormous. In lake Erie whitefish, 
lesser whitefish, erroneously called lake-herring (C. arledi, Le 
Sueur), and sturgeon (Acipenser rubicundus, Le Sueur) are the 
most common. There is good angling at numerous points on the 
lakes and their feeders. The river Nipigon, on the north shore 
of lake Superior, is famous as a stream abounding in speckled 
trout (Salvelinus fonlinalis, Mitchill) of unusual size. Black 
bass (Micropterus) are found from Georgian Bay to Montreal, and 
the maskinonge (Esox nobilior, Le Sueur), plentiful in the same 
waters, is a very game fish that often attains a weight of 70 Ib. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. E. Channing and M. F. Lansing, Story of the 
Great Lakes (New York, 1909), for an account of the lakes in history; 
and for shipping, &c., J. O. Curwood, The Great Lakes (New York, 
1909); U.S. Hydrographic office publication, No 108, "Sailing 
directions for the Great Lakes," Navy Department (Washington, 
1901, seqq.); Bulletin No. 17, "Survey of Northern and North- 
wcstern Lakes," Corps of Engineers, U.S. War Department, U.S. 

1 Report of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, in Report of War 
Department, U.S. 1898, p. 3776. 



Lake Survey Office (Detroit, Mich, 1907)- Annual reports of 
Canadian Department of Marine and Fisheries (Ottawa, 1868 seqq.). 

(w..p. Ay 

GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS, the ancient Oriental-Greek- 
Roman deity commonly known as Cybele (q.v.) in Greek and 
Latin literature from the time of Pindar. She was also known 
under many other names, some of which were derived from 
famous places of worship: as Dindymene from Mt. Dindymon, 
Mater Idaea from Mt. Ida, Sipylene from Mt. Sipylus, Agdistis 
from Mt. Agdistis or Agdus, Mater Phrygia from the greatest 
stronghold of her cult; while others were reflections of her 
character as a great nature goddess: e.g. Mountain Mother, 
Great Mother of the Gods, Mother of all Gods and all Men. 
As the great Mother deity whose worship extended throughout 
Asia Minor she was known as Ma or Ammas. Cybele is her 
favourite name in ancient and modern literature, while Great 
Mother of the Gods, or Great Idaean Mother of the Gods (Mater 
Deum Magna, Mater Deum Magna Idaea), the most frequently 
recurring epigraphical title, was her ordinary official designation. 

The legends agree in locating the rise of the worship of the 
Great Mother in Asia Minor, in the region of loosely defined 
geographical limits which comprised the Phrygian empire of 
prehistoric times, and was more extensive than the Roman 
province of Phrygia (Diod. Sic. iii. 58; Paus. vii. 17; Arnob. 
v. 5; Firm. Mat. De error., 3; Ovid, Fasti, iv. 223 ff.; Sallust. 
Phil. De diis et mundo, 4; Jul. Or. v. 165 ff.). Her best-known 
early seats of worship were Mt. Ida, Mt. Sipylus, Cyzicus, Sardis 
and Pessinus, the last-named city, in Galatia near the borders 
of Roman Phrygia, finally becoming the strongest centre of 
the cult. She was known to the Romans and Greeks as essenti- 
ally Phrygian, and all Phrygia was spoken of as sacred to her 
(Schol. Apollon. Rhod. Argonaulica, i. 1126). It is probable, 
however, that the Phrygian race, which invaded Asia Minor 
from the north in the gth century B.C., found a great nature 
goddess already universally worshipped there, and blended her 
.with a deity of their own. The Asiatic-Phrygian worship thus 
evolved was further modified by contact with the Syrians and 
Phoenicians, so that it acquired strong Semitic characteristics. 
The Great Mother known to the Greeks and Romans was thus 
merely the Phrygian form of the nature deity of all Asia Minor. 

From Asia Minor the cult of the Great Mother spread first 
to Greek territory. It found its way into Thrace at an early 
date, was known in Boeotia by Pindar in the 6th century, and 
entered Attica near the beginning of the 4th century (Grant 
Showerman, The Great Mother of the Gods, Bulletin of the Univer- 
sity of Wisconsin, No. 43, Madison, 1901). At Peiraeus, where 
it probably arrived by way of the Aegean islands, it existed 
privately in a fully developed state, that is, accompanied by the 
worship of Attis, at the beginning of the 4th century, and publicly 
two centuries later (D. Comparetti, Annales, 1862, pp. 23 ff.). 
The Greeks from the first saw in the Great Mother a resemblance 
to their own Rhea, and finally identified the two completely, 
though the Asiatic peculiarities of the cult were never universally 
popular with them (Showerman, p. 294). In her less Asiatic 
aspect, i.e. without Attis, she was sometimes identified with 
Gaia and Demeter. It was in this phase that she was worshipped 
in the Metroon at Athens. In reality, the Mother Goddess 
appears under three aspects: Rhea, the Homeric and Hesiodic 
goddess of Cretan origin; the Phrygian Mother, with Attis; 
and the Greek Great Mother, a modified form of the Phrygian 
Mother, to be explained as the original goddess of the Phrygians 
of Europe, communicated to the Greek stock before the Phrygian 
invasion of Asia Minor and consequent mingling with Asiatic 
stocks (cf. Showerman, p. 252). 

In 204 B.C., in obedience to the Sibyllirfe prophecy which said 
that whenever an enemy from abroad should make war on Italy- 
he could be expelled and conquered if the Idaean Mother were 
brought to Rome from Pessinus, the cult of the Great Mother, 
together with her sacred symbol, a small meteoric stone reputed 
to have fallen from the heavens, was transferred to Rome and 
established in a temple on the Palatine (Livy xxix. 10-14). 
Her identification by the Romans with Maia, Ops, Rhea, Tellus 



402 



GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS 



and Ceres contributed to the establishment of her worship on a 
firm footing. By the end of the Republic it had attained promin- 
ence, and under the Empire it became one of the three most 
important cults in the Roman world, the other two being those 
of Mithras and Isis. Epigraphic and numismatic evidence 
prove it to have penetrated from Rome as a centre to the 
remotest provinces (Showerman, pp. 291-293). During the brief 
revival of paganism under Eugenius in A.D. 394, occurred the 
last appearance of the cult in history. Besides the temple on 
the Palatine, there existed minor shrines of the Great Mother near 
the present church of St Peter, on the Sacra Via on the north 
slope of the Palatine, near the junction of the Almo and the 
Tiber, south of the city (ibid. 311-314). 

In all her aspects, Roman, Greek and Oriental, the Great 
Mother was characterized by essentially the same qualities. 
Most prominent among them was her universal motherhood. 
She was the great parent of gods and men, as well as of the lower 
orders of creation. " The winds, the sea, the earth and the 
snowy seat of Olympus are hers, and when from her mountains 
she ascends into the great heavens, the son of Cronus himself 
gives way before her" (Apollon. Rhod. Argonautica, i. 1098). 
She was known as the All-begetter, the All-nourisher, the Mother 
of all the Blest. She was the great, fruitful, kindly earth itself. 
Especial emphasis was placed upon her maternity over wild 
nature. She was called the Mountain Mother; her sanctuaries 
were almost invariably upon mountains, and frequently in caves, 
the name Cybele itself being by some derived from the latter; 
lions were her faithful companions. Her universal power over 
the natural world finds beautiful expression in Apollonius 
Rhodius, Argonautica, i. 1140 ff. She was also a chaste and 
beautiful deity. Her especial affinity with wild nature was 
manifested by the orgiastic character of her worship. Her 
attendants, the Corybantes, were wild, half demonic beings. 
Her priests, the Galli, were eunuchs attired in female garb, with 
long hair fragrant with ointment. Together with priestesses, 
they celebrated her rites with flutes, horns, castanets, cymbals 
and tambourines, madly yelling and dancing until their frenzied 
excitement found its culmination in self-scourging, self -laceration 
or exhaustion. Self-emasculation sometimes accompanied this 
delirium of worship on the part of candidates for the priesthood 
(Showerman, pp. 234-239). The Atlis of Catullus (Ixiii.) is a 
brilliant treatment of such an episode. 

Though her cult sometimes existed by itself, in its fully 
developed state the worship of the Great Mother was accom- 
panied by that of Attis (q.v.). The cult of Attis never existed 
independently. Like Adonis and Aphrodite, Baal and Astarte, 
&c. , the two formed a duality representing the relations of Mother 
Nature to the fruits of the earth. There is no positive evidence 
to prove the existence of the cult publicly in this phase in Greece 
before the 2nd century B.C., nor in Rome before the Empire, 
though it may have existed in private (Showerman, " Was Attis 
at Rome under the Republic ?" in Transactions of the American 
Philological Association, vol. 31, 1900, pp. 46-59; Cumont, 
s.v. "Attis," De Ruggiero's Dizionario epigrafico and Pauly- 
Wissowa's Realencyclopiidie, Supplement; Hepding, Attis, seine 
Mythen und seine Kult, Giessen, 1903, p. 142). 

The philosophers of the late Roman Empire interpreted the 
Attis legend as symbolizing the relations of Mother Earth to her 
children the fruits. Porphyrius says that Attis signified the 
flowers of spring time, and was cut off in youth because the flower 
falls before the fruit (Augustine, De civ. Dei, vii. 25). Maternus 
(De error. 3) interprets the love of the Great Mother for Attis 
as the love of the earth for her fruits; his emasculation as the 
cutting of the fruits; his death as their preservation; and his 
resurrection as the sowing of the seed again. 

At Rome the immediate direction of the cult of the Great 
Mother devolved upon the high priest, Archigallus, called Attis, 
a high priestess, Sacerdos Maxima, and its support was derived, 
at least in part, from a popular contribution, the slips. Besides 
other priests, priestesses and minor officials, such as musicians, 
curator, &c., there were certain colleges connected with the 
administration of the cult, called cannophori (reed-bearers) and 



dendrophori (branch-bearers). The Quindecimvirs exercised a 
general supervision over this cult, as over all other authorized 
cults, and it was, at least originally, under the special patronage 
of a club or sodality (Showerman, pp. 269-276). Roman citizens 
were at first forbidden to take part in its ceremonies, and the ban 
was not removed until the time of the Empire. 

The main public event in the worship of the Great Mother was 
the annual festival, which took place originally on the 4th of 
April, and was followed on the 5th by the Megalesia, games 
instituted in her honour on the introduction of the cult. Under 
the Empire, from Claudius on, the Megalesia lasted six days, 
April 4-10, and the original one day of the religious festival 
became an annual cycle of festivals extending from the isth 
to the 27th of March, in the following order, (i) The isth of 
March, Canna intral the sacrifice of a six-year-old bull in 
behalf of the mountain fields, the high priest, a priestess and 
the cannophori officiating, the last named carrying reeds in 
procession in commemoration of the exposure of the infant 
Attis on the reedy banks of the stream Callus in Phrygia. (This 
may have been originally a phallic procession. Cf. Showerman, 
American Journal of Philol. xxvii. i; Classical Journal i. 4.) 
(2) The 22nd of March, Arbor inlrat the bearing in procession 
of the sacred pine, emblem of Attis' self-mutilation, death and 
immortality, to the temple on the Palatine, the symbol of the 
Mother's cave, by the dendrophori, a gild of workmen who made 
the Mother, among other deities, a patron. (3) The 24th of 
March, Dies sanguinis a day of mourning, fasting and abstin- 
ence, especially sexual, commemorating the sorrow of the 
Mother for Attis, her abstinence from food and her chastity. 
The frenzied dance and self-laceration of the priests in com- 
memoration of Attis' deed, and the submission to the act of 
consecration by candidates for the priesthood, was a special 
feature of the day. The taurobolium (q.v.) was often performed 
on this day, on which probably took place the initiation of 
mystics. (4) The 25th of March, Hilaria one of the great 
festal days of Rome, celebrated by all the people. All mourning 
was put off, and good cheer reigned in token of the return of the 
sun and spring, which was symbolized by the renewal of Attis' 
life. (5) The 26th of March, Requietio a day of rest and quiet. 
(6) The 27th of March, Lavatio the crowning ceremony of the 
cycle. The silver statue of the goddess, with the sacred meteoric 
stone, the Acus, set in its head, was borne in gorgeous procession 
and bathed in the Almo, the remainder of the day being given 
up to rejoicing and entertainment, especially dramatic repre- 
sentation of the legend of the deities of the day. Other cere- 
monies, not necessarily connected with the annual festival, 
were the taurobolium (q.v.), the sacrifice of a bull, and the crio- 
bolium (q.v.), the sacrifice of a ram, the latter being the analogue 
of the former, instituted for the purpose of giving Attis special 
recognition. The baptism of blood, which was the feature of 
these ceremonies, was regarded as purifying and regenerating 
(Showerman, Great Mother, pp. 277-284). 

The Great Mother figures in the art of all periods both in 
Asia and Europe, but is especially prominent in the art of the 
Empire. No work of the first class, however, was inspired by 
her. She appears on coins, in painting and in all forms of 
sculpture, usually with mural crown and veil, well draped, seated 
on a throne, and accompanied by two lions. Other attributes 
which often appear are the patera, tympanum, cymbals, sceptre, 
garlands and fruits. Attis and his attributes, the pine, Phrygian 
cap, pedum, syrinx and torch, also appear. The Cybele of 
Formia, now at Copenhagen, is one of the most famous repre- 
sentations of the goddess. The Niobe of Mt. Sipylus is really the 
Mother. In literature she is the subject of frequent mention, 
but no work of importance, with the exception of Catullus Ixiii., 
is due to her inspiration. Her importance in the history of 
religion is very great. Together with Isis and Mithras, she was a 
great enemy, and yet a great aid to Christianity. The gorgeous 
rites of her worship, its mystic doctrine of communion with 
the divine through enthusiasm, its promise of regeneration 
through baptism of blood in the taurobolium, were features 
which attracted the masses of the people and made it a strong 



GREAT REBELLION 



403 



rival of Christianity; and its resemblance to the new religion, 
however superficial, made it, in spite of the scandalous practices 
which grew up around it, a stepping-stone to Christianity when 
the tide set in against paganism. 

AUTHORITIES. Grant Showerman, " The Great Mother of the 
Gods," Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin, No. 43; Philology 
and Literature Series, vol. i. No. 3 (Madison, 1901); Hugo Hepding, 
Attis, seine Mythen und seine Kult (Giessen, 1903) ; Rapp, Roscher's 
Ausfuhrliches Lexicon der griechischen und romischen Mythologie 
s.v. " Kybele " ; Drexler, ibid. s.v. " Meter." See ROMAN RELIGION, 
GREEK RELIGION, ATTIS, CORYBANTES; for the great " Hittite " 
portrayal of the Nature Goddess at Pteria, see PTERIA. (G. SN.) 

GREAT REBELLION (1642-52), a generic name for the civil 
wars in England and Scotland, which began with the raising of 
King Charles I.'s standard at Nottingham on the 22nd of August 
1642, and ended with the surrender of Dunottar Castle to the 
Parliament's troops in May 1652. It is usual to classify these 
wars into the First Civil War of 1642-46, and the Second Civil 
War of 1648-52. During most of this time another civil war 
was raging in Ireland. Its incidents had little or no connexion 
with those of the Great Rebellion, but its results influenced the 
struggle in England to a considerable extent . 

i. First Civil War (1642-46). It is impossible rightly to under- 
stand the events of this most national of all English wars without 
some knowledge of the motive forces on both sides. On the side 
of the king were enlisted the deep-seated loyalty which was the 
result of two centuries of effective royal protection, the pure 
cavalier spirit foreshadowing the courtier era of Charles II., but 
still strongly tinged with the old feudal indiscipline, the militarism 
of an expert soldier nobility, well represented by Prince Rupert, 
and lastly a widespread distrust of extreme Puritanism, which 
appeared unreasonable to Lord Falkland and other philosophic 
statesmen and intolerable to every other class of Royalists. 
The foot of the Royal armies was animated in the main by the 
first and last of these motives; in the eyes of the sturdy rustics 
who followed their squires to the war the enemy were rebels and 
fanatics. To the cavalry, which was composed largely of the 
higher social orders, the rebels were, in addition, bourgeois, while 
the soldiers of fortune from the German wars felt all the regular's 
contempt for citizen militia. Thus in the first episodes of the 
First Civil War moral superiority tended to be on the side of the 
king. On the other side, the causes of the quarrel were primarily 
and apparently political, ultimately and really religious, and thus 
the elements of resistance in the Parliament and the nation were 
at first confused, and, later, strong and direct. Democracy, 
moderate republicanism and the simple desire for constitutional 
guarantees could hardly make head of themselves against the 
various forces of royalism, for the most moderate men of either 
party were sufficiently in sympathy to admit compromise. But 
the backbone of resistance was the Puritan element, and this 
waging war at first with the rest on the political issue soon (as 
the Royalists anticipated) brought the religious issue to the front. 
The Presbyterian system, even more rigid than that of Laud and 
the bishops whom no man on either side supported save Charles 
himself was destined to be supplanted by the Independents 
and their ideal of free conscience, but for a generation before the 
war broke out it had disciplined and trained the middle classes of 
the nation (who furnished the bulk of the rebel infantry, and later 
of the cavalry also) to centre their whole will-power on the attain- 
ment of their ideals. The ideals changed during the struggle, but 
not the capacity for striving for them, and the men capable of the 
effort finally came to the front and imposed their ideals on the 
rest by the force of their trained wills. 

Material force was throughout on the side of the Parliamentary 
party. They controlled the navy, the nucleus of an army which 
was in process of being organized for the Irish war, and nearly all 
the financial resources of the country. They had the sympathies 
of most of the large towns, where the trained bands, drilled once a 
month, provided cadres for new regiments. Further, by recogniz- 
ing the inevitable, they gained a start in war preparations which 
they never lost. The earls of Warwick, Essex and Manchester 
and other nobles and gentry of their party possessed great wealth 
.and territorial influence. Charles, on the other hand, although he 



could, by means of the " press " and the lords-lieutenant, raise 
men without authority from Parliament, could not raise taxes to 
support them, and was dependent on the financial support of his 
chief adherents, such as the earls of Newcastle and Derby. Both 
parties raised men when and where they could, each claiming that 
the law was on its side for England was already a law-abiding 
nation and acting in virtue of legal instruments. These 
were, on the side of the Parliament, its own recent " Militia 
Ordinance " ; on that of the king, the old-fashioned " Commissions 
of Array." In Cornwall the Royalist leader, Sir Ralph Hopton, 
indicted the enemy before the grand jury of the county as 
disturbers of the peace, and had the posse comitatus called out to 
expel them. The local forces in fact were everywhere employed 
by whichever side could, by producing valid written authority, 
induce them to assemble. 

2 . The Royalist and Parliamentarian Armies. This thread 
of local feeling and respect for the laws runs through the 
earlier operations of both sides almost irrespective of the main 
principles at stake. Many a promising scheme failed because 
of the reluctance of the militiamen to serve beyond the limits 
of their own county, and, as the offensive lay with the 
king, his cause naturally suffered far more therefrom than 
that of the enemy. But the real spirit of the struggle was 
very different. Anything which tended to prolong the struggle, 
or seemed like want of energy and avoidance of a decision, was 
bitterly resented by the men of both sides, who had their hearts 
in the quarrel and had not as yet learned by the severe lesson 
of Edgehill that raw armies cannot bring wars to a speedy 
issue. In France and Germany the prolongation of a war meant 
continued employment for the soldiers, but in England " we 
never encamped or entrenched ... or lay fenced with rivers 
or defiles. Here were no leaguers in the field, as at the story of 
Nuremberg, 1 neither had our soldiers any tents or what they call 
heavy baggage. 'Twas the general maxim of the war Where is 
the enemy? Let us go and fight them. Or ... if the enemy 
was coming . . . Why, what should be done ! Draw out into 
the fields and fight them." This passage from the Memoirs of a 
Cavalier, ascribed to Defoe, though not contemporary evidence, 
is an admirable summary of the character of the Civil War. Even 
when in the end a regular professional army is evolved exactly 
as in the case of Napoleon's army the original decision-compel- 
ling spirit permeated the whole organization. From the first the 
professional soldiers of fortune, be their advice good or bad, are 
looked upon with suspicion, and nearly all those Englishmen who 
loved war for its own sake were too closely concerned for the wel- 
fare of their country to attempt the methods of the Thirty Years' 
War in England. The formal organization of both armies was 
based on the Swedish model, which had become the pattern of 
Europe after the victories of Gustavus Adolphus, and gave better 
scope for the moral of the individual than the old-fashioned 
Spanish and Dutch formations in which the man in the ranks was 
a highly finished automaton. 

3. Campaign of 1642. When the king raised his standard at 
Nottingham on the 2znd of August 1642, war was already in pro- 
gress on a small scale in many districts, each side endeavouring to 
secure, or to deny to the enemy, fortified country-houses, territory, 
and above all arms and money. Peace negotiations went on in the 
midst of these minor events until there came from the Parliament 
an ultimatum so aggressive as to fix the warlike purpose of the 
still vacillating court at Nottingham, and, in the country at large, 
to convert many thousands of waverers to active Royalism. 
Ere long Charles who had hitherto had less than 1500 men was 
at the head of an army which, though very deficient in arms and 
equipment, was not greatly inferior in numbers or enthusiasm to 
that of the Parliament. The latter (20,000 strong exclusive of 
detachments) was organized during July, August and September 
about London, and moved thence to Northampton under the 
command of Robert, earl of Essex. 

At this moment the military situation was as follows. Lord 
Hertford in south Wales, Sir Ralph Hopton in Cornwall, and the 

1 Gustavus Adolphus before the battle of the Alte Veste (see 
THIRTY YEARS' WAR). 



404 



GREAT REBELLION 



young earl of Derby in Lancashire, and small parties in almost 
every county of the west and the midlands, were in arms for the 
king. North of the Tees, the earl of Newcastle, a great territorial 
magnate , was -raising troops and supplies for the king, while 
Queen Henrietta Maria was busy in Holland arranging for the 
importation of war material and money. In Yorkshire opinion 
was divided, the royal cause being strongest in York and the North 
Riding, that of the Parliamentary party in the clothing towns 
of the West Riding and also in the important seaport of Hull. 
The Yorkshire gentry made an attempt to neutralize the county, 
but a local struggle soon began, and Newcastle thereupon 
prepared to invade Yorkshire. The whole of the south and east 
as well as parts of the midlands and the west and the important 
townsof Bristol and Gloucester were on the side of the Parliament. 
A small Royalist force was compelled to evacuate Oxford on the 
loth of September. 

On the 1 3th of September the main campaign opened. The 
king in order to find recruits amongst his sympathizers and 
arms in the armouries of the Derbyshire and Staffordshire 
trained bands, and also to be in touch with his disciplined 
regiments in Ireland by way of Chester moved westward to 
Shrewsbury, Essex following suit by marching from Northampton 
to Worcester. Near the last-named town a sharp cavalry 
engagement (Powick Bridge) took place on the 23rd between the 
advanced cavalry of Essex's army and a force under Prince 
Rupert which was engaged in protecting the retirement of the 
Oxford detachment. The result of the fight was the in- 
stantaneous overthrow of the rebel cavalry, and this gave the 
Royalist troopers a confidence in themselves and in their brilliant 
leader which was not destined to be shaken until they met 
Cromwell's Ironsides. Rupert soon withdrew to Shrewsbury, 
where he found many Royalist officers eager to attack Essex's 
new position at Worcester. But the road to London now lay 
open and it was decided to take it. The intention was not to 
avoid a battle, for the Royalist generals desired to fight Essex 
before he grew too strong, and the temper of both sides made it 
impossible to postpone the decision; in Clarendon's words, 
" it was considered more counsellable to march towards London, 
it being morally sure that the earl-of Essex would put himself in 
their way," and accordingly the army left Shrewsbury on the 
1 2th of October, gaining two days' start of the enemy, and 
moved south-east via Bridgnorth, Birmingham and Kenilworth. 
This had the desired effect. Parliament, alarmed for its own 
safety, sent repeated orders to Essex to find the king and bring 
him to battle. Alarm gave place to determination when it was 
discovered that Charles was enlisting papists and seeking foreign 
aid. The militia of the home counties was called out, a second 
army under the earl of Warwick was formed round the nucleus 
of the London trained bands, and Essex, straining every nerve 
to regain touch with the enemy, reached Kineton, where he was 
only 7 m. from the king's headquarters at Edgecote, on the 2 2nd. 

4. Battle of Edgehill. Rupert promptly reported the enemy's 
presence, and his confidence dominated the irresolution of the 
king and the caution of Lord Lindsey, the nominal commander- 
in-chief. Both sides had marched widely dispersed in order to 
live, and the rapidity with which, having the clearer purpose, 
the Royalists drew together helped considerably to neutralize 
Essex's superior numbers. During the morning of the 23rd the 
Royalists formed in battle order on the brow of Edgehill facing 
towards Kineton. Essex, experienced soldier as he was, had 
distrusted his own raw army too much to force a decision 
earlier in the month, when the king was weak; he now found 
Charles in a strong position with an equal force to his own 
14,000, and some of his regiments were still some miles distant. 
But he advanced beyond Kineton, and the enemy promptly 
left their strong position and came down to the foot of the 
hill, for, situated as they were, they had either to fight wherever 
they could induce the enemy to engage, or to starve in the 
midst of hostile garrisons. Rupert was on the right of the 
king's army with the greater part of the horse, Lord Lindsey 
and Sir Jacob Astley in the centre with the foot, Lord Wilmot 
(with whom rode tht earl of Forth, the principal military adviser 



of the king) with a smaller body of cavalry on the left. In rear 
of the centre were the king and a small reserve. Essex's order 
was similar. Rupert charged as soon as his wing was deployed, 
and before the infantry of either side was ready. Taking ground 
to his right front and then wheeling inwards at full speed he 
instantly rode down the Parliamentary horse opposed to him. 
Some infantry regiments of Essex's left centre snared the same 
fate as their cavalry. On the other wing Forth and Wilmot 
likewise swept .away all that they could see of the enemy's 
cavalry, and the undisciplined Royalists of both wings pursued 
the fugitives in wild disorder up to Kineton, where they were 
severely handled by John Hampden's infantry brigade (which was 
escorting the artillery and baggage of Essex's army). Rupert 
brought back only a few rallied squadrons to the battlefield, 
and in the meantime affairs there had gone badly for the king. 
The right and centre of the Parliamentary foot (the left having 
been brought to a halt by Rupert's charge) advanced with great 
resolution, and beingatleast as ardentas, and much better armed 
than, Lindsey's men, engaged them fiercely and slowly gained 
ground. Only the best regiments en either side, however, 
maintained their order, and the decision of the infantry battle 
was achieved mainly by a few Parliamentary squadrons. One 
regiment of Essex's rightwing onlyhad been the target of Wilmot's 
charge, the other two had been at the moment invisible, and, as 
every Royalist troop on the ground, even the king's guards, 
had joined in the mad ride to Kineton, these, Essex's life-guard, 
and some troops that had rallied from the effect of Rupert's 
charge amongst them Captain Oliver Cromwell's were the 
only cavalry still present. All these joined with decisive effect 
in the attack on the left of the royal infantry. The king's line 
was steadily rolled up from left to right, the Parliamentary 
troopers captured his guns and regiment after regiment broke up. 
Charles himself stood calmly in the thick of the fight, but he had 
not the skill to direct it. The royal standard was taken and 
retaken, Lindsey and Sir Edmund Verney, the standard-bearer, 
being killed. By the time that Rupert returned both sides were 
incapable of further effort and disillusioned as to the prospect 
of ending the war at a blow. 

On the 24th Essex retired, leaving Charles to claim the victory 
and to reap its results. Banbury and Oxford were reoccupied 
by the Royalists, and by the 28th Charles was marching down 
the Thames valley on London. Negotiations were reopened, 
and a peace party rapidly formed itself in London and West- 
minster . Yet field fortifications sprang up around London, 
and when Rupert stormed and sacked Brentford on the izth 
of November the trained bands moved out at once and took up 
a position at Turnham Green, barring the king's advance. 
Hampden, with something of the fire and energy of his cousin 
Cromwell, urged Essex to turn both flanks of the Royal army 
via Acton and Kingston, but experienced professional soldiers 
urged him not to trust the London men to hold their ground 
while the rest manoeuvred. Hampden's advice was undoubtedly 
premature. A Sedan or Worcester was not within the power 
of the Parliamentarians of 1642, for, in Napoleon's words, " one 
only manoeuvres around a fixed point," and the city levies at 
that time were certainly not, vis-d-vis Rupert's cavalry, a fixed 
point. As a matter of fact, after a slight cannonade at Turnharn 
Green on the i3th, Essex's two-to-one numerical superiority of 
itself compelled the king to retire to Reading. Turnham Green 
has justly been called the Valmy of the English Civil War. Like 
Valmy, without being a battle, it was a victory, and the tide of 
invasion came thus far, ebbed, and never returned 

5. The Winter of 1642-43. In the winter, while Essex lay 
inactive at Windsor, Charles by degrees consolidated his position 
in the region of Oxford. The city was fortified as a reduit for 
the whole area, and Reading, Wallingford, Abingdon, Brill, 
Banbury and Marlborough constituted a complete defensive 
ring which was developed by the creation of smaller posts from 
time to time. In the north and west, winter campaigns were 
actively carried on. " It is summer in Yorkshire, summer in 
Devon, and cold winter at Windsor," said one of Essex's critics. 
At the beginning of December Newcastle crossed the Tees, 



GREAT REBELLION 



405 



defeated Hotham, the Parliamentary commander in the North 
Riding, then joining hands with the hard-pressed Royalists at 
York, established himself between that city and Pontefract. 
Lord Fairfax and his son Sir Thomas, who commanded for the 
Parliament in Yorkshire, had to retire to the district between 
Hull and Selby, and Newcastle was free to turn his attention 
to the Puritan " clothing towns " of the West Riding Leeds, 
Halifax and Bradford. The townsmen, however, showed a 
determined front, the younger Fairfax with a picked body of 
cavalry rode through Newcastle's lines into the West Riding 
to help them, and about the end of January 1643 the earl gave 
up the attempt to reduce the towns. He continued his march 
southward, however, and gained ground for the king as far as 
Newark, so as to be in touch with the Royalists of Nottingham- 
shire, Derbyshire and Leicestershire (who, especially about 
Newark and Ashby-de-la-Zouch, were strong enough to neutralize 
the local forces of the Parliament), and to prepare the way for 
the further advance of the army of the north when the queen's 
convoy should arrive from over-seas. 

'in the west Sir Ralph Hopton and his friends, having obtained 
a true bill from the grand jury against the Parliamentary dis- 
turbers of the peace, placed themselves at the head of the county 
militia and drove the rebels from Cornwall, after which they 
raised a small force for general service and invaded Devonshire 
(November 1642). Subsequently a Parliamentary army under 
the earl of Stamford was withdrawn from south Wales to engage 
Hopton, who had to retire into Cornwall. There, however, 
the Royalist general was free to employ the militia again, and 
thus reinforced he won a victory over a part of Stamford's forces 
at Bradock Down near Liskeard (January 19, 1643) and resumed 
the offensive. About the same time Hertford, no longer opposed 
by Stamford, brought over the South Wales Royalists to Oxford, 
and the fortified area around that place was widened by the 
capture of Cirencester on the 2nd of February. Gloucester and 
Bristol were now the only important garrisons of the Roundheads 
in the west. In the midlands, in spite of a Parliamentary 
victory won by Sir William Brereton at Nantwich on the 28th of 
January, the Royalists of Shropshire, Staffordshire and Leicester- 
shire soon extended their influence through Ashby-de-la-Zouch 
into Nottinghamshire and joined hands with their friends at 
Newark. Further, around Chester a new Royalist army was 
being formed under Lord Byron, and all the efforts of Brereton 
and of Sir John Cell, the leading supporter of the Parliament in 
Derbyshire, were required to hold their own, even before New- 
castle's army was added to the list of their enemies. Lord 
Brooke, who commanded for the Parliament in Warwickshire 
and Staffordshire and was looked on by many as Essex's eventual 
successor, was killed in besieging Lichfield cathedral on the 
2nd of March, and, though the cathedral soon capitulated, Cell 
and Brereton were severely handled in the indecisive battle of 
Hopton Heath near Stafford on the igth of March, and Prince 
Rupert, after an abortive raid on Bristol (March 7), marched 
rapidly northward, storming Birmingham en route, and recap- 
tured Lichfield cathedral. He was, however, soon recalled 
to Oxford to take part in the main campaign. The position of 
affairs for the Parliament was perhaps at its worst in January. 
The Royalist successes of November and December, the ever- 
' present dread of foreign intervention, and the burden of new 
taxation which the Parliament now found itself compelled to 
impose, disheartened its supporters. Disorders broke out in 
London, and, while the more determined of the rebels began 
thus early to think of calling in the military assistance of the 
Scots, the majority were for peace on any conditions. But soon 
the position improved somewhat; Stamford in the west and 
Brereton and Cell in the midlands, though hard pressed, were 
at any rate in arms and undefeated, Newcastle had failed to 
conquer the West Riding, and Sir William Waller, who had 
cleared Hampshire and Wiltshire of " malignants," entered 
Gloucestershire early in March, destroyed a small Royalist 
force at Highnam (March 24), and secured Bristol and Gloucester 
for the Parliament . Finally, some of Charles's own intrigues 
opportunely coming to light, the waverers, seeing the impossi- 



bility of plain dealing with the court, rallied again to the party 
of resistance, and the series of negotiations called by the name 
of the Treaty of Oxford closed in April with no more result than 
those which had preceded Edgehill and Turnham Green. About 
this time too, following and improving upon the example of 
Newcastle in the north, Parliament ordered the formation of 
the celebrated " associations " or groups of counties banded 
together by mutual consent for defence. The most powerful 
and best organized of these was that of the eastern counties 
(headquarters Cambridge), where the danger of attack from the 
north was near enough to induce great energy in the preparations 
for meeting it, and at the same time too distant effectively to 
interfere with these preparations. Above all, the Eastern 
Association was from the first guided and inspired by Colonel 
Cromwell. 

6. The Plan of Campaign, 1643. The king's plan of operations 
for the next campaign, which was perhaps inspired from abroad, 
was more elaborate than the simple "point" of 1642. The 
king's army, based on the fortified area around Oxford, was 
counted sufficient to use up Essex's forces. On either hand, 
therefore, in Yorkshire and in the west, the Royalist armies 
were to fight their way inwards towards London, after which 
all three armies, converging on that place in due season, were 
to cut off its supplies and its sea-borne revenue and to starve 
the rebellion into surrender. The condition of this threefold 
advance was of course that the enemy should not be able to 
defeat the armies in detail, i.e. that he should be fixed and held 
in the Thames valley; this secured, there was no purely military 
objection against operating in separate armies from the cir- 
cumference towards the centre. It was on the rock of local 
feeling that the king's plan came to grief. Even after the arrival 
of the queen and her convoy , Newcastle had to allow her to 
proceed with a small force, and to remain behind with the main 
body, because of Lancashire and the West Riding, and above 
all because the port of Hull, in the hands of the Fairfaxes, 
constituted a menace that the Royalists of the East Riding 
refused to ignore. Hopton's advance too, undertaken without 
the Cornish levies, was checked in the action of Sourton Down 
(Dartmoor) on the 2$th of April, and on the same day Waller 
captured Hereford. Essex had already left Windsor to under- 
take the siege of Reading, the most important point in the circle 
of fortresses round Oxford, which after a vain attempt at relief 
surrendered to him on the 26th of April. Thus the opening 
operations were unfavourable, not indeed so far as to require 
the scheme to be abandoned, but at least delaying the develop- 
ment until the campaigning season was far advanced. 

7. Victories of Hopton. But affairs improved in May. The 
queen's long-expected convoy arrived at Woodstock on the I3th. 
The earl of Stamford's army, which had again entered Cornwall, 
was attacked in its selected position at Stratton and practically 
annihilated by Hopton (May 16). This brilliant victory was 
due above all to Sir Bevil Grenville and the lithe Cornishmen, 
who, though but 2400 against 5400 and destitute of artillery, 
stormed " Stamford Hill, " killed 300 of the enemy, and captured 
1 700 more with all their guns, colours and baggage . Devon 
was at once overrun by the victors. Essex's army, for want of 
material resources, had had to be content with the capture of 
Reading, and a Royalist force under Hertford and Prince 
Maurice (Rupert's brother) moved out as far as Salisbury to 
hold out a hand to their friends in Devonshire, while Waller, 
the only Parliamentary commander left in the field in the west, 
had to abandon his conquests in the Severn valley to oppose 
the further progress of his intimate friend and present enemy, 
Hopton. Early in June Hertford and Hopton united at Chard 
and rapidly moved, with some cavalry skirmishing, towards Bath, 
where Waller's army lay. Avoiding the barrier of the Mendips, 
they moved round via Frome to the Avon. But Waller, thus 
cut off from London and threatened with investment, acted 
with great skill, and some days of manoeuvres and skirmishing 
followed, after which Hertford and Hopton found themselves 
on the north side of Bath facing Waller's entrenched position 
on the top of Lansdown Hill. This position the Royalists 



406 



GREAT REBELLION 



stormed on the sth of July. The battle of Lansdown was a 
second Stratton for the Cornishmen, but this time the enemy 
was of different quality and far differently led, and they had to 
mourn the loss of Sir Bevil Grenville and the greater part of 
their whole force. At dusk both sides stood on the flat summit 
of the hill, still firing into one another with such energy as was 
not yet expended, and in the night Waller drew off his men into 
Bath. " We were glad they were gone," wrote a Royalist 
officer, " for if they had not, I know who had within the hour." 
Next day Hopton was severely injured by the explosion of a wagon 
containing the reserve ammunition, and the Royalists, finding 
their victory profitless, moved eastward to Devizes, closely 
followed by the enemy. On the loth of July Sir William Waller 
took post on Roundway Down, overlooking Devizes, and cap- 
tured a Royalist ammunition column from Oxford. On the nth 
he came down and invested Hopton's foot in Devizes itself, 
while the Royalist cavalry, Hertford and Maurice with them, 
rode away towards Salisbury. But although the siege was pressed 
with such vigour that an assault was fixed for the evening of the 
I3th, the Cornishmen, Hopton directing the defence from his 
bed, held out stubbornly, and on the afternoon of July I3th 
Prince Maurice's horsemen appeared on Roundway Down, 
having ridden to Oxford, picked up reinforcements therej and 
returned at full speed to save their comrades. Waller's army 
tried its best, but some of its elements were of doubtful quality 
and the ground was all in Maurice's favour. The battle did not 
last long. The combined attack of the Oxford force from 
Roundway and of Hopton's men from the town practically 
annihilated Waller's army. Very soon afterwards Rupert came 
up with fresh Royalist forces, and the combined armies moved 
westward. Bristol, the second port of the kingdom, was their 
objective, and in four days from the opening of the siege it was 
in their hands (July 26), Waller with the beaten remnant of his 
army at Bath being powerless to intervene. The effect of this 
blow was felt even in Dorsetshire. Within three weeks of the 
surrender Prince Maurice with a body of fast-moving cavalry 
overran that county almost unopposed. 

8. Adwalton Moor. Newcastle meanwhile had resumed opera- 
tions against the clothing towns, this time with success. The 
Fairfaxes had been fighting in the West Riding since January 
with such troops from the Hull region as they had been able to 
bring across Newcastle's lines. They and the townsmen together 
were too weak for Newcastle's increasing forces, and an attempt 
was made to relieve them by bringing up the Parliament's 
forces in Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Lincolnshire and the 
Eastern Association. But local interests prevailed again, in 
spite of Cromwell's presence, and after assembling at Notting- 
ham, the midland rebels quietly dispersed to their several 
counties (June 2). The Fairfaxes were left to their fate, and 
about the same time Hull itself narrowly escaped capture by the 
queen's forces through the treachery of Sir John Hotham, the 
governor, and his son, the commander of the Lincolnshire Parlia- 
mentarians. The latter had been placed under arrest at the 
instance of Cromwell and of Colonel Hutchinson, the governor 
of Nottingham Castle; he escaped to Hull, but both father and 
son were seized by the citizens and afterwards executed. More 
serious than an isolated act of treachery was the far-reaching 
Royalist plot that had been detected in Parliament itself, for 
complicity in which Lord Conway, Edmund Waller the poet, 
and several members of both Houses were arrested. The safety 
of Hull was of no avail for the West Riding towns, and the 
Fairfaxes underwent a decisive defeat at Adwalton (Atherton) 
Moor near Bradford on the 3oth of June. After this, by way 
of Lincolnshire, they escaped to Hull and reorganized the 
defence of that place. The West Riding perforce submitted. 

The queen herself with a second convoy and a small army 
under Henry (Lord) Jermyn soon moved via Newark, Ashby- 
de-la-Zouch, Lichfield and other Royalist garrisons to Oxford, 
where she joined her husband on the I4th of July. But New- 
castle (now a marquis) was not yet ready for his part in the 
programme. The Yorkshire troops would not march on London 
while the enemy was master of Hull, and by this time there was 



a solid barrier between the royal army of the north and the 
capital. Roundway Down and Adwalton Moor were not after 
all destined to be fatal, though peace riots in London, dissensions 
in the Houses, and quarrels amongst the generals were their 
immediate consequences. A new factor had arisen in the war 
the Eastern Association. 

9. Cromwell and the Eastern Association. This had already 
intervened to help in the siege of Reading and had sent troops 
to the abortive gathering at Nottingham, besides clearing its 
own ground of " malignants." From the first Cromwell was the 
dominant influence. Fresh from^Edgehill, he had told Hampden, 
"You must get men of a spirit that is likely to go as far as 
gentlemen will go," not " old decayed serving-men, tapsters 
and such kind of fellows to encounter gentlemen that have 
honour and courage and resolution in them," and in January 
1643 he had gone to his own county to " raise such men as had 
the fear of God before them and made some conscience of what 
they did." These men, once found, were willing, for the cause, 
to submit to a rigorous training and an iron discipline such as 
other troops, fighting for honour only or for profit only, coulcl 
not be brought to endure. 1 The result was soon apparent. 
As early as the I3th of May, Cromwell's regiment of horse 
recruited from the horse-loving yeomen of the eastern counties 
demonstrated its superiority in the field in a skirmish near 
Grantham, and in the irregular fighting in Lincolnshire during 
June and July (which was on the whole unfavourable to the 
Parliament), as previously in pacifying the Eastern Association 
itself, these Puritan troopers distinguished themselves by long 
and rapid marches that may bear comparison with almost any 
in the history of the mounted arm. When Cromwell's second 
opportunity came at Gainsborough on the 28th of July, the 
" Lincolneer " horse who were under his orders were fired by 
theexampleof Cromwell's own regiment, and Cromwell, directing 
the whole with skill, and above all with energy, utterly routed 
the Royalist horse and killed their general, Charles Cavendish. 

In the meantime the army of Essex had been inactive. After 
the fall of Reading a serious epidemic of sickness had reduced 
it to impotence. On the i8th of June the Parliamentary 
cavalry was routed and John Hampden mortally wounded at 
Chalgrove Field near Chiselhampton , and when at last Essex, 
having obtained the desired reinforcements, moved against 
Oxford from the Aylesbury side, he found his men demoralized 
by inaction, and before the menace of Rupert's cavalry, to which 
he had nothing to oppose, he withdrew to Bedfordshire (July). 
He made no attempt to intercept the march of the queen's 
convoys, he had permitted the Oxford army, which he should 
have held fast, to intervene effectually in the midlands, the west, 
and the south-west, and Waller might well complain that Essex, 
who still held Reading and the Chilterns, had given him neither 
active nor passive support in the critical days preceding Round- 
way Down. Still only a few voices were raised to demand his 
removal, and he was shortly to have an opportunity of proving 
his skill and devotion in a great campaign and a great battle. 
The centre and the right of the three Royalist armies had for a 
moment (Roundway to Bristol) united to crush Waller, but 
their concentration was short-lived. Plymouth was to Hopton's 
men what Hull was to Newcastle's they would not march on 
London until the menace to their homes was removed. Further, 
there were dissensions among the generals which Charles was too 
weak to crush, and consequently the original plan reappears 
the main Royalist army to operate in the centre, Hopton's (now 
Maurice's ) on the right, Newcastle on the left towards London. 
While waiting for the fall of Hull and Plymouth, Charles naturally 
decided to make the best use of his time by reducing Gloucester, 
the one great fortress of the Parliament in the west. 

10. Siege and Relief of Gloucester. This decision quickly 
brought on a crisis. While the earl of Manchester (with Cromwell 
as his lieutenant-general) was appointed to head the forces of 
the Eastern Association against Newcastle, and Waller was 

1 " Making not money but that which they took to be the public 
felicity to be their end they were the more engaged to be valiant " 
(Baxter). 



GREAT REBELLION 



407 



given a new army wherewith again to engage Hopton and 
Maurice, the task of saving Gloucester from the king's army fell 
to Essex, who was heavily reinforced and drew his army together 
for action in the last days of August. Resort was had to the 
press-gang to fill the ranks, recruiting for Waller's new army 
was stopped, and London sent six regiments of trained bands 
to the front, closing the shops so that every man should be free 
to take his part in what was thought to be the supreme trial 
of strength. 

On the 26th, all being ready, Essex started. Through Ayles- 
bury and round the north side of Oxford to Stow-on-the-Wold 
the army moved resolutely, not deterred by want of food and 
rest, or by the attacks of Rupert's and Wilmot's horse on its 
flank. On the 5th of September, just as Gloucester was at 
the end of its resources, the siege was suddenly raised and the 
Royalists drew off to Painswick, for Essex had reached Chelten- 
ham and the danger was over. Then, the field armies being 
again face to face and free to move, there followed a series of 
skilful manoeuvres in the Severn and Avon valleys, at the end 
of which the Parliamentary army gained a long start on its 
homeward road via Cricklade, Hungerford and Reading. But 
the Royalist cavalry under Rupert, followed rapidly by Charles 
and the main body from Evesham, strained every nerve to 
head off Essex at Newbury, and after a sharp skirmish on 
Aldbourne Chase on the i8th of September succeeded in doing 
so. On the igth the whole Royal army was drawn up, facing 
west, with its right on Newbury and its left on Enborne Heath. 
Essex's men knew that evening that they would have to break 
through by force there was no suggestion of surrender. 

11. First Bailie of Newbury, September 20, 1643. The ground 
was densely intersected by hedges except in front of the Royalists' 
left centre (Newbury Wash) and left (Enborne Heath), and, 
practically, Essex's army was never formed in line of battle, 
for each unit was thrown into the fight as it came up its own 
road or lane. On the left wing, in spite of the Royalist counter- 
strokes, the attack had the best of it, capturing field after field, 
and thus gradually gaining ground to the front. Here Lord 
Falkland was killed. On the Reading road itself Essex did not 
succeed in deploying on to the open ground on Newbury Wash, 
but victoriously repelled the royal horse when it charged up to 
the lanes and hedges held by his foot. On the extreme right 
of the Parliamentary army, which stood in the open ground of 
Enborne Heath, took place a famous incident. Here two of the 
London regiments, fresh to war as they were, were exposed to a 
trial as severe as that which broke down the veteran Spanish 
infantry at Rocroi in this same year. Rupert and the Royalist 
horse again and again charged up to the squares of pikes, and 
between each charge his guns tried to disorder the Londoners, but 
it was not until the advance of the royal infantry that the trained 
bands retired, slowly and in magnificent order, to the edge of the 
heath . The result of it all was that Essex's army had fought 
its hardest and failed to break the opposing line. But the 
Royalists had suffered so heavily, and above all the valour 
displayed by the rebels had so profoundly impressed them, that 
they were glad to give up the disputed road and withdraw into 
Newbury. Essex thereupon pursued his march, Reading was 
reached on the 22nd after a small rearguard skirmish at Alder- 
maston, and so ended one of the most dramatic episodes of 
English history. 

12. Hull and Winceby. Meanwhile the siege of Hull had 
commenced. The Eastern Association forces under Manchester 
promptly moved up into Lincolnshire, the foot besieging Lynn 
(which surrendered on the i6th of September) while the horse 
rode into the northern part of the county to give a hand to the 
Fairfaxes. Fortunately the sea communications of Hull were 
open. On the i8th of September part of the cavalry in Hull 
was ferried over to Barton, and the rest under Sir Thomas 
Fairfax went by sea to Saltfleet a few days later, the whole 
joining Cromwell near Spilsby. In return the old Lord Fairfax, 
who remained in Hull, received infantry reinforcements and 
a quantity of ammunition and stores from the Eastern Associa- 
tion. On the nth of October Cromwell and Fairfax together 



won a brilliant cavalry action at Winceby, driving the Royalist 
horse in confusion before them to Newark, and on the same day 
Newcastle's army around Hull, which had suffered terribly 
from the hardships of continuous siege work, was attacked 
by the garrison and so severely handled that next day the 
siege was given up. Later, Manchester retook Lincoln and 
Gainsborough, and thus Lincolnshire, which had been almost 
entirely in Newcastle's hands before he was compelled to under- 
take the siege of Hull, was added in fact as well as in name to the 
Eastern Association. 

Elsewhere, in the reaction after the crisis of Newbury, the 
war languished. The city regiments went home, leaving Essex 
too weak to hold Reading, which the Royalists reoccupied on the 
3rd of October. At this the Londoners offered to serve again, 
and actually took part in a minor campaign around Newport 
Pagnell, which town Rupert attempted to fortify as a menace 
to the Eastern Association and its communications with London. 
Essex was successful in preventing this, but his London regiments 
again went home, and Sir William Waller's new army in 
Hampshire failed lamentably in an attempt on Basing House 
(November 7), the London trained bands deserting en bloc. 
Shortly afterwards Arundel surrendered to a force under Sir 
Ralph, now Lord Hopton (December 9). 

13. The " Irish Cessation " and the Solemn League and 
Covenant. Politically, these months were the turning-point of 
the war. In Ireland, the king's lieutenant, by order of his 
master, made a truce with the Irish rebels (Sept. 15). Charles's 
chief object was to set free his army to fight in England, but it 
was believed universally that Irish regiments in plain words, 
papists in arms would shortly follow. Under these cir- 
cumstances his act united against him nearly every class in 
Protestant England, above all brought into the English quarrel 
the armed strength of Presbyterian Scotland. Yet Charles, 
still trusting to intrigue and diplomacy to keep Scotland in 
check, deliberately rejected the advice of Montrose, his greatest 
and most faithful lieutenant, who wished to give the Scots 
employment for their army at home. Only ten days after the 
" Irish cessation," the Parliament at Westminster swore to the 
Solemn League and Covenant, and the die was cast. It is true 
that even a semblance of Presbyterian theocracy put the 
" Independents " on their guard and definitely raised the question 
of freedom of conscience, and that secret negotiations were 
opened between the Independents and Charles on that basis, 
but they soon discovered that the king was merely using them 
as instruments to bring about the betrayal of Aylesbury and 
other small rebel posts. All parties found it convenient to inter- 
pret the Covenant liberally for the present, and at the beginning 
of 1644 the Parliamentary party showed so united a front that 
even Pym's death (December 8, 1643) hardly affected its resolu- 
tion to continue the struggle. 

The troops from Ireland, thus obtained at the cost of an 
enormous political blunder, proved to be untrustworthy after all. 
Those serving in Hopton's army were " mutinous and shrewdly 
infected with the rebellious humour of England." When Waller's 
Londoners surprised l and routed a Royalist detachment at 
Alton (December 13, 1643), half the prisoners took the Covenant. 
Hopton had to retire, and on the 6th of January 1644 Waller 
recaptured Arundel. Byron's Cheshire army was in no better 
case. Newcastle's retreat from Hull and the loss of Gainsborough 
had completely changed the situation in the midlands, Brereton 
was joined by the younger Fairfax from Lincolnshire, and the 
Royalists were severely defeated for a second time at Nantwich 
(January 25). As at Alton, the majority of the prisoners 
(amongst them Colonel George Monk) took the Covenant and 
entered the Parliamentary army. In Lancashire, as in Cheshire. 
Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire, the cause ot 
the Parliament was in the ascendant. Resistance revived in the 
West Riding towns, Lord Fairfax was again in the field in the 

1 For the third time within the year the London trained bands 
turned out in force. It was characteristic of the early years of the 
war that imminent danger alone called forth the devotion of the 
citizen soldier. If he was employed in ordinary times (e.g. at Basing 
House) he would neither fight nor march with spirit. 



4 o8 



GREAT REBELLION 



East Riding, and even Newark was closely besieged by Sir 
John Meldrum. More important news came in from the north. 
The advanced guard of the Scottish army had passed the Tweed 
on the ipth of January, and the marquis of Newcastle with the 
remnant of his army would soon be attacked in front and rear 
at once. 

14. Newark and Cheriton (March 1644). As in 1643, Rupert 
was soon on his way to the north to retrieve the fortunes of his 
side. Moving by the Welsh border, and gathering up garrisons 
and recruits snowball-wise as he marched, he went first to 
Cheshire to give a hand to Byron, and then, with the utmost 
speed, he made for Newark. On the aoth of March 1644 he 
bivouacked at Bingham, and on the 2ist he not only relieved 
Newark but routed the besiegers' cavalry. On the 22nd 
Meldrum's position was so hopeless that he capitulated on terms. 
But, brilliant soldier as he was, the prince was unable to do more 
than raid a few Parliamentary posts around Lincoln, after 
which he had to return his borrowed forces to their various 
garrisons and go back to Wales laden indeed with captured 
pikes and muskets to raise a permanent field army. 'But 
Rupert could not be in all places at once. Newcastle was 
clamorous for aid. In Lancashire, only the countess of Derby, 
in Lathom House, held out for the king, and her husband 
pressed Rupert to go to her relief. Once, too, the prince was 
ordered back to Oxford to furnish a travelling escort for the 
queen, who shortly after this gave birth to her youngest child 
and returned to France. The order was countermanded within 
a few hours, it is true, but Charles had good reason for avoiding 
detachments from his own army. On the apth of March, Hopton 
had undergone a severe defeat at Cheriton near New Alresford. 
In the preliminary manoeuvres and in the opening stages of the 
battle the advantage lay with the Royalists, and the earl of 
Forth, who was present,was satisfied with what had been achieved 
and tried to break off the action. But Royalist indiscipline 
ruined everything. A young cavalry colonel charged in defiance 
of orders, a fresh engagement opened, and at the last moment 
Waller snatched a victory out of defeat. Worse than this was 
the news from Yorkshire and Scotland. Charles had at last 
assented to Montrose's plan and promised him the title of 
marquis, but the first attempt to raise the Royalist standard in 
Scotland gave no omen of its later triumphs. In Yorkshire 
Sir Thomas Fairfax, advancing from Lancashire through the 
West Riding, joined his father. Selby was stormed on the nth 
of April, and thereupon Newcastle, who had been manoeuvring 
against the Scots in Durham, hastily drew back, sent his cavalry 
away, and shut himself up with his foot in York. Two days 
later the Scottish general, Alexander Leslie, Lord Leven, joined 
the Fairfaxes and prepared to invest that city. 

15. Plans of Campaign for 1644. The original plan of the 
Parliamentary "Committee of Both Kingdoms," which directed 
the military and civil policy of the allies after the fashion of a 
modern cabinet, was to combine Essex's and Manchester's 
armies in an attack upon the king's army, Aylesbury being 
appointed as the place of concentration. Waller's troops were 
to continue to drive back Hopton and to reconquer the west, 
Fairfax. and the Scots to invest Newcastle's army, while in the 
midlands Brereton and the Lincolnshire rebels could be counted 
upon to neutralize, the one Byron, the others the Newark 
Royalists. But Waller, once more deserted by his trained bands, 
was unable to profit by his victory of Cheriton, and retired to 
Farnham. Manchester, too, was delayed because the Eastern 
Association was still suffering from the effects of Rupert's 
Newark exploit Lincoln, abandoned by the rebels on that 
occasion, was not reoccupied till the 6th of May. Moreover, 
Essex found himself compelled to defend his conduct and 
motives to the Committee of Both Kingdoms, and as usual was 
straitened for men and money. But though there were grave 
elements of weakness on the other side, the Royalists considered 
their own position to be hopeless. Prince Maurice was engaged 
in the fruitless siege of Lyme Regis, Gloucester was again a 
centre of activity and counterbalanced Newark, and the situation 
in the north was practically desperate. Rupert himself came 



to Oxford (April 25) to urge that his new army should be kept 
free to march to aid Newcastle, who was now threatened owing 
to the abandonment of the enemy's original plan by Manchester 
as well as Fairfax and Leven. There was no further talk of the 
concentric advance of three armies on London. The fiery 
prince and the methodical earl of Brentford (Forth) were at 
one at least in recommending that the Oxford area with its 
own garrison and a mobile force in addition should be the pivot 
of the field armies' operations. Rupert, needing above all ade- 
quate time for the development of the northern offensive, was not 
in favour of abandoning any of the barriers to Essex's advance. 
Brentford, on the other hand, thought it advisable to contract 
the lines of defence, and Charles, as usual undecided, agreed 
to Rupert's scheme and executed Brentford's. Reading, there- 
fore, was dismantled early in May, and Abingdon given up shortly 
afterwards. 

16. Cropredy Bridge. It was now possible for the enemy to 
approach Oxford, and Abingdon was no sooner evacuated than 
(May 26) Waller's and Essex's armies united there still, un- 
fortunately for their cause, under separate commanders. From 
Abingdon Essex moved direct on Oxford, Waller towards 
Wantage, where he could give a hand to Massey, the energetic 
governor of Gloucester. Affairs seemed so bad in the west 
(Maurice with a whole army was still vainly besieging the single 
line of low breastworks that constituted the fortress of Lyme) 
that the king despatched Hopton to take charge of Bristol. 
Nor were things much better at Oxford; the barriers of time 
and space and the supply area had been deliberately given up 
to the enemy, and Charles was practically forced to undertake 
extensive field operations with no hope of success save in con- 
sequence of the enemy's mistakes. The enemy, as it happened, 
did not disappoint him. The king, probably advised by Brent- 
ford, conducted a skilful war of manoeuvre in the area defined 
by Stourbridge, Gloucester, Abingdon and Northampton, at the 
end of which Essex, leaving Waller to the secondary work, as he 
conceived it, of keeping the king away from Oxford and reducing 
that fortress, marched off into the west with most of the general 
service troops to repeat at Lyme Regis his Gloucester exploit 
of 1643. At one moment, indeed, Charles (then in Bewdley) 
rose to the idea of marching north to join Rupert and Newcastle, 
but he soon made up his mind to return to Oxford. From 
Bewdley, therefore, he moved to Buckingham the distant 
threat on London producing another evanescent citizen army 
drawn from six counties under Major-General Browne and 
Waller followed him closely. When the king turned upon 
Browne's motley host, Waller appeared in time to avert disaster, 
and the two armies worked away to the upper Cherwell. Brent- 
ford and Waller were excellent strategists of the I7th century 
type, and neither would fight a pitched battle without every 
chance in his favour. Eventually on the 2pth of June the 
Royalists were successful in a series of minor fights about 
Cropredy Bridge, and the result was, in accordance with con- 
tinental custom, admitted to be an important victory, though 
Waller's main army drew off unharmed. In the meantime, 
Essex had relieved Lyme (June 15) and occupied Weymcuth, 
and was preparing to go farther. The two rebel armies were 
now indeed separate. Waller had been left to do as best he could, 
and a worse fate was soon to overtake the cautious earl. 

17. Campaign of Marston Moor. During these manoeuvres 
the northern campaign had been fought to an issue. Rupert's 
courage and energy were more likely to command success in the 
English Civil War than all the conscientious caution of an Essex 
or a Brentford. On the i6th of May he left Shrewsbury to fight 
his way through hostile country to Lancashire, where he hoped 
to re-establish the Derby influence and raise new forces. Stock- 
port was plundered on the 25th, the besiegers of Lathom House 
utterly defeated at Bolton on the 28th. Soon afterwards he 
received a large reinforcement under General Goring, which 
included 5000 of Newcastle's cavalry. The capture of the 
almost defenceless town of Liverpool undertaken as usual to 
allay local fears did not delay Rupert more than three or four 
days , and he then turned towards the Yorkshire border with 






GREAT REBELLION 



409 



greatly augmented forces. On the i4th of June he received a 
despatch from the king, the gist of which was that there was a 
time-limit imposed on the northern enterprise. If York were lost 
or did not need his help, Rupert was to make all haste southward 
via Worcester. " If York be relieved and you beat the rebels' 
armies of both kingdoms, then, but otherways not, I may possibly 
make a shift upon the defensive to spin out time until you come 
to assist me." 

Charles did manage to " spin out time." But it was of capital 
importance that Rupert had to do his work upon York and 
the allied army in the shortest possible time, and that, according 
to the despatch, there were only two ways of saving the royal 
cause, " having relieved York by beating the Scots," or marching 
with all speed to Worcester. Rupert's duty, interpreted through 
the medium of his temperament, was clear enough. Newcastle 
still held out, his men having been encouraged by a small success 
on the 1 7th of June, and Rupert reached Knaresborough on 
the 3Oth. At once Leven, Fairfax and Manchester broke up 
the siege of York and moved out to meet him. But the prince, 
moving still at high speed, rode round their right flank via 
Boroughbridge and Thornton Bridge and entered York on the 
north side. Newcastle tried to dissuade Rupert from righting, 
but his record as a general was scarcely convincing as to the 
value of his advice. Rupert curtly replied that he had orders to 
fight, and the Royalists moved out towards Marston Moor 
(q.v.) on the morning of July 2, 1644. The Parliamentary 
commanders, fearing a fresh manoeuvre, had already begun to 
retire towards Tadcaster, but as soon as it became evident that 
a battle was impending they turned back. The battle of Marston 
Moor began about four in the afternoon. It was the first real 
trial of strength between the best elements on either side, and it 
ended before night with the complete victory of the Parliamentary 
armies. The Royalist cause in the north collapsed once for all, 
Newcastle fled to the continent, and only Rupert, resolute as 
ever, extricated 6000 cavalry from the dtbdde and rode away 
whence he had come, still the dominant figure of the war. 

18. Independency. The victory gave the Parliament entire 
control of the north, but it did not lead to the definitive solution 
of the political problem, and in fact, on the question of Charles's 
place in a new Constitution, the victorious generals quarrelled even 
before York had surrendered. Within three weeks of the battle 
the great army was broken up. The Yorkshire troops proceeded 
to conquer the isolated Royalist posts in their county, the Scots 
marched off to besiege Newcastle-on-Tyne and to hold in check 
a nascent Royalist army in Westmorland. Rupert in Lancashire 
they neglected entirely. Manchester and Cromwell, already 
estranged, marched away into the Eastern Association. There, 
for want of an enemy to fight, their army was forced to be idle, 
and Cromwell and the ever-growing Independent element 
quickly came to suspect their commander of lukewarmness in the 
cause. Waller's army, too, was spiritless and immobile. On 
the 2nd of July, despairing of the existing military system, he 
made to the Committee of Both Kingdoms the first suggestion 
of the New Model," My lords," he wrote, " till you have an 
army merely your own, that you may command, it is. . . 
impossible to do anything of importance." Browne's trained 
band army was perhaps the most ill-behaved of all once the 
soldiers attempted to murder their own general. Parliament in 
alarm set about the formation of a new general service force 
(July 12), but meantime both Waller's and Browne's armies 
(at Abingdon and Reading respectively) ignominiously collapsed 
by mutiny and desertion. It was evident that the people at 
large, with their respect for the law and their anxiety for their 
own homes, were tired of the war. Only those men such as 
Cromwell who has set their hearts on fighting out the quarrel 
of conscience, kept steadfastly to their purpose. Cromwell 
himself had already decided that the king himself must be 
deprived of his authority, and his supporters were equally con- 
vinced. But they were relatively few. Even the Eastern 
Association trained bands had joined in the disaffection in 
Waller's army, and that unfortunate general's suggestion of a 
professional army, with all its dangers, indicated the only means 



of enforcing a peace such as Cromwell and his friends desired. 
There was this important difference, however, between Waller's 
idea and Cromwell's achievement that the professional soldiers 
of the New Model were disciplined, led, and in all things inspired 
by "godly" officers. Godliness, devotion to the cause, and 
efficiency were indeed the only criteria Cromwell applied in 
choosing officers. Long before this he had warned the Scottish 
major-general Lawrence Crawford that the precise colour of a 
man's religious opinions mattered nothing compared with his 
devotion to them, and had told the committee of Suffolk, " I 
had rather have a plain russet-coated captain that knows what 
he fights for and loves what he knows than that which you call 
a ' gentleman ' and is nothing else. I honour a gentleman that 
is so indeed . . . but seeing it was necessary the work must 
go on, better plain men than none." If " men of honour and 
birth " possessed the essentials of godliness, devotion, and 
capacity, Cromwell preferred them, and as a fact only seven 
out of thirty-seven of the superior officers of the original New 
Model were not of gentle birth. 

19. Lostwithiel. But all this was as yet in the future. Essex's 
military promenade in the west of England was the subject of 
immediate interest. At first successful, this general penetrated 
to Plymouth, whence, securely based as he thought, he could 
overrun Devon. Unfortunately for him he was persuaded to 
overrun Cornwall as well. At once the Cornishmen rose, as they 
had risen under Hopton, and the king was soon on the march 
from the Oxford region, disregarding the armed mobs under 
Waller and Browne. Their state reflected the general languishing 
of the war spirit on both sides, not on one only, as Charles dis- 
covered when he learned that Lord Wilmot, the lieutenant- 
general of his horse, was in correspondence with Essex. Wilmot 
was of course placed under arrest, and was replaced by the 
dissolute General Goring. But it was unpleasantly evident 
that even gay cavaliers of the type of Wilmot had lost the ideals 
for which they fought, and had come to believe that the realm 
would never be at peace while Charles was king. Henceforward 
it will be found that the Royalist foot, now a thoroughly pro- 
fessional force, is superior in quality to the once superb cavalry, 
and that not merely because its opportunities for plunder, &c., 
are more limited. Materially, however, the immediate victory 
was undeniably with the Royalists. After a brief period of 
manreuvre, the Parliamentary army, now far from Plymouth, 
found itself surrounded and starving at Lostwithiel, on the 
Fowey river, without hope of assistance. The horse cut its way 
out through the investing circle of posts, Essex himself escaped 
by sea, but Major-General Skippon, his second in command, had 
to surrender with the whole of the foot on the 2nd of September. 
The officers and men were allowed to go free to Portsmouth, 
but their arms, guns and munitions were the spoil of the victors. 
There was now no trustworthy field force in arms for the Parlia- 
ment south of the Humber, for even the Eastern Association 
army was distracted by its religious differences, which had now 
at last come definitely to the front and absorbed the political 
dispute in a wider issue. Cromwell already proposed to abolish 
the peerage, the members of which were inclined to make a 
hollow peace, and had ceased to pay the least respect to his 
general, Manchester, whose scheme for the solution of the quarrel 
was an impossible combination of Charles and Presbyterianism. 
Manchester for his part sank into a state of mere obstinacy, 
refusing to move against Rupert, even to besiege Newark, and 
actually threatened to hang Colonel Lilburne for capturing a 
Royalist castle without orders. 

20. Operations of Essex's, Waller's and Manchester's Armies. 
After the success of Lostwithiel there was little to detain Charles's 
main army in the extreme west, and meanwhile Banbury, a 
most important point in the Oxford circle, and Basing House 
(near Basingstoke) were in danger of capture. Waller, who had 
organized a small force of reliable troops, had already sent 
cavalry into Dorsetshire with the idea of assisting Essex, and 
he now came himself with reinforcements to prevent, so far as 
lay in his power, the king's return to the Thames valley. Charles 
was accompanied of course only by his permanent forces and 



GREAT REBELLION 



by parts of Prince Maurice's and Hopton's armies the Cornish 
levies had as usual scattered as soon as the war receded from 
their borders. Manchester slowly advanced to Reading, Essex 
gradually reorganized his broken army at Portsmouth, while 
Waller, far out to the west at Shaftesbury, endeavored to gain 
the necessary time and space for a general concentration in 
Wiltshire, where Charles would be far from Oxford and Basing 
and, in addition, outnumbered by two to one. But the work of 
rearming Essex's troops proceeded slowly for want of money, 
and Manchester peevishly refused to be hurried either by his 
more vigorous subordinates or by the Committee of Both 
Kingdoms, saying that the army of the Eastern Association 
was for the guard of its own employers and not for general 
service. He pleaded the renewed activity of the Newark 
Royalists as his excuse, forgetting that Newark would have been 
in his hands ere this had he chosen to move thither instead of 
lying idle for two months. As to the higher command, things 
had come to such a pass that, when the three armies at last 
united, a council of war, consisting of three army commanders, 
several senior officers, and two civilian delegates from the 
Committee, was constituted. When the vote of the majority 
had determined what was to be done, Essex, as lord general 
of the Parliament's first army, was to issue the necessary orders 
for the whole. Under such conditions it was not likely that 
Waller's hopes of a great battle at Shaftesbury would be realized. 
On the 8th of October he fell back, the royal army following 
him step by step and finally reaching Whitchurch on the 2oth 
of October. Manchester arrived at Basingstoke on the i7th, 
Waller on the ipth, and Essex on the 2ist. Charles had found 
that he could not relieve Basing (a mile or two from Basingstoke) 
without risking a battle with the enemy between himself and 
Oxford; 1 he therefore took the Newbury road and relieved 
Donnington Castle near Newbury on the 22nd. Three days 
later Banbury too was relieved by a force which could now be 
spared from the Oxford garrison. But for once the council of 
war on the other side was for fighting a battle, and the Parlia- 
mentary armies, their spirits revived by the prospect of action 
and by the news of the fall of Newcastle and the defeat of a 
sally from Newark, marched briskly. On the 26th they appeared 
north of Newbury on the Oxford road. Like Essex in 1643, 
Charles found himself headed off from the shelter of friendly 
fortresses, but beyond this fact there is little similarity between 
the two battles of Newbury, for the Royalists in the first case 
merely drew a barrier across Essex's path. On the present 
occasion the eager Parliamentarians made no attempt to force 
the king to attack them; they were well content to attack 
him in his chosen position themselves, especially as he was better 
off for supplies and quarters than they. 

21. Second Newbury. The second battle of Newbury is 
remarkable as being the first great manoeuvre-battle (as distinct 
from " pitched " battle) of the Civil War. A preliminary 
reconnaissance by the Parliamentary > leaders (Essex was not 
present, owing to illness) established the fact that the king's 
infantry held a strong line of defence behind the Lambourn 
brook from Shaw (inclusive) to Donnington (exclusive), Shaw 
House and adjacent buildings being held as an advanced 
post. In rear of the centre, in open ground just north of 
Newbury, lay the bulk of the royal cavalry. In the left rear 
of the main line, and separated from it by more than a 
thousand yards, lay Prince Maurice's corps at Speen, advanced 
troops on the high ground west of that village, but Donnington 
Castle, under its energetic governor Sir John Boys, formed a 
strong post covering this gap with artillery fire. The Parlia- 
mentary leaders had no intention of flinging their men away 
in a frontal attack on the line of the Lambourn, and a flank 
attack from the east side could hardly succeed owing to the 
obstacle presented by the confluence of the Lambourn and the 
Rennet, hence they decided on a wide turning movement via 
Chieveley, Winterbourne and Wickham Heath, against Prince 
Maurice's position a decision which, daring and energetic 

1 Charles's policy was still, as before Marston Moor, to " spin out 
time " until Rupert came back from the north. 



as it was, led only to a modified success, for reasons which will 
appear. The flank march, out of range of the castle, was con- 
ducted with punctuality and precision. The troops composing 
it were drawn from all three armies and led by the best fighting 
generals, Waller, Cromwell, and Essex's subordinates Balfour 
and Skippon. Manchester at Clay Hill was to stand fast until 
the turning movement had developed, and to make a vigorous 
holding attack on Shaw House as soon as Waller's guns were 
heard at Speen. But there was no commander-in-chief to co- 
ordinate the movements of the two widely separated corps, and 
consequently no co-operation. Waller's attack was not unex- 
pected, and Prince Maurice had made ready to meet him. Yet 
the first rush of the rebels carried the entrenchments of Speen 
Hill, and Speen itself, though stoutly defended, fell into their 
hands within an hour, Essex's infantry recapturing here some 
of the guns they had had to surrender at Lostwithiel. But mean- 
time Manchester, in spite of the entreaties of his staff, had not 
stirred from Clay Hill. He had made one false attack already 
early in the morning, and been severely handled, and he was 
aware of his own deficiencies as a general. A year before this 
he would have asked for and acted upon the advice of a capable 
soldier, such as Cromwell or Crawford, but now his mind was 
warped by a desire for peace on any terms, and he sought only 
to avoid defeat pending a happy solution of the quarrel. Those 
who sought to gain peace through victory were meanwhile 
driving Maurice back from hedge to hedge towards the open 
ground at Newbury, but every attempt to emerge from the lanes 
and fields was repulsed by the royal cavalry, and indeed by 
every available man and horse, for Charles's officers had gauged 
Manchester's intentions, and almost stripped the front of its 
defenders to stop Waller's advance. Nightfall put an end to 
the struggle around Newbury, and then too late Manchester 
ordered the attack on Shaw House. It failed completely in spite 
of the gallantry of his men, and darkness being then complete 
it was not renewed. In its general course the battle closely 
resembled that of Freiburg (<?..), fought the same year on the 
Rhine. But, if Waller's part in the battle corresponded in a 
measure to Turenne's, Manchester was unequal to playing the 
part of Conde, and consequently the results, in the case of the 
French won by three days' hard fighting, and even then com- 
paratively small, were in the case of the English practically nil. 
During the night the royal army quietly marched away through 
the gap between Waller's and Manchester's troops. The heavy 
artillery and stores were left in Donnington Castle, Charles himself 
with a small escort rode off to the north-west to meet Rupert, 
and the main body gained Wallingford unmolested. An attempt 
at pursuit was made by Waller and Cromwell with all the cavalry 
they could lay hands on, but it was unsupported, for the council 
of war had decided to content itself with besieging Donnington 
Castle. A little later, after a brief and half-hearted attempt to 
move towards Oxford, it referred to the Committee for further 
instructions. Within the month Charles, having joined Rupert 
at Oxford and made him general of the Royalist forces vice 
Brentford, reappeared in the neighbourhood of Newbury. 
Donnington Castle was again relieved (November 9) under the 
eyes of the Parliamentary army, which was in such a miserable 
condition that even Cromwell was against fighting, and some 
manoeuvres followed, in the course of which Charles relieved 
Basing House and the Parliamentary armies fell back, not in 
the best order, to Reading. The season for field warfare was 
now far spent, and the royal army retired to enjoy good quarters 
and plentiful supplies around Oxford. 

22. The Self-denying Ordinance. On the other side, the 
dissensions between the generals had become flagrant and public, 
and it was no longer possible for the Houses of Parliament to 
ignore the fact that the army must be radically reformed. 
Cromwell and Waller from their places in parliament attacked 
Manchester's conduct, and their attack ultimately became, so 
far as Cromwell was concerned, an attack on the Lords, most 
of whom held the same views as Manchester, and on the Scots, 
who attempted to bring Cromwell to trial as an " incendiary." 
At the crisis of their bitter controversy Cromwell suddenly 



GREAT REBELLION 



411 



proposed to stifle all animosities by the resignation of all officers 
who were members of either House, a proposal which affected 
himself not less than Essex and Manchester. The first " self- 
denying ordinance " was moved on the pth of December, and 
provided that " no member of either house shall have or execute 
any office or command . . .," &c. This was not accepted by 
the Lords, and in the end a second " self-denying ordinance " 
was agreed to (April 3, 1645), whereby all the persons concerned 
were to resign, but without prejudice to their reappointment. 
Simultaneously with this, the formation of the New Model was 
at last definitely taken into consideration. The last exploit of 
Sir William Waller, who was not re-employed after the passing of 
the ordinance, was the relief of Taunton, then besieged by General 
Goring's army. Cromwell served as his lieutenant-general on 
this occasion, and we have Waller's own testimony that he was 
in all things a wise, capable and respectful subordinate. Under 
a leader of the stamp of Waller, Cromwell was well satisfied to 
obey, knowing the cause to be in good hands. 

23. Decline of Ike Royalist Cause. A raid of Goring's horse 
from the west into Surrey and an unsuccessful attack on General 
Browne at Abingdon were the chief enterprises undertaken on 
the side of the Royalists during the early winter. It was no 
longer " summer in Devon, summer in Yorkshire " as in January 
1643. An ever-growing section of Royalists, amongst whom 
Rupert himself was soon to be numbered, were for peace; many 
scores of loyalist gentlemen, impoverished by the loss of three 
years' rents of their estates and hopeless of ultimate victory, 
were making their way to Westminster to give in their sub- 
mission to the Parliament and to pay their fines. In such 
circumstances the old decision-seeking strategy was impossible. 
The new plan, suggested probably by Rupert, had already been 
tried with strategical success in the summer campaign of 1644. 
As we have seen, it consisted essentially in using Oxford as the 
centre of a circle and striking out radially at any favourable 
target " manoeuvring about a fixed point," as Napoleon called 
it. It was significant of the decline of the Royalist cause that 
the " fixed point " had been in 1643 the king's field army, based 
indeed on its great entrenched camp, Banbury-Cirencester- 
Reading-Oxford, but free to move and to hold the enemy wherever 
met, while now it was the entrenched camp itself, weakened 
by the loss or abandonment of its outer posts, and without the 
power of binding the enemy if they chose to ignore its existence, 
that conditioned the scope and duration of the single remaining 
field army's enterprises. 

24. The New Model Ordinance. For the present, however, 
Charles's cause was crumbling more from internal weakness 
than from the blows of the enemy. Fresh negotiations for peace 
which opened on the zpth of January at Uxbridge (by the name 
of which place they are known to history) occupied the attention 
of the Scots and their Presbyterian friends, the rise of Inde- 
pendency and of Cromwell was a further distraction, and over 
the new army and the Self-denying Ordinance the Lords and 
Commons were seriously at variance. But in February a fresh 
mutiny in Waller's command struck alarm into the hearts of 
the disputants. The "treaty" of Uxbridge came to the same 
end as the treaty of Oxford in 1643, and a settlement as to army 
reform was achieved on the isth of February. Though it was 
only on the 2 5th of March that the second and modified form of 
the ordinance was agreed to by both Houses, Sir Thomas Fairfax 
and Philip Skippon (who were not members of parliament) 
had been approved as lord general and major-general (of the 
infantry) respectively of the new army as early as the aist of 
January. The post of lieutenant-general and cavalry commander 
was for the moment left vacant, but there was little doubt as to 
who would eventually occupy it. 

25. Victories of Montrose. In Scotland, meanwhile, Montrose 
was winning victories which amazed the people of the two 
kingdoms. Montrose's royalism differed from that of English- 
men of the 1 7th century less than from that of their forefathers 
under Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. To him the king was the 
protector of his people against Presbyterian theocracy, scarcely 
less offensive to him than the Inquisition itself, and the feudal 



oppression of the great nobles.- Little as this ideal corresponded 
to the Charles of reality, it inspired in Montrose not merely 
romantic heroism but a force of leadership which was sufficient 
to carry to victory the nobles and gentry, the wild Highlanders 
and the experienced professional soldiers who at various times 
and places constituted his little armies. His first unsuccessful 
enterprise has been mentioned above. It seemed, in the early 
stages of his second attempt (August 1644), as if failure were again 
inevitable, for the gentry of the northern Lowlands were over- 
awed by the prevailing party and resented the leadership of a 
lesser noble, even though he were the king's lieutenant over all 
Scotland. Disappointed of support where he most expected it, 
Montrose then turned to the Highlands. At Blair Athol he 
gathered his first army of Royalist clansmen, and good fortune 
gave him also a nucleus of trained troops. A force of disciplined 
experienced soldiers (chiefly Irish Macdonalds and commanded 
by Alastair of that name) had been sent over from Ireland 
earlier in the year, and, after ravaging the glens of their hereditary 
enemies the Campbells, had attempted without success, now 
here, now there, to gather the other clans in the king's name. 
Their hand was against every man's, and when he finally arrived 
in Badenoch, Alastair Macdonald was glad to protect himself 
by submitting to the authority of the king's lieutenant. 

There were three hostile armies to be dealt with, besides 
ultimately the main covenanting army far away in England. 
The duke of Argyll, the head of the Campbells, had an army 
of his own clan and of Lowland Covenanter levies, Lord Elcho 
with another Lowland army lay near Perth, and Lord Balfour 
of Burleigh was collecting a third (also composed of Lowlanders) 
at Aberdeen. Montrose turned upon Elcho first, and found him 
at Tippermuir near Perth on the ist of September 1644. The 
Royalists were about 3000 strong and entirely foot, only Montrose 
himself and two others being mounted, while Elcho had about 
7000 of all arms. But Elcho's townsmen found that pike and 
musket were clumsy weapons in inexperienced hands, and, 
like Mackay's regulars at Killiecrankie fifty years later, they 
wholly failed to stop the rush of the Highland swordsmen. 
Many hundreds were killed in the pursuit, and Montrose slept in 
Perth that night, having thus accounted for one of his enemies. 
Balfour of Burleigh was to be his next victim, and he started for 
Aberdeen on the 4th. As he marched, his Highlanders slipped 
away to place their booty in security. But the Macdonald 
regulars remained with him, and as he passed along the coast 
some of the gentry came in, though the great western clan of 
the Gordons was at present too far divided in sentiment to take 
his part. Lord Lewis Gordon and some Gordon horse were even 
in Balfour's army. On the other hand, the earl of Airlie brought 
in forty-four horsemen, and Montrose was thus able to constitute 
two wings of cavalry on the day of battle. The Covenanters 
were about 2500 strong and drawn up on a slope above the How 
Burn 1 just outside Aberdeen (September 13, 1644). Montrose, 
after clearing away the enemy's skirmishers, drew up his army 
in front of the opposing line, the foot in the centre, the forty-four 
mounted men, with musketeers to support them, on either flank. 
The hostile left-wing cavalry charged piecemeal, and some bodies 
of troops did not engage at all. On the other wing, however, 
Montrose was for a moment hard pressed by a force of the enemy 
that attempted to work round to his rear. But he brought over 
the small band of mounted men that constituted his right wing 
cavalry, and also some musketeers from the centre, and 
destroyed the assailants, and when the ill-led left wing of the 
Covenanters charged again, during the absence of the cavalry, 
they were mown down by the close-range volleys of Macdonald's 
musketeers. Shortly afterwards the centre of Balfour's army 
yielded to pressure and fled in disorder. Aberdeen was sacked 
by order of Montrose, whose drummer had been murdered while 
delivering a message under a flag of truce to the magistrates. 

26. Inverlochy. Only Argyll now remained to be dealt with. 

The Campbells were fighting men from birth, like Montrose's 

own men, and had few townsmen serving with them. Still there 

were enough of the latter and of the impedimenta of regular 

1 The ground has been entirely built over for many years. 



GREAT REBELLION 



warfare with him to prevent Argyll from overtaking his agile 
enemy, and ultimately after a " hide-and-seek " in the districts 
of Rothiemurchus, Blair Athol, Banchory and Strathbogie, 
Montrose stood to fight at Fy vie Castle, repulsed Argyll's attack 
on that place and slipped away again to Rothiemurchus. There 
he was joined by Camerons and Macdonalds from all quarters 
for a grand raid on the Campbell country; he himself wished to 
march into the Lowlands, well knowing that he could not achieve 
the decision in the Grampians, but he had to bow, not for the 
first time nor the last, to local importunity. The raid was duly 
executed, and the Campbells' boast, " It's a far cry to Loch Awe," 
availed them little. In December and January the Campbell 
lands were thoroughly and mercilessly devastated, and Montrose 
then retired slowly to Loch Ness, where the bulk of his army as 
usual dispersed to store away its plunder. Argyll, with such 
Highland and Lowland forces as he could collect after the disaster, 
followed Montrose towards Lochaber, while the Seaforths and 
other northern clans marched to Loch Ness. Caught between 
them, Montrose attacked the nearest. The Royalists crossed 
the hills into Glen Roy, worked thence along the northern face 
of Ben Nevis, and descended like an avalanche upon Argyll's 
forces at Inverlochy (February 2, 1645). As usual, the Lowland 
regiments gave way at once Montrose had managed in all this 
to keep with him a few cavalry and it was then the turn of the 
Campbells. Argyll escaped in a boat, but his clan, as a fighting 
force, was practically annihilated, and Montrose, having won four 
victories in these six winter months, rested his men and exultingly 
promised Charles that he would come to his assistance with a 
brave army before the end of the summer. 

27. Organization of the New Model Army. To return to the 
New Model. Its first necessity was regular pay; its first duty to 
serve wherever it might be sent. Of the three armies that had 
fought at Newbury only one, Essex's, was in a true sense a general 
service force, and only one, Manchester's, was paid with any 
regularity. Waller's army was no better paid than Essex's and 
no more free from local ties than Manchester's. It was therefore 
broken up early in April, and only 600 of its infantry passed 
into the New Model. Essex's men, on the other hand, wanted but 
regular pay and strict officers to make them excellent soldiers, 
and their own major-general, Skippon, managed by tact and his 
personal popularity to persuade the bulk of the men to rejoin. 
Manchester's army, in which Cromwell had been the guiding 
influence from first to last, was naturally the backbone of the 
New Model. Early in April Essex, Manchester, and Waller re- 
signed their commissions, and such of their forces as were not 
embodied in the new army were sent to do local duties, for 
minor armies were still maintained, General Poyntz's in the north 
midlands, General Massey's in the Severn valley, a large force in 
the Eastern Association, General Browne's in Buckinghamshire, 
&c., besides the Scots in the north. 

The New Model originally consisted of 14,400 foot and 7700 
horse and dragoons. Of the infantry only 6000 came from the 
combined armies, the rest being new recruits furnished by the 
press. 1 Thus there was considerable trouble during the first 
months of Fairfax's command, and discipline had to be enforced 
with unusual sternness. As for the enemy, Oxford was openly 
contemptuous of " the rebels' new brutish general " and his 
men, who seemed hardly likely to succeed where Essex and Waller 
had failed. But the effect of the Parliament's having " an army 
all its own " was soon to be apparent. 

28. First Operations of 1645. On the Royalist side the cam- 
paign of 1645 opened in the west, whither the young prince of 
Wales (Charles II.) was sent with Hyde (later earl of Clarendon), 
Hopton and others as his advisers. General (Lord) Goring, 
however, now in command of the Royalist field forces in this 
quarter, was truculent, insubordinate and dissolute, though on 
the rare occasions when he did his duty he displayed a certain 
degree of skill and leadership, and the influence of the prince's 

1 The Puritans had by now disappeared almost entirely from the 
ranks of the infantry. Per contra the officers and sergeants and the 
troopers of the horse were the sternest Puritans of all, the survivors 
of three years of a disheartening war. 



counsellors was but small. As usual, operations began with 
the sieges necessary to conciliate local feeling. Plymouth and 
Lyme were blocked up, and Taunton again invested. The 
reinforcement thrown into the last place by Waller and Cromwell 
was dismissed by Blake (then a colonel in command of the 
fortress and afterwards the great admiral of the Commonwealth), 
and after many adventures rejoined Waller and Cromwell. 
The latter generals, who had not yet laid down their commissions, 
then engaged Goring for some weeks, but neither side having 
infantry or artillery, and both finding subsistence difficult in 
February and March and in country that had been fought over 
for two years past, no results were to be expected. Taunton 
still remained unrelieved, and Goring's horse still rode all over 
Dorsetshire when the New Model at last took the field. 

29. Rupert's Northern March. In the midlands and Lanca- 
shire the Royalist horse, as ill-behaved even as Goring's men, 
were directly responsible for the ignominious failure with which 
the king's main army began its year's work. Prince Maurice 
was joined at Ludlow by Rupert and part of his Oxford army 
early in March, and the brothers drove off Brereton from the 
siege of Beeston Castle and relieved the pressure on Lord Byron 
in Cheshire. So great was the danger of Rupert's again invading 
Lancashire and Yorkshire that all available forces in the north, 
English and Scots, were ordered to march against him. But 
at this moment the prince was called back to clear his line 
of retreat on Oxford. The Herefordshire and Worcestershire 
peasantry, weary of military exactions, were in arms, and though 
they would not join the Parliament, and for the most part 
dispersed after stating their grievances, the main enterprise was 
wrecked. This was but one of many ill-armed crowds " Club- 
men " as they were called that assembled to enforce peace 
on both parties. A few regular soldiers were sufficient to disperse 
them in all cases, but their attempt to establish a third party 
in England was morally as significant as it was materially futile. 
The Royalists were now fighting with the courage of despair, 
those who still fought against Charles did so with the full deter- 
mination to ensure the triumph of their cause, and with the 
conviction that the only possible way was the annihilation of the 
enemy's armed forces, but the majority were so weary of the war 
that the earl of Manchester's Presbyterian royalism which had 
contributed so materially to the prolongation of the struggle 
would probably have been accepted by four-fifths of all England 
as the basis of a peace. It was, in fact, in the face of almost 
universal opposition that Fairfax and Cromwell and their friends 
at Westminster guided the cause of their weaker comrades to 
complete victory. 

30. Cromwell's Raid. Having without difficulty rid himself 
of the Clubmen, Rupert was eager to resume his march into the 
north. It is unlikely that he wished to join Montrose, though 
Charles himself favoured that plan, but he certainly intended 
to fight the Scottish army, more especially as after Inverlochy 
it had been called upon to detach a large force to deal with 
Montrose. But this time there was no Royalist army in the 
north to provide infantry and guns for a pitched battle, and 
Rupert had perforce to wait near Hereford till the main body, 
and in particular the artillery train, could come from Oxford and 
join him. It was on the march of the artillery train to Hereford 
that the first operations of the New Model centred. The infantry 
was not yet ready to move, in spite of all Fairfax's and Skippon's 
efforts, and it became necessary to send the cavalry by itself 
to prevent Rupert from gaining a start. Cromwell, then under 
Waller's command, had come to Windsor to resign his commission 
as required by the Self-denying Ordinance. Instead, he was 
placed at the head of a brigade of his own old soldiers, with orders 
to stop the march of the artillery train. On the 2$rd of April 
he started from Watlington north-westward. At dawn on the 
24th he routed a detachment of Royalist horse at Islip. On 
the same day, though he had no guns and only a few firearms 
in the whole force, he terrified the governor of Bletchingdon 
House into surrender. Riding thence to Witney, Cromwell 
won another cavalry. fight at Bampton-in-the-Bush on the 27th, 
and attacked Faringdon House, though without success, on the 



GREAT REBELLION 



2pth. Thence he marched at leisure to Newbury. He had done 
his work thoroughly. He had demoralized the Royalist cavalry, 
and, above all, had carried off every horse on the country-side. 
To all Rupert's entreaties Charles could only reply that the guns 
could not be moved till the 7th of May, and he even summoned 
Goring's cavalry from the west to make good, his losses. 

31. Civilian Strategy. Cromwell's success thus forced the 
king to concentrate his various armies in the neighbourhood 
of Oxford, and the New Model had, so Fairfax and Cromwell 
hoped, found its target. But the Committee of Both Kingdoms 
on the one side, and Charles, Rupert and Goring on the other, 
held different views. On the ist of May Fairfax, having been 
ordered to relieve Taunton, set out from Windsor for the long 
march to that place; meeting Cromwell at Newbury on the 2nd, 
he directed the lieutenant-general to watch the movements of 
the king's army, and himself marched on to Blandford, which 
he reached on the 7th of May. Thus Fairfax and the main army 
of the Parliament were marching away in the west while Crom- 
well's detachment was left, as Waller had been left the previous 
year, to hold the king as best he could. On the very evening 
that Cromwell's raid ended, the leading troops of Goring's 
command destroyed part of Cromwell's own regiment near 
Faringdon, and on the 3rd Rupert and Maurice appeared with 
a force of all arms at Burford. Yet the Committee "of Both 
Kingdoms, though aware on the spth of Goring's move, only 
made up its mind to stop Fairfax on the 3rd, and did not send 
off orders till the 5th. These orders were to the effect that a 
detachment was to be sent to the relief of Taunton, and that 
the main army was to return. Fairfax gladly obeyed, even 
though a siege of Oxford and not the enemy's field army was 
the objective assigned him. But long before he came up to the 
Thames valley the situation was again changed. Rupert, now 
in possession of the guns and their teams, urged upon his uncle 
the resumption of the northern enterprise, calculating that with 
Fairfax in Somersetshire, Oxford was safe. Charles accordingly 
marched out of Oxford on the 7th towards Stow-on-the-Wold, 
on the very day, as it chanced, that Fairfax began his return 
march from Blandford. But Goring and most of the other 
generals were for a march into the west, in the hope of dealing 
with Fairfax as they had dealt with Essex in 1644. The armies 
therefore parted as Essex and Waller had parted at the same 
place in 1644, Rupert and the king to march northward, Goring 
to return to his independent command in the west. Rupert, 
not unnaturally wishing to keep his influence with the king and 
his authority as general of the king's army unimpaired by 
Goring's notorious indiscipline, made no attempt to prevent the 
separation, which in the event proved wholly unprofitable. The 
flying column from Blandford relieved Taunton long before 
Goring's return to the west, and Colonel Weldon and Colonel 
Graves, its commanders, set him at defiance even in the open 
country. As for Fairfax, he was out of Goring's reach preparing 
for the siege of Oxford. 

32. Charles in the Midlands. On the other side also the 
generals were working by data that had ceased to have any value. 
Fairfax's siege of Oxford, ordered by the Committee on the loth 
of May, and persisted in after it was known that the king was on 
the move, was the second great blunder of the year and was 
hardly redeemed, as a military measure, by the visionary scheme 
of assembling the Scots, the Yorkshiremen, and the midland 
forces to oppose the king. It is hard to understand how, having 
created a new model army " all its own " for general service, the 
Parliament at once tied it down to a local enterprise, and trusted 
an improvised army of local troops to fight the enemy's main 
army. In reality the Committee seems to have been misled by 
false information to the effect that Goring and the governor of 
Oxford were about to declare for the Parliament, but had they not 
despatched Fairfax to the relief of Taunton in the first instance 
the necessity for such intrigues would not have arisen. However, 
Fairfax obeyed orders, invested Oxford, and, so far as he was able 
without a proper siege train, besieged it for two weeks, while 
Charles and Rupert ranged the midlands unopposed. At the end 
of that time came news so alarming that the Committee hastily 



abdicated their control over military operations and gave 
Fairfax a free hand. " Black Tom " gladly and instantly 
abandoned the siege and marched northward to give battle to the 
king. 

Meanwhile Charles and Rupert were moving northward. On 
the i ith of May they reached Droitwich, whence after two days' 
rest they marched against Brereton. The latter hurriedly raised 
the sieges he had on hand, and called upon Yorkshire and the 
Scottish army there for aid. But only the old Lord Fairfax 
and the Yorkshiremen responded. Leven had just heard of new 
victories won by Montrose, and could do no more than draw his 
army and his guns over the Pennine chain into Westmorland in 
the hope of being in time to bar the king's march on Scotland 
via Carlisle. 

33. Dundee. After the destruction of the Campbells at 
Inverlochy, Montrose had cleared away the rest of his enemies 
without difficulty. He now gained a respectable force of cavalry 
by the adhesion of Lord Gordon and many of his clan, and this 
reinforcement was the more necessary as detachments from 
Leven's army under Baillie and Hurry disciplined infantry and 
cavalry were on the march to meet him. The Royalists marched 
by Elgin and through the Gordon country to Aberdeen, and 
thence across the Esk to Coupar-Angus, where Baillie and Hurry 
were encountered. A war of manoeuvre followed, in which they 
thwarted every effort of the Royalists to break through into the 
Lowlands, but in the end retired into Fife. Montrose thereupon 
marched into the hills with the intention of reaching the upper 
Forth and thence the Lowlands, for he did not disguise from 
himself the fact that there, and not in the Highlands, would the 
quarrel be decided, and was sanguine over-sanguine, as the 
event proved as to the support he would obtain from those who 
hated the kirk and its system. But he had called to his aid the 
semi-barbarous Highlanders, and however much the Lowlands 
resented a Presbyterian inquisition, they hated and feared the 
Highland clans beyond all else. He was equally disappointed in 
his own army. For a war of positions the Highlanders had neither 
aptitude nor inclination, and at Dunkeld the greater part of them 
went home. If the small remnant was to be kept to its duty, 
plunder must be found, and the best objective was the town of 
Dundee. With a small force of 750 foot and horse Montrose 
brilliantly surprised that place on the 4th of April, but Baillie and 
Hurry were not far distant, and before Montrose's men had time 
to plunder the prize they were collected to face the enemy. 
His retreat from Dundee was considered a model operation by 
foreign students of the art of war (then almost as numerous as 
now), and what surprised them most was that Montrose could 
rally his men after a sack had begun. The retreat itself was 
remarkable enough. Baillie moved parallel to Montrose on his 
left flank towards Arbroath, constantly heading him off from the 
hills and attempting to pin him against the sea. Montrose, 
however, halted in the dark so as to let Baillie get ahead of him 
and then turned sharply back, crossed Baillie's track, and made 
for the hills. Baillie soon realized what had happened and 
turned back also, but an hour too late. By the 6th the Royalists 
were again safe in the broken country of the Esk valley. But 
Montrose cherished no illusions as to joining the king at once; 
all he could do, he now wrote, was to neutralize as many of the 
enemy's forces as possible. 

34. Auldearn. For a time he wandered in the Highlands 
seeking recruits. But soon he learned that Baillie and Hurry had 
divided their forces, the former remaining about Perth and 
Stirling to observe him, the latter going north to suppress the 
Gordons. Strategy and policy combined to make Hurry the 
objective of the next expedition. But the soldier of fortune who 
commanded the Covenanters at Aberdeen was no mean 
antagonist. Marching at once with a large army (formed on the 
nucleus of his own trained troops and for the rest composed of 
clansmen and volunteers) Hurry advanced to Elgin, took contact 
with Montrose there, and, gradually and skilfully retiring, drew 
him into the hostile country round Inverness. Montrose fell into 
the trap, and Hurry took his measures to surprise him at Auld- 
earn so successfully that (May 9) Montrose, even though the 



GREAT REBELLION 



indiscipline of some of Hurry's young soldiers during the night 
march gave him the alarm, had barely time to form up before the 
enemy was upon him. But the best strategy is of no avail when 
the battle it produces goes against the strategist, and Montrose's 
tactical skill was never more conspicuous than at Auldearn. 
Alastair Macdonald with most of the Royalist infantry and the 
Royal standard was posted to the right (north) of the village to 
draw upon himself the weight of Hurry's attack; only enough 
men were posted in the village itself to show that it was occupied, 
and on the south side, out of sight, was Montrose himself with a 
body of foot and all the Gordon horse. It was the prototype, on a 
small scale, of Austerlitz. Macdonald resisted sturdily while 
Montrose edged away from the scene of action, and at the right 
moment and not before, though Macdonald had been driven 
back en the village and was fighting for life amongst the gardens 
and enclosures, Montrose let loose Lord Gordon's cavalry. These, 
abandoning for once the pistol tactics of their time, charged 
home with the sword. The enemy's right wing cavalry was 
scattered in an instant, the nearest infantry was promptly ridden 
down, and soon Hurry's army had ceased to exist. 

35. Campaign of Naseby. If the news of Auldearn brought 
Leven to the region of Carlisle, it had little effect on his English 
allies. Fairfax was not yet released from the siege of Oxford, in 
spite of the protests of the Scottish representatives in London. 
Massey, the active and successful governor of Gloucester, was 
placed in command of a field force on the 25th of May, but he was 
to lead it against, not the king, but Goring. At that moment the 
military situation once more changed abruptly. Charles, instead 
of continuing his march on to Lancashire, turned due eastward 
towards Derbyshire. The alarm at Westminster when this new 
development was reported was such that Cromwell, in spite of the 
Self-Denying Ordinance, was sent to raise an army for the 
defence of the Eastern Association. Yet the Royalists had no 
intentions in that direction. Conflicting reports as to the 
condition of Oxford reached the royal headquarters in the last 
week of May, and the eastward march was made chiefly to 
" spin out time " until it could be known whether it would be 
necessary to return to Oxford, or whether it was still possible to 
fight Leven in Yorkshire his move into Westmorland was not 
yet known and invade Scotland by the easy east coast route. 

Goring's return to the west had already been countermanded 
and he had been directed to march to Harborough, while the 
South Wales Royalists were also called in towards Leicester. 
Later orders (May 26) directed him to Newbury, whence he was 
to feel the strength of the enemy's positions around Oxford. 
It is hardly necessary to say that Goring found good military 
reasons for continuing his independent operations, and marched 
off towards Taunton regardless of the order. He redressed the 
balance there for the moment by overawing Massey's weak force, 
and his purse profited considerably by fresh opportunities for 
extortion, but he and his men were not at Naseby. Meanwhile 
the king, at the geographical centre of England, found an im- 
portant and wealthy town at his mercy. Rupert, always for 
action, took the opportunity, and Leicester was stormed and 
thoroughly pillaged on the night of the 3oth-3 ist of May. There 
was the usual panic at Westminster, but, unfortunately for 
Charles, it resulted in Fairfax being directed to abandon the 
siege of Oxford and given carte blanche to bring the Royal army 
to battle wherever it was met. On his side the king had, after 
the capture of Leicester, accepted the advice of those who feared 
for the safety of Oxford Rupert, though commander-in-chief, 
was unable to insist on the northern enterprise and had marched 
to Daventry, where he halted to throw supplies into Oxford. 
Thus Fairfax in his turn was free to move, thanks to the in- 
subordination of Goring, who would neither relieve Oxford nor 
join the king for an attack on the New Model. The Parliamentary 
general moved from Oxford towards Northampton so as to 
cover the Eastern Association. On the i2th of June the two 
armies were only a few miles apart, Fairfax at Kislingbury, 
Charles at Daventry, and, though the Royalists turned northward 
again on the i3th to resume the Yorkshire project under the very 
eyes of the enemy, Fairfax followed close. On the night of 



the i3th Charles slept at Lubenham, Fairfax at Guilsborough. 
Cromwell, just appointed lieutenant-general of the New Model, 
had ridden into camp on the morning of the i3th with fresh 
cavalry from the eastern counties, Colonel Rossiter came up 
with more from Lincolnshire on the morning of the battle, 
and it was with an incontestable superiority of numbers and an 
overwhelming moral advantage that Fairfax fought at Naseby 
(q.i>.) on the i4th of June. The result of the battle, this time a 
decisive battle, was the annihilation of the Royal army. Part 
of the cavalry escaped, a small fraction of it in tolerable order, 
but the guns and the baggage train were taken, and, above all, 
the splendid Royal infantry were killed or taken prisoners to a 
man. 

36. Effects of Naseby. After Naseby, though the war dragged 
on for another year, the king never succeeded in raising an army 
as good as, or even more numerous than, that which Fairfax's 
army had so heavily outnumbered on the I4th of June. That 
the fruits of the victory could not be gathered in a few weeks 
was due to a variety of hindrances rather than to direct opposi- 
tion to the absence of rapid means of communication, the 
paucity of the forces engaged on both sides relatively to the total 
numbers under arms, and from time to time to the political 
exigencies of the growing quarrel between Presbyterians and 
Independents. As to the latter, within a few days of Naseby, 
the Scots rejoiced that the "back of the malignants was broken," 
and demanded reinforcements as a precaution against " the 
insolence of others," i.e. Cromwell and the Independents " to 
whom alone the Lord has given the victory of that day." Leven 
had by now returned to Yorkshire, and a fortnight after Naseby, 
after a long and honourable defence by Sir Thomas Glemham, 
Carlisle fell to David Leslie's besieging corps. Leicester was 
reoccupied by Fairfax on the i8th, and on the 2oth Leven's 
army, moving slowly southward, reached Mansfield. This move 
was undertaken largely for political reasons, i.e. to restore the 
Presbyterian balance as against the victorious New Model. 
Fairfax's army was intended by its founders to be a specifically 
English army, and Cromwell for one would have employed it 
against the Scots almost as readily as against malignants. 
But for the moment the advance of the northern army was of 
the highest military importance, for Fairfax was thereby set 
free from the necessity of undertaking sieges. Moreover, the 
publication of the king's papers taken at Naseby gave Fairfax's 
troops a measure of official and popular support which a month 
before they could not have been said to possess, for it was now 
obvious that they represented the armed force of England against 
the Irish, Danes, French, Lorrainers, &c., whom Charles had for 
three years been endeavouring to let loose on English soil. 
Even the Presbyterians abandoned for the time any attempt 
to negotiate with the king, and advocated a vigorous prosecution 
of the war. 

37. Fairfax's Western Campaign. This, in the hands of Fairfax 
and Cromwell, was likely to be effective. While the king and 
Rupert, with the remnant of their cavalry, hurried into South 
Wales to join Sir Charles Gerard's troops and to raise fresh in- 
fantry, Fairfax decided that Goring's was the most important 
Royalist army in the field, and turned to the west, reaching 
Lechlade on the 26th, less than a fortnight after the battle of 
Naseby. One last attempt was made to dictate the plan of 
campaign from Westminster, but the Committee refused to pass 
on the directions of the Houses, and he remained free to deal 
with Goring as he desired. Time pressed ; Charles in Monmouth- 
shire and Rupert at Bristol were well placed for a junction with 
Goring, which would have given them a united army 15,000 
strong. Taunton, in spite of Massey's efforts to keep the field, 
was again besieged, and in Wilts and Dorset numerous bands 
of Clubmen were on foot which the king's officers were doing 
their best to turn into troops for their master. But the process 
of collecting a fresh royal army was slow, and Goring and his 
subordinate, Sir Richard Grenville, were alienating the king's 
most devoted adherents by their rapacity, cruelty and de- 
bauchery. Moreover, Goring had no desire to lose the inde- 
pendent command he had extorted at Stow-on-the-Woldin May. 



GREAT REBELLION 



Still, it was clear that he must be disposed of as quickly as 
possible, and Fairfax requested the Houses to take other 
measures against the king (June 26). This they did by paying up 
the arrears due to Leven's army and bringing it to the Severn 
valley. On the 8th of July Leven reached Alcester, bringing 
with him a Parliamentarian force from Derbyshire under Sir 
John Cell. The design was to besiege Hereford. 

38. Langport. By that time Fairfax and Goring were at 
close quarters. The Royalist general's line of defence faced west 
along the Yeo and the Parrett between Yeovil and Bridgwater, 
and thus barred the direct route to Taunton. Fairfax, however, 
marched from Lechlade via Marlborough and Blandford 
hindered only by Clubmen to the friendly posts of Dorchester 
and Lyme, and with these as his centre of operations he was 
able to turn the headwaters of Goring's river-line via Beaminster 
and Crewkerne. The Royalists at once abandoned the south and 
west side of the rivers the siege of Taunton had already been 
given up and passed over to the north and east bank. Bridg- 
water was the right of this second line as it had been the left of 
the first; the new left was at Ilchester. Goring could thus 
remain in touch with Charles in south Wales through Bristol, 
and the siege of Taunton having been given up there was no 
longer any incentive for remaining on the wrong side of the 
water-line. But his army was thoroughly demoralized by' its 
own licence and indiscipline, and the swift, handy and resolute 
regiments of the New Model made short work of its strong 
positions. On the 7th of July, demonstrating against the points 
of passage between Ilchester and Langport, Fairfax secretly 
occupied Yeovil. The post at that place, which had been the 
right of Goring's first position, had, perhaps rightly, been with- 
drawn to Ilchester when the second position was taken up, and 
Fairfax repaired the bridge without interruption. Goring 
showed himself unequal to the new situation. He might, if 
sober, make a good plan when the enemy was not present to 
disturb him, and he certainly led cavalry charges with boldness 
and skill. But of strategy in front of the enemy he was in- 
capable. On the news from Yeovil he abandoned the line of the 
Yeo as far as Langport without striking a blow, and Fairfax, 
having nothing to gain by continuing his detour through Yeovil, 
came back and quietly crossed at Long Sutton, west of Ilchester 
(July 9) . Goring had by now formed a new plan. A strong rear- 
guard was posted at Langport and on high ground east and north- 
east of it to hold Fairfax, and he himself with the cavalry rode 
off early on the 8th to try and surprise Taunton. This place 
was no longer protected by Massey's little army, which Fairfax 
had called up to assist his own. But Fairfax, who was not yet 
across Long Sutton bridge, heard of Goring's raid in good time, 
and sent Massey after him with a body of horse. Massey sur- 
prised a large party of the Royalists at Ilminster on the pth, 
wounded Goring himself, and pursued the fugitives up to the 
south-eastern edge of Langport. On the roth Fairfax's ad- 
vanced guard, led by Major Bethel of Cromwell's own regiment, 
brilliantly stormed the position of Goring's rearguard east of 
Langport, and the cavalry of the New Model, led by Cromwell 
himself, swept in pursuit right up to the gates of Bridgwater, 
where Goring's army, dismayed and on the point of collapse, 
was more or less rallied. Thence Goring himself retired to 
Barnstaple. His army, under the regimental officers, defended 
itself in Bridgwater resolutely till the 2$rd of July, when it 
capitulated. The fall of Bridgwater gave Fairfax complete con- 
trol of Somerset and Dorset from Lyme to the Bristol channel. 
Even in the unlikely event of Goring's raising a fresh army, 
he would now have to break through towards Bristol by open 
force, and a battle between Goring and Fairfax could only have 
one result. Thus Charles had perforce to give up his intention 
of joining Goring his recruiting operations in south Wales had 
not been so successful as he hoped, owing to the apathy of the 
people and the vigour of the local Parliamentary leaders 
and to resume the northern enterprise begun in the spring. 

39. Schemes of Lord Digby. This time Rupert would not be 
with him. The prince, now despairing of success and hoping 
only for a peace on the best terms procurable, listlessly returned 



to his governorship of Bristol and prepared to meet Fairfax's 
impending attack. The influence of Rupert was supplanted by 
that of Lord Digby. As sanguine as Charles and far more 
energetic, he was for the rest of the campaign the guiding spirit 
of the Royalists, but being a civilian he proved incapable of 
judging the military factors in the situation from a military 
standpoint, and not only did he offend the officers by constituting 
himself a sort of confidential military secretary to the king, but 
he was distrusted by all sections of Royalists for his reckless 
optimism. The resumption of the northern enterprise, opposed 
by Rupert and directly inspired by Digby, led to nothing. 
Charles marched by Bridgnorth, Lichfield and Ashbourne to 
Doncaster, where on the i8th of August he was met by great 
numbers of Yorkshire gentlemen with promises of fresh recruits. 
For a moment the outlook was bright, for the Derbyshire men 
with Cell were far away at Worcester with Leven, the Yorkshire 
Parliamentarians engaged in besieging Scarborough Castle, 
Pontefract and other posts. But two days later he heard that 
David Leslie with the cavalry of Leven's army was coming 
up behind him, and that, the Yorkshire sieges being now ended, 
Major-General Poyntz's force lay in his front. It was now im- 
possible to wait for the new levies, and reluctantly the king turned 
back to Oxford, raiding Huntingdonshire and other parts of the 
hated Eastern Association en route. 

40. Montrose'sLast Victories. David Leslie did not pursue him. 
Montrose, though the king did not yet know it, had won two 
more battles, and was practically master of all Scotland. After 
Auldearn he had turned to meet Baillie's army in Strathspey, and 
by superior mobility and skill forced that commander to keep at 
a respectful distance. He then turned upon a new army which 
Lindsay, titular earl of Crawford, was forming in Forfarshire, 
but that commander betook himself to a safe distance, and 
Montrose withdrew into the Highlands to find recruits (June). 
The victors of Auldearn had mostly dispersed on the usual errand, 
and he was now deserted by most of the Gordons, who were re- 
called by the chief of their clan, the marquess of Huntly, in spite 
of the indignant remonstrances of Huntly's heir, Lord Gordon, 
who was Montrose's warmest admirer. Baillie now approached 
again, but he was weakened by having to find trained troops 
to stiffen Lindsay's levies, and a strong force of the Gordons had 
now been persuaded to rejoin Montrose. The two armies met in 
battle near Alford on the Don; little can be said of the engage- 
ment save that Montrose had to fight cautiously and tentatively 
as at Aberdeen, not in the decision-forcing spirit of Auldearn, 
and that in the end Baillie's cavalry gave way and his infantry 
was cut down as it stood. Lord Gordon was amongst the Royalist 
dead (July 2) . The plunder was put away in the glens before any 
attempt was made to go forward, and thus the Covenanters had 
leisure to form a numerous, if not very coherent, army on the 
nucleus of Lindsay's troops. Baillie, much against his will, was 
continued in the command, with a council of war (chiefly of nobles 
whom Montrose had already defeated, such as Argyll, Elcho and 
Balfour) to direct his every movement. Montrose, when rejoined 
by the Highlanders, moved to meet him, and in the last week of 
July and the early part of August there were manoeuvres and 
minor engagements round Perth. About the 7th of August 
Montrose suddenly slipped away into the Lowlands, heading 
for Glasgow. Thereupon another Covenanting army began to 
assemble in Clydesdale. But it was clear that Montrose could 
beat mere levies, and Baillie, though without authority and 
despairing of success, hurried after him. Montrose then, having 
drawn Baillie's Fifeshire militia far enough from home to ensure 
their being discontented, turned upon them on the i4th of August 
near Kilsyth. Baillie protested against fighting, but his aristo- 
cratic masters of the council of war decided to cut off Montrose 
from the hills by turning his left wing. The Royalist general 
seized the opportunity, and his advance caught them in the very 
act of making a flank march (August 15). The head of the 
Covenanters' column was met and stopped by the furious attack 
of the Gordon infantry, and Alastair Macdonald led the men of 
his own name and the Macleans against its flank. A breach was 
made in the centre of Baillie's army at the first rush, and then 



416 



GREAT REBELLION 



Montrose sent in the Gordon and Ogilvy horse. The leading half of 
the column was surrounded, broken up and annihilated. The rear 
half, seeing the fate of its comrades, took to flight, but in vain, 
for the Highlanders pursued d entrance. Only about one hundred 
Covenanting infantry out of six thousand escaped. Montrose 
was now indeed the king's lieutenant in all Scotland. 

41. Fall of Bristol. But Charles was in no case to resume his 
northern march. Fairfax and the New Model, after reducing 
Bridgwater, had turned back to clear away the Dorsetshire 
Clubmen and to besiege Sherborne Castle. On the completion 
of this task, it had been decided to besiege Bristol, and on the 
23rd of August while the king's army was still in Huntingdon, 
and Goring was trying to raise a new army to replace the one he 
had lost at Langport and Bridgwater the city was invested. 
In these urgent circumstances Charles left Oxford for the west 
only a day or two after he had come in from the Eastern Associa- 
tion raid. Calculating that Rupert could hold out longest, he 
first moved to the relief of Worcester, around which place Leven's 
Scots, no longer having Leslie's cavalry with them to find supplies, 
were more occupied with plundering their immediate neighbour- 
hood for food than with the siege works. Worcester was relieved 
on the ist of September by the king. David Leslie with all his 
cavalry was already on the march to meet Montrose, and Leven 
had no alternative but to draw off his infantry without fighting. 
Charles entered Worcester on the 8th, but he found that he 
could no longer expect recruits from South Wales. Worse 
was to come. A few hours later, on the night of the gth-ioth, 
Fairfax's army stormed Bristol. Rupert had long realized the 
hopelessness of further fighting the very summons to surrender 
sent in by Fairfax placed the fate of Bristol on the political issue, 
the lines of defence around the place were too extensive for 
his small force, and on the nth he surrendered on terms. He 
was escorted to Oxford with his men, conversing as he rode with 
the officers of the escort about peace and the future of his adopted 
country. Charles, almost stunned by the suddenness of the 
catastrophe, dismissed his nephew from all his offices and ordered 
him to leave England, and for almost the last time called upon 
Goring to rejoin the main army if a tiny force of raw infantry 
and disheartened cavalry can be so called in the neighbourhood 
of Raglan. But before Goring could be brought to withdraw 
his objections Charles had again turned northward towards 
Montrose. A weary march through the Welsh hills brought the 
Royal army on the 22nd of September to the neighbourhood of 
Chester. Charles himself with one body entered the city, which 
was partially invested by the Parliamentarian colonel Michael 
Jones, and the rest under Sir Marmaduke Langdale was sent to 
take Jones's lines in reverse. But at the opportune moment 
Poyntz's forces, which had followed the king's movements since 
he left Doncaster in the middle of August, appeared in rear of 
Langdale, and defeated him in the battle of Rowton Heath 
(September 24), while at the same time a sortie of the king's 
troops from Chester was repulsed by Jones. Thereupon the Royal 
army withdrew to Denbigh, and Chester, the only important 
seaport remaining to connect Charles with Ireland, was again 
besieged. 

42. Philiphaugh. Nor was Montrose's position, even after 
Kilsyth, encouraging, in spite of the persistent rumours of 
fighting in Westmorland that reached Charles and Digby. 
Glasgow and Edinburgh were indeed occupied, and a parliament 
summoned in the king's name. But Montrose had now to choose 
between Highlanders and Lowlanders. The former, strictly 
kept away from all that was worth plundering, rapidly vanished, 
even Alastair Macdonald going with the rest. Without the 
Macdonalds and the Gordons, Montrose's military and political 
resettlement of Scotland could only be shadowy, and when he 
demanded support from the sturdy middle classes of the Low- 
lands, it was not forgotten that he had led Highlanders to the 
sack of Lowland towns. Thus his new supporters could only 
come from amongst the discontented and undisciplined Border 
lords and gentry, and long before these moved to join him the 
romantic conquest of Scotland was over. On the 6th of September 
David Leslie had recrossed the frontier with his cavalry and some 



infantry he had picked up on the way through northern England. 
Early on the morning of the I3th he surprised Montrose at 
Philiphaugh near Selkirk. The king's lieutenant had only 650 
men against 4000, and the battle did not last long. Montrose 
escaped with a few of his principal adherents, but his little army 
was annihilated. Of the veteran Macdonald infantry, 500 strong 
that morning, 250 were killed in the battle and the remainder 
put to death after accepting quarter. The Irish, even when they 
bore a Scottish name, were, by Scotsmen even more than English- 
men, regarded as beasts to be knocked on the head. After Naseby 
the Irishwomen found in the king's camp were branded by order 
of Fairfax; after Philiphaugh more than 300 women, wives or 
followers of Macdonald's men, were butchered. Montrose's 
Highlanders at their worst were no more cruel than the sober 
soldiers of the kirk. 

43. Digby's Northern Expedition. Charles received the news 
of Philiphaugh on the a8th of September, and gave orders that 
the west should be abandoned, the prince of Wales should be 
sent to France, and Goring should bring up what forces he could 
to the Oxford region. On the 4th of October Charles himself 
reached Newark (whither he had marched from Denbigh after 
revictualling Chester and suffering the defeat of Rowton Heath). 
The intention to go to Montrose was of course given up, at any 
rate for the present, and he was merely waiting for Goring and 
the Royalist militia of the west each in its own way a broken 
reed to lean upon. A hollow reconciliation was patched up 
between Charles and Rupert, and the court remained at Newark 
for over a month. Before it set out to return to Oxford another 
Royalist force had been destroyed. On the I4th of October, 
receiving information that Montrose had raised a new army, 
the king permitted Langdale's northern troops to make a fresh 
attempt to reach Scotland. At Langdale's request Digby was 
appointed to command in this enterprise, and, civilian though he 
was, and disastrous though his influence had been to the discipline 
of the army, he led it boldly and skilfully. His immediate 
opponent was Poyntz, who had followed the king step by step 
from Doncaster to Chester and back to Welbeck ,and he succeeded 
on the 1 5th in surprising Poyntz's entire force of foot at Sherburn. 
Poyntz's cavalry were soon after this reported approaching 
from the south, and Digby hoped to trap them also. At first 
all went well and body after body of the rebels was routed. 
But by a singular mischance the Royalist main body mistook the 
Parliamentary squadrons in flight through Sherburn for friends, 
and believing all was lost took to flight also. Thus Digby's 
cavalry fled as fast as Poyntz's and in the same direction, and 
the latter, coming to their senses first, drove the Royalist horse in 
wild confusion as far as Skipton. Lord Digby was still sanguine, 
and from Skipton he actually penetrated as far as Dumfries. 
But whether Montrose's new army was or was not in the Low- 
lands, it was certain that Leven and Leslie were on the Border, 
and the mad adventure soon came to an end. Digby, with the 
mere handful of men remaining to him, was driven back into 
Cumberland, and on the 24th of October, his army having 
entirely disappeared, he took ship with his officers for the Isle of 
Man. Poyntz had not followed him beyond Skipton, and was 
now watching the king from Nottingham, while Rossiter with the 
Lincoln troops was posted at Grantham. The king's chances of 
escaping from Newark were becoming smaller day by day, 
and they were not improved by a violent dispute between him 
and Rupert, Maurice, Lord Gerard and Sir Richard Willis, at 
the end of which these officers and many others rode away to 
ask the Parliament for leave to go over-seas. The pretext of the 
quarrel mattered little, the distinction between the views of 
Charles and Digby on the one hand and Rupert and his friends 
on the other was fundamental to the latter peace had become 
a political as well as a military necessity. Meanwhile south 
Wales, with the single exception of Raglan Castle, had been 
overrun by the Parliamentarians. Everywhere the Royalist 
posts were falling. The New Model, no longer fearing Goring, 
had divided, Fairfax reducing the garrisons of Dorset and 
Devon, Cromwell those of Hampshire. Amongst the latter was 
the famous Basing House, which was stormed at dawn on the 



GREAT REBELLION 



j 4th of October and burnt to the ground. Cromwell, his work 
finished, returned to headquarters, and the army wintered in the 
neighbourhood of Crediton. 

44. End of the First War. The military events of 1646 call 
for no comment. The only field army remaining to the king 
was Goring's, and though Hopton, who sorrowfully accepted the 
command after Goring's departure, tried at the last moment 
to revive the memories and the local patriotism of 1643, it was 
of no use to fight against the New Model with the armed rabble 
that Goring turned over to him. Dartmouth surrendered on 
January 18, Hopton was defeated at Torrington on February 
16, and surrendered the remnant of his worthless army on 
March 14. Exeter fell on April 13. Elsewhere, Hereford was 
taken on December 17, 1645, and the last battle of the war 
was fought and lost at Stow-on-the-Wold by Lord Astley on 
March 2 1 , 1646. Newark and Oxford fell respectively on May 6 
and June 24. On August3i MontroseescapedfromtheHighlands. 
On the igth of the same month Raglan Castle surrendered, 
and the last Royalist post of all, Harlech Castle, maintained 
the useless struggle until March 13, 1647. Charles himself, after 
leaving Newark in November 1645, had spent the winter in and 
around Oxford, whence, after an adventurous journey, he came 
to the camp of the Scottish army at Southwell on May 5, 1646. 

45. Second Civil War (1648-52). The close of the First 
Civil War left England and Scotland in the hands potentially of 
any one of the four parties or any combination of two or more 
that should prove strong enough to dominate the rest. Armed 
political Royalism was indeed at an end, but Charles, though 
practically a prisoner, considered himself and was, almost to 
the last, considered by the rest as necessary to ensure the success 
of whichever amongst the other three parties could come to terms 
with him. Thus he passed successively into the hands of the 
Scots, the Parliament and the New Model, trying to reverse the 
verdict of arms by coquetting with each in turn. The Presby- 
terians and the Scots, after Cornet Joyce of Fairfax's horse 
seized upon the person of the king for the army (June 3, 1647), 
began at once to prepare for a fresh civil war, this time against 
Independency, as embodied in the New Model henceforward 
called the Army and after making use of its sword, its opponents 
attempted to disband it, to send it on foreign service, to cut 
off its arrears of pay, with the result that it was exasperated 
beyond control, and, remembering not merely its grievances 
but also the principle for which it had fought, soon became the 
most powerful political party in the realm. From 1646 to 1648 
the breach between army and parliament widened day by day 
until finally the Presbyterian party, combined with the Scots and 
the remaining Royalists, felt itself strong enough to begin a 
second civil war. 

46. The English War. In February 1648 Colonel Poyer, the 
Parliamentary governor of Pembroke Castle, refused to hand 
over his command to one of Fairfax's officers, and he was soon 
joined by some hundreds of officers and men, who mutinied, 
ostensibly for arrears of pay, but really with political objects. 
At the end of March, encouraged by minor successes, Poyer 
openly declared for the king. Disbanded soldiers continued 
to join him in April, all South Wales revolted, and eventually 
he was joined by Major-General Laugharne, his district com- 
mander, and Colonel Powel. In April also news came that the 
Scots were arming and that Berwick and Carlisle had been 
seized by the English Royalists. Cromwell was at once sent off 
at the head of a strong detachment to deal with Laugharne and 
Poyer. But before he arrived Laugharne had been severely 
defeated by Colonel Horton at St Fagans (May 8). The English 
Presbyterians found it difficult to reconcile their principles 
with their allies when it appeared that the prisoners taken 
at St Fagans bore " We long to see our King " on their hats; 
very soon in fact the English war became almost purely a Royalist 
revolt, and the war in the north an attempt to enforce a mixture 
of Royalism and Presbyterianism on Englishmen by means of a 
Scottish army. The former were disturbers of the peace and no 
more. Nearly all the Royalists who had fought in the First 
Civil War had given their parole not to bear arms against the 

xn. 14 



Parliament, and many honourable Royalists, foremost amongst 
them the old Lord Astley, who had fought the last battle for the 
king in 1646, refused to break their word by taking any part in 
the second war. Those who did so, and by implication those 
who abetted them in doing so, were likely to be treated with 
the utmost rigour if captured, for the army was in a less placable 
mood in 1648 than in 1645, and had already determined to 
" call Charles Stuart, that man of blood, to an account for the 
blood he had shed." On the zist of May Kent rose in revolt in 
the king's name. A few days later a most serious blow to the 
Independents was struck by the defection of the navy, from com- 
mand of which they had removed Vice-Admiral Batten, as being 
a Presbyterian. Though a former lord high admiral, the earl of 
Warwick, also a Presbyterian, was brought back to the service, 
it was not long before the navy made a purely Royalist declara- 
tion and placed itself under the command of the prince of Wales. 
But Fairfax had a clearer view and a clearer purpose than the 
distracted Parliament. He moved quickly into Kent, and on the 
evening of June i stormed Maidstone by open force, after which 
the local levies dispersed to their homes, and the more determined 
Royalists, after a futile attempt to induce the City of London to 
declare for them, fled into Essex. In Cornwall, Northampton- 
shire, North Wales and Lincolnshire the revolt collapsed as 
easily. Only in South Wales, Essex and the north of England 
was there serious fighting. In the first of these districts Cromwell 
rapidly reduced all the fortresses except Pembroke, where 
Laugharne, Poyer and Powel held out with the desperate courage 
of deserters. In the north, Pontefract was surprised by the 
Royalists, and shortly afterwards Scarborough Castle declared 
for the king. Fairfax, after his success at Maidstone and the 
pacification of Kent, turned northward to reduce Essex, where, 
under their ardent, experienced and popular leader Sir Charles 
Lucas, the Royalists were in arms in great numbers. He soon 
drove the enemy into Colchester, but the first attack on the town 
was repulsed and he had to settle down to a long and wearisome 
siege en regie. A Surrey rising, remembered only for the death 
of the young and gallant Lord Francis Villiers in a skirmish at 
Kingston (July 7), collapsed almost as soon as it had gathered 
force, and its leaders, the duke of Buckingham and the earl of 
Holland, escaped, after another attempt to induce London to 
declare for them, to St Albans and St Neots, where Holland was 
taken prisoner. Buckingham escaped over-seas. 

47. Lambert in the North. By the loth of July therefore the 
military situation was well defined. Cromwell held Pembroke, 
Fairfax Colchester, Lambert Pontefract under siege; elsewhere 
all serious local risings had collapsed, and the Scottish army had 
crossed the Border. It is on the adventures of the latter that 
the interest of the war centres. It was by no means the veteran 
army of Leven, which had long been disbanded. For the most 
part it consisted of raw levies, and as the kirk had refused to 
sanction the enterprise of the Scottish parliament, David Leslie 
and thousands of experienced officers and men declined to serve. 
The duke of Hamilton proved to be a poor substitute for Leslie; 
his army, too, was so ill provided that as soon as England was 
invaded it began to plunder the countryside for the bare 
means of sustenance. Major-General Lambert, a brilliant young 
general of twenty-nine, was more than equal to the situation. 
He had already left the sieges of Pontefract and Scarborough 
to Colonel Rossiter, and hurried into Cumberland to deal with the 
English Royalists under Sir Marmaduke Langdale. With his 
cavalry he got into touch with the enemy about Carlisle and 
slowly fell back, fighting small rearguard actions to annoy the 
enemy and gain time, to Bowes and Barnard Castle. Langdale 
did not follow him into the mountains, but occupied himself 
in gathering recruits and supplies of material and food for the 
Scots. Lambert, reinforced from the midlands, reappeared 
early in June and drove him back to Carlisle with his work half 
finished. About the same time the local horse of Durham and 
Northumberland were put into the field by Sir A. Hesilrige, 
governor of Newcastle, and under the command of Colonel 
Robert Lilburne won a considerable success (June 30) at the river 
Coquet. This reverse, coupled with the existence of Langdale's 



GREAT REBELLION 



force on the Cumberland side, practically compelled Hamilton 
to choose the west coast route for his advance, and his army 
began slowly to move down the long couloir between the 
mountains and the sea. The campaign which followed is one 
of the most brilliant in English history. 

48. Campaign of Preston. On the 8th of July the Scots, with 
Langdale as advanced guard, were about Carlisle, and reinforce- 
ments from Ulster were expected daily. Lambert's horse were 
at Penrith, Hexham and Newcastle, too weak to fight and having 
only skilful leading and rapidity of movement to enable them 
to gain time. Far away to the south Cromwell was still tied 
down before Pembroke, Fairfax before Colchester. Elsewhere 
the rebellion, which had been put down by rapidity of action 
rather than sheer weight of numbers, smouldered, and Prince 
Charles and the fleet cruised along the Essex coast. Cromwell 
and Lambert, however, understood each other perfectly, while 
the Scottish commanders quarrelled with Langdale and each 
other. Appleby Castle surrendered to the Scots on the 3ist 
of July, whereat Lambert, who was still hanging on to the flank 
of the Scottish advance, fell back from Barnard Castle to Rich- 
mond so as to close Wensleydale against any attempt of the 
invaders to march on Pontefract. All the restless energy of 
Langdale's horse was unable to dislodge him from the passes 
or to find out what was behind that impenetrable cavalry 
screen. The crisis was now at hand. Cromwell had received 
the surrender of Pembroke on the nth, and had marched off, 
with his men unpaid, ragged and shoeless, at full speed through 
the midlands. Rains and storms delayed his march, but he 
knew that Hamilton in the broken ground of Westmorland was 
still worse off. Shoes from Northampton and stockings from 
Coventry met him at Nottingham, and, gathering up the local 
levies as he went, he made for Doncaster, where he arrived on 
the 8th of August, having gained six days in advance of the time 
he had allowed himself for the march. He then called up 
artillery from Hull, exchanged his local levies for the regulars 
who were besieging Pontefract, and set off to meet Lambert. 
On the 1 2th he was at Wetherby, Lambert with horse and foot 
at Otley, Langdale at Skipton and Gargrave, Hamilton at 
Lancaster, and Sir George Monro with the Scots from Ulster and 
the Carlisle Royalists (organized as a separate command owing 
to friction between Monro and the generals of the main army) 
at Hornby. On the i3th, while Cromwell was marching to join 
Lambert at Otley, the Scottish leaders were still disputing as to 
whether they should make for Pontefract or continue through 
Lancashire so as to join Lord Byron and the Cheshire Royalists. 

49. Preston Fight. On the I4th Cromwell and Lambert 
were at Skipton, on the isth at Gisburn, and on the i6th 
they marched down the valley of the Ribble towards Preston 
with full knowledge of the enemy's dispositions and full deter- 
mination to attack him. They had with them horse and foot 
not only of the army, but also of the militia of Yorkshire, 
Durham, Northumberland and Lancashire, and withal were 
heavily outnumbered, having only 8600 men against perhaps 
20,000 of Hamilton's command. But the latter were scattered 
for convenience of supply along the road from Lancaster, 
through Preston, towards Wigan, Langdale's corps having thus 
become the left flank guard instead of the advanced guard. 
Langdale called in his advanced parties, perhaps with a view 
to resuming the duties of advanced guard, on the night of 
the i3th, and collected them near Longridge. It is nc-t clear 
whether he reported Cromwell's advance, but, if he did, Hamilton 
ignored the report, for on the i7th Monro was half a day's march 
to the north, Langdale east of Preston, and the main army 
strung out on the Wigan road, Major-General Baillie with a body 
of foot, the rear of the column, being still in Preston. Hamilton, 
yielding to the importunity of his lieutenant-general, the earl of 
Callendar, sent Baillie across the Ribble to follow the main body 
just as Langdale, with 3000 foot and 500 horse only, met the 
first shock of Cromwell's attack on Preston Moor. Hamilton, 
like Charles at Edgehill, passively shared in, without directing, 
the battle, and, though Langdale's men fought magnificently, 
they were after four hours' struggle driven to the Ribble. Baillie 



attempted to cover the Ribble and Darwen bridges on the Wigan 
road, but Cromwell had forced his way across both before night- 
fall. Pursuit was at once undertaken, and not relaxed until 
Hamilton had been driven through Wigan and Winwick to 
Uttoxeter and Ashbourne. There, pressed furiously in rear by 
Cromwell's horse and held up in front by the militia of the mid- 
lands, the remnant of the Scottish army laid down its arms on 
the 25th of August. Various attempts were made to raise the 
Royalist standard in Wales and elsewhere, but Preston was the 
death-blow. On the z8th of August, starving and hopeless of 
relief, the Colchester Royalists surrendered to Lord Fairfax. 
The victors in the Second Civil War were not merciful to those 
who had brought war into the land again. On the evening of 
the surrender of Colchester, Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George 
Lisle were shot. Laugharne, Poyer and Powel were sentenced to 
death, but Poyer alone was executed on the 25th of April 1649, 
being the victim selected by lot. Of five prominent Royalist 
peers who had fallen into the hands of the Parliament, three, 
the duke of Hamilton, the earl of Holland, and Lord Capel, 
one of the Colchester prisoners and a man of high character, 
were beheade J at Westminster on the 9th of February. Above 
all, after long hesitations, even after renewal of negotiations, 
the army and 'ie Independents " purged " the Houses of their 
ill-wishers, and created a court for the trial and sentence of the 
king. The more resolute of the judges nerved the rest to sign 
the death-warrant, and Charles was beheaded at Whitehall on 
the 30th of January. 

50. Cromwell in Ireland. The campaign of Preston was 
undertaken under the direction of the Scottish parliament, not 
the kirk, and it needed the execution of the king to bring about 
a union of all Scottish parties against the English Independents. 
Even so, Charles II. in exile had to submit to long negotiations 
and hard conditions before he was allowed to put himself at 
the head of the Scottish armies. The marquis of Huntly was 
executed for taking up arms for the king on the 22nd of March 
1649. Montrose, under Charles's directions, made a last attempt 
to rally the Scottish Royalists early in 1650. But Charles merely 
used Montrose as a threat to obtain better conditions for himself 
from the Covenanters, and when the noblest of all the Royalists 
was defeated (Carbisdale, April 27), delivered up to his pursuers 
(May 4), and executed (May 21, 1650), he was not ashamed to 
give way to the demands of the Covenanters, and to place himself 
at the head of Montrose's executioners. His father, whatever 
his faults, had at least chosen to die for an ideal, the Church of 
England. Charles II. now proposed to regain the throne by 
allowing Scotland to impose Presbyterianism on England, and 
dismissed all the faithful Cavaliers who had followed him to 
exile. Meanwhile, Ireland, in which a fresh war, with openly 
anti-English and anti-Protestant objects, had broken out in 
1648, was thoroughly reduced to order by Cromwell, who beat 
down all resistance by his skill, and even more by his ruthless 
severity, in a brief campaign of nine months (battle of Rathmines 
near Dublin, won by Colonel Michael Jones, August 2, 1649; 
storming of Drogheda, September n, and of Wexford, October 
ii, by Cromwell; capture of Kilkenny, March 28, 1650, and of 
Clonmel, May 10). Cromwell returned to England at the end 
of May 1650, and on June 26 Fairfax, who had been anxious 
and uneasy since the execution of the king, resigned the com- 
mand-in-chief of the army to his lieutenant-general. The 
pretext, rather than the reason, of Fairfax's resignation was his 
unwillingness to lead an English army to reduce Scotland. 

51. The Invasion of Scotland. This important step had been 
resolved upon as soon as it was clear that Charles II. would 
come to terms with the Covenanters. From this point the 
Second Civil War becomes a war of England against Scotland. 
Here at least the Independents carried the whole of England 
with them. No Englishman cared to accept a settlement at the 
hands of a victorious foreign army, and on the 28th of June, 
five days after Charles~II. had sworn to the Covenant, the new 
lord-general was on his way to the Border to take command of 
the English army. About the same time a new militia act was 
passed that was destined to give full and decisive effect to the 



GREAT REBELLION 



419 



national spirit of England in the great final campaign of the war. 
Meanwhile the motto frappez fort, frappez vile was carried out 
at once by the regular forces. On the igth of July 1650 Cromwell 
made the final arrangements at Berwick-on-Tweed. Major- 
General Harrison, a gallant soldier and an extreme Independent, 
was to command the regular and auxiliary forces left in England, 
and to secure the Commonwealth against Royalists and Presby- 
terians. Cromwell took with him Fleetwood as lieutenant-general 
and Lambert as major-general, and his forces numbered about 
10,000 foot and 5000 horse. His opponent David Leslie (his 
comrade of Marston Moor) had a much larger force, but its degree 
of training was inferior, it was more than tainted by the political 
dissensions of the people at large, and it was, in great part at 
any rate, raised by forced enlistment. On the 22nd of July 
Cromwell crossed the Tweed. He marched on Edinburgh by 
the sea coast, through Dunbar, Haddington and Musselburgh, 
living almost entirely on supplies landed by the fleet which 
accompanied him for the country itself was incapable of 
supporting even a small army and on the 2pth he found 
Leslie's army drawn up and entrenched in a position extending 
from Leith to Edinburgh. 

52. Operations around Edinburgh. The same day a sharp but 
indecisive fight took place on the lower slopes of Arthur's Seat, 
after which Cromwell, having felt the strength of Leslie's line, 
drew back to Musselburgh. Leslie's horse followed him up 
sharply, and another action was fought, after which the Scots 
assaulted Musselburgh without success. Militarily Leslie had 
the best of it in these affairs, but it was precisely this moment 
that the kirk party chose to institute a searching three days' 
examination of the political and religious sentiments of his army. 
The result was that the army was " purged " of 80 officers and 
3000 soldiers as it lay within musket shot of the enemy. Crom- 
well was more concerned, however, with the supply question 
than with the distracted army of the Scots. On the 6th of 
August he had to fall back as far as Dunbar to enable the fleet 
to land supplies in safety, the port of Musselburgh being unsafe 
in the violent and stormy weather which prevailed. He soon 
returned to Musselburgh and prepared to force Leslie to battle. 
In preparation for an extended manoeuvre three days' rations 
were served out. Tents were also issued, perhaps for the first 
time in the civil wars, for it was a regular professional army, 
which had to be cared for, made comfortable and economized, 
that was now carrying on the work of the volunteers of the first 
war. Even after Cromwell started on his manoeuvre, the Scottish 
army was still in the midst of its political troubles, and, certain 
though he was that nothing but victory in the field would give 
an assured peace, he was obliged to intervene in the confused 
negotiations of the various Scottish parties. At last, however, 
Charles II. made a show of agreeing to the demands of his 
strange supporters, and Leslie was free to move. Cromwell 
had now entered the hill country, with a view to occupying 
Queensferry and thus blocking up Edinburgh. Leslie had the 
shorter road and barred the way at Corstorphine Hill (August 
21). Cromwell, though now far from his base, manoeuvred 
again to his right, Leslie meeting him once more at Gogar 
(August 27). The Scottish lines at that point were strong enough 
to dismay even Cromwell, and the manoeuvre on Queensferry 
was at last given up. It had cost the English army severe losses 
in sick, and much suffering in the autumn nights on the bleak 
hillsides. 

53. Dunbar. On the 28th Cromwell fell back on Musselburgh, 
and on the 3ist, after embarking his non-effective men, to Dun- 
bar. Leslie followed him up, and wished to fight a battle at 
Dunbar on Sunday, the ist of September. But again the kirk 
intervened, this time to forbid Leslie to break the Sabbath, and 
the unfortunate Scottish commander could only establish himself 
on Doon Hill (see DUNBAR) and send a force to Cockburnspath 
to bar the Berwick road. He had now 23,000 men to Cromwell's 
11,000, and proposed, faute de mieux, to starve Cromwell into 
surrender. But the English army was composed of " ragged 
soldiers with bright muskets," and had a great captain of un- 
disputed authority at their head. Leslie's, on the other hand, 



had lost such discipline as it had ever possessed, and was now, 
under outside influences, thoroughly disintegrated. Cromwell 
wrote home, indeed, that he was " upon an engagement very 
difficult," but, desperate as his position seemed, he felt the 
pulse of his opponent and steadily refused to take his army away 
by sea. He had not to wait long. It was now the turn of Leslie's 
men on the hillside to endure patiently privation and exposure, 
and after one night's bivouac, Leslie, too readily inferring that 
the enemy was about to escape by sea, came down to fight. The 
battle of Dunbar (q.v.) opened in the early morning of the 3rd of 
September. It was the most brilliant of all Oliver's victories. 
Before the sun was high in the heavens the Scottish army had 
ceased to exist. 

54. Royalism in Scotland. After Dunbar it was easy for the 
victorious army to overrun southern Scotland, more especially 
as the dissensions of the enemy were embittered by the defeat 
of which they had been the prime cause. The kirk indeed put 
Dunbar to the account of its own remissness in not purging their 
army more thoroughly, but, as Cromwell wrote on the 4th of 
September, the kirk had " done its do." " I believe their king 
will set up on his own score," he continued, and indeed, now that 
the army of the kirk was destroyed and they themselves were 
secure behind the Forth and based on the friendly Highlands, 
Charles and the Cavaliers were in a position not only to defy 
Cromwell, but also to force the Scottish national spirit of resist- 
ance to the invader into a purely Royalist channel. Cromwell 
had only received a few drafts and reinforcements from England, 
and for the present he could but block up Edinburgh Castle 
(which surrendered on Christmas eve), and try to bring up 
adequate forces and material for the siege of Stirling an attempt 
which was frustrated by the badness of the roads and the violence 
of the weather. The rest of the early winter of 1650 was thus 
occupied in semi-military, semi-political operations between 
detachments of the English army and certain armed forces of the 
kirk party which still maintained a precarious existence in the 
western Lowlands, and in police work against the moss-troopers 
of the Border counties. Early in February 1651, still in the 
midst of terrible weather, Cromwell made another resolute but 
futile attempt to reach Stirling. This time he himself fell sick, 
and his losses had to be made good by drafts of recruits from 
England, many of whom came most unwillingly to serve in the 
cold wet bivouacs that the newspapers had graphically reported. 1 

55. The English Militia. About this time there occurred 
in England two events which had a most important bearing on 
the campaign. The first was the detection of a widespread 
Royalist-Presbyterian conspiracy how widespread no one knew, 
for those of its promoters who were captured and executed cer- 
tainly formed but a small fraction of the whole number. Harrison 
was ordered to Lancashire in April to watch the north Welsh, 
Isle of Man and Border Royalists, and military precautions were 
taken in various parts of England. The second was the revival 
of the militia. Since 1644 there had been no general employment 
of local forces, the quarrel having fallen into the hands of the 
regular armies by force of circumstances. The New Model, 
though a national army, resembled Wellington's Peninsular 
army more than the soldiers of the French Revolution and the 
American Civil War. It was now engaged in prosecuting a 
war of aggression against the hereditary foe over the Border 
strictly the task of a professional army with a national basis. 
The militia was indeed raw and untrained. Some of the Essex 
men " fell flat on their faces on the sound of a cannon." In the 
north of England Harrison complained to Cromwell of the 
" badness " of his men, and the lord general sympathized, 
having " had much such stuff " sent him to make good the 
losses in trained men. Even he for a moment lost touch with the 
spirit of the people. His recruits were unwilling drafts for foreign 
service, but in England the new levies were trusted to defend 

1 The tents were evidently issued for regular marches, not for 
cross-country manoeuvres against the enemy. These manoeuvres, 
as we have seen, often took several days. The ban gtntral ordinaire 
of the I7th and i8th centuries framed his manoeuvres on a smaller 
scale so as not to expose his expensive and highly trained soldiers 
to discomfort and the consequent temptation to desert. 



420 



GREAT REBELLION 



their homes, and the militia was soon triumphantly to justify its 
existence on the day of Worcester. 

56. Inverkeithing. While David Leslie organized and drilled 
the king's new army beyond the Forth, Cromwell was, slowly 
and with frequent relapses, recovering from his illness. The 
English army marched to Glasgow in April, then returned to 
Edinburgh. The motives of the march and that of the return 
are alike obscure, -but it may be conjectured that, the forces in 
England under Harrison having now assembled in Lancashire, 
the Edinburgh-Newcastle-York road had to be covered by the 
main army. Be this as it may, Cromwell's health again broke 
down and his life was despaired of. Only late in June were 
operations actively resumed between Stirling and Linlithgow. 
At first Cromwell sought without success to bring Leslie to 
battle, but he stormed Callendar House near Falkirk on July 13, 
and on the i6th of July he began the execution of a brilliant 
and successful manoeuvre. A force from Queensferry, covered by 
the English fleet, was thrown across the Firth of Forth to North- 
ferry. Lambert followed with reinforcements, and defeated a 
detachment of Leslie's army at Inverkeithing on the 2oth. 
Leslie drew back at once, but managed to find a fresh strong 
position in front of Stirling, whence he defied Cromwell again. 
At this juncture Cromwell prepared to pass his whole army across 
the firth. His contemplated manoeuvre of course gave up to the 
enemy all the roads into England, and before undertaking it the 
lord general held a consultation with Harrison, as the result of 
which that officer took over the direct defence of the whole 
Border. But his mind was made up even before this, for on the 
day he met Harrison at Linlithgow three-quarters of his whole 
army had already crossed into Fife. Burntisland, surrendered 
to Lambert on the 29th, gave Cromwell a good harbour upon 
which to base his subsequent movements. On the 3oth of July 
the English marched upon Perth, and the investment of this 
place, the key to Leslie's supply area, forced the crisis at once. 
Whether Leslie would have preferred to manoeuvre Cromwell 
from his vantage-ground or not is immaterial; the young king 
and the now predominant Royalist element at headquarters 
seized the long-awaited opportunity at once, and on the 3ist, 
leaving Cromwell to his own devices, the Royal army marched 
southward to raise the Royal standard in England. 

57. The Third Scottish Invasion of England. Then began the 
last and most thrilling campaign of the Great Rebellion. Charles 
II. expected complete success. In Scotland, vis-a-vis the extreme 
Covenanters, he was a king on conditions, and he was glad enough 
to find himself in England with some thirty solidly organized regi- 
ments under Royalist officers and with no regular army in front 
of him. He hoped, too, to rally not merely the old faithful 
Royalists, but also the overwhelming numerical strength of the 
English Presbyterians to his standard. His army was kept well 
in hand, no excesses were allowed, and in a week the Royalists 
covered 150 m. in marked contrast to the duke of Hamilton's 
ill-fated expedition of 1648. On the 8th of August the troops 
were given a well-earned rest between Penrith and Kendal. 

But the Royalists were mistaken in supposing that the enemy 
was taken aback by their new move. Everything had been 
foreseen both by Cromwell and by the Council of State in West- 
minster. The latter had called out the greater part of the 
militia on the yth. Lieutenant-General Fleetwood began to 
draw together the midland contingents at Banbury, the London 
trained bands turned out for field service no fewer than 14,000 
strong. Every suspected Royalist was closely watched, and the 
magazines of arms in the country-houses of the gentry were for 
the most part removed into the strong places. On his part 
Cromwell had quietly made his preparations. Perth passed into 
his hands on the 2nd of August, and he brought back his army to 
Leith by the sth. Thence he despatched Lambert with a cavalry 
corps to harass the invaders. Harrison was already at Newcastle 
picking the best of the county mounted troops to add to his own 
regulars. On the pth Charles was at Kendal, Lambert hovering in 
his rear, and Harrison marching swiftly to bar his way at the 
Mersey. Fairfax emerged for a moment from his retirement to 
organize the Yorkshire levies, and the best of these as well as of 



the Lancashire, Cheshire and Staffordshire militias were directed 
upon Warrington, which point Harrison reached on the isth, a 
few hours in front of Charles's advanced guard. Lambert too, 
slipping round the left flank of the enemy, joined Harrison, and 
the English fell back (i6th), slowly and without letting themselves 
be drawn into a fight, along the London road. 

58. Campaign of Worcester. Cromwell meanwhile, leaving 
Monk with the least efficient regiments to carry on the war in 
Scotland, had reached the Tyne in seven days, and thence, 
marching 20 m. a day in extreme heat with the country people 
carrying their arms and equipment the- regulars entered 
Ferrybridge on the igth, at which date Lambert, Harrison and 
the north-western militia were about Congleton. 1 It seemed 
probable that a great battle would take place between Lichfield 
and Coventry about the 25th or 26th of August, and that Crom- 
well, Harrison, Lambert and Fleetwood would all take part in it. 
But the scene and the date of the denouement were changed by 
the enemy's movements. Shortly after leaving Warrington the 
young king had resolved to abandon the direct march on London 
and to make for the Severn valley, where his father had found the 
most constant and the most numerous adherents in the first war, 
and which had been the centre of gravity of the English Royalist 
movement of 1648. Sir Edward Massey, formerly the Parlia- 
mentary governor of Gloucester, was now with Charles, and it was 
hoped that he would induce his fellow-Presbyterians to take arms. 
The military quality of the Welsh border Royalists was well 
proved, that of the Gloucestershire Presbyterians not less so, and, 
based on Gloucester and Worcester as his father had been based 
on Oxford, Charles II. hoped, not unnaturally, to deal with an 
Independent minority more effectually than Charles I. had done 
with a Parliamentary majority of the people of England. But 
even the pure Royalism which now ruled in the invading army 
could not alter the fact that it was a Scottish army, and it was 
not an Independent faction but all England that took arms 
against it. Charles arrived at Worcester on the 22nd of August, 
and spent five days in resting the troops, preparing for further 
operations, and gathering and arming the few recruits who came 
in. It is unnecessary to argue that the delay was fatal; it was a 
necessity of the case foreseen and accepted when the march to 
Worcester had been decided upon, and had the other course, 
that of marching on London via Lichfield, been taken the battle 
would have been fought three days earlier with the same result. 
As affairs turned out Cromwell merely shifted the area of his 
concentration two marches to the south-west, to Evesham. 
Early on the 28th Lambert surprised the passage of the Severn 
at Upton, 6 m. below Worcester, and in the action which followed 
Massey was severely wounded. Fleetwood followed Lambert. 
The enemy was now only 16,000 strong and disheartened by the 
apathy with which they had been received in districts formerly all 
their own. Cromwell, for the first and last time in his military 
career, had a two-to-one numerical superiority. 

59. The " Crowning Mercy." He took his measures deliber- 
ately. Lilburne from Lancashire and Major Mercer with the 
Worcestershire horse were to secure Bewdley Bridge on the 
enemy's line of retreat. Lambert and Fleetwood were to force 
their way across the Teme (a little river on which Rupert had won 
his first victory in 1642) and attack St John's, the western suburb 
of Worcester. Cromwell himself and the main army were to 
attack the town itself. On the 3rd of September, the anniversary 
of Dunbar, the programme was carried out exactly. Fleetwood 
forced the passage of the Teme, and the bridging train (which had 
been carefully organized for the purpose) bridged both the Teme 
and the Severn. Then Cromwell on the left bank and Fleetwood 
on the right swept in a semicircle 4 m. long up to Worcester. 
Every hedgerow was contested by the stubborn Royalists, but 
Fleetwood's men would not be denied, and Cromwell's extreme 
right on the eastern side of the town repelled, after three hours' 
hard fighting, the last desperate attempt of the Royalists to break 

1 The lord general had during his march thrown out successively 
two flying columns under Colonel Lilburne to deal with the Lanca- 
shire Royalists under the earl of Derby. Lilburne entirely routed 
the enemy at Wigan on the 25th of August. 



GREAT SALT LAKE 



421 



out. It was indeed, as a German critic 1 has pointed out, the 
prototype of Sedan. Everywhere the defences were stormed as 
darkness came on, regulars and militia fighting with equal 
gallantry, and the few thousands of the Royalists who escaped 
during the night were easily captured by Lilburne and Mercer, or 
by the militia which watched every road in Yorkshire and Lanca- 
shire. Even the country people brought in scores of prisoners, 
for officers and men alike, stunned by the suddenness of the 
disaster, offered no resistance. Charles escaped after many 
adventures, but he was one of the few men in his army who 
regained a place of safety. The Parliamentary militia were sent 
home within a week. Cromwell, who had ridiculed " such stuff " 
six months ago, knew them better now. " Your new raised 
forces," he wrote to the House, " did perform singular good 
service, for which they deserve a very high estimation and 
acknowledgment." Worcester resembled Sedan in much more 
than outward form. Both were fought by " nations in arms," by 
citizen soldiers who had their hearts in the struggle, and could be 
trusted not only to fight their hardest but to march their best. 
Only with such troops would a general dare to place a deep river 
between the two halves of his army or to send away detachments 
beforehand to reap the fruits of victory, in certain anticipation 
of winning the victory with the remainder. The sense of duty, 
which the raw militia possessed in so high a degree, ensured the 
arrival and the action of every column at the appointed time and 
place. The result was, in brief, one of those rare victories in 
which a pursuit is superfluous a " crowning mercy," as Cromwell 
called it. There is little of note in the closing operations. Monk 
had completed his task by May 1652; and Scotland, which had 
twice attempted to impose its will on England, found itself 
reduced to the position of an English province under martial 
law. The details of its subjection are uninteresting after the 
tremendous climax of Worcester. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Earl of Clarendon, The History of the Rebellion 
(Oxford, 1702-1704, ed. W. D. Macray, Oxford, 1888); R. Baillie, 
Letters and Journals (Bannatyne Society, 1841); T. Carlyle, Crom- 
well's Letters and Speeches (new edition, S. C. Lomas, London, 1904) ; 
Fairfax Correspondence (ed. R. Bell, London, 1849); E. Borlace, 
History of the Irish Rebellion (London, 1675) ; R. Sellings, Frag- 
mentum historicum, or the . . . War in Ireland (London, 1772); J. 
Heath, Chronicle of the late Intestine War (London, 1676) ; Military 
Memoir of Colonel Birch (Camden Society, new series, vol. vii., 1873) ; 
Autobiography of Captain John Hodgson (edition of 1882); Papers 
on the earl of Manchester, Camden Society, vol. viii., and English 
Historical Review, vol. iii.; J. Ricraft, Survey of England's Champions 
(1647, reprinted, London, 1818); ed. E. Warburton, Memoirs of 
Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers (London, 1849) ; J. Vicars, Jehovah- 
Jireh (1644), and England's Worthies (1647), the latter reprinted in 
1845; Anthony a Wood, History and Antiquities of the University 
of Oxford (ed. J. Gutch, Oxford, 1792-1795); Margaret, duchess of 
Newcastle, Life of William Cavendish, duke of Newcastle (ed. C. H. 
Firth, London, 1886); Lucy Hutchinson, Memoir of the Life of 
Colonel Hutchinson (ed. C. H. Firth, Oxford, 1896); Memoirs of 
Edward Ludlow (ed. C. H. Firth, Oxford, 1892); S. Ashe and W. 
Goode, The Services of the Earl of Manchester's Army (London, 1644); 
H. Gary, Memorials of the Great Civil War (London, 1842); Patrick 
Gordon, Passages from the Diary of Patrick Gordon (Spalding Club, 
Aberdeen, 1859); J. Gwynne, Military Memoirs of the Civil War 
(ed. Sir W. Scott, Edinburgh, 1822) ; Narratives of Hamilton's 
Expedition, 1648 (C. H. Firth, Scottish Historical Society, Edinburgh, 
1904); Lord Hopton, Bellum Civile (Somerset Record Society, 
London, 1902) ; Irish War of 1641 (Camden Society, old series, vol. 
xiv., 1841) ; Iter Carolinum, Marches of Charles 1. 1641-1649 (London, 
1660) ; Hugh Peters, Reports from the Armies of Fairfax and Cromwell 
(London, 164^5-1646) ; " Journal of the Marches of Prince Rupert " 
(ed. C. H. Firth, Engl. Historical Review, 1898); J. Sprigge, Anglia 
Rediviva (London, 1847, reprinted Oxford, 1854) ; R. Symonds, 
Diary of the Marches of the Royal Army, 1644-1645 (ed. C. E. Long, 
Camden Society, old series, 1859); J. Corbet, The Military Govern- 
ment of Gloucester (London, 1645); M. Carter, Expeditions of Kent, 
Essex and Colchester (London, 1650); Tracts relating to the Civil 
War in Lancashire (ed. G. Ormerod, Chetham Society, London, 
1844) ; Discourse of the War in Lancashire (ed. W. Beament, Chetham 
Society, London, 1864); Sir M. Langdale, The late Fight at Preston 
(London, 1648) ; Journal of the Siege of Latham House (London, 1823) ; 
J. Rushworth, The Storming of Bristol (London, 1645) ; S. R. Gardiner 
History of the Great Civil War (London, 1886); and History of the 
Commonwealth and Protectorate (London, 1903); C. H. Firth, Oliver 
Cromwell (New York and London, 1900) ; Cromwell's Army (London, 
1902) ; " The Raising of the Ironsides," Transactions R. Hist. 

1 Fritz Hoenig, Cromwell. 



Society, 1899 and igoi ; papers in English Historical Review, and 
memoirs of the leading personages of the period in Dictionary of 
National Biography; T. S. Baldock, Cromwell as a Soldier (London, 
1899); F. Hoenig, Oliver Cromwell (Berlin, 1887-1889); Sir J. 
Maclean, Memoirs of the Family of Poyntz (Exeter, 1886) ; Sir C. 
Markham, Life of Fairfax (London, 1870); M. Napier, Life and 
Times of Montrose (Edinburgh, 1840); W. B. Devereux, Lives of 
the Earls of Essex (London, 1853); W. G. Ross, Mil. Engineering 
in the Civil War (R.E. Professional Papers, 1887) ; " The Battle of 
Naseby," English Historical Review, 1888; Oliver Cromwell and 
his Ironsides (Chatham, 1869); F. N. Maude, Cavalry, its Past and 
Future (London, 1903) ; E. Scott, Rupert, Prince Palatine (London, 
1899) ; M. Stace, Cromwelliana (London, 1870) ; C. S. Terry, Life 
and Campaigns of Alexander Leslie, Earl of Leven (London, 1899); 
Madame H. de Witt, The Lady of Latham (London, 1869); F. 
Maseres, Tracts relating to the Civil War (London, 1815); P. A. 
Charrier, Cromwell (London, 1905), also paper in Royal United Service 
Institution Journal, 1906; T. Arnold and W. G. Ross, " Edgehill," 
English Historical Review, 1887; The History of Basing House 
(Basingstoke, 1869) ; E. Broxap, " The Sieges of Hull," English 
Historical Review, 1905; J. Willis Bund, The Civil War in Worcester- 
shire (Birmingham, 1905) ; C. Cpates, History of Reading (London, 
1802) ; F. Drake, Eboracum: History of the City of York (London, 
1736); N. Drake, Siege of Pontefract Castle (Surtees Society Miscel- 
lanea, London, 1861); G. N. Godwin, The Civil War in Hampshire 
(2nd ed., London, 1904) ; J. F. Hollings, Leicester during the Civil 
War (Leicester, 1840); R. Holmes, Sieges of Pontefract Castle 
< Pontefract, 1887); A. Kingston, East Anglia and the Civil War 
(London, 1897); H. E. Maiden, " Maidstone, 1648," English Hist. 
Review, 1892; W. Money, Battles of Newbury (Newbury, 1884); 
J. R. Phillips, The Civil War in Wales and the Marches (London, 
1874); G. Rigaud, Lines round Oxford (1880); G. Roberts, History 
of Lyme (London, 1834) ; [R. Robinson] Sieges of Bristol (Bristol, 
1868); [J. H. Round] History of Colchester Castle (Colchester, 1882) 
and " The Case of Lucas and Lisle," Transactions of R. Historical 
Society, 1894; R. R. Sharpe, London and the Kingdom (London, 
1894); I. Tullie, Siege of Carlisle (1840); E. A. Walford, " Edge- 
hill, English Hist. Review, 1905; J. Washbourne, Bibliotheca 
Gloucestrensis (Gloucester, 1825); J. Webb, Civil 



shire (London, 1879). 



War in Hereford- 
(C. F. A.) 



GREAT SALT LAKE, a shallow body of highly concentrated 
brine in the N.W. part of Utah, U.S.A., lying between 118-8 
and 113-2 W. long, and between 40-7 and 41-8 lat. Great 
Salt Lake is 4218 ft. above sea-level. It has no outlet, and is 
fed chiefly by the Jordan, the Weber and the Bear rivers, all 
draining the mountainous country to the E. and S.E. The 
irregular outline of the lake has been compared to the roughly 
drawn hand, palm at the S., thumb (exaggerated in breadth) 
pointing N.E., and the fingers (crowded together and drawn 
too small) reaching N. 

No bathymetric survey of the lake has been made, but the 
maximum depth is 60 ft. and the mean depth less than 20 ft., 
possibly as little as 13 ft. The lake in 1906 was approximately 
75 m. long., from N.W. to S.E., and had a maximum width of 
50 m. and an area of 1 7 50 sq. m. This area is not constant, as the 
water is very shallow at the margins, and the relation between 
supply from precipitation, &c., and loss by evaporation is 
variable, there being an annual difference in the height of the 
water of 15-18 in. between June (highest) and November (lowest), 
and besides a difference running through longer cycles: in 1850 
the water was lower and the lake smaller than by any previous 
observations (the area and general outline were nearly the same 
again in 1906); then the water rose until 1873; and between 
1886 and 1902 the fall in level was n -6 ft. The range of rise and 
fall from 1845 to 1886 was 13 ft., this being the rise in 1865-1886. 
With the fall of water there is an increase in the specific gravity, 
which in 1850 was 1-17, and in September 1901 was 1-179; 
in 1850 the proportion of solids by weight was 22-282%, in 
September 1901 it was 25-221; at the earlier of these dates 
the solids in a litre of water weighed 260-69 grams, at the latter 
date 302-122 grams. The exact cause of this cyclic variation 
is unknown: the low level of 1906 is usually regarded as the 
result of extensive irrigation and ploughing in the surrounding 
country, which have robbed the lake, in part, of its normal 
supply of water. It is also to be noted that the rise and fall 
of the lake level have been coincident, respectively, with con- 
tinued wet and dry cycles. That the lake will soon dry up 
entirely seems unlikely, as there is a central trough, 25 to 30 m. 
wide, about 40 ft. deep, running N.W. and S.E. The area and 



422 



GREAT SLAVE LAKE GREAVES 



shore-line of the lake are evidently affected by a slight surface 
tilt, for during the same generation that has seen the recent 
fall of the lake level the shore-line is in many cases 2 m. from the 
old, and fences may be seen a mile or more out in the lake. The 
lake bed is for the most part clear sand along the margin, and in 
deeper water is largely coated with crusts of salt, soda and 
gypsum. 

The lake is a novel and popular bathing resort, the specific 
gravity of the water being so great that one cannot sink or 
entirely submerge oneself. There are well-equipped bathing 
pavilions at Garfield and Saltair on the S. shore of the lake about 
20 m. from Salt Lake City. The bathing is invigorating; it 
must be followed by a freshwater bath because of the incrusta- 
tion of the body from the briny water. The large amount of 
salt in the water makes both fauna and flora of the lake scanty; 
there are a few algae, the larvae of an Ephydra and of a Tipula 
fly, specimens of what seems to be Corixa decolor, and in great 
quantities, so as to tint the surface of the water, the brine 
shrimp, Arlemia salina (or gracilis or fertilis), notable biologically 
for the rarity of males, for the high degree of parthenogenesis and 
for apparent interchangeableness with the Branchipus. 

The lake is of interest for its generally mountainous surround- 
ings, save to the N.W., where it skirts the Great Salt Lake Desert, 
for the mountainous peninsula, the Promontory, lying between 
thumb and fingers of the hand, shaped like and resembling in 
geological structure the two islands S. of it, Fremont and Antelope, 1 
and the Oquirrh range S. of the lake. The physiography of the 
surrounding country shows clearly that the basin occupied by 
Great Salt Lake is one of many left by the drying up of a large 
Pleistocene lake, which has been called lake Bonneville. Well- 
defined wave-cut cliffs and terraces show two distinct shore-lines 
of this early lake, one. the " Bonneville Shore-line," about 1000 
ft. above Great Salt Lake, and the other, the " Provo Shore- 
line," about 625 ft. higher than the present lake. These shore- 
lines and the presence of two alluvial deposits, the lower and the 
larger of yellow clay 90 ft. deep, and, separated from it by a plane 
of erosion, the other, a deposit of white marl, 10-20 ft. deep, 
clearly prove the main facts as to lake Bonneville: a dry basin 
was first occupied by the shallow waters of a small lake; then, 
during a long period of excessive moisture (or cold), the waters 
rose and spread over an area nearly as large as lake Huron with 
a maximum depth of 1000 ft.; a period of great dryness followed, 
in which the lake disappeared; then came a second, shorter, 
but more intense period of moisture, and in this time the lake 
rose, covered a larger area than before, including W. Utah and 
a little of S. Idaho and of E. Nevada, about 19,750 sq. m., had 
a very much broken shore-line of 2550 m. and a maximum 
depth of 1050 ft. and a mean depth of 800 ft., overflowed the 
basin at the N., and by a tributary stream through Red Rock 
Pass at the N. end of the Cache valley poured its waters into 
the Columbia river system. The great lake was then gradually 
reduced by evaporation, leaving only shallow bodies of salt water, 
of which Great Salt Lake is the largest. The cause of the 
climatic variations which brought about this complex history 
of the Salt Lake region is not known; but it is worthy of 
note that the periods of highest water levels were coincident 
with a great expansion of local valley glaciers, some of which 
terminated in the waters of lake Bonneville. 

Industrially Great Salt Lake is of a certain importance. In 
early days it was the source of the salt supply of the surrounding 
country; and the manufacture of salt is now an important 
industry. The brine is pumped into conduits, carried to large 
ponds and there evaporated by the sun; during late years the 
salt has been refined here, being purified of the sulphates and 
magnesium compounds which formerly rendered it efflorescent 
and of a low commercial grade. Mirabilite, or Glauber's salt, 
is commercially valuable, occurring in such quantities in parts 
of the lake that one may wade knee-deep in it; it separates 

1 Besides these islands there are a few small islands farther N., 
and W. of Antelope, Stansbury Island, which, like Antelope and 
Fremont Islands, is connected with the mainland by a bar sometimes 
uncovered and rarely in more than a foot of water. 



from the brine at a temperature between 30 and 20 F. The 
lake is crossed E. and W. by the Southern Pacific railway's 
so-called " Lucin Cut-off," which runs from Ogden to Lucin 
on a trestle with more than 20 m. of " fill "; the former route 
around the N. end of the lake was 43 m. long. 

Great Salt Lake was first described in 1689 by Baron La 
Hontan, who had merely heard of it from the Indians. " Jim " 
Bridger, a famous mountaineer and scout, saw the lake in 1824, 
apparently before any other white man. Captain Bonneville 
described the lake and named it after himself, but the name 
was transferred to the great Pleistocene lake. John C. Fremont 
gave the first description of any accuracy in his Report of 1845. 
But comparatively little was known of it before the Mormon 
settlement in 1847. In 1850 Captain Howard Stansbury com- 
pleted a survey, whose results were published in 1852. The 
most extensive and important studies of the region, however, 
are those by Grove Karl Gilbert of the United States Geological 
Survey, who in 1879-1890 studied especially the earlier and 
greater lake. 

See J. E. Talmage, The Great Salt Lake, Present and Past (Salt 
Lake City, 1900) ; and Grove Karl Gilbert, Lake Bonneville, mono- 
graph i of United States Geological Survey (Washington, 1890), 
containing (pp. 12-19) references to the earlier literature. 

GREAT SLAVE LAKE (ATHAPUSCOW), a lake of Mackenzie 
district, Canada. It is situated between 60 50' and 62 55' 
N. and 108 40' and 117 W., at an altitude of 391 ft. above 
the sea. It is 325 m. long, from 15 to 50 m. wide, and includes 
an area of 9770 sq. m. The water is very clear and deep. Its 
coast line is irregular and deeply indented by large bays, and its 
north-eastern shores are rugged and mountainous. The western 
shores are well wooded, chiefly with spruce, but the northern 
and eastern are dreary and barren. It is navigable from about 
the ist of July to the end of October. The Yellow-knife, Hoar- 
frost, Lockhart (discharging the waters of Aylmer, Clinton- 
Golden and Artillery Lakes), Tchzudezeth, Du Rocher, Hay 
(400 m. in length), and Slave rivers empty into Great Slave 
Lake. The bulk of its water empties by the Mackenzie river 
into the Arctic Ocean, but a small portion finds its way by the 
Ark-i-linik river into Hudson's Bay. It was discovered in 1771 
by Samuel Hearne. 

GREAT SOUTHERN OCEAN, the name given to the belt of 
water which extends almost continuously round the globe 
between the parallel of 40 S. and the Antarctic Circle (665 S.). 
The fact that the southern extremity of South America is the 
only land extending into this belt gives it special physical 
importance in relation to tides and currents, and its position 
with reference to the Antarctic Ocean and continent makes it 
convenient to regard it as a separate ocean from which the 
Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans may be said to radiate. 
(See OCEAN.) 

GREAVES, JOHN (1602-1652), English mathematician and 
antiquary, was the eldest son of John Greaves, rector of Cole- 
more, near Alresford in Hampshire. He was educated at Balliol 
College, Oxford, and in 1630 was chosen professor of geometry 
in Gresham College, London. After travelling in Europe, 
he visited the East in 1637, where he collected a considerable 
number of Arabic, Persian and Greek manuscripts, and made a 
more accurate survey of the pyramids of Egypt than any traveller 
who had preceded him. On his return to Europe he visited a 
second time several parts of Italy, and during his stay at Rome 
instituted inquiries into the ancient weights and measures. In 
1643 he was appointed to the Savilian professorship of astronomy 
at Oxford, but he was deprived of his Gresham professorship 
for having neglected its duties. In 1645 ne essayed a reforma- 
tion of the calendar, but his plan was not adopted. In 1648 he 
lost both his fellowship and his Savilian chair on account of his 
adherence to the royalist party. But his private fortune more 
than sufficed for all his wants till his death on the 8th of October 
1652. 

Besides his papers in the Philosophical Transactions, the principal 
works of Greaves are Pyramidographia, or a Description of the 
Pyramids in Egypt (1646) ; A Discourse on the Roman Foot and 



GREBE GRECO, EL 



423 



Denarius (1649); and Elementa linguae Persicae (1649). His 
miscellaneous works were published in 1737 by Dr Thomas Birch, 
with a biographical notice of the author. See also Smith's Vita 
quorundam eriidit. virorum and Ward's Gresham Professors. 

GREBE (Fr. grebe), the generally accepted name for all the 
birds of the family Podicipedidae, 1 belonging to the group 
Pygopodes of Illiger, members of which inhabit almost all parts 
ol the world. Some systematic writers have distributed them 
into several so-called genera, but, with one exception, these 
seem to be insufficiently defined, and here it will be enough to 
allow but two Latham's Podiceps and the Centropelma of 
Sclater and Salvin. Grebes are at once distinguishable from 




Great Crested Grebe. 

all other water-birds by their rudimentary tail and the peculiar 
structure of their feet, which are not only placed far behind, but 
have the tarsi flattened and elongated toes furnished with broad 
lobes of skin and flat blunt nails. 

In Europe are five well-marked species of Podiceps, the 
commonest and smallest of which is the very well-known dab- 
chick of English ponds, P. fluviatilis or minor, the little grebe 
of ornithologists, found throughout the British Islands, and 
with a wide range in the old world. Next in size are two species 
known as the eared and horned grebes, the former of which, 
P. nigricollis, is a visitor from the south, only occasionally 
showing itself in Britain and very rarely breeding, while the 
latter, P. aurilus, has a more northern range, breeding plentifully 
in Iceland, and is a not uncommon winter-visitant. Then there 
is the larger red-necked grebe, P. griseigena, also a northern bird, 
and a native of the subarctic parts of both Europe and America, 
while lastly the great crested grebe, P. cristatus or gaunt known 
as the loon on the meres and broads of East Anglia and some 
other parts of England, is also widely spread over the old world. 
North America is credited with seven species of grebes, of which 
two (P. griseigena and P. auritus) are admitted to be specifically 
inseparable from those already named, and two (P. occidentalis 
and P. calif ornicus) appear to be but local forms; the remaining 
two (P. dominicus and P. ludovicianus) may, however, be 
accounted good species, and the last differs so much from other 
grebes that many systematists make it the type of a distinct 
genus, Podttymbus. South America seems to possess four or 
five more species, one of which, the P. micropterus of Gould 
(Proc. Zool. Society, 1858, p. 220), has been deservedly separated 

| Often, but erroneously, written Podicipidae. The word Podiceps 
being a contracted form of Podicipes (cf . Gloger, Journal fur Orni- 
thologie, 1854, p. 430, note), a combination of podex, podicis and pes, 
pedis, its further compounds must be in accordance with its derivation. 



from the genus Podiceps under the name Cenlropdma by Sclater 
and Salvin (Exot. Ornithology, p. 189, pi. xcv.), owing to the form 
of its bill, and the small size of its wings, which renders it 
absolutely flightless. Lake Titicaca in Bolivia is, so far as is 
known at present, its only habitat. Grebes in general, though 
averse from taking wing, have much greater power of flight 
than would seem possible on examination of their alar organs, 
and are capable of prolonged aerial journeys. Their plumage is 
short and close. Above it is commonly of some shade of brown, 
but beneath it is usually white, and so glossy as to be in much 
request for muffs and the trimming of ladies' dresses. Some 
species are remarkable for the crests or tippets, generally of a 
golden-chestnut colour, they assume in the breeding season. 
P. auritus is particularly remarkable in this respect, and when 
in its full nuptial attire presents an extraordinary aspect, the 
head (being surrounded, as it were, by a nimbus or aureole, such 
as that with which painters adorn saintly characters), reflecting 
the rays of light, glitters with a glory that passes description. 
All the species seem to have similar habits of nidification. 
Water-weeds are pulled from the bottom of the pool, and piled 
on a convenient foundation, often a seminatant growth of bog- 
bean (Menyanthes), till they form a large mass, in the centre of 
which a shallow cup is formed, aijd the eggs, with a chalky 
white shell almost equally pointed at each end, are laid the 
parent covering them, whenever she has time to do so, before 
leaving the nest. Young grebes are beautiful objects, clothed 
with black, white and brown down, disposed in streaks and 
their bill often brilliantly tinted. When taken from the nest 
and placed on dry ground, it is curious to observe the way in 
which they progress using the wings almost as fore-feet, and 
suggesting the notion that they must be quadrupeds instead of 
birds. (A. N.) 

GRECO, EL, the name commonly given to Dominico Theoto- 
copuli (d. 1614), Cretan painter, architect and sculptor. He 
was born in Crete, between 1545 and 1550, and announces his 
Cretan origin by his signature in Greek letters on his most im- 
portant pictures, especially on the " St Maurice " in the Escorial. 
He appears to have studied art first of all in Venice, and on 
arriving in Rome in 1570 is described as having been a pupil 
of Titian, in a letter written by the miniaturist, Giulio Clovio, 
addressed to Cardinal Alessandro Farnesi, dated the I5th of 
November 1570. 

Although a student under Titian, he was at no time an ex- 
ponent of his master's spirit, and his early historical pictures 
were attributed to many other artists, but never to Titian. 
Of his early works, two pictures of " The Healing of the Blind 
Man " at Dresden and Palma, and the four of " Christ driving 
the money-changers out of the Temple " in the Yarborough 
collection, the Cork collection, the National Gallery, and the 
Beruete collection at Madrid, are the chief. His first authentic 
portrait is that of his fellow-countryman, Giulio Clovio. It was 
painted between 1570 and 1578, is signed in Greek characters, 
and preserved at Naples, and the last portrait he painted under 
the influence of the Italian school app?ars to be that of a cardinal 
now in the National Gallery, of which four replicas painted in 
Spain are known. He appears to have come to Spain in 1577, 
but, on being questioned two years later in connexion with a 
judicial suit, as to when he arrived in the country, and for what 
purpose he came, declined to give any information. He was 
probably attracted by the prospect of participating in the 
decoration of the Escorial, and he appears to have settled down 
in Toledo, where his first works were the paintings for the high 
altar of Santo Domingo, and his famous picture of " The Dis- 
robing of Christ " in the sacristy of the cathedral. It was in 
connexion with this last-named work that he proved refractory, 
and the records of a law-suit respecting the price to be paid to 
him give us the earliest information of the artist's sojourn in 
Spain. In 1590, he painted the " History of St Maurice " for 
Philip II., and in 1578, his masterpiece, entitled " The Burial 
of the Count Orgaz." This magnificent picture, one of the finest 
in Spain, is at last being appreciated, and can only be put a 
little below the masterpieces of Velazquez. It is a strangely 



424 



GRECO-TURKISH WAR 



individual work, representing Spanish character even more 
truthfully than did any Spanish artist, and it gathers up all 
the fugitive moods, the grace and charm, the devices and defects 
of a single race, and gives them complete stability in their 
wavering expressions. 

Between 1595 and 1600, El Greco executed two groups of 
paintings in the church of San Jose at Toledo, and in the hospital 
of La Caridad, at Illescas. Besides these, he is known to have 
painted thirty-two portraits, several manuscripts, and many 
paintings for altar-pieces in Toledo and the neighbourhood. 
As an architect he was responsible for more than one of the 
churches of Toledo, and as a sculptor for carvings both in wood 
and in marble, and he can only be properly understood in all 
his varied excellences after a visit to the city where most of 
his work was executed. 

He died on the 7th of April 1614, and the date of his death 
is one of the very few certain facts which we have respecting him. 
The record informs us that he made no will, that he received the 
sacraments, and was buried in the church of Santo Domingo. 
The popular legend of his having gone mad towards the latter 
part of his career has no foundation in fact, but his painting 
became more and more eccentric as his life went on, and his 
natural perversity and love of strange, cold colouring, increased 
towards the end of his life. As has been well said, " Light with 
him was only used for emotional appeal, and was focussed or 
scattered at will." He was haughtily certain of the value of his 
own art, and was determined to paint in cold, ashen colouring, 
with livid, startling effect, the gaunt and extraordinary figures 
that he beheld with his eccentric genius. His pictures have 
wonderful visionary quality, admirable invention, and are full 
of passionate fervency. They may be considered extravagant, 
but are never commonplace, and are exceedingly attractive in 
their intense emotion, marvellous sincerity, and strange, chilly 
colour. 

El Greco's work is typically modern, and from it the portrait- 
painter, J. S. Sargent, claims to have learnt more than from that 
of any other artist. It immortalizes the character of the people 
amongst whom he dwelt, and he may be considered as the initiator 
of truth and realism in art, a precursor and inspirer of Velazquez. 

In his own time he was exceedingly popular, and held in 
great repute. Sonnets were written in his honour, and he is 
himself said to have written several treatises, but these have not 
come down to our time. For more than a generation his work 
was hardly known, but it is now gaining rapidly in importance, 
and its true position is more and more recognized. Some 
examples of the artist's own handwriting have been discovered 
in Toledo, and Senor Don Manuel Cossia of Madrid has spent 
many years collecting information for a work dealing with the 
artist. (G. C. W.) 

GRECO-TURKISH WAR, 1897. This war between Greece 
and Turkey (see GREECE: Modern History) involved two prac- 
tically distinct campaigns, in Thessaly and in Epirus. Upon the 
Thessalian frontier the Turks, early in March, had concentrated 
six divisions (about 58,000 men), 1500 sabres and 156 guns, 
under Edhem Pasha. A seventh division was rendered available 
a little later. The Greeks numbered about 45,000 infantry, 
800 cavalry and 96 guns, under the crown prince. On both 
sides there was a considerable dispersion of forces along the 
frontier. The Turkish navy, an important factor in the war of 
1877-78, had become paralytic ten years later, and the Greek 
squadron held complete command of the sea. Expeditionary 
forces directed against the Turkish line of communications 
might have influenced the course of the campaign; but for 
such work the Greeks were quite unprepared, and beyond 
bombarding one or two insignificant ports on the coast-line, and 
aiding the transport of troops from Athens to Volo, the navy 
practically accomplished nothing. On the 9th and loth April 
Greek irregulars crossed the frontier, either with a view to 
provoke hostilities or in the hope of fomenting a rising in Mace- 
donia. On the 1 6th and I7th some fighting occurred, in which 
Greek regulars took part; and on the i8th Edhem Pasha, 
whose headquarters had for some time been established at 



Elassona, ordered a general advance. The Turkish plan was to 
turn the Greek left and to bring on a decisive action, but this 
was not carried out. In the centre the Turks occupied the Meluna 
Pass on the igth, and the way was practically open to Larissa. 
The Turkish right wing, however, moving on Damani and the 
Reveni Pass, encountered resistance, and the left wing was 
temporarily checked by the Greeks among the mountains near 
Nezeros. At Mati, covering the road to Tyrnavo, the Greeks 
entrenched themselves. Here sharp fighting occurred on the 
2ist and 22nd, during which the Greeks sought to turn the right 
flank of the superior Turkish central column. On the 23rd 
fighting was renewed, and the advance guard of the Turkish left 
column, which had been reinforced, and had pressed back the 
Greeks, reached Deliler. The Turkish forces had now drawn 
together, and the Greeks were threatened on both flanks. In 
the evening a general retreat was ordered, and the loose discipline 
of the Greek army was at once manifested. Rumours of disaster 
spread among the ranks, and wild panic supervened. There 
was nothing to prevent an orderly retirement upon Larissa, 
which had been fortified and provisioned, and which offered a 
good defensive position. The general debdcle could not, however, 
be arrested, and in great disorder the mass of the Greek army 
fled southwards to Pharsala. There was no pursuit, and the 
Turkish commander-in-chief did not reach Larissa till the 27th. 
Thus ended the first phase of the war, in which the Greeks 
showed tenacity in defence, which proved fruitless by reason of 
initially bad strategic dispositions entailing far too great disper- 
sion, and also because there was no plan of action beyond a 
general desire to avoid risking a defeat which might prevent the 
expected risings in Macedonia and elsewhere. The handling of 
the Turkish army showed little skill or enterprise; but on both 
sides political considerations tended to prevent the application 
of sound military principles. * * 

Larissa being abandoned by the Greeks, Velestino, the junction 
of the Thessalian railways, where there was a strong position 
covering Volo, seemed to be the natural rallying point for the 
Greek army. Here the support of the fleet would have been 
secured, and a Turkish advance across the Othrys range upon 
Athens could not have taken place until the flanking position 
had been captured. Whether by direction or by natural impulse, 
however, the mass of the Greek troops made for Pharsala, where 
some order was re-established, and preparations were made to 
resist attack. The importance of Velestino was recognized by 
sending a brigade thither by railway from Pharsala, and the 
inferior Greek army was thus split into two portions, separated 
by nearly 40 m. On 27th April a Turkish reconnaissance on 
Velestino was repulsed, and further fighting occurred on the 
29th and 3oth, in which the Greeks under Colonel Smolenski held 
their own. Meanwhile the Turks made preparations to attack 
Pharsala, and on 5th May the Greeks were driven from their 
positions in front of the town by three divisions. Further 
fighting followed on the 6th, and in the evening the Greek army 
retired in fair order upon Domokos. It was intended to turn 
the Greek left with the first division under Hairi Pasha, but the 
flanking force did not arrive in time to bring about a decisive 
result. The abandonment of Pharsala involved that of Velestino, 
where the Turks had obtained no advantage, and on the evening 
of the 5th Colonel Smolenski began a retirement upon Halmyros. 
Again delaying, Edhem Pasha did not attack Domokos till the 
1 7th, giving the Greeks time to entrench their positions. The 
attack was delivered in three columns, of which the right was 
checked and the centre failed to take the Greek trenches and 
suffered much loss. The left column, however, menaced the 
line of retreat, and the Greek army abandoned the whole position 
during the night. No effective stand was made at the Furka 
Pass, which was evacuated on the following night. Colonel 
Smolenski, who arrived on the i8th from Halmyros, was directed 
to hold the pass of Thermopylae. The Greek forces being much 
demoralized, the intervention of the tsar was invoked by 
telegraph; and the latter sent a personal appeal to the Sultan, 
who directed a suspension of hostilities. On the 2oth an armistice 
was arranged. 



GEOGRAPHY] 



GREECE 



425 



In Epirus at the outbreak of war about 15,000 Greeks, including 
a cavalry regiment and five batteries, the whole under Colonel 
Manos, occupied a line of defence from Arta to Peta. The 
Turks, about 28,000 strong, with forty-eight guns, under Achmet 
Hifsi Pasha, were distributed mainly at lannina, Pentepagadia, 
and in front of Arta. On i8th April the Turks commenced a 
three days' bombardment of Arta; but successive attempts 
to take the bridge were repulsed, and during the night of the 
zist they retired on Philippiada, 26 m. distant, which was 
attacked and occupied by Colonel Manos on the 23rd. The 
Greeks then advanced to Pentepagadia, meeting with little 
resistance. Their difficulties now began. After some skirmishing 
on the 2yth, the position held by their advanced force near 
Homopulos was attacked on the 28th. The attack was renewed 
on the 29th, and no Greek reinforcements were forthcoming 
when needed. The Euzones made a good defence, but were 
driven back by superior force, and a retreat was ordered, which 
quickly degenerated into panic-stricken flight to and across 
the Arta. Reinforcements, including 2500 Epirote volunteers, 
were sent to Arta from Athens, and on 1 2th May another incursion 
into Turkish territory began, the apparent object being to 
occupy a portion of the country in view of the breakdown in 
Thessaly and the probability that hostilities would shortly end. 
The advance was made in three columns, while the Epirote 
volunteers were landed near the mouth of the Luro river with 
the idea of cutting off the Turkish garrison of Prevesa. The 
centre column, consisting of a brigade, three squadrons and 
two batteries, which were intended to take up and hold a defensive 
position, attacked the Turks near Strevina on the i3th. The 
Greeks fought well, and being reinforced by a battalion from 
the left column, resumed the offensive on the following day, and 
fairly held their own. On the night of the isth a retreat was 
ordered and well carried out. The volunteers landed at the 
mouth of the Luro, were attacked and routed with heavy loss. 

The campaign in Epirus thus failed as completely as that in 
Thessaly. Under the terms of the treaty of peace, signed on 
20th September, and arranged by the European powers, Turkey 
obtained an indemnity of T4,ooo,ooo, and a rectification of 
the Thessalian frontier, carrying with it some strategic advantage. 
History records few more unjustifiable wars than that which 
Greece gratuitously provoked. The Greek troops on several 
occasions showed tenacity and endurance, but discipline and 
cohesion were manifestly wanting. Many of the officers were 
incapable; the campaign was gravely mismanaged ; and 
politics, which led to the war, impeded its operations. On the 
other hand, the fruits of the German tuition, which began in 
1880, and received a powerful stimulus by the appointment 
of General von der Goltz in 1883, were shown in the Turkish 
army. The mobilization was on the whole smoothly carried out, 
and the newly completed railways greatly facilitated the con- 
centration on the frontier. The young school of officers trained 
by General von der Goltz displayed ability, and the artillery at 
Pharsala and Domokos was well handled. The superior leading 
was, however, not conspicuously successful; and while the rank 
and file again showed excellent military qualities, political 
conditions and the Oriental predilection for half-measures and 
for denying full responsibility and full powers to commanders 
in the field enfeebled the conduct of the campaign. On account 
of the total want of careful and systematic peace training on both 
sides, a war which presented several interesting strategic problems 
provided warnings in place of military lessons. (G. S. C.) 

GREECE, 1 an ancient geographical area, and a modern 
kingdom more or less corresponding thereto, situated at the 
south-eastern extremity of Europe and forming the most 
southerly portion of the Balkan Peninsula. The modern kingdom 
is bounded on the N. by European Turkey and on the E., S. and 
W. by the Aegean, Mediterranean and Ionian seas. The name 
Graecia, which was more or less vaguely given to the ancient 
country by the Romans, seems not to have been employed by 
any native writer before Aristotle; it was apparently derived 

1 See also GREEK ART, GREEK LANGUAGE, GREEK' LAW, GREEK 
LITERATURE, GREEK RELIGION. 



by the Romans from the Illyrians, who applied the name of an 
Epirote tribe (Fpat/cot, Graeci) to all their southern neighbours. 
The names Hellas, Hellenes ("EXXas, "EXXi/cts), by which the 
ancient Greeks called their country and their race, and which are 
still employed by the modern Greeks, originally designated a small 
district in Phthiotis in Thessaly and its inhabitants, who gradu- 
ally spread over the lands south of the Cambunian mountains. 
The name Hellenes was not universally applied to the Greek 
race until the post-Homeric epoch (Thucyd. i. 3). 

i. GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS 

The ancient Greeks had a somewhat vague conception of the 
northern limits of Hellas. Thessaly was generally included and 
Epirus excluded; some writers included some of the 
southern cantons of Epirus, while others excluded not 
only all that country but Aetolia and Acarnania. Greece. 
Generally speaking, the confines of Hellas in the age 
of its greatest distinction were represented by a line drawn from 
the northern shore of the Ambracian Gulf on the W. to the 
mouth of the Peneus on the E. Macedonia and Thrace were 
regarded as outside the pale of Hellenic civilization till 386 B.C., 
when after his conquest of Thessaly and Phocis, Philip of Macedon 
obtained a seat in the Amphictyonic Council. In another sense, 
however, the name Hellas expressed an ethnological rather than 
a geographical unity; it denoted every country inhabited by 
Hellenes. It thus embraced all the Greek settlements on the 
coasts and islands of the Mediterranean, on the shores of the 
Hellespont, the Bosporus and the Black Sea. Nevertheless, 
the Greek peninsula within the limits described above, together 
with the adjacent islands, was always regarded as Hellas par 
excellence. The continental area of Hellas proper was no greater 
than that of the modern Greek kingdom, which comprises but 
a small portion of the territories actually occupied by the Greek 
race. The Greeks have always been a maritime people, and the 
real centre of the national life is now, as in antiquity, the Aegean 
Sea or Archipelago. Thickly studded with islands and bordered 
by deeply indented coasts with sheltered creeks and harbours, 
the Aegean in the earliest days of navigation invited the enter- 
prise of the mariner; its shores, both European and Asiatic, 
became covered with Greek settlements and its islands, together 
with Crete and Cyprus, became Greek. True to their maritime 
instincts, the Greeks rarely advanced inland to any distance 
from the sea; the coasts of Macedonia, Thrace and Asia Minor 
are still mainly Greek, but, except for some isolated colonies, the 
hinterland in each case lies outside the limits of the race. Con- 
tinental Greece is divided by its mountain ranges into a number 
of natural cantons; the existence of physical barriers tended 
in the earliest times to the growth of isolated political com- 
munities, and in the epoch of its ancient independence the 
country was occupied by seventeen separate states, none of 
them larger than an ordinary English county. These states, which 
are noticed separately, were: Thessaly, in northern Greece; 
Acarnania, Aetolia, Locris, Doris, Phocis, Megaris, Boeotia and 
Attica in central Greece; and Corinthia, Sicyonia, Achaea, Elis, 
Messenia, Laconia, Argolis and Arcadia in the Peloponnesus. . 

Modern Greece, which (including the adjacent islands) extends 
from 35 50' to 39 54' N. and from 19 20' to 26 15' E., com- 
prises all the area formerly occupied by these states. 
Under the arrangement concluded at Constantinople 
on the 2ist of July 1832 between Great Britain, Greece. 
France, Russia and Turkey, the northern boundary 
of Greece was drawn from the Gulf of Arta (Sinus Ambracius) 
to the Gulf of Volo (S. Pagasaeus), the line keeping to the crest 
of the Othrys range. Thessaly and part of Acarnania were thus 
left to Turkey. The island of Euboea, the Cyclades and the 
northern Sporades were added to the new kingdom. In 1864 
the Ionian Islands (q.v.) were ceded by Great Britain to Greece, 
In 1880 the Conference of Berlin proposed a new frontier, which 
transferred to Greece not only Thessaly but a considerable 
portion of southern Epirus, extending to the river Kalamas. 
This, however, was rejected by Turkey, and the existing boundary 
was traced in 1881. Starting ffom the Aegean coast at a point 



426 



GREECE 



[GEOGRAPHY 



near Platamona, between Mount Olympus and the mouth of the 
Salambria (Peneus), the line passes over the heights of Kritiri 
and Zygos (Pindus) and descends the course of the river Arta 
to its mouth. After the war of 1897 Greece restored to Turkey 
some strategical points on the frontier possessing no geographical 
importance. The greatest length of Greece is about 250 m., 
the greatest breadth 180 m. The country is generally divided 
into five parts, which are indicated by its natural features: 
(i.) Northern Greece, which extends northwards from Mount 
Othrys and the gulfs of Zeitun(Lamia)and Arta to the Cambunian 
Mountains, and comprises Thessaly and a small portion of 
Epirus; (ii.) Central Greece, extending from the southern limits 
of Northern Greece to the gulfs of Corinth and Aegina; (iii.) 
the peninsula of the Peloponnesus or Morea, attached to the 
mainland by the Isthmus of Corinth; (iv.) the Ionian Islands 
on the west coasts of Epirus and Greece; (v.) The islands of the 
Aegean Sea, including Euboea, the Cyclades and the northern 
Sporades. 

In the complexity of its contour and the variety of its natural 
features Greece surpasses every country in Europe, as Europe sur- 
passes every continent in the world. The broken character 
p ys ca Q j j tg coas t_ii ne i s unique; except a few districts in Thes- 
saly no part of the country is more than 50 m. from the 
sea. Although the area of Greece is considerably smaller than that 
of Portugal, its coast-line is greater than that of Spain and Portugal 
together. The mainland is penetrated by numerous gulfs and inlets, 
and the adjoining seas are studded with islands. Another character- 
istic is the number and complexity of the mountain chains, which 
traverse every part of the country and which, together with their 
ramifications, cover four-fifths of its surface. The mountain-chains 
interlace, the interstices forming small enclosed basins, such as the 
plain of Boeotia and the plateau of Arcadia ; the only plain of any 
extent is that of Thessaly. The mountains project into the sea, 
forming peninsulas, and sometimes reappearing in rows or groups 
of islands; they descend abruptly to the coast or are separated 
from it by small alluvial plains. The portions of the country suitable 
for human colonization were thus isolated one from the other, but 
as a rule possessed easy access to the sea. The earliest settlements 
were generally situated on or around some rocky elevation, which 
dominated the surrounding plain and was suitable for fortification 
as a citadel or acropolis; owing to the danger of piratical attacks 
they were usually at some little distance from the sea, but in the 
vicinity of a natural harbour. The physical features of the country 
played an important part in moulding the character of its inhabitants. 
Protected against foreign invasion by the mountain barriers and to 
a great extent cut off from mutual intercourse except by sea, the 
ancient Greek communities developed a marked individuality and a 
strong sentiment of local patriotism; their inhabitants were both 
mountaineers and mariners; they possessed the love of country, 
the vigour and the courage which are always found in Highlanders, 
together with the spirit of adventure, the versatility and the passion 
for freedom characteristic of a seafaring people. The great variety 
of natural products as well as the facility of maritime communication 
tended to the early growth of commercial enterprise, while the 
peculiar beauty of the scenery, though little dwelt upon in ancient 
literature, undoubtedly quickened the poetic and artistic instincts 
of the race. The effects of physical environment are no less notice- 
able among the modern Greeks. The rural populations of Attica 
and Boeotia, though descended from Albanian colonists in the 
middle ages, display the same contrast in character which marked 
the inhabitants of those regions in ancient times. 

In its general aspect the country presents a series of striking and 
interesting contrasts. Fertile tracts covered with vineyards, olive 
groves, corn-fields or forests display themselves in close proximity 
with rugged heights and rocky precipices; the landscape is never 
monotonous; its outlines are graceful, and its colouring, owing to 
the clearness of the air, is at once brilliant and delicate, while the 
sea, in most instances, adds a picturesque feature, enhancing the 
charm and variety of the scenery. 

The ruling feature in the mountain system of northern Greece is 
the great chain of Pindus, which, extending southwards from the 
lofty Shar Dagh (Skardos) near Uskub, forms the back- 
bone of the Balkan peninsula. Reaching the frontier 
of Greece a little S. of lat. 40, the Pindus range is inter- 
sected by the Cambunian Mountains running E. and W. ; the 
eastern branch, which forms the northern boundary of Thessaly, 
extends to the Gulf of Salonica and culminates in Mount Olympus 
(9754 ft.) a little to the N. of the Greek frontier; then bending to 
the S.E. it follows the coast-line, forming a rampart between the 
Thessalian plain and the sea; the barrier is severed at one point 
only where the river Salambria (anc. Peneus) finds an exit through 
the narrow defile of Tempe. South of Tempe the mountain ridge, 
known as the Mavro Vouno, connects the pyramidal Kissovo (anc. 
Ossa, 6400 ft.) with Plessidi (anc. Pelion, 5310 ft.); it is prolonged 
in the Magnesian peninsula, which separates the Gulf of Volo from 



Moun- 
tains. 



the Aegean, and is continued by the mountains of Euboea (highest 
summits, Dirphys, 5725 ft., and Ocha, 4830 ft.) and by the islands 
of Andros and Tenos. West of Pindus, the Cambunian Mountains 
are continued by several ridges which traverse Epirus from north 
to south, enclosing the plain and lake of lannina ; the most westerly 
of these, projecting into the Adriatic, forms the Acroceraunian 
promontory terminating in Cape Glossa. The principal pass through 
the Cambunian Mountains is that of Meluna, through which runs 
the carriage-road connecting the town of Elassona in Macedonia 
with Larissa, the capital of Thessaly; there are horse-paths at 
Reveni and elsewhere. The central chain of Pindus at the point 
where it is intersected by the Cambunian Mountains forms the mass 
of Zygos (anc. Locmon, 7113 ft.) through which a horse-path con- 
nects the town of Metzovo with Kalabaka in Thessaly; on 
the declivity immediately N. of Kalabaka are a series of rocky 
pinnacles on which a number of monasteries are perched. Trending 
to the S., the Pindus chain terminates in the conical Mount Velouchi 
(anc. Tymphrestus, 7609 ft.) in the heart of the mountainous region of 
northern Greece. From this centre-point a number of mountains 
radiate in all directions. To the E. runs the chain of Helloro (anc. 
Othrys; highest summit, Hagios Elias, 5558 ft.) separating the plain 
of Thessaly from the valley of the Spercheios and traversed by the 
Phourka pass (2789 ft.); to the S.E. is Mount Katavothra (anc. 
Oeta, 7080 ft.) extending to the southern shore of the Gulf of Lamia 
at Thermopylae; to the S.E., S. and S.W. are the mountains of 
Aetolia and Acarnania. The Aetolian group, which may be regarded 
as the direct continuation of the Pindus range, includes Kiona 
(8240 ft.), the highest mountain in Greece, and Vardusi (anc. Korax, 
8190 ft.). The mountains of Acarnania with 'T^TjXiJ r.opv<t>ri (5215 ft.) 
rise to theW. of the valley of the Aspropotamo (anc. Achelous). The 
Aetolian Mountains are prolonged to the S.E. by the double-crested 
Liakoura (anc. Parnassus; 8064 ft.) in Phocis; by Palaeo Vouno 
(anc. Helicon, 5738 ft.) and Elateas (anc. Cithaeron, 4626 ft.) respect- 
ively W. and S. of the Boeotian plain; and by the mountains of 
Attica, Ozea (anc. Parnes, 4626 ft.), Mendeli (anc. Pentelicus or 
Brilessos, 3639 ft.), Trellovouno (anc. Hymettus, 3369 ft.), and 
Keratia (2136 ft.) terminating in the promontory of Sunium, but 
reappearing in the islands of Ceos, Cytnnos, Seriphos and Siphnos. 
South of Cithaeron are Patera in Megaris (3583 ft.) and Makri 
Plagi (anc. Geraneia, 4495 ft.) overlooking the Isthmus of Corinth. 

The mountains of the Morea, grouped around the elevated central 
plateau of Arcadia, form an independent system with ramifications 
extending through the Argolid peninsula on the E. and the three 
southern promontories of Malea, Taenaron and Acritas. At the 
eastern end of the northern chain, separating Arcadia from the Gulf 
of Corinth, is Ziria (anc. Cyllene, 7789 ft.) ; it forms a counterpart to 
Parnassus on the opposite side of the gulf. A little to the W. 
is Chelmos (anc. Aroania, 7725 ft.); farther W., Olonos (anc. 
Erymanthus, 7297 ft.) and Voi'dia (anc. Panachaicon, 6322 ft.) 
overlooking the Gulf of Patras. The highest summit in the 
Argolid peninsula is Hagios Elias (anc. Arachnaeon, 3930 ft.). The 
series of heights forming the eastern rampart of Arcadia, including 
Artemision (5814 ft.) and Ktenia (5246 ft.) is continued to the S. by 
the Malevo range (anc. Parnon, highest summit 6365 ft.) which ex- 
tends into the peninsula of Malea and reappears in the island of 
Cerigo. Separated from Parnon by the Eurqtas valley to the W., 
the chain of Taygetus (mod. Pentedaktylon ; highest summit Hagios 
Elias, 7874 ft., the culminating point of the Morea) forms a barrier 
between the plains of Laconia and Messenia ; it is traversed by the 
Langada pass leading from Sparta to Kalamata. The range is 
prolonged to the S. through the arid district of Maina and terminates 
in Cape Matapan (anc. Taenarum). The mountains of western 
Arcadia are less lofty and of a less marked type; they include 
Hagios Petros (4777 ft.) and Palaeocastro (anc. Pholoe, 2257 ft.) 
N. of the Alpheus valley, Diaphorti (anc. Lycaeus, 4660 ft.), the 
haunt of Pan, and Nomia (4554 ft.) VV. of the plain of Megalopolis. 
Farther south, the mountains of western Messenia form a detached 
group (Varvara, 4003 ft.; Mathia, 3140 ft.) extending to Cape Gallo 
(anc. Acritas) _ and the Oenussae Islands. In.central Arcadia are 
Apanokrapa (anc. Maenalus, also sacred to Pan) and Roudia (5072 
ft.) ; the Taygetus chain forms the southern continuation of these 
mountains. 

The more noteworthy fortified heights of ancient Greece were the 
Acrocorinthus, the citadel of Corinth (1885 ft.) ; Ithome (2631 ft.) at 
Messene; Larissa (950 ft.) at Argps; the Acropolis of Mycenae 
(910 ft.) ; Tiryns (60 ft.) near Nauplia, which also possessed its own 
citadel, the Palamidhi or Acro-nauplia (705 ft.) ; the Acropolis of 
Athens (300 ft. above the mean level of the city and 512 ft. above 
the sea), and the Cadmea of Thebes (715 ft.). 

Greece has few rivers; most of these are small, rapid and turbid, as 
might be expected from the mountainousconfiguration of the country. 
They are either perennial rivers or torrents, the white beds . 
of the latter being dry in summer, and only filled with water 
after the autumn rains. The chief rivers (none of which is navigable) 
are the Salambria (Peneus) in Thessaly, theMavropotamo(CepAjjMi) 
in Phocis, the Hellada (Spercheios) in Phthiotis, the Aspropotamo 
(Achelous) in Aetolia, and the Ruphia (Alpheus) and Vasiliko 
(Eurotas) in the Morea. Of the famous rivers of Athens, the one, 
the Ilissus, is only a chain of pools all summer, and the other, the 
Cephisus, though never absolutely dry, does not reach the sea, 



FAUNA, FLORA] 



GREECE 



427 



being drawn off in numerous artificial channels to irrigate the neigh- 
bouring olive groves. A frequent peculiarity of the Greek rivers is 
their sudden disappearance in subterranean chasms and reappear- 
ance on the surface again, such as gave rise to the fabled course of 
the Alpheus under the sea, and its emergence in the fountain^ of 
Arethusa in Syracuse. Some of these chasms " Katavothras "- 
are merely sieves with herbage and gravel in the bottom, but others 
are large caverns through which the course of the river may some- 
times be followed. Floods are frequent, especially in autumn, and 
natural fountains abound and gush out even from the tops of the 
hills. Aganippe rises high up among the peaks of Helicon, and 
Peirene flows from the summit of Acrocorinthus. The only note- 
worthy cascade, however, is that of the Styx in Arcadia, which has a 
fall of 500 ft. During part of the year it is lost in snow, and it 
is at all times almost inaccessible. Lakes are numerous, but few are 
of considerable size, and many merely marshes in summer. The 
largest are Karla (Boebe'isl in Thessaly, Trichonis in Aetolia, Copai's 
in Boeotia, Pheneus and Stymphalus in Arcadia. 

The valleys are generally narrow, and the plains small in extent, 
deep basins walled in among the hills or more free at the mouths 
of the rivers. The principal plains are those of Thessaly, 
Plains. Boeotia, Messenia, Argos, Elis and Marathon. The bottom 
of these plains consists of an alluvial soil, the most fertile in Greece. 
In some of the mountainous regions, especially in the Morea, are 
extensive table-lands. The plain of Mantinea is 2000 ft. high, and 
the upland district of Sciritis, between Sparta and Tegea, is in some 
parts 3000 ft. 

Strabo said that the guiding thing in the geography of Greece 
was the sea, which presses in upon it at all parts with a thousand 
arms. From the Gulf of Arta on the one side to the Gulf 
Coast - of Volo on the other the coast is indented with a succession 
of natural bays and gulfs. The most important are the Gulfs of 
Aegina (Saronicus) and Lepanto (Corinthiacus) , which separate 
the Morea from the northern mainland of Greece, the first an inlet 
of the Aegean, the second of the Ionian Sea, and are now connected 
by a canalcut through the high land of the narrow Isthmus of Corinth 
(3^ m. wide). The outer portion of the Gulf of Lepanto is called the 
Gulf of Patras, and the inner part the Bay of Corinth; a narrow 
inlet on the north side of the same gulf, called the Bay of Salona or 
Itea, penetrates northwards into Phocis so far that it is within 
24 geographical miles of the Gulf of Zeitun on the north-east coast. 
The width of the entrance to the gulf of Lepanto is subject to singular 
changes, which are ascribed to the formation of alluvial deposits by 
certain marine currents, and their removal again by others. At 
the time of the Peloponnesian war this channel was 1200 yds. broad ; 
in the time of Strabo it was only 850; and in our own day it has 
again increased to 2200. On the coast of the Morea there are several 
large gulfs, that of Arcadia (Cyparissius) on the west, Kalamata 
(Messeniacus) and Kolokythia (Laconicus) on the south and Nauplia 
(Argolicus) on the east. Between Euboea and the mainland lie the 
channels of Trikeri, Talanti (Euboicum Mare) and Egripo; the latter 
two are connected by the strait of Egripo (Euripus). This strait, 
which is spanned by a swing-bridge, is about 180 ft. wide, and is 
remarkable for the unexplained eccentricity of its tide, which has 
puzzled ancients and moderns alike. The current runs at the 
average speed of 5m. an hour, but continues only for a short time in 
one direction, changing its course, it is said, ten or twelve times in a 
day; it is sometimes very violent. 

There are no volcanoes on the mainland of Greece, but every- 
where traces of volcanic action and frequently visitations of earth- 
quakes, for it lies near a centre of volcanic agency, the 
Volcanic i s l anc l o f Santorin, which has been within recent years in 
action. a state of eruption. There is an extinct crater at Mount 
Laphystium (Granitso) in Boeotia. The mountain of Methane, on 
the coast of Argolis, was produced by a volcanic eruption in 282 B.C. 
Earthquakes laid Thebes in ruins in 1853, destroyed every house in 
Corinth in 1858, filled up the Castalian spring in 1870, devastated 
Zante in 1893 and the district of Atalanta in 1894. There are hot 
springs at Thermopylae and other places, which are used for sanitary 
purposes. Various parts of the coast exhibit indications of up- 
heaval within historical times. On the coast of Elis four rocky 
islets are now joined to the land, which were separate from it in the 
days of ancient Greece. There are traces ol earlier sea-beaches 
at Corinth, and on the coast of the Morea, and at the mouth of 
the Hellada. The land has gained so much that the pass of Ther- 
mopylae which was extremely narrow in the time of Leonidas and 
his three hundred, is now wide enough for the motions of a whole 
army. (J. D. B.) 

Structurally, Greece may be divided into two regions, an eastern 

and a western. The former includes Thessaly, Boeotia, the island 

of Euboea, the isthmus of Corinth, and the peninsula of 

ology. Argolis, and, throughout, the strike of the beds is nearly 
from west to east. The western region includes the Pindus and all 
the parallel ranees, and the whole of the Peloponnesus excepting 
Argolis. Here the folds which affect the Mesozoic and early Tertiary 
strata run approximately from N.N.W. to S.S.E. 

Up to the close of the loth century the greater part of Greece was 
believed to be formed of Cretaceous rocks, but later researches have 
shown that the supposed Cretaceous beds include a variety of geo- 
logical horizons. The geological sequence begins with crystalline 



schists and limestones, followed by Palaeozoic, Triassic and Liassic 
rocks. The oldest beds which hitherto have yielded fossils belong 
to the Carboniferous System (Fusulina limestone of Euboea). 
Following upon these older beds are the great limestone masses which 
cover most of the eastern region, and which are now known to include 
Jurassic, Tithonian, Lower and Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds. 
In the Pindus and the Peloponnesus these beds are overlaid by a 
series of shales and platy limestones (Olonos Limestone of the 
Peloponnesus), which were formerly supposed to be of Tertiary 
age. It has now been shown, however, that the upper series of 
limestones has been brought upon the top of the lower by a great 
overthrust. Triassic fossils have been found in the Olonos Lime- 
stone and it is almost certain that other Mesozoic horizons are 
represented. 

The earth movements which produced the mountain chains of 
western Greece have folded the Eocene beds and must therefore 
be of post-Eocene date. The Neogene beds, on the other hand, are 
not affected by the folds, although by faulting without folding they 
have in some places been raised to a height of nearly 6000 ft. They 
lie, however, chiefly along the coast and in the valleys, and consist 
of marls, conglomerates and sands, sometimes with seams of lignite. 
The Pikermi deposits, of late Miocene age, are famous for their rich 
mammalian fauna. 

Although the folding which formed the mountain chains appears 
to have ceased, Greece is still continually shaken by earthquakes, 
and these earthquakes are closely connected with the great lines 
of fracture to which the country owes its outline. Around the 
narrow gulf which separates the Peloponnesus from the mainland, 
earthquakes are particularly frequent, and another region which is 
often shaken is the south-western corner of Greece, the peninsula of 
Messene. 1 (P. LA.) 

The vegetation of Greece in general resembles that of southern 
Italy while presenting many types common to that of Asia Minor. 
Owing to the geographical configuration of the peninsula and 
its mountainous surface the characteristic flora of the 
Mediterranean regions is often found in juxtaposition with Flora. 

that of central Europe. In respect to its vegetation the country 
may be regarded as divided into four zones. In the first, extending 
from the sea-level to the height of 1500 ft., oranges, olives, dates, 
almonds, pomegranates, figs and vines flourish, and cotton and 
tobacco are grown. In the neighbourhood of streams are found 
the laurel, myrtle, oleander and lentisk, together with the plane and 
white poplar; the cypress is often a picturesque feature in the 
landscape, and there is a variety of aromatic plants. The second 
zone, from 1500 to 3500 ft., is the region of the oak, chestnut and 
other British trees. In the third, from 3500 to 5500 ft., the beech 
is the characteristic forest tree; the Abies cephalonica and Pinus 
pinea now take the place of the Pinus halepensis, which grows 
everywhere in the lower regions. Above 5500 ft. is the Alpine 
region, marked by small plants, lichens and mosses. During the 
short period of spring anemones and' other wild flowers enrich 
the hillsides with magnificent colouring; in June all verdure dis- 
appears except in the watered districts and elevated plateaus. 
The asphodel grows abundantly in the dry rocky soil ; aloes, planted 
in rows, form impenetrable hedges. Medicinal plants are numerous, 
such as the Inula Helenium, the Mandragora Officinarum, the 
Colchicum napolitanum and the Helleborus orientalis, which still 
grows abundantly near Aspraspitia, the ancient Anticyra, at the 
foot of Parnassus. 

The fauna is similar to that of the other Mediterranean peninsulas, 
and includes some species found in Asia Minor but not elsewhere in 
Europe. The lion existed in northern Greece in the time of 
Aristotle and at an earlier period in the Morea. The bear Fauna. 
is still found in the Pindus range. Wolves are common in all the 
mountainous regions and jackals are numerous in the Morea. Foxes 
are abundant in all parts of the country; the polecat is found in the 
woods of Attica and the Morea; the lynx is now rare. The wild 
boar is common in the mountains of northern Greece, but is almost 
extinct in the Peloponnesus. The badger, the marten and the 
weasel are found on the mainland and in the islands. The red 
deer, the fallow deer and the roe exist in northern Greece, but are 
becoming scarce. The otter is rare. Hares and rabbits are abund- 
ant in many parts of the country, especially in the Cyclades; the 
two species never occupy the same district, and in the Cyclades 
some islands (Naxos, Melos, Tenos, &c.) form the exclusive domain 
of the hares, others (Seriphos, Kimolos, Mykonos, &c.) of the rabbits. 
In Andros alone a demarcation has been arrived at, the hares retain- 
ing the northern and the rabbits the southern portion of the island. 



'For the Geology of Greece see: M. Neumayr, &c., Denks. k. 
Akod.Wiss. Wien, math.-nat. Cl. vol. xl. (1880); A. Philippson, Dtr 



Geologic 

charnage dans la M6diterranee orientale," C. R. A cad. Sci. Paris, 
vol. cxxxvi. (1903) pp. 474-476; J. Deprat, " Note pr&iminaire sur la 
e6ologie de 1'lle d'Eubei," Bull. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 4, vol. iii. 
U93) PP- 229-243, p. vii. and " Note sur la g6ologie du massif 
du Pdlion et sur ('influence exercee par les massifs archeens sur la 
tectonique de I'Eg&de," ib. vol. iv. (1904), pp. 299-338. 



428 



GREECE 



[POPULATION 



The chamois is found in the higher mountains, such as Pindus 
Parnassus and Tymphrestus. The Cretan agrimi, or wild goa 
(Capra nubiana, C. aegagrus), found in Antimelos and said to exis 
in Taygetus, the jackal, the stellion, and the chameleon are amonj 
the_Asiatic species not found westward of Greece. There is a grea 
variety of birds; of 358 species catalogued two-thirds are migratory 
Among the birds of prey, which are very numerous, are the golden 
and imperial eagle, the yellow vulture, the Gypaetus barbatus, anc 
several species of falcons. The celebrated owl of Athena (Athene 
noclua) is becoming rare at Athens, but still haunts the Acropolis 
and the royal garden; itisa small species, found every where in Greece 
The wild goose and duck, the bustard, partridge, woodcock, snipe 
wood-pigeon and turtle-dove are numerous. Immense flocks ol 
quails visit the southern coast of the Morea, where they are cap 
tured in great numbers and exported alive. The stork, which was 
common in the Turkish epoch, has now become scarce. There is a 
great variety of reptiles, of which sixty-one species have been 
catalogued. The saurians are all harmless; among them the 
steltion (Stellio vulgaris), commonly called (cponoSeiXos in Mykonos 
and Crete, is believed by Heldreich to have furnished a name to the 
crocodile of the Nile (Herod, ii. 69). There are five species ol 
tortoise and nine of Amphibia. Of the serpents, which are numerous, 
there are only two dangerous species, the Vipera ammodytes and the 
Vipera aspis; the first-named is common. Among the marine 
fauna are the dolphins, familiar in the legends and sculpture ol 
antiquity; in the clear water of the Aegean they often afford a 
beautiful spectacle as they play round ships; porpoises and whales 
are sometimes seen. Sea-fish, of which 246 species have been 
ascertained, are very abundant. 

The climate of Greece, like that of the other countries of the Balkan 
peninsula, is liable to greater extremes of heat and cold than prevail 
Climate m ^pain and Italy; the difference is due to the general 
contour of the peninsula, which assimilates its climatic 
conditions to those of the European mainland. Another distinctive 
feature is the great variety of local contrasts; the rapid transitions 
are the natural effect of diversity in the geographical configuration of 
the country. Within a few hours it is possible to pass from winter to 
spring and from spring to summer. The spring is short; the sun 
is already powerful in March, but the increasing warmth is often 
checked by cold northerly winds; in many places the corn harvest 
is cut in May, when southerly winds prevail and the temperature 
rises rapidly. The great heat of summer is tempered throughout the 
whole region of the archipelago by the Etesian winds, which blow 
regularly from the N.E. for forty to fifty days in July and August. 
This current of cool dry air from the north is due to the vacuum 
resulting from intense heat in the region of the Sahara. The healthy 
Etesian winds are generally replaced towards the end of summer by 
the southerly Libas or sirocco, which, when blowing strongly, 
resembles the blast from a furnace and is most injurious to health. 
The sirocco affects, though in a less degree, the other countries of 
the Balkan peninsula and even Rumania. The mean summer 
temperature is about 79 Fahr. The autumn is the least healthy 
season of the year owing to the great increase of humidity, especially 
in October and November. At the end of October snow reappears on 
the higher mountains, remaining on the summits till June. The 
winter is mild, and even in January there are, as a rule, many warm 
clear days; but the recurrence of biting northerly winds and cold 
blasts from the mountains, as well as the rapid transitions from heat 
to cold and the difference in the temperature of sunshine and shade, 
render the climate somewhat treacherous and unsuitable for invalids. 
Snow seldom falls in the maritime and lowland districts and frost is 
rare. The mean wintertemperature isfrom 48to55Fahr. Therain- 
fall varies greatly according to localities; it is greatest in the Ionian 
Islands (53-34 ins. at Corfu), in Arcadia and in the other mountainous 
districts, and least on the Aegean littoral and in the Cyclades; in 
Attica, the driest region in Greece, it is 16-1 ins. The wettest 
months are November, December and January; the driest July 
and August, when, except for a few thunder-storms, there is practi- 
cally no rainfall. The rain generally accompanies southerly or south- 
westerly winds. In all the maritime districts the sea breeze greatly 
modifies thetemperature;it beginsaboutg A.M., attains its maximum 
force soon after noon, and ceases about an hour after sunset. Greece 
is renowned for the clearness of its climate; fogs and mists are 
almost unknown. In most years, however, only four or five days 
are recorded in which the sky is perfectly cloudless. The natural 
healthiness of the climate is counteracted in the towns, especially 
in Athens, by deficient sanitation and by stifling clouds of dust, 
which propagate infection and are peculiarly hurtful in cases of 
ophthalmia and pulmonary disease. Malarial fever is endemic in 
the marshy districts, especially in the autumn. 

The area of the country was 18,341 sq. m. before the acquisition 
of the Ionian Islands in 1864, 19,381 sq. m. prior to the annexa- 
tion of Thessaly and part of Epirus in 1881, and 

p^utof 24 ' 552 sq ' m> at the census in l8 9. If we deduct 152 

tioa. S 1- m -> the extent of territory ceded to Turkey after 

the war of 1897, the area of Greece in 1908 would be 

24,400 sq. m. Other authorities give 25,164 and 25,136 sq. m. 



as the area prior to the rectification of the frontier in I898. 1 
The population in 1896 was 2,433,806, or 99-110 the sq. m., 
the population of the territories annexed in 1881 being approxi- 
mately 350,000; and 2,631,952 in 1907, or 107-8 to the sq. m. 
(according to the official estimate of the area), showing an 
increase of 198,146 or 0-81% per annum, as compared with 
1-61 % during the period between 1896 and 1889; the diminished 
increase is mainly due to emigration. The population by sex 
in 1907 is given as 1,324,942 males and 1,307,010 females (or 
50-3% males to 49-6 females). The preponderance of males, 
which was 52% to 48% females in 1896, has also been reduced 
by emigration; it is most marked in the northern departments, 
especially in Larissa. Only in the departments of Arcadia, 
Eurytania, Corinth, Cephalonia, Lacedaemon, Laconia, Phocis, 
Argolis and in the Cyclades, is the female population in excess 
of the male. 

Neither the census of 1896 nor that of 1889 gave any classification 
by professions, religion or language. The following figures, which 
are only approximate, were derived from unofficial sources in 1901 : 
agricultural and pastoral employments 444,000; industries 64,200; 
traders and their employes 118,000; labourers and servants 31,300; 
various professions 15,700; officials 12,000; clergy about 6000; 
lawyers 4000; physicians 2500. In 1879, 1,635,698 of the popula- 
tion were returned as Orthodox Christians, 14,677 as Catholics and 
Protestants, 2652 as Jews, and 740 as of other religions. The 
annexation of Thessaly and part of Epirus is stated to have added 
24, 165 Mahommedan subjects to the Hellenic kingdom. A consider- 
able portion of these, however, emigrated immediately after the 
annexation, and, although a certain number subsequently returned, 
the total Mahommedan population in Greece was estimated to be 
under 5000 in 1908. A number of the Christian inhabitants of these 
regions, estimated at about 50,000, retained Turkish nationality with 
the object of escaping military service. The Albanian population, 
estimated at 200,000 by Finlay in 1851, still probably exceeds 
120,000. It is gradually being absorbed in the Hellenic population. 
In 1870, 37,598 persons (an obviously untrustworthy figure) were 
returned as speaking Albanian only. In 1879 the number is given as 
58,858. The Vlach population, which has been increased by the 
annexation of Thessaly, numbers about 60,000. The number of 
foreign residents is unknown. The Italians are the most numerous, 
numbering about 11,000. Some 1500 persons, mostly Maltese, 
possess British nationality. 

By a law of 27 November 1899, Greece, which had hitherto been 
divided into sixteen departments (v6/ioi) was redivided into twenty- 
six departments, as follows: 

Departments. Pop. Departments. Pop. 

[l Attica. . . . 341,247 14 Corinth .... 71,229 

2 Boeotia . . . 65,816 15 Arcadia .... 162,324 

'3 Phthiotis. . . 112,328 16 Achaea .... 150,918 

4 Phocis . . . 62,246 17 Elis 103,810 

5 Aetolia and Acar- 18 Triphylia . . . 90,523 

nania . . . 141,405 19 Messenia .... 127,991 

6 Eurytania . . 47,192 20 Laconia .... 61,522 

7 Arta .... 41,280 21 Lacedaemon . . 87,106 

8 Trikkala . . . 90,548 22 Corfu 99,571 

9 Karditsa . . . 92,941 23 Cephalonia . . . 71,235 

10 Larissa . . . 95,066 24 Leucas (with Ithaca) 41,186 

11 Magnesia. . . 102,742 25 Zante 42,502 

12 Euboea . . . 116,903 26 Cyclades . . 130378 

13 Argolis . . . 81,943 

The population is densest in the Ionian Islands, exceeding 307 per 
sq. m. The departments of Acarnania, Phocis and Euboea are the 
most thinly inhabited (about 58, 61 and 66 per sq. m. respectively). 

Very little information is obtainable with regard to the movement 
)f the population; no register of births, deaths and marriages is 
cept in Greece. The only official statistics are found in the periodical 
returns of the mortality in the twelve principal towns, according to 
which the yearly average of deaths in these towns for the five years 
1903-1907 was approximately 10,253, or 23-8 per looo; of these 
nore than a quarter are ascribed to pulmonary consumption, due in 
:he main to defective sanitation. Both the birth-rate and death-rate 
ire low, being 27-6 and 20-7 per 1000 respectively. Infant mortality 
s slight, and in point of longevity Greece compares favourably with 
nost other European countries. The number of illegitimate births 
s 12-25 P er looo; these are almost exclusively in the towns. 

Of the total population 28-5% are stated to live in towas. The 
>opulation of the principal towns is: 



Athens . 
Peiraeus 
Patras . 



1896. 

111,486 

43,848 

37.985 



1907. 

167,479 

73,579 

37,724 



1 No state survey of Greece was available in 1908, though a 
urvey had been undertaken by the ministry of war. 



ETHNOLOGY] 



GREECE 



429 



Hthno- 
logy. 



1896. 1907. 

Trikkala .... .21,149 17.809 

Hcrmopolis (Syra) . . 18,760 18,132 

Corfu 18,581 78,254 l 

Volo 16,788 23,563 

Larissa 15.373 18,001 

Zante 14,906 I3.5 8 

Kalamata .... 14,298 15.397 

Pyrgos 12,708 13,690 

Tripolis 10,465 10,789 

Chalcis 8,661 10,958 

Laurium .... 7,926 10,007 

No trustworthy information is obtainable with regard to immigra- 
tion and emigration, of which no statistics have ever been kept. 
Emigration, which was formerly in the main to Egypt and Rumania, 
is now almost exclusively to the United States of America. The 
principal exodus is from Arcadia, Laconia and Maina; the emigrants 
from these districts, estimated at about 14,000 annually, are for the 
most part you ng men approaching the age of military service. Accord- 
ing to American statistics 12,431 Greeks arrived in the United 
States from Greece during the period 1869-1898 and 130,154 in 
1899-1907; a considerable number, however, have returned to 
Greece, and those remaining in the United States at the end of 1907 
were estimated at between 136,000 and 138,000; this number was 
considerably reduced in 1908 by remigration. Since 1896 the 
tendency to emigration has received a notable and somewhat 
alarming impulse. There is an increasing immigration into the 
towns from the rural districts, which are gradually becoming depopu- 
lated. Both movements are due in part to the preference of the 
Greeks for a town life and in part to distaste for military service, 
but in the main to the poverty of the peasant population, whose 
condition and interests have been neglected by the government. 

Greece is inhabited by three races the Greeks, the Albanians 
and the Vlachs. The Greeks who are by far the most numerous, 
have to a large extent absorbed the other races; the 
process of assimilation has been especially rapid since 
the foundation of the Greek kingdom. Like most 
European nations, the modern Greeks are a mixed race. The 
question of their origin has been the subject of much learned 
controversy; their presumed descent from the Greeks of the 
classical epoch has proved a national asset of great value; 
during the period of their struggle for independence it won 
them the devoted zeal of the Philhellenes, it inspired the 
enthusiasm of Byron, Victor Hugo, and a host of minor poets, 
and it has furnished a pleasing illusion to generations of scholarly 
tourists who delight to discover in the present inhabitants of the 
country the mental and physical characteristics with which they 
have been familiarized by the literature and art of antiquity. 
This amiable tendency is encouraged by the modern Greeks, 
who possess an implicit faith in their illustrious ancestry. The 
discussion of the question entered a very acrimonious stage with 
the appearance in 1830 of Fallmerayer's History of the Morea 
during the Middle Ages. Fallmerayer maintained that after 
the great Slavonic immigration at the close of the 8th century the 
original population of northern Greece and the Morea, which 
had already been much reduced during the Roman period, was 
practically supplanted by the Slavonic element and that the 
Greeks of modern times are in fact Byzantinized Slavs. This 
theory was subjected to exhaustive criticism by Ross, Hopf, 
Finlay and other scholars, and although many of Fallmerayer's 
conclusions remain unshaken, the view is now generally held that 
the base of the population both in the mainland and the Morea 
is Hellenic, not Slavonic. During the sth and 6th centuries 
Greece had been subjected to Slavonic incursions which resulted 
in no permanent settlements. After the great plague of 746-747 , 
however, large tracts of depopulated country were colonized 
by Slavonic immigrants; the towns remained in the hands of 
the Greeks, many of whom emigrated to Constantinople. In 
the Morea the Slavs established themselves principally in 
Arcadia and the region of Taygetus, extending their settlements 
into Achaia, Elis, Laconia and the promontory of Taenaron 
on the mainland they occupied portions of Acarnania, Aetolia, 
Doris and Phocis. Slavonic place-names occurring in all these 
districts confirm the evidence of history with regard to this 
immigration. The Slavs, who were not a maritime race, did 
not colonize the Aegean Islands, but a few Slavonic place-names 
1 Including suburbs. 



in Crete seem to indicate that some of the invaders reached that 
island. The Slavonic settlements in the Morea proved more 
permanent than those in northern Greece, which were attacked 
ay the armies of the Byzantine emperors. But even in the 
Morea the Greeks, or " Romans " as they called themselves 
wjuatot), who had been left undisturbed on the eastern side of 
the peninsula, eventually absorbed the alien element, which 
disappeared after the isth century. In addition to the place- 
names the only remaining traces of the Slav immigration are the 
Slavonic type of features, which occasionally recurs, especially 
among the Arcadian peasants, and a few customs and traditions. 
Even when allowance is made for the remarkable power of 
assimilation which the Greeks possessed in virtue of their 
superior civilization, it is difficult to resist the conclusion that the 
Hellenic element must always have been the most numerous in 
order to effect so complete an absorption. This element has 
apparently undergone no essential change since the epoch of 
Roman domination. The destructive invasions of the Goths in 
A.D. 267 and 395 introduced no new ethnic feature; the various 
races which during the middle ages obtained partial or complete 
mastery in Greece the Franks, the Venetians, . the Turks- 
contributed no appreciable ingredient to the mass of the popula- 
tion. The modern Greeks may therefore be regarded as in the 
main the descendants of the population which inhabited Greece 
in the earlier centuries of Byzantine rule. Owing to the opera- 
tion of various causes, historical, social and economic, that 
population was composed of many heterogeneous elements and 
represented in a very limited degree the race which repulsed 
the Persians and built the Parthenon. The internecine conflicts 
of the Greek communities, wars with foreign powers and the 
deadly struggles of factions in the various cities, had to a large 
extent obliterated the old race of free citizens by the beginning 
of the Roman period. The extermination of the Plataeans by 
the Spartans and of the Melians by the Athenians during the 
Peloponnesian war, the proscription of Athenian citizens after 
the war, the massacre of the Corcyraean oligarchs by the 
democratic party, the slaughter of the Thebans by Alexander 
and of the Corinthians by Mummius, are among the more 
familiar instances of the catastrophes which overtook the civic 
element in the Greek cities; the void can only have been filled 
from the ranks of the metics or resident aliens and of the descend- 
ants of the far more numerous slave population. Of the latter 
a portion was of Hellenic origin; when a city was taken the 
males of military age were frequently put to the sword, but the 
women and children were sold as slaves; in Laconia and Thessaly 
there was a serf population of indigenous descent. In the classical 
period four-fifths of the population of Attica were slaves and of 
the remainder half were metics. In the Roman period the number 
of slaves enormously increased, the supply being maintained from 
the regions on the borders of the empire; the same influences 
which in Italy extinguished the small landed proprietors and 
created the latifundia prevailed also in Greece. The purely 
Hellenic population, now greatly diminished, congregated in the 
towns; the large estates which replaced the small freeholds 
were cultivated by slaves and managed or farmed by slaves or 
freedmen, and wide tracts of country were wholly depopulated. 
How greatly the free citizen element had diminished by the close 
of the ist century A.D. may be judged from the estimate of 
Plutarch that all Greece could not furnish more than 3000 
hoplites. The composite population which replaced the ancient 
Hellenic stock became completely Hellenized. According to 
craniologists the modern Greeks are brachycephalous while 
the ancient race is stated to have been dolichocephalous, but it 
seems doubtful whether any such generalization with regard 
to the ancients can be conclusively established. The Aegean 
islanders are more brachycephalous than the inhabitants of the 
mainland, though apparently of purer Greek descent. No 
general conception of the facial type of the ancient race can be 
derived from the highly-idealized statues of deities, heroes and 
athletes; so far as can be judged from portrait statues it was 
very varied. Among the modern Greeks the same variety of 
features prevails; the face is usually oval, the nose generally 



430 



GREECE 



[ETHNOLOGY 



long and somewhat aquiline, the teeth regular, and the eyes 
remarkably bright and full of animation. The country-folk are, 
as a rule, tall and well-made, though slightly built and rather 
meagre; their form is graceful and supple in movement. The 
urban population, as elsewhere, is physically very inferior. 
The women often display a refined and delicate beauty which 
disappears at an early age. The best physical types of the race 
are found in Arcadia, in the Aegean Islands and in Crete. 

The Albanian population extends over all Attica and Megaris 
(except the towns of Athens, Peiraeus and Megara), the greater 
part of Boeotia, the eastern districts of Locris, the southern half 
of Euboea and the northern side of Andres, the whole of the 
islands of Salamis, Hydra, Spetsae and Poros, and part of Aegina, 
the whole of Corinthia and Argolis, the northern districts of 
Arcadia and the eastern portion of Achaea. There are also small 
Albanian groups in Laconia and Messenia (see ALBANIA). The 
Albanians, who call themselves Shkyipetar, and are called by 
the Greeks Aroanitae ('Ap/Scwirai), belong to the Tosk or 
southern branch of the race; their immigration took place in 
the latter half of the I4th century. Their first settlements in the 
Morea were made in 1347-1355. The Albanian colonization was 
first checked by the Turks; in 1454 an Albanian insurrection in 
the Morea against Byzantine rule was crushed by the Turkish 
general Tura Khan, whose aid had been invoked by the Palaeo- 
logi. With a few exceptions, the Albanians in Greece retained 
their Christian faith after the Turkish conquest. The failure 
of the insurrection of 1770 was followed by a settlement of 
Moslem Albanians, who had been employed by the Turks to 
suppress the revolt. The Christian Albanians have long lived 
on good terms with the Greeks while retaining their own customs 
and language and rarely intermarrying with their neighbours. 
They played a brilliant part during the War of Independence, 
and furnished the Greeks with many of their most distinguished 
leaders. The process of their Hellenization, which scarcely 
began till after the establishment of the kingdom, has been 
somewhat slow; most of the men can now speak Greek, but 
Albanian is still the language of the household. The Albanians, 
who are mainly occupied with agriculture, are less quick-witted, 
less versatile, and less addicted to politics than the Greeks, who 
regard them as intellectually their inferiors. A vigorous and 
manly race, they furnish the best soldiers in the Greek army, 
and also make excellent sailors. 

The Vlachs, who call themselves A rom&ni, i. e. Romans, form 
another important foreign element in the population of Greece. 
They are found principally in Pindus (the Agrapha district), the 
mountainous parts of Thessaly, Othrys, Oeta, the mountains 
of Boeotia, Aetolia and Acarnania; they have a few settlements 
in Euboea. They are for the most part either nomad shepherds 
and herdsmen or carriers (kiradjis). They apparently descend 
from the Latinized provincials of the Roman epoch who took 
refuge in the higher mountains from the incursions of the bar- 
barians and Slavs (see VLACHS and MACEDONIA). In the i3th 
century the Vlach principality of " Great Walachia " (M7aXr; 
BXaxta) included Thessaly and southern Macedonia as far as 
Castoria; its capital was at Hypati near Lamia. Acarnania 
and Aetolia were known as " Lesser Walachia." The urban 
element among the Vlachs has been almost completely Hellenized ; 
it has always displayed great aptitude for commerce, and Athens 
owes many of its handsomest buildings to the benefactions 
of wealthy Vlach merchants. The nomad population in the 
mountains has retained its distinctive nationality and customs 
together with its Latin language, though most of the men can 
speak Greek. Like the Albanians, the pastoral Vlachs seldom 
intermarry with the Greeks; they occasionally take Greek wives, 
but never give their daughters to Greeks; many of them are 
illiterate, and their children rarely attend the schools. Owing 
to their deficient intellectual culture they are regarded with 
disdain by the Greeks, who employ the term /SXdxos to denote 
not only a shepherd but an ignorant rustic. 

A considerable Italian element was introduced into the Ionian 
Islands during the middle ages owing to their prolonged sub- 
jection to Latin princes and subsequently (till 1797) to the 



Venetian republic. The Italians intermarried with the Greeks; 
Italian became the language of the upper classes, and Roman 
Catholicism was declared the state religion. The peasantry, 
however, retained the Greek language and remained faithful to 
the Eastern Church; during the past century the Italian element 
was completely absorbed by the Greek population. 

The Turkish population in Greece, which numbered about 
70,000 before the war of liberation, disappeared in the course 
of the struggle or emigrated at its conclusion. The Turks in 
Thessaly are mainly descended either from colonists established 
in the country by the Byzantine emperors or from immigrants 
from Asia Minor, who arrived at the end of the I4th century; 
they derive their name Konariots from Iconium (Konia). Many 
of the beys or land-owning class are the lineal representatives 
of the Seljuk nobles who obtained fiefs under the feudal system 
introduced here and in Macedonia by the Sultan Bayezid I. 

Notwithstanding their composite origin, their wide geo- 
graphical distribution and their cosmopolitan instincts, the 
modern Greeks are a remarkably homogeneous people, N 
differing markedly in character from neighbouring character 
races, united by a common enthusiasm in the pursuit 
of their national aims, and profoundly convinced of their 
superiority to other nations. Their distinctive character, 
combined with their traditional tendency to regard non-Hellenic 
peoples as barbarous, has, indeed, to some extent counteracted 
the results of their great energy and zeal in the 'assimilation of 
other races; the advantageous position which they attained at 
an early period under Turkish rule owing to their superior 
civilization, their versatility, their wealth, and their monopoly 
of the ecclesiastical power would probably have enabled them to 
Hellenize permanently the greater part of the Balkan peninsula 
had their attitude towards other Christian races been more 
sympathetic. Always the most civilized race in the East, they 
have successively influenced their Macedonian, Roman and 
Turkish conquerors, and their remarkable intellectual endow- 
ments bid fair to secure them a brilliant position in the future. 
The intense patriotic zeal of the Greeks may be compared with 
that of the Hungarians; it is liable to degenerate into arrogance 
and intolerance; it sometimes blinds their judgment and involves 
them in ill-considered enterprises, but it nevertheless offers the 
best guarantee for the ultimate attainment of their national 
aims. All Greeks, in whatever country they may reside, work 
together for the realization of the Great Idea (17 Me7<xXjj 'I6a) 
the supremacy of Hellenism in the East and to this object they 
freely devote their time, their wealth and their talents; the 
large fortunes which they amass abroad are often bequeathed 
for the foundation of various institutions in Greece or Turkey, 
for the increase of the national fleet and army, or for the spread 
of Hellenic influence in the Levant. This patriotic sentiment is 
unfortunately much exploited by self-seeking demagogues and 
publicists, who rival each other in exaggerating the national 
pretensions and in pandering to the national vanity. In no other 
country is the passion for politics so intense; " keen political 
discussions are constantly going on at the cafes; the newspapers, 
which are extraordinarily numerous and generally of little value, 
are literally devoured, and every measure of the government is 
violently criticized and ascribed to interested motives." The 
influence of the journals is enormous; even the waiters in the 
cafes and domestic servants have their favourite newspaper, 
and discourse fluently on the political problems of the day. 
Much of the national energy is wasted by this continued political 
fever; it is diverted from practical aims, and may be said to 
evaporate in words. The practice of independent criticism 
tends to indiscipline in the organized public services; it has 
been remarked that every Greek soldier is a general and every 
sailor an admiral. During the war of 1897 a young naval 
lieutenant telegraphed to the minister of war condemning the 
measures taken by his admiral, and his action was applauded 
by several journals. There is also little discipline in the ranks 
of political parties, which are held together, not by any definite 
principle, but by the personal influence of the leaders; defections 
are frequent, and as a rule each deputy in the Chamber makes 



CUSTOMS] 



GREECE 



his terms with his chief. On the other hand, the independent 
character of the Greeks is favourably illustrated by the circum- 
stance that Greece is the only country in the Balkan peninsula 
in which the government cannot count on securing a majority 
by official pressure at the elections. Few scruples are observed 
in political warfare, but attacks on private life are rare. The 
love of free discussion is inherent in the strongly-rooted demo- 
cratic instinct of the Greeks. They are in spirit the most demo- 
cratic of European peoples; no trace of Latin feudalism survives, 
and aristocratic pretensions are ridiculed. In social life there 
is no artificial distinction of classes; all titles of nobility are 
forbidden; a few families descended from the chiefs in the 
War of Independence enjoy a certain pre-eminence, but wealth 
and, still more, political or literary notoriety constitute the 
principal claim to social consideration. The Greeks display great 
intellectual vivacity; they are clever, inquisitive, quick-witted 
and ingenious, but not profound; sustained mental industry 
and careful accuracy are distasteful to them, and their aversion 
to manual labour is still more marked. Even the agricultural 
class is but moderately industrious; abundant opportunities 
for relaxation are provided by the numerous church festivals. 
The desire for instruction is intense even in the lowest ranks 
of the community; rhetorical and literary accomplishments 
possess a greater attraction for the majority than the fields of 
modern science. The number of persons who seek to qualify 
for the learned professions is excessive; they form a superfluous 
element in the community, an educated proletariat, attaching 
themselves to the various political parties in the hope of obtaining 
state employment and spending an idle existence in the cafes 
and the streets when their party is out of power. In disposition 
the Greeks are lively, cheerful, plausible, tactful, sympathetic; 
very affable with strangers, hospitable, kind to their servants 
and dependants, remarkably temperate and frugal in their 
habits, amiable and united in family life. Drunkenness is 
almost unknown, thrift is universally practised; the standard 
of sexual morality is high, especially in the rural -districts, where 
illegitimacy is extremely rare. The faults of the Greeks must 
in a large degree be attributed to their prolonged subjection to 
alien races; their cleverness often degenerates into cunning, 
their ready invention into mendacity, their thrift into avarice, 
their fertility of resource into trickery and fraud. Dishonesty 
is not a national vice, but many who would scorn to steal will 
not hesitate to compass illicit gains by duplicity and misrepre- 
sentation; deceit, indeed, is often practised gratuitously for 
the mere intellectual satisfaction which it affords. In the 
astuteness of their monetary dealings the Greeks proverbially 
surpass the Jews, but fall short of the Armenians; their remark- 
able aptitude for business is sometimes marred by a certain 
short-sightedness which pursues immediate profits at the cost 
of ulterior advantages. Their vanity and egoism, which are 
admitted by even the most favourable observers, render them 
jealous, exacting, and peculiarly susceptible to flattery. In 
common with other southern European peoples the Greeks are 
extremely excitable; their passionate disposition is prone to take 
offence at slight provocation, and trivial quarrels not infre- 
quently result in homicide. They are religious, but by no means 
fanatical, except in regard to politico-religious questions affecting 
their national aims. In general the Greeks may be described 
as a clever, ambitious and versatile people, capable of great 
effort and sacrifice, but deficient in some of the more solid 
qualities which make for national greatness. 

The customs and habits of the Greek peasantry, ip which 
the observances of the classical age may often be traced, together 
Customs with their legends and traditions, have furnished an 
interesting subject of investigation to many writers 
(see Bibliography below). In the towns the more cosmopolitan 
population has largely adopted the " European " mode of life, 
and the upper classes show a marked preference for French 
manners and usages. In both town and country, however, the 
influence of oriental ideas is still apparent, due in part to the 
long period of Turkish domination, in part to the contact of 
the Greeks with Asiatic races at all epochs of their history. In 



the rural districts, especially, the women lead a somewhat 
secluded life and occupy a subject position; they wait at table, 
and only partake of the meal when the men of the family have 
been served. In most parts of continental Greece the women 
work in the fields, but in the Aegean Islands and* Crete they rarely 
leave the house. Like the Turks, the Greeks have a great 
partiality for coffee, which can always be procured even in the 
remotest hamlets; the Turkish practice of carrying a string of 
beads or rosary (comboloio), which provides an occupation for 
the hands, is very common. Many of the observances in con- 
nexion with births, christenings, weddings and funerals are very 
interesting and in some cases are evidently derived from remote 
antiquity. Nuptial ceremonies are elaborate and protracted; 
in some of the islands of the archipelago they continue for three 
weeks. In the preliminary negotiations for a marriage the 
question of the bride's dowry plays a very important part; a 
girl without a dowry often remains unmarried, notwithstanding 
the considerable excess of the male over the female population. 
Immediately after the christeningof af emale child her parents begin 
to lay up her portion, and young men often refrain from marrying 
until their sisters have been settled in life. The dead are carried 
to the tomb in an open coffin; in the country districts profes- 
sional mourners are engaged to chant dirges; the body is washed 
with wine and crowned with a wreath of flowers. A valedictory 
oration is pronounced at the grave. Many superstitions still 
prevail among the peasantry; the belief in the vampire and the 
evil eye is almost universal. At Athens and in the larger towns 
many handsome dwelling-houses may be seen, but the upper 
classes have no predilection for rural life, and their country 
houses are usually mere farmsteads, which they rarely visit. 
In the more fertile districts two-storeyed houses of the modern 
type are common, but in the mountainous regions the habita- 
tions of the country-folk are extremely primitive; the small 
stone-built hut, almost destitute of furniture, shelters not only 
the family but its cattle and domestic animals. In Attica the 
peasants' houses are usually built of cob. In Maina the villagers 
live in fortified towers of three or more storeys; the animals 
occupy the ground floor,' the family the topmost storey; the 
intermediate space serves as a granary or hay-loft. The walls 
are loop-holed for purposes of defence in view of the traditional 
vendetta and feuds, which in some instances have been handed 
down from remote generations and are maintained by occasional 
sharp-shooting from these primitive fortresses. In general 
cleanliness and sanitation are much neglected; the traveller in 
the country districts is doomed to sleepless nights unless he has 
provided himself with bedding and a hammock. Even Athens, 
though enriched by many munificent benefactions, is still without 
a drainage system or an adequate water supply; the sewers of 
many houses open into the streets, in which rubbish is allowed 
to accumulate. The effects of insanitary conditions are, how- 
ever, counteracted in some degree by the excellent climate. 
The Aegean islanders contrast favourably with the continentals 
in point of personal cleanliness and the neatness of their dwellings; 
their houses are generally covered with the flat roof, familiar 
in Asia, on which the family sleep in summer. The habits and 
customs of the islanders afford an interesting study. Propitiatory 
rites are still practised by the mariners and fishermen, and thank- 
offerings for preservation at sea are hung up in the churches. 
Among the popular amusements of the Greeks dancing holds a 
prominent place; the dance is of various kinds; the most usual 
is the somewhat inanimate round dance (avpro or T pa.ro.), in 
which a number of persons, usually of the same sex, take part 
holding hands; it seems indentical with the Slavonic kolo 
(" circle "). The more lively Albanian fling is generally danced 
by three or four persons, one of whom executes a series of leaps 
and pirouettes. The national music is primitive and monotonous. 
All classes are passionately addicted to card-playing, which is 
forbidden by law in places of public resort. The picturesque 
national costume, which is derived from the Albanian Tosks, 
has unfortunately been abandoned by the upper classes and the 
urban population since the abdication of King Otho, who always 
wore it ; it is maintained as the uniform of the evzones (highland 



432 



GREECE 



[GOVERNMENT 



regiments). It consists of a red cap with dark blue tassel, a 
white shirt with wide sleeves, a vest and jacket, sometimes of 
velvet, handsomely adorned with gold or black braid, a belt in 
which various weapons are carried, a white kilt or fustanella of 
many folds, white hose tied with garters, and red leather shoes 
with pointed ends, from which a tassel depends. Over all is worn 
the shaggy white capote. The islanders wear a dark blue costume 
with a crimson waistband, loose trousers descending to the knee, 
stockings and pumps or long boots. The women's costume is 
very varied; the loose red fez is sometimes worn and a short 
velvet jacket with rich gold embroidery. The more elderly 
women are generally attired in black. In the Megara district 
and elsewhere peasant girls wear on festive occasions a head- 
dress composed of strings of coins which formerly represented 
the dowry. 

Greece is a constitutional monarchy; hereditary in the male 

line, or, in case of its extinction, in the female. The sovereign, 

by decision of the conference of London (August 1863), 

meaT" is st y led " kin S of the Hellenes "; the title " king 
of Greece " was borne by King Otho. The heir 
apparent is styled 6 Siadoxos, " the successor "; the title 
" duke of Sparta," which has been accorded to the crown prince, 
is not generally employed in Greece. The king and the heir 
apparent must belong to the Orthodox Greek Church; a special 
exception has been made for King George, who is a Lutheran. 
The king attains his majority on completing his eighteenth year; 
before ascending the throne he must take the oath to the con- 
stitution in presence of the principal ecclesiastical and lay 
dignitaries of the kingdom, and must convoke the Chamber 
within two months after his accession. The civil list amounts 
to 1,125,000 dr., in addition to which it was provided that King 
George should receive 4000 annually as a personal allowance 
from each of the three protecting powers, Great Britain, France 
and Russia. The heir apparent receives from the state an 
annuity of 200,000 dr. The king has a palace at Athens and 
other residences at Corfu, Tatoi (on the slopes of Mt Parnes) 
and Larissa. The present constitution dates from the 2gth of 
October 1864. The legislative power is shared by the king with 
a single chamber (flov\r]) elected by manhood suffrage for a 
period of four years. The election is by ballot; candidates 
must have completed their thirtieth year and electors their 
twenty-first. The deputies (/SouXewai), according to the 
constitution, receive only their travelling expenses, but they 
vote themselves a payment of 1800 dr. each for the session and 
a further allowance in case of an extraordinary session. The 
Chamber sits for a term of not less than three or more than six 
months. No law can be passed except by an absolute majority 
of the house, and one-half of the members must be present to 
form a quorum; these arrangements have greatly facilitated the 
practice of obstruction, and often enable individual deputies 
to impose terms on the government for their attendance. In 
1898 the number of deputies was 234. Some years previously 
a law diminishing the national representation and enlarging 
the constituencies was passed by Trikoupis with the object 
of checking the local influence of electors upon deputies, but 
the measure was subsequently repealed. The number of deputies, 
however, who had hitherto been elected in the proportion of one 
to twelve thousand of the population, was reduced in 1905, 
when the proportion of one to sixteen thousand was substituted ; 
the Chamber of 1906, elected under the new system, consisted 
of 177 deputies. In 1906 the electoral districts were diminished 
in number and enlarged so as to coincide with the twenty-six 
administrative departments (VOIMI); the reduction of these 
departments to their former number of sixteen, which is in 
contemplation, will bring about some further diminution in 
parliamentary representation. It is hoped that recent legislation 
will tend to check the pernicious practice of bartering personal 
favours, known as avva\\ayri, which still prevails to the great 
detriment of public morality, paralysing all branches of the 
administration and wasting the resources of the state. Political 
parties are formed not for the furtherance of any principle or 
cause, but with the object of obtaining the spoils of office, and 



the various groups, possessing no party watchword or programme, 
frankly designate themselves by the names of their leaders. 
Even the strongest government is compelled to bargain with its 
supporters in regard to the distribution of patronage and other 
favours. The consequent instability of successive ministries 
has retarded useful legislation and seriously checked the national 
progress. In 1906 a law was passed disqualifying junior officers 
of the army and navy for membership of the Chamber; great 
numbers of these had hitherto been candidates at every election. 
This much-needed measure had previously been passed by 
Trikoupis, but had been repealed by his rival Delyannes. The 
executive is vested in the king, who is personally irresponsible, 
and governs through ministers chosen by himself and responsible 
to the Chamber, of which they are ex-officio members. He 
appoints all public officials, sanctions and proclaims laws, 
convokes, prorogues and dissolves the Chamber, grants pardon 
or amnesty, coins money and confers decorations. There are 
seven ministries which respectively control the departments 
of foreign affairs, the interior, justice, finance, education and 
worship, the army and the navy. 

The 26 departments or vo^ol, into which the country is divided 
for administrative purposes, are each under a prefect or nomarch 
(v6fj.apxos) ', they are subdivided into 69 districts or 
eparchies, and into 445 communes or demes (5^/xot) 
under mayors or demarchs (drnj.apxot) . The prefects 
and sub-prefects are nominated by the government; 
the mayors are elected by the communes for a period of four 
years. The prefects are assisted by a departmental council, 
elected by the population, which manages local business and 
assesses rates; there are also communal councils under the 
presidency of the mayors. There are altogether some 12,000 
state-paid officials in the country, most of them inadequately 
remunerated and liable to removal or transferral upon a change 
of government. A host of office-seekers has thus been created, 
and large numbers of educated persons spend many years in 
idleness or in political agitation. A law passed in 1905 secures 
tenure of office to civil servants of fifteen years' standing, and 
some restrictions have been placed on the dismissal and trans- 
ferral of schoolmasters. 

Under the Turks the Greeks retained, together with their 
ecclesiastical institutions, a certain measure of local self-govern- 
ment and judicial independence. The Byzantine code, 
based on the Roman, as embodied in the *Ed|3i|3Xos 
of Armenopoulos (1345), was sanctioned by royal decree ini83S 
with some modifications as the civil law of Greece. Further 
modifications and new enactments were subsequently introduced, 
derived from the old French and Bavarian systems. The penal 
code is Bavarian, the commercial French. Liberty of person 
and domicile is inviolate; no arrest can be made, no house 
entered, and no letter opened without a judicial warrant. Trial 
by jury is established for criminal, political and press offences. 
A new civil code, based on Saxon and Italian law, has been 
drawn up by a commission of jurists, but it has not yet been 
considered by the Chamber. A separate civil code, partly French, 
partly Italian, is in force in the Ionian Islands. The law is 
administered by i court of cassation (styled the " Areopagus "), 
5 courts of appeal, 26 courts of first instance, 233 justices of the 
peace and 19 correctional tribunals. 

The judges, who are appointed by the Crown, are liable to 
removal by the minister of justice, whose exercise of this right 
is often invoked by political partisans. The administration of 
justice suffers in consequence, more especially in the country 
districts, where the judges must reckon with the influential 
politicians and their adherents. The pardon or release of a 
convicted criminal is not infrequently due to pressure on the part 
of some powerful patron. The lamentable effects of this system 
have long been recognized, and in 1906 a law was introduced 
securing tenure of office for two or four years to judges of the 
courts of first instance and of the inferior tribunals. In the 
circumstances crime is less rife than might be expected; the 
temperate habits of the Greeks have conduced to this result. 
A serious feature is the great prevalence of homicide, due in 



Justice. 



EDUCATION] 



GREECE 



433 



part to the passionate character of the people, but still more to 
the almost universal practice of carrying weapons. The tradi- 
tions of the vendetta are almost extinct in the Ionian Islands, 
but still linger in Maina, where family feuds are transmitted 
from generation to generation. The brigand of the old-fashioned 
type (Xnorifc, K\$TI;S) has almost disappeared, except in the 
remoter country districts, and piracy, once so prevalent in the 
Aegean, has been practically suppressed, but numbers of outlaws 
or absconding criminals (<j>v*/65iKoi) still haunt the mountains, 
and the efforts of the police to bring them to justice are far from 
successful. Their ranks were considerably increased after the 
war of 1897, when many deserters from the army and adventurers 
who came to Greece as volunteers betook themselves to a pre- 
datory life. On the other hand, there is no habitually criminal 
class in Greece, such as exists in the large centres of civilization, 
and professional mendicancy is still rare. 

Police duties, for which officers and, in some cases, soldiers 
of the regular army were formerly employed, are since 1906 
carried out by a reorganized gendarmerie force of 194 officers 
and 6344 non-commissioned officers and men, distributed in 
the twenty-six departments and commanded by an inspector- 
general resident at Athens, who is aided by a consultative com- 
mission. There are male and female prisons at all the depart- 
mental centres; the number of prisoners in 1906 was 5705. 
Except in the Ionian Islands, the general condition of the prisons 
is deplorable; discipline and sanitation are very deficient, and 
conflicts among the prisoners are sometimes reported in which 
knives and even revolvers are employed. A good prison has 
been built near Athens by Andreas Syngros, and a reformatory 
for juvenile offenders (<jj/3eioj') has been founded by George 
Averoff, another national benefactor. Capital sentences are 
usually commuted to penal servitude for life; executions, for 
which the guillotine is employed, are for the most part carried 
out on the island of Bourzi near Nauplia; they are often post- 
poned for months or even for years. There is no enactment 
resembling the Habeas Corpus Act, and accused persons may 
be detained indefinitely before trial. The Greeks, like the other 
nations liberated from Turkish rule, are somewhat litigious, and 
numbers of lawyers find occupation even in the smaller country 
towns. 

The Greeks, an intelligent people, have always shown a remark- 
able zeal for learning, and popular education has made great 
strides. So eager is the desire for instruction that 
schools are often founded in the rural districts on the 
initiative of the villagers, and the sons of peasants, 
artisans and small shopkeepers come in numbers to Athens, 
where they support themselves by domestic service or other 
humble occupations in order to study at the university during 
their spare hours. Almost immediately after the accession of 
King Otho steps were taken to establish elementary schools in 
all the communes, and education was made obligatory. The 
law is not very rigorously applied in the remoter districts, but 
its enforcement is scarcely necessary. In 1898 there were 2914 
" demotic " or primary schools, with 3465 teachers, attended by 
1 29, 2 10 boys (5-38% of the population) and 29,119 girls (1-19 % 
of the population). By a law passed in 1905 the primary schools, 
which had reached the number of 3359 in that year, were reduced 
to 2604. The expenditure 'on primary schools is nominally 
sustained by the communes, but in reality by the government 
in the form of advances to the communes, which are not repaid; 
it was reduced in 1905 from upwards of 7,000,000 dr. to under 
6,000,000 dr. In 1905 there were 306 " Hellenic " or secondary 
schools, with 819 teachers and 21,575 pupils (boys only) main- 
tained by the state at a cost of 1,720,096 dr.; and 39 higher 
schools, or gymnasia, with 261 masters and 6485 pupils, partly 
maintained by the state (expenditure 615,600 dr.) and partly 
by benefactions and other means. Besides these public schools 
there are several private educational institutions, of which there 
are eight at Athens with 650 pupils. The Polytechnic Institute 
of Athens affords technical instruction in the departments of art 
and science to 221 students. Scientific agricultural instruction 
has been much neglected;, there is an agricultural school at 



Educa- 
tion. 



Aidinion in Thessaly with 40 pupils; there are eight agricultural 
stations (aroBnoi) in various parts of the country. There are 
two theological seminaries the Rizari School at Athens (120 
pupils) and a preparatory school at Arta; three other seminaries 
have been suppressed. The Commercialand Industrial Academy 
at Athens (about 225 pupils), a private institution, has proved 
highly useful to the country ; there are four commercial schools, 
each in one of the country towns. A large school for females 
at Athens, tie Arsakion; is attended by 1 500 girls. There are 
several military and naval schools, including the military college 
of the Euelpides at Athens and the school of naval cadets (TCOI> 
doKinuv). The university of Athens in 1905 numbered 57 
professors and 2598 students, of whom 557 were from abroad. 
Of the six faculties, theology numbered 79 students, law 1467, 
medicine 567, arts 206, physics and mathematics 192, ajid 
pharmacy 87. The university receives a subvention from the 
state, which in 1905 amounted to 563,960 dr.; it possesses 
a library of over 150,000 volumes and geological, zoological and 
botanical museums. A small tax on university education was 
imposed in 1903; the total cost to the student for the four years' 
course at the university is about 25. Higher education is 
practically gratuitous in Greece, and there is a somewhat ominous 
increase in .the number of educated persons who disdain agri- 
cultural pursuits and manual labour. The intellectual culture 
acquired is too often of a superficial character owing to the 
tendency to sacrifice scientific thoroughness and accuracy, to 
neglect the more useful branches of knowledge, and to aim at a 
showy dialectic and literary proficiency. (For the native and 
foreign archaeological institutions see ATHENS.) 

The Greek branch of the Orthodox Eastern Church is practi- 
cally independent, like those of Servia, Montenegro and Rumania, 
though nominally subject to the patriarchate of R eUrl 
Constantinople. The jurisdiction of the patriarch 
was in fact repudiated in 1833, when the king was declared the 
supreme head of the church, and the severance was completed 
in 1850. Ecclesiastical affairs are under the control of the 
Ministry of Education. Church government is vested in the 
Holy Synod, a council of five ecclesiastics under the presidency 
of the metropolitan of Athens; its sittings are attended by a 
royal commissioner. The church can invoke the aid of the civil 
authorities for the punishment of heresy and the suppression of 
unorthodox literature, pictures, &c. There were formerly 21 
archbishoprics and 29 bishoprics in Greece, but a law passed in 
1899 suppressed the archbishoprics (except the metropolitan 
see of Athens) on the death of the existing prelates, and fixed 
the total number of seesat32. The prelates derive their incomes 
partly from the state and partly from the church lands. There 
are about 5500 priests, who belong for the most part to the 
poorest classes. The parochial clergy have no fixed stipends, 
and often resort to agriculture or small trading in order to 
supplement the scanty fees earned by their ministrations. Owing 
to their lack of -education their personal influence over their 
parishioners is seldom considerable. In addition to the parochial 
clergy there are 19 preachers (itponripvKts) salaried by the state. 
There are 170 monasteries and 4 nunneries in Greece, with about 
1600 monks and 250 nuns. In regard to their constitution the 
monasteries are either " idiorrhythmic " or " coenobian " (see 
ATHOS); the monks (nokcr/tpoi) are in some cases assisted 
by lay brothers (MHT/UKOI) . More than 300 of the smaller 
monasteries were suppressed in 1829 and their revenues secular- 
ized. Among the more important and interesting monasteries 
are those of Megaspelaeon and Lavra (where the standard of 
insurrection, unfurled in f82i, is preserved) near Kalavryta, 
St Luke of Stiris near Arachova, Daphne and Penteli near Athens, 
and the Meteora group in northern Thessaly. The bishops, who 
must be unmarried, are as a rule selected from the monastic 
order and are nominated by the king; the parish priests are 
allowed to marry, but the remarriage of widowers is forbidden. 
The bulk of the population, about 2,000,000, belongs to the 
Orthodox Church; other Christian confessions number about 
1 5,000, the great majority being Roman Catholics. The Roman 
Catholics (principally in Naxos and the Cyclades) have three 



434 



GREECE 



[AGRICULTURE 



archbishoprics(Athens,Naxos andCorf u) ,five bishoprics and about 
60 churches. The Jews, who are regarded with much hostility, 
have almost disappeared from the Greek mainland; they now 
number about 5000, and are found principally at Corfu. The 
Mahommedans are confined to Thessaly except a few at Chalcis. 
National sentiment is a more powerful factor than personal 
religious conviction in the attachment of . the Greeks to the 
Orthodox Church; a Greek without the pale of the church is 
more or less an alien. The Catholic Greeks of Syros sided with 
the Turks at the time of the revolution; the Mahommedans of 
Crete, though of pure Greek descent, have always been hostile 
to their Christian fellow-countrymen and are commonly called 
Turks. On the other hand, that portion of the Macedonian 
population which acknowledges the patriarch of Constantinople 
is regarded as Greek, while that which adheres to the Bulgarian 
exarchate, though differing in no point of doctrine, has been 
declared schismatic. The constitution of 1864 guarantees 
toleration to all creeds in Greece and imposes no civil disabilities 
on account of religion. 

Greece is essentially an agricultural country; its prosperity 
depends on its agricultural products, and more than half the 

population is occupied in the cultivation of the soil 
culture. an d kindred pursuits. The land in the plains and 

valleys is exceedingly rich, and, wherever there is 
a sufficiency of water, produces magnificent crops. Cereals 
nevertheless furnish the principal figure in the list of imports, 
the annual value being about 30,000,000 fr. The country, 
especially since the acquisition of the fertile province of Thessaly, 
might under a well-developed agricultural system provide a 
food-supply for all its inhabitants and an abundant surplus 
for exportation. Thessaly alone, indeed, could furnish cereals 
for the whole of Greece. Unfortunately, however, agriculture 
is still in a primitive state, and the condition of the rural popula- 
tion has received very inadequate attention from successive 
governments. The wooden plough of the Hesiodic type is still 
in use, especially in Thessaly; modern implements, however, 
are being gradually introduced. The employment of manure 
and the rotation of crops are almost unknown; the fields are 
generally allowed to lie fallow in alternate years. As a rule, 
countries dependent on agriculture are liable to sudden fluctua- 
tions in prosperity, but in Greece the diversity of products is so 
great that a failure in one class of crops is usually compensated 
by exceptional abundance in another. Among the causes which 
have hitherto retarded agricultural progress are the ignorance 
and conservatism of the peasantry, antiquated methods of 
cultivation, want of capital, absentee proprietorship, sparsity 
of population, bad roads, the prevalence of usury, the uncertainty 
of boundaries and the land tax, which, in the absence of a survey, 
is levied on ploughing oxen; to these may be added the in- 
security hitherto prevailing in many of the country districts 
and the growing distaste for rural life which has accompanied 
the spread of education. Large estates are managed under the 
metayer system; the cultivator paying the proprietor from 
one-third to half of the gross produce; the landlords, who 
prefer to live in the larger towns, see little of their tenants, and 
rarely interest themselves in their welfare. A great proportion 
of the best arable land in Thessaly is owned by persons who 
reside permanently out of the country. The great estates in 
this province extend over some 1,500,000 acres, of which about 
500,000 are cultivated. In the Peloponnesus peasant proprietor- 
ship is almost universal; elsewhere it is gradually supplanting 
the metayer system ; the small properties vary from 2 or 3 to 
50 acres. The extensive state lands, about one-third of the 
area of Greece, were formerly the property of Mahommedan 
religious communities (vakoufs); they are for the most part 
farmed out annually by auction. They have been much en- 
croached upon by neighbouring owners; a considerable portion 
has also been sold to the peasants. The rich plain of Thessaly 
suffers from alternate droughts and inundations, and from the 
ravages of field mice; with improved cultivation, drainage 
and irrigation it might be rendered enormously productive. 
A commission has been occupied for some years in preparing 



a scheme of hydraulic works. Usury is, perhaps, a greater 
scourge to the rural population than any visitation of nature; 
the institution of agricultural banks, lending money at a fair 
rate of interest on the security of their land, would do much 
to rescue the peasants from the clutches of local Shylocks. 
There is a difficulty, however, in establishing any system of 
land credit owing to the lack of a survey. Since 1897 a law 
passed in 1882 limiting the rate of interest to 8% (to 9 % in the 
case of commercial debts) has to some extent been enforced by 
the tribunals. In the Ionian Islands the rate of 10 % still 
prevails. 

The following figures give approximately the acreage in 1906 
and the average annual yield of agricultural produce, no official 
statistics being available: 

Acres. 

Fields sown or lying fallow 3,000,000 

Vineyards 337.5OO 

Currant plantations 175,000 

Olives (10,000,000 trees) 250,000 

Fruit trees (fig, mulberry, &c.) .... 125,000 

Meadows and pastures 7,500,000 

Forests 2,000,000 

Waste lands 2,875,000 

16,262,500 
The average annual yield is as follows : 

Wheat 350,000,000 kilograms 

Maize 100,000,000 ,, 

Rye 20,000,000 

Barley 70,000,000 

Oats 75,000,000 

Beans, lentils, &c 25,000,000 

Currants 350,000,000 Venetian Ib 

Sultanina 4,000,000 ,, 

Wine 3,000,000 hectolitres 

Olive oil 300,000 

Olives (preserved) .... 100,000,000 kilograms 
Figs (exported only) .... 12,000,000 

Seed cotton 6,500,000 

Tobacco 8,000,000 

Vegetables and fresh fruits . . 20,000,000 

Cocoons 1,000,000 

Hesperidiums (exported only) . 4,000,000 
Carobs (exported only) . . . 10,000,000 
Resin ........ 5,000,000 

Beet 12,000,000 

Rice is grown in the marshy plains of Elis, Boeotia, Marathon 
and Missolonghi; beet in Thessaly. The cultivation of vegetables 
is increasing; beans, peas and lentils are the most common. Potatoes 
are grown in the upland districts, but are not a general article of diet. 
Of late years market-gardening has been taken up as a new industry 
in the neighbourhood of Athens. There is a great variety of fruits. 
Olive plantations are found everywhere; in 1860 they occupied 
about 90,000 acres; in 1887, 433,701 acres. The trees are sometimes 
of immense age and form a picturesque feature in the landscape. 
In latter years the groves in many parts of the western Morea and 
Zante have been cut down to make room for currant plantations; 
the destruction has been deplorable in its consequences, for, as the 
tree requires twenty years to come into full bearing, replanting 
is seldom resorted to. Preserved olives, eaten with bread, are a 
common article of food. Excellent olive oil is produced in Attica 
and elsewhere. The value of the oil and fruit exported varies from 
five to ten million francs. Figs are also abundant, especially in 
Messenia and in the Cyclades. Mulberry trees are planted for the 
purposes of sericulture; they have been cut down in great numbers 
in the currant-growing districts. Other fruit trees are the orange, 
citron, lemon, pomegranate and almond. Peaches, apricots, pears, 
cherries, &c., abound, but are seldom scientifically cultivated; the 
fruit is generally gathered while unripe. Cotton in 1906 occupied 
about I2,5coacres, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Livadia. Tobacco 
plantations in 1893 covered 16,320 acres, yielding about 3,500,000 
kilograms; the yield in 1906 was 9,000,000 kilograms. About 40% 
of the produce is exported, principally to Egypt and Turkey. More 
important are the vineyards, which occupied in 1 887 an area of 306,42 1 
acres. The best wine is made at Patras, on the' royal estate at 
Decelea, and on other estates in Attica; a peculiar flavour is im- 
parted to the wine of the country by the addition of resin. The 
wine of Santorin, the modern representative of the famous " malm- 
sey," is mainly exported to Russia. The foreign demand for Greek 
wines is rapidly increasing; 3,770,257 gallons were exported in 1890, 
4,974,196 gallons in 1894. There is also a growing demand for 
Greek cognac. The export of wine in 1905 was 20,850,941 okes, 
value 5, 848, 544 fr.; of cognac, 363, 720 okes, value 1,091, itefr. 

The currant, by far the most important of Greek exports, is culti- 
vated in a limited area extending along the southern shore of the 
Gulf of Corinth and the seaboard of the Western Peloponnesus, 



AGRICULTURE] 



GREECE 



435 



in Zante, Cephalonia and Leucas, and in certain districts of 
Acarnania and Aetolia; attempts to cultivate it elsewhere have 
. generally proved unsuccessful. The history of the currant 
urran s. j nc ) us j r y nas been a record of extraordinary vicissitudes. 
Previously to 1877 the currant was exported solely foreating purposes, 
the amounts for the years 1872 to 1877 being 70,766 tons, 71,222 
tons, 76,210 tons, 72,916 tons, 86,947 tons, and 82,181 tons respect- 
ively. In 1877, however, the French vineyards began to suffer 
seriously from the phylloxera, and French wine producers were 
obliged to have recourse to dried currants, which make an excellent 
wine for blending purposes. The importation of currants into 
France at once rose from 881 tons in 1877 to 20,999 tons in 1880, 
and to 70,401 tons in 1889, or about 20,000 tons more than were 
imported into England in that year. Meanwhile the total amount 
of currants produced in Greece had nearly doubled in these thirteen 
years. The country was seized with a mania for currant planting; 
every other industry was neglected, and olive, orange and lemon 
groves were cut down to make room for the more lucrative growth. 
The currant growers, in order to increase their production as rapidly 
as possible, had recourse to loans at a high rate of interest, and the 
great profits which they made were devoted to further planting, 
while the loans remained unpaid. A crisis followed rapidly. By 
1891 the French vineyards had to a great extent recovered from the 
disease, and wine producers in France began to clamour against the 
competition of foreign wines and wine-producingraisinsand currants. 
The import duty on these was thereupon raised from 6 francs to 15 
francs per loo kilos, and was further increased in 1894 to 25 
francs. The currant trade with France was thus extinguished ; of a 
crop averaging 160,000 tons, only some 110,000 now found a market. 
Although a fresh opening for exportation was found in Russia, the 
value of the fruit dropped from 15 to 5 per ton, a price scarcely 
covering the cost of cultivation. In July 1895 the government 
introduced a measure, since known as the Retention (iraptucpaTTjo-is) 
Law, by which it was enacted that every shipper should deliver 
into depots provided by the government a weight of currants equiva- 
lent to 15 % of the amount which he intended to export. A later law 
fixed the quantity to be retained by the state at 10%, which might 
be increased to 20%, should a representative committee, meeting 
every summer at Athens, so advise the government. The currants 
thus taken over by the government cannot be exported unless they 
are reduced to pulp, syrup or otherwise rendered unsuitable for 
eating purposes; they may be sold locally for wine-making or distil- 
ling, due precautions being taken that they are not used in any other 
way. The price of exported currants is thus maintained at an artificial 
figure. The Retention Law, which after 1895 was voted annually, 
was passed for a period of ten years in 1899. This pernicious 
measure, which is in defiance of all economic laws, perpetuates a 
superfluous production, retards the development of other branches 
of agriculture and burdens the government with vast accumulations 
of an unmarketable commodity. It might excusably be adopted as 
a temporary expedient to meet a pressing crisis, but as a permanent 
system it can only prove detrimental to the country and the currant 
growers themselves. 

In 1899 a " Bank of Viticulture " was established at Patras for the 
purpose of assisting the growers, to whom it was bound to make 
advances at a low rate of interest ; it undertook the storage and the 
sale of the retained fruit, from which its capital was derived. The 
bank soon found itself burdened with an enormous unsaleable 
stock, while its loans for the most part remained unpaid ; meantime 
over-production, the cause of the trouble, continued to increase, 
and prices further diminished. In 1903 a syndicate of English and 
other foreign capitalists made proposals for a monopoly of the export, 
guaranteeing fixed prices to the growers. The scheme, which con- 
flicted with Anglo-Greek commercial conventions, wasrejected by the 
Theotokis ministry; serious disturbances followed in the currant- 
growing districts, and M. Theotokis resigned. His successor, M. 
Rallis, in order to appease the cultivators, arranged that the Currant. 
Bank should offer them fixed minimum prices for the various growths, 
and guaranteed it a loan of 6,000,000 dr. The resources of the bank, 
however, gave out before the end of the season, and prices pursued 
their downward course. Another experiment was then tried; the 
export duty (15%) was made payable in kind, the retention quota 
being thus practically raised from 20 to 35 %. The only result of this 
measure was a diminution of the export ; in the spring of 1905 prices 
fell very low and the growers began to despair. A syndicate of banks 
and capitalists then came forward, which introduced the system now 
in operation. A privileged company was formed which obtained 
a charter from the government for twenty years, during which period 
the retention and export duties are maintained at the fixed rates 
of 20 and 15 % respectively. The company aims at keeping up the 
prices of the marketable qualities by employing profitably for 
industrial purposes the unexported surplus and retained inferior 
qualities; it pays to the state 4,000,000 dr. annually under the head 
of export duty; offers all growers at the beginning of each agri- 
cultural year a fixed price of 1 15 dr. per looo Venetian Ib irrespective 
of quality, and pays a price varying from 1 15 dr. to 145 dr. according 
to quality at the end of the year for the unexported surplus. In 
return for these advantages to the growers the company is entitled 
to receive 7 dr. on every looo Ib of currants produced and to dispose 
of the whole retained amount. A special company has been formed 



for the conversion of the superfluous product into spirit, wine, &c. 
The system may perhaps prove commercially remunerative, but it 
penalizes the producers of the better growths in order to provide a 
livelihood for the growers of inferior and unmarketable kinds and 
protracts an abnormal situation. The following table gives the 
annual currant crop from 1877 to 1905: 



Year. 


Total crop 
(tons). 


Exported to 
Gt. Britain. 


Exported to 
France. 


1877 


82,181 




881 


1878 


100,004 




9,086 


1879 


92.3U 




19,087 


1880 


92,337 




20,999 


1881 


121,994 




30,315 


1882 


109,403 


51,933 


26,282 


1883 


114,980 


52,099 


24-815 


1884 


129,268 


59,629 


39,198 


1885 


113,287 


55,765 


37-730 


1886 


127,570 


48,892 


45,000 


1887 


127,160 


55,549 


37,438 


1888 


158,728 


63,714 


40,735 


1889 


142,308 


52,251 


69,555 


1890 


146,749 


67,502 


37,8i6 


1891 


i6i,545 


70,762 


39,712 


1892 


116,944 


60,418 


21,721 


1893 


119,886 


73,000 


6,800 


1894 


I35,5oo 


64,500 


15,000 


1895 


167,695 


60,500 


26,500 


1896 


I53,5H 


65,000 


6,500 


1897 


H5,73o 


63,000 


2,000 


1898 


I53,5H 


69,500 


6,000 


1899 


144,071 


65,600 


3,800 


1900 


47,236 


36,000 


300 


1901 


139,820 


58,000 


1,216 


1902 


152,580 


58,400 


4,782 


1903 


179,499 


54,800 


4,470 


1904 


146,500 


58,850 


820 


1905 


t62,957 


61,700 


1,042 



The " peronosppra," a species of white blight, first caused con- 
siderable damage in the Greek vineyards in 1892, recurring in 1897 
and 1900. 

More than half the cultivable area of Greece is devoted to pastur- 
age. Cattle-rearing, as a rule, is a distinct occupation from agri- 
cultural farming; the herds are sent to pasture on the 
mountains in the summer, and return to the plains at the 
beginning of winter. The larger cattle are comparatively 
rare, being kept almost exclusively for agricultural labour; the 
smaller are very abundant. Beef is scarcely eaten in Greece, the 
milk of cows is rarely drunk and butter is almost unknown. Cheese, 
a staple article of diet, is made from the milk of sheep and goats. 
The number of larger cattle has declined in recent years; that of 
the smaller has increased. The native breed of oxen is small ; 
buffaloes are seldom seen except in north-western Thessaly; a few 
camels are used in the neighbourhood of Parnassus. The Thessalian 
breed of horses, small but sturdy and enduring, can hardly be taken 
to represent the celebrated chargers of antiquity. Mules are much 
employed in the mountainous districts; the 'best type of these 
animals is found in the islands. The flocks of long-horned sheep and 
goats add a picturesque feature to Greek rural scenery. The goats 
are more numerous in proportion to the population than in any other 
European country (137 per 100 inhabitants). The shepherds' dogs 
rival those of Bulgaria in ferocity. According to an unofficial estimate 
published in 1905 the numbers of the various domestic animals in 
1899 were as follows: Oxen and buffaloes, 408,744; horses, 157,068; 
mules, 88,869; donkeys, 141,174; camels, 51; sheep, 4,568,151; 
goats, 3,339,439; pigs, 79,716. During the four years 1899-1902 
the annual average value of imported cattle was 4,218,015 dr., of 
exported cattle 209,32 1 dr. 

The forest area (about 2,500,000 acres or one-fifth of the surface 
of the mainland) is for the most part state property. The value of 
the forests has been estimated at 200,000,000 fr. ; the _ 
most productive are in the district extending from the 
Pindus range to the Gulf of Corinth. The principal trees are the 
oak (about 30 varieties), the various coniferae, the chestnut, maple, 
elm, beech, alder, cornel and arbutus. In Greece, as in other lands 
formerly subject to Turkish rule, the forests are not only neglected, 
but often deliberately destroyed ; this great source of national 
wealth is thus continually diminishing. Every year immense forest 
fires may be seen raging in the mountains, and many of the most 
picturesque districts in the country are converted into desolate 
wildernesses. These conflagrations are mainly the work of shep- 
herds eager to provide increased pasturage for their flocks; they are 
sometimes, however, due to the carelessness of smokers, and occa- 
sionally, it is said, to spontaneous ignition in hot weather. Great 
damage is also done by the goats, which browse on theyoung saplings ; 
the pine trees are much injured by the practice of scoring their bark 
for resin. With the disappearance of the trees the soil of the moun- 
tain slopes, deprived of its natural protection, is soon washed away 



436 



GREECE 



[COMMERCE 



by the rain ; the rapid descent of the water causes inundations in 
the plains, while the uplands become sterile and lose their vegetation. 
The climate has been affected by the change; rain falls less fre- 
quently but with greater violence, and the process of denudation is 
accelerated. The government has from time to time made efforts 
for the protection of the forests, but with little success till recently. 
A staff of inspectors and forest guards was first organized in 1877. 
The administration of the forests has since 1893 been entrusted to a 
department of the Ministry of Finance, which controls a %taff of 4 
inspectors (tiriSfwpfjTai), 31 superintendents (Saa-apxo i) , 52 head 
foresters (Apx*#W"<) and 298 foresters (&a<rv<t>b\aj<a). The 
foresters are aided during the summer months, when fires are most 
frequent, by about 500 soldiers and gendarmes. _ About a third 
of these functionaries have received instruction in the school of 
forestry at Vythine in the Morea, open since 1898. Owing to the 
measures now taken, which include excommunication by the parish 
priests of incendiaries and their accomplices, the conflagrations have 
considerably diminished. The total annual value of the products of 
the Greek forests averages 15,000,000 drachmae. The revenue 
accuring to the government in 1905 was 1,418,158 dr., as compared 
with 583,991 dr. in 1883. The increase is mainly due to improved 
administration. The supply of timber for house-construction, ship- 
building, furniture-making, railway sleepers, &c., is insufficient, and 
is supplemented by importation (annual value about 12,000,000 
francs) ; transport is rendered difficult by the lack of roads and 
navigable streams. The principal secondary products are valonea 
(annual exportation about 1,250,000 fr.) and resin, which is locally 
employed as a preservative ingredient in the fabrication of wine. 
The administration of the forests is still defective, and measures 
for the augmentation and better instruction of the staff of foresters 
have been designed by the government. In 1900 a society for the re- 
afforesting of the country districts and environs of the large towns 
was founded at Athens under the patronage of the crown princess. 

The chief minerals are silver, lead, zinc, copper manganese, 
magnesia, iron, sulphur and coal. Emery, salt, millstone and 
Ml gypsum, which are found in considerable quantities, 

<es ' are worked by the government. The important mines 
at Laurium, a source of great wealth to ancient Athens.were reopened 
in 1864 by a Franco-Italian company, but were declared to be state 
property in 1871 ; they are now worked by a Greek and a French 
company. The output of marketable ore in 1899 amounted to 
486,760 tons, besides 289,292 tons of dressed lead ore. In 1905 
the output was as follows: Raw and roasted manganese iron ore, 
113,636 tons; hematite iron ore, 94,734 tons; calamine or zinc 
ore, 22,612 tons; arsenic and argentiferous lead, 1875 tons; zinc 
blende and galena, 443 tons; total, 233,300 tons, together with 
164,857 tons of dressed lead, producing 13,822 tons of silver pig lead 
containing 1657 to 1910 grams of silver per ton. It has been found 
profitable to resmelt the scoriae of the ancient workings. The total 
value of the exports from the Laurium mines.whichin 1875 amounted 
to only 150,513, had in 1899 increased to 827,209, but fell in 1905 
to 499,882. The revenue accruing to the government from all mines 





Tons. 


Francs. 


Chrome 


8,900 


337,952 


Emery 


6,972 


742,486 


Gypsum 


185 


7,995 


Iron ore 


465,622 


3,387,467 


Ferromanganese .... 
Lead (argentiferous pig) ore 


89,687 
13,729 


1,182,652 
6,811,792 


Lignite 


n,757 


143,814 


Magnesite 


43,498 


864,982 


Manganese ore .... 


8,171 


122,565 


Mill stones 


12,628 


34,66o 


Salt 


25,201 


1,638,065 


Sulphur 


1,126 


121,000 


Zinc ore 


22,562 


2,852,355 



green on Taygetus and in Thessaly; black at Tenos; and red 
(porphyry) in Maina. 

The official statistics of the output and value of minerals produced 
in 1905 were as in the preceding table. 

The number of persons employed in mining operations in 1905 
was 9934. . 

Owing to the natural aptitude of the Greeks for commerce 
and their predilection for a seafaring life a great portion of the 
trade of the Levant has fallen into their hands. Im- 
portant Greek mercantile colonies exist in all the Commerce 
larger ports of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, "austry. 
and many of the'm possess great wealth. In some of 
the islands of the archipelago almost every householder is the 
owner or joint owner of a ship. The Greek mercantile marine, 
which in 1888 consisted of 1352 vessels (70 steamers) with a total 
tonnage of 219,415 tons, numbered in 1906, according to official 
returns, 1364 vessels (275 steamers) with a total tonnage of 
427,291 tons. This figure is apparently too low, as the ship- 
owners are prone to understate the tonnage in order to diminish 
the payment of dues. Almost the whole corn trade of Turkey 
is in Greek hands. A large number of the sailing ships, especially 
the smaller vessels engaged in the coasting trade, belong to the 
islanders. A considerable portion of the shipping on the Danube 
and Pruth is owned by the inhabitants of Ithaca and Cephalonia; 
a certain number of their steps (crXeirta) have latterly been 
acquired by Rumanian Jews, but the Greek flag is still pre- 
dominant. There are seven principal Greek steamship companies 
owning 40 liners with a total tonnage of 21,972 tons. In 1847 
there was but one lighthouse in Greek waters; in 1906 there 
were 70 lighthouses and 68 port lanterns. Hermoupolis (Syra) 
is the chief seat of the carrying trade, but as a commercial port 
it yields to Peiraeus, which is the principal centre of distribution 
for imports. Other important ports are Patras, Volo, Corfu, 
Kalamata and Laurium. 

The following table gives the total value (in francs) of special 
Greek commerce for the given years: 



and quarries, including those worked by the state, was estimated 
in the budget for 1906 at 1,332,000 dr. The emery of Naxos, which 
is a state monopoly, is excellent in quality and very abundant. 
Mines of iron ore have latterly been opened at Larimna in Locris. 
Magnesite mines are worked by an Anglo-Greek company in Euboca. 
There are sulphur and manganese mines in the island of Melos, and 
the volcanic island of Santorin produces pozzolana, a kind of cement, 
which is exported in considerable quantities. The great abundance 
of marble in Greece has latterly attracted the attention of foreign 
capitalists. New quarries have been opened since 1897 by an 
English company on the north slope of Mount Pentelicus, and are 
now connected by rail with Athens and the Peiraeus. The marble 
on this side of the mountain is harder than that on the south, which 
alone was worked by the ancients. The output in 1905 was 1573 
tons. Mount Pentelicus furnished material for most of the celebrated 
buildings of ancient Athens; the marble, which is white, blue- 
veined, and somewhat transparent, assumes a rich yellow hue after 
long exposure to the air. The famous Parian quarries are still 
worked; white marble is also found at Scyros, Tenos and Naxos; 
grey at Stoura and Karystos; variegated at Valaxa and Karystos; 





1887. 


1892. 1897. 1902. 


Imports 


131,849,325 


119,306,007 116,363,348 137,229,364 


Exports 


102,652,487 


82,261,464 81,708,626 79,663,473 


The marked fluctuations in the returns are mainly attributable 


to variations in the price and quantity of imported cereals and in 


the sale of 


currants. The great excess of imports, caused by the 


large importation of food-stuffs and manufactured articles, is due 


to the neglect of agriculture and the undeveloped condition of local 


industries. 






The imports and exports for 1905 were distributed as follows : 






Imports from. 


Exports to. 












Frs. 


Frs. 






Russia .... 


27,725,218 


810,925 






Great Britain 


27,516,928 


24,436,707 






Austria-Hungary 


19,444,415 


7,876,806 






Turkey .... 


15,538,370 


4,516,403 






Germany 


13,896,687 


7,514,474 






France .... 


10,101,070 


7,078,321 






Italy . . . . . 


6,190,253 


4,266,210 






Bulgaria .... 


5,135,718 


133,106 






Rumania 


3,814,641 


1,152,207 






America .... 


2,656,501 


6,440,648 






Belgium .... 


2,276,393 


2,068,138 






Netherlands . 


1,921,762 


7,180,301 






Egypt . . . . 


634,035 


5,928,555 






Switzerland . 


348,281 








Other countries 


4,555,781 


4,288,365 








Total 




141,756,053 


83,691,166 





An enumeration of the chief articles of importation and exporta- 
tion, together with their value, will be found in tabular form overleaf. 

Greece does not possess any manufacturing industries on a large 
scale; the absence of a native coal supply is an obstacle to their 
development. In 1889 there were 145 establishments employing 
steam of 5568 indicated horse-power; in 1892 the total horse-power 
employed was estimated at 10,000. In addition to the smelting-works 
at Laurium, at which some 5000 hands are employed by Greek and 
French companies and local proprietors, there are flour mills, cloth, 
cotton and silk spinning mills, ship-building and engineering works, 
oil-presses, tanneries, powder and dynamite mills, soap mills (about 



ARMY] 



GREECE 



Principal Articles of Importation. 


Articles. 


1904. 


1905- 


Total value 
in francs. 


Imported from 
the United 
Kingdom. 


Total value 
in francs. 


Imported from 
the United 
Kingdom. 




27.735.8o8 
17,999,344 
13,341, '91 
10,146,500 
7,757,444 
6,522,086 

4,739,819 
4,992,615 
4,558,101 

4,271,151 
3,011,450 

3.327,144 
2,957,601 
2,606,696 

1,977,894 
1,750,858 


none 
10,762,464 
7,630,633 
9,769 
2,162,250 
6,087,068 
2,504,667 
2,394,224 
478,965 
none 
none 

157,017 
293,610 
none 
63,882 
341,839 


32,511,784 
13,460,620 

12,254,190 

5,073,841 
8,021,523 
1,014,164 
3,909,657 
3,373-523 
. 2,070,250 
3.319,700 
3,060,904 
2,887,854 
1,901,486 
2,146,509 


none 
5,497-172 

61,309 

4,308,357 
6,838,079 
186,072 

215,745 
1,268 
none 

76,454 
107,296 

70 
236,027 

281,433 


Textiles 
Raw minerals 
Forest products .... 
Wrought metals .... 
Coals and pit-coal 
Yarn and tissues .... 
Fish 
Raw hides 
Various animals .... 
Horses 
Paper, books, &c 


Coffee 
Sugar 
Rice 
Colours 


Chief Articles of Exportation. 


Articles. 


1904. 


1905. 


Total value 
in francs. 


Exported to 
the United 
Kingdom. 


Total value 
in francs. 


Exported to 
the United 
Kingdom. 


Currants 
Minerals and raw metals 
Wines 


28,841,678 
19,134,185 
10,084,960 

7,285,385 
4,163,262 
3,583,428 
2,754,245 
1,793.362 
1,558,678 
1,027,224 


14,569,137 
5,161,898 

429,H3 
39,512 
212,081 
62,304 
7,750 
9,833 
200,849 
12,099 


34,299,780 
15,125,072 
5,832,139 
6,157,092 
2,150,285 
3,309,432 
2,607,580 
1,138,116 
1,917,014 
1,091,160 


17,008,929 
5,438,698 
881,696 
147,565 
64,310 
338,196 
900 
18,800 
146,927 
2,283 


Tobacco 
Olive oil 
Figs 
Minerals and metals (worked) 
Olives 
Valonea 
Cognac 



Posts 
and tek- 



40), and some manufactures of paper, glass, matches,turpentine, white 
lead, hats, gloves, candles, &c. About 100 factories are established 
in the neighbourhood of Athens and Peiraeus. The wine industry 
(10 factories) is of considerable importance, and the manufacture 
of cognac has latterly made great progress; there are 10 large and 
numerous small cognac distilleries. Ship-building is carried on 
actively at all the ports on the mainland and islands; about 200 
ships, mostly of low tonnage, are launched annually. 

Public Works. -The important drainage-works at Lake Copais 
were taken over by an English company in 1890. The lake covered 
an area of 58,080 acres, the greater part of which is now rendered 
fit for cultivation. The drainage works consist of a canal, 28 kilo- 
metres in length, and a tunnel of 600 metres descending through 
the mountain to a lower lake, which is connected by a second tunnel 
with the sea. The reclaimed land is highly fertile. The area under 
crops amounted in 1906 to 27,414 acres, of which 20,744 were let 
to tenants and the remainder farmed by the company. The un- 
cultivated portion affords excellent grazing. The canal through the 
Isthmus of Corinth was opened to navigation in November 1893. 
The total cost of the works, which were begun by a company in 1882, 
was 70,000,000 francs. The narrowness of the canal, which is only 
24-60 metres broad at the surface, and the strength of the current 
which passes through it, seriously detract from its utility. The high 
charges imposed on foreign vessels have proved almost prohibitive. 
There are reduced rates for ships sailing in Greek waters. Up to the 
3lst of July 1906, 37,214 vessels, with a tonnage of 4,971,922, had 
passed through the canal. The receipts up to that date were3, 207,835 
drachmae (mainly from Greek ships) and 415,976 francs (mainly 
from foreign ships). In 1905, 2930 vessels (2735 Greek) passed 
through, the receipts being 281,935 drachmae and 34,142 francs. 
The total liabilities of the company in 1906 were about 40,000,000 fr. 
The canal would be more frequented by foreign shipping if the 
harbours at its entrances were improved, and its sides, which are of 
masonry, lined with beams; efforts are being made to raise funds for 
these purposes. The widening of the Eunpus Channel at Chalcis 
to the extent of 21-56 metres was accomplished in 1894. The opera- 
tions involved the destruction of the picturesque Venetian tower 
which guarded the strait. A canal was completed in 1903 rendering 
navigable the shallow channel between Leucas (Santa Maura) and 
the mainland (breadth l metres, depth 5 metres). Large careening 
docks were undertaken in 1909 at Peiraeus at an estimated cost of 
4,750,000 drachmae. 

Communications. Internal communication by roads is improving, 
though much remains to be done, especially as regards the quality 
of the roads. A considerable impetus was given to road-making 



437 

under the Trikoupis administration. 
In 1878 there were only 555 m. of 
roads; in 1898 there were 2398 m. ; 
in 1906, 3275 m. Electric trams have 
been introduced at Patras. Railways 
were open to traffic in 1900 for a length 
of 598 m.; in 1906 for a length of 
867 m. The circuit of the Morea rail- 
ways (462 m.) was completed in 1902 ; 
from Diakophto, on the north coast, a 
cogwheel railway, finished in 1894, 
ascends to Kalavryta. A very im- 
portant undertaking is the completion 
of a line from Peiraeus to the frontier, 
the contract for which was signed in 
1900 between the Greek government 
and the Eastern Railway Extension 
Syndicate (subsequentjy converted into 
the Soctiti des Chemins de Per helte- 
niques). A line connecting Peiraeus 
with Larissa was begun in 1890, but 
in 1894 the English company which 
had undertaken the contract went into 
liquidation. Under the contract of 
1900 the line was drawn through 
Demerit, in the south of Thessaly, to 
Larissa, a distance of 217 m., and con- 
tinued through the vale of Tempe to 
the Turkish frontier (about 246 m. in 
all). Branch lines have been con- 
structed to Lamia and Chalcis. The 
establishment of a connexion with the 
continental railway system, by a 
junction with the line from Belgrade 
to Salonica, would be of immense ad- 
vantage to Greece, and the Peiraeus 
would become an important place of 
embarkation for Egypt, India and the 
Far East. 

In 1905 the number of post offices 
was 640. Of these 320 were also tele- 
graph and 89 telephone 
stations, with 664 clerks; 
the remaining post offices 
possess no special staff, but ra '" Ii 
are served by persons who also pursue other occupations. The 
number of postmen and other employees was 889. During the 
year there passed through the post 6,897,899 ordinary letters 
for the interior, 2,980,958 for foreign destinations, 2,788,477 from 
abroad; 540,411 registered letters or parcels for the interior, 309,907 
for foreign countries, and 300,150 from abroad; 880,673 post-cards 
for the interior, 504,785 from abroad, and 187,975 .sent abroad; 
100,680 samples; 7,068,125 printed papers for the interior, 5,278,405 
to or from foreign countries. Telegraph lines in 1905 extended 
over 4222 m. with 6836 m. of wires; 841,913 inland telegrams, 
221,188 service telegrams and 129,036 telegrams to foreign destina- 
tions were despatched, and 169,519 received from abroad. Receipts 
amounted to 4,589,601 drachmae (postal service 2,744,212, telegraph 
and telephone services 1,845,389 drachmae) and expenditure to 
3,954,742 drachmae. 

The Greek army has recently been in a state of transition. 
Its condition has never been satisfactory, partly owing to the 
absence of systematic effort in the work of organization, 
partly owing to the pernicious influence of political 
parties, and in times of national emergency it has never been 
in a condition of readiness. The experience of the war of 1897 
proved the need of far-reaching administrative changes and 
disciplinary reforms. A scheme of complete reorganization was 
subsequently elaborated under the auspices of the crown prince 
Constantine, the commander-in-chief, and received the assent 
of the Chamber in June 1904. During the war of 1897 about 
65,000 infantry, 1000 cavalry, and 24 batteries were put into the 
field, and after great efforts another 15,000 men were mobilized. 
Under the new scheme it is proposed to maintain on a peace 
footing 1887 officers, 25, 140 non-commissioned officers and men, 
and 4059 horses and mules; in time of war the active army 
will consist of at least 120,000 men and the territorial army of 
at least 60,000 men. The heavy expenditure entailed by the 
project has been an obstacle to its immediate realization. In 
order to meet this expenditure a special fund has been instituted 
in addition to the ordinary military budget, and certain revenues 
have been assigned to it amounting to about 5,500,000 drachmae 
annually. In 1906, however, it was decided to suspend partially 
for five years the operation of the law of 1904 and to devote 



438 



GREECE 



[NAVY 



the resources thus economized together with other funds to 
the immediate purchase of new armaments and equipment. 
Under this temporary arrangement the peace strength of the 
army in 1908 consisted of 1939 officers and civilians, 19,416 
non-commissioned officers and men and 2661 horses and 
mules; it is calculated that the reserves will furnish about 
77,000 men and the territorial army about 37,000 men in time 
of war. 

Military service is obligatory, and liability to serve begins 
from the twenty-first year. The term of service comprises 
two years in the active army, ten years in the active army 
reserve (for cavalry eight years), eight years in the territorial 
army (for cavalry ten years) and ten years for all branches in 
the territorial army reserve. As a rule, however, the period 
of service in the active army has hitherto been considerably 
shortened; with a view to economy, the men, under the law 
of 1904, receive furlough after eighteen months with the colours. 
Exemptions from military service, which were previously very 
numerous, are also restricted considerably by the law of 1904, 
which will secure a yearly contingent of about 13,000 men in 
time of peace. The conscripts in excess of the yearly contingent 
are withdrawn by lot; they are required to receive six months' 
training in the ranks as supernumeraries before passing into the 
reserve, in which they form a special category of " liability " men. 
Under the temporary system of 1906 the contingent is reduced 
to about 10,000 men by postponing the abrogation of several 
exemptions, and the period of service is fixed at fourteen months 
for all the conscripts alike. The field army as constituted by 
the law of 1904 consists of 3 divisions, each division comprising 
2 brigades of infantry, each of 2 regiments of 3 battalions and 
other units. There are thus 36 battalions of infantry (of which 
12 are cadres); also 6 battalions of evzones (highlanders) , 
1 8 squadrons of cavalry (6 cadres), 33 batteries of artillery (6 
cadres), 3 battalions of engineers and telegraphists, 3 companies 
of ambulance, 3 of train, &c. The artillery is composed of 24 
field batteries, 3 heavy and 6 mountain batteries; it is mainly 
provided with Krupp 7-5 cm. guns dating from 1870 or earlier. 
After a series of trials in 1907 it was decided to order 36 field 
batteries of 7-5 cm. quick-firing guns and 6 mountain batteries, 
in all 168 guns, with 1500 projectiles for each battery from the 
Creuzot factory. The infantry, which was hitherto armed 
with the obsolete Gras rifle (-433 in.), was furnished in 1907 with 
the Mannlicher-Schonauer (model 1903) of which 100,000 had 
been delivered in May 1908. Hitherto the gendarmerie, which 
replaced the police, have formed a corps drawn from the army, 
which in 1908 consisted of 194 officers and 6344 non-commissioned 
officers and men, but a law passed in 1907 provided for these 
forces being thenceforth recruited separately by voluntary 
enlistment in annual contingents of 700 men. The participation 
of the officers in politics, which has proved very injurious to 
discipline, has been checked by a law forbidding officers below 
the rank of colonel to stand for the Chamber. In the elections 
of 1905 115 officers were candidates. The three divisional 
headquarters are at Larissa, Athens and Missolonghi; the six 
headquarters of brigades are at Trikkala, Larissa, Athens, 
Chalcis, Missolonghi and Nauplia. In 1907 annual manoeuvres 
were instituted. 

The Greek fleet consisted in 1907 of 3 armoured barbette ships 
of 4885 tons (built in France in 1890, reconstructed 1899), 
N carrying each three io-8-in. guns, five 6-in., thirteen 

quick-firing and smaller guns, and three torpedo tubes; 
i cruiser of 1770 tons (built in 1879), with two 6-7-in. and six 
light quick-firing guns; i armoured central battery ship of 
1774 tons (built 1867, reconstructed 1897) with two 8-4 in. 
and nine small quick-firing guns; 2 coast-defence gunboats 
with one io-6-in. gun each; 4 corvettes; i torpedo dep6t ship; 
8 destroyers, each with six guns (ordered in 1905); 3 transport 
steamers; 7 small gunboats; 3 mining boats; 5 torpedo boats; 
i royal yacht ; 2 school ships and various minor vessels. The 
personnel of the navy was composed in 1907 of 437 officers, 26 
cadets, 1118 petty officers, 2372 seamen and stokers, 60 boys 
and 99 civilians, together with 386 artisans employed at the 



arsenal. The navy is manned chiefly by conscription ; the period 
of service is two years, with four years in the reserve. The 
headquarters of the fleet and arsenal are in the island of Salamis, 
where there is a dockyard with naval stores, a floating dock and 
a torpedo school. Most of the vessels of the Greek fleet were in 
1907 obsolete; in 1904 a commission under the presidency 
of Prince George proposed the rearmament of the existing iron- 
clads and the purchase of three new ironclads and other 
vessels. A different scheme of reorganization, providing almost 
exclusively for submarines and scout vessels, was suggested 
to the government by the French admiral Fournier in 1908, but 
was opposed by the Greek naval officers. With a view to the 
augmentation and better equipment of the fleet a special fund 
was instituted in 1900 to which certain revenues have been 
assigned; it has been increased by various donations and 
bequests and by the proceeds of a state lottery. The fleet is not 
exercised methodically either in navigation or gunnery practice; 
a long voyage, however, was undertaken by the ironclad vessels 
in 1904. The Greeks, especially the islanders of the Aegean, 
make better sailors than soldiers; the personnel of the navy, 
if trained by foreign officers, might be brought to a high state 
of efficiency. 

The financial history of Greece has been unsatisfactory from the 
outset. Excessive military and naval expenditure (mainly due to 
repeated and hasty mobilizations), a lax and improvident 
system of administration, the corruption of political parties flounce. 
and the instability of the government, which has rendered impossible 
the continuous application of any scheme of fiscal reform all alike 
have contributed to the economic ruin of the country. For a long 
series of years preceding the declaration of national insolvency in 
1893 successive budgets presented a deficit, which in years of political 
excitement and military activity assumed enormous proportions: 
the shortcomings of the budget were supplied by the proceeds of 
foreign loans, or by means of advances obtained in the country at 
a high rate of interest. The two loans which had been contracted 
during the war of independence were extinguished by means of a 
conversion in 1889. Of the existing foreign loans the earliest is 
that of 60,000,000 frs., guaranteed by the three protecting powers 
in 1832; owing to the payment of interest and amortization by the 
powers, the capital amounted in 1871 to 100,392,833 fr. ; on this 
Greece pays an annual sum of 900,000 fr., of which 300,000 have been 
granted by the powers as a yearly subvention to King George. 
The only other existing foreign obligation of early date is the debt to 
the heirs of King Otho (4,500,000 dr.) contracted in 1868. A large 
amount of internal debt was incurred between 1848 and 1880, but 
a considerable proportion of this was redeemed with the proceeds 
of the foreign loans negotiated after this period. At the end of 1880 
the entire national debt, external and internal, stood at 252,652,481 
dr. In 1881 the era of great foreign loans began. In that year a 5 % 
loan of 120,000,000 fr. was raised to defray the expenses of the 
mobilization of 1880. This was followed in 1884 by a 5 % loan of 
170,000,000 fr., of which 100,000,000 was actually issued. The 
service of these loans was guaranteed by various State revenues. A 
" patriotic loan " of 30,000,000 dr. without interest, issued during the 
war excitement of 1885, proved a failure, only 2,723,860 dr. being 
subscribed. In 1888 a 4% loan of 135,000,000 fr. was contracted, 
secured on the receipts of the five State monopolies, the management 
of which was entrusted to a privileged company. In the following 
year (1889) two 4% loans of 30,000,000 fr. and 125,000,000 fr. 
respectively were issued without guarantee or sinking fund; Greek 
credit had now apparently attained an established position in the 
foreign money market, but a decline of public confidence soon 
became evident. In 1890, of a 5% loan of 80,000,000 fr. effective, 
authorized for the construction of the Peiraeus-Larissa railway, 
only 40,050,000 fr. was taken up abroad and 12,900,000 fr. at home; 
large portions of the proceeds were devoted to other purposes. 
In 1892 the government was compelled to make large additions 
to the internal floating debt, and to borrow 16,500,000 fr. from the 
National Bank on onerous terms. In 1893 an effort to obtain a 
foreign loan for the reduction of the forced currency proved unsuccess- 
ful. (For the events leading up to the declaration of national 
bankruptcy in that year see under Recent History.) A funding 
convention was concluded in the summer, under which the creditors 
accepted scrip instead of cash payments of interest. A few months 
later this arrangement was reversed by the Chamber, and on the 
I3th December a law was passed assigning provisionally to all the 
foreign loans alike 30% of the stipulated interest; the reduced 
coupons were made payable in paper instead of gold, the sinking 
funds were suspended, and the sums encashed by the monopoly 
company were confiscated. The causes of the financial catastrophe 
may be briefly summarized as follows: (i) The military prepara- 
tions of 1885-1886, with the attendant disorganization of the 
country; the extraordinary expenditure of these years amounted to 
1 30.987, 772 dr. (2) Excessive borrowing abroad, involving a charge 



FINANCE] 



GREECE 



439 



for the service of foreign loans altogether disproportionate to the 
revenue. (3) Remissness in the collection of taxation: the tola 
loss through arrears in a period of ten years (1882-1891) was 
36,549,202 dr., being in the main attributable to non-payment ol 
direct taxes. (4) The adverse balance of trade, largely due to the 
neglected condition of agriculture; in the five years preceding the 
crisis (1888-1892) the exports were stated to amount to 19,578,973, 
while the imports reached 24,890,146; foreign live stock and cereals 
being imported to the amount of 6,193,579. The proximate cause 
of the crisis was the rise in the exchange owing to the excessive 
amount of paper money in circulation. Forced currency was first 
introduced in 1868, when 15,000,000 dr. in paper money was issued; 
it was abolished in the following year, but reintroduced in 1877 with 
a paper issue of 44,000,000 dr. It was abolished a second time in 
1884, but again put into circulation in 1885, when paper loans to 
the amount of 45,000,000 dr. were authorized. In 1893 the total 
authorized forced currency was 146,000,000 dr., of which 88,000,000 
(including 14,000,000 dr. in small notes)was on account of the govern- 
ment. The gold and silver coinage had practically disappeared from 
circulation. The rate of exchange, as a rule, varies directly with the 
amount of paper money in circulation, but, owing to speculation, it 
is liable to violent fluctuations whenever there is an exceptional 
demand for gold in the market. In 1893 tne g'd franc stood at 
the ratio of I -60 to the paper drachma; the service of the foreign 
loans required upwards of 31,000,000 dr. in gold, and any attempt 
to realize this sum in the market would have involved an outlay 
equivalent to at least half the budget. With the failure of the 
projected loan for the withdrawal of the forced currency repudiation 
became inevitable. The law of the I3th of December was not recog- 
nized by the national creditors: prolonged negotiations followed, 
but no arrangement was arrived at till 1897, when the intervention 
of the powers after the war with Turkey furnished the opportunity 
for a definite settlement. It was stipulated that Turkey should 
receive an indemnity of T4,ooo,ooo contingent on the evacuation 
of Thessaly ; in order to secure the payment of this sum by Greece 
without prejudice to the interests of her creditors, and to enable 
the country to recover from the economic consequences of the war, 
Great Britain, France and Russia undertook to guarantee a 2j% 
loan of 170,000,000 fr., of which 150,000,000 fr. has been issued. 
By the preliminary treaty of peace (l8th of September 1897) an 
International Financial Commission, composed of six representatives 
of the powers, was charged with the payment of the indemnity to 
Turkey, and with " absolute control " over the collection and 
employment of revenues sufficient for the service of the foreign debt. 
A law defining the powers of the Commission was passed by the 
Chamber, 26th of February 1898 (o.s.). The revenues assigned 
to its supervision were the five government monopolies, the tobacco 
and stamp duties, and the import duties of Peiraeus (total annual 
value estimated at 39,600,000 dr.) : the collection was entrusted to a 
Greek society, which is under the absolute control of the Commission. 
The returns of Peiraeus customs (estimated at 10,700,000 dr.) are 
regarded as an extra guarantee, and are handed over to the Greek 
government; when the produce of the other revenues exceeds 
28,900,000 dr. the " plus value " or surplus is divided in the propor- 
tion of 50-8 % to the Greek government and 49-2 % to the- creditors. 
The plus values amounted to 3,301,481 dr. in 1898, 3,533,755 dr. 
in 1899. and 3,442,713 dr. in 1900. Simultaneously with the estab- 
lishment of the control the interest for the Monopoly Loan was 
fixed at 43%, for the Funding Loan at 40%, and for the other 
loans at 32 % of the original interest. With the revenues at its 
disposal the International Commission has already been enabled 
to make certain augmentations in the service of the foreign debt; 
since 1900 it has begun to take measures for the reduction of the 
forced currency, of which 2,000,000 dr. will be annually bought up 
and destroyed till the amount in circulation is reduced to 40,000,000 
dr. On the 1st of January 1901 the authorized paper issue was 
164,000,000 dr., of which 92,000,000 (including 18,000,000 in 
fractional currency) was on account of the government; the amount 
in actual circulation was 148,619,618 dr. On the 3lst of July 1906 
the paper issue had been reduced to 152,775,975 dr., and the amount 
in circulation was 124,668,057 dr. The financial commission retains 
its powers until the extinction of all the foreign loans contracted 
since 1881. Though its activity is mainly limited to the administra- 
tion of the assigned revenues, it has exercised a beneficial influence 
over the whole domain of Greek finance ; the effect may be observed 
in the greatly enhanced value of Greek securities since its institution, 
averaging 25-76 % in 1906. No change can be made in its composi- 
tion or working without the consent of the six powers, and none of 
the officials employed in the collection of the revenues subject to its 
control ran be dismissed or transferred without its consent. It 
thus constitutes an element of stability and order which cannot 
fail to react on the general administration. It is unable, however, 
to control the expenditure or to assert any direct influence over 
the government, with which the responsibility still rests for an im- 
proved system of collection, a more efficient staff of functionaries 
and the repression of smuggling. The country has shown a re- 
markable vitality in recovering from the disasters of 1897, and 
should it in future obtain a respite from paroxysms of mili- 
tary and political excitement, its financial regeneration will be 
assured. 



The following table gives the actual expenditure and receipts for 
the period 1889-1906 inclusive: 



Year. 


Actual 
Receipts. 


Actual 
Expenditure. 


Surplus or 
Deficit. 




Drachmae. 


Drachmae. 


Drachmae. 


1889 


83.731.591 


110,772,327 


-27,040,736 


1890 


79.93 '.795 


125.932,579 


46,000,784 


1891 


90,321,872 


122,836,385 


-32,514.513 


1892 


95465.569 


107,283,498 


11,817,929 


1893' 


96,723,418 


92,133.565 


+ 4.589,853 


1894 


102,885,643 


85.135,752 


+ 17,749,891 


1895 


94,657,065 


91,641,967 


+ 3,015,098 


1896 


96,931,726 


90,890,607 


+ 6,041,119 


1 897 2 


92,485,825 


137.043.929 


-44,558,104 


iSgS 3 


104,949,718 


110,341,431 


- 5.391.713 


1899 


111,318,273 


104,586,504 


+ 6,731,769 


1900 


112,206,849 


112,049,279 


+ 157,570 


1901 


115,734.159 


113,646,301 


+ 2,087,858 


1902 


I23.949.93i 


121,885,707 


+ 2,064,224 


1903 


120,194,362 


"7.436,549 


+ 2,757,813 


1904 


121,186,246 


120,200,247 


+ 985,9W 


1905 


126,472,580 


118,699,761 


+ 7,772,819 


1906 


125.753,358 


124,461,577 


-(- 1,291,781 



The steady increase of receipts since 1898 attests the growing 
prosperity of the country, but expenditure has been allowed to out- 
strip revenue, and, notwithstanding the official figures which 
represent a series of surpluses, the accumulated deficit in 1905 
amounted to about 14,000,000 dr. in addition to treasury bonds for 
8,000,000 dr. A remarkable feature has been the rapid fall in the 
exchange since 1903 ; the gold franc, which stood at 1-63 dr. in 1902, 
had fallen to I -08 in October 1906. The decline, a favourable 
symptom if resulting from normal economic factors, is apparently 
due to a combination of exceptional circumstances, and consequently 
may not be maintained ; it has imposed a considerable strain on the 
financial and commercial situation. The purchasing power of the 
drachma remains almost stationary and the price of imported 
commodities continues high; import dues, which since 1904 are 
payable in drachmae at the fixed rate of I -45 to the franc, have been 
practically increased by more than 30%. In April 1900 a 4% loan 
of 43,750,000 francs for the completion of the railway from Peiraeus 
to the Turkish frontier, and another loan of 11,750,000 drachmae 
for the construction of a line from Pyrgos to Meligala, linking up 
the Morea railway system, were sanctioned by the Chamber; the 
first-named, the " Greek Railways Loan," was taken up at 80 by the 
syndicate contracting for the works and was placed on the market 
in 1902. The service of both loans is provided by the International 
Commission from the surplus funds of the assigned revenues. On 
the 1st of January 1906 the external debt amounted to 725,939,500 
francs and the internal (including the paper circulation) to 17 1 ,629,436 
drachmae. 

The budget estimates for 1906 were as follows: Civil list, 1,325,000 
dr.; pensions, payment of deputies, &c., 7,706,676 dr. ; public debt, 
34,253,471 dr.; foreign affairs, 3,563,994 dr.; justice, 6,240,271 
dr.; interior, 13,890,927 dr.; religion and education, 7,143,924 dr.; 
army, 20,618,563 dr.; navy, 7,583,369 dr.; finance, 2,362,143 
dr.; collection of revenue, 10,650,487 dr.; various expenditure, 
9,122,752 dr.; total, 124,461,577 dr. 

The two privileged banks in Greece are the National Bank, 
founded in 1841; capital 20,000,000 drachmae in 20,000 shares of 
looo dr. each, fully paid up; reserve fund 13,500,000 dr.; notes 
in circulation (September 1906) 126,721,887 dr., of which 76,360,905 
dr. on account of the government ; and the Ionian Bank, incorporated 
in 1839; capital paid up 315,500 in 63,102 shares of 5 each; 
notes in circulation, 10,200,000 drachmae, of which 3,500,000 (in 
fractional notes of i and 2 dr.) on account of the government. The 
notes issued by these two banks constitute the forced paper currency 
circulating throughout the kingdom. In the case of the Ionian Bank 
the privilege of issuing notes, originally limited to the Ionian Islands, 
will expire in 1920. The National Bank is a private institution under 
supervision of the government, which is represented by a royal 
commissioner on the board of administration; the central establish- 
ment is at Athens with forty-two branches throughout the country. 
The headquarters of the Ionian Bank, which is a British institution, 
are in London; the bank has a central office at Athens and five 
branches in Greece. The privileged Epiro-Thessalian Bank ceased to 
exist from the 4th of January 1900, when it was amalgamated with 
the National Bank. There are several other banking companies, as 
well as private banks, at Athens. The most important is the Bank 
of Athens (capital 40,000,000 dr.), founded in 1893; it possesses 
five branches in Greece and six abroad. 

Greece entered the Latin Monetary .Union in 1868. The monetary 
unit is the new drachma, equivalent to the franc, and divided into 



1 Reduction of interest on foreign debt by 70 %. 

2 War with Turkey. 

3 International Financial Commission instituted. 



440 



GREECE 



[HISTORY 



100 lepta or centimes. There are nickel coins of 20, 10 and 5 lepta, 
copper coins of ip and 5 lepta. Gold and silver coins were minted 
in Paris between 1868 and 1884, but have since practic- 
Curreacy, a n y disappeared from the country. The paper currency 
weights consists of notes for 1000 dr., 500 dr., 100 dr., 25 dr., 10 
dr. and 5 dr., and of fractional notes for 2 dr. and I dr. 
measures, rpj^ j^^-jj svs t em o f weights and measures was adopted 
in 1876, but some of the old Turkish standards are still in general 
use. The dram ^^ oz. avoirdupois approximately; the oke =400 
drams or 2-8 Ib; the kilo =22 okes or 0-114 f an imperial quarter; 
the cantar or quintal =44 okes or 123-2 ft. Liquids are measured 
by weight. The punta = if in. ; the ruppa, 3j in. ; the pik, 26 in. ; 
the stadion = I kilometre or 1093^ yds. The stremma (square 
measure) is nearly one-third of an acre. 

AUTHORITIES. W. Leake, Researches in Greece (1814), Travels in 
the Morea (3 vols., 1830), Travels in Northern Greece (4 vols., 1834), 
Peloponnesiaca (1846) ; Bursian, Geographic von Griechenland (2 vols., 
Leipzig, 1862-1873); Lolling, " Hellenische Landeskunde und 
Topographic " in Ivan Muller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertums- 
wissenschaft', C. Wordsworth, Greece; Pictorial, Descriptive and 
Historical (new ed., revised by H. F. Tozer, London, 1882); K. 
Stephanos, La Grece (Paris, 1884); C. Neumann and J. Partsch, 
Physikalische Geographic von Griechenland (Breslau, 1885); K. 
Krumbacher, Griechische Reise (Berlin, 1886); J. P. Mahaffy, 
Rambles and Studies in Greece (London, 1887) ; R. A. H. Bickford- 
Smith, Greece under King George (London, 1893); Ch. Diehl, Ex- 
cursions archeologiques en Grece (Paris, 1893); Perrot and Chipiez, 
Histoire de I'art, tome vi., "La Grece primitive" (Paris, 1894); 
tome vii., "La Grece archaique " (Paris, 1898); A. Philippson, 
Griechenland und seine Stellung im Orient (Leipzig, 1897); L. 
Sergeant, Greece in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1897) ; J. G. 
Frazer, Pausanias's Description of Greece (6 vols., London, 1898) ; 
Pausanias and other Greek Sketches (London, 1900); Greco-Turkish 
War of 1897, from official sources, by a German staff officer (Eng. 
trans., London, 1898); J. A. Symonds, Studies, and Sketches in 
Italy and Greece (3 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1898); V. B<5rard, La 
Turquie el I'hellenisme contemporaine (Paris, 1900). 

For the climate: D. Aeginetes, Td <c\i/io rijs 'EXXdSos (Athens, 
1908). 

For the fauna: Th. de Heldreich, La Fauna de la Grece (Athens, 
1878). 

For special topography: A. Meliarakes, KuxXaSutd <JTOI ytwypait>ia 
KaHtrTopiaTWJ'KuKXaSiKcoi' j^axoi^Athens, 1874) ',"Tironvfji*aTa 7rept7pa0wcd 
TUV KuxXdSwi' vifawv "AvSpov ical Kea> (Athens, 1880); Tcwypa<t>la 
iroXiTixi) v'ta. KO.I ap\ata TOV vo/u>v "Ap7oXi5os nal Kopittftas (Athens, 
1886); Tfo>ypa<t>ia TroXiTuci) vka. Kal dpxata TOV vopav Ke^aXX^ytas. 
(Athens, 1890); Th. Bent, The Cyclades (London, 1885); A. 
Botticher, Olympia (2nd ed., Berlin, 1886); J. Partsch, Die Insel 
Corfu: eine geographische Monographic (Gotha, 1887); Die Insel 
Leukas (Gotha, 1889); Kephallenia und Ithaka (Gotha, 1890); 
Die Insel Zante (Gotha, 1891); A. Philippson, Der Peloponnes. 
(Versuch einer Landeskunde auf geologischer Grundlage.) (Berlin, 
1892); " Thessalien und Epirus " (Reisen und Forschungen im 
nordlichen Griechenland) (Berlin, 1897) ; Die griechischen Inseln 
des dgaischen Meeres (Berlin, 1897); W. J. Woodhouse, Aetolia 
(Oxford, 1897) ; Schultz and Barnsley, The Monastery of St Luke of 
Stiris (London, 1901) ; M. Lamprinides, 'H NauirXia (Athens, 1898) ; 
Monuments de I'art byzantin, publics par le Ministere de 1'Instruction, 
tome i. ; G. Millet, " Le Monastere de Daphni " (Paris, 1900). For 
the life, customs and habits of the modern Greeks: C. Wachsmuth, 
Das alte Griechenland im neuen (Bonn, 1864); C. K. Tuckerman, 
The Greeks of to-day (London, 1873); B. Schmidt, Volksleben der 
Neugriechen und das hellenische Altertum (Leipzig, 1871); Estour- 
nelle de Constant, La Vie de province en Grece (Paris, 1878); E. 
About, La Grece contemporaine (Paris, 1855; 8th ed., 1883); J. T. 
Bent, Modern Life and Thought among the Greeks (London, 1891); 
J. Rennell Rodd, The Customs and Lore of Modern Greece (London, 
1892). Guide-books, Baedeker's Greece (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1905); 
Murray's Handbook for Greece (7th ed., London, 1905) ; Macmillan's 
Guide to the Eastern Mediterranean (London, 1901). (J. D. B.) 

2. HISTORY 
a. Ancient; to 146 B.C. 

i. Introductory. It is necessary to indicate at the outset the 
scope and object of the present article. The reader must not 
expect to find in it a compendious summary of the chief events 
in the history of ancient Greece. It is not intended to supply 
an " Outlines of Greek History." It may be questioned whether 
such a sketch of the history, within the limits of space which are 
necessarily imposed in a work of reference, would be of utility 
to any class of readers. At any rate, the plan of the present 
work, in which the subject of Greek history is treated of in a 
large number of separate articles, allows of the narrative of 
events being given in a more satisfactory form under the more 
general of the headings (e.g. ATHENS, SPARTA, PELOPONNESIAN 



WAR). The character of the history itself suggests a further 
reason why a general article upon Greek history should not 
be confined to, or even attempt, a narrative of events. A sketch 
of Greek history is not possible in the sense in which a sketch of 
Roman history, or even of English history, is possible. Greek 
history is not the history of a single state. When Aristotle 
composed his work upon the constitutions of the Greek states, 
he found it necessary to extend his survey to no less that 158 
states. Greek history is thus concerned with more than 150 
separate and independent political communities. Nor is it even 
the history of a single country. The area occupied by the Greek 
race extended from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus, and from 
southern Russia to northern Africa. It is inevitable, therefore, 
that the impression conveyed by a sketch of Greek history 
should be a misleading one. A mere narrative can hardly fail 
to give a false perspective. Experience shows that such a 
sketch is apt to resolve itself into the history of a few great 
movements and of a few leading states. What is still worse, 
it is apt to confine itself, at any rate for the greater part of the 
period dealt with, to the history of Greece in the narrower sense, 
i.e. of the Greek peninsula. For the identification of Greece 
with Greece proper there may be some degree of excuse when we 
come to the 5th and 4th centuries. In the period that lies behind 
the year 500 B.C. Greece proper forms but a small part of the 
Greek world. In the 7th and 6th centuries it is outside Greece 
itself that we must look for the most active life of the Greek 
people and the most brilliant manifestations of the Greek spirit. 
The present article, therefore, will be concerned with the causes 
and conditions of events, rather than with the events themselves; 
it will attempt analysis rather than narrative. Its object will 
be to indicate problems and to criticize views; to suggest 
lessons and parallels, and to estimate the importance of the 
Hellenic factor in the development of civilization. 

2. The Minoan and Mycenaean Ages. When does Greek 
history begin? Whatever may be the answer that is given to 
this question, it will be widely different from any that could 
have been proposed a generation ago. Then the question was, 
How late does Greek history begin? To-day the question is, 
How early does it begin? The suggestion made by Grote that 
the first Olympiad (776 B.C.) should be taken as the starting- 
point of the history of Greece, in the proper sense of the term 
" history," seemed likely, not so many years ago, to win general 
acceptance. At the present moment the tendency would seem 
to be to go back as far as the 3rd or 4th millennium B.C. in order 
to reach a starting-point. It is to the results of archaeological 
research during the last thirty years that we must attribute so 
startling a change in the attitude of historical science towards 
this problem. In the days when Grote published the first volumes 
of his History of Greece archaeology was in its infancy. Its 
results, so far as they affected the earlier periods of Greek history, 
were scanty; its methods were unscientific. The methods have 
been gradually perfected by numerous workers in the field; but 
the results, which have so profoundly modified our conceptions 
of the early history of the Aegean area, are principally due to the 
discoveries of two men, Heinrich Schliemann and A. J. Evans. 
A full account of these discoveries will be found elsewhere (see 
AEGEAN CIVILIZATION and CRETE). It will be sufficient to 
mention here that Schliemann's labours began with the excava- 
tions on the site of Troy in the years 1870-1873; that he passed 
on to the excavations at Mycenae in 1876 and to those at Tiryns 
in 1884. It was the discoveries of these years that revealed 
to us the Mycenaean age, and carried back the history to the 
middle of the 2nd millennium. The discoveries of Dr A. J. Evans 
in the island of Crete belong to a later period. The work of 
excavation was begun in 1900, and was carried on in subsequent 
years. It has revealed to us the Minoan age, and enabled us 
to trace back the development and origins of the civilization 
for a further period of 1000 or 1500 years. The dates assigned 
by archaeologists to the different periods of Mycenaean and 
Minoan art must be regarded as merely approximate. Even 
the relation of the two civilizations is still, to some extent, a 
matter of conjecture. The general chronological scheme, 



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S! /:f~ J*!^^! 



sM feliP - 5 1 * ' i 




HISTORY] 



GREECE 



441 



however, in the sense of the relative order of the various periods 
and the approximate intervals between them, is too firmly 
established, both by internal evidence, such as the development 
of the styles of pottery, and of the art in general, and by external 
evidence, such as the points of contact with Egyptian art and 
history, to admit of its being any longer seriously called in 
question. 

If, then, by " Greek history " is to be understood the history 
of the lands occupied in later times by the Greek race (i.e. the 
Greek peninsula and the Aegean basin), the beginnings of the 
history must be carried back some 2000 years before Grote's 
proposed starting-point. If, however, " Greek history " is taken 
to mean the history of the Greek people, the determination of 
the starting-point is far from easy. For the question to which 
archaeology does not as yet supply any certain answer is the 
question of race. Were the creators of the Minoan and 
Mycenaean civilization Greeks or were they not ? In some 
degree the Minoan evidence has modified the answer suggested 
by the Mycenaean. Although wide differences of opinion as to 
the origin of the Mycenaean civilization existed among scholars 
when the results of Schliemann's labours were first given to the 
world, a general agreement had gradually been arrived at in 
favour of the view which would identify Mycenaean with Achaean 
or Homeric. In presence of the Cretan evidence it is no longer 
possible to maintain this view with the same confidence. The 
two chief difficulties in the way of attributing either the Minoan 
or the Mycenaean civilization to an Hellenic people are connected 
respectively with the script and the religion. The excavations 
at Cnossus have yielded thousands of tablets written in the linear 
script. There is evidence that this script was in use among the 
Mycenaeans as well. If Greek was the language spoken at 
Cnossus and Mycenae, how is it that all attempts to decipher 
the script have hitherto failed ? The Cretan excavations, again, 
have taught us a great deal as to the religion of the Minoan age ; 
they have, at the same time, thrown a new light upon the evidence 
supplied by Mycenaean sites. It is no longer possible to ignore 
the contrast between the cults of the Minoan and Mycenaean 
ages, and the religious conceptions which they imply, and the 
cults and religious conceptions prevalent in the historical period. 
On the other hand, it may safely be asserted that the argument 
derived from the Mycenaean art, in which we seem to trace a 
freedom of treatment which is akin to the spirit of the later 
Greek art, and is in complete contrast to the spirit of Oriental 
art, has received striking confirmation from the remains of 
Minoan art. The decipherment of the script would at once 
solve the problem. We should at least know whether the 
dominant race in Crete in the Minoan age spoke an Hellenic or 
a non-Hellenic dialect. And what could be inferred with regard 
to Crete in the Minoan age could almost certainly be inferred 
with regard to the mainland in the Mycenaean age. In the 
meanwhile, possibly until the tablets are read, at any rate until 
further evidence is forthcoming, any answer that can be given 
to the question must necessarily be tentative and provisional. 
(See AEGEAN CIVILIZATION.) 

It has already been implied that this period of the history 
of Greece may be subdivided into a Minoan and a Mycenaean 
age. Whether these terms are appropriate is a question of 
comparatively little importance. They at least serve to remind 
us of the part played by the discoveries at Mycenae and Cnossus 
in the reconstruction of the history. The term " Mycenaean," 
it is true, has other associations than those of locality. It may 
seem to imply that the civilization disclosed in the excavations 
at Mycenae is Achaean in character, and that it is to be connected 
with the Pelopid dynasty to which Agamemnon belonged. In 
its scientific use, the term must be cleared of all such associations. 
Further, as opposed to " Minoan " it must be understood in a 
more definite sense than that in which it has often been employed. 
It has come to be generally recognized that two different periods 
are to be distinguished in Schliemann's discoveries at Mycenae 
itself. There is an earlier period, to which belong the objects 
found in the shaft-graves, and there is a later period, to which 
belong the beehive tombs and the remains of the palaces. It 



is the latter period which is " Mycenaean " in the strict sense; 
i.e. it is " Mycenaean " as opposed to " Minoan." To this 
period belong also the palace at Tiryns, the beehive-tombs 
discovered elsewhere on the mainland of Greece and one of the 
cities on the site of Troy (Schliemann's sixth). The pottery 
of this period is as characteristic of it, both in its forms (e.g. the 
" stirrup " or " false-necked " form of vase) and in its peculiar 
glaze, as is the architecture of the palaces and the beehive-tombs. 
Although the chief remains have been found on- the mainland 
of Greece itself, the art of this period is found to have extended 
as far north as Troy and as far east as Cyprus. On the other 
hand, hardly any traces of it have been discovered on the west 
coast of Asia Minor, south of the Troad. The Mycenaean age, 
in this sense, may be regarded as extending from 1600 to 1 200 B.C. 
The Minoan age is of far wider extent. Its latest period includes 
both the earlier and the later periods of the remains found at 
Mycenae. This is the period called by Dr Evans " Late Minoan." 
To this period belong the Great Palace at Cnossus and the 
linear system of writing. The " Middle Minoan " period, to 
which the earlier palace belongs, is characterized by the picto- 
graphic system of writing and by polychrome pottery of a 
peculiarly beautiful kind. Dr Evans proposes to carry back 
this period as far as 2500 B.C. Even behind it there are traces 
of a still earlier civilization. Thus the Minoan age, even if 
limited to the middle and later periods, will cover at least a 
thousand years. Perhaps the most surprising result of the 
excavations in Crete is the discovery that Minoan art is on a 
higher level than Mycenaean art. To the scholars of a generation 
ago it seemed a thing incredible that the art of the shaft-graves, 
and the architecture of the beehive-tombs and the palaces, could 
belong to the age before the Dorian invasion. The most recent 
discoveries seem to indicate that the art of Mycenae is a decadent 
art; they certainly prove that an art, hardly inferior in its way 
to the art of the classical period, and a civilization which implies 
the command of great material resources, were flourishing in the 
Aegean perhaps a thousand years before the siege of Troy. 

To the question, " What is the origin of this civilization? 
Is it of foreign derivation or of native growth ? " it is not 
possible to give a direct answer. It is clear, on the one 
hand that it was developed, by a gradual process of Oriental 
differentiation, from a culture which was common to ence. 
the whole Aegean basin and extended as far to the 
west as Sicily. It is equally clear, on the other hand, that 
foreign influences contributed largely to the process of develop- 
ment. Egyptian influences, in particular, can be traced through- 
out the " Minoan " and " Mycenaean " periods. The developed 
art, however, both in Crete and on the mainland, displays 
characteristics which are the very opposite of those which are 
commonly associated with the term " oriental." Egyptian 
work, even of the best period, is stiff and conventional; in the 
best Cretan work, and, in a less degree, in Mycenaean work, 
we find an originality and a freedom of treatment which remind 
one of the spirit of the Greek artists. The civilization is, in 
many respects, of an advanced type. The Cretan architects 
could design on a grand scale, and could carry out their designs 
with no small degree of mechanical skill. At Cnossus we find a 
system of drainage in use, which is far in advance of anything 
known in the modern world before the ipth century. If the art 
of the Minoan age falls short of the art of the Periclean age, it is 
hardly inferior to that of the age of Peisistratus. It is a civiliza- 
tion, too, which has long been familiar with the art of writing. 
But it is one that belongs entirely to the Bronze Age. Iron is not 
found until the very end of the Mycenaean period, and then 
only in small quantities. Nor is this the only point of contrast 
between the culture of the earliest age and that of the historical 
period in Greece. The chief seats of the early culture are to be 
found either in the island of Crete, or, on the mainland, at Tiryns 
and Mycenae. In the later history Crete plays no part, and 
Tiryns and Mycenae are obscure. With the great names of a 
later age, Argos, Sparta and Athens, no great discoveries are 
connected. In northern Greece, Orchomenos rather than Thebes 
is the centre of influence. Further points of contrast readily 



442 



GREECE 



[HISTORY 



suggest themselves. The so-called Phoenician alphabet, in 
use amongst the later Greeks, is unknown in the earliest age. 
Its systems of writing, both the earlier and the later one, are 
syllabic in character, and analogous to those in vogue in Asia 
Minor and Cyprus. In the art of war, the chariot is of more 
importance than the foot-soldier, and the latter, unlike the 
Greek hoplite, is lightly clad, and trusts to a shield large enough 
to cover the whole body, rather than to the metal helmet, breast- 
plate and greaves of later times (see ARMS AND ARMOUR : Creek). 
The political system appears to have been a despotic monarchy, 
and the realm of the monarch to have extended to far wider 
limits than those of the " city-states " of historical Greece. 
It is, perhaps, in the religious practices of the age, and in the 
ideas implied in them, that the contrast is most apparent. 
Neither in Crete nor on the mainland is there any trace of the 
worship of the " Olympian " deities. The cults in vogue remind 
us rather of Asia than of Greece. The worship of pillars and of 
trees carries us back to Canaan, while the double-headed axe, 
so prominent in the ritual of Cnossus, survives in later times 
as the symbol of the national deity of the Carians. The beehive- 
tombs, found on many sites on the mainland besides Mycenae, 
are evidence both of a method of sepulture and of ideas of the 
future state, which are alien to the practice and the thought 
of the Greeks of history. It is only in one region in the island 
of Cyprus that the culture of the Mycenaean age is found 
surviving into the historical period. As late as the beginning 
of the 5th century B.C. Cyprus is still ruled by kings, the alphabet 
has not yet displaced a syllabary, the characteristic forms of 
Mycenaean vases still linger on, and the chief dei^y of the island 
is the goddess with attendant doves whose images are among 
the common objects of Mycenaean finds. 

3. The Homeric Age. Alike in Crete and on the mainland 
the civilization disclosed by excavation comes abruptly to an 
end. In Crete we can trace it back from c. 1200 B.C. to the 
Neolithic period. From the Stone Age to the end of the Minoan 
Age the development is continuous and uninterrupted. 1 But 
between the culture of the Early Age and the culture of the 
Dorians, who occupied the island in historical times, no connexion 
whatever can be established. Between the two there is a great 
gulf fixed. It would be difficult to imagine a greater contrast 
than that presented by the rude life of the Dorian communities 
in Crete when it is compared with the political power, the material 
resources and the extensive commerce of the earlier period. 
The same gap between the archaeological age and the historical 
exists on the mainland also. It is true that the solution of 
continuity is here less complete. Mycenaean art continues, here 
and there, in a debased form down to the gth century, a date to 
which we can trace back the beginnings of the later Greek art. 
On one or two lines (e.g. architecture) it is even possible to 
establish some sort of connexion between them. But Greek 
art as a whole cannot be evolved from Mycenaean art. We 
cannot bridge over the interval that separates the latter art, even 
in its decline, from the former. It is sufficient to compare the 
" dipylon " ware (with which the process of development begins, 
which culminates in the pottery of the Great Age) with the 
Mycenaean vases, to satisfy oneself that the gulf exists. What 
then is the relation of the Heroic or Homeric Age (i.e. the age 
whose life is portrayed for us in the poems of Homer) to the 
Earliest Age ? It too presents many contrasts to the later 
periods. On the other hand, it presents contrasts to the Minoan 
Age, which, in their way, are not less striking. Is it then to be 
identified with the Mycenaean Age ? Schliemann, the dis- 
coverer of the Mycenaean culture, unhesitatingly identified 
Mycenaean with Homeric. He even identified the shaft-graves 
of Mycenae with the tombs of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra. 
Later inquirers, while refusing to discover so literal a corre- 
spondence between things Homeric and things Mycenaean, 
have not hesitated to accept a general correspondence between 
the Homeric Age and the Mycenaean. Where it is a case of 

1 It would be more accurate to say to the year 1500 B.C. At 
Cnossus the palace is sacked soon after this date, and the art, both 
in Crete and in the whole Aegean area, becomes lifeless and decadent. 



comparing literary evidence with archaeological, an exact 
coincidence is not of course to be demanded. The most that 
can be asked is that a general correspondence should be estab- 
lished. It may be conceded that the case for such a correspond- 
ence appears prima facie a strong one. There is much in Homer 
that seems to find confirmation or explanation in Schliemann's 
finds. Mycenae is Agamemnon's city; the plan of the Homeric 
house agrees fairly well with the palaces at Tiryns and Mycenae; 
the forms and the technique of Mycenaean art serve to illustrate 
passages in the poems; such are only a few of the arguments 
that have been urged. It is the great merit of Professor Ridge- 
way's work (The Early Age of Greece) that it has demonstrated, 
once and for all, that Mycenaean is not Homeric pure and simple. 
He insists upon differences as great as the resemblances. Iron is 
in common use in Homer; it is practically unknown to the 
Mycenaeans. In place of the round shield and the metal armour 
of the Homeric soldier, we find at Mycenae that the warrior is 
lightly clad in linen, and that he fights behind an oblong shield, 
which covers the whole body; nor are the chariots the same in 
form. The Homeric dead are cremated; the Mycenaean are 
buried. The gods of Homer are the deities of Olympus, of whose 
cult no traces are to be found in the Mycenaean Age. The 
novelty of Professor Ridgeway's theory is that for the accepted 
equation, Homeric = Achaean = Mycenaean, he proposes to 
substitute the equations, Homeric = Achaean = post-Mycenaean, 
and Mycenaean = pre- Achaean = Pelasgian. The Mycenaean 
civilization he attributes to the Pelasgians, whom he regards 
as the indigenous population of Greece, the ancestors of the later 
Greeks, and themselves Greek both in speech and blood. The 
Homeric heroes are Achaeans, a fair-haired Celtic race, whose 
home was in the Danube valley, where they had learned the use 
of iron. In Greece they are newcomers, a conquering class 
comparable to the Norman invaders of England or Ireland, 
and like them they have acquired the language of their subjects 
in the course of a few generations. The Homeric civilization 
is thus Achaean, i.e. it is Pelasgian (Mycenaean) civilization, 
appropriated by a ruder race; but the Homeric culture is far 
inferior to the Mycenaean. Here, at any rate, the Norman 
analogy breaks down. Norman art in England is far in advance 
of Saxon. Even in Normandy (as in Sicily), where the Norman 
appropriated rather than introduced, he not only assimilated 
but developed. In Greece the process must have been reversed. 

The theory thus outlined is probably stronger on its destructive 
side than on its constructive. To treat the Achaeans as an 
immigrant race is to run counter to the tradition of the Greeks 
themselves, by whom the Achaeans were regarded as indigenous 
(cf. Herod, viii. 73). Nor is the Pelasgian part of the theory 
easy to reconcile with the Homeric evidence. If the Achaeans 
were a conquering class ruling over a Pelasgian population, 
we should expect to find this difference of race a prominent 
feature in Homeric society. We should, at least, expect to find 
a Pelasgian background to the Homeric picture. As a matter 
of fact, we find nothing of the sort. There is no consciousness 
in the Homeric poems of a distinction of race between the 
governing and the subject classes. There are, indeed, Pelasgians 
in Homer, but the references either to the people or the name 
are extraordinarily few. They appear as a people, presumably 
in Asia Minor, in alliance with the Trojans; they appear also, 
in a single passage, as one of the tribes inhabiting Crete. The 
name survives in " Pelasgicon Argos," which is probably to be 
identified with the valley of the Spercheius, 2 and as an epithet 
of Zeus of Dodona. The population, however, of Pelasgicon 
Argos and of Dodona is no longer Pelasgian. Thus, in the age 
of Homer, the Pelasgians belong, so far as Greece proper is 
concerned, to a past that is already remote. It is inadmissible 
to appeal to Herodotus against Homer. For the conditions 
of the Homeric age Homer is the sole authoritative witness. 
If, however, Professor Ridgeway has failed to prove that 
" Mycenaean " equals " Pelasgian," he has certainly proved 
that much that is Homeric is post-Mycenaean. It is possible 

2 See T. W. Allen in the Classical Review, vol. xx. (1906), No. 4 

(May). 



HISTORY] 



GREECE 



443 



that different strata are to be distinguished in the Homeric 
poems. There are passages which seem to assume the conditions 
of the Mycenaean age; there are others which presuppose the 
conditions of a later age. It may be that the latter passages 
reflect the circumstances of the poet's own times, while the 
former ones reproduce those of an earlier period. If so, the 
substitution of iron for bronze must have been effected in the 
interval between the earlier and the later periods. 

It has already been pointed out that the question whether 
the makers of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations were 
Greeks must still be regarded as an open one. No 
*"*' such question can be raised as to the Homeric Age. 

state. The Achaeans may or may not have been Greek in 
blood. What is certain is that the Achaean Age 
forms an integral part of Greek history. Alike on the linguistic, 
the religious and the political sides, Homer is the starting-point 
of subsequent developments. In the Greek dialects the great 
distinction is that between the Doric and the rest. Of the non- 
Doric dialects the two main groups are the Aeolic and Ionic, 
both of which have been developed, by a gradual process of 
differentiation, from the language of the Homeric poems. With 
regard to religion it is sufficient to refer to the judgment of 
Herodotus, that it was Homer and Hesiod who were the authors 
of the Greek theogony (ii. 53 ovroi tl<n ol iroiriaavTes deoyoviijv 
"EX\T/<Tt). It is a commonplace that Homer was the Bible of the 
Greeks. On the political side, Greek constitutional development 
would be unintelligible without Homer. When Greek history, 
in the proper sense, begins, oligarchy is almost universal. Every- 
where, however, an antecedent stage of monarchy has to be 
presupposed. In the Homeric system monarchy is the sole 
form of government; but it is monarchy already well on the 
way to being transformed into oligarchy. In the person of the 
king are united the functions of priest, of judge and of leader 
in war. He belongs to a family which claims divine descent 
and his office is hereditary. He is, however, no despotic monarch. 
He is compelled by custom to consult the council (boule) of the 
elders, or chiefs. He must ask their opinion, and, if he fails 
to obtain their consent, he has no power to enforce his will. 
Even when he has obtained the consent of the council, the 
proposal still awaits the approval of the assembly (agora) , of the 
people. 

Thus in the Homeric state we find the germs not only of the 
oligarchy and democracy of later Greece, but also of all the 
various forms of constitution known to the Western 
world. And a monarchy such as is depicted in the 
Homeric poems is clearly ripe for transmutation 
into oligarchy. The chiefs are addressed as kings (/JocriXijes), and 
claim, equally with the monarch, descent from the gods. 
In Homer, again, we can trace the later organization into tribe 
(<j>v\ri), clan (yivos), and phratry, which is characteristic of 
Greek society in the historical period, and meets us in analogous 
forms in other Aryan societies. The yevos corresponds to the 
Roman gens, the <f>v\f] to the Roman tribe, and the phratry to 
the curia. The importance of the phratry in Homeric society is 
illustrated by the well-known passage (Iliad ix. 63) in which 
the outcast is described as " one who belongs to no phratry " 
(<X$/MJTO>P). It is a society that is, of course, based upon slavery, 
but it is slavery in its least repulsive aspect. The treatment 
which Eumaeus and Eurycleia receive at the hands of the poet 
of the Odyssey is highly creditable to the humanity of the age. 
A society which regarded the slave as a mere chattel would have 
been impatient of the interest shown in a swineherd and a nurse. 
It is a society, too, that exhibits many of the distinguishing 
traits of later Greek life. Feasting and quarrels, it is true, are 
of more moment to the heroes than to the contemporaries of 
Pericles or Plato; but " music " and " gymnastic " (though 
the terms must be understood in a more restricted sense) are as 
distinctive of the age of Homer as of that of Pindar. In one 
respect there is retrogression in the historical period. Woman 
in Homeric society enjoys a greater freedom, and receives greater 
respect, than in the Athens of Sophocles and Pericles. 
4. The Growth of the Greek States The Greek world at the 






beginning of the 6th century B.C. presents a picture in many 
respects different from that of the Homeric Age. The Greek 
race is no longer confined to the Greek peninsula. It occupies 
the islands of the Aegean, the western seaboard of Asia Minor, 
the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace, of southern Italy and 
Sicily. Scattered settlements are found as far apart as the mouth 
of the Rhone, the north of Africa, the Crimea and the eastern 
end of the Black Sea. The Greeks are called by a national name, 
Hellenes, the symbol of a fully-developed national self-conscious- 
ness. They are divided into three great branches, the Dorian, 
the Ionian and the Aeolian, names almost, or entirely, unknown 
to Homer. The heroic monarchy has nearly everywhere dis- 
appeared. In Greece proper, south of Thermopylae, it survives, 
but in a peculiar form, in the Spartan state alone. What is the 
significance and the explanation of contrasts so profound? 

It is probable that the explanation is to be found, directly 
or indirectly, in a single cause, the Dorian invasion. In Homer 
the Dorians are mentioned in one passage only (Odyssey 
xix. 177). They there appear as one of the races which 
inhabit Crete. In the historical period the whole 
Peloponnese, with the exception of Arcadia, Elis and Achaea, 
is Dorian. In northern Greece the Dorians occupy the little 
state of Doris, and in the Aegean they form the population 
of Crete, Rhodes and some smaller islands. Thus the chief 
centres of Minoan and Mycenaean culture have passed into 
Dorian hands, and the chief seats of Achaean power are included 
in Dorian states. Greek tradition explained the overthrow of 
the Achaean system by an invasion of the Peloponnese by the 
Dorians, a northern tribe, which had found a temporary home in 
Doris. The story ran that, after an unsuccessful attempt to 
force an entrance by the Isthmus of Corinth, they had crossed 
from Naupactus, at the mouth of the Corinthian Gulf, landed 
on the opposite shore, and made their way into the heart of the 
Peloponnese, where a single victory gave them possession of the 
Achaean states. Their conquests were divided among the 
invaders into three shares, for which lots were cast, and thus 
the three states of Argos, Sparta and Messenia were created. 
There is much in this tradition that is impossible or improbable. 
It is impossible, e.g. for the tiny state of Doris, with its three 
or four " small, sad villages " (irb\tis /u/cpai xat Xwrpox^poi, 
Strabo, p. 427), to have furnished a force of invaders sufficient 
to conquer and re-people the greater part of the Peloponnese. 
It is improbable that the conquest should have been either as 
sudden, or as complete, as the legend represents. On the 
contrary, there are indications that the conquest was gradual, 
and that the displacement of the older population was incomplete. 
The improbability of the details affords, however, no ground 
for questioning the reality of the invasion. 1 The tradition 
can be traced back at Sparta to the 7th century B.C. (Tyrtaeus, 
quoted by Strabo, p. 362), and there is abundant evidence, other 
than that of legend, to corroborate it. There is the Dorian name, 
to begin with. If, as Beloch supposes, it originated on the coast 
of Asia Minor, where it served to distinguish the settlers in 
Rhodes and the neighbouring islands from the lonians and 
Aeolians to the north of them, how came the great and famous 
states of the Peloponnese to adopt a name in use among the 
petty colonies planted by their kinsmen across the sea? Or, if 
Dorian is simply Old Peloponnesian, how are we to account for 
the Doric dialect or the Dorian pride of race? 

It is true that there are great differences between the literary 
Doric, the dialect of Corinth and Argos, and the dialects of 
Laconia and Crete, and that there are affinities between the 
dialect of Laconia and the non-Dorian dialects of Arcadia and 
Elis. It is equally true, however, and of far more consequence, 
that all the Doric dialects are distinguished from all other Greek 
dialects by certain common characteristics. Perhaps the 
strongest sentiment in the Dorian nature is the pride of race. 
Indeed, it looks as if the Dorians claimed to be the sole genuine 
Hellenes. How can we account for an indigenous population, 
first imagining itself to be immigrant, and then developing a 

1 It has been impugned by J. Beloch, Griechische Geschichte, i. 
149 ff- 



444 



GREECE 



[HISTORY 



contempt for the rest of the race, equally indigenous with itself, 
on account of a fictitious difference in origin? Finally, there 
is the archaeological evidence. The older civilization comes to 
an abrupt end, and it does so, on the mainland at least, at the 
very period to which tradition assigns the Dorian migration. 
Its development is greatest, and its overthrow most complete, 
precisely in the regions occupied by the Dorians and the other 
tribes, whose migrations were traditionally connected with 
theirs. It is hardly too much to say that the archaeologist would 
have been compelled to postulate an inroad into central and 
southern Greece of tribes from the north, at a lower level of 
culture, in the course of the I2th and nth centuries B.C., if the 
historian had not been able to direct him to the traditions of the 
great migrations (juerayaorcuras), of which the Dorian invasion 
was the chief. With the Dorian migration Greek tradition 
connected the expansion of the Greek race eastwards across the 
Aegean. In the historical period the Greek settlements on the 
western coast of Asia Minor fall into three clearly defined groups. 
To the north is the Aeolic group, consisting of the island of 
Lesbos and twelve towns, mostly insignificant, on the opposite 
mainland. To the south is the Dorian hexapolis, consisting of 
Cnidus and Halicarnassus on the mainland, and the islands of 
Rhodes and Cos. In the centre comes the Ionian dodecapolis, 
a group consisting of ten towns on the mainland, together with 
the islands of Samos and Chios. Of these three groups, the 
Ionian is incomparably the most important. The lonians also 
occupy Euboea and the Cyclades. Although it would appear 
that Cyprus (and possibly Pamphylia) had been occupied by 
settlers from Greece in the Mycenaean age, Greek tradition is 
probably correct in putting the colonization of Asia Minor and 
the islands of the Aegean after the Dorian migration. Both the 
Homeric and the archaeological evidence seem to point to the 
same conclusion. Between Rhodes on the south and the Troad 
on the north scarcely any Mycenaean remains have been found. 
Homer is ignorant of any Greeks east of Euboea. If the poems 
are earlier than the Dorian Invasion, his silence is conclusive. 
If the poems are some centuries later than the Invasion, they at 
least prove that, within a few generations of that event, it was 
the belief of the Greeks of Asia Minor that their ancestors had 
crossed the seas after the close of the Heroic Age. It is probable, 
too, that the names Ionian and Aeolian, the former of which is 
found once in Homer, and the latter not at all, originated among 
the colonists in Asia Minor, and served to designate, in the first 
instance, the members of the Ionic and Aeolic dodecapoleis. 
As Curtius 1 pointed out, the only Ionia known to history is in 
Asia Minor. It does not follow that Ionia is the original home 
of the Ionian race, as Curtius argued. It almost certainly 
follows, however, that it is the original home of the Ionian 
name. 

It is less easy to account for the name Hellenes. The Greeks 
were profoundly conscious of their common nationality, and of 
the gulf that separated them from the rest of mankind. They 
themselves recognized a common race and language, and a 
common type of religion and culture, as the chief factors in this 
sentiment of nationality (see Herod, viii. 144 rt> 'EXXiji'tKoj' tbv 
onaifiov Te Kal o/joyXoxrcrov Kal deSiv Idpiinara Tf KOIVO. Kal 
Qvffiaj. fiOta re oiwrpaira). "Hellenes" was the name of their 
common race, and " Hellas " of their common country. In 
Homer there is no distinct consciousness of a common nation- 
ality, and consequently no antithesis of Greek and Barbarian 
(see Thuc. i. 3). Nor is there a true collective name. There are 
indeed Hellenes (though the name occurs in one passage only, 
Iliad ii. 684), and there is a Hellas; but his Hellas, whatever its 
precise signification may be, is, at any rate, not equivalent either 
to Greece proper or to the land of the Greeks, and his Hellenes are 
the inhabitants of a small district to the south of Thessaly. It 
is possible that the diffusion of the Hellenic name was due to the 
Dorian invaders. Its use can be traced back to the first half of 
the 7th century. Not less obscure are the causes of the fall of 
monarchy. It cannot have been the immediate effect of the 

1 History of Greece (Eng. trans., i. 32 ff.); cf. the same writer's 
loner vor der ionischen Wanderung. 



Dorian conquest, for the states founded by the Dorians were at 
first monarchically governed. It may, however, have been an in- 
direct effect of it. We have already seen that the power of the 
Homeric king is more limited than that of the rulers of 
Cnossus, Tiryns or Mycenae. In other words, monarchy 
is already in decay at the epoch of the Invasion. The 
Invasion, in its effects on wealth, commerce and civilization, is 
almost comparable to the irruption of the barbarians into the 
Roman empire. The monarch of the Minoan and Mycenaean age 
has extensive revenues at his command ; the monarch of the early 
Dorian states is little better than a petty chief. Thus the interval, 
once a wide one, that separates him from the nobles tends to dis- 
appear. The decay of monarchy was gradual; much more gradual 
than is generally recognized. There were parts of the Greek world 
in which it still survived in the 6th century, e.g. Sparta, Cyrene, 
Cyprus, and possibly Argos and Tarentum. Both Herodotus 
and Thucydides apply the title "king" (/3o<riXei)s) to the rulers 
of Thessaly in the sth century. The date at which monarchy 
gave place to a republican form of government must have 
differed, and differed widely, in different cases. The traditions 
relating to the foundation of Cyrene assume the existence of 
monarchy in Thera and in Crete in the middle of the 7th century 
(Herodotus iv. 150 and 154), and the reign of Amphicrates 
at Samos (Herod, iii. 59) can hardly be placed more than a 
generation earlier. In view of our general ignorance of the history 
of the 7th and Sth centuries, it is hazardous to pronounce these 
instances exceptional. On the other hand, the change from 
monarchy to oligarchy was completed at Athens before the end 
of the 8th century, and at a still earlier date in some of the other 
states. The process, again, by which the change was effected 
was, in all probability, less uniform than is generally assumed. 
There are extremely few cases in which we have any trustworthy 
evidence, and the instances about which we are informed refuse 
to be reduced to any common type. In Greece proper our 
information is fullest in the case of Athens and Argos. In the 
former case, the king is gradually stripped of his powers by a 
process of devolution. An hereditary king, ruling for life, is 
replaced by three annual and elective magistrates, between 
whom are divided the executive, military and religious functions 
of the monarch (see ARCHON). At Argos the fall of the monarchy 
is preceded by an aggrandisement of the royal prerogatives. 
There is nothing in common between these two cases, and there 
is no reason to suppose that the process elsewhere was analogous 
to that at Athens. Everywhere, however, oligarchy is the 
form of government which succeeds to monarchy. Political 
power is monopolized by a class of nobles, whose claim to govern 
is based upon birth and the possession of land, the most valuable 
form of property in an early society. Sometimes power is 
confined to a single clan (e.g. the Bacchiadae at Corinth); more 
commonly, as at Athens, all houses that are noble are equally 
privileged. In every case there is found, as the adviser of the 
executive, a Boule, or council, representative of the privileged 
class. Without such a council a Greek oligarchy is inconceivable. 
The relations of the executive to the council doubtless varied. 
At Athens it is clear that the real authority was exercised by the 
archons; 2 in many states the magistrates were probably sub- 
ordinate to the council (cf . the relation of the consuls to the senate 
at Rome). And it is clear that the way in which the oligarchies 
used their power varied also. The cases in which the power was 
abused are naturally the ones of which we hear; for an abuse 
of power gave rise to discontent and was the ultimate cause of 
revolution. We hear little or nothing of the cases in which 
power was exercised wisely. Happy is the constitution which 
has no annals! We know, however, that oligarchy held its 
ground for generations, or even for centuries, in a large propor- 
tion of the Greek states; and a government which, like the 
oligarchies of Elis, Thebes or Aegina, could maintain itself for 
three or four centuries cannot have been merely oppressive. 

2 If the account of early Athenian constitutional history given in 
the Athenaion Politeia were accepted, it would follow that the 
archons were inferior in authority to the Eupatrid Boule, the 
Areopagus. 



HISTORY] 



GREECE 



445 



The period of the transition from monarchy to oligarchy 
is the period in which commerce begins to develop, and trade- 
routes to be organized. Greece had been the centre of 
an active trade in the Minoan and Mycenaean epochs. 
The products of Crete and of the Peloponnese had found their 
way to Egypt and Asia Minor. The overthrow of the older 
civilization put an end to commerce. The seas became insecure 
and intercourse with the East was interrupted. Our earliest 
glimpses of the Aegean after the period of the migrations disclose 
the raids of the pirate and the activity of the Phoenician trader. 
It is not till the 8th century has dawned that trade begins to 
revive, and the Phoenician has to retire before his Greek com- 
petitor. For some time to come, however, no clear distinction is 
drawn between the trader and the pirate. The pioneers of Greek 
trade in the West are the pirates of Cumae (Thucyd. vi. 4). 
The expansion of Greek commerce, unlike that of the commerce 
of the modern world, was not connected with any great scientific 
discoveries. There is nothing in the history of ancient navigation 
that is analogous to the invention of the mariner's compass or 
of the steam-engine. In spite of this, the development of Greek 
commerce in the 7th and 6th centuries was rapid. It must have 
been assisted by the great discovery of the early part of the 
former century, the invention of coined money. To the Lydians, 
rather than the Greeks, belongs the credit of the discovery; 
but it was the genius of the latter race that divined the import- 
ance of the invention and spread its use. The coinage of the 
Ionian towns goes back to the reign of Gyges (c. 675 B.C.). And 
it is in Ionia that commercial development is earliest and greatest. 
In the most distant regions the Ionian is first in the field. Egypt 
and the Black Sea are both opened up to Greek trade by Miletus, 
the Adriatic and the Western Mediterranean by Phocaea and 
Samos. It is significant that of the twelve states engaged in the 
Egyptian trade in the 6th century all, with the exception of 
Aegina, are from the eastern side of the Aegean (Herod, ii. 178). 
On the western side the chief centres of trade during these 
centuries were the islands of Euboea and Aegina and the town 
of Corinth. The Aeginetan are the earliest coins of Greece 
proper (c. 650 B.C.); and the two rival scales of weights and 
measures, in use amongst the Greeks of every age, are the 
Aeginetan and the Euboic. Commerce naturally gave rise to 
commercial leagues, and commercial relations tended to bring 
about political alliances. 'Foreign policy even at this early 
epoch seems to have been largely determined by considerations 
of commerce. Two leagues, the members of which were connected 
by political as well as commercial ties, can be recognized. At 
the head of each stood one of the two rival powers in the island 
of Euboea, Chalcis and Eretria. Their primary object was 
doubtless protection from the pirate and the foreigner. Compet- 
ing routes were organized at an early date under their influence, 
and their trading connexions can be traced from the heart of 
Asia Minor to the north of Italy. Miletus, Sybaris and Etruria 
were members of the Eretrian league; Samos, Corinth, Rhegium 
and Zancle (commanding the Straits of Messina), and Cumae, 
on the Bay of Naples; of the Chalcidian. The wool of the 
Phrygian uplands, woven in the looms of Miletus, reached the 
Etruscan markets by way of Sybaris; through Cumae, Rome 
and the rest of Latium obtained the elements of Greek culture. 
Greek trade, however, was confined to the Mediterranean area. 
The Phoenician and the Carthaginian navigators penetrated 
to Britain; they discovered the passage round the Cape two 
thousand years before Vasco da Gama's time. The Greek sailor 
dared not adventure himself outside the Black Sea, the Adriatic 
and the Mediterranean. Greek trade, too, was essentially mari- 
time. Ports visited by Greek vessels were often the starting 
points of trade-routes into the interior; the traffic along those 
routes was left in the hands of the natives (see e.g. Herod, iv. 24). 
One service, the importance of which can hardly beoverestimated, 
was rendered to civilization by the Greek traders the invention 
of geography. The science of geography is the invention of the 
Greeks. The first maps were made by them (in the 6th century) ; 
and it was the discoveries and surveys of their sailors that made 
map-making possible. 



" 



Closely connected with the history of Greek trade is the 
history of Greek colonization. The period of colonization, in 
its narrower sense, extends from the middle of the 
8th to the middle of the 6th century. Greek coloniza- 
tion is, however, merely a continuation of the process 
which at an earlier epoch had led to the settlement, first of 
Cyprus, and then of the islands and coasts of the Aegean. From 
the earlier settlements the colonization of the historical period 
is distinguished by three characteristics. The later colony 
acknowledges a definite metropolis ( "mother-city"); it is 
planted by a definite oecist (oiwcrnfc) ; it has a definite date 
assigned to its foundation. 1 It would be a mistake to regard 
Greek colonization as commercial in origin, in the sense that the 
colonies were in all cases established as trading-posts. This 
was the case with the Phoenician and Carthaginian settlements, 
most of which remained mere factories; and some of the Greek 
colonies (e.g. many of those planted by Miletus on the shores 
of the Black Sea) bore this character. The typical Greek colony, 
however, was neither in origin nor in development a mere 
trading-post. It was, or it became, a polis, a city-state, in which 
was reproduced the life of the parent state. Nor was Greek 
colonization, like the emigration from Europe to America and 
Australia in the igth century, simply the result of over-popula- 
tion. The causes were as various as those which can be traced 
in the history of modern colonization. Those which were 
established for the purposes of trade may be compared to the 
factories of the Portuguese and Dutch in Africa and the Far East. 
Others were the result of political discontent, in some form or 
shape; these may be compared to the Puritan settlements 
in New England. Others again were due to ambition or the 
mere love of adventure (see Herod, v. 42 ff., the career of 
Dorieus). But however various the causes, two conditions 
must always be presupposed an expansion of commerce and 
a growth of population. Within the narrow limits of the city- 
state there was a constant tendency for population to become 
redundant, until, as in the later centuries of Greek life, its 
growth was artificially restricted. Alike from the Roman 
colonies, and from those founded by the European nations 
in the course of the last few centuries, the Greek colonies are 
distinguished by a fundamental contrast. It is significant that 
the contrast is a political one. The Roman colony was in a 
position of entire subordination to the Roman state, of which it 
formed a part. The modern colony was, in varying degrees, 
in political subjection to the home government. The Greek 
colony was completely independent; and it was independent 
from the first. The ties that united a colony to its metropolis 
were those of sentiment and interest; the political tie did not 
exist. There were, it is true, exceptions. The colonies estab- 
lished by imperial Athens closely resembled the colonies of 
imperial Rome. The cleruchy (q.v.) formed part of the Athenian 
state; the cleruchs kept their status as citizens of Athens and 
acted as a military garrison. And if the political tie, in the 
proper sense, was wanting, it was inevitable that political 
relations should spring out of commercial or sentimental ones. 
Thus we find Corinth interfering twice to save her colony Syracuse 
from destruction, and Megara bringing about the revolt of 
Byzantium, her colony, from Athens. Sometimes it is not easy 
to distinguish political relations from a political tie (e.g. the 
relations of Corinth, both in the Persian and Peloponnesian 
Wars, to Ambracia and the neighbouring group of colonies). 
When we compare the development of the Greek and the modern 
colonies we shall find that the development of the former was 
even more rapid than that of the latter.- In at least three 
respects the Greek settler was at an advantage as compared 
with the colonist of modern times. The differences of race, of 
colour and of climate, with which the chief problems of modern 
colonization are connected, played no part in the history of the 
Greek settlements. The races amongst whom the Greeks planted 

1 The dates before the middle of the 7th century are in most cases 
artificial, e.e. those given by Thucydides (book vi.) for the earlier 
Sicilian settlements. See J. P. Mahaffy, Journal of Hellenic Studies, 
ii. 164 IT. 



446 



GREECE 



[HISTORY 



themselves were in some cases on a similar level of culture. 
Where the natives were still backward or barbarous, they came 
of a stock either closely related to the Greek, or at least separated 
from it by no great physical differences. We need only contrast 
the Carian, the Sicel, the Thracian or even the Scythian, with 
the native Australian, the Hottentot, the Red Indian or the 
Maori, to apprehend the advantage of the Greek. Amalgama- 
tion with the native races was easy, and it involved neither 
physical nor intellectual degeneracy as its consequence. Of the 
races with which the Greeks came in contact the Thracian was 
far from the highest in the scale of culture; yet three of the 
greatest names in the Great Age of Athens are those of men who 
had Thracian blood in their veins, viz. Themistocles, Cimon 
and the historian Thucydides. In the absence of any distinction 
of colour, no insuperable barrier existed between the Greek and 
the hellenized native. The demos of the colonial cities was 
largely recruited from the native population, 1 nor was there 
anything in the Greek world analogous to the " mean whites " 
or the " black belt." Of hardly less importance were the 
climatic conditions. In this respect the Mediterranean area is 
unique. There is no other region of the world of equal extent 
in which these conditions are at once so uniform and so favourable. 
Nowhere had the Greek settler to encounter a climate which 
was either unsuited to his labour or subversive of his vigour. 
That in spite of these advantages so little, comparatively 
speaking, was effected in the work of Hellenization before 
the epoch of Alexander and the Diadochi, was the effect of a 
single counteracting cause. The Greek colonist, like the Greek 
trader, clung to the shore. He penetrated no farther inland 
than the sea-breeze. Hence it was only in islands, such as 
Sicily or Cyprus, that the process of Hellenization was complete. 
Elsewhere the Greek settlements formed a mere fringe along the 
coast. 

To the 7th century there belongs another movement of high 
importance in its bearing upon the economic, religious and 
literary development of Greece, as well as upon its 
constitutional history. This movement is the rise of 
the tyrannis. In the political writers of a later age the 
word possesses a clear-cut connotation. From other forms 
of monarchy it is distinguished by a twofold differentiation. 
The tyrannus is an unconstitutional ruler, and his authority 
is exercised over unwilling subjects. In the 7th and 6th centuries 
the line was not drawn so distinctly between the tyrant and the 
legitimate monarch. Even Herodotus uses the words " tyrant " 
and " king " interchangeably (e.g. the princes of Cyprus are 
called " kings " in v. no and " tyrants " in v. 109), so that it 
is sometimes difficult to decide whether a legitimate monarch 
or a tyrant is meant (e.g. Aristophilides of Tarentum, iii. 136, 
or Telys of Sybaris, v. 44). But the distinction between the 
tyrant and the king of the Heroic Age is a valid one. It is not 
true that his rule was always exercised over unwilling subjects; 
it is true that his position was always unconstitutional. The 
Homeric king is a legitimate monarch; his authority is invested 
with the sanctions of religion and immemorial custom. The 
tyrant is an illegitimate ruler; his authority is not recognized, 
either by customary usage or by express enactment. But the 
word " tyrant " was originally a neutral term; it did not 
necessarily imply a misuse of power. The origin of the tyrannis 
is obscure. The word lyrannus has been thought, with some 
reason, to be a Lydian one. Probably both the name and the 
thing originated in the Greek colonies of Asia Minor, though the 
earliest tyrants of whom we hear in Asia Minor (at Ephesus and 
Miletus) are a generation later than the earliest in Greece itself, 
where, both at Sicyon and at Corinth, tyranny appears to date 
back to the second quarter of the 7th century. It is not unusual 
to regard tyranny as a universal stage in the constitutional 
development of the Greek states, and as a stage that occurs 
everywhere at one and the same period. In reality, tyranny 
is confined to certain regions, and it is a phenomenon that is 
peculiar to no one age or century. In Greece proper, before the 

1 At Syracuse the demos makes common cause with the Sicel 
serf -population against' the nobles (Herod, vii. 155). 



The 
tyrants. 



4th century B.C., it is confined to a small group of states round the 
Corinthian and Saronic Gulfs. The greater part of the Pelo- 
ponnese was exempt from it, and there is no good evidence for its 
existence north of the Isthmus, except at Megara and Athens. 
It plays no part in the history of the Greek cities in Chalcidice 
and Thrace. It appears to have been rare in the Cyclades. 
The regions in which it finds a congenial soil are two, Asia Minor 
and Sicily. Thus it is incorrect to say that most Greek states 
passed through this stage. It is still wider of the mark to 
assume that they passed through it at the same time. There is 
no " Age of the Tyrants." Tyranny began in the Peloponnese 
a hundred years before it appears in Sicily, and it has disappeared 
in the Peloponnese almost before it begins in Sicily. In the 
latter the great age of tyranny comes at the beginning of the 
5th century; in the former it is at the end of the 7th and the 
beginning of the 6th. At Athens the history of tyranny begins 
after it has ended both at Sicyon and Corinth. There is, indeed, 
a period in which tyranny is non-existent in the Greek states; 
roughly speaking, the last sixty years of the 5th century. But 
with this exception, there is no period in which the tyrant is 
not to be found. The greatest of all the tyrannies, that of 
Dionysius at Syracuse, belongs to the 4th century. Nor must 
it be assumed that tyranny always comes at the same stage in 
the history of a constitution; that it is always a stage between 
oligarchy and democracy. At Corinth it is followed, not by 
democracy but by oligarchy, and it is an oligarchy that lasts, 
with a brief interruption, for two hundred and fifty years. At 
Athens it is not immediately preceded by oligarchy. Between 
the'Eupatrid oligarchy and the rule of Peisistratus there comes 
the timocracy of Solon. These exceptions do not stand alone. 
The cause of tyranny is, in one sense, uniform. In the earlier 
centuries, at any rate, tyranny is always the expression of 
discontent; the tyrant is always the champion of a cause. 
But it would be a mistake to suppose that the discontent is 
necessarily political, or that the cause which he champions is 
always a constitutional one. At Sicyon it is a racial one; 
Cleisthenes is the champion of the older population against their 
Dorian oppressors (see Herod, v. 67, 68). At Athens the 
discontent is economic rather than political; Peisistratus is the 
champion of the Diacrii, the inhabitants of the poorest region of 
Attica. The party-strifes of which we hear in the early history 
of Miletus, which doubtless gave the tyrant his opportunity, 
are concerned with the claims of rival industrial classes. In 
Sicily the tyrant is the ally of the rich and the foe of the demos, 
and the cause which he champions, both in the 5th century and 
the 4th, is a national one, that of the Greek against the Cartha- 
ginian. We may suspect that in Greece itself the tyrannies of 
the 7th century are the expression of an anti-Dorian reaction. 
It can hardly be an accident that the states in which the tyrannis 
is found at this epoch, Corinth, Megara, Sicyon, Epidaurus, 
are all of them states in which a Dorian upper class ruled over 
a subject population. In Asia Minor the tyrannis assumes a 
peculiar character after the Persian conquest. The tyrant 
rules as the deputy of the Persian satrap. Thus in the East the 
tyrant is the enemy of the national cause; in the West, in Sicily, 
he is its champion. 

Tyranny is not a phenomenon peculiar to Greek history. 
It is possible to find analogies to it in Roman history, in the 
power of Caesar, or of the Caesars; in the despotisms of medieval 
Italy; or even in the Napoleonic empire. Between the tyrant 
and the Italian despot there is indeed a real analogy; but 
between the Roman principate and the Greek tyrannis there are 
two essential differences. In the first place, the principate was 
expressed in constitutional forms, or veiled under constitutional 
fictions; the tyrant stood altogether outside the constitution. 
And, secondly, at Rome both Julius and Augustus owed their 
position to the power of the sword. The power of the sword, 
it is true, plays a large part in the history of the later tyrants 
(e.g. Dionysius of Syracuse); the earlier ones, however, had no 
mercenary armies at their command. We can hardly compare 
the bodyguard of Peisistratus to the legions of the first or the 
second Caesar. 



HISTORY] 



GREECE 



447 



The view taken of the tyrannis in Greek literature is almost 
uniformly unfavourable. In this respect there is no difference 
between Plato and Aristotle, or between Herodotus and the 
later historians. 1 His policy is represented as purely selfish, 
and his rule as oppressive. Herodotus is influenced partly by 
the traditions current among the oligarchs, who had been the 
chief sufferers, and partly by the odious associations which had 
gathered round tyranny in Asia Minor. The philosophers write 
under their impressions of the later tyrannis, and their account 
is largely an a priori one. It is seldom that we find any attempt, 
either in the philosophers or the historians, to do justice to the 
real services rendered by the tyrants. 2 Their first service was 
a constitutional one. They helped to break down the power 
of the old aristocratic houses, and thus to create the social and 
political conditions indispensable to democracy. The tyrannis 
involved the sacrifice of liberty in the cause of equality. When 
tyranny falls, it is never succeeded by the aristocracies which 
it had overthrown. It is frequently succeeded by an oligarchy, 
but it is an oligarchy in which the claim to exclusive power is 
based, not upon mere birth, but upon wealth, or the possession 
of land. It would be unfair to treat this service as one that 
was rendered unconsciously and unwillingly. Where the tyrant 
asserted the claims of an oppressed class, he consciously aimed at 
the destruction of privilege and the effacement of class distinc- 
tions. Hence it is unjust to treat his power as resting upon 
mere force. A government which can last eighty or a hundred 
years, as was the case with the tyrannies at Corinth and Sicyon, 
must have a moral force behind it. It must rest upon the 
consent of its subjects. The second service which the tyrants 
rendered to Greece was a political one. Their policy tended to 
break down the barriers which isolated each petty state from 
its neighbours. In their history we can trace a system of wide- 
spread alliances, which are often cemented by matrimonial 
connexions. The Cypselid tyrants of Corinth appear to have been 
allied with the royal families of Egypt, Lydia and Phrygia, as 
well as with the tyrants of Miletus and Epidaurus, and with 
some of the great Athenian families. In Sicily we find a league 
of the northern tyrants opposed to a league of the southern; 
and in each case there is a corresponding matrimonial alliance. 
Anaxilaus of Rhegium is the son-in-law and ally of Terillus of 
Himera; Gelo of Syracuse stands in the same relation to Theron 
of Agrigentum. Royal marriages have played a great part in 
the politics of Europe. In the comparison of Greek and modern 
history it has been too often forgotten how great a difference 
it makes, and how great a disadvantage it involves, to a republic 
that it has neither sons nor daughters to give in marriage. In 
commerce and colonization the tyrants were only continuing 
the work of the oligarchies to which they succeeded. Greek 
trade owed its expansion to the intelligent efforts of the oligarchs 
who ruled at Miletus and Corinth, in Samos, Aegina and Euboea; 
but in particular cases, such as Miletus, Corinth, Sicyon and 
Athens, there was a further development, and a still more rapid 
growth, under the tyrants. In the same way, the foundation 
of the colonies was in most cases due to the policy of the oli- 
garchical governments. They can claim credit for the colonies 
of Chalcis and Eretria, of Megara, Phocaea and Samos, as well 
as for the great Achaean settlements in southern Italy. The 
Cypselids at Corinth, and Thrasybulus at Miletus, are instances 
of tyrants who colonized on a great scale. 

In their religious policy the tyrants went far to democratize 

Greek religion. The functions of monarchy had been largely 

religious; but, while the king was necessarily a 

Religion pnest, he was not the only priest in the community. 

under the {L. . , . ;, 

"tyrants." There were special priesthoods, hereditary m par- 
ticular families, even in the monarchical period; and 
upon the fall of the monarchy, while the priestly functions of 
the kings passed to republican magistrates, the priesthoods 
which were in the exclusive possession of the great families 
tended to become the important ones. Thus, before the rise of 
tyranny, Greek religion is aristocratic. The cults recognized 

1 An exception should perhaps be made in the case of Thucydides. 

2 The Peisistratidae come off better, however. 



by the state are the sacra of noble clans. The religious pre- 
rogatives of the nobles helped to confirm their political ones, 
and, as long as religion retained its aristocratic character, it was 
impossible for democracy to take root. The policy of the tyrants 
aimed at fostering popular cults which had no associations with 
the old families, and at establishing new festivals. The cult 
of the wine-god, Dionysus, was thus fostered at Sicyon by 
Cleisthenes, and at Corinth by the Cypselids; while at Athens 
a new festival of this deity, which so completely overshadowed 
the older festival that it became known as the Great Dionysia, 
probably owed its institution to Peisistratus. Another festival, 
the Panathenaea, which had been instituted only a few years 
before his rise to power, became under his rule, and thanks to his 
policy, the chief national festival of the Athenian state. Every- 
where, again, we find the tyrants the patrons of literature. 
Pindar and Bacchylides, Aeschylus and Simonides found a 
welcome at the court of Hiero. Polycrates was the patron of 
Anacreon, Periander of Arion. To Peisistratus has been attri- 
buted, possibly not without reason, the first critical edition of 
the text of Homer, a work as important in the literary history 
of Greece as was the issue of the Authorized Version of the Bible 
in English history. It we would judge fairly of tyranny, and of 
what it contributed to the development of Greece, we must 
remember how many states there were in whose history the 
period of greatest power coincides with the rule of a tyrant. 
This is unquestionably true of Corinth and Sicyon, as well as of 
Syracuse in the sth, and again in the 4th century; it is probably 
true of Samos and Miletus. In the case of Athens it is only the 
splendour of the Great Age that blinds us to the greatness of 
the results achieved by the policy of the Peisistratids. 

With the overthrow of this dynasty tyranny disappears from 
Greece proper for more than a century. During the century and 
a half which had elapsed since its first appearance the whole 
aspect of Greek life, and of the Greek world, had changed. 
The development was as yet incomplete, but the lines on which 
it was to proceed had been clearly marked out. Political power 
was no longer the monopoly of a class. The struggle between 
the " few " and the " many " had begun; in one state at least 
(Athens) the victory of the " many " was assured. The first 
chapter in the history of democracy was already written. In 
the art of war the two innovations which were ultimately to 
establish the military supremacy of Greece, hoplite tactics and 
the trireme, had already been introduced. Greek literature was 
no longer synonymous with epic poetry. Some of 
its most distinctive forms had not yet been evolved; 
indeed, it is only quite at the end of the period that 
prose-writing begins; but both lyric and elegiac poetry had been 
brought to perfection. In art, statuary was still comparatively 
stiff and crude; but in other branches, in architecture, in vase- 
painting and in coin-types, the aesthetic genius of the race had 
asserted its pre-eminence. Philosophy, the supreme gift of Greece 
to the modern world, had become a living power. Some of her 
most original thinkers belong to the 6th century. Criticism had 
been applied to everything in turn: to the gods, to conduct, 
and to the conception of the universe. Before the Great Age 
begins, the claims of intellectual as well as of political freedom 
had been vindicated. It was not, however, in Greece proper 
that progress had been greatest. In the next century the centre 
of gravity of Greek civilization shifts to the western side of the 
Aegean; in the 6th century it must be looked for at Miletus, 
rather than at Athens. In order to estimate how far the develop- 
ment of Greece had advanced, or to appreciate the distinctive 
features of Greek life at this period, we must study Ionia, rather 
than Attica or the Peloponnese. Almost all that is greatest and 
most characteristic is to be found on the eastern side of the 
Aegean. The great namesin the history of science and philosophy 
before the beginning of the sth century Thales, Pythagoras, 
Xenophanes, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Anaximander, Hecataeus; 
names which are representative of mathematics, astronomy, 
geography and metaphysics, are all, without exception, Ionian. 
In poetry, too, the most famous names, if not so exclusively 
Ionian, are connected either with the Asiatic coast or with 



The arts. 



GREECE 



[HISTORY 



External 
relations. 



the Cyclades. Against Archilochus and Anacreon, Sappho and 
Alcaeus, Greece has nothing better to set, after the age of Hesiod, 
than Tyrtaeus and Theognis. Reference has already been made 
to the greatness of the lonians as navigators, as colonizers and 
as traders. In wealth and in population, Miletus, at the epoch 
of the Persian conquest, must have been far ahead of any city 
of European Greece. Sybaris, in Magna Graecia, can have been 
its only rival outside Ionia. There were two respects, however, 
in which the comparison was in favour of the mother-country. 
In warfare, the superiority of the Spartan infantry was un- 
questioned; in politics, the Greek states showed a greater power 
of combination than the Ionian. 

Finally, Ionia was the scene of the first conflicts with the 
Persian. Here were decided the first stages of a struggle which 
was to determine the place of Greece in the history 
of the world. The rise of Persia under Cyrus was, as 
Herodotus saw, the turning-point of Greek history. 
Hitherto the Greek had proved himself indispensable to 
the oriental monarchies with which he had been brought into 
contact. In Egypt the power of the Saite kings rested upon the 
support of their Greek mercenaries. Amasis (560-525 B.C.), who 
is raised to the throne as the leader of a reaction against the 
influence of the foreign garrison, ends by showing greater favour 
to the Greek soldiery and the Greek traders than all that were 
before him. With Lydia the relations were originally hostile; 
the conquest of the Greek fringe is the constant aim of Lydian 
policy. Greek influences, however, seem to have quickly per- 
meated Lydia, and to have penetrated to the court. Alyattes 
(610-560 B.C.) marries an Ionian wife, and the succession is 
disputed between the son of this marriage and Croesus, whose 
mother was a Carian. Croesus (560-546 B.C.) secures the throne, 
only to become the lavish patron of Greek sanctuaries and the 
ally of a Greek state. The history of Hellenism had begun. 
It was the rise of Cyrus that closed the East to Greek enterprise 
and Greek influences. In Persia we find the antithesis of all 
that is characteristic of Greece autocracy as opposed to liberty; 
a military society organized on an aristocratic basis, to an 
industrial society, animated by a democratic spirit; an army, 
whose strength lay in its cavalry, to an army, in which the foot- 
soldier alone counted; a morality, which assigned the chief 
place to veracity, to a morality which subordinated it to other 
virtues; a religion, which ranks among the great religions of 
the world, to a religion, which appeared to the most spiritual 
minds among the Greeks themselves both immoral and absurd. 
Between two such races there could be neither sympathy nor 
mutual understanding. In the Great Age the Greek had learned 
to despise the Persian, and the Persian to fear the Greek. 
^ n *he 6th century it was the Persian who despised, 
and the Greek who feared. The history of the conflicts 
between the Ionian Greeks and the Persian empire affords a 
striking example of the combination of intellectual strength and 
political weakness in the character of a people. The causes of 
the failure of the lonians to offer a successful resistance to Persia, 
both at the time of the conquest by Harpagus (546-545 B.C.) and 
in the Ionic revolt (490-494 B.C.), are not far to seek. The 
centrifugal forces always tended to prove the stronger in the 
Greek system, and nowhere were they stronger than in Ionia. 
The tie of their tribal union proved weaker, every time it was 
put to the test, than the political and commercial interests of 
the jndividual states. A league of jealous commercial rivals is 
certain not to stand the strain of a protracted struggle against 
great odds. Against the advancing power of Lydia a common 
resistance had not so much as been attempted. Miletus, the 
greatest of the Ionian towns, had received aid from Chios alone. 
Against Persia a common resistance was attempted. The Pani- 
onium, the centre of a religious amphictyony, became for the 
moment the centre of a political league. At the time of the 
Persian conquest Miletus held aloof. She secured favourable 
terms for herself, and left the rest of Ionia to its fate. In the 
later conflict, on the contrary, Miletus is the leader in the revolt. 
The issue was determined, not as Herodotus represents it, by 
the inherent indolence of the Ionian nature, but by the selfish 



Persian 
wars. 



policy of the leading states. In the sea-fight at Lade (494 B.C.) 
the decisive battle of the war, the Milesians and Chians fought 
with desperate courage. The day was lost thanks to the treachery 
of the Samian'and Lesbian contingents. 

The causes of the successful resistance of the Greeks to the 
invasions of their country, first by Datis and Artaphernes 
(490 B.C.), in the reign of Darius, and then by Xerxes in person 
(480-479 B.C.), are more complex. Their success was partly 
due to a moral cause. And this was realized by the Greeks 
themselves. They felt (see Herod, vii. 104) that the subjects 
of a despot are no match for the citizens of a free state, who 
yield obedience to a law which is self-imposed. But the cause 
was not solely a moral one. Nor was the result due to the 
numbers and efficiency of the Athenian fleet, in the degree that 
the Athenians claimed (see Herod, vii. 139). The truth is that 
the conditions, both political and military, were far more favour- 
able to the Greek defence in Europe than they had been in Asia. 
At this crisis the centripetal forces proved stronger than the 
centrifugal. The moral ascendancy of Sparta was the deter- 
mining factor. In Sparta the Greeks had a leader whom all 
were ready to obey (Herod, viii. 2). But for her influence the 
forces of disintegration would have made themselves felt as 
quickly as in Ionia. Sparta was confronted with immense 
difficulties in conducting the defence against Xerxes. The two 
chief naval powers, Athens and Aegina, had to be reconciled 
after a long and exasperating warfare (see AEGINA). After 
Thermopylae, the whole of northern Greece, with the exception 
of Athens and a few minor states, was lost to the Greek cause. 
The supposed interests of the Peloponnesians, who formed the 
greater part of the national forces, conflicted with the supposed 
interests of the Athenians. A more impartial view than was 
possible to the generation for which Herodotus wrote suggests 
that Sparta performed her task with intelligence and patriotism. 
The claims of Athens and Sparta were about equally balanced. 
And in spite of her great superiority in numbers, 1 the military 
conditions were far from favourable to Persia. A land so moun- 
tainous as Greece is was unsuited to the operations of cavalry, 
the most efficient arm of the service in the Persian Army, as 
in most oriental ones. Ignorance of local conditions, combined 
with the dangerous nature of the Greek coast, exposed their ships 
to the risk of destruction; while the composite character of the 
fleet, and the jealousies of its various contingents, tended to 
neutralize the advantage of numbers. In courage and discipline, 
the flower of the Persian infantry was probably little inferior 
to the Greek; in equipment, they were no match for the Greek 
panoply. Lastly, Xerxes laboured under a disadvantage, which 
may be illustrated by the experience of the British army in the 
South African War distance from his base. 

5. The Great, Age (480-338 B.C.). The effects of the repulse 
of Persia were momentous in their influence upon Greece. The 
effects upon Elizabethan England of the defeat of the Spanish 
armada would afford quite an inadequate parallel. It gave 
the Greeks a heightened sense, both of their own national unity 
and of their superiority to the barbarian, while at the same time 
it helped to create the material conditions requisite alike for 
the artistic and political development of the sth century. Other 
cities besides Athens were adorned with the proceeds of the 
spoils won from Persia, and Greek trade benefited both from the 
reunion of Ionia with Greece, and from the suppression of piracy 
in the Aegean and the Hellespont. Do these developments 
justify us in giving to the period, which begins with the repulse 
of Xerxes, and ends with the victory of Philip, the title of 
" the Great Age "? If the title is justified in the case of the sth 
century, should the 4th century be excluded from the period? 
At first sight, the difference between the 4th century and the 
5th may seem greater than that which exists between the 5th 
and the 6th. On the political side, the 5th century is an age 
of growth, the 4th an age of decay; on the literary side, the 

1 The numbers given by Herodotus (upwards of 5,000,000) are 
enormously exaggerated. We must divide by ten or fifteen to 
arrive at a probable estimate of the forces that actually crossed 
the Hellespont. 



HISTORY] 



GREECE 



449 



former is an age of poetry, the latter an age of prose. In spite 
of these contrasts, there is a real unity in the period which begins 
with the repulse of Xerxes and ends with the death of Alexander, 
as compared with any preceding one. It is an age of maturity 
in politics, in literature, and in art; and this is true of no earlier 
age. Nor can we say that the sth century is, in all these aspects 
of Greek life, immature as compared with the 4th, or, on the 
other hand, that the 4th is decadent as compared with the 
Sth. On the political side, maturity is, in one sense, reached 
in the earlier century. There is nothing in the later century so 
great as the Athenian empire. In another sense, maturity is 
not reached till the 4th century. It is only in the later century 
that the tendency of the Greek constitutions to conform to a 
common type, democracy, is (at least approximately) realized, 
and it is only in this century that the principles upon which 
democracy is based are carried to their logical conclusion. In 
literature, if we confine our attention to poetry, we must pro- 
nounce the 5th century the age of completed development; 
but in prose the case is different. The style even of Thucydides 
is immature, as compared with that of Isocrates and Plato. In 
philosophy, however high may be the estimate that is formed 
of the genius of the earlier thinkers, it cannot be disputed that in 
Plato and Aristotle we find a more mature stage of thought. 
In art, architecture may perhaps be said to reach its zenith in 
the 5th, sculpture in the 4th century. In its political aspect, 
the history of the Great Age resolves itself into the history of 
two movements, the imperial and the democratic. Hitherto 
Greece had meant, politically, an aggregate of independent 
states, very numerous, and, as a rule, very small. The principle 

of autonomy was to the Greek the most sacred of all 
govern-" political principles; the passion for autonomy the 
meat. most potent of political factors. In the latter half of 

the 6th century Sparta had succeeded in combining 
the majority of the Peloponnesian states into a loose federal 
union; so loose, however, that it appears to have been dormant 
in the intervals of peace. In the crisis of the Persian invasion 
the Peloponnesian League was extended so as to include all the 
states which had espoused the national cause. It looked on the 
morrow of Plataea and Mycale (the two victories, won simul- 
taneously, in 479 B.C., by Spartan commanders, by which the 
danger from Persia was finally averted) as if a permanent basis 
for union might be found in the hegemony of Sparta. The sense 
of a common peril and a common triumph brought with it the 
need of a common union; it was Athens, however, instead of 
Sparta, by whom the first conscious effort was made to transcend 
the isolation of the Greek political system and to bring the units 
into combination. The league thus founded (the Delian League, 
established in 477 B.C.) was under the presidency of Athens, 
but it included hardly any other state besides those that had 
conducted the defence of Greece. It was formed, almost entirely, 
of the states which had been liberated from Persian rule by 
the great victories of the war. The Delian League, even in the 
form in which it was first established, as a confederation of 
autonomous allies, marks an advance in political conceptions 
upon the Peloponnesian League. Provision is made for an 
annual revenue, for periodical meetings of the council, and for 
a permanent executive. It is a real federation, though an 
imperfect one. There were defects in its constitution which 
rendered it inevitable that it should be transformed into an 
empire. Athens was from the first " the predominant partner." 
The fleet was mainly Athenian, the commanders entirely so; 
the assessment of the tribute was in Athenian hands; there 
was no federal court appointed to determine questions at issue 
between Athens and the other members; and, worst omission 
of all, the right of secession was left undecided. By the middle 
of the century the Delian League has become the Athenian 
empire. Henceforward the imperial idea, in one form or another, 
dominates Greek politics. Athens failed to extend her authority 
over the whole of Greece. Her empire was overthrown; but the 
triumph of autonomy proved the triumph of imperialism. 
The Spartan empire succeeds to the Athenian, and, when it is 
finally shattered at Leuctra (371 B.C.), the hegemony of Thebes, 

xii. 15 



which is established on its ruins, is an empire in all but name. 
The decay of Theban power paves the way for the rise of Macedon. 

Thus throughout this period we can trace two forces contending 
for mastery in the Greek political system. Two causes divide 
the allegiance of the Greek world, the cause of empire and the 
cause of autonomy. The formation of the confederacy of Delos 
did not involve the dissolution of the alliance between Athens 
and Sparta. For seventeen years more Athens retained her 
place in the league, " which had been established against the 
Mede" under the presidency of Sparta in 480 B.C. (Thuc. i. 102). 
The ascendancy of Cimon and the Philolaconian party at Athens 
was favourable to a good understanding between the two states, 
and at Sparta in normal times the balance inclined in favour 
of the party whose policy is best described by the motto " quieta 
non movere." 

In the end, however, the opposition of the two contending 
forces proved too strong for Spartan neutrality. The fall of 
Cimon (461 B.C.) was followed by the so-called " First 
Peloponnesian War," a conflict between Athens and lo 
her maritime rivals, Corinth and Aegina, into which wars. 
Sparta was ultimately drawn. Thucydides regards 
the hostilities of these years (460-454 B.C.), which were resumed 
for a few months in 446 B.C., on the expiration of the Five Years' 
Truce, as preliminary to those of the great Peloponnesian War 
(431-404 B.C.). The real question at issue was in both cases the 
same. The tie that united the opponents of Athens was found 
in a common hostility to the imperial idea. It is a complete 
misapprehension to regard the Peloponnesian War as a mere 
duel between two rival claimants for empire. The ultimatum 
presented by Sparta on the eve of the war demanded the restora- 
tion of autonomy to the subjects of Athens. There is no reason 
for doubting her sincerity in presenting it in this form. It would, 
however, be an equal misapprehension to regard the war as 
merely a struggle between the cause of empire and the cause of 
autonomy. Corresponding to this fundamental contrast there 
are other contrasts, constitutional, racial and military. The 
military interest of the war is largely due to the fact that Athens 
was a sea power and Sparta a land one. As the war went on, 
the constitutional aspect tended to become more marked. At 
first there were democracies on the side of Sparta, and oligarchies 
on the side of Athens. In the last stage of the war, when 
Lysander's influence was supreme, we see the forces of oligarchy 
everywhere united and organized for the destruction of demo- 
cracy. In its origin the war was certainly not due to the rivalry 
of Dorian and Ionian. This racial, or tribal, contrast counted 
for more in the politics of Sicily than of Greece; and, though 
the two great branches of the Greek race were represented 
respectively by the leaders of the two sides, the allies on neither 
side belonged exclusively to the one branch or the other. Still, 
it remains true that the Dorian states were, as a rule, on the 
Spartan side, and the Ionian states, as a rule, on the Athenian 
a division of sentiment which must have helped to widen the 
breach, and to intensify the animosities. 

As a political experiment the Athenian empire possesses a 
unique interest. It represents the first attempt to fuse the 
principles of imperialism and democracy. It is at 
once the first empire in history possessed and admini- JT** 
stered by a sovereign people, and the first which emp"n. 
sought to establish a common system of democratic 
institutions amongst its subjects. 1 It was an experiment that 
failed, partly owing to the inherent strength of the oligarchic 
cause, partly owing to the exclusive character of ancient citizen- 
ship. The Athenians themselves recognized that their empire 
depended for its existence upon the solidarity of democratic 
interests (see Thuc. iii. 47; Pseudo-Xenophon, de Rep. Ath. i. 14, 
iii. 10). An understanding existed between the democratic 
leaders in the subject-states and the democratic party at Athens. 

1 It has been denied by some writers (e.g. by A. H. J. Greenidge ) 
that Athens interfered with the constitutions of the subject -states. 
For the view put forward in the text, the following passages may 
be quoted: Aristotle, Politics 1307 b 20; Isocrates, Paneeyricus, 
105, 106, Panathenaicus, 54 and 68; Xenophon, Hettenica, in. 4.7; 
Ps.-Xen. A then. Constit. i. 14, iii. 10. 



450 



GREECE 



[HISTORY 



Charges were easily trumped up against obnoxious oligarchs, 
and conviction as easily obtained in the Athenian courts of 
law. Such a system forced the oligarchs into an attitude of 
opposition. How much this opposition counted for was realized 
when the Sicilian disaster (413 B.C.) gave the subjects their chance 
to revolt. The organization of the oligarchical party throughout 
the empire, which was effected hy Lysander in the last stage 
of the war, contributed to the overthrow of Athenian ascendancy 
hardly less than the subsidies of Persia. Had Athens aimed at 
establishing a community of interest between herself and her 
subjects, based upon a common citizenship, her empire might 
have endured. It would have been a policy akin to that which 
secured the permanence of the Roman empire. And it was a 
policy which found advocates when the day for it was past (see 
Aristophanes, Lysistrata, 574 ff.; cf. the grant of citizenship 
to the Samians after Aegospotami, C.I. A. iv. 2, ib). But the 
policy pursued by Athens in the plenitude of her power was the 
reverse of the policy pursued by Rome in her treatment of the 
franchise. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the fate of the 
empire was sealed by the law of Pericles (451 B.C.), by which the 
franchise was restricted to those who could establish Athenian 
descent on both sides. It was not merely that the process of 
amalgamation through intermarriage was abruptly checked; 
what was more serious was that a hard and fast line was drawn, 
once and for all, between the small body of privileged rulers and 
the great mass of unprivileged subjects. Maine (Early Institu- 
tions, lecture 13) has classed the Athenian empire with those 
of the familiar Oriental type, which attempt nothing beyond the 
raising of taxes and the levying of troops. The Athenian empire 
cannot, indeed, be classed with the Roman, or with the British 
rule in India; it does not, therefore, deserve to be classed with 
the empires of Cyrus or of Jenghiz Khan. Though the basis of 
its organization, like that of the Persian empire under Darius, 
was financial, it attempted, and secured, objects beyond the 
mere payment of tribute and the supply of ships. If Athens did 
not introduce a common religion, or a common system of educa- 
tion, or a common citizenship, she did introduce a common type 
of political institutions, and a common jurisdiction. 1 She went 
some way, too, in the direction of establishing a common system 
of coins, and of weights and measures. A common language 
was there already. In a word, the Athenian empire marks a 
definite stage of political evolution. 

The other great political movement of the age was the progress 
of democracy. Before the Persian invasion democracy was a 
The rare phenomenon in Greek politics. Where it was 

mature found it existed in an undeveloped form, and its tenure 
demo- of power was precarious. By the beginning of the 
cracy. Peloponnesian Wai it had become the prevalent form 
of government. The great majority of Greek states had adopted 
democratic constitutions. Both in the Athenian sphere of 
influence and in the colonial world outside that sphere, demo- 
cracy was all but the only form of constitution known. It was 
only in Greece proper that oligarchy held its own. In the 
Peloponnese it could count a majority of the states; in northern 
Greece at least a half of them. The spread of democratic insti- 
tutions was arrested by the victory of Sparta in the East, and 
the rise of Dionysius in the West. There was a moment at the 
end of the sth century when it looked as if democracy was a lost 
cause. Even Athens was for a brief period under the rule of 
the Thirty (404-403 B.C.). In the regions which had formed 
the empire of Athens the decarchies set up by Lysander were 
soon overthrown, and democracies restored in most cases, but 
oligarchy continued to be the prevalent form in Greece proper 
until Leuctra (371 B.C.), and in Sicily tyranny had a still longer 
tenure of power. By the end of the Great Age oligarchy has 
almost disappeared from the Greek world, except in the sphere 
of Persian influence. The Spartan monarchy still survives; a 
few Peloponnesian states still maintain the rule of the few; here 

1 The evidence seems to indicate that all the more important 
criminal cases throughout the empire were tried in the Athenian 
courts. In civil cases Athens secured to the citizens of the subject- 
states the right of suing Athenian citizens, as well as citizens of other 
subject-states. 



and there in Greece itself we meet with a revival of the tyrannis; 
but, with these exceptions, democracy is everywhere the only 
type of constitution. And democracy has developed as well 
as spread. At the end of the sth century the constitution of 
Cleisthenes, which was a democracy in the view of his contem- 
poraries, had come to be regarded as an aristocracy (Aristot. 
Ath. Pol. 29. 3). We can trace a similar change of sentiment 
in Sicily. As compared with the extreme form of constitution 
adopted at Syracuse after the defeat of the Athenian expedition, 
the democracies established two generations earlier, on the fall 
of the tyrannis, appeared oligarchical. The changes by which 
the character of the Greek democracies was revolutionized were 
four in number: the substitution of sortition for election, the 
abolition of a property qualification, the payment of officials 
and the rise of a class of professional politicians. In the demo- 
cracy of Cleisthenes no payment was given for service, whether 
as a magistrate, a juror or a member of the Boule. The higher 
magistracies were filled by election, and they were held almost 
exclusively by the members of the great Athenian families. 
For the highest office of all, the archonship, none but Penta- 
cosiomedimni (the first of the four Solonian classes) were eligible. 
The introduction of pay and the removal of the property qualir 
fication formed part of the reforms of Pericles. Sortition had been 
instituted for election a generation earlier (487 B.C.). 2 What is 
perhaps the most important of all these changes, the rise of the 
demagogues, belongs to the era of the Peloponnesian War. 
From the time of Cleisthenes to the outbreak of the war every 
statesman of note at Athens, with the exception of Themistocles 
(and, perhaps, of Ephialtes), is of aristocratic birth. Down to 
the fall of Cimon the course of Athenian politics is to a great 
extent determined by the alliances and antipathies of the great 
clans. With the Peloponnesian War a new epoch begins. The 
chief office, the strategia, is still, as a rule, held by men of rank. 
But leadership in the Ecclesia has passed to men of a different 
class. The demagogues were not necessarily poor men. Cleon 
was a wealthy man; Eucrates, Lysicles and Hyperbolus were, 
at any rate, tradesmen rather than artisans. The first " labour 
member" proper is Cleophon (411-404 B.C.), a lyre-maker. 
They belonged, however, not to the land-owning, but to the in' 
dustrial classes; they were distinguished from the older race of 
party-leaders by a vulgar accent, and by a violence of gesture 
in public speaking, and they found their supporters among the 
population of the city and its port, the Peiraeus, rather than 
among the farmers of the country districts. In the 4th century 
the demagogues, though under another name, that of orators, 
have acquired entire control of the Ecclesia. It is an age of 
professionalism, and the professional soldier has his counterpart 
in the professional politician. Down to the death of Pericles 
the party-leader had always held office as Strategus. His rival, 
Thucydides, son of Melesias, forms a solitary exception to this 
statement. In the 4th century the divorce between the general 
and the statesman is complete. The generals are professional 
soldiers, who aspire to no political influence in the state, and the 
statesmen devote themselves exclusively to politics, a career 
for which they have prepared themselves by a professional 
training in oratory or administrative work. The ruin of agri- 
culture during the war had reduced the old families to insigni- 
ficance. Birth counts for less than nothing as a political asset 
in the age of Demosthenes. 

But great as are the contrasts which have been pointed 
out between the earlier and the later democracy, those that 
distinguish the ancient conception of democracy from 
the modern are of a still more essential nature. The 
differences that distinguish the democracies of ancient 
Greece from those of the modern world have their origin, 
to a great extent, in the difference between a city-state 
and a nation-state. Many of the most famous Greek states 

5 After this date, and partly in consequence of the change, the 
archonship, to which sortition was applied, loses its importance. 
The strategi (generals) become the chief executive officials. As elec- 
tion was never replaced by the lot in their case, the change had less 
practical meaning than might appear at first sight. (See ARCHON; 
STRATEGUS.) 



The city- 
state. 



HISTORY] 



GREECE 



had an area of a few square miles; the largest of them was no 
larger than an English county. Political theory put the limit 
of the citizen-body at 10,000. Though this number was exceeded 
in a few cases, it is doubtful if any state, except Athens, ever 
counted more than 20,000 citizens. In the nation-states of 
modern times, democratic government is possible only under the 
form of a representative system; in the city-state representative 
government was unnecessary, and therefore unknown. In the 
ancient type of democracy a popular chamber has no existence. 
The Ecclesia is not a chamber in any sense of the term; it is an 
assembly of the whole people, which every citizen is entitled 
to attend, and in which every one is equally entitled to vote and 
speak. The question raised in modern political science, as to 
whether sovereignty resides in the electors or their representatives, 
has thus neither place nor meaning in ancient theory. In the 
same way, one of the most familiar results of modern analysis, 
the distinction between the executive and the legislative, finds 
no recognition in the Greek writers. In a direct system of 
government there can be no executive in the proper sense. 
Executive functions are discharged by the ecclesia, to whose 
decision the details of administration may be referred. The 
position of the strategi, the chief officials in the Athenian 
democracy of the sth century, was in no sense comparable to 
that of a modern cabinet. Hence the individual citizen in an 
'ancient democracy was concerned in, and responsible for, the 
actual work of government to a degree that is inconceivable in 
a modern state. Thus participation in the administrative and 
judicial business of the state is made by Aristotle the differentia 
of the citizen (TroXirrjs karlv 6 perexuv Kp'urtws /cat Apx^ 5 , 
Aristot. Politics, p. 1 27 5 a 20) . A large proportion of the citizens 
of Athens, in addition to frequent service in the courts of law, 
must in the course of their lives have held a magistracy, great 
or small, or have acted for a year or two as members of the 
Boule. 1 It must be remembered that there was nothing corre- 
sponding to a permanent civil service in the ancient state. 
Much of the work of a government office would have been 
transacted by the Athenian Boule. It must be remembered, 
too, that political and administrative questions of great import- 
ance came before the popular courts of law. Hence it follows 
that the ordinary citizen of an ancient democracy, in the course 
of his service in the Boule or the law-courts, acquired an interest 
in political questions, and a grasp of administrative work, which 
none but a select few can hope to acquire under the conditions 
of the modern system. Where there existed neither a popular 
chamber nor a distinct executive, there was no opportunity for 
the growth of a party-system. There were, of course, political 
parties at. Athens and elsewhere oligarchs and democrats, 
conservatives and radicals, a peace-party and a war-party, 
according to the burning question of the day. There was, 
however, nothing equivalent to a general election, to a cabinet 
(or to that collective responsibility which is of the essence of a 
cabinet), or to the government and the opposition. Party 
organization, therefore, and a party system, in the proper sense, 
were never developed. Whatever may have been the evils 
incident to the ancient form of democracy, the " boss," the 
caucus and the spoils-system were not among them. 

Besides these differences, which, directly or indirectly, result 
from the difference of scale, there are others, hardly less profound, 
which are not connected with the size of the city-state. Perhaps 
the most striking contrast between the democracies of ancient 
and of modern times is to be found in their attitude towards 
privilege. Ancient democracy implies privilege; modern 
democracy implies its destruction. In the more fully developed 
democracies of the modern world (e.g. in the United States, or in 
Australia), the privilege of class is unknown; in some of them 
(e.g. New Zealand, Australia, Norway) even the privilege of 
sex has been abolished. Ancient democracy was bound up with 
privilege as much as oligarchy was. The transition from the 
latter to the former was effected by enlarging the area of privilege 
and by altering its basis. In an oligarchical state citizenship 

1 For an estimate of the numbers annually engaged in the service 
of Athens, see Aristot. Ath. Pol. 24. 3. 



might be confined to 10 % of the free population; under a 
democracy S% might enjoy it. In the former case the qualifica- 
tion might be wealth or land; in the latter case it might be, 
as it was at Athens, birth, i.e. descent, on both sides, from a 
citizen family. But, in both cases alike, the distinction between 
a privileged and an unprivileged body of free-born residents 
is fundamental. To the unprivileged class belonged, not only 
foreigners temporarily resident (Qtvoi.) and aliens permanently 
domiciled (jurotKoi),but also those native-born inhabitants of 
the state who were of foreign extraction, on one side or the 
other. 2 The privileges attaching to citizenship included, in 
addition to eligibility for office and a vote in the assembly, such 
private rights as that of owning land or a house, or of contracting 
a marriage with one of citizen status. The citizen, too, was 
alone the recipient of all the various forms of pay (e.g. for attend- 
ance in the assembly, for service in the Boule or the law-courts, 
or for the celebration of the great festivals) which are so con- 
spicuous a feature in the developed democracy of the 4th century. 
The metoeci could not even plead in a court of law in person, 
but only through a patron OrpooraTTjs). It is intelligible that 
privileges so great should be jealously guarded. In the demo- 
cracies of the modern world naturalization is easy; in those 
of ancient Greece admission to the franchise was rarely accorded. 
In modern times, again,we are accustomed to connect democracy 
with the emancipation of women. It is true that only 
a few democratic constitutions grant them the suffrage; of s 
but though, as a rule, they are denied public rights, women. 
the growth of popular government has been almost 
everywhere accompanied by an extension of their private rights, 
and by the removal of the restrictions imposed by law, custom 
or public opinion upon their freedom of action. In ancient 
Greece the democracies were as illiberal in their policy as the 
oligarchies. Women of the respectable class were condemned 
to comparative seclusion. They enjoyed far less freedom in 
4th-century Athens than in the Homeric Age. It is not in any 
of the democracies, but in conservative Sparta, that they 
possess privilege and exercise influence. 

The most fundamental of all the contrasts between democracy 
in its ancient and in its modern form remains to be stated. 
The ancient state was inseparable from slavery. In s/ 
this respect there was no difference between democracy 
and the other forms of government. No inconsistency was felt, 
therefore, between this institution and the democratic principle. 
Modern political theory has been profoundly affected by the 
conception of the dignity of labour; ancient political theory 
tended to regard labour as a disqualification for the exercise 
of political rights. Where slavery exists, the taint of it will 
inevitably cling to all labour that can be performed by the 
slave. In ancient Athens (which may be taken as typical of 
the Greek democracies) unskilled labour was almost entirely 
slave-labour, and skilled labour was largely so. The arts and 
crafts were, to some extent, exercised by citizens, but to a less 
extent in the 4th than in the 6th century. They were, however, 
chiefly left to aliens or slaves. The citizen-body of Athens in 
the age of Demosthenes has been stigmatized as consisting in 
great measure of salaried paupers. There is, doubtless, an 
exaggeration in this. It is, however, true, both that the system 
of state-pay went a long way towards supplying the simple wants 
of a southern population, and that a large proportion of the 
citizens had time to spare for the service of the state. Had the 
life of the lower class of citizens been absorbed in a round of 
mechanical labours, as fully as is the life of our industrial classes, 
the working of an ancient democracy would have been impossible. 
In justice to the ancient democraciesit must be conceded that, 
while popular government carried with it neither the enfranchise- 
ment of the alien nor the emancipation of the slave, the rights 
secured to both classes were more considerable in the democratic 
states than elsewhere. The lot of the slave, as well as that of the 
alien, was a peculiarly favourable one at Athens. The pseudo- 
Xenophon in the sth century (De rep. Ath. i. 10-12) and Plato 

1 Foreign is not used here as equivalent to non-Hellenic. It means 
" belonging to another state, whether Greek or barbarian." 



452 



GREECE 



[HISTORY 



in the 4th (Republic, p. 563 B), prove that the spirit of liberty, 
with which Athenian life was permeated, was not without its 
influence upon the position of these classes. When we read that 
critics complained of the opulence of slaves, and of the liberties 
they took, and when we are told that the slave could not be 
distinguished from the poorer class of citizens either by his dress 
or his look, we begin to realize the difference between the slavery 
of ancient Athens and the system as it was worked on the Roman 
latifundia or the plantations of the New World. 

It had been anticipated that the fall of Athens would mean 
the triumph of the principle of autonomy. If Athens had 
surrendered within a year or so of the Sicilian catas- 
s^artaa tr ph e > tn ' s anticipation would probably have been 
emp/ref fulfilled. It was the last phase of the struggle (412- 
404 B.C.) that rendered a Spartan empire inevitable. 
The oligarchical governments established by Lysander recognized 
that their tenure of power was dependent upon Spartan support, 
while Lysander himself, to whose genius, as a political organizer 
not less than as a commander, the triumph of Sparta was due, 
was unwilling to see his work undone. The Athenian empire 
had never included the greater part of Greece proper; since 
the Thirty Years' Peace its possessions on the mainland, outside 
the boundaries of Attica, were limited to Naupactus and Plataea. 
Sparta, on the other hand, attempted the control of the entire 
Greek world east of the Adriatic. Athens had been compelled 
to acknowledge a dual system; Sparta sought to establish 
uniformity. The attempt failed from the first. Within a year 
of the surrender of Athens, Thebes and Corinth had drifted into 
an attitude of opposition, while Argos remained hostile. It was 
not long before the policy of Lysander succeeded in uniting 
against Sparta the very forces upon which she had relied when 
she entered on the Peloponnesian War. The Corinthian War 
(394-387 B.C.) was brought about by the alliance of all the second- 
class powers Thebes, Athens, Corinth, Argos against the one 
first-class power, Sparta. Though Sparta emerged successful 
from the war, it was with the loss of her maritime empire, and 
at the cost of recognizing the principle of autonomy as the basis 
of the Greek political system. It was already evident, thus 
early in the century, that the centrifugal forces were to prove 
stronger than the centripetal. Two further causes may be 
indicated which help to explain the failure of the Spartan 
empire. In the first place Spartan sea-power was an artificial 
creation. History seems to show that it is idle for a state to 
aspire to naval supremacy unless it possesses a great commercial 
marine. Athens had possessed such a marine; her naval 
supremacy was due not to the mere size of her fleet, but to the 
numbers and skill of her seafaring population. Sparta had no 
commerce. She could build fleets more easily than she could 
man them. A single defeat (at Cnidus, 391 B.C.) sufficed for 
the ruin of her sea-power. The second cause is to be found in the 
financial weakness of the Spartan state. The Spartan treasury 
had been temporarily enriched by the spoils of the Peloponnesian 
War, but neither during that war, nor afterwards, did Sparta 
succeed in developing any scientific financial system. Athens 
was the only state which either possessed a large annual revenue 
or accumulated a considerable reserve. Under the conditions 
of Greek warfare, fleets were more expensive than armies. Not 
only was money needed for the building and maintenance of the 
ships, but the sailor must be paid, while the soldier served for 
nothing. Hence the power with the longest purse could both 
build the largest fleet and attract the most skilful seamen. 

The battle of Leuctra transferred the hegemony from Sparta 
to Thebes, but the attempt to unite Greece under the leadership 
of Thebes was from the first doomed to failure. The 
conditions were less favourable to Thebes than they 
had been to Athens or Sparta. Thebes was even more 
exclusively a land-power than Sparta. She had no 
revenue comparable to that of Athens in the preceding century. 
Unlike Athens and Sparta, she had not the advantage of being 
identified with a political cause. As the enemy of Athens in the 
5th century, she was on the side of oligarchy; as the rival of 
Sparta in the 4th, she was on the side of democracy; but in her 



many. 



bid for primacy she could not appeal, as Athens and Sparta 
could, to a great political tradition, nor had she behind her, 
as they had, the moral force of a great political principle. Her 
position, too, in Boeotia itself was insecure. The rise of Athens 
was in great measure the result of the synoecism (owoi/aoyioi) 
of Attica. All inhabitants of Attica were Athenians. But 
" Boeotian " and " Theban " were not synonymous terms. The 
Boeotian league was an imperfect form of union, as compared 
with the Athenian state, and the claim of Thebes to the presi- 
dency of the league was, at best, sullenly acquiesced in by the 
other towns. The destruction of some of the most famous of 
the Boeotian cities, however necessary it may have been in order 
to unite the country, was a measure which at once impaired the 
resources of Thebes and outraged Greek sentiment. It has been 
often held that the failure of Theban policy was due to the death 
of Epaminondas (at the battle of Mantinea, 362 B.C.). For this 
view there is no justification. His policy had proved a failure 
before his death. Where it harmonized with the spirit of the 
age, the spirit of dissidence, it succeeded; where it attempted 
to run counter to it, it failed. It succeeded in destroying the 
supremacy of Sparta in the Peloponnese; it failed to unite the 
Peloponnese on a new basis. It failed still more signally to unite 
Greece north of the Isthmus. It left Greece weaker and more 
divided than it found it (see the concluding words of Xenophon's 
Hellenics). It would be difficult to overestimate the importance ' 
of his policy as a destructive force; as a constructive force it 
effected nothing. 1 The Peloponnesian system which Epami- 
nondas overthrew had lasted two hundred years. Under 
Spartan leadership the Peloponnese had enjoyed almost complete 
immunity from invasion and comparative immunity from 
stasis (faction). The claim that Isocrates makes for Sparta is 
probably well-founded (Archidamus, 64-69; during the period 
of Spartan ascendency the Peloponnesians were evSainoveerraroi. 
T&V 'EXX^j'aH'). Peloponnesian sentiment had been one of the 
chief factors in Greek politics; to it, indeed, in no small degree 
was due the victory over Persia. The Theban victory at Leuctra 
destroyed the unity, and with it the peace and the prosperity, 
of the Peloponnese. It inaugurated a period of misery, the 
natural result of stasis and invasion, to which no parallel can 
be found in the earlier history (See Isocrates, Archidamus, 65, 
66; the Peloponnesians were ufi.a\urpVOL rais (ru/t0opais). It 
destroyed, too, the Peloponnesian sentiment of hostility to the 
invader. The bulk of the army that defeated Mardonius at 
Plataea came from the Peloponnese; at Chaeronea no Pelopon- 
nesian state was represented. 

The question remains, Why did the city-state fail to save 
Greece from conquest by Macedon? Was this result due to the 
inherent weakness either of the city-state itself, or of 
one particular form of it, democracy? It is clear, in Tbe ri 
any case, that the triumph of Macedon was the effect Macedoa 
of causes which had long been at work. If neither 
Philip nor Alexander had appeared on the scene, Greece might 
have maintained her independence for another generation or 
two; but, when invasion came, it would have found her weaker 
and more distracted, and the conquerors might easily have been 
less imbued with the Greek spirit, and less sympathetic towards 
Greek ideals, than the great Macedonian and his son. These 
causes are to be found in the tendencies of the age, political, 
economic and moral. Of the two movements which characterized 
the Great Age in its political aspect, the imperial and the 
democratic, the one failed and the other succeeded. The failure 
and the success were equally fatal to the chances of Greece in 
the conflict with Macedon. By the middle of the 4th century 
Greek politics had come to be dominated by the theory of the 
balance of power. This theory, enunciated in its coarsest form 
by Demosthenes (Pro Megalopolit. 4 <7u/i0ep rj iroAet KOI 
Ao.MScu./Mjj'tous aadevtis elvat. Kal GIJ^CUOW; cf. in Aristocrat. 
102, 103), had shaped the foreign policy of Athens since the end 
of the Peloponnesian War. As long as Sparta was the stronger, 
Athens inclined to a Theban alliance; after Leuctra she tended 
in the direction of a Spartan one. At the epoch of Philip's 

1 It failed even to create a united Arcadia or a strong Messenia. 



HISTORY] 



GREECE 



453 



accession the forces were everywhere nicely balanced. The 
Peloponnese was fairly equally divided between the Theban and 
the Spartan interests, and central Greece was similarly divided 
between the Theban and the Athenian. Farther north we get 
an Athenian party opposed to an Olynthian in Chalcidice, and 
a republican party, dependent upon the support of Thebes, 
opposed to that of the tyrants in Thessaly. It is easy to see that 
the political conditions of Greece, both in the north and in the 
south, invited interference from without. And the triumph of 
democracy in its extreme form was ruinous to the military 
efficiency of Greece. On the one side there was a monarchical 
state, in which all powers, civil as well as military, were concen- 
trated in the hands of a single ruler; on the other, a constitutional 
system, in which a complete separation had been effected between 
the responsibility of the statesman and that of the commander. 1 

It could not be doubtful with which side victory would rest. 
Meanwhile, the economic conditions were steadily growing worse. 
The cause which Aristotle assigns for the decay of the Spartan 
state a declining population (see Politics, p. 1270 a cbrobXeTo 
fi TroXis rSiv AaKedainovibiv 8ia ri)v d\uyavQptinrlo.v) might be 
extended to the Greek world generally. The loss of population 
was partly the result of war and stasis Isocrates speaks of the 
number of political exiles from the various states as enormous 2 
but it was also due to a declining birth-rate, and to the exposure 
of infants. Aristotle, while condemning exposure, sanctions the 
procuring of abortion (Politics, 1335 b). It is probable that 
both ante-natal and post-natal infanticide were rife everywhere, 
except among the more backward communities. A people 
which has condemned itself to racial suicide can have little 
chance when pitted against a nation in which healthier instincts 
prevail. The materials for forming a trustworthy estimate of 
the population of Greece at any given epoch are not available; 
there is enough evidence, however, to prove that the military 
population of the leading Greek states at the era of the battle 
of Chaeronea (338 B.C.) fell far short of what it had been at the 
beginning of the Peloponnesian War. The decline in population 
had been accompanied by a decline in wealth, both public and 
private; and while revenues had shrunk, expenditure had 
grown. It was a century of warfare; and warfare had become 
enormously more expensive, partly through the increased em- 
ployment of mercenaries, partly through the enhanced cost of 
material. The power of the purse had made itself felt even in 
the sth century; Persian gold had helped to decide the issue 
of the great war. In the politics of the 4th century the power 
of the purse becomes the determining factor. The public 
finance of the ancient world was singularly simple in character, 
and the expedients for raising a revenue were comparatively few. 
The distinction between direct and indirect taxation was recog- 
nized in practice, but states as a rule were reluctant to submit 
to the former system. The revenue of Athens in the 5th century 
was mainly derived from the tribute paid by her subjects; it 
was only in time of war that a direct tax was levied upon the 
citizen-body. 3 In the age of Demosthenes the revenue derived 
from the Athenian Confederacy was insignificant. The whole 
burden of the expenses of a war fell upon the 1200 richest 
citizens, who were subject to direct taxation in the dual form of 
the Trier archy and the Eisphora (property-tax). The revenue 
thus raised was wholly insufficient for an effort on a great scale; 
yet the revenues of Athens at this period must have exceeded 
those of any other state. 

It is to moral causes, however, rather than to political or 
economic ones, that the failure of Greece in the conflict with 
Macedon is attributed by the most famous Greek statesmen 
of that age. Demosthenes is never weary of insisting upon the 
decay of patriotism among the citizens and upon the decay 
of probity among their leaders. Venality had always been 
the besetting sin of Greek statesmen. Pericles' boast as to his 

1 See Demosthenes, On the Crown, 235. Philip was afo-o/cpdi-wp, 
dttrtrbrris, JiycfjLoiv, Kvpios irfivrwv. 

1 See Archidamus, 68; Philippus, 96, ixrrt f>$ov dva.i avarr\aa.<. 

OTpOTiTTtSoV Illityv KO.I KptlTTOV kx TUV K\O.V<t3^ttV(^V ff IK T&V TToXlT tVOpkvuV . 

'The Liturgies (e.g. the trierarchy) had much the same effect as 
a direct tax levied upon the wealthiest citizens. 



own incorruptibility (Thuc. ii. 60) is significant as to the reputa- 
tion of his contemporaries. In the age of Demosthenes the level of 
public life in this respect had sunk at least as low as that which 
prevails in many states of the modern world (see Demosth. On the 
Crown, 61 irapa TOIS "EXXTjcru', oi> rurlv dXX' awcuriv djuouos 0opd 
irpodor&v (cat SupoSoKuv avvefiri; cf. 295, 296). Corruption was 
certainly not confined to the Macedonian party. The best that 
can be said in defence of the patriots, as well as of their opponents, 
is that they honestly believed that the policy which they were 
bribed to advocate was the best for their country's interests. 
The evidence for the general decay of patriotism among the mass 
of the citizens is less conclusive. The battle of Megalopolis 
(331 B.C.), in which the Spartan soldiery " went down in a blaze 
of glory," proves that the spirit of the Lacedemonian state 
remained unchanged. But at Athens it seemed to contemporary 
observers to Isocrates equally with Demosthenes that the 
spirit of the great days was extinct (see Isocr. On the Peace, 
47, 48). It cannot, of course, be denied that public opinion was 
obstinately opposed to the diversion of the Theoric Fund to the 
purposes of the war with Philip. It was not till the year before 
Chaeronea that Demosthenes succeeded in persuading the 
assembly to devote the entire surplus to the expenses of the war. 4 
Nor can it be denied that mercenaries were far more largely 
employed in the 4th century than in the 5th. In justice, however, 
to the Athenians of the Demosthenic era, it should be remembered 
that the burden of direct taxation was rarely imposed, and was 
reluctantly endured, in the previous century. It must also be 
remembered that, even in the 4th century, the Athenian citizen 
was ready to take the field, provided that it was not a question 
of a distant expedition or of prolonged service. 5 For distant 
expeditions, or for prolonged service, a citizen-militia is unsuited. 
The substitution of a professional force for an unprofessional 
one is to be explained, partly by the change in the character of 
Greek warfare, and partly by the operation of the laws of supply 
and demand. There had been a time when warfare meant a 
brief campaign in the summer months against a neighbouring 
state. It had come to mean prolonged operations against a 
distant enemy. 6 Athens was at war, e.g. with Philip, for eleven 
years continuously (357-346 B.C.). If winter campaigns in 
Thrace were unpopular at this epoch, they had been hardly 
less unpopular in the epoch of the Peloponnesian War. In the 
days of her greatness, too, Athens had freely employed mer- 
cenaries, but it was in the navy rather than the army. In the 
age of Pericles the supply of mercenary rowers was abundant, 
the supply of mercenary troops inconsiderable. In the age of 
Demosthenes incessant warfare and ceaseless revolution had 
filled Greece with crowds of homeless adventurers. The supply 
helped to create the demand. The mercenary was as cheap as 
the citizen-soldier, and much more effective. On the whole, 
then, it may be inferred that it is a mistake to regard the preval- 
ence of the mercenary system as the expression of a declining 
patriotism. It would be nearer the mark to treat the transition 
from the voluntary to the professional system as cause rather 
than effect: as one among the causes which contributed to the 
decay of public spirit in the Greek world. 

6. From Alexander to the Roman Conquest (336-146 B.C.). In 
the history of Greece proper during this period the interest is 
mainly constitutional. It may be called the age of 
federation. Federation, indeed, was no novelty in 
Greece. Federal unions had existed in Thessaly, in meat. 
Boeotia and elsewhere, and the Boeotian league can be 
traced back at least to the 6th century. Two newly-founded 
federations, the Chalcidian and the Arcadian, play no inconsider- 
able part in the politics of the 4th century. But it is not till the 
3rd century that federation attains to its full development in 
Greece, and becomes the normal type of polity. The two great 

4 His extreme caution in approaching the question at an earlier 
date is to be noticed. See, e.g., Olynthiacs, \. 19, 20. 

* e.g. the two expeditions sent to Euboea, the cavalry force that 
took part in the battle of Mantinea, and the army that fought at 
Chaeronea. The troops in all these cases were citizens. 

6 For the altered character of warfare see Demosthenes, Philippics, 
iii. 48, 49. 



454 



GREECE 



[HISTORY 



leagues of this period are the Aetolian and the Achaean. Both 
had existed in the 4th century, but the latter, which had been 
dissolved shortly before the beginning of the 3rd century, 
becomes important only after its restoration in 280 B.C., about 
which date the former, too, first begins to attract notice. The 
interest of federalism lies in the fact that it marks an advance 
beyond the conception of the city-state. It is an attempt to 
solve the problem which the Athenian empire failed to solve, {.he 
reconciliation of the claims of local autonomy with those of 
national union. The federal leagues of the 3rd century possess 
a further interest for the modern world, in that there can be 
traced in their constitutions a nearer approach to a representative 
system than is found elsewhere in Greek experience. A genuine 
representative system, it is true, was never developed in any 
Greek polity. What we find in the leagues is a sort of compromise 
between the principle of a primary assembly and the principle 
of a representative chamber. In both leagues the nominal 
sovereign was a primary assembly, in which every individual 
citizen had the right to vote. In both of them, however, the 
real power lay with a council (/SotA^) composed of members 
representative of each of the component states. 1 

The real interest of this period, however, is to be looked for 
elsewhere than in Greece itself. Alexander's career is one of the 
turning-points in history. He is one of the few to 
*'*?", whom it has been given to modify the whole future 
empire. of the human race. He originated two forces which 
have profoundly affected the development of civiliza- 
tion. He created Hellenism, and he created for the western 
world the monarchical ideal. Greece had produced personal 
rulers of ability, or even of genius; but to the greatest of these, 
to Peisistratus, to Dionysius, even to Jason of Pherae, there 
clung the fatal taint of illegitimacy. As yet no ruler had suc- 
ceeded in making the person of the monarch respectable. 
Alexander made it sacred. From him is derived, for the West, 
that " divinity that doth hedge a king." And in creating 
Hellenism he created, for the first time, a common type of 
civilization, with a common language, literature and art, as 
well as a common form of political organization. In Asia Minor 
he was content to reinforce the existing Hellenic elements 
(cf. the case of Side, Arrian, Anabasis, i. 26. 4). In the rest of 
the East his instrument of hellenization was the polis. He is 
said to have founded no less than seventy cities, destined to 
become centres of Greek influence; and the great majority 
of these were in lands in which city-life was almost unknown. 
In this respect his example was emulated by his successors. The 
eastern provinces were soon lost, though Greek influences 
lingered on even in Bactria and across the Indus. It was only 
the regions lying to the west of the Euphrates that were 
effectively hellenized, and the permanence of this result was 
largely due to the policy of Rome. But after all deductions have 
been made, the great fact remains that for many centuries after 
Alexander's death Greek was the language of literature and 
religion, of commerce and of administration throughout the 
Nearer East. Alexander had created a universal empire as well 
as a universal culture. His empire perished at his death, but 
its central idea survived that of the municipal freedom of the 
Greek polis within the framework of an imperial system. Hellen- 
istic civilization may appear degenerate when compared with 
Hellenic; when compared with the civilizations which it super- 
seded in non-Hellenic lands, it marks an unquestionable advance. 
(For the history of Greek civilization in the East, see HELLENISM.) 
Greece left her mark upon the civilization of the West as well 
as upon that of the East, but the process by which her influence 
was diffused was essentially different. In the East Hellenism 
came in the train of the conqueror, and Rome was content to 
build upon the foundations laid by Alexander. In the West 
Greek influences were diffused by the Roman conquest of Greece. 
It was through the ascendancy which Greek literature, philosophy 
and art acquired over the Roman mind that Greek culture 
penetrated to the nations of western Europe. The civilization 

1 It is known that the councillors were appointed by the states 
in the Aetolian league ; it is only surmised in the case of the Achaean. 



of the East remained Greek. The civilization of the West 
became and remained Latin, but it was a Latin civilization that 
was saturated with Greek influences. The ultimate division, 
both of the empire and the church, into two halves, finds its 
explanation in this original difference of culture. 

ANCIENT AUTHORITIES. (I.) For the earliest periods of Greek 
history, the so-called Minoan 1 and Mycenaean, the evidence is 
purely archaeological. It is sufficient here to refer to the article 
AEGEAN CIVILIZATION. For the next period, the Heroic or 
Homeric Age, the evidence is derived from the poems of Homer. 
In any estimate of the value of these poems as historical evidence, 
much will depend upon the view taken of the authorship, age 
and unity of the poems. For a full discussion of these questions 
see HOMER. It cannot be questioned that the poems are evidence 
for the existence of a period in the history of the Greek race, 
which differed from later periods in political and social, military 
and economic conditions. But here agreement ends. If, as is 
generally held by German critics, the poems are not earlier than 
the oth century, if they contain large interpolations of con- 
siderably later date and if they are Ionian in origin, the authority'' 
of the poems becomes comparatively slight. The existence of 
different strata in the poems will imply the existence of incon- 
sistencies and contradictions in the evidence; nor will the 
evidence be that of a contemporary. It will also follow that the 
picture of the heroic age contained in the poems is an idealized 
one. The more extreme critics, e.g. Beloch, deny that the poems 
are evidence even for the existence of a pre-Dorian epoch. If, 
on the other hand, the poems are assigned to the nth or i2th 
century, to a Peloponnesian writer, and to a period anterior to 
the Dorian Invasion and the colonization of Asia Minor (this 
is the view of the late Dr D. B. Munro), the evidence becomes 
that of a contemporary, and the authority of the poems for the 
distribution of races and tribes in the Heroic Age, as well as for 
the social and political conditions of the poet's time, would be 
conclusive. Homer recognizes no Dorians in Greece, except in 
Crete (see Odyssey, xix. 177), and no Greek colonies in Asia 
Minor. Only two explanations are possible. Either there is 
deliberate archaism in the poems, or else they are earlier in date 
than the Dorian Invasion and the colonization of Asia Minor. 

II. For the period that extends from the end of the Heroic 
Age to the end of the Peloponnesian War 2 the two principal 
authorities are Herodotus and Thucydides. Not only Herodotu& 
have the other historical works which treated of this 
period perished (those at least whose date is earlier than 
the Christian era), but their authority was secondary and 
their material chiefly derived from these two writers. In one 
respect then this period of Greek history stands alone. Indeed, 
it might be said, with hardly an exaggeration, that there is 
nothing like it elsewhere in history. Almost our sole authorities 
are two writers of unique genius, and they are writers whose 
works have come down to us intact. For the period which ends 
with the repulse of the Persian invasion our authority is Hero- 
dotus. For the period which extends from 478 to 411 we are 
dependent upon Thucydides'. In each case, however, a distinc- 
tion must be drawn. The Persian Wars form the proper subject 
of Herodotus's work; the Peloponnesian War is the subject of 
Thucydides. The' interval between the two wars is merely 
sketched by Thucydides; while of the period anterior to the 
conflicts of the Greek with the Persian, Herodotus does not 
attempt either a complete or a continuous narrative. His 
references to it are episodical and accidental. Hence our know- 
ledge of the Persian Wars and of the Peloponnesian War is 
widely different in character from our knowledge of the rest of 
this period. In the history of these wars the lacunae are few; 
in the rest of the history they are alike frequent and serious. In 
the history, therefore, of the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars 
little is to be learnt from the secondary sources. Elsewhere, 
especially in the interval between the two wars, they become 
relatively important. 

In estimating the authority of Herodotus (q.v.) we must be 

'Strictly speaking, to 411 B.C. For the last seven years of the 
war our principal authority is Xenophon, Hellenica, i., li. 



IISTORY] 



GREECE 



455 



ireful to distinguish between the invasion of Xerxes and all 
hat is earlier. Herodotus's work was published soon after 
30 B.C., i.e. about half a century after the invasion. Much of his 
formation was gathered in the course of the preceding twenty 
years. Although his evidence is not that of an eye-witness, he 
ad had opportunities of meeting those who had themselves 
played a part in the war, on one side or the other (e.g. Thersander 
of Orchomenos, ix. 16). In any case, we are dealing with a 
tradition which is little more than a generation old, and the 
events to which the tradition relates, the incidents of the struggle 
against Xerxes, were of a nature to impress themselves indelibly 
upon the minds of contemporaries. Where, on the other hand, 
he is treating of the period anterior to the invasion of Xerxes, 
he is dependent upon a tradition which is never less than two 
generations old, and is sometimes centuries old. His informants 
were, at best, the sons or grandsons of the actors in the wars 
(e.g. Archias the Spartan, iii. 55). Moreover, the invasion of 
Xerxes, entailing, as it did, the destruction of cities and sanctu- 
aries, especially of Athens and its temples, marks a dividing 
line in Greek history. It was not merely that evidence perished 
and records were destroyed. What in reference to tradition is 
even more important, a new consciousness of power was awakened, 
new interests were aroused, and new questions and problems 
came to the front. The former things had passed away; all 
things were become new. A generation that is occupied with 
making history on a great scale is not likely to busy itself with 
the history of the past. Consequently, the earlier traditions 
became faint and obscured, and the history difficult to recon- 
struct. As we trace back the conflict between Greece and 
Persia to its beginnings and antecedents, we are conscious that 
the tradition becomes less trustworthy as we pass back from 
one stage to another. The tradition of the expedition of Datis 
and Artaphernes is less credible in its details than that of the 
expedition of Xerxes, but it is at once fuller and more credible 
than the tradition of the Ionian revolt. When we get back to 
the Scythian expedition, we can discover but few grains of 
historical truth. 

Much recent criticism of Herodotus has been directed against 
his veracity as a traveller. With this we are not here concerned. 
The criticism of him as an historian begins with Thucydides. 
Among the references of the latter writer to his predecessor are 
the following passages: i. 21; i. 22 ad fin.; i. 20 ad fin. 
(cf. Herod, ix. 53, and vi. 57 ad fin.); iii. 62 4 (cf. Herod, 
ix. 87); ii. 2 i and 3 (cf. Herod, vii. 233); ii. 8 3 (cf. Herod, 
vi. 98). Perhaps the two clearest examples of this criticism are 
to be found in Thucydides' correction of Herodotus's account 
of the Cylonian conspiracy (Thuc. i. 126, cf. Herod, v. 71) and 
in his appreciation of the character of Themistocles a veiled 
protest against the slanderous tales accepted by Herodotus 
(i. 138). In Plutarch's tract " On the Malignity of Herodotus " 
there is much that is suggestive, although his general standpoint, 
viz. that Herodotus was in duty bound to suppress all that was 
discreditable to the valour or patriotism of the Greeks, is not 
that of the modern critic. It must be conceded to Plutarch 
that he makes good his charge of bias in Herodotus's attitude 
towards certain of the Greek states. The question, however, 
may fairly be asked, how far this bias is personal to the author, 
or how far it is due to the character of the sources from which 
his information was derived. He cannot, indeed, altogether be 
acquitted of personal bias. His work is, to some extent, intended 
as an apologia for the Athenian empire. In answer to the charge 
that Athens was guilty of robbing other Greek states of their 
freedom, Herodotus seeks to show, firstly, that it was to Athens 
that the Greek world, as a whole, owed its freedom from Persia, 
and secondly, that the subjects of Athens, the Ionian Greeks, 
were unworthy to be free. This leads him to be unjust both 
to the services of Sparta and to the qualities of the Ionian race. 
For his estimate of the debt due to Athens see vii. 139. For 
bias against the lonians see especially iv. 142 (cf. Thuc. vi. 77); 
cf. also i. 143 and 146, vi. 12-14 (Lade), vi. 112 ad fin. A 
striking example of his prejudice in favour of Athens is furnished 
by vi. 91. At a moment when Greece rang with the crime of 



Athens in expelling the Aeginetans from their island, he ventures 
to trace in their expulsion the vengeance of heaven for an act 
of sacrilege nearly sixty years earlier (see AEGINA). As a rule, 
however, the bias apparent in his narrative is due to the sources 
from which it is derived. Writing at Athens, in the first years 
of the Peloponnesian War, he can hardly help seeing the past 
through an Athenian medium. It was inevitable that much 
of what he heard should come to him from Athenian informants, 
and should be coloured by Athenian prejudices. We may thus 
explain the leniency which he shows towards Argos and Thessaly, 
the old allies of Athens, in marked contrast to his treatment of 
Thebes, Corinth and Aegina, her deadliest foes. For Argos 
cf. vii. 152; Thessaly, vii. 172-174; Thebes, vii. 132, vii. 233, 
ix. 87; Corinth (especially the Corinthian general Adeimantus, 
whose son Aristeus was the most active enemy of Athens at the 
outbreak of the Peloponnesian War), vii. 5, vii. 21, viii. 29 and 
61, vii. 94; Aegina, ix. 78-80 and 85. In his intimacy with 
members of the great Alcmaeonid house we probably have the 
explanation of his depreciation of the services of Themistocles, as 
well as of his defence of the family from the charges brought 
against it in connexion with Cylon and with the incident of the 
shield shown on Pentelicus at the time of Marathon (v. 71, vi. 
121-124). His failure to do justice to the Cypselid tyrants of 
Corinth (v. 92), and to the Spartan king Cleomenes, is to be 
accounted for by the nature of his sources in the former case, 
the tradition of the Corinthian oligarchy; in the latter, accounts, 
partly derived from the family of the exiled king Demaratus and 
partly representative of the view of the ephorate. Much of the 
earlier history is cast in a religious mould, e.g. the story of the 
Mermnad kings of Lydia in book i., or of the fortunes of the 
colony of Cyrene (iv. 145-167). In such cases we cannot fail 
to recognize the influence of the Delphic priesthood. Grote 
has pointed out that the moralizing tendency observable in 
Herodotus is partly to be explained by the fact that much of his 
information was gathered from priests and at temples, and that 
it was given in explanation of votive offerings, or of the fulfilment 
of oracles. Hence the determination of the sources of his narrative 
has become one of the principal tasks of Herodotean criticism. In 
addition to the current tradition of Athens, the family tradition 
of the Alcmaeonidae, and the stories to be heard at Delphi and 
other sanctuaries, there may be indicated the Spartan tradition, 
in the form in which it existed in the middle of the sth century; 
that of his native Halicarnassus, to which is due the prominence 
of its queen Artemisia; the traditions of the Ionian cities, 
especially of Samos and Miletus (important both for the history 
of the Mermnadae and for the Ionian Revolt) ; and those current 
in Sicily and Magna Graecia, which were learned during his 
residence at Thurii (Sybaris and Croton, v. 44, 45; Syracuse and 
Gela, vii. 153-167). Among his more special sources we can 
point to the descendants of Demaratus, who still held, at the 
beginning of the 4th century, the principality in the Troad 
which had been granted to their ancestor by Darius (Xen. Hell. 
iii. i. 6), and to the family of the Persian general Artabazus, 
in which the satrapy of Dascylium (Phrygia) was hereditary in 
the 5th century. 1 His use of written material is more difficult 
to determine. It is generally agreed that the list of Persian 
satrapies, with their respective assessments of tribute (iii. 89-97), 
the description of the royal road from Sardis to Susa (v. 52-54), 
and of the march of Xerxes, together with the list of the con- 
tingents that took part in the expedition (vii. 26-131), are all 
derived from documentary and authoritative sources. From 
previous writers (e.g. Dionysius of Miletus, Hecataeus, Charon 
of Lampsacus and Xanthus the Lydian) it is probable that he 
has borrowed little, though the fragments are too scanty to 
permit of adequate comparison. His references to monuments, 
dedicatory offerings, inscriptions and oracles are frequent. 

The chief defects of Herodotus are his failure too grasp the 
principles of historical criticism, to understand the nature of 
military operations, and to appreciate the importance of 

1 Possibly some of his information about Persian affairs may have 
been derived, at first or second hand, from Zopyrus, son of Megabyzua, 
whose flight to Athens is mentioned in iii. 160. 



456 



GREECE 



[HISTORY 



chronology. In place of historical criticism we find a crude 
rationalism (e.g. ii. 45, vii. 129, viii. 8). Having no conception of 
the distinction between occasion and cause, he is content to find 
the explanation of great historical movements in trivial incidents 
or personal motives. An example of this is furnished by his 
account of the Ionian revolt, in which he fails to discover the 
real causes either of the movement or of its result. Indeed, it 
is clear that he regarded criticism as no part of his task as an 
historian. In vii. 152 he states the principles which have guided 
him eyu 81 6$eiXw \tyew rci \ty6fitva, irdOtaOai ye fitv ov 
Trwroinurt 6<fctXw, Kai fioi TOVTO TO tiros x 1 " w ' s Travro. \oyov. 
In obedience to this principle he again and again gives two or 
more versions of a story. We are thus frequently enabled to 
arrive at the truth by a comparison of the discrepant traditions. 
It would have been fortunate if all ancient writers who lacked 
the critical genius of Thucydides had been content to adopt the 
practice of Herodotus. His accounts of battles are always 
unsatisfactory. The great battles, Marathon, Thermopylae, 
Salamis and Plataea, present a series of problems. This result 
is partly due to the character of the traditions which he follows 
traditions which were to some extent inconsistent or contra- 
dictory, and were derived from different sources; it is, however, 
in great measure due to his inability to think out a strategical 
combination or a tactical movement. It is not too much to say 
that the battle of Plataea, as described by Herodotus, is wholly 
unintelligible. Most serious of all his deficiencies is his careless 
chronology. Even in the case of the sth century, the data 
which he affords are inadequate or ambiguous. The interval 
between the Scythian expedition and the Ionian revolt is 
described by so vague an expression as fiera 5e ov iroXkov \povov 
avtcris KO.K&V ffv (v. 28). In the history of the revolt itself, 
though he gives us the interval between its outbreak and the 
fall of Miletus (tKrif frti, vi. 18), he does not give us the interval 
between this and the battle of Lade, nor does he indicate with 
sufficient precision the years to which the successive phases of 
the movement belong. Throughout the work professed syn- 
chronisms too often prove to be mere literary devices for facilitat- 
ing a transition from one subject to another (cf. e.g. v. 81 with 
89, 90; or vi. 51 with 87 and 94). In the 6th century, as Grote 
pointed out, a whole generation, or more, disappears in his 
historical perspective (cf. i. 30, vi. 125, v. 94, iii. 47, 48, 
v. 113 contrasted with v. 104 and iv. 162). The attempts to 
reconstruct the chronology of this century upon the basis of the 
data afforded by Herodotus (e.g. by Beloch, Rheinisches Museum, 
xlv., 1890, pp. 465-473) have completely failed. 

In spite of all such defects Herodotus is an author, not only 
of unrivalled literary charm, but of the utmost value to the 
historian. If much remains uncertain or obscure, even in the 
history of the Persian Wars, it is chiefly to motives or policy, 
to topography or strategy, to dates or numbers, that uncertainty 
attaches. It is to these that a sober criticism will confine itself. 

Thucydides is at once the father of contemporary history and 
the father of historical criticism. From a comparison of i. i, 
i. 22 and v. 26, we may gather both the principles to 
which he adhered in the composition of his work and 
the conditions under which it was composed. It is 
seldom that the circumstances of an historical writer have been 
so favourable for the accomplishment of his task. Thucydides 
was a contemporary of the Twenty-Seven Years' War in the 
fullest sense of the term. He had reached manhood at its out- 
break, and he survived its close by at least half-a-dozen years. 
And he was more than a mere contemporary. As a man of high 
birth, a member of the Periclean circle, and the holder of the 
chief political office in the Athenian state, the strategia, he was 
not only familiar with the business of administration and the 
conduct of military operations, but he possessed in addition 
a personal knowledge of those who played the principal part in 
the political life of the age. His exile in the year 424 afforded 
him opportunities of visiting the scenes of distant operations 
(e.g. Sicily) and of coming in contact with the actors on the other 
side. He himself tells us that he spared no pains to obtain the 
best information available in each case. He also tells us that 



he began collecting materials for his work from the very beginning 
of the war. Indeed, it is probable that much of books i.-v. 24 
was written soon after the Peace of Nicias (421), just as it is 
possible that the history of the Sicilian Expedition (books vi. 
and vii.) was originally intended to form a separate work. To 
the view, however, which has obtained wide support in recent 
years, that books i.-v. 22 and books vi. and vii. were separately 
published, the rest of book v. and book viii. being little more than 
a rough draught, composed after the author had adopted the 
theory of a single war of twenty-seven years' duration, of which 
the Sicilian Expedition and the operations of the years 431-421 
formed integral parts, there seem to the present writer to be 
insuperable objections. The work, as a whole, appears to have 
been composed in the first years of the 4th century, after his 
return from exile in 404, when the material already in existence 
must have been revised and largely recast. There are exceed- 
ingly few passages, such as iv. 48. 5, which appear to have been 
overlooked in the process of revision. It can hardly be 
questioned that the impression left upon the reader's mind is 
that the point of view of the author, in all the books alike, is 
that of one writing after the fall of Athens. 

The task of historical criticism in the case of the Peloponnesian 
War is widely different from its task in the case of the Persian 
Wars. It has to deal, not with facts as they appear in the 
traditions of an imaginative race, but with facts as they appeared 
to a scientific observer. Facts, indeed, are seldom in dispute. 
The question is rather whether facts of importance are omitted, 
whether the explanation of causes is correct, or whether the 
judgment of men and measures is just. Such inaccuracies as 
have been brought home to Thucydides on the strength, e.g. of 
epigraphic evidence, are, as a rule, trivial. His most serious 
errors relate to topographical details, in cases where he was 
dependent on the information of others. Sphacteria (see PYLOS) 
(see G. B. Grundy, Journal of Hellenic Studies, xvi., 1896, p. i) 
is a case in point. Nor have the difficulties connected with the 
siege of Plataea been cleared up either by Grundy or by others 
(see Grundy, Topography of the Battle of Plataea, &c., 1894). 
Where, on the contrary, he is writing at first hand his descrip- 
tions of sites are surprisingly correct. The most serious charge 
as yet brought against his authority as to matters of fact relates 
to his account of the Revolution of the Four Hundred, which 
appears, at first sight, to be inconsistent with the documentary 
evidence supplied by Aristotle's Constitution of Athens (q.v.). It 
may be questioned, however, whether the documents have 
been correctly interpreted by Aristotle. On the whole, it is 
probable that the general course of events was such as Thucydides 
describes (see E. Meyer, Forschungen, ii. 406-436), though he 
failed to appreciate the position of Theramenes and the Moderate 
party, and was clearly misinformed on some important points of 
detail. With regard to the omission of facts, it is unquestionable 
that much is omitted that would not be omitted by a modern 
writer. Such omissions are generally due to the author's Jcon- 
ception of his task. Thus the internal history of Athens is 
passed over as forming no part of the history of the war. It 
is only where the course of the war is directly affected by the 
course of political events (e.g. by the Revolution of the Four 
Hundred) that the internal history is referred to. However 
much it may be regretted that the relations of political parties 
are not more fully described, especially in book v., it cannot be 
denied that from his standpoint there is logical justification 
even for the omission of the ostracism of Hyperbolus. There 
are omissions, however, which are not so easily explained. 
Perhaps the most notable instance is that of the raising of the 
tribute in 425 B.C. (see DELIAN LEAGUE). 

Nowhere is the contrast between the historical methods of 
Herodotus and Thucydides more apparent than in the treatment 
of the causes of events. The distinction between the occasion 
and the cause is constantly present to the mind of Thucydides, 
and it is his tendency to make too little rather than too much 
of the personal factor. Sometimes, however, it may be doubted 
whether his explanation of the causes of an event is adequate or 
correct. In tracing the causes of the Peloponnesian War itself, 



HISTORY] 



GREECE 



457 



modern writers are disposed to allow more weight to the com- 
mercial rivalry of Corinth; while in the case of the Sicilian 
expedition, they would actually reverse his judgment (ii. 65 6 es 
StXtav irXoDs 8s ov roaovrov yvwiJLtjs d/id/my/ia fy> 7rp6s oDs 
ivrjfffav). To us it seems that the very idea of the expedition 
implied a gigantic miscalculation of the resources of Athens and of 
the difficulty of the task. His judgments of men and of measures 
have been criticized by writers of different schools and from 
different points of view. Grote criticized his verdict upon Cleon, 
while he accepted his estimate of the policy of Pericles. More 
recent writers, on the other hand, have accepted his view of 
Cleon, while they have selected for attack his appreciation alike 
of the policy and the strategy of Pericles. He has been charged, 
too, with failure to do justice to the statesmanship of Alcibiades. 1 
There are cases, undoubtedly, in which the balance of recent 
opinion will be adverse to the view of Thucydides. There are 
many more in which the result of criticism has been to establish 
his view. That he should occasionally have been mistaken in 
his judgment and his views is certainly no detraction from his 
claim to greatness. 

On the whole, it may be said that while the criticism of 
Herodotus, since Grote wrote, has tended seriously to modify 
our view of the Persian Wars, as well as of the earlier history, 
the criticism of Thucydides, in spite of its imposing bulk, has 
affected but slightly our view of the course of the Peloponnesian 
War. The labours of recent workers in this field have borne 
most fruit where they have been directed to subjects neglected 
by Thucydides, such as the history of political parties, or the 
organization of the empire (G. Gilbert's Innere Geschichte Athens 
im Zeilalter des pel. Krieges is a good example of such work). 

In regard to Thucydides' treatment of the period between the 
Persian and Peloponnesian Wars (the so-called Pentecontaeleris) 
it should be remembered that he does not profess to give, even 
in outline, the history of this period as a whole. The period is 
regarded simply as a prelude to the Peloponnesian War. There 
is no attempt to sketch the history of the Greek world or of 
Greece proper during this period. There is, indeed, no attempt 
to give a complete sketch of Athenian history. His object is to 
trace the growth of the Athenian Empire, and the causes that 
made the war inevitable. Much is therefore omitted not only 
in the history of the other Greek states, especially the Pelo- 
ponnesian, but even in the history of Athens. Nor does Thucyd- 
ides attempt an exact chronology. He gives us a few dates 
(e.g. surrender of Ithome, in the tenth year, i. 103; of Thasos, 
in the third year, i. 101; duration, of the Egyptian expedition 
six years, i. no; interval between Tanagra and Oenophyta 
6 1 days, i. 108; revolt of Samos, in the sixth year after the 
Thirty Years' Truce, i. 115), but from these data alone it would 
be impossible to reconstruct the chronology of the period. In 
spite of all that can be gleaned from our other authorities, our 
knowledge of this, the true period of Athenian greatness, must 
remain slight and imperfect as compared with our knowledge 
of the next thirty years. 

Of the secondary authorities for this period the two principal 
ones are Diodorus (xi. 38 to xii. 37) and Plutarch. Diodorus 
Diodorus ls ^ va ' ue chiefly in relation to Sicilian affairs, to which 
he devotes about a third of this section of his work 
and for which he is almost our sole authority. His source for 
Sicilian history is the Sicilian writer Timaeus (q.v.), an author 
of the 3rd century B.C. For the history of Greece Proper during 
the Pentecontaetia Diodorus contributes comparatively little 
of importance. Isolated notices of particular events (e.g. the 
Synoecism of Elis, 471 B.C., or the foundation of Amphipolis, 
437 B.C.), which appear to be derived from a chronological writer, 
may generally be trusted. The greater part of his narrative 
is, however, derived from Ephorus, who appears to have had 
before him little authentic information for this period of Greek 
history other than that afforded by Thucydides' work. Four of 
Plutatch's Lives are concerned with this period, viz. Themistocles, 
Aristides, Cimon and Pericles. From the Aristides little can 

1 For a defence of Thucydides' judgment on all three statesmen, 
see E. Meyer, Forsckungen, ii. 296-379. 






be gained. Plutarch, in this biography, appears to be mainly 
dependent upon Idomeneus of Lampsacus, an excessively untrust- 
worthy writer of the 3rd century B.C., who is probably ^^ 
to be credited with the invention of the oligarchical 
conspiracy at the time of the battle of Plataea (ch. 13), and of 
the decree of Aristides, rendering all four classes of citizens 
eligible for the archonship (ch. 22). The Cimon, on the other 
hand, contains much that is valuable; such as, e.g. the account 
of the battle of the Eurymedon (chs. 12 and 13). To the Pericles 
we owe several quotations from the Old Comedy. Two other 
of the Lives, Lycurgus and Solon, are amongst our most important 
sources for the early history of Sparta and Athens respectively. 
Of the two (besides Pericles) which relate to the Peloponnesian 
War, Alcibiades adds little to what can be gained from Thucydides 
and Xenophon; the Nicias, on the other hand, supplements 
Thucydides' narrative of the Sicilian expedition with many 
valuable details, which, it may safely be assumed, are derived 
from the contemporary historian, Philistus of Syracuse. 
Amongst the most valuable material afforded by Plutarch are 
the quotations, which occur in almost all the Lives, from the 
collection of Athenian decrees (^r)<^r^dTCOv aw etywyij) formed 
by the Macedonian writer Craterus, in the 3rd century B.C. 
Two other works may be mentioned in connexion with the 
history of Athens. For the history of the Athenian Constitution 
down to the end of the 5th century B.C. Aristotle's 
Constitution of Athens (q.v.) is our chief authority. 
The other Constitution of A thens, erroneously attributed 
to Xenophon, a tract of singular interest both on literary and 
historical grounds, throws a good deal of light on the internal 
condition of Athens, and on the system of government, both of 
the state and of the empire, in the age of the Peloponnesian War, 
during the earlier years of which it was composed. 

To the literary sources for the history of Greece, especially of 
Athens, in the 5th century B.C. must be added the epigraphic. 
Few inscriptions have been discovered which date 
back beyond the Persian Wars. For the latter half 
of the sth century they are both numerous and im- 
portant. Of especial value are the series of Quota-lists, from 
which can be calculated the amount of tribute paid by the 
subject-allies of Athens from the year 454 B.C. onwards. The 
great majority of the inscriptions of this period are of Athenian 
origin. Their value is enhanced by the fact that they relate, as 
a rule, to questions of organization, finance and administration, 
as to which little information is to be gained from the literary 
sources. 

For the period between the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars 
Busolt, Griechische Geschichte, iii. i, is indispensable. Hill's 
Sources of Greek History, B.C. 478-431 (Oxford, 1897) is excellent. 
It gives the most important inscriptions in a convenient form. 

III. The4thCenlury tolheDealh of Alexander. Of the historians 
who flourished in the 4th century the sole writer whose works 
have come down to us is Xenophon. It is a singular Xeag boa 
accident of fortune that neither of the two authors, 
who at once were most representative of their age and did most 
to determine the views of Greek history current in subsequent 
generations, Ephorus (q.v.) and Theopompus (q.v.), should be 
extant. It was from- them, rather than from Herodotus, Thucyd- 
ides or Xenophon that the Roman world obtained its knowledge 
of the history of Greece in the past, and its conception of its 
significance. Both were pupils of Isocrates, and both, therefore, 
bred up in an atmosphere of rhetoric. Hence their popularity 
and their influence. The scientific spirit of Thucydides was alien 
to the temper of the 4th century, 'and hardly more congenial to 
the age of Cicero or Tacitus. To the rhetorical spirit, which is 
common to both, each added defects peculiar to himself. Theo- 
pompus is a strong partisan, a sworn foe to Athens and to 
Democracy. Ephorus, though a military historian, is ignorant 
of the art of war. He is also incredibly careless and uncritical. 
It is enough to point to his description of the battle of the 
Eurymedon (Diodorus xi. 60-62), in which, misled by an epigram, 
which he supposed to relate to this engagement (it really refers 
to the Athenian victory off Salamis in Cyprus, 449 B.C.), he 



458 



GREECE 



[HISTORY 



makes the coast of Cyprus the scene of Cimon's nava^l victory, 
and finds no difficulty in putting it on the same day as the 
victory on shore on the banks of the Eurymedon, in Pamphylia. 
Only a few fragments remain of either writer, but Theopompus 
(q.v.) was largely used by Plutarch in several of the Lives, 
while Ephorus continues to be the main source of Diodorus' 
history, as far as the outbreak of the Sacred War (Fragments of 
Ephorus in M tiller's Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, vol. i.; 
of Theopompus in Hellenica Oxyrhynchia, cum Theopompi 
et Cratippi fragmentis, ed. B. P. Grenfell and A. S.. Hunt, 
1909). 

It may be at least claimed for Xenophon (q.v.) that he is free 
from all taint of the rhetorical spirit. It may also be claimed 
for him that, as a witness, he is both honest and well-informed. 
But, if there is no justification for the charge of deliberate 
falsification, it cannot be denied that he had strong political 
prejudices, and that his narrative has suffered from them. His 
historical writings are the Anabasis, an account of the expedition 
of the Ten Thousand, the Hellenica and the Agesilaus, a eulogy 
of the Spartan king. Of these the Hellenica is far the most 
important for the student of history. It consists of two distinct 
parts (though there is no ground for the theory that the two 
parts were separately written and published), books i. and ii., 
and books iii. to vii. The first two books are intended as a 
continuation of Thucydides' work. They begin, quite abruptly, 
in the middle of the Attic year 411/10, and they carry the 
history down to the fall of the Thirty, in 403. Books iii. to vii., 
the Hellenica proper, cover the period from 401 to 362, and give 
the histories of the Spartan and Theban hegemonies down to 
the death of Epaminondas. There is thus a gap of two years 
between the point at which the first part ends and that at which 
the second part begins. The two parts differ widely, both in 
their aim and in the arrangement of the material. In the first 
part Xenophon attempts, though not with complete success, 
to follow the chronological method of Thucydides, and to make 
each successive spring, when military and naval operations were 
resumed after the winter's interruption, the starting-point of a 
fresh section. The resemblance between the two writers ends, 
however, with the outward form of the narrative. All that is 
characteristic of Thucydides is absent in Xenophon. The 
latter writer shows neither skill in portraiture, nor insight into 
motives. He is deficient in the sense of proportion and of the 
distinction between occasion and cause. Perhaps his worst 
fault is a lack of imagination. To make a story intelligible 
it is necessary sometimes to put oneself in the reader's place, 
and to appreciate his ignorance of circumstances and events 
which would be perfectly familiar to the actors in the scene 
or to contemporaries. It was not given to Xenophon, as it was 
to Thucydides, to discriminate between the circumstances that 
are essential and those that are not essential to the comprehen- 
sion of the story. In spite, therefore, of its wealth of detail, 
his narrative is frequently obscure. It is quite clear that in the 
trial of the generals, e.g., something is omitted. It may be 
supplied as Diodorus has supplied it (xiii. 101), or it may be 
supplied otherwise. It is probable that, when under cross- 
examination before the council, the generals, or some of them, 
disclosed the commission given to Theramenes and Thrasybulus. 
The important point is that Xenophon himself has omitted to 
supply it. As it stands his narrative is unintelligible. In the 
first two books, though there are omissions (e.g. the loss of 
Nisaea, 409 B.C.), they are not so serious as in the last five, nor 
is the bias so evident. It is true that if the account of the rule 
of the Thirty given in Aristotle's Constitution of Athens be 
accepted, Xenophon must have deliberately misrepresented 
the course of events to the prejudice of Theramenes. But it is 
at least doubtful whether Aristotle's version can be sustained 
against Xenophon's, though it may be admitted, not only that 
there are mistakes as to details in the latter writer's narrative, 
but that less than justice is done to the policy and motives 
of the " Buskin." The Hellenica was written, it should be 
remembered, at Corinth, after 362. More than forty years had 
thus elapsed since the events recorded in the first two books, 



and after so long an interval accuracy of detail, even where the 
detail is of importance, is not always to be expected. 1 In the 
second part the chronological method is abandoned. A subject 
once begun is followed out to its natural ending, so that sections 
of the narrative which are consecutive in order are frequently 
parallel in point of date. A good example of this will be found 
in book iv. In chapters 2 to 7 the history of the Corinthian 
war is carried down to the end of 390, so far as the operations 
on land are concerned, while chapter 8 contains an account of 
the naval operations from 394 to 388. In this second part of the 
Hellenica the author's disqualifications for his task are more 
apparent than in the first two books. The more he is acquitted 
of bias in his selection of events and in his omissions, the more 
clearly does he stand convicted of lacking all sense of the propor- 
tion of things. Down to Leuctra (371 B.C.) Sparta is the centre 
of interest, and it is of the Spartan state alone that a complete 
or continuous history is given. After Leuctra, if the point of 
view is no longer exclusively Spartan, the narrative of events 
is hardly less incomplete. Throughout the second part of the 
Hellenica omissions abound which it is difficult either to explain 
or justify. The formation of the Second Athenian Confederacy 
of 377 B.C., the foundation of Megalopolis and the restoration 
of the Messenian state are all left unrecorded. Yet the writer 
who passes them over without mention thinks it worth while 
to devote more than one-sixth of an entire book to a chronicle 
of the unimportant feats of the citizens of the petty state of 
Phlius. Nor is any attempt made to appraise the policy of 
the great Theban leaders, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The 
former, indeed, is mentioned only in a single passage, relating 
to the embassy to Susa in 368; the latter does not appear on 
the scene till a year later, and receives mention but twice before 
the battle of Mantinea. An author who omits from his narrative 
some of the most important events of his period, and elaborates 
the portraiture of an Agesilaus while not attempting the bare 
outline of an Epaminondas, may be honest; he may even 
write without a consciousness of bias; he certainly cannot rank 
among the great writers of history. 2 

For the history of the 4th century Diodorus assumes a higher 
degree of importance than belongs to him in the earlier periods. 
This is partly to be explained by the deficiencies of 
Xenophon's Hellenica, partly by the fact that for the 
interval between the death of Epaminondas and the accession of 
Alexander we have in Diodorus alone a continuous narrative 
of events. Books xiv. and xv. of his history include the period 
covered by the Hellenica. More than half of book xiv. is devoted 
to the history of Sicily and the reign of Dionysius, the tyrant of 
Syracuse. For this period of Sicilian history he is, practically, 
our sole authority. In the rest of the book, as well as in book xv., 
there is much of value, especially in the notices of Macedonian 
history. Thanks to Diodorus we are enabled to supply many 
of the omissions of the Hellenica. Diodorus is, e.g., our sole 
literary authority for the Athenian naval confederation of 377. 
Book xvi. must rank, with the Hellenica and Arrian's Anabasis, 
as one of the three principal authorities for this century, so far, 
at least, as works of an historical character are concerned. It is 
our authority for the Social and the Sacred Wars, as well as 
for the reign of Philip. It is a curious irony of fate that, for 
what is perhaps the most momentous epoch in the history 
of Greece, we should have to turn to a writer of such inferior 
capacity. For this period his material is better and his import- 
ance greater: his intelligence is as limited as ever. Who but 
Diodorus would be capable of narrating the siege and capture 
of Methone twice over, once under the year 354, and again under 
the year 352 (xvi. 31 and 34; cf. xii. 35 and 42; Archidamus (q.v.) 
dies in 434, commands Peloponnesian army in 431); or of giving 
three different numbers of years (eleven, ten and nine) in three 
different passages (chs. 14, 23 and 59) for the length of the 

1 On the discrepancies between Xenophon's account of the Thirty, 
and Aristotle's, see G. Busolt, Hermes (1898), pp. 71-86. 

2 The fragment of the New Historian (Oxyrhynchus Papyri, vol. v.) 
affords exceedingly important material for the criticism of Xenophon's 
narrative. (See THEOPOMPUS.) 



HISTORY] 



GREECE 



459 



ande^s 
reign. 



Sacred War; or of asserting the conclusion of peace between 
Athens and Philip in 340, after the failure of his attack on 
Perinthus and Byzantium? Amongst the subjects which are 
omitted is the Peace of Philocrates. For the earlier chapters, 
which bring the narrative down to the outbreak of the Sacred War, 
Ephorus, as in the previous book, is Diodorus' main source. 
His source for the rest of the book, i.e. for the greater part of 
Philip's reign, cannot be determined. It is generally agreed that 
it is not the Philippica of Theopompus. 

For the reign of Alexander our earliest extant authority is 
Diodorus, who belongs to the age of Augustus. Of the others, 
Historians Q- Curtius Rufus, who wrote in Latin, lived in the 
of Alex- reign of the emperor Claudius, Arrian and Plutarch 
in the 2nd century A.D. Yet Alexander's reign is 
one of the best known periods of ancient history. 
The Peloponnesian War and the twenty years of Roman 
history which begin with 63 B.C. are the only two periods 
which we can be said to know more fully or for which we 
have more trustworthy evidence. For there is no period of 
ancient history which was recorded by a larger number of 
contemporary writers, or for which better or more abundant 
materials were available. Of the writers actually contemporary 
with Alexander there were five of importance Ptolemy, Aristo- 
bulus, Callisthenes, Onesicritus and Nearchus; and all of them 
occupied positions which afforded exceptional opportunities 
of ascertaining the facts. Four of them were officers in 
Alexander's service. Ptolemy, the future king of Egypt, was 
one of the somatophylaces (we may, perhaps, regard them as 
corresponding to Napoleon's marshals); Aristobulus was also 
an officer of high rank (see Arrian, Anab. vi. 29. 10); Nearchus 
was admiral of the fleet which surveyed the Indus and the 
Persian Gulf, and Onesicritus was one of his subordinates. The 
fifth, Callisthenes, a pupil of Aristotle, accompanied Alexander 
on his march down to his death in 327 and was admitted to the 
circle of his intimate friends. A sixth historian, Cleitarchus, 
was possibly also a contemporary; at any rate he is not more 
than a generation later. These writers had at their command a 
mass of official documents, such as the jSacriXetoi e(/>i?juepi5es the 
Gazette and Court Circular combined edited and published 
after Alexander's death by his secretary, Eumenes of Cardia; 
the orodjuot, or records of the 'marches of the armies, whkh were 
carefully measured at the time; and the official reports on the 
conquered provinces. That these documents were made use of 
by the historians is proved by the references to them which are 
to be found in Arrian, Plutarch and Strabo; e.g. Arrian, Anab. 
vii. 25 and 26, and Plutarch, Alexander 76 (quotation from the 
jScunXeioi 'ffantptie;); Strabo xv. 723 (reference to the oraffytoi), 
ii. 69 (reports drawn up on the various provinces). We have, 
in addition, in Plutarch numerous quotations from Alexander's 
correspondence with his mother, Olympias, and with his officers. 
The contemporary historians may be roughly divided into two 
groups. On the one hand there are Ptolemy and Aristobulus, 
who, except in a single instance, are free from all suspicion of 
deliberate invention. On the other hand, there are Callisthenes, 
Onesicritus and Cleitarchus, whose tendency is rhetorical. 
Nearchus appears to have allowed full scope to his imagination 
in dealing with the wonders of India, but to have been otherwise 
veracious. Of the extant writers Arrian (q.ii.) is incomparably 
the most valuable. His merits are twofold. As the commander 
of Roman legions and the author of a work on tactics, he com- 
bined a practical with a theoretical knowledge of the military art, 
while the writers whom he follows in the Anabasis are the two 
most worthy of credit, Ptolemy and Aristobulus. We may well 
hesitate to call in question the authority of writers who exhibit 
an agreement which it would be difficult to parallel elsewhere 
in the case of two independent historians. It may be inferred 
from Arrian's references to them that there were only eleven 
cases in all in which he found discrepancies between them. 
The most serious drawback which can be alleged against them 
is an inevitable bias in Alexander's favour. It would be only 
natural that they should pass over in silence the worst blots on 
their great commander's fame. Next in value to the Anabasis 



The 
orators. 



comes Plutarch's Life of Alexander, the merits of which, however, 
are not to be gauged by the influence which it has exercised upon 
literature. The Life is a valuable supplement to the Anabasis, 
partly because Plutarch, as he is writing biography rather than 
history (for his conception of the difference between the two 
see the famous preface, Life of Alexander, ch. i.), is concerned 
to record all that will throw light upon Alexander's character 
(e.g. his epigrammatic sayings and quotations from his letters); 
partly because he tells us much about his early life, before he 
became king, while Arrian tells us nothing. It is unfortunate 
that Plutarch writes in an uncritical spirit; it is hardly less 
unfortunate that he should have formed no clear conception 
and drawn no consistent picture of Alexander's character. 
Book xvii. of Diodorus and the Historiae Alexandri of Curtius 
Rufus are thoroughly rhetorical in spirit. It is probable that 
in both cases the ultimate source is the work of Clitarchus. 

It is towards the end of the 5th century that a fresh source 
of information becomes available in the speeches of the orators, 
the earliest of whom is Antiphon (d. 411 B.C.). Lysias 
is of great importance for the history of the Thirty 
(see the speeches against Eratosthenes and Agoratus), 
and a good deal may be gathered from Andocides with regard 
to the last years of the sth and the opening years of the next 
century. At the other end of this period Lycurgus, Hyperides 
and Dinarchus throw light upon the time of Philip and Alexander. 
The three, however, who are of most importance to the historian 
are Isocrates, Aeschines and Demosthenes. Isocrates (q.v.), 
whose long life (436-338) more than spans the interval 
between the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War and i socra tes 
the triumph of Macedon at Chaeronea, is one of the 
most characteristic figures in the Greek world of his day. To 
comprehend that world the study of Isocrates is indispensable; 
for in an age dominated by rhetoric he is the prince of rhetoricians. 
It is difficult for a modern reader to do him justice, so alien is 
his spirit and the spirit of his age from ours. It must be allowed 
that he is frequently monotonous and prolix; at the same time 
it must not be forgotten that, as the most famous representative 
of rhetoric, he was read from one end of the Greek world to the 
other. He was the friend of Evagoras and Archidamus, of 
Dionysius and Philip; he was the master of Aeschines and 
Lycurgus amongst orators and of Ephorus and Theopompus 
amongst historians. No other contemporary writer has left 
so indelible a stamp upon the style and the sentiment of his 
generation. It is a commonplace that Isocrates is the apostle 
of Panhellenism. It is not so generally recognized that he is the 
prophet of Hellenism. A passage in the Panegyricus ( 50 
ai<TT6 TO rSiv 'EXMjvwv ovona. jurjKeTi ToO yevovs dXXa TTJS diavoias 
SoKelv tlvat Kai naXhav "EXXTjcas Ka\tiada.i TOW TJJS iratSewrecos 
TTJS 17/ueTepas rj TOW TTJS KOIVTJS $weatt /xerexoi'Tas) is the key 
to the history of the next three centuries. Doubtless he had no 
conception of the extent to which the East was to be hellenized. 
He was, however, the first to recognize that it would be hellenized 
by the diffusion of Greek culture rather than of Greek blood. His 
Panhellenism was the outcome of his recognition of the new 
forces and tendencies which were at work in the midst of a new 
generation. When Greek culture was becoming more and more 
international, the exaggeration of the principle of autonomy 
in the Greek political system was becoming more and more 
absurd. He had sufficient insight to be aware that the price 
paid for this autonomy was the domination of Persia; a domina- 
tion which meant the' servitude of the Greek states across the 
Aegean and the demoralization of Greek political life at home. 
His Panhellenism led him to a more liberal view of the distinction 
between what was Greek and what was not than was possible 
to the intenser patriotism of a Demosthenes. In his later orations 
he has the courage not only to pronounce that the day of Athens 
as a first-rate power is past, but to see in Philip the needful 
leader in the crusade against Persia. The earliest and greatest of 
his political orations is the Panegyricus, published in 380 B.C., 
midway between the peace of Antalcidas and Leuctra. It is 
his apologia for Panhellenism. To the period of the Social War 
belong the De pace (355 B.C.) and the Areopagiticus (354 B.C.), 



460 



GREECE 



[HISTORY 



Demos- 
theaes. 



both of great value as evidence for the internal conditions of 
Athens at the beginning of the struggle with Macedon. The 
Plataicus (373 B.C.) and the Archidamus (366 B.C.) throw light 
upon the politics of Boeotia and the Peloponnese respectively. 
The Panathenaicus (339 B.C.), the child of his old age, contains 
little that may not be found in the earlier orations. The 
Philippus (346 B.C.) is of peculiar interest, as giving the views 
of the Macedonian party. 

Not the least remarkable feature in recent historical criticism 
is the reaction against the view which was at one time almost 
universally accepted of the character, statesmanship 
and authority of the orator Demosthenes (q.v.). 
During the last quarter of a century his character and 
statesmanship have been attacked, and his authority impugned, 
by a series of writers of whom Holm and Beloch are the best 
known. With the estimate of his character and statesmanship 
we are not here concerned. With regard to his value as an 
authority for the history of the period, it is to his speeches, and 
to those of his contemporaries, Aeschines, Hypereides, Dinarchus 
and Lycurgus, that we owe our intimate knowledge, both of 
the working of the constitutional and legal systems, and of the 
life of the people, at this period of Athenian history. From this 
point of view his value can hardly be overestimated. As a 
witness, however, to matters of fact, his authority can no longer 
be rated as highly as it once was, e.g. by Schaefer and by Grote. 
The orator's attitude towards events, both in the past and in the 
present, is inevitably a different one from 'the historian's. The 
object of a Thucydides is to ascertain a fact, or to exhibit it in 
its true relations. The object of a Demosthenes is to make 
a point, or to win his case. In their dealings with the past the 
orators exhibit a levity which is almost inconceivable to a modern 
reader. Andocides, in a passage of his speech On the Mysteries 
( 107), speaks of Marathon as the crowning victory of Xerxes' 
campaign; in his speech On the Peace ( 3) he confuses Miltiades 
with Cimon, and the Five Years' Peace with the Thirty Years' 
Truce. Though the latter passage is a mass of absurdities and 
confusions, it was so generally admired that it was incorporated 
by Aeschines in his speech On the Embassy ( 172-176). If such 
was their attitude towards the past; if, in order to make a point, 
they do not hesitate to pervert history, is it likely that they 
would conform to a higher standard of veracity in their state- 
ments as to the present as to their contemporaries, their rivals 
or their own actions ? When we compare different speeches of 
Demosthenes, separated by an interval of years, we cannot fail 
to observe a marked difference in his statements. The farther 
he is from the events, the bolder are his mis-statements. It is 
only necessary to compare the speech On the Crown with that On 
the Embassy, and this latter speech with the Philippics and 
Olynthiacs, to find illustrations. It has come to be recognized 
that no statement as to a matter of fact is to be accepted, unless 
it receives independent corroboration, or unless it is admitted 
by both sides. The speeches of Demosthenes may be conveniently 
divided into four classes according to their dates. To the pre- 
Philippic period belong the speeches On the Symmories (354 B. C.), 
On Megalopolis (352 B.C.), Against Aristocrates (351 B.C.), and, 
perhaps, the speech On Rhodes (? 351 B.C.). These speeches 
betray no consciousness of the danger threatened by Philip's 
ambition. The policy recommended is one based upon the 
principle of the balance of power. To the succeeding period, 
which ends with the peace of Philocrates (346 B.C.), belong the 
First Philippic and the three Olynthiacs. To the period between 
the peace of Philocrates and Chaeronea belong the speech On 
the Peace (346 B.C.), the Second Philippic (344 B.C.), the speeches 
On the Embassy (344 B.C.) and On the Chersonese (341 B.C.), and 
the Third Philippic. The masterpiece of his genius, the speech 
On the Crown, was delivered in 330 B.C., in the reign of Alexander. 
Of the three extant speeches of Aeschines (q.v.) that On the 
Embassy is of great value, as enabling us to correct the mis- 
statements of Demosthenes. For the period from the death of 
Alexander to the fall of Corinth (323-146 B.C.) our literary 
authorities are singularly defective. For the Diadochi Diodorus 
(books xviii.-xx.) is our chief source. These books form the 



most valuable part of Diodorus' work. They are mainly based 
upon the work of Hieronymus of Cardia, a writer who combined 
exceptional opportunities for ascertaining the truth (he was in 
the service first of Eumenes, and then of Antigonus) with an 
exceptional sense of its importance. Hieronymus ended his 
history at the death of Pyrrhus (272 B.C.), but, unfortunately, 
book xx. of Diodorus' work carries us no farther than 303 B.C., 
and of the later books we have but scanty fragments. The 
narrative of Diodorus may be supplemented by the fragments 
of Arrian's History of the events after Alexander's death (which 
reach, however, only to 321 B.C.), and by Plutarch's Lives of 
Eumenes and of Demetrius. For the rest of the 3rd century and 
the first half of the 2nd we have his Lives of Pyrrhus, of Aratus, 
of Philopoemen, and of Agis and Cleomenes. For the period 
from 220 B.C. onwards Polybius (q.v.) is our chief authority (see 
ROME: Ancient History, section " Authorities "). In a period 
in which the literary sources are so scanty great weight attaches 
to the epigraphic and numismatic evidence. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature which deals with the history of 
Greece, in its various periods, departments and aspects, is of so vast 
a bulk that all that can be attempted here is to indicate the most im- 
portant and most accessible works. 

General Histories of Greece. Down to the middle of the igth 
century the only histories of Greece deserving of mention were the 
products of English scholarship. The two earliest of these were 
published about the same date, towards the end of the l8th century, 
nearly three-quarters of a century before any history of Greece, 
other than a mere compendium, appeared on the Continent. John 
Gillies' History of Greece was published in 1786, Mitford's in 1784. 
Both works were composed with a political bias and a political object. 
Gillies was a Whig. In the dedication (to George III.) he expresses 
the view that " the History of Greece exposes the dangerous turbu- 
lence of Democracy, and arraigns the despotism of Tyrants, while 
it evinces the inestimable benefits, resulting to Liberty itself, from 
the steady operation of well-regulated monarchy." Mitford was 
a Tory, who thought to demonstrate the evils of democracy from 
the example of the Athenian state. His History, in spite of its bias, 
was a work of real value. More than fifty years elapsed between 
Mitford'sworkandThirlwall's. Connop Thirlwall, fellow of Trinity 
College, Cambridge, afterwards bishop of St David's, brought a 
sound judgment to the aid of ripe scholarship. His History of Greece, 
published in 1835-1838 (8 vols.), is entirely free from the controversial 
tone of Mitford's volumes. Ten years later (1846) George Grote 
published the first volumes of his history, which was not completed 
(in 12 vols.) till 1856. Grote, like Mitford, was a politician an 
ardent Radical, with republican sympathies. It was in order to 
refute the slanders of the Tory partisan that he was impelled to 
write a history of Greece, which should do justice to the greatest 
democracy of the ancient world, the Athenian state. Thus, in the 
case of three of these four writers, the interest in their subject was 
mainly political. Incomparably the greatest of these works is 
Grote's. Grote had his faults and his limitations. His prejudices 
are strong, and his scholarship is weak ; he had never visited Greece, 
and he knew little or nothing of Greek art ; and, at the time he wrote, 
the importance of coins and inscriptions was imperfectly appre- 
hended. In spite of every defect, however, his work is the greatest 
history of Greece that has yet been written. It is not too much to 
say that nobody knows Greek history till he has mastered Grote. 
No history of Greece has since appeared in England on a scale at all 
comparable to that of Grote's work. The most important of the 
more recent ones is that by J. B. Bury (l vol., 1900), formerly fellow 
of Trinity College, Dublin, afterwards Regius Professor of Modern 
History at Cambridge. Mitford and Bury end with the death of 
Alexander; Gillies and Grote carry on the narrative a generation 
farther; while Thirlwall's work extends to the absorption of Greece 
in the Roman Empire (146 B.C.). 

While in France the Histoire des Grecs (ending at 146 B.C.) of 
Victor Duruy (new edition, 2 vols., 1883), Minister of Public Instruc- 
tion under Napoleon III., is the only one that need be mentioned, 
in Germany there has been a succession of histories of Greece since 
the middle of the igth century. Kortum's Geschichte Griechenlands 
(3 vols., 1854), a work of little merit, was followed by Max Duncker's 
Geschichte der Griechen (vols. I and 2 published in 1856; vols. I and 
2, Neue Folge, which bring the narrative down to the death of 
Pericles, in 1884; the two former volumes form vols. 5, 6 and 7 
of his Geschichte des Altertums), and by the Griechische Geschichte 
of Ernst Curtius (3 vols., 1857-1867). An English translation of 
Duncker, by S. F. Alleyne, appeared in 1883 (2 vols., Bentley), 
and of Curtius, by A. W. Ward (5 vols., Bentley, 1868-1873). Among 
more recent works may be mentioned the Griechische Geschichte of 
Adolf Holm (4 vols., Berlin, 1886-1894; English translation by F. 
Clarke, 4 vols., Macmillan, 1894-1898), and histories with the same 
title by Julius Beloch (3 vols., Strassburg, 1893-1904) and Georg 
Busolt (2nd ed., 3 vols., Gotha, 1893-1904). Holm carries on the 
narrative to 30 B.C., Beloch to 217 B.C., Busolt to Chaeronea 



HISTORY] 



GREECE 



461 



(338 B.C.). 1 Busolt's work is entirely different in character from any 
other history of Greece. The writer's object is to refer in the notes 
(which constitute five-sixths of the book) to the views of every writer 
in any language upon every controverted question. It is absolutely 
indispensable, as a work of reference, for any serious study of Greek 
history. The ablest work since Grote's is Eduard Meyer's Geschichte 
des Altertums, of which 5 vols. (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1884-1902) 
have appeared, carrying the narrative down to the death of Epami- 
nondas (362 B.C.). Vols. 2-5 are principally concerned with Greek 
history. It must be remembered that, partly owing to the literary 
finds and the archaeological discoveries of the last thirty years, 
and partly owing to the advance made in the study of epigraphy 
and numismatics, all the histories published before those of Busolt, 
Beloch, Meyer and Bury are out of date. 

Works bearing on the History of Greece. Earlier works and editions 
are omitted, except in the case of a work which has not been super- 
seded. 

Introductions. C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das 'Studium der 
alien Geschichte (i vol., Leipzig, 1895) ; E. Meyer, Forschungen zur 
alien Geschichte (2 parts, Halle, 1892-1899; quite indispensable); 
J. B. Bury, The Ancient Greek Historians (London, 1909). 

Constitutional History and Institutions. G. F. Schomann, Grie- 
chische Altertiimer (2 vols., Berlin, 1855-1859; vol. i., tr. by E. G. 
Hardy and J. S. Mann, Rivingtons, 1880); G. Gilbert, Griechische 
Staatsaltertiimer (2nd ed., 2 vols., Leipzig, 1893; vol. i. tr. by E. J. 
Brooks and T. Nicklin, Swan Sonnenschein, 1895); K. F. Hermann, 
Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitdten (6th ed., 4 vols., Freiburg, 
1882-1895); Iwan Miiller, Handbuch der klassischen Altertums- 
wissenschaft (9 vols., Nordlingen, 1886, in progress; several of the 
volumes are concerned with Greek history) ; J. H. Lipsius, Das 
attische Recht und Rechlsverfahren (Leipzig, 1905, in progress) ; 
A. H. J. Greenidge, Handbook of Greek Constitutional History (i vol., 
Macmillan, 1896); Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklopddie der klassischen 
Altertumswissenschaft (Stuttgart, 1894 foil.). 

Geography. E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography 
amongst the Greeks and Romans (2nd ed., 2 vols., Murray, 1883), 
W. M. Leake, Travels in the Morea (3 vols., 1830), and Travels in 
Northern Greece (4 vols., 1834) ; H. F. Tozer, Lectures on the Geography 
of Greece (i vol., Murray, 1873), and History of Ancient Geography 
(i vol., Cambridge, 1897); J. P. Mahaffy, Rambles and Studies in 
Greece (3rd ed., i vol., Macmillan, 1887, an admirable book); C. 
Bursian, Geographic von Griechenland (2 vols., Leipzig, 1872); H. 
Berger, Geschichte der wissenschafUichen Erdkunde der Griechen 
(4 parts, Leipzig, 1887-1893); Ernst Curtius, Peloponnesos (2 vols., 
Gotha, 1850-1851). 

Epigraphy and Numismatics. Corpus inscriptionum Allicarum 
(Berlin, 1875, in progress), Corpus inscriptionum Graecarum (Berlin, 
1 892, in progress) . The following selections of Greek inscriptions may 
be mentioned : E. F. Hicks and G. F. Hill, Manual of Greek Historical 
Inscriptions (new ed., i vol., Oxford, 1901) ; W. Dittenberger, Sylloge 
inscriptionum Graecarum (2nd ed., 2 vols., Berlin, 1898); C. Michel, 
Recueil d' inscriptions grecques (Paris, 1900). Among works on 
numismatics the English reader may refer to B. V. Head, Historia 
numorum (i vol., Oxford, 1887); G. F. Hill, Handbook of Greek and 
Roman Coins (i vol., Macmillan, 1899), as well as to the British 
Museum Catalogue of Greek Coins. In French the most important 
general work is the Monnaies grecques of F. Imhoof-Blumer (Paris, 
1883). 

Chronology, Trade, War, Social Life, Gfc.H. F. Clinton, Fasti 
Hellenici (3rd ed., 3 vols., Oxford, 1841, a work of which English 
scholarship may well be proud; it is still invaluable for the. study 
of Greek chronology) ; B. Buchsenschutz, Besitz und Erwerb im 
griechischen Altertume (i vol., Halle, 1869; this is still the best 
book on Greek commerce) ; J. Beloch, Die Bevolkerung der griechisch- 
romischen Welt (i vol., Leipzig, 1886); W. Riistow and H. Kochly, 
Geschichte des griechischen Kriegswesens (i vol., Aarau, 1852); J. P. 
Mahaffy, Social Life in Greece (2nd ed., i vol., 1875). (E. M. W.) 

b. Post-Classical: 146 B.C.-A.D. 1800 

I. THE PERIOD OF ROMAN RULE. (i.) Greece under the 
Republic (146-27 B.C.). After the collapse of the Achaean 
League (q.v.) the Senate appointed a commission to reorganize 
Greece as a Roman dependency. Corinth, the chief centre of 
resistance, was destroyed and its inhabitants sold into slavery. 
In addition to this act of exemplary punishment, which may 
perhaps have been inspired in part by the desire to crush a 
commercial competitor, steps were taken to obviate future 
insurrections. The national and cantonal federations were 
dissolved, commercial intercourse between cities was restricted, 
and the government transferred from the democracies to the 
propertied classes, whose interests were bound up with Roman 
supremacy. In other respects few changes were made in existing 
institutions. Some favoured states like Athens and Sparta 
retained their full sovereign rights as civitates liberae, the other 
1 Vol. iii. goes down to the end of the Peloponnesian War. 



cities continued to enjoy local self-government. The ownership 
of the land was not greatly disturbed by confiscations, and 
though a tribute upon it was levied, this impost may not have 
been universal. General powers of supervision were entrusted 
to the governor of Macedonia, who could reserve cases of high 
treason for his decision, and in case of need send troops into the 
country. But although Greece was in the provincia of the 
Macedonian proconsul, in the sense of belonging to his sphere of 
command, its status was in fact more favourable than that of 
other provincial dependencies. 

This settlement was acquiesced in by the Greek people, who 
had come to realize the hopelessness of further resistance. The 
internal disorder which was arising from the numerous disputes 
about property rights consequent upon the political revolutions 
was checked by the good offices of the historian Polybius, whom 
the Senate deputed to mediate between the litigants. The 
pacification of the country eventually became so complete that 
the Romans withdrew the former restrictions upon intercourse 
and allowed some of the leagues to revive. But its quiet was 
seriously disturbed during the first Mithradatic War (88-84 B.C.), 
when numerous Greek states sided with Mithradates (q.v.). 
The success which the invader experienced in detaching the 
Greeks from Rome is partly to be explained by the skilful way 
in which his agents incited the imperialistic ambitions of 
prominent cities like Athens, partly perhaps by his promises 
of support to the democratic parties. The result of the war was 
disastrous to Greece. Apart from the confiscations and exactions 
by which the Roman general L. Cornelius Sulla punished the 
disloyal communities, the extensive and protracted campaigns 
left Central Greece in a ruinous condition. During the last 
decades of the Roman republic European Greece was scarcely 
affected by contemporary wars nor yet exploited by Roman 
magistrates in the same systematic manner as most other 
provinces. Yet oppression by officials who traversed Greece 
from time to time and demanded lavish entertainments and 
presentations in the guise of viaticum or aurum coronarium was 
not unknown. Still greater was the suffering produced by the 
rapacity of Roman traders and capitalists: it is recorded that 
Sicyon was reduced to sell its most cherished art treasures in 
order to satisfy its creditors. A more indirect but none the less 
far-reaching drawback to Greek prosperity was the diversion 
of trade which followed upon the establishment of direct com- 
munication between Italy and the Levant. The most lucrative 
source of wealth which remained to the European Greeks was 
pasturage in large domains, an industry which almost exclusively 
profited the richer citizens and so tended to widen the breach 
between capitalists and the poorer classes, and still further to 
pauperize the latter. The coast districts and islands also 
suffered considerably from swarms of pirates who, in the absence 
of any strong fleet in Greek waters, were able to obtain a firm 
footing in Crete and freely plundered the chief trading places 
and sanctuaries; the most notable of such visitations was 
experienced in 69 B.C. by the island of Delos. This evil came to 
an end with the general suppression of piracy in the Mediter- 
ranean by Pompey (67 B.C.), but the depopulation which it had 
caused in some regions is attested by the fact that the victorious 
admiral settled some of his captives on the desolated coast 
strip of Achaea. 

In the conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Greeks 
provided the latter with a large part of his excellent fleet. In 
48 B.C. the decisive campaign of the war was fought on Greek 
soil, and the resources of the land were severely taxed by the 
requisitions of both armies. As a result of Caesar's victory at 
Pharsalus, the whole country fell into his power; the treatment 
which it received was on the whole lenient, though individual 
cities were punished severely. After the murder of Caesar the 
Greeks supported the cause of Brutus (42 B.C.), but were too 
weak to render any considerable service. In 39 B.C. the Pelo- 
ponnese for a short time was made over to Sextus Pompeius. 
During the subsequent period Greece remained in the hands of 
M. Antonius (Mark Antony), who imposed further exactions in 
order to defray the cost of his wars. The extensive levies which 



462 



GREECE 



[HISTORY 



he made in 31 B.C. for his campaign against Octavian, and the 
contributions which his gigantic army required, exhausted the 
country's resources so completely that a general famine was 
prevented only by Octavian's prompt action after the battle of 
Actium in distributing supplies of grain and evacuating the land 
with all haste. The depopulation which resulted from the civil 
wars was partly remedied by the settlement of Italian colonists at 
Corinth and Patrae by Julius Caesar and Octavian; on the other 
hand, the foundation of Nicopolis (q.v.) by the latter merely had 
the effect of transferring the people from the country to the city. 

(ii.) The Early Roman Empire (27 B.C-A.D. 323). Under the 
emperor Augustus Thessaly was incorporated with Macedonia; 
the rest of Greece was converted into the province of Achaea, 
under the control of a senatorial proconsul resident at Corinth. 
Many states, including Athens and Sparta, retained their rights 
as free and nominally independent cities. The provincials were 
encouraged to send delegates to a communal synod (KOIVOV ruv 
'Axa-iuv) which met at Argos to consider the general interests 
of the country and to uphold national Hellenic sentiment; the 
Delphic amphictyony was revived and extended so as to represent 
in a similar fashion northern and central Greece. 

Economic conditions did not greatly improve under the 
empire. Although new industries sprang up to meet the needs 
of Roman luxury, and Greek marble,' textiles and 
Social table delicacies were in great demand, the only cities 
which regained a really flourishing trade were the 
Italian communities of Corinth and Patrae. Commerce 
languished in general, and the soil was mainly abandoned to 
pasturage. Though certain districts retained a measure of 
prosperity, e.g. Thessaly, Phocis, Elis, Argos and Laconia, huge 
tracts stood depopulated and many notable cities had sunk 
into ruins; Aetolia, Acarnania and Epirus never recovered 
from the effects of former wars and from the withdrawal of 
their surviving inhabitants into Nicopolis. Such wealth as 
remained was amassed in the hands of a few great landowners 
and capitalists; the middle class continued to dwindle, and 
large numbers of the people were reduced to earning a precarious 
subsistence, supplemented by frequent doles and largesses. 

The social aspect of Greek life henceforward becomes its most 
attractive feature. After a long period of storm and stress, the 
European Hellenes had relapsed into a quiet and resigned 
frame of mind which stands in sharp contrast on the one hand 
with the energy and ability, and on the other with the vulgar 
intriguing of their Asiatic kinsmen. Seeing no future before 
them, the inhabitants were content to dwell in contemplation 
amid the glories of the past. National pride was fostered by the 
undisguised respect with which the leading Romans of the age 
treated Hellenic culture. And although this sentiment could 
degenerate into antiquarian pedantry and vanity, such as finds 
its climax in the diatribes of Apollonius of Tyana against the 
" barbarians," it prevented the nation from sinking into some 
of the worst vices of the age. A healthy social tone repressed 
extravagant luxury and the ostentatious display of wealth, and 
good taste long checked the spread of gladiatorial contests 
beyond the Italian community of Corinth. The most widespread 
abuse of that period, the adulation and adoration of emperors, 
was indeed introduced into European Greece and formed an 
essential feature of the proceedings at the Delphic amphictyony, 
but it never absorbed the energies of the people in the same 
way as it did in Asia. In order to perpetuate their old culture, 
the Greeks continued to set great store by classical education, 
and in Athens they possessed an academic centre which gradually 
became the chief university of the Roman empire. The highest 
representatives of this type of old-world refinement are to be 
found in Dio Chrysostom and especially in Plutarch of Chaeroneia 
(?-.). 

The relations between European Greece and Rome were 
practically confined to the sphere of scholarship. The Hellenes 
had so far lost their warlike qualities that they supplied scarcely 
any recruits to the army. They retained too much local patriot- 
ism to crowd into the official careers of senators or imperial 
servants. Although in the ist century A.D. the astute Greek 



man of affairs and the Graeculus esuriens of Juvenal abounded 
in Rome, both these classes were mainly derived from the 
less pure-blooded population beyond the Aegean. 

The influx of Greek rhetoricians and professors into Italy 
during the 2nd and 3rd centuries was balanced by the large 
number of travellers who came to Greece to frequent its sanatoria, 
and especially to admire its works of art; the abundance in 
which these latter were preserved is strikingly attested in the 
extant record of Pausanias (about A.D. 170). 

The experience of the Greeks under their earliest governors 
seems to have been unfortunate, for in A.D. 15 they petitioned 
Tiberius to transfer the administration to an imperial 
legate. This new arrangement was sanctioned, but a ^mia 
only lasted till A.D. 44, when Claudius restored the tratioa. 
province to the senate. The proconsuls of the later 
ist and and centuries were sometimes ill qualified for their posts, 
but cases of oppression are seldom recorded against them. 
The years 66 and 67 were marked by a visit of the emperor Nero, 
who made a prolonged tour through Greece in order to display 
his artistic accomplishments at the various national festivals. In 
return for the flattering reception accorded to him he bestowed 
freedom and exemption from tribute upon the country. But 
this favour was almost neutralized by the wholesale depredations 
which he committed among the chief collections of art. A 
scheme for cutting through the Corinthian isthmus and so 
reviving the Greek carrying trade was inaugurated in his presence, 
but soon abandoned. 

As Nero's grant of self-government brought about a recrudes- 
cence of misplaced ambition and party strife, Vespasian revoked 
the gift and turned Achaea again into a province, at the same 
time burdening it with increased taxes. In the 2nd century a 
succession of genuinely phil-Hellenic emperors made serious 
attempts to revive the nation's prosperity. Important material 
benefits were conferred by Hadrian, who made a lengthy visit to 
Greece. Besides erecting useful public works in many cities, 
he relieved Achaea of its arrears of tribute and exempted it from 
various imposts. In order to check extravagance on the part 
of the free cities, he greatly extended the practice of placing 
them under the supervision of imperial functionaries known as 
correctores. Hadrian fostered national sentiment by establishing 
a new pan-Hellenic congress at Athens, while he gave recognition 
to the increasing ascendancy of Hellenic culture at Rome by 
his institution of the Athenaeum. 

In the 3rd century the only political event of importance was 
the edict of Caracalla which threw open the Roman citizenship 
to large numbers of provincials. Its chief effect in Greece was 
to diminish the preponderance of the wealthy classes, who 
formerly had used their riches to purchase the franchise and so 
to secure exemption from taxation. The chief feature of this 
period is the renewal of the danger from foreign invasions. 
Already in 175 a tribe named Costoboci had penetrated into 
central Greece, but was there broken up by the local militia. 
In 253 a threatened attack was averted by the stubborn resistance 
of Thessalonica. In 267-268 the province was overrun by 
Gothic bands, which captured Athens and some other towns, 
but were finally repulsed by the Attic levies and exterminated 
with the help of a Roman fleet. 

(iii.) The Late Roman Empire. After the reorganization of the 
empire by Diocletian, Achaea occupied a prominent position 
in the " diocese " of Macedonia. Under Constantine I. it was 
included in the " prefecture " of Illyricum.' It was subdivided 
into the " eparchies " of Hellas, Peloponnesus, Nicopolis and 
the islands, with headquarters at Thebes, Corinth, Nicopolis 
and Samos. Thessaly was incorporated with Macedonia. A 
complex hierarchy of imperial officials was now introduced and 
the system of taxation elaborated so as to yield a steady revenue 
to the central power. The levying of the land-tax was imposed 
upon the SeKawpoiroi or " ten leading men," who, like the Latin 
decuriones, were entrusted henceforth with the administration 
in most cities. The tendency to reduce all constitutions to the 
Roman municipal pattern became prevalent under the rulers 
of this period, and the greater number of them was stereotyped 






HISTORY] 



GREECE 



463 



the general regulations of the Codex Theodosianus (438). 
Although the elevation of Constantinople to the rank of capital 
was prejudicial to Greece, which felt the competition of the 
new centre of culture and learning and had to part with numerous 
works of art destined to embellish its privileged neighbour, the 
general level of prosperity in the 4tb century was rising. Com- 
mercial stagnation was checked by a renewed expansion of 
trade consequent upon the diversion of the trade routes to 
the east from Egypt to the Euxine and Aegean Seas. Agri- 
culture remained in a depressed condition, and many small 
proprietors were reduced to serfdom; but the fiscal interests 
of the government called for the good treatment of this class, 
whose growth at the expense of the slaves was an important 
step in the gradual equalization of the entire population under the 
central despotism which restored solidarity to the Greek nation. 

This prosperity received a sharp set-back by a series of un- 
usually severe earthquakes in 375 and by the irruption of a host 
of Visigoths under Alaric (395-396), whom the imperial officers 
allowed to overrun the whole land unmolested and the local 
levies were unable to check. Though ultimately hunted down 
in Arcadia and induced to leave the province, Alaric had time 
to execute systematic devastations which crippled Greece for 
several decades. The arrears of taxation which accumulated 
in consequence were remitted by Theodosius II. in 428. 

The emperors of the 4th century made several attempts to 
stamp out by edict the old pagan religion, which, with its 
accompaniment of festivals, oracles and mysteries, still main- 
tained an outward appearance of vigour, and, along with the 
philosophy in which the intellectual classes found comfort, 
retained the affection of the Greeks. Except for the decree of 
Theodosius I. by which the Olympian games were interdicted 
(394), these measures had no great effect, and indeed were not 
rigorously enforced. Paganism survived in Greece till about 
600, but the interchange of ideas and practices which the long- 
continued contact with Christianity had effected considerably 
modified its character. Hence the Christian religion, though 
slow in making its way, eventually gained a sure footing among 
a nation which accepted it spontaneously. The hold of the 
Church upon the Greeks was strengthened by the judicious 
manner in which the clergy, unsupported by official patronage 
and often out of sympathy with the Arian emperors, identified 
itself with the interests of the people. Though in the days when 
the orthodox Church found favour at court corruption spread 
among its higher branches, the clergy as a whole rendered 
conspicuous service in opposing the arbitrary interferences of 
the central government and in upholding the use of the Hellenic 
tongue, together with some rudiments of Hellenic culture. 

The separation of the eastern and western provinces of the 
empire ultimately had an important effect in restoring the 
language and customs of Greece to their predominant position 
in the Levant. This result, however, was long retarded by the 
romanizing policy of Constantine and his successors. The 
emperors of the sth and 6th centuries had no regard for Greek 
culture, and Justinian I. actively counteracted Hellenism by 
propagating Roman law in Greece, by impairing the powers of 
the self-governing cities, and by closing the philosophical schools 
at Athens (529). In course of time the inhabitants had so far 
forgotten their ancient culture that they abandoned the name 
of Hellenes for that of Romans (Rhomaioi). For a long time 
Greece continued to be an obscure and neglected province, with 
no interests beyond its church and its commercial operations, 
and its culture declined rapidly. Its history for some centuries 
dwindles into a record of barbarian invasions which, in addition 
to occasional plagues and earthquakes, seem to have been the 
only events found worthy Of record by the contemporary 
chroniclers. 

In the 5th century Greece was only subjected to brief raids 
by Vandal pirates - (466-474) and Ostrogoths (482). In Justinian's 
reign irruptions by Huns and Avars took place, but led to no 
far-reaching results. The emperor had endeavoured to strengthen 
the country's defences by repairing the fortifications of cities 
and frontier posts (530), but his policy of supplanting the local 



guards by imperial troops and so rendering the natives incapable 
of self-defence was ill-advised; fortunately it was never carried 
out with energy, and so the Greek militias were occasionally 
able to render good service against invaders. 

Towards the end of the century mention is made for the first 
time of an incursion by Slavonic tribes (581). These invaders 
are to be regarded as merely the forerunners of a 
steady movement of immigration by which a con- Slavonic 
siderable part of Greece passed for a time into foreign aons!' 
hands. It is doubtful how far the newcomers won 
their territory by force of arms; in view of the desolation of 
many rural tracts, which had long been in progress as a result 
of economic changes, it seems probable that numerous settle- 
ments were made on unoccupied land and did not challenge 
serious opposition. At any rate the effect upon the Greek popula- 
tion was merely to accelerate its emigration from the interior 
to the coastland and the cities. The foreigners, consisting mainly 
of Slovenes and Wends, occupied the mountainous inland, 
where they mostly led a pastoral life ; the natives retained some 
strips of plain and dwelt secure in their walled towns, among 
which the newly-built fortresses of Monemvasia, Corone and 
Calamata soon rose to prosperity. The Slavonic element, to 
judge by the geographical names in that tongue which survive 
in Greece, is specially marked in N.W. Greece and Peloponnesus; 
central Greece appears to have been protected against them 
by the fortress-square of Chalcis, Thebes, Corinth and Athens. 
For a long time the two nations dwelt side by side without either 
displacing the other. The Slavs were too rude and poor, and 
too much distracted with cantonal feuds, to make any further 
headway; the Greeks, unused to arms and engrossed in com- 
merce, were content to adopt a passive attitude. The central 
government took no steps to dislodge the invaders, until in 783 
the empress Irene sent an expedition which reduced most of 
the tribes to pay tribute. In 810 a desperate attempt by the 
Slavs to capture Patrae was foiled; henceforth their power 
steadily decreased and their submission to the emperor was 
made complete by 850. A powerful factor in their subjugation 
was the Greek clergy, who by the loth century had christianized 
and largely hellenized all the foreigners save a remnant in the 
peninsula of Maina. 

II. THE BYZANTINE PERIOD. In the 7th century the Greek 
language made its way into the imperial army and civil service, 
but European Greece continued to have little voice in the 
administration. The land was divided into four " themes " 
under a yearly appointed civil and military governor. Imperial 
troops were stationed at the chief strategic points, while the 
natives contributed ships for naval defence. During the dispute 
about images the Greeks were the backbone of the image- 
worshipping party, and the iconoclastic edicts of Leo III. led 
to a revolt in 727 which, however, was easily crushed by the 
imperial fleet; a similar movement in 823, when the Greeks 
sent 350 ships to aid a pretender, met with the same fate. The 
firm government of the Isaurian dynasty seems to have benefited 
Greece, whose commerce and industry again became flourishing. 
In spite of occasional set-backs due to the depredations of 
pirates, notably the Arab corsairs who visited the Aegean from 
the 7th century onwards, the Greeks remained the chief carriers 
in the Levant until the rise of the Italian republics, supplying 
all Europe, with its silk fabrics. 

In the loth century Greece experienced a renewal of raids 
from the Balkan tribes. The Bulgarians made incursions after 
929 and sometimes penetrated to the Isthmus; but they mostly 
failed to capture the cities, and in 995 their strength was broken 
by a crushing defeat on the Spercheius at the hands of the 
Byzantine army. Yet their devastations greatly thinned the 
population of northern Greece, and after 1084 Thessaly was 
occupied without resistance by nomad tribes of Vlachs. In 
1084 also Greece was subjected to the first attack from the new 
nations of the west, when the Sicilian Normans gained a footing 
in the Ionian islands. The same people made a notable raid upon 
the seaboard of Greece in 1145-1146, and sacked the cities of 
Thebes and Corinth. The Venetians also appear as rivals of 



GREECE 



[HISTORY 



the Greeks, and after 1122 their encroachments in the Aegean 
Sea never ceased. 

In spite of these attacks, the country on the whole maintained 
its prosperity. The travellers Idrlsl of Palermo (1153) and 
Benjamin of Tudela (1161) testify to the briskness of commerce, 
which induced many foreign merchants to take up their residence 
in Greece. But this prosperity revived an aristocracy of wealth 
which used its riches and power for purely selfish ends, and under 
the increasing laxity of imperial control the archontes or municipal 
rulers often combined with the clergy in oppressing the poorer 
classes. Least of all were these nobles prepared to become the 
champions of Greece against foreign invaders at a time when they 
alone could have organized an effectual resistance. 

III. The Latin Occupation and Turkish Conquest. The 
capture of Constantinople and dissolution of the Byzantine 
empire by the Latins (1204) brought in its train an invasion of 
Greece by Prankish barons eager for new territory. The 
natives, who had long forgotten the use of arms and dreaded 
no worse oppression from their new masters, submitted almost 
without resistance, and only the N.W. corner of Greece, where 
Michael Angelus, a Byzantine prince, founded the "despotat" 
of Epirus, was saved from foreign occupation. The rest of the 
country was divided up between a number of Prankish barons, 
chief among whom were the dukes of Achaea (or Peloponnese) 
and " grand signers " of Thebes and Athens, the Venetians, who 
held naval stations at different points and the island of Crete, 
and various Italian adventurers who mainly settled in the 
Cyclades. The conquerors transplanted their own language, 
customs and religion to their new possessions, and endeavoured 
to institute the feudal system of land-tenure. Yet recognizing 
the superiority of Greek civil institutions they allowed the 
natives to retain their law and internal administration and con- 
firmed proprietors in possession of their land on payment of a 
rent; the Greek church- was subordinated to the Roman arch- 
bishops, but upheld its former control over the people. The 
commerce and industry of the Greek cities was hardly affected 
by the change of government. 

Greek history during the Latin occupation loses its unity and 
has to be followed in several threads. In the north the " despots " 
of Epirus extended their rule to Thessaly and Macedonia, but 
eventually were repulsed by the Asiatic Greeks of Nicaea, and 
after a decisive defeat at Pelagonia (1250) reduced to a small 
dominion round lannina. Thessaly continued to change masters 
rapidly. Till 1308 it was governed by a branch line of the 
Epirote dynasty. When this family died out it fell to the Grand 
Catalan Company; in 1350 it was conquered along with Epirus 
by Stephen Dushan, king of Servia. About 1397 it was annexed 
by the Ottoman Turks, who after 1431 also gradually wrested 
Epirus from its latest possessors, the Beneventine family of 
Tocco (1390-1469). 

The leading power in central Greece was the Burgundian 
house de la Roche, which established a mild and judicious govern- 
ment in Boeotia and Attica and in I26r was raised to ducal rank 
by the French king Louis IX. A conflict with the Grand Catalan 
Company resulted in a disastrous defeat of the Franks on the 
Boeotian Cephissus (1311) and the occupation of central Greece 
by the Spanish mercenaries, who seized for themselves the barons' 
fiefs and installed princes from the Sicilian house of Aragon as 
" dukes of Athens and Neopatras " (Thessaly). After seventy- 
five years of oppressive rule and constant wars with their 
neighbours the Catalans were expelled by the Peloponnesian 
baron Nerio Acciaiuoli. The new dynasty, whose peaceful 
government revived its subjects' industry, became tributary to 
the Turks about 1415, but was deposed by Sultan Mahommed II., 
who annexed central Greece in 1456. 

The conquest of the Peloponnese was effected by two French 
knights, William Champlitte and Geoffrey Villehar.douin, the 
latter of whom founded a dynasty of " princes of all Achaea." 
The rulers of this line were men of ability, who controlled their 
barons and spiritual vassals with a firm hand and established 
good order throughout their province. The Franks of the 
Morea maintained as high a standard of culture as their com- 



patriots at home, while the natives grew rich enough from their 
industry to pay considerable taxes without discontent. The 
climax of the Villehardouins' power was attained under Prince 
William, who subdued the last independent cities of the coast 
and the mountaineers of Maina ( 1 246-1 248) . In 1 2 59, however, 
the same ruler was involved in the war between the rulers of 
Epirus and Nicaea, and being captured at the battle of Pela- 
gonia, could only ransom himself by the cession of Laconia 
to the restored Byzantine empire. This new dependency after 
1349 was treated with great care by the Byzantine monarchs, 
who sought to repress the violence of the local aristocracies by 
sending their kinsmen to govern under the title of " despots." 
On the other hand, with the extinction of the Villehardouin 
dynasty the Prankish province fell more and more into anarchy; 
at the same time the numbers of the foreigners were constantly 
dwindling through war, and as they disdained to recruit them 
by intermarriage, the preponderance of the native element 
in the Morea eventually became complete. Thus by 1400 the 
Byzantines were enabled to recover control over almost the 
whole peninsula and apportion it among several " despots." 
But the mutual quarrels of these princes soon proved fatal to 
their rule. Already in the I4th century they had employed 
Albanians and the Turkish pirates who harried their coasts as 
auxiliaries in their wars. The Albanians largely remained as 
settlers, and the connexion with the Turks could no longer be 
shaken off. In spite of attempts to fortify the Isthmus (14 15) an 
Ottoman army penetrated into Morea and deported many 
inhabitants in 1423. An invasion of central Greece by the despot 
Constantine was punished by renewed raids in 1446 and 1450. 
In 1457 the despot Thomas withheld the tribute which he had 
recently stipulated to pay, but was reduced to obedience by an 
expedition under Mahommed II. (1458). A renewed revolt in 
1459 was punished by an invasion attended with executions and 
deportations on a large scale, and by the annexation of the 
Morea to Turkey (1460). 

IV. The Turkish Dominion till 1800. Under the Ottoman 
government Greece was split up into six sanjaks or military 
divisions: (i) Morea, (2) Epirus, (3) Thessaly, (4) Euboea, 
Boeotia and Attica, (5) Aetolia and Acarnania, (6) the rest of 
central Greece, with capitals at Nauplia, Jannina, Trikkala, 
Negropont (Chalkis), Karlili and Lepanto; further divisions 
were subsequently composed of Crete and the islands. In each 
sanjak a number of fiefs was apportioned to Turkish settlers, 
who were bound in return to furnish some mounted men for 
the sultan's army, the total force thus held in readiness being 
over 7000. The local government was left in the hands of the 
archontes or primates in each community, who also undertook 
the farming of the taxes and the policing of their districts. Law 
was usually administered by the Greek clergy. The natives 
were not burdened with large imposts, but the levying of the 
land-tithes was effected in an inconvenient fashion, and the 
capitation-tax, to which all Christians were subjected was felt 
as a humiliation. A further grievance lay in the requisitions 
of forced labour which the pashas were entitled to call for; but 
the most galling exaction was the tribute of children for the 
recruiting of the Janissaries (q.v.), which was often levied with 
great ruthlessness. The habitual weakness of the central govern- 
ment also left the Greeks exposed to frequent oppression by the 
Turkish residents and by their own magistrates and clergy. 
But the new rulers met with singularly little opposition. The 
dangerous elements of the population had been cleared away by 
Mahommed's executions; the rest were content to absorb 
their energies in agriculture and commerce, which in spite of 
preferential duties and capitulations to foreign powers largely 
fell again into the hands of Greeks. Another important instru- 
ment by which the people were kept down was their own clergy, 
whom the Turkish rulers treated with marked favour and so 
induced to acquiesce in their dominion. 

In the following centuries Greece was often the theatre of 
war in which the Greeks played but a passive part. Several 
wars with Venice (1463-79, 1498-1504) put the Turks in posses- 
sion of the last Italian strongholds on the mainland. But the 



HISTORY] 



GREECE 



465 



issue was mainly fought out on sea; the conflicts which had 
never ceased in the Aegean since the coming of the Italians 
now grew fiercer than ever; Greek ships and sailors were 
frequently requisitioned for the Turkish fleets, and the damage 
done to the Greek seaboard by the belligerents and by fleets of 
adventurers and' corsairs brought about the depopulation of 
many islands and coast-strips. The conquest of the Aegean 
by the Ottomans was completed by 1570; but Venice retained 
Crete till 1669 and never lost Corfu until its cession to France 
in 1797. 

In 1684 the Venetians took advantage of the preoccupation of 
Turkey on the Danube to attack the Morea. A small mercenary 
army under Francesco Morosini captured the strong places 
with remarkable ease, and by 1687 had conquered almost the 
whole peninsula. In 1687 the invaders also captured Athens 
and Lepanto; but the former town had soon to be abandoned, 
and with their failure to capture Negropont (1688) the Venetians 
were brought to a standstill. By the peace of Karlowitz (1699) 
the Morea became a possession of Venice. The new rulers, in 
spite of the commercial restrictions which they imposed in favour 
of their own traders, checked the impoverishment and decrease 
of population (from 300,000 to 86,000) which the war had 
caused. By their attempts to cooperate with the native magis- 
trates and the mildness of their administration they improved 
the spirit of their subjects. But they failed to make their 
government popular, and when in 1715 the Ottomans with 
a large and well-disciplined army set themselves to recover 
the Morea, the Venetians were left without support from the 
Greeks. The peninsula was rapidly recaptured and by the peace 
of Passarowitz (1718) again became a Turkish dependency. 
The gaps left about this time in the Greek population were 
largely made up by an immigration from Albania. 

The condition of the Greeks in the i8th century showed a 
great improvement which gave rise to yet greater hopes. Already 
in the I7th century the personal services of the subjects had 
been commuted into money contributions, and since 1676 the 
tribute of children fell into abeyance. The increasing use of 
Greek officials in the Turkish civil service, coupled with the 
privileges accorded to the Greek clergy throughout the Balkan 
countries, tended to recall the consciousness of former days of 
predominance in the Levant. Lastly, the education of the 
Greeks, which had always remained on a comparatively high 
level, was rapidly improved by the foundation of new schools 
and academies. 

The long neglect which Greece had experienced at the hands 
of the European Powers was broken in 1764, when Russian 
agents appeared in the country with promises of a speedy 
deliverance from the Turks. A small expedition under Feodor 
and Alexis Orloff actually landed in the Morea in 1769, but failed 
to rouse national sentiment. Although the Russian fleet gained 
a notable victory off Chesme near Chios, a heavy defeat near 
Tripolitza ruined the prospects of the army. The Albanian 
troops in the Turkish army subsequently ravaged the country 
far and wide, until in 1779 they were exterminated by a force 
of Turkish regulars. In 1774 a concession, embodied in the 
treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji, by which Greek traders were allowed 
to sail under the protection of the Russian flag, marked an 
important step in the rehabilitation of the country as an inde- 
pendent power. Greek commerce henceforth spread swiftly 
over the Mediterranean, and increased intercourse developed a 
new sense of Hellenic unity. Among the pioneers who fostered 
this movement should be mentioned Constantine Rhigas, the 
" modern Tyrtaeus," and Adamantios Corae's (q.v.), the reformer 
of the Greek tongue. The revived memories of ancient Hellas 
and the impression created by the French revolution combined 
to give the final impulse which made the Greeks strike for 
freedom. By 1800 the population of Greece had increased to 
1,000,000, and although 200,000 of these were Albanians, the 
common aversion to the Moslem united the two races. The 
military resources of the country alone remained deficient, for 
the armatoli or local militias, which had never been quite dis- 
banded since Byzantine times, were at last suppressed by Ali 



Pasha of lannina and found but a poor substitute in the klephts 
who henceforth spring into prominence. But at the first sign 
of weakness in the Turkish dominion the Greek nation was 
ready to rise, and the actual outbreak of revolt had become 
merely a question of time. 

AUTHORITIES. General : G. Finlay, History of Greece (ed. Tozer, 
Oxford, 1877), especially vols. L, iv., v. ; K. Paparrhigopoulos, 
'laropia TOV 'EXXrjvucoD Wvoin (4th ed., Athens, 1903), vols. ii.-v. ; 
Histoire de la civilisation heltenique (Paris, 1878); R. v. Scala, 
Das Griechentum seit Alexander dent Grossen (Leipzig and Vienna, 
1904) ; and specially W. Miller, The Latins in the Levant (1908). 

Special (a) The Roman period : Strabo, bks. yiii.-x. ; Pausanias, 
Descriptio Graeciae; G. F. Hertzberg, Die Geschichte Griechenlands 
unter der Herrschaft der Rdmer (Halle, 1866-1875); Sp. Lampros, 
'laTopla. rrjs 'EXXdSos (Athens, 1888 sqq.), vol. iii. ; A. Holm, 
History of Greece (Eng. trans., London, 1894-1898), vol. iv., chs. 
19, 24, 26, 28 seq. ; Th. Mommsen, The Provinces of the Roman 
Empire (Eng. trans., London, 1886, ch. 7); J. P. Mahaffy, The 
Greek World under Roman Sway, from Polybius to Plutarch (London, 
1890) ; W. Miller, " The Romans in Greece " (Westminster Review, 
August 1903, pp. 186-210); L. Friedlander, " Griechenland unter 
den Romern " (Deutsche Rundschau, 1899, pp. 251-274, 402-430). 
(b) The Byzantine and Latin periods: G. F. Hertzberg, Geschichte 
Griechenlands seit dem Absterben des antiken Lebens (Gotha, 1876 
1879), vols. i., ii.; C. Hopf, Geschichte Griechenlands im Mittelalter 
(Leipzig, 1868); J. A. Buchon, Histoire des conquetes et de I'etablisse- 
ment des Franc,ais dans les Etats de I'ancienne Grece (Paris, 1846) ; 
G. Schmitt, The Chronicle of Morea (London, 1904); W. Miller, 
" The Princes of the Peloponnese " (Quarterly Review, July 1905, 
pp. 109-135); D. Bikelas, Seven Essays on Christian Greece (Paisley 
and London, 1890); La Grece byzantine et moderne (Paris, 1893), 
pp. 1-193. (c) The Turkish and Venetian periods: Hertzberg, 
op. cit., vol. iii. ; K. M. Barthpldy, Geschichte Griechenlands von der 
Eroberung Konstantinopels (Leipzig, 1870), bks. i. and ii., pp. 1-155; 
K. N. Sathas, ToupKOKparoviuvri 'EXXAs (Athens, 1869) ; W. Miller, 
" Greece under the Turks " (Westminster Review, August and 
September 1904, pp. 195-210, 304-320; English Historical Review, 
1904, pp. 646-668); L. Ranke, "Die Venetianer in Morea" 
(Historisch-politische Zeitschrift, ii. 405-502). (d) Special subjects: 
Religion. E. Hatch, The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon 
the Christian Church (London, 1890). Ethnology. J. P. Fallmerayer, 
Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea wdhrend des Mittelalters (Stuttgart 
and Tubingen, 1830) ; S.JZampelios, Uepl miyuv veoeXXTji-ucijs Wvbrtrr* 
(Athens, 1857) ; A. Philippson, " Zur Ethnographic des Peloponnes " 
Petermann's Mitteilungen 36 (1890), pp. i-u, 33-41]; A. Vasiljev, 
" Die Slaven in Griechenland " [ VizanttjskyVremennik, St Petersburg, 
5 (1898), pp. 404-438, 626-670]. 

See also ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER; ATHENS. (M. O. B. C.) 

c. Modern History: 1800-1908. 

At the beginning of the igth century Greece was still under 
Turkish domination, but the dawn of freedom was already 
breaking, and a variety of forces were at work which 
prepared the way for the acquisition of national ' tledec * a ~ 
independence. The decadence of the Ottoman empire, Turkey. 
which began with the retreat of the Turks from Vienna 
in 1683, was indicated in the i8th century by the weakening of 
the central power, the spread of anarchy in the provinces, the 
ravages of the janissaries, and the establishment of practically 
independent sovereignties or fiefs, such as those of Mehemet 
of Bushat at Skodra and of Ali Pasha of Tepelen at lannina; 
the i gth century witnessed the first uprisings of the Christian 
populations and the detachment of the outlying portions of 
European Turkey. Up to the end of the i8th century none of 
the subject races had risen in spontaneous revolt against the 
Turks, though in some instances they rendered aid to the sultan's 
enemies; the spirit of the conquered nations had been broken 
by ages of oppression. In some of the remoter and more moun- 
tainous districts, however, the authority of the Turks had never 
been completely established; in Montenegro a small fragment 
of the Serb race maintained its independence; among the Greeks, 
the Mainotes in the extreme south of the Morea and the Sphakiote 
mountaineers in Crete had never been completely subdued. 
Resistance to Ottoman rule was maintained sporadically in the 
mountainous districts by the Greek klephts or brigands, the 
counterpart of the Slavonic haiduks, and by the pirates of the 
Aegean; the armaloles or bodies of Christian warriors, recognized 
by the Turks as a local police, often differed little in their 
proceedings from the brigands whom they were appointed to 
pursue. 



4 66 



GREECE 



[HISTORY 



Of the series of insurrections which took place in the ipth 
century, the first in order of time was the Servian, which broke 
out in 1804; the second was the Greek, which began 
in l821 - In botl1 these movements the influence of 
Russia played a considerable part. In the case of 
the Servians Russian aid was mainly diplomatic, in that of the 
Greeks it eventually took a more material form. Since the days 
of Peter the Great, the eyes of Russia had been fixed on Con- 
stantinople, the great metropolis of the Orthodox faith. The 
policy of inciting the Greek Christians to revolt against their 
oppressors, which was first adopted in the reign of the empress 
Anna, was put into practical operation by the empress Catharine 
II., whose favourite, Orlov, appeared in the Aegean with a fleet 
in 1769 and landed in the Morea, where he organized a revolt. 
The attempt proved a failure; Orlov re-embarked, leaving the 
Greeks at the mercy of the Turks, and terrible massacres took 
place at Tripolitza, Lemnos and elsewhere. By the treaty of 
Kutchuk-Kainarji (July 21, 1774) Russia obtained a vaguely- 
defined protectorate over the Orthodox Greek subjects of Turkey, 
and in 1781 she arrived at an arrangement with Austria, known 
as the " Greek project," for a partition of Turkish territory 
and the restoration of the Byzantine empire under Constantine, 
the son of Catharine II. The outbreak of the French Revolution 
distracted the attention of the two empires, but Russia never 
ceased to intrigue among the Christian subjects of Turkey. A 
revolt of the inhabitants of Suli in 1790 took place with her 
connivance, and in the two first decades of the igth century 
her agents were active and ubiquitous. 

The influence of the French Revolution, which pervaded 
all Europe, extended to the shores of the Aegean. The Greeks, 
Greek who had hitherto been drawn together mainly by a 
revohi- common religion, were now animated by the sentiment 
ttonary o f nationality and by an ardent desire for political 
freedom. The national awakening, as in the case of 
the other subject Christian nations, was preceded by a literary 
revival. Literary and patriotic societies, the Philhellenes, the 
Philomousi, came into existence; Greek schools were founded 
everywhere; the philological labours of Coraes, which created 
the modern written language, furnished the nation with a mode 
of literary expression; the songs of Rhigas of Velestino fired 
the enthusiasm of the people. In 1815 was founded the cele- 
brated Philike Hetaerea, or friendly society, a revolutionary 
organization with centres at Moscow, Bucharest, Triest, and in 
all the cities of the Levant; it collected subscriptions, issued 
manifestos, distributed arms and made preparations for the 
coming insurrection. The revolt of Ali Pasha of lannina against 
the authority of the sultan in 1820 formed the prelude to the 
Greek uprising; this despot, who had massacred the Greeks 
by hundreds, now declared himself their friend, and became 
a member of the Hetaerea. In March 1821 Alexander Ypsi- 
lanti, a former aide-de-camp of the tsar Alexander I., and 
president of the Hetaerea, entered Moldavia from Russian 
territory at the head of a small force; in the same month 
Archbishop Germanos of Patras unfurled the standard of revolt 
at Kalavryta in the Morea. 

For the history of the prolonged struggle which followed 
see GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. The warfare was practically 
brought to a close by the annihilation of the Egyptian 
fleet at Navarino by the fleets of Great Britain, France 
Greece. and Russia on the 2oth of October 1827. Nine months 
previously, Count John Capo d'Istria (q.v.), formerly 
minister of foreign affairs of the tsar Alexander, had been 
elected president of the Greek republic for seven years beginning 
on January 18, 1828. By the protocol of London (March 22, 
1829) the Greek mainland south of a line drawn from the Gulf 
of Arta to the Gulf of Volo, the Morea and the Cyclades were 
declared a principality tributary to the sultan under a Christian 
prince. The limits drawn by the protocol of London were 
confirmed by the treaty of Adrianople (September 14, 1829), 
by which Greece was constituted an independent monarchy. 
The governments of Russia, France and England were far 
from sharing the enthusiasm which the gallant resistance of the 



Greeks had excited among the peoples of Europe, and which 
inspired the devotion of Byron, Cochrane, Sir Richard Church, 
Fabvier and other distinguished Philhellenes; jealousies 
prevailed among the three protecting powers, and the newly- 
liberated nation was treated in a niggardly spirit; its narrow 
limits were reduced by a new protocol (February 3, 1830), which 
drew the boundary line at the Aspropotamo, the Spercheios and 
the Gulf of Lamia. Capo d'Istria, whose Russian proclivities 
and arbitrary government gave great offence to the Greeks, was 
assassinated by two members of the Mavromichalis family 
(October 9, 1831), and a state of anarchy followed. Before his 
death the throne of Greece had been offered to Prince Leopold 
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, afterwards king of the Belgians, who 
declined it, basing his refusal on the inadequacy of the limits 
assigned to the new kingdom and especially the exclusion of 
Crete. 

By the convention of London (May 7, 1832) Greece was 
declared an independent kingdom under the protection of 
Great Britain, France and Russia with Prince Otto, Kl ato 
son of King Louis I. of Bavaria, as king. The frontier 
line, now traced from the Gulf of Arta to the Gulf of Lamia, 
was fixed by the arrangement of Constantinople (July 21, 1832). 
King Otto, who had been brought up in a despotic court, 
ruled absolutely for the first eleven years of his reign; he 
surrounded himself with Bavarian advisers and Bavarian troops, 
and his rule was never popular. The Greek chiefs and politicians, 
who found themselves excluded from all influence and advance- 
ment, were divided into three factions which attached themselves 
respectively to the three protecting powers. On the isth of 
September 1843 a military revolt broke out which compelled the 
king to dismiss the Bavarians and to accept a constitution. A 
responsible ministry, a senate nominated by the king, and a 
chamber elected by universal suffrage were now instituted. 
Mavrocordatos, the leader of the English party, became the first 
prime minister, but his government was overthrown at the 
ensuing elections, and a coalition of the French and Russian 
parties under Kolettes and Metaxas succeeded to power. The 
warfare of factions was aggravated by the rivalry between the 
British and French ministers, Sir Edmond Lyons and M. 
Piscatory; King Otto supported the French party, and trouble 
arose with the British government, which in 1847 despatched 
warships to enforce the payment of interest on the loan con- 
tracted after the War of Independence. A British fleet subse- 
quently blockaded the Peiraeus in order to obtain satisfaction 
for the claims of Pacifico, a Portuguese Jew under British 
protection, whose house had been plundered during a riot. On 
the outbreak of hostilities between Russia and Turkey in 1853 
the Greeks displayed sympathy with Russia; armed bands 
were sent into Thessaly, and an insurrection was fomented in 
Epirus in the hope of securing an accession of territory. In 
order to prevent further hostile action on the part of Greece, 
British and French fleets made a demonstration against the 
Peiraeus, which was occupied by a French force during the 
Crimean War. The disappointment of the national hopes 
increased the unpopularity of King Otto, who had never 
acquiesced in constitutional rule. In 1862 a military revolt 
broke out, and a national assembly pronounced his deposition. 
The vacant throne was offered by the assembly to Duke Nicholas 
of Leuchtenberg, a cousin of the tsar, but the mass of the people 
desired a constitutional monarchy of the British type; a 
plebiscite was taken, and Prince Alfred of England was elected 
by an almost unanimous vote. The three protecting powers, 
however, had bound themselves to the exclusion of any member 
of their ruling houses. In the following year Prince William 
George of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg, whom 
the British government had designated as a suitable candidate, 
was elected by the National Assembly with the title " George I., 
king of the Hellene^" Under the treaty of London (July 13, 
1863) the change of dynasty was sanctioned by the three protect- 
ing powers, Great Britain undertaking to cede to Greece the 
seven Ionian Islands, which since 1815 had formed a common- 
wealth under British protection. 



HISTORY] 



GREECE 



467 



On the zgth of October 1863 the new sovereign arrived in 
Athens, and in the following June the British authorities handed 

over the Ionian Islands to a Greek commissioner. 

Ki n S George thus began his reign under the most 
George I. favourable auspices, the patriotic sentiments of the 

Greeks being flattered by the acquisition of new territory. 
He was, however, soon confronted with constitutional difficulties ; 
party spirit ran riot at Athens, the ministries which he appointed 
proved short-lived, his counsellor, Count Sponneck, became 
the object of violent attacks, and at the end of 1864 he was 
compelled to accept an ultra-democratic constitution, drawn 
up by the National Assembly. This, the sixth constitution voted 
since the establishment of the kingdom, is that which is still in 
force. In the following year Count Sponneck left Greece, and 
the attention of the nation was concentrated on the affairs of 
Crete. The revolution which broke out in that island received 
moral and material support from the Greek government, with 
the tacit approval of Russia; military preparations were 
pressed forward at Athens, and cruisers were purchased, but the 
king, aware of the inability of Greece to attain her ends by 
warlike means, discouraged a provocative attitude towards 
Turkey, and eventually dismissed the bellicose cabinet of 
Koumoundouros. The removal of a powerful minister command- 
ing a large parliamentary majority constituted an important 
precedent in the exercise of the royal prerogative; the king 
adopted a similar course with regard to Delyannes in 1892 and 
1897. The relations with the porte, however, continued to grow 
worse, and Hobart Pasha, with a Turkish fleet, made a demonstra- 
tion off Syra. The Cretan insurrection was finally crushed in 
the spring of 1869, and a conference of the powers, which 
assembled that year at Paris, imposed a settlement of the 
Turkish dispute on Greece, but took no steps on behalf of the 
Cretans. In 1870 the murder of several Englishmen by brigands 
in the neighbourhood of Athens produced an unfavourable 
impression in Europe; in the following year the confiscation 
of the Laurion mines, which had been ceded to a Franco-Italian 
company, provoked energetic action on the part of France and 
Italy. In 1875, after an acute constitutional crisis, Charilaos 
Trikoupes, who but ten months previously had been imprisoned 
for denouncing the crown in a newspaper article, was summoned 
to form a cabinet. This remarkable man, the only great states- 
man whom modern Greece has produced, exercised an extra- 
ordinary influence over his countrymen for the next twenty 
years; had he been able to maintain himself uninterruptedly 
in power during that period, Greece might have escaped a long 
succession of misfortunes. His principal opponent, Theodore 
Delyannes, succeeded in rallying a strong body of adherents, 
and political parties, hitherto divided into numerous factions, 
centred around these two prominent figures. 

In 1877 the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War produced a 
fever of excitement in Greece; it was felt that the quarrels 

of the party leaders compromised the interests of the 
froatier country, and the populace of Athens insisted on the 
1881. formation of a coalition cabinet. The " great " or 

" oecumenical " ministry, as it was called, now came 
into existence under the presidency of the veteran Kanares; in 
reality, however, it was controlled by Trikoupes, who, recognizing 
the unpreparedness of the country, resolved on a pacific policy. 
The capture of Plevna by the Russians brought about the fall 
of the " oecumenical " ministry, and Koumoundouros and 
Delyannes, who succeeded to power, ordered the invasion of 
Thessaly. Their warlike energies, however, were soon checked 
by the signing of the San Stefano Treaty, in which the claims 
of Greece to an extension of frontier were altogether ignored. 
At the Berlin congress two Greek delegates obtained a hearing 
on the proposal of Lord Salisbury. The congress decided that 
the rectification of the frontier should be left to Turkey and 
Greece, the mediation of the powers beingproposed in case of 
non-agreement; it was suggested, however, that the rectified 
frontier should extend from the valley of the Peneus on the east 
to the mouth of the Kalamas, opposite the southern extremity 
of Corfu, on the west. In 1879 a Greco-Turkish commission 



for the delimitation met first at Prevesa, and subsequently at 
Constantinople, but its conferences were without result, the 
Turkish commissioners declining the boundary suggested at 
Berlin. Greece then invoked the arbitration of the powers, 
and the settlement of the question was undertaken by a confer- 
ence of ambassadors at Berlin (1880). The line approved by 
the conference was practically that suggested by the congress; 
Turkey, however, refused to accept it, and the Greek army was 
once more mobilized. In was evident, however, that nothing 
could be gained by an appeal to arms, the powers not being 
prepared to apply coercion to Turkey. By a convention signed 
at Constantinople in July 1881, the demarcation was entrusted 
to a commission representing the six powers and the two 
interested parties. The line drawn ran westwards from a point 
between the mouth of the Peneus and Platamona to the summits 
of Mounts Kritiri and Zygos, thence following the course of 
the river Arta to its mouth. An area of 13,395 square kilometres, 
with a population of 300,000 souls,wasthus added to the kingdom, 
while Turkey was left in possession of lannina, Metzovo and 
most of Epirus. The ceded territory was occupied by Greek 
troops before the close of the year. 

In 1882 Trikoupes came into power at the head of a strong 
party, over which he exercised an influence and authority 
hitherto unknown in Greek political life. With the 
exception of three brief intervals (May 1885 to May Tr "" >a P es 
1886, October 1890 to February 1892, and a few Deiyaaaes. 
months in 1893), he continued in office for the next 
twelve years. The reforms which he introduced during this period 
were generally of an unpopular character, and were loudly 
denounced by his democratic rivals; most of them were cancelled 
during the intervals when his opponent Delyannes occupied the 
premiership. The same want of continuity proved fatal to the 
somewhat ambitious financial programme which he now inaugur- 
ated. While pursuing a cautious foreign policy, and keeping 
in control the rash impetuosity of his fellow-countrymen, he 
shared to the full the national desire for expansion, but he looked 
to the development of the material resources of the country 
as a necessary preliminary to the realization of the dreams of 
Hellenism. With this view he endeavoured to attract foreign 
capital to the country, and the confidence which he inspired in 
financial circles abroad enabled him to contract a number of 
loans and to better the financial situation by a series of con- 
versions. Under a stable, wise, and economical administration 
this far-reaching programme might perhaps have been carried 
out with success, but the vicissitudes of party politics and the 
periodical outbursts of national sentiment rendered its realization 
impossible. In April 1885 Trikoupes fell from power, and a 
few months later the indignation excited in Greece by the revolu- 
tion of Philippopolis placed Delyannes once more at the head 
of a warlike movement. The army and fleet were again 
mobilized with a view to exacting territorial compensation 
for the aggrandizement of Bulgaria, and several conflicts with 
the Turkish troops took place on the frontier. The powers, 
after repeatedly inviting the Delyannes cabinet to disarm, 
established a blockade of Peiraeus and other Greek ports (8th 
May 1886), France alone declining to co-operate in this measure. 
Delyannes resigned (nth May) and Trikoupes, who succeeded 
to power, issued a decree of disarmament (2$th May). Hostilities, 
however, continued on the frontier, and the blockade was not 
raised till 7th June. Trikoupes had now to face the serious 
financial situation brought about by the military activity of his 
predecessor. He imposed heavy taxation, which the people, 
for the time at least, bore without murmuring, and he continued 
to inspire such confidence abroad that Greek securities maintained 
their price in the foreign market. It was ominous, however, 
that a loan which he issued in 1890 was only partially covered. 
Meanwhile the Cretan difficulty had become once more a source 
of trouble to Greece. In 1889 Trikoupes was grossly deceived 
by the Turkish government, which, after inducing him to 
dissuade the Cretans from opposing the occupation of certain 
fortified posts, issued a firman annulling many important 
provisions in the constitution of the island. The indignation 



4 68 



GREECE 



[HISTORY 



in Greece was intense, and popular discontent was increased 
by the success of the Bulgarians in obtaining the exequatur of 
the sultan for a number of bishops in Macedonia. In the 
autumn of 1890 Trikoupes was beaten at the elections, and 
Delyannes, who had promised the people a radical reform of 
the taxation, succeeded to power. He proved unequal, however, 
to cope with the financial difficulty, which now became urgent; 
and the king, perceiving that a crisis was imminent, dismissed 
him and recalled Trikoupes. The hope of averting national 
bankruptcy depended on the possibility of raising a loan by 
which the rapid depreciation of the paper currency might be 
arrested, but foreign financiers demanded guarantees which 
seemed likely to prove hurtful to Greek susceptibilities; an 
agitation was raised at Athens, and Trikoupes suddenly resigned 
(May 1893). His conduct at this juncture appears to have been 
due to some misunderstandings which had arisen between him 
and the king. The Sotiropoulos-Rhalles ministry which followed 
effected a temporary settlement with the national creditors, 
but Trikoupes, returning to power in the autumn, at once 
annulled the arrangement. He now proceeded to a series of 
arbitrary measures which provoked the severest criticism 
throughout Europe and exposed Greece to the determined 
hostility of Germany. A law was hastily passed which deprived 
the creditors of 70% of their interest, and the proceeds of the 
revenues conceded to the monopoly bondholders were seized 
(December 1893). Long negotiations followed, resulting in an 
arrangement which was subsequently reversed by the German 
bondholders. In January 1895 Trikoupes resigned office, in 
consequence of a disagreement with the crown prince on a 
question of military discipline. His popularity had vanished, 
his health was shattered, and he determined to abandon his 
political career. His death at Cannes (nth April 1896), on the 
eve of a great national convulsion, deprived Greece of his 
masterly guidance and sober judgment at a critical moment 
in her history. 

His funeral took place at Athens on 23rd April, while the city 
was still decorated with flags and garlands, after the celebration 
Nation- f *-he CMy m Pi c games. The revival of the ancient 
aiist festival, which drew together multitudes of Greeks 

agitation, f rO m abroad, led to a lively awakening of the national 
1896 ' sentiment, hitherto depressed by the economic mis- 
fortunes of the kingdom, and a secret patriotic society, known 
as the Ethnike Hetaerea, began to develop prodigious activity, 
enrolling members from every rank of life and establishing 
branches in all parts of the Hellenic world. The society had 
been founded in 1894, by a handful of young officers who con- 
sidered that the military organization of the country was 
neglected by the government; its principal aim was the pre- 
paration of an insurrectionary movement in Macedonia, which, 
owing to the activity of the Bulgarians and the reconciliation 
of Prince Ferdinand with Russia, seemed likely to be withdrawn 
for ever from the domain of Greek irredentism. The outbreak 
of another insurrection in Crete supplied the means of creating 
a diversion for Turkey while the movement in Macedonia was 
being matured; arms and volunteers were shipped to the 
island, but the society was as yet unable to force the hand of the 
government, and Delyannes, who had succeeded Trikoupes in 
1895, loyally aided the powers in the restoration of order by 
advising the Cretans to accept the constitution of 1896. The 
appearance of strong insurgent bands in Macedonia in the 
summer of that year testified to the activity of the society and 
provoked the remonstrances of the powers, while the spread 
of its propaganda in the army led to the issue of a royal rescript 
announcing grand military manoeuvres, the formation of a 
standing camp, and the rearmament of the troops with a new 
weapon (6th December). The objects of the society were 
effectually furthered by the evident determination of the porte 
to evade the application of the stipulated reforms in Crete; the 
Cretan Christians lost patience, and indignation was widespread 
in Greece. Emissaries of the society were despatched to the 
island, and affairs were brought to a climax by an outbreak 
at Canea on 4th February 1897. The Turkish troops fired on 



the Christians, thousands of whom took refuge on the warships 
of the powers, and a portion of the town was consumed by fire. 

Delyannes now announced that the government had 
abandoned the policy of abstention. On the 6th two warships 
were despatched to Canea, and on the loth a torpedo 
flotilla, commanded by Prince George, left Peiraeus Cretan 
amid tumultuous demonstrations. The ostensible object ASP/*' 
of these measures was the protection of Greek subjects 
in Crete, and Delyannes was still anxious to avoid a definite 
rupture with Turkey, but the Ethnike Hetaerea had found 
means to influence several members of the ministry and to alarm 
the king. Prince George, who had received orders to prevent 
the landing of Turkish reinforcements on the island,' soon with- 
drew from Cretan waters owing to the decisive attitude adopted 
by the commanders of the international squadron. A note was 
now addressed by the government to the powers, declaring 
that Greece could no longer remain a passive spectator of events 
in Crete, and on the i3th of February a force of 1500 men, under 
Colonel Vassos, embarked at Peiraeus. On the same day a 
Greek warship fired on a Turkish steam yacht which was convey- 
ing troops from Candia to Sitia. Landing near Canea on the 
night of the i4th, Colonel Vassos issued a proclamation announc- 
ing the occupation of Crete in the name of King George. He 
had received orders to expel the Turkish garrisons from the 
fortresses, but his advance on Canea was arrested by the inter- 
national occupation of that town, and after a few engagements 
with the Turkish troops and irregulars he withdrew into the 
interior of the island. Proposals for the coercion of Greece were 
now put forward by Germany, but Great Britain declined to 
take action until an understanding had been arrived at with 
regard to the future government of Crete. Eventually (and 
March) collective notes were addressed to the Greek and Turkish 
governments announcing the decision of the powers that (i) 
Crete could in no case in present circumstances be annexed to 
Greece; (2) in view of the delays caused by Turkey in the appli- 
cation of the reforms, Crete should be endowed with an effective 
autonomous administration, calculated to ensure it a separate 
government, under the suzerainty of the sultan. 'Greece was at 
the same time summoned to remove its army and fleet within 
the space of six days, and Turkey was warned that its troops 
must for the present be concentrated in the fortified towns and 
ultimately withdrawn from the island. The action of the powers 
produced the utmost exasperation at Athens; the populace 
demanded war with Turkey and the annexation of Crete, and 
the government drew up a reply to the powers in which, while 
expressing the conviction that autonomy would prove a failure, 
it indicated its readiness to withdraw some of the ships, but 
declined to recall the army. A suggestion that the troops might 
receive a European mandate for the preservation of order in 
the island proved unacceptable to the powers, owing to the 
aggressive action of Colonel Vassos after his arrival. Meanwhile 
troops, volunteers and munitions of war were hurriedly 
despatched to the Turkish frontier in anticipation of an inter- 
national blockade of the Greek ports, but the powers contented 
themselves with a pacific blockade of Crete, and military pre- 
parations went on unimpeded. 

While the powers dallied, the danger of war increased; on 
2gth March the crown prince assumed command of the Greek 
troops in Thessaly, and a few days later hostilities 
were precipitated by the irregular forces of the Ethnike Turkey, 
Hetaerea, which attacked several Turkish outposts 
near Grevena. According to a report of its proceedings, subse- 
quently published by the society, this invasion received the 
previous sanction of the prime minister. On 1 7th April Turkey 
declared war. The disastrous campaign which followed was of 
short duration , and it was evident from the outset that the 
Greeks had greatly underrated the military strength of their 
opponents (see GRECO-TURKISH WAR). After the evacuation 
of Larissa on the 24th, great discontent prevailed at Athens; 
Delyannes was invited by the king to resign, but refusing to do 
so was dismissed (2gth April). His successor, Rhalles, after 
recalling the army from Crete (gth May) invoked the mediation 



HISTORY] 



GREECE 



469 



of the powers, and an armistice was concluded on the igth of 
that month. Thus ended an unfortunate enterprise, which 
was undertaken in the hope that discord among the powers 
would lead to a European war and the dismemberment of Turkey. 
Greek interference in Crete had at least the result of compelling 
Europe to withdraw the island for ever from Turkish rule. The 
conditions of peace put forward by Turkey included a war 
indemnity of 10,000,000 and the retention of Thessaly; the 
latter demand, however, was resolutely opposed by Great 
Britain, and the indemnity was subsequently reduced to 
4,000,000. The terms agreed to by the powers were rejected 
by Rhalles; the chamber, however, refused him a vote of 
confidence and King George summoned Zaimes to power 
(October 3) . The definitive treaty of peace, which was signed 
at Constantinople on the 6th of December, contained a provision 
for a slight modification of the frontier, designed to afford 
Turkey certain strategical advantages; the delimitation was 
carried out by a commission composed of military delegates of 
the powers and representatives of the interested parties. The 
evacuation of Thessaly by the Turkish troops was completed 
in June 1898. An immediate result of the war was the institution 
of an international financial commission at Athens, charged with 
the control of certain revenues assigned to the service of the 
national debt. The state of the country after the conclusion of 
hostilities was deplorable; the towns of northern Greece and 
the islands were crowded with destitute refugees from Thessaly ; 
violent recriminations prevailed at Athens, and the position of 
the dynasty seemed endangered. A reaction, however, set in, 
in consequence of an attempt to assassinate King George (28th 
February 1898), whose great services to the nation in obtaining 
favourable terms from the powers began to receive general 
recognition. In the following summer the king made a tour 
through the country, and was everywhere received with 
enthusiasm. In the autumn the powers, on the initiative of 
Russia, decided to entrust Prince George of Greece with the 
government of Crete; on 26th November an intimation that 
the prince had been appointed high commissioner in the island 
was formally conveyed to the court of Athens, and on 2ist 
December he landed in Crete amid enthusiastic demonstrations 
(see CRETE). 

In April 1899 Zaimes gave way to Theotokes, the chief of 
the Trikoupist party, who introduced various improvements in 

the administration of justice and other reforms includ- 
Mace- j n g a measure transferring the administration of the 

army from the minister of war to the crown prince. 

In May 1901 a meeting took place at Abbazia, under the 
auspices of the Austro-Hungarian government, between King 
George and King Charles of Rumania with a view to the conclusion 
of a Graeco-Rumanian understanding directed against the growth 
of Slavonic, and especially Bulgarian, influence in Macedonia. 
The compact, however, was destined to be short-lived owing 
to the prosecution of a Rumanian propaganda among the 
semi-HeUenized Vlachs of Macedonia. In November riots took 
place at Athens, the patriotic indignation of the university 
students and the populace being excited by the issue of a transla- 
tion of the Gospels into modern Greek at the suggestion of the 
queen. The publication was attributed to Panslavist intrigues 
against Greek supremacy over the Orthodox populations of 
the East, and the archbishop of Athens was compelled to resign. 
Theotokes, whose life was attempted, retired from power, and 
Zaimes formed a cabinet. In 1902 the progress of the Bulgarian 
movement in Macedonia once more caused great irritation in 
Greece. Zaimes, having been defeated at the elections in 
December, resigned, and was succeeded by Delyannes, whose 
popularity had not been permanently impaired by the misfortunes 
of the war. Delyannes now undertook to carry out extensive 
economic reforms, and introduced a measure restoring the 
control of the army to the ministry of war. He failed, however, 
to carry out his programme, and, being deserted by a section 
of his followers, resigned in June 1903, when Theotokes again 
became prime minister. The new cabinet resigned within a 
month owing to the outbreak of disturbances in the currant- 



tlonian 
troubles. 



growing districts, and Rhalles took office for the second time 
(July 8). The Bulgarian insurrection in Macedonia during the 
autumn caused great excitement in Athens, and Rhalles adopted 
a policy of friendship with Turkey (see MACEDONIA). The 
co-operation of the Greek party in Macedonia with the Turkish 
authorities exposed it to the vengeance of the insurgents, and 
in the following year a number of Greek bands were sent into 
that country. The campaign of retaliation was continued in 
subsequent years. 

In December Rhalles, who had lost the support of the 
Delyannist party, was replaced by Theotokes, who promulgated 
a scheme of army reorganization, introduced various 
economies and imposed fresh taxation. In December "eiyaaaes 
the government was defeated on a vote of confidence 
and Delyannes once more became prime minister, obtaining a 
considerable majority in the elections which followed (March 
1905), but on the i3th of June he was assassinated. He was 
succeeded by Rhalles, who effected a settlement of the currant 
question and cultivated friendly relations with Turkey in regard 
to Macedonia. 

In the autumn anti-Greek demonstrations in Rumania led 
to a rupture of relations with that country. In December the 
ministry resigned owing to an adverse vote of the chamber, 
and Theotokes formed a cabinet. The new government, as a 
preliminary to military and naval reorganization, introduced 
a law directed against the candidature of military officers for 
parliament. Owing to obstruction practised by the military 
members of the chamber a dissolution took place, and at the 
subsequent elections (April 1906) Theotokes secured a large 
majority. In the autumn various excesses committed against 
the Greeks in Bulgaria in reprisal for the depredations of the 
Greek bands in Macedonia caused great indignation in Greece, 
but diplomatic relations between the two countries were not 
suspended. On the 26th of September Prince George, who had 
resigned the high commissionership of Crete, returned to Athens; 
the designation of his successors was accorded by the protecting 
powers to King George as a satisfaction to Greek national senti- 
ment (see CRETE). The great increase in the activity of the 
Greek bands in Macedonia during the following spring and summer 
led to the delivery of a Turkish note at Athens (July 1907), 
which was supported by representations of the powers. 

In October 1908 the proclamation by the Cretan assembly of 
union with Greece threatened fresh complications, the cautious 
attitude of the Greek government leading to an agitation in the 
army, which came to a head in 1909. On the i8th of July a 
popular demonstration against his Cretan policy led to the 
resignation of Theotokes, whose successor, Rhalles, announced 
a programme of military and economical reform. The army, 
however, took matters into its own hands, and on the 23rd of 
August Rhalles was replaced by Mavromichales, the nominee of 
the " Military League." For the next six months constitutional 
government was practically superseded by that of the League, 
and for a while the crown itself seemed to be in danger. The 
influence of the League; however, rapidly declined; army and 
navy quarrelled; and a fresh coup d'itat at the beginning of 1910 
failed of its effect, owing to the firmness of the king. On the 7th 
of February Mavromichales resigned, and his successor, Dra- 
goumis, accepting the Cretan leader Venezelo's suggestion of a 
national assembly, succeeded in persuading the League to 
dissolve (March 29) on receiving the king's assurance that such 
an assembly would be convened. On the 3ist, accordingly, 
King George formally proclaimed the convocation of a national 
assembly to deal with the questions at issue. 

AUTHORITIES. Finlay, History of Greece (Oxford, 1877); K. N. 
Sathas, Utatuuvuc/i /3i/3Xto0ii/c)7 (7 vols., Venice, 1872-1894); and 
Mnj/ie?a 'EXXijvutfjs Joropias. Documents in&dits relatifs dl'liistoire du 
moyen &ge (9 vols., Paris, 1880-1890); Sp. Trikoupes, 'laropla rfjt 
'EXXTjKurfjs iTravaariaftas (4 vols., 3rd ed., Athens, 1888) ; K. 
Paparrhegopoulos, 'loropia roD 'EXXjji-ucoO Wviw (5 vols., 4th ed., 
Athens, 1903) ; I. Philemon, bcxltuov Imopm&v rtpl TJJS 'E\\rivixfjt 
bcavoLaTiurtuK (Athens, 1859-1861) ; P. Kontoyannes, 01 "EXXijres xorA 
T&ir -rp&Tov 4irJ Aixarep/VTjs 'Pw<raoTovpnuc6i> 7r6XejioJ' (Athens, 1903) ; 
D. G. Kampouroglos, 'laropia. TUV 'Mitve.lwv. Toupxoxparia, 1458-1687 
(2 vols., Athens, 1889-1890) ; and Mxi)/ma rfjs laroplat rwt> ' 



470 



GREEK ART 



(3 vols., Athens, 1889-1892) ; G.E.Mavrogiannes, 'laropla T&V 'Ionian 
vivav, 1797-1815 (2 vols., Athens, 1889); P. Karolides, 'laropia. TOU 
,' al&vos, 1814-1892 (Athens, 1891-1893); E. Kyriakides, 'laropia 
TOV avy-xfovoy 'EXX^urMoO 1832-1892 (2 vols., Athens, 1892); G. 
Konstantinides.'Ioropia rlav 'ABTivuv diri Xpiarou yew/ieeus nt\pl TOU 1821 
(2nd ed., Athens, 1894); D. Bikelas, La Grece byzantine et moderne 
(Paris, 1893). (J. D. B.) 

GREEK ART. It is proposed in the present article to give a 
brief account of the history of Greek art and of the principles 
embodied in that history. In any broad view of history, the 
products of the various arts practised by a people constitute an 
objective and most important record of the spirit of that people. 
But all nations have not excelled in the same way: some have 
found their best expression in architecture, some in music, some 
in poetry. The Greeks most fully embodied their ideas in two 
ways, first in their splendid literature, both prose and verse, and 
secondly, in their plastic and pictorial art, in which matter they 
have remained to our days among the greatest instructors of 
mankind. The three arts of architecture, sculpture and painting 
were brought by them into a focus; and by their aid they pro- 
duced a visible splendour of public life such as has perhaps been 
nowhere else attained. 

The volume of the remains of Greek civilization is so vast, and 
the learning with which these have been discussed is so ample, 
that it is hopeless to attempt to give in a work like the present 
any complete account of either. Rather we shall be frankly 
eclectic, choosing for consideration such results of Greek art 
as are most noteworthy and most characteristic. In some cases 
it will be possible to give a reference to a more detailed treat- 
ment of particular monuments in these volumes under the 
heading of the places to which they belong. Architectural 
detail is relegated to ARCHITECTURE and allied architectural 
articles. Coins (see NUMISMATICS) and gems (see GEMS) are 
treated apart, as are vases (CERAMICS), and in the bibliography 
which closes this article an effort is made to direct those who 
wish for further information in any particular branch of our 
subject. 

i. The Rediscovery of Greek Art. The visible works of Greek 
architect, sculptor and painter, accumulated in the cities of 
Greece and Asia Minor until the Roman conquest. And in spite 
of the ravages of conquering Roman generals, and the more 
systematic despoilings of the emperors, we know that when 
Pausanias visited Greece, in the age of the Antonines, it was from 
coast to coast a museum of works of art of all ages. But the tide 
soon turned. Works of originality were no longer produced, and 
a succession of disasters gradually obliterated those of previous 
ages. In the course of the Teutonic and Slavonic invasions from 
the north, or in consequence of earthquakes, very frequent in 
Greece, the splendid cities and temples fell into ruins; and 
with the taking of Constantinople by the Franks in 1 204 the last 
great collection of works of Greek sculpture disappeared. But 
while paintings decayed, and works in metal were melted down, 
many marble buildings and statues survived, at least in a 
mutilated condition, while terra-cotta is almost proof against 
decay. 

With the Renaissance attention was directed to the extant 
remains of Greek and Roman art; as early as the isth century 
collections of ancient sculpture,coins and gems began to be formed 
in Italy; and in the i6th the enthusiasm spread to Germany and 
France. The earl of Arundel, in the reign of James I., was the 
first Englishman to collect antiques from Italy and Asia Minor : 
his marbles are now in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. 
Systematic travel in Greece for the discovery of buildings and 
works of art was begun by Spon and Wheler (1675-1676); and 
the discovery of Pompeii in 1748 opened a new chapter in the 
history of ancient art. 

But though kings delighted to form galleries of ancient statues, 
and the great Italian artists of the Renaissance drew from them 
inspiration for their paintings and bronzes, the first really 
critical appreciation of Greek art belongs to Winckelmann 
(Geschichte der Kunst des Allertums, 1764). The monuments 
I accessible to Winckelmann were but a very small proportion of 
those we now possess, and in fact mostly works of inferior merit : 



but he was the first to introduce the historical method into the 
treatment of ancient art, and to show how it embodied the 
ideas of the great peoples of the ancient world. He was suc- 
ceeded by Lessing, and the waves of thought and feeling set 
in motion by these two affected the cultivated class in all nations, 
they inspired in particular Goethe in Germany and Lord Byron 
in England. 

The second stage in the recovery of Greek art begins with the 
permission accorded by the Porte to Lord Elgin in 1800 to re- 
move to England the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon 
and other buildings of Athens. These splendid works, after 
various vicissitudes, became the property of the English nation, 
and are now the chief treasures of the British Museum. The 
sight of them was a revelation to critics and artists, accustomed 
only to the base copies which fill the Italian galleries, and a new 
epoch in the appreciation of Greek art began. English and 
German savants, among whom Cockerell and Stackelberg were 
conspicuous, recovered the glories of the tamples of Aegina and 
Bassae. Leake and Ross, and later Curtius, journeyed through 
the length and breadth of Greece, identifying ancient sites and 
studying the monuments which were above ground. Ross re- 
constructed the temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis of Athens 
from fragments rescued from a Turkish bastion. 

Meantime more methodical exploration brought to light the 
remains of remarkable civilizations in Asia, not only in the valley 
of the Euphrates, but in Lycia, whence Sir Charles Fellows 
brought to London the remains of noteworthy tombs, among 
which the so-called Harpy Monument and Nereid Monument 
take the first place. Still mere important were the accessions 
derived from the excavations of Sir Charles Newton, who in the 
years 1852-1859 resided as consul in Asia Minor, and explored 
the sites of the mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the shrine of 
Demeter at Cnidus. Pullan at Priene, and Wood at Ephesus also 
made fruitful excavations. 

The next landmark is set by the German excavations at 
Olympia(i876 and foil.), which not only were conducted with 
a scientific completeness before unknown, and at great cost, but 
also established the principle that in future all the results of 
excavations in Greece must remain in the country, the right of 
first publication only remaining with the explorers. The dis- 
covery of the Hermes of Praxiteles, almost the only certain 
original of a great Greek sculptor which we possess, has fur- 
nished a new and invaluable fulcrum for the study of ancient art. 
In. emulation of the achievements of the Germans at Olympia, 
the Greek archaeological society methodically excavated the 
Athenian acropolis, and were rewarded by finding numerous 
statues and fragments of pediments belonging to the age of 
Peisistratus, an age when the promise of art was in full bud. 
More recently French explorers have made a very thorough 
examination of the site of Delphi, and have succeeded in recover- 
ing almost complete two small treasuries, those of the people of 
Athens and of Cnidus or Siphnos, the latter of 6th-century 
Ionian work, and adorned with extremely important sculpture. 

No other site of the same importance as Athens, Olympia and 
Delphi remains for excavation in Greece proper. But in all 
parts of the country, at Tegea, Corinth, Sparta and on a number 
of other ancient sites, striking and important monuments have 
come to light. And at the same time monuments already known 
in Italy and Sicily, such as the temples of Paestum, Selinus and 
Agrigentum have been re-examined with fuller knowledge and 
better system. Only Asia Minor, under the influence of Turkish 
rule, has remained a country where systematic exploration is 
difficult. Something, however, has been accomplished atEphesus, 
Priene, Assos and Miletus, and great works of sculpture such as 
the reliefs of the great altar at Pergamum, now at Berlin, and the 
splendid sarcophagi from Sidon, now at Constantinople, show 
what might be expected from methodic investigation of the 
wealthy Greek cities of Asia. 

From further excavations at Herculaneum we may expect a 
rich harvest of works of art of the highest class, such as have 
already been found in the excavations on that site in the past; 
and the building operations at Rome are constantly bringing 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES] 



GREEK ART 



47 



to light fine statues brought from Greece in the time of the 
Empire, which are now placed in the collections of the Capitol 
and the Baths of Diocletian. 

The work of explorers on Greek sites requires as its comple- 
ment and corrective much labour in the great museums of 
Europe. As museum work apart from exploration tends to 
dilettantism and pedantry, so exploration by itself does not 
produce reasoned knowledge. When a new building, a great 
original statue, a series of vases is discovered, these have to be 
fitted in to the existing frame of our knowledge; and it is by 
such fitting in that the edifice of knowledge is enlarged. In all 
the museums and universities of Europe the fresh examination 
of new monuments, the study of style and subject, and attempts 
to work out points in the history of ancient art, are incessantly 
going on. Such archaeological work is an important element in 
the gradual education of the world, and is fruitful, quite apart 
from the particular results attained, because it encourages a 
method of thought. Archaeology, dealing with things which 
can be seen and handled, yet being a species of historic study, 
lies on the borderland between the province of natural science 
and that of historic science, and furnishes a bridge whereby the 
methods of investigation proper to physical and biological study 
may pass into the human field. 

These investigations and studies are recorded, partly in books, but 
more particularly in papers in learned journals (see bibliography), 
such as the Mitteilungen of the German Institute, and the English 
Journal of Hellenic Studies. 

An example or two may serve to give the reader a clearer 
notion of the recent progress in the knowledge of Greek art. 

To begin with architecture. Each of the palmary sites of 
which we have spoken has rendered up examples of early Greek 
temples. At Olympia there is the Heraeum, earliest of known 
temples of Greece proper, which clearly shows the process 
whereby stone gradually superseded wood as a constructive 
material. At Delphi the explorers have been so fortunate as to 
be able to put together the treasuries of the Cnidians (or 
Siphnians) and of the Athenians. The former (see fig. 17) is a 
gem of early Ionic art, with two Caryatid figures in front in the 
place of columns, and adorned with the most delicate tracery 
and fine reliefs. On the Athenian acropolis very considerable 
remains have been found of temples which were destroyed by 
the Persians when they temporarily occupied the site in 480 B.C. 
And recently the ever-renewed study of the Erechtheum has 
resulted in a restoration of its original form more valuable and 
trustworthy than any previously made. 

In the field of sculpture recent discoveries have been too many 
and too important to be mentioned at any length. One instance 
may serve to mark the rapidity of our advance. When the 
remains of the Mausoleum were brought to London from the 
excavations begun by Sir Charles Newton in 1856 we knew from 
Pliny that four great sculptors, Scopas, Bryaxis, Leochares and 
Timotheus, had worked on the sculpture; but we -knew of these 
artists little more than the names. At present we possess many 
fragments of two pediments at Tegea executed under the direction 
of Scopas, we have a basis with reliefs signed by Bryaxis, we 
have identified a group in the Vatican museum as a copy of the 
Ganymede of Leochares, and we have pedimental remains from 
Epidaurus which we know from inscriptional evidence to be 
either the works of Timotheus or made from his models. Any one 
can judge how enormously our power of criticizing the Mausoleum 
sculptures, and of comparing them with contemporary monu- 
ments, has increased. 

In regard to ancient painting we can of course expect no such 
fresh illumination. Many important wall-paintings of the Roman 
age have been found at Rome and Pompeii: but we have no 
certain or even probable work of any great Greek painter. We 
have to content ourselves with studying the colouring of reliefs, 
such as those of the sarcophagi at Constantinople, and the 
drawings on vases, in order to get some notion of the composition 
and drawing of painted scenes in the great age of Greece. As 
to the portraits of the Roman age painted on wood which have 
come in considerable quantities from Egypt, they stand at a far 



lower level than even the paintings of Pompeii. The number of 
our vase-paintings, however, increases steadily, and whole 
classes, such as the early vases of Ionia, are being marked off 
from the crowd, and so becoming available for use in illustrating 
the history of Hellenic civilization. 

The study of Greek art is thus one which is eminently pro- 
gressive. It has over the study of Greek literature the immense 
advantage that its materials increase far more rapidly. And it 
is becoming more and more evident that a sound and methodic 
study of Greek art is quite as indispensable as a foundation for 
an artistic and archaeological education as the study of Greek 
poets and orators is as a basis of literary education. The extreme 
simplicity and thorough rationality of Greek art make it an 
unrivalled field for the training and exercise of the faculties 
which go to the making of the art-critic and art historian. 

2. The General Principles of Greek Art. Before proceeding 
to sketch the history of the rise and decline of Greek art, it is 
desirable briefly to set forth the principles which underlie it 
(see also P. Gardner's Grammar of Greek Art). 

As the literature of Greece is composed in a particular language, 
the grammar and the syntax of which have to be studied before 
the works in poetry and prose can be read, so Greek works of art 
are composed in what may be called an artistic language. To 
the accidence of a grammar may be compared the mere technique 
of sculpture and painting: to the syntax of a grammar corre- 
spond the principles of composition and grouping of individual 
figures into a relief or picture. By means of the rules of this 
grammar the Greek artist threw into form the ideas which 
belonged to him as a personal or a racial possession. 

We may mention first some of the more external conditions 
of Greek art; next, some of those which the Greek spirit posited 
for itself. 

No nation is in its works wholly free from the domination of 
climate and geographical position; least of all a people so keenly 
alive to the influence of the outer world as the Greeks. They 
lived in a land where the soil was dry and rocky, far less hospitable 
to vegetation than that of western Europe, while on all sides 
the horizon of the land was bounded by hard and jagged lines 
of mountain. The sky was extremely clear and bright, sunshine 
for a great part of the year almost perpetual, and storms, which 
are more than passing gales, rare. It was in accordance with these 
natural features that temples and other buildings should be 
simple in form and bounded by clear lines. Such forms as 
the cube, the oblong, the cylinder, the triangle, the pyramid 
abound in their constructions. Just as in Switzerland the gables 
of the chalets match the pine-clad slopes and lofty summits of 
the mountains, so in Greece, amid barer hills of less elevation, 
the Greek temple looks thoroughly in place. But its construction 
is related not only to the surface of the land, but also to the 
character of the race. M. Emile Boutmy, in his interesting 
Philosophie de I' architecture en Grece, has shown how the temple 
is a triumph of the senses and the intellect, not primarily 
emotional, but showing in every part definite purpose and 
design. It also exhibits in a remarkable degree the love of 
balance, of symmetry, of a mathematical proportion of parts and 
correctness of curvature which belong to the Greek artist. 

The purposes of a Greek temple may be readily judged from 
its plan. Primarily it was the abode of the deity, whose statue 
dwelt in it as men dwell in their own houses. Hence the cella 
or naos is the central feature of the building. Here was placed 
the image to which worship was brought, while the treasures 
belonging to the god were disposed partly in the cella itself, 
partly in a kind of treasury which often existed, as in the 
Parthenon, behind the cella. There was in large temples a 
porch of approach, the pronaos, and another behind, the opistho- 
domos. Temples were not meant for, nor accommodated to, 
regular services or a throng of worshippers. Processions and 
festivals took place in the open air, in the streets and fields, and 
men entered the abodes of the gods at most in groups and 
families, commonly alone. Thus when a place had been found 
for the statue, which stood for the presence of the god, for the 
small altar of incense, for the implements of cult and the gifts of 



472 



GREEK ART 



[GENERAL PRINCIPLES 



votaries, little space remained free, and great spaces or subsidiary 
chapels such as are usual in Christian cathedrals did not exist 
(see TEMPLE). 

Here our concern is not with the purposes or arrangements 
of a temple, but with its appearance and construction, regarded 
as a work of art, and as an embodiment of Greek ideas. A few 
simple and striking principles may be formulated, which are 
characteristic of all Greek buildings: 

(i.) Each member of the building has one function, and only 
one, and this function controls even the decoration of that 
member. The pillar of a temple is made to support the architrave 
and is for that purpose only. The flutings of the pillar, being 
perpendicular, emphasize this fact. The line of support which 
runs up through the pillar is continued in the triglyph, which 
also shows perpendicular grooves. On the other hand, the wall 
of a temple is primarily meant to divide or space off; thus it 
may well at the top be decorated by a horizontal band of relief, 
which belongs to it as a border belongs to a curtain. The base of 
a column, if moulded, is moulded in such a way as to suggest 
support of a great weight; the capital of a column is so carved 
as to form a transition between the column and the cornice which 
it supports. 

(ii.) Greek architects took the utmost pains with the propor- 
tions, the symmetry as they called it, of the parts of their 
buildings. This was a thing in which the keen and methodical 
eyes of the Greeks delighted, to a degree which a modern finds 
it hard to understand. Simple and natural relations, i : 2, 
1:3, 2:3 and the like, prevailed between various members of a 
construction. All curves were planned with great care, to 
please the eye with their flow; and the alternations and corre- 
spondences of features is visible at a glance. For example, the 
temple must have two pediments and two porches, and on its 
sides and fronts triglyph and metope must alternate with 
unvarying regularity. 

(Hi.) Rigidity in the simple lines of a temple is avoided by the 
device that scarcely any outline is actually straight. All are 
carefully planned and adapted to the eye of the spectator. In 
the Parthenon the line of the floor is curved, the profiles of the 
columns are curved, the corner columns slope inward from their 
bases, the columns are not even equidistant. This elaborate 
adaptation, called entasis, was expounded by F. C. Penrose in 
his work on Athenian architecture, and has since been observed 
in several of the great temples of Greece. 

(iv.) Elaborate decoration is reserved for those parts of the 
temple which have, or at least appear to have, no strain laid upon 
them. It is true that in the archaic age experiments were made 
in carving reliefs on the lower drums of columns (as at Ephesus) 
and on the line of the architrave (as at Assus). But such examples 
were not followed. Nearly always the spaces reserved for 
mythological reliefs or groups are the tops of walls, the spaces 
between the triglyphs, and particularly the pediments surmount- 
ing the two fronts, which might be left hollow without danger 
to the stability of the edifice. Detached figures in the round are 
in fact found only in the pediments, or standing upon the tops 
of the pediments. And metopes are sculptured in higher relief 
than friezes. 

" When we examine in detail even the simplest architectural 
decoration, we discover a combination of care, sense of proportion, 
and reason. The flutings of an Ionic column are not in section mere 
arcs of a circle, but made up of a combination of curves which produce 
a beautiful optical effect; the lines of decoration, as may be best 
seen in the case of the Erechtheum, are cut with a marvellous 
delicacy. Instead of trying to invent new schemes, the mason 
contents himself with improving the regular patterns until they 
approach perfection, and he takes everything into consideration. 
Mouldings on the outside of a temple, in the full light of the sun, are 
differently planned from those in the diffused light of the interior. 
Mouldings executed in soft stone are less fine than those in marble. 
The mason thinks before he works, and while he works, and thinks 
in entire correspondence with his surroundings." 1 

Greek architecture, however, is treated elsewhere (see ARCHI- 
TECTURE); we will therefore proceed to speak briefly of the 
principles exemplified in sculpture. Existing works of Greek 
1 Grammar of Greek Art. 



sculpture fall easily into two classes. The first class comprises 
what may be called works of substantive art, statues or groups 
made for their own sake and to be judged by themselves. Such 
are cult-statues of gods and goddesses from temple and shrine, 
honorary portraits of rulers or of athletes, dedicated groups 
and the like. The second class comprises decorative sculptures, 
such as were made, usually in relief, for the decoration of temples 
and tombs and other buildings, and were intended to be sub- 
ordinate to architectural effect. 

Speaking broadly, it may be said that the works of substantive 
sculpture in our museums are in the great majority of cases 
copies of doubtful exactness and very various merit. The 
Hermes of Praxiteles is almost the only marble statue which can 
be assigned positively to one of the great sculptors; we have to 
work back towards the productions of the peers of Praxiteles 
through works of poor execution, often so much restored in modern 
times as to be scarcely recognizable. Decorative works, on the 
other hand, are very commonly originals, and their date can often 
be accurately fixed, as they belong to known buildings. They are 
thus infinitely more trustworthy and more easy to deal with than 
the copies of statues of which the museums of Europe, and more 
especially those of Italy, are full. They are also more commonly 
unrestored. But yet there are certain disadvantages attaching 
to them. Decorative works, even when carried out under the 
supervision of a great sculptor, were but seldom executed by him. 
Usually they were the productions of his pupils or masons. 
Thus they are not on the same level of art as substantive sculpture. 
And they vary in merit to an extraordinary extent, according 
to the capacity of the man who happened to have them in hand, 
and who was probably b'ut little controlled. Every one knows 
how noble are the pedimental sculptures of the Parthenon. But 
we know no reason why they should be so vastly superior to the 
frieze from Phigalia; nor why the heads from the temple at Tegea 
should be so fine, while those from the contemporary temple 
at Epidaurus should be comparatively insignificant. From the 
records of payments made to the sculptors who worked on the 
Erechtheum at Athens it appears that they were ordinary masons, 
some of them not even citizens, and paid at the rate of 60 drachms 
(about 60 francs) for each figure, whether of man or horse, which 
they produced. Such piece-work would not, in our days, produce 
a very satisfactory result. 

Works of substantive sculpture may be divided into two 
classes, the statues of human beings and those of the gods. 
The line between the two is not, however, very easy to draw, 
or very definite. For in representing men the Greek sculptor 
had an irresistible inclination to idealize, to represent what was 
generic and typical rather than what was individual, and the 
essential rather than the accidental. And in representing 
deities he so fully anthropomorphized them that they became 
men and women, only raised above the level of everyday life 
and endowed with a superhuman stateliness. Moreover, there 
was a class of heroes represented largely in art who covered 
the transition from men to gods. For example, if one regards 
Heracles as a deity and Achilles as a man of the heroic age and of 
heroic mould, the line between the two will be found to be very 
narrow. 

Nevertheless one may for convenience speak first of human 
and afterwards of divine figures. It was the custom from the 
6th century onwards to honour "those who had done any great 
achievement by setting up their statues in conspicuous positions. 
One of the earliest examples is that of the tyrannicides, Harmodius 
and Aristogiton, a group, a copy of which has come down to us 
(Plate I. fig. 50 2 ). Again, people who had not won any distinc- 
tion were in the habit of dedicating to the deities portraits of 
themselves or of a priest or priestess, thus bringing themselves, 
as it were, constantly under the notice of a divine patron. The 
rows of statues before the temples at Miletus, Athens and 

2 It may here be pointed out that it was found impossible, with 
any regard for the appearance of the pages, to arrange the Plates for 
this article so as to preserve a chronological order in the individual 
figures; they are not arranged consecutively as regards the history 
or the period, and are only grouped for convenience in paging. Ed. 



GREEK ART 



PLATE I. 




Photo, Brogi. 

FIG. 50. HARMODIUS AND ARISTOGITON. 
(NAT. Mus., NAPLES.) 




Photo, Brogi. 



FIG. 51. FARNESE BULL. (NAPLES.) 





Photo, A nderson. 

FIG. 52 LAOCOON GROUP. (VATICAN.) 

XII. 472. 



Photo, Anderson. 

FIG. 53. GANYMEDE OF LEOCHARES. (VATICAN.) 



PLATE II. 



GREEK ART 






Photo, Anderson. 

FIG. 54 FLAYING OF 
MARSYAS. (VILLA AL- 
BANI, ROME.) 





Photo, A nderson. 

FIG. 55. APOLLO OF THE BELVIDERE. (VATICAN.) 




FIG. 58. THESEUS AND 
AMAZON (ERETRIA). . 



Photo, Manscll. 

FIG. 59 DRUM OF COLUMN FROM EPHESUS. 
(BRIT. Mus.) 




FIG. 56. HEAD OF YOUNG 
ALEXANDER. (BRIT. Mus.) 




Photo, Seebah. 

FIG. 57. HERMES OF ALCA- 
MENES. (CONSTANTINOPLE.) 




Photo, Baldwin Cnolidge. 

FIG. 60. YOUNG HERMES. 
(Mus. OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON.) 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES] 



GREEK ART 



473 



elsewhere came thus into being. But from the point of view of 
art, by far the most important class of portraits consisted of 
athletes who had won victories at some of the great games of 
Greece, at Olympia, Delphi or elsewhere. Early in the 6th 
century the custom arose of setting up portraits of athletic 
victors in the great sacred places. We have records of number- 
less such statues executed by all the greatest sculptors. When 
Pausanias visited Greece he found them everywhere far too 
numerous for complete mention. 

It is the custom of studying and copying the forms of the 
finest of the young athletes, combined with the Greek habit of 
complete nudity during the sports, which lies at the basis of 
Greek excellence in sculpture. Every sculptor had unlimited 
opportunities for observing young vigorous bodies in every 
pose and in every variety of strain. The natural sense of beauty 
which was an endowment of the Greek race impelled him to copy 
and preserve what was excellent, and to omit what was ungainly 
or poor. Thus there existed, and in fact there was constantly 
accumulating, a vast series of types of male beauty, and the 
public taste was cultivated to an extreme delicacy. And of 
course this taste, though it took its start from athletic customs, 
and was mainly nurtured by them, spread to all branches of 
portraiture, so that elderly men, women, and at last even children, 
were represented in art with a mixture of ideality and fidelity 
to nature such as has not been reached by the sculpture of any 
other people. 

The statues of the gods began either with stiff and ungainly 
figures roughly cut out of the trunk of a tree, or with the 
monstrous and symbolical representations of Oriental art. In 
the Greece of late times there were still standing rude pillars, 
with the tops sometimes cut into a rough likeness to the human 
form. And in early decoration of vases and vessels one may 
find Greek deities represented with wings, carrying in their hands 
lions or griffins, bearing on their heads lofty crowns. But as 
Greek art progressed it grew out of this crude symbolism. In 
the language of Brunn, the Greek artists borrowed from Oriental 
or Mycenaean sources the letters used in their works, but with 
these letters they spelled out the ideas of their own nation. 
What the artists of Babylon and Egypt express in the character 
of the gods by added attribute or symbol, swiftness by wings, 
control of storms by the thunderbolt, traits of character by 
animal heads, the artists of Greece work more and more fully 
into the sculptural type; modifying the human subject by the 
constant addition of something which is above the ordinary level 
of humanity, until we reach the Zeus of Pheidias or the Demeter 
of Cnidus. When the decay of the high ethical art of Greece 
sets in, the gods become more and more warped to the merely 
human level. They lose their dignity, but they never lose their 
charm. 

The decorative sculpture of Greece consists not of single 
figures, but of groups; and in the arrangement of these groups 
the strict Greek laws of symmetry, of rhythm, and of balance, 
come in. We will take the three most usual forms, the pediment, 
the metope and the frieze, all of which belong properly to the 
temple, but are characteristic of all decoration, whether of tomb, 
trophy or other monument. 

The form of the pediment is triangular; the height of the 
triangle in proportion to its length being about i : 8. The 
conditions of space are here strict and dominant; to comply 
with them requires some ingenuity. To a modern sculptor the 
problem thus presented is almost insoluble; but it was allowable 
in ancient art to represent figures in a single composition as 
of various sizes, in correspondence not to actual physical 
measurement but to importance. As the more important figures 
naturally occupy the midmost place in a pediment, their greater 
size comes in conveniently. And by placing some of the persons 
of the group in a standing, some in a seated, some in a reclining 
position, it can be so contrived that their heads are equidistant 
from the upper line of the pediment. 

The statues in a Greek pediment, which are after quite an 
early period usually executed in the round, fall into three, five 
or seven groups, according to the size of the whole. As examples 



to illustrate this exposition we take the two pediments of the 
temple at Olympia, the most complete which have come down to 
us, which are represented in figs. 33 and 34. The east pediment 
represents the preparation for the chariot race between Pelops 
and Oenomaus. The central group consists of five figures, Zeus 
standing between the two pairs of competitors and their wives. 
In the corners recline the two river-gods Alpheus and Cladeus, 
who mark the locality; and the two sides are filled up with the 
closely corresponding groups of the chariots of Oenomaus and 
Pelops with their grooms and attendants. Every figure to the 
left of Zeus balances a corresponding figure on his right, and all 
the lines of the composition slope towards a point above the 
apex of the pediment. 

In the opposite or western pediment is represented the battle 
between Lapiths and Centaurs which broke out at the marriage 
of Peirithous in Thessaly. Here we have no less than nine groups. 
In the midst is Apollo. On each side of him is a group of three, 
a centaur trying to carry off a woman and a Lapith striking at 
him. Beyond these on each side is a struggling pair, next once 
more a trio of two combatants and a woman, and finally in each 
corner two reclining female figures, the outermost apparently 
nymphs to mark locality. A careful examination of these 
compositions will show the reader more clearly than detailed 
description how clearly in this kind of group Greek artists 
adhered to the rules of rhythm and of balance. 

The metopes were the long series of square spaces which ran 
along the outer walls of temples between the upright triglyphs 
and the cornice. Originally they may have been left -open and 
served as windows; but the custom came in as early as the 7th 
century, first of filling them in with painted boards or slabs of 
stone, and next of adorning them with sculpture. The metopes 
of the Treasury of Sicyon at Delphi (Plate IV. fig. 66) are as 
early as the first half of the 6th century. This recurrence of a 
long series of square fields for occupation well suited the genius 
and the habits of the sculptor. As subjects he took the successive 
exploits of some hero such as Heracles or Theseus, or the con- 
temporary groups of a battle. His number of figures was 
limited to two or three, and these figures had to be worked into 
a group or scheme, the main features of which were determined 
by artistic tradition, but which could be varied in a hundred 
ways so as to produce a pleasing and in some degree novel result. 

With metopes, as regards shape, we may compare the reliefs 
of Greek tombs, which also usually occupy a space roughly 
square, and which also comprise but a few figures arranged 
in a scheme generally traditional. A figure standing giving 
his hand to one seated, two men standing hand in hand, or a 
single figure in some vigorous pose is sufficient to satisfy the 
simple but severe taste of the Greeks. 

In regard to friezes, which are long reliefs containing figures 
ranged between parallel lines, there is more variety of custom. 
In temples the height of the relief from the background varies 
according to the light in which it was to stand, whether direct 
or diffused. Almost all Greek friezes, however, are of great 
simplicity in arrangement and perspective. Locality is at most 
hinted at by a few stones or trees, never actually portrayed. 
There is seldom more than one line of figures, in combat or pro- 
cession, their heads all equidistant from the top line of the 
frieze. They are often broken up into groups; and when this is 
the case, figure will often balance figure on either side of a central 
point almost as rigidly as in a pediment. An example of this 
will be found in the section of the Mausoleum frieze shown in 
fig. 70, Plate IV. Some of the friezes executed by Greek artists 
for semi-Greek peoples, such as those adorning the tomb at 
Trysa in Lycia, have two planes, the figures in the background 
being at a higher level. 

The rules of balance and symmetry in composition which are 
followed in Greek decorative art are still more to be discerned 
in the paintings of vases, which must serve, in the absence of 
more dignified compositions, to enlighten us as to the methods 
of Greek painters. Great painters would not, of course, be bound 
by architectonic rule in the same degree as the mere workmen 
who painted vases. Nevertheless we must never forget that 



474 



GREEK ART 



[GENERAL PRINCIPLES 



Greek painting of the earlier ages was of extreme simplicity. 
It did not represent localities, save by some slight hint; it had 
next to no perspective; the colours used were but very few 
even down to the days of Apelles. Most of the great pictures of 
which we hear consisted of but one or two figures; and when 
several figures were introduced they were kept apart and 
separately treated, though, of course, not without relation to 
one another. Idealism and ethical purpose must have pre- 
dominated in painting as in sculpture and in the drama and 
in the writing of history. 

We will take from vases a few simple groups to illustrate the 
laws of Greek drawing; colouring we cannot illustrate. 

The fields offered to the draughtsman on Greek vases naturally 
follow the form of the vase; but they may be set down as 

approximately round, 
square or oblong. To 
each of these spaces the 
artist carefully adapts 
his designs. In fig. i we 
have a characteristic 
adaptation to circular 
form by the vase painter 
Epictetus. 

In the early period of 
painting all the space not 
occupied by the figures 
is filled with patterns 
or accessories, or even 
animals which have no 
connexion with the sub- 
ject (fig. 9). In later 
and more developed art, 
as in this example, the outlines of the figures are so arranged 
as to fill the space. 

When the space is square we have much the same problem 
as is presented by the metope spaces of a temple. In the case 
of both square and oblong fields the laws of balance are carefully 
observed. Thus if there is an even number of figures in the 
scheme, two of them will form a sort of centre-piece, those on 
either side balancing one another. If the number of figures 
is uneven, either there will be a group of three in the midst, or 
the midmost figure will be so contrived that he belongs wholly 
to neither side, but is the balance between them. These remarks 
will be made clear by figs. 2 and 3, which repeat the two sides 




(Brit. Mus. Catalogue of Vases, ill. PI. vi. 2). 
FIG. I. Kylix by Epictetus. 




which represent the defeat of one of these by the other; the 
vanquished has commonly fallen on his knees, but still defends 
himself. There is a scheme for the leading away of a captive 
woman; the captor leads her by the hand looking back at her, 
while a friend walks behind to ward off pursuit. Such schemes 
are constantly varied in detail, and often very skilfully varied; 
but the Greek artist uses schemes as a sort of shorthand, to 
show as clearly as possible what he meant. They serve the 
same purpose as the mask in the acting of a play, the first 
glance at which will tell the spectators what they have to 
look for. 

No doubt the great painters of Greece were not so much under 
the dominion of these schemes as the very inferior painters of 
vases. They used the schemes for their own purposes instead 
of being used by them. But as great poets do not revolt against 
the restrictions of the sonnet or of rhyme, so great artists in 
Greece probably found recognized conventions more helpful 
than hurtful. 

Students of Greek sculpture and vases must be warned not 
to suppose that Greek reliefs and drawings can be taken as 
direct illustrations of Homer or the dramatists. Book illustra- 
tion in the modern sense did not exist in Greece. The poet and 
the painter pursued courses which were parallel, but never in 
actual contact. Each moved by the traditions of his own craft. 
The poet took the accepted tale and enshrined it in a setting 
of feeling and imagination. The painter took the traditional 
schemes which were current, and altered or enlarged them, 
adding new figures and new motives, but not attempting to set 
aside the general scheme. But varieties suitable to poetry were 
not likely to be suitable in painting. Thus it is but seldom that 
a vase-painter seems to have had in his mind, as he drew, passages 
of the Homeric poems, though these might well be familiar to 
him. And almost never does a vase-painting of the 5th century 
show any sign of the influence of the dramatists, who were 
bringing before the Athenian public on the stage many of the 
tales and incidents popular with the vase-painter. Only on 
vases of lower Italy of the 4th century and later we can occasion- 
ally discern something of Aeschylean and Euripidean influence 
in the treatment of a myth; and even in a few cases we may 
discern that the vase-painter has taken suggestions direct from 
the actors in the theatre. 

3. Historic Sketch. We propose next to trace in brief outline 
the history of Greek art from its rise to its decay. We begin 
with the rise of a national art, after the destruction of the 




From Wiener Vorlegcblaller, 1890, PI. viii., by permission of the Director of the K. K. Oslerr, Archiiol. Instilut. 

FIG. 2. Vase Drawings. 

of an amphora, one of which bears a design of three figures, the 
other of four. 

The Greek artist not only adhered to the architectonic laws 
of balance and symmetry, but he thought in schemes. Certain 
group arrangements had a recognized signification. There are 
schemes for warriors fighting on equal terms, and schemes 



FIG. 3. 

Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations of early Greece by the 
irruption of tribes from the north, that is to say, about 800 B.C., 
and we stop with the Roman age of Greece, after which Greek 
art works in the service of the conquerors (see ROMAN ART). 
The period 800-50 B.C. we divide into four sections: (i) the 
period down to the Persian Wars, 800-480 B.C.; (2) the period 



480 B.C.] 



GREEK ART 



475 



the early schools of art, 480-400 B.C.; (3) the period of the 

great schools, 400-300 B.C.; (4) the period of Hellenistic 

.500-50 B.C. In dealing with these successive periods we 

oifine our sketch to the three greater branches of representative 

architecture, sculpture and painting, which in Greece are 

osely connected. The lesser arts, of pottery, gem-engraving, 

on-stamping and the like, are treated of under the heads of 

tRAMics, GEM, NUMISMATICS, &c., while the more technical 

tatment of architectural construction are dealt with under 

ACHITECTURE and allied architectural articles. Further, for 

Kef accounts of the chief artists the reader is referred to bio- 

hical articles, under such heads as PHEIDIAS, PRAXITELES, 

PELLES. We treat here only of the main course of art in its 

btoric evolution. 

Period I. 800-480 B.C. The fact is now generally allowed 

lat the Mycenaean, or as it is now termed Aegean, civilization 

was for the most part destroyed by an invasion from 

?asloa. tne north. This invasion appears to have been 

gradual; its racial character is much in dispute. 

rchaeological evidence abundantly proves that it was the 

mquest of a more by a less rich and civilized race. In the graves 

f the period (900-600 B.C.) we find none of the wealthy spoil 

hich has made celebrated the tombs of Mycenae andVaphio(?..) . 

'he character of the pottery and the bronze-work which is found 

i these later graves reminds us of the art of the necropolis 

if Hallstatt in Austria, and other sites belonging to what is 

ailed the bronze age of North Europe. Its predominant 

haracteristic is the use of geometrical forms, the lozenge, the 

riangle, the maeander, the circle with tangents, in place of the 

laborate spirals and plant-forms which mark Mycenaean ware. 

For this reason the period from the gth to the 7th century in 

Greece passes by the name of " the Geometric Age." It is 

commonly held that in the remains of the Geometric Age we 

may trace the influence of the Dorians, who, coming in as a 

hardy but uncultivated race, probably of purer Aryan blood 

than the previous inhabitants of Greece, not only brought to an 

end the wealth and the luxury which marked the Mycenaean 

age, but also replaced an art which was in character essentially 

southern by one which belonged rather to the north and the 

west. The great difficulty inherent in this view, a difficulty 

which has yet to be met, lies in the fact that some of the most 

abundant and characteristic remains of the geometric age which 

we possess come, not from Peloponnesus, but from Athens and 

Boeotia, which were never conquered by the Dorians. 

The geometric ware is for the most part adorned with painted 

patterns only. Fig. 4 is a characteristic example, a small two- 

handled vase from Rhodes in the Ashmolean Museum, 

ware.'* ' tne adornment of which consists in zigzags, circles 

with tangents, and lines of water birds, perhaps swans. 

Sometimes, however, especially in the case of large vases from 

the cemetery at Athens, which adjoins the Dipylon gate, scenes 




FIG. 4. Geometric Vase from Rhodes. (Ashmolean Museum.) 

from Greek life are depicted, from daily life, not from legend or 
divine myth. Especially scenes from the lying-in-state and the 
burial of the dead are prevalent. An excerpt from a Dipylon 
vase (fig. 5) shows a dead man on his couch surrounded by 
mourners, male and female. Both sexes are apparently repre- 
sented naked, and are distinguished very simply; some of them 
hold branches to sprinkle the corpse or to keep away flies. It 



will be seen how primitive and conventional is the drawing of 
this age, presenting a wonderful contrast to the free drawing 
and modelling of the Mycenaean age. In the same graves with 
the pottery are sometimes found plaques of gold or bronze, and 
towards the end of the geometric age these somtimes bear 
scenes from mythology, treated with the greatest simplicity. 




A/on. d. lust. ix. 39. 



FIG. 5. Corpse with Mourners. 



For example, in the museum of Berlin are the contents of a 
tomb found at Corinth, consisting mainly of gold work of geo- 
metric decoration. But in the same tomb were also found gold 
plates or plaques of repousse work bearing subjects from Greek 





Arch. Zcil. 1884, 8. 

FIG. 6. Gold Plaques: Corinth. 

legend. Two of these are shown in fig. 6. On one Theseus is 
slaying the Minotaur, while Ariadne stands by and encourages 
the hero. The tale could not have been told in a simpler or more 
straightforward way. On the other we have an armed warrior 
with his charioteer in a 
chariot drawn by two 
horses. The treatment of 
the human body is here 
more advanced than on 
the vases of the Dipylon. 
On the site of Olympia, 
where Mycenaean remains 
are not found, . but the 
earliest monuments show 
the geometric style, a 
quantity of dedications 
in bronze have been 
found, the decoration of 
which belongs to this 
style. Fig. 7 shows the 
handle of a tripod from 
Olympia, which is 
adorned with geometric 
patterns and surmounted 
by the figure of a horse. 
It was about the 6th 




Olympic iv. 33. 

FIG. 7. Handle of Tripod. 



century that the genius of the Greeks, almost suddenly, as it 
seems to us, emancipated itself from the thraldom of tradition, 
and passed beyond the limits with which the nations of the 
east and west had hitherto been content, in a free and 
bold effort towards the ideal. Thus the 6th century marks 



476 



GREEK ART 



[800-480 B.C. 



the stage in art in which it may be said to have become 
definitely Hellenic. The Greeks still borrowed many of their 
decorative forms, either from the prehistoric remains in their 
own country or, through Phoenician agency, from the old-world 
empires of Egypt and Babylon, but they used those forms freely 
to express their own meaning. And gradually, in the course of 
the century, we see both in the painting of vases and in sculpture 
a national spirit and a national style forming under the influence 
of Greek religion and mythology, Greek athletic training, Greek 
worship of beauty. We must here lay emphasis on the fact, 
which is sometimes overlooked in an age which is greatly given 
to the Darwinian search after origins, that it is one thing to 
trace back to its original sources the nascent art of Greece, and 
quite another thing to follow and to understand its gradual 
embodiment of Hellenic ideas and civilization. The immense 
success with which the veil has in late years been lifted from the 
prehistoric age of Greece, and the clearness with which we can 
discern the various strands woven into the web of Greek art, 
have tended to fix our attention rather on what Greece possessed 
in common with all other peoples at the same early stage of 
civilization than on what Greece added for herself to this common 
stock. In many respects the art of Greece is incomparable one 
of the great inspirations which have redeemed the world from 
mediocrity and vulgarity. And it is the searching out and 
appreciation of this unique and ideal beauty in all its phases, 
in idea and composition and execution, which is the true task 
of Greek archaeological science. 

In very recent years it has been possible, for the first time, 

to trace the influence of Ionian painting, as represented by vases, 

on the rise of art. The discoveries at Naucratis and 

'VSKS Daphnae in Egypt, due to the keenness and pertinacity 

of W.M.Flinders Petrie.threw new light on this matter. 

It became evident that when those cities were first inhabited 

by Ionian Greeks, in the yth century, they used pottery of 

several distinct but allied 
styles, the most notable 
feature of which was the 
use of the lotus in decora- 
tion, the presence of con- 
tinuous friezes of animals 
and of monsters, and the 
filling up of the back- 
ground with rosettes, 
lozenges and other forms. 
Fig. 8 shows a vase found 
in Rhodes which illus- 
trates this Ionian decora- 
tion. The sphinx, the 
deer and the swan are 
prominent on it, the last- 
named serving as a link 
between the geometric 
ware and the more 
brilliant and varied ware 
of the Ionian cities. The 
assignment of the many 
species of early Ionic ware 
Af. Napoiion, 57. to various Greek localities, 

FIG. 8. Jug from Rhodes. Miletus, Samos, Phocaea 

and other cities, is a work of great difficulty,- which now closely 
occupies the attention of archaeologists. For the results of 
their studies the reader is referred to two recent German works, 
Bohlau's Aus ionischen und italischen Nekropolen, and Endt's 
Eeilrage zur ionischen Vasenmalerei. The feature which is most 
interesting in this pottery from our present point of view is the 
way in which representations of Greek myth and legend gradually 
make their way, and relegate the mere decoration of the vases to 
borders and neck. One of the earliest examples of representation 
of a really Greek subject is the contest of Menelaus and Euphorbus 
on a plate found in Rhodes. On the vases of Melos, of the 7th 
century, which are, however, not Ionian, but rather Dorian in 
character, we have a certain number of mythological scenes, 




battles of Homeric heroes and the like. One of these is shown in 
fig. 9. It represents Apollo in a chariot drawn by winged horses, 
playing on the lyre, and accompanied by a pair of Muses, meeting 
his sister Artemis. It is notable that Apollo is bearded, and that 
Artemis holds her stag by the horns, much in the manner of the 
deities on Babylonian cylinders; in the other hand she carries 
an arrow; above is a line of water birds. 

Some sites in Asia Minor and the islands adjoining, such cities 
as Samos, Camirus in Rhodes, and the Ionian colonies on the 




Conze, M el. Tmgejasse, 4. 

FlG. 9. Vase Painting: Melos. 

Black Sea, have furnished us with a mass of ware of the Ionian 
class, but it seldom bears interesting subjects; it is essentially 
decorative. For Ionian ware which has closer relation to Greek 
mythology and history we must turn elsewhere. The cemeteries 
of the great Etruscan cities, Caere in particular, have preserved 
for us a large number of vases, which are now generally recognized 
as Ionian in design and drawing, though they may in some cases 
be only Italian imitations of Ionian imported ware. Thus has 
been filled up what was a blank page in the history of early 
Greek art. The Ionian painting is unrestrained in character, 
characterized by a licence not foreign to the nature of the race, 
and wants the self-control and moderation which belong to 
Doric art, and to Attic art after the first. 

Some of the most interesting examples of early Ionic painting 
are found on the sarcophagi of Clazomenae. In that city in 
archaic times an exceptional custom prevailed of burying the 
dead in great coffins of terra-cotta adorned with painted scenes 
from chariot-racing, war and the chase. The British Museum 
possesses some remarkable specimens, which are published in 
A. S. Murray's Terra-Cotta Sarcophagi of the British Museum. 
On one of them he sees depicted a battle between Cimmerian 
invaders and Greeks, the former accompanied to the field by 
their great war-dogs. In some of the representations of hunting 
on these sarcophagi the hunters ride in chariots, a way of hunting 
quite foreign to the Greeks, but familiar to us from Assyrian 
wall-sculptures. We know that the life of the lonians before 
the Persian conquest was refined and not untinged with luxury, 
and they borrowed many of the stately ways of the satraps of 
the kings of Assyria and Persia. 

Fig. 10 shows a curious product of the Ionian workshops, a 
fish of solid gold, adorned with reliefs which represent a flying 




Furtwanglcr, Coldlund v. VOterslclde. 

FIG. io. Fish of Gold. 

eagle, lions pulling down their prey, and a monstrous sea-god 
among his fishes. This relic is the more valuable on account of 
the spot where it was found Vettersfelde in Brandenburg. It 



GREEK ART 



PLATE III. 




Photo, Giraudon. 



FIG. 61. WINGED VICTORY 
OF SAMOTHRACE. (LouvRE.) 





Phnto, Giraudon. 

FIG. 62. WINGED VICTORY OF 
SAMOTHRACE. (LOUVRE.) 



FIG. 63. HEAD OF WARRIOR, 
RESTORED, FROM TEGEA. 



Plwto, Anderson. 

FIG. 64. MARSYAS OF MYRON. 
(LATERAN Mus.) 




Photo, Ma; 
XII. 476- 



FIG. 65. EAST PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON; LEFT AND RIGHT ENDS. (BRIT. Mus.) 



PLATE IV. 



GREEK ART 




FIG. 66. METOPE OF THE TREASURY OF SICYON 

AT DELPHI. 
(From Fouilles de Delphes, by permission of A. Fontemoing.) 




Plio'o, F. Bruckmann. 



FIG. 68. DISCOBOLUS OF MYRON, RESTORED BY 
PROF. FURTWANGLER. 







FIG. 67. GREEK PAINTING OF WOMAN'S HEAD. 
(From Complex Rendus of St. Petersburg, 1865. PI. I.) 




Photo, Giraudon. 

FIG. 69. FIGHTER OF AGASIAS. (LOUVRE.) 





Photo, Mansell. 



FIG. 70. PORTION OF FRIEZE OF MAUSOLEUM. (BRIT. Mus.) 



800-480 B.C.] 



GREEK ART 



477 



furnishes a proof that the influence and perhaps the commerce 
of the Greek colonies on the Black Sea spread far to the north 
through the countries of the Scythians and other barbarians. 
The fish dates from the 6th century B.C. 

We may compare some of the gold ornaments from Camirus 
in Rhodes, which show an Ionian tendency, perhaps combined 
with Phoenician elements. On one of them (fig. n) we see 
a centaur with human forelegs holding up a fawn, on the other 

the oriental goddess 
whom the Greeks identi- 
fied with their Artemis, 
winged, and flanked by 
lions. This form was 
given to Artemis <5n the 
Corinthian chest of 
Cypselus, a work of art 
preserved at Olympia, 
and carefully described 
for us by Pausanias. 

From Ionia the style 
of vase-painting which 
has been called by various 
names, but may best be 
termed the " orientaliz- 
ing," spread to Greece 
proper. Its main home 
here was in Corinth; and 
small Corinthian un- 
guent-vases bearing 

figures of swans, lions, monsters and human beings, the intervals 
between which are filled by rosettes, are found wherever 
Corinthian trade penetrated, notably in the cemeteries of 
Sicily. For the larger Corinthian vases, which bore more 
elaborate scenes from mythology, we must again turn to the 
graves of the cities of Etruria. Here, besides the Ionian 
ware, of which mention has already been made, we find 
pottery of three Greek cities clearly defined, that of Corinth, 
that of Chalcis in Euboea, and that of Athens. Corinthian 
and Chalcidian ware is most readily distinguished by means 
of the alphabets used in the inscriptions which have 
distinctive forms easily to be identified. Whether in the style 
of the paintings coming from the various cities any distinct 
differences may be traced is a far more difficult question, into 
which we cannot now enter. The subjects are mostly from heroic 
legend, and are treated with great simplicity and directness. 
There is a manly vigour about them which distinguishes them 
at a glance from the laxer works of Ionian style. Fig. 12 shows 
a group from a Chalcidian vase, which represents the conflict 





Brit. Uus. 

FlG. II. Gold Ornaments from 
Camirus. 




Man. d. Inst. i. 51. 

FIG. 12. Fight over the Body of Achilles. 

over the dead body of Achilles. The corpse of the hero lies in 
the midst, the arrow in his heel. The Trojan Glaucus tries to 
draw away the body by means of a rope tied round the ankle, 
but in doing so is transfixed by the spear of Ajax, who charges 
under the protection of the goddess Athena. Paris on the Trojan 
side shoots an arrow at Ajax. 

In fig. 13, from a Corinthian vase, Ajax falls on his sword in 
the presence of his colleagues, Odysseus and Diomedes. The short 
stature of Odysseus is a well-known Homeric feature. These 
vases are black-figured; the heroes are painted in silhouette on 



the red ground of the vases. Their names are appended in 
archaic Greek letters. 

The early history of vase-painting at Athens is complicated. 
It was only by degrees that the geometric style gave way to, 
or developed into, what is known as the black-figured 
style. It would seem that until the age of Peisistratus 
Athens was not notable in the world of art, and nothing could 
be. ruder than some of the vases of Athens in the yth century, 



Athene 




Uus. Napoleon, 66. 



FIG. 13. Suicide of Ajax. 



for example that here figured, on one side of which are represented 
the winged Harpies (fig. 14) and on the other Perseus accompanied 
by Athena flying from the pursuit of the Gorgons. This vase 
retains in its decoration some features of geometric style; but 
the lotus and rosette, the lion and sphinx which appear on it, 
belong to the wave of Ionian influence. Although it involves a 
departure from strict chronological order, it will be well here to 
follow the course of development in pottery at Athens until the 
end of our period. Neighbouring cities, and especially Corinth, 
seem to have exercised a strong influence at Athens about the 




Arch. Zcit. 1883, g. 



FIG. 14. Harpies: Attic Vase. 



7th century. We have even a class of vases called by archae- 
ologists Corintho-Attic. But in the course of the 6th century 
there is formed at Athens a distinct and marked black-figured 
style. The most remarkable example of this ware is the so-called 
Francois vase at Munich, by Clitias and Ergotimus, which 
contains, in most careful and precise rendering, a number of 
scenes from Greek myth. One of these vases is dated, since it 
bears the name and the figure of Callias in his chariot (Man. 
dell' Inst. iii. 45), and this Callias won a victory at Olympia in 
564 B.C. Fig. 15 shows the reverse of a somewhat later black- 
figured vase of the Panathenaic class, given at Athens as a 
prize to the winner of a foot-race at the Panathenaea, with the 
foot-race (stadion) represented on it. A large number of Athenian 
vases of the 6th century have reached us, which bear the signa- 
tures of the potters who made, or the artists who painted them: 
lists of these will be found in the useful work of Klein, Griechische 
\ Vasen mil -Meistersignaluren. The recent excavations on the 



GREEK ART 



[3OO-48O B.C. 



Acropolis have proved the erroneousness of the view, strongly 
maintained by Brunn, that the mass of the black -figured vases 
were of a late and imitative fabric. We now know that, with a 
few exceptions, vases of this class are not later than the early 
part of the 5th century. The same excavations have also 
proved that red-figured vase-painting, that is, vase-painting 
in which the background was blocked out with black, and the 
figures left in the natural colour of the vase originated at Athens 
in the last quarter of the 6th century. We cannot here give a 




Uon. d. Inst. x. 48 m. 

FIG. 15. Foot-race: Panathenaic Vase. 

detailed account of the beautiful series of Athenian vases of this 
fabric. Many of the finest of them are in the British Museum. 
As an example, fig. 16 presents a group by the painter Pamphaeus, 
representing Heracles wrestling with the river-monster Achelous, 
which belongs to the age of the Persian Wars. The clear precision 
of the figures, the vigour of the grouping, the correctness of the 
anatomy and the delicacy of the lines are all marks of distinction. 
The student of art will perhaps find the nearest parallel to these 
vase-pictures in Japanese drawings. The Japanese artists are 
very inferior to the Greek in their love and understanding of 
the human body, but equal them in freshness and vigour of 
design. At the same time began the beautiful series of white 



l n 




Wiener VorlegeblStter, D. 6. 

FIG. 16. Heracles and Achelous. 

vases made at Athens for the purpose of burial with the dead, 
and found in great quantities in the cemeteries of Athens, of 
Eretria, of Gela in Sicily, and of some other cities. They are 
well represented in the British Museum and that of Oxford. 

We now return to the early years of the 6th century, and 
proceed to trace, by the aid of recent discoveries, the rise of 
architecture and sculpture. The Greek temple in its character 
and form gives the clue to the whole character of Greek art. 
It is the abode of the deity, who is represented by his sacred 
image; and the flat surfaces of the temple offer a great field 
to the sculptor for the depicting of sacred legend. The process 
of discovery has emphasized the line which divides Ionian from 
Dorian architecture and art. We will speak first of the temples 



and the sculpture of Ionia. The lonians were a people far more 
susceptible than were the Dorians to oriental influences. The 
dress, the art, the luxury of western Asia attracted them with 
irresistible force. We may suspect, as Brunn has suggested, 
that Ionian artists worked in the great Assyrian and Persian 
palaces, and that the reliefs which adorn the walls of those 
palaces were in part their handiwork. Seme of the great temples 
of Ionia have been excavated in recent years, notably those of 
Apollo at Miletus, of Hera at Samos, and of Artemis at Ephesus. 
Very little, however, of the architecture of the 6th-century temples 
of those sites has been recovered. Quite recently, however, the 
French excavators at Delphi have successfully restored the 
treasury of the people of Cnidus, which is quite a gem 
of Ionic style, the entablature being supported in front 
not by pillars but by tv/o maidens or Corae, and a frieze running 
all round the building above. But though this building is of 



Delphi. 





FIG. 17. Restoration of the 
Treasury of Cnidus. 

Ionic type, it is scarcely in the technical sense of 

Ionic style, since the columns have not Ionic 

capitals, but are carved with curious reliefs. The 

Ionic capital proper is developed in Asia by degrees (see 

ARCHITECTURE and CAPITAL; also Perrot and Chipiez, Hist. 

de I'art, vii. ch. 4). 

The Doric temple- is not wholly of European origin. One 
of the earliest examples is the old temple of Assus in Troas. 
Yet it was developed mainly in Hellas and the west. The most 
ancient example is the Heraeum at Olympia, next to which come 
the fragmentary temples of Corinth and of Selinus in Sicily. 
With the early Doric temple we are familiar from examples 
which have survived in fair preservation to our own days at 
Agrigentum in Sicily, Paestum in Italy, and other sites. 

Of the decorative sculpture which adorned these early temples 
we have more extensive remains than we have of actual con- 
struction. It will be best to speak of them under their districts. 
On the coast of Asia Minor, the most extensive series of archaic 
decorative sculptures which has come down to us is that which 
adorned the temple of Assus (fig. 18). These were placed in a 
unique position on the temple, a long frieze running along the 
entablature, with representations of wild animals, of centaurs, 
of Hercules seizing Achelous, and of men feasting, scene succeed- 
ing scene without much order or method. The only figures from 
Miletus which can be considered as belonging to the original 
temple destroyed by Darius, are the dedicated seated statues, 
some of which, brought away by Sir Charles Newton, are now 
preserved at the British Museum. At Ephesus Mr Wood has 
been more successful, and has recovered considerable fragments 



800-480 B.C.] 



GREEK ART 



479 



of the temple of Artemis, to which, as Herodotus tells us, Croesus 
presented many columns. The lower part of one of these columns, 
bearing figures in relief of early Ionian style, has been put 
together at the British Museum; and remains of inscriptions 
recording the presentation by Croesus are still to be traced. 
Reliefs from a cornice of somewhat later date are also to be 
found at the British Museum. Among the Aegean islands, 




From Ferret and Chipiez, vii. pi. 35, by permission <ol Chapman and Hall, Ltd., and 
Hachette & Co. 

FIG. 1 8. Restoration of the Temple at Assus. 

Delos has furnished us with the most important remains of early 
art. French excavators have there found a very early statue of 
a woman dedicated by one Nicandra to Artemis, a figure which 
may be instructively compared with another from Samus, 
dedicated to Hera by Cheramues. The Delian statue is in shape 
like a flat beam; the Samian, which is headless, is like a round 
tree. The arms of the Delian figure are rigid to the sides; the 
Samian lady has one arm clasped to her breast. A great im- 
provement on these helpless and inexpressive figures is marked 
by another figure found at Delos, and connected, though perhaps 
incorrectly, with a basis recording the execution of a statue by 
Archermus and Micciades, two sculptors who stood, in the 
middle of the 6th century, at the head of a sculptural school at 
Chios. The representation (fig. 19) is of a running or flying 
figure, having six wings, like the seraphim in the vision of 




FIG. 19. Nike of Delos, restored. 

Isaiah, and clad in long drapery. It may be a statue of Nike or 
Victory, who is said to have been represented in winged form 
by Archermus. The figure, with its neatness and precision of 
work, its expressive face and strong outlines, certainly marks 
great progress in the art of sculpture. When we examine the 



early sculpture of Athens, we find reason to think that the Chian 
school had great influence in that city in the days of Peisistratus. 
At Athens, in the age 650-480, we may trace two quite distinct 
periods of architecture and sculpture. In the earlier of the two 
periods, a rough limestone was used alike for the walls 
and the sculptural decoration of temples; in the 
later period it was superseded by marble, whether 
native or imported. Every visitor to the museum of the 
Athenian acropolis stands astonished at the recently recovered 
groups which decorated the pediments of Athenian temples 




Athen. Milteil. x. 237. 

FIG. 20. Athenian Pediment : Heracles and Hydra. 

before the age of Peisistratus groups of large size, rudely cut 
in soft stone, of primitive workmanship, and painted with bright 
red, blue and green, in a fashion which makes no attempt to 
follow nature, but only to produce a vivid result. The two 
largest in scale of these groups seem to have belonged to the 
pediments of the early 6th-century temple of Athena. On other 
smaller pediments, perhaps belonging to shrines of Heracles 
and Dionysus, we have conflicts of Heracles with Triton or with 
other monstrous foes. It is notable how fond the Athenian artists 
of this early time are of exaggerated muscles and of monstrous 
forms, which combine the limbs of men and of animals; the 
measure and moderation which mark developed Greek art are 
as completely absent as are skill in execution or power of group- 
ing. Fig. 20 shows a small pediment in which appears in relief 




Alhen. Mitleil. xxii. 3. 

FIG. 21. Pediment: Athena and Giant. 

the slaying of the Lernaean hydra by Heracles. The hero strikes 
at the many-headed water-snake, somewhat inappropriately, 
with his club. lolaus, his usual companion, holds the reins of 
the chariot which awaits Heracles after his victory. On the 
extreme left a huge crab comes to the aid of the hydra. 

There can be little doubt that Athens owed its great start in 
art to the influence of the court of Peisistratus, at which artists 
of all kinds were welcome. We can trace a gradual transforma- 
tion in sculpture, in which the influence of the Chian and other 
progressive schools of sculpture is visible, not only in the sub- 
stitution of island marble for native stone, but in increased 
grace and truth to nature, in the toning down of glaring colour, 
and the appearance of taste in composition. A transition 



480 



GREEK ART 



[800-480 




between the older and the newer is furnished by the well-known 
statue of the calf-bearer, an Athenian preparing to sacrifice a 
calf to the deities, which is made of marble of Hymettus, and in 
robust clumsiness of forms is not far removed from the lime- 
stone pediments. The sacrificer has been 
commonly spoken of as Hermes or Theseus, 
but he seems rather to be an ordinary 
human votary. 

In the time of Peisistratus or his sons a 
peristyle of columns was added to the old 
temple of Athena; and this necessitated 
the preparation of fresh pediments. These 
were of marble. In one of them was re- 
presented the battle between gods and 
giants; in the midst Athena herself strik- 
ing at a prostrate foe (fig. 21). In these 
figures no eye can fail to trace remarkable 
progress. On about the same level of art 
are the charming statues dedicated to 
Athena, which were set up in the latter half 
of the 6th century in the Acropolis, whose 
graceful though conventional forms and 
delicate colouring make them one of the 
great attractions of the Acropolis Museum. 
We show a figure (fig. 22) which, if it be 
rightly connected with the basis on which 
it stands, is the work of the sculptor 
FIG. 22. Figure by Antenor, who was also author of a celebrated 
Antenor, restored. group representing the tyrant-slayers, 
Harmodius and Aristogiton. To the same age belong many 
other votive reliefs of the Acropolis, representing horsemen, 
scribes and other votaries of Athena. 

From Athens we pass to the seats of Dorian art. And in 
doing so we find a complete .change of character. In place of 
draped goddesses and female figures, we find nude 
sculpture. ma ^ e f rm s. In place of Ionian softness and elegance, 
we find hard, rigid outlines, strong muscular develop- 
ment, a greater love of and faithfulness to the actual human 
form the influence of the palaestra rather than of the harem. 

To the known series 
of archaic male 
figures, recent years 
have added many 
examples. We may 
especially mention a 
series of figures from 
the temple of Apollo 
Ptoos in Boeotia, 
probably represent- 
ing the god himself. 
Still more note- 
worthy are two 
colossal nude figures 
of Apollo, remarkable 
both for force and 
for rudeness, found 
at Delphi, the in- 
scriptions of which 
prove them to be 
the work of an 
Argive sculptor. 
(Plate V. fig. 76.) 

E. From Crete we have 

FIG. 23. Bust from Crete. 

acquired the upper 

part of a draped figure (fig. 23), whether male or female is not 
certain, which should be an example of the early Daedalid 
school, whence the art of Peloponnesus was derived; but we 
can scarcely venture to treat it as a characteristic product of 
that school; rather the likeness to the dedication of Nicandra 
is striking. 

Another remarkable piece of Athenian sculpture, of the time 
of the Persian Wars, is the group of the tyrannicides Harmodius 




Olympla, 

Sparta, 

SeUnuf. 

Notable 




and Aristogiton, set up by the people of Athens, and made by 
the sculptors Critius and Nesiotes. These figures were hard and 
rigid in outline, but showing some progress in the treatment of 
the nude. Copies are preserved in the museum of Naples (Plate I. 
fig. 50). It should be observed that one of the heads does not 
belong. 

Next in importance to Athens, as a find-spot for works of 
early Greek art, ranks Olympia. Olympia, however, did not 
suffer like Athens from sudden violence, and the 
explorations there have brought to light a continuous 
series of remains, beginning with the bronze tripods 
of the geometric age already mentioned and ending 
at the barbarian invasions of the 4th century A.D. 
among the 6th-century stone-sculpture of Olympia are the 
pediment of the treasury of 
the people of Megara, in 
which is represented a battle 
of gods and giants, and a 
huge rude head of Hera (fig. 
24), which seems to be part of 
the image worshipped in the 
Heraeum. Its flatness and 
want of style are noteworthy. 
Among the temples of Greece 
proper the Heraeum of 
Olympia stands almost alone 
for antiquity and interest, its 
chief rival, besides the temples 
of Athens, being the other 
temple of Hera at Argos. It 
appears to have been origin- 
ally constructed of wood, for 
which stone was by slow 
degrees, part by part, sub- 
stituted. In the time of 
Pausanias one of the pillars FIG. 24. Head of Hera : Olympia. 
was still of oak, and at the 

present day the varying diameter of the columns and other 
structural irregularities bear witness fo the process of constant 
renewal which must have taken place. The early small 
bronzes of Olympia form an important series, figures of deities 
standing or striding, warriors in their armour, athletes with 
exaggerated muscles, and 
women draped in the 
Ionian fashion, which did 
not become unpopular in 
Greece until after the 
Persian Wars. Excava- 
tions at Sparta have re- 
vealed interesting monu- 
ments belonging to the 
worship of ancestors, 
which seems in the con- 
servative Dorian states of 
Greece to have been more 
strongly developed than 
elsewhere. On some of 
these stones, which doubt- 
less belonged to the family 
cults of Sparta, we see 
the ancestor seated hold- 
ing a wine-cup, accom- 
panied by his faithful 
horse or dog; on some we FIG. 2 5 .-Spartan Tombstone: Berlin. 

see the ancestor and ancestress seated side by side (fig. 25), 
ready to receive the gifts of their descendants, who appear 
in the corner of the relief on a much smaller scale. The male 
figure holds a wine-cup, in allusion to the libations of wine 
made at the tomb. The female figure holds her veil and the 
pomegranate, the recognized food of the dead. A huge 
serpent stands erect behind the pair. The style of these 
sculptures is as striking as the subjects; we see lean, rigid 





GREEK ART 



PLATE V. 




From a Cast. 



Photo, Anderson, 



FIG. 71. APHRODITE OF CNIDUS. FIG. 72. BRONZE BOXER OF TERME. 
(VATICAN.) (ROME.) 





FIG. 73. BRONZE OF CERIGOTTO. 

(ATHENS.) Found in the sea near Cythera. 



FIG. 74. AGIASAT DELPHI. 
(From Fouilles de Delphes, by 
permission of A. Fontemoing.) 

XII. ,180. 





. 



FIG. 75 CORA (KORE) OF ERECHTHEUM. 
(ATHENS.) 



FIG. 76. APOLLO AT DELPHI. 
(From Fouilles de Delplies, by 
permission of A. Fontemoing.) 



PLATE VI. 



GREEK ART 




Photo, Giraudon. 

FIG. 77. APHRODITE OF 
MELOS. (LouvRE.) 



Photo, Alinari. 

FIG. 78. NIOBE AND HER YOUNGEST 
DAUGHTER. (FLORENCE.) 





Photo, Anderson. 

FIG. 79. APOXYOMENUS. 
(VATICAN.) 




Pholo, Brogi. Photo, Alinari. 

FIG. 80 DORYPHORUS OF POLY- FIG. 81. ANTIOCH SEATED ON A ROCK. 
CLITUS. (NAT. Mus., NAPLES.) (VATICAN.) 



Photo, English Photographic Co. 

FIG. 82. HERMES OF PRAXI- 
TELES. (OLYMPIA.) 



480-400 B.C.] 



GREEK ART 



481 



forms with severe outline carved in a very low relief, 
the surface of which is not rounded but flat. The name of 
Selinus in Sicily, an early Megarian colony, has long been associ- 
ated with some of the most curious of early sculptures, the 
metopes of ancient temples, representing the exploits of Heracles 
and of Perseus. -Even more archaic metopes have in recent 
years been brought to light, one representing a seated sphinx, 
one the journey of Europa over the sea on the back of the 
amorous bull (fig. 26), a pair of dolphins swimming beside her. 
In simplicity and in rudeness of work these reliefs remind us 
of the limestone pediments of Athens (fig. 20), but yet they are 
of another and a severer style; the Ionian laxity is wanting. 

The recent French excavations at Delphi add a new and 
important chapter to the history of 6th-century art. Of three 
Delphi. treasure-houses, those of Sicyon, Cnidus and Athens, 
the sculptural adornments have been in great part 
recovered. These sculptures form a series almost covering the 
century 570-470 B.C., and include representations of some myths 

of which we have hither- 
to had no example. We 
may say here a few 
words as to the sculpture 
which has been dis- 
covered, leaving to the 
article DELPHI an 
account of the topo- 
graphy and the buildings 
of the sacred site. Of 
the archaic temple of 
Apollo, built as Hero- 
dotus tells us by the 
Alcmaeonidae of Athens, 
the only sculptural re- 
mains which have come 
down to us are some 
fragments of the pedi- 
mental figures. Of the 
treasuries which con- 
tained the offerings of 
the pious at Delphi, the 
most archaic of which 




FIG. 26. Metope; Europa on Bull: 
Palermo. 



there are remains is that belonging to the people of Sicyon. 
To it appertain a set of exceedingly primitive metopes. 
One represents Idas and Dioscuri driving off cattle (Plate IV. 
fig. 66); another, the ship Argo; another, Europa on the bull, 
others merely animals, a ram or a boar. The treasury of the 
people of Cnidus (or perhaps Siphnos) is in style some half a 
century later (see fig. 17). To it belongs a long frieze representing 
a variety of curious subjects: a battle, perhaps between Greeks 



Castor and Pollux; Aeolus holding the winds in sacks. The 
Treasury of the Athenians, erected at the time of the Persian 
Wars, was adorned with metopes of singularly clear-cut and 
beautiful style, but very fragmentary, representing the deeds 
of Heracles and Theseus. 

We have yet to speak of the most interesting and important of 
all Greek archaic sculptures, the pediments of the temple at 
Aegina (q.v.). These groups of nude athletes fighting Aeiiaa 
over the corpses of their comrades are preserved at 
Munich, and are familiar to artists and students. But the very 
fruitful excavations of Professor Furtwangler have put them in 
quite a new light. Furtwangler (Aegina: Heiligtum der Aphaia) 
has entirely rearranged these pediments, in a way which removes 
the extreme simplicity and rigour of the composition, and 
introduces far greater variety of attitudes and motive. We 
repeat here these new arrangements (figs. 27 and 28), the reasons 
for which must be sought in Furtwangler's great publication. 
The individual figures are not much altered, as the restorations of 
Thorwaldsen, even when incorrect, have now a prescriptive right 
of which it is not easy to deprive them. Besides the pediments of 
Aegina must be set the remains of the pediments of the temple 
of Apollo at Eretria in Euboea, the chief group of which (Plate II. 
fig. 58), Theseus carrying off an Amazon, is one of the most 
finely executed works of early Greek art. 

Period II. 480-400 B.C. The most marvellous phenomenon 
in the whole history of art is the rapid progress made by Greece 
in painting and sculpture during the sth century B.C. As in 
literature the sth century takes us from the rude peasant plays 
of Thespis to the drama of Sophocles and Euripides; as in 
philosophy it takes us from Pythagoras to Socrates; so in 
sculpture it covers the space from the primitive works made for 
the Peisistratidae to some of the most perfect productions of the 
chisel. 

In architecture the 5th century is ennobled by the Theseum, 
the Parthenon and the Erechtheum, the temples of Zeus at 
Olympia, of Apollo at Phigalia, and many other central 
shrines, as well as by the Hall of the Mystae at Eleusis 
and the Propylaea of the Acropolis. Some of the most 
important of the Greek temples of Italy and Sicily, such as those 
of Segesta and Selinus, date from the same age. It is, however, 
only of their sculptural decorations, carried out by the greatest 
masters in Greece, that we need here treat in any detail. 

It is the rule in the history of art that innovations and technical 
progress are shown earlier in the case of painting than in that of 
sculpture, a fact easily explained by the greater ease p a j a tj a 
and rapidity of the brush compared with the chisel. 
That this was the, order of development in Greek art cannot be 
doubted. But our means for judging of the painting of the 
5th century are very slight. The noble paintings of such masters 



Archi- 
tecture. 




FIG. 27. Restoration of West Pediment, Aegina. 

and Trojans, with gods and goddesses looking on; a giganto- 
machy in which the figures of Poseidon, Athena, Hera, Apollo, 
Artemis and Cybele can be made out, with their opponents, 
who are armed like Greek hoplites; Athena and Heracles in a 
chariot; the carrying off of the daughters of Leucippus by 
xn. 1 6 



FIG. 28. Restoration of East Pediment, Aegina. 

as Polygnotus, Micon and Panaenus, which once adorned the 
walls of the great porticoes of Athens and Delphi, have dis- 
appeared. There remain only the designs drawn rather than 
painted on the beautiful vases of the age, which in some degree 
help us to realize, not the colouring or the charm of contemporary 



482 



GREEK ART 



[480-400 B.C 



paintings, but the principle of their composition and the accuracy 
of their drawing. 

Polygnotus of Thasos was regarded by his compatriots as a 
great ethical painter. His colouring and composition were alike 
very simple, his figures quiet and statuesque, his drawing careful 
and precise. He won his fame largely by incorporating in his 
works the best current ideas as to mythology, religion and morals. 
In particular his painting of Hades with its rewards and punish- 




From Monumenti dell' Institute di Cbrrespondenxa archeologica, xi. 40. 

FIG. 29. Vase of Orvieto. (The Children of Niobe.) 

ments, which was on the walls of the building of the people of 
Cnidus at Delphi, might be considered as a great religious work, 
parallel to the paintings of the Campo Santo at Pisa or to the 
painted windows of such churches as that at Fairford. But he 
also introduced improvements in perspective and greater freedom 
in grouping. 

It is fortunate for us that the Greek traveller Pausanias has 
left us very careful and detailed descriptions of some of the most 
important of the frescoes of Polygnotus, notably of the Taking 
of Troy and the Visit to Hades, which were at Delphi. A com- 
parison of these descriptions with vase paintings of the middle 
of the sth century has enabled us to discern with great pro- 
bability the principles of Polygnotan drawing and perspective. 
Professor Robert has even ventured to restore the paintings 
on the evidence of vases. We here represent one of the scenes 
depicted on a vase found at Orvieto (fig. 29), which is certainly 
Polygnotan in character. It represents the slaying of the 

children of Niobe 
by Apollo and 
Artemis. Here we 
may observe a 
.remarkable per- 
spective. The 
different heights 
of the rocky back- 
ground are repre- 
sented by lines 
traversing the 
picture on which 
the figures stand; 
but the more 
distant figures are 
no smaller than 
the nearer. The 
forests of Mount 
Sipylus are repre- 
sented by a single 
conventional tree. 
The figures are 

beautifully drawn, and full of charm; but there is a want of 
energy in the action. 

There can be little doubt that the school of Polygnotus 
exercised great influence on contemporary sculpture. Panaenus, 
brother of Pheidias, worked with Polygnotus, and many of the 
groupings found in the sculptures of the Parthenon remind us of 
those usual with the Thasian master. At this simple and early 
stage of art there was no essential difference between fresco- 




Arch. Zeit. 1878, pi. 11. 

FIG. 30. Vase Drawing 



painting and coloured relief, light and shade and aerial per- 
spective being unknown. We reproduce two vase-paintings, 
one (fig. 30) a group of man and horse which closely resembles 
figures in the Panathenaic frieze of the Parthenon (fig. 31); 
the other (fig. 32) representing Victory pouring water for a 
sacrificial ox to drink, which reminds us of the balustrade of the 
shrine of Wingless Victory at Athens. 

Most writers on Greek painting have supposed that after the 
middle of the 5th century the technique of painting rapidly 
improved. This 
may well have 
been the case ; 
but we have 
little means of 
testing the ques- 
tion. Such im- 
p ro ve ments 
would soon raise 
such a barrier 
between fresco- 
painting and 
vase-painting, 
which by its 
very nature 
must be simple 
and architect- 




FlG. 31. Part of Frieze of the Parthenon. 



onic, that vases can no longer be used with confidence as 
evidence for contemporary painting. The stories told us by 
Pliny of the lives of Greek painters are mostly of a trivial and 
untrustworthy character. Some of them are mentioned in this 
Encyclopaedia under the names of individual artists. We can 
only discern a few general facts. Of Agatharchus of Athens we 
learn that he painted, under compulsion, the interior of the house 
of Alcibiades. And we are told that he painted a scene for the 
tragedies of Aeschylus or Sophocles. This has led some writers 
to suppose that he attempted illusive landscape; but this is 
contrary to the possibilities of the time; and it is fairly certain 
that what he really did was to paint the wooden front of the 
stage building in imitation of architecture; in fact he painted 
a permanent architectural background, and not one suited to 
any particular play. Of other painters who flourished at the 
end of the century, such as Zeuxis and Aristides, it will be best 
to speak under the next period. 

It is now generally held, in consequence of evidence furnished 
by tombs, that the 5th century saw the end of the making of 




From Gerhard's Auserlesenc Vasenbilder, ii. p! . i. 

FIG. 32. Nike and Bull. 

vases on a great scale at Athens for export to Italy and Sicily. 
And in fact few things in the history of art are more remarkable 
than the rapidity with which vase-painting at Athens reached 
its highest point and passed it on the downward road. At the 
beginning of the century black-figured ware was scarcely out 
of fashion, and the masters of the severe red-figured style, 
Pamphaeus, Epictetus and their contemporaries, were in vogue. 



480-400 B.C.] 



GREEK ART 



483 



The schools of Euphronius, Hiero and Duris belong to the age 
of the Persian wars. With the middle of the century the works 
of these makers are succeeded by unsigned vases of most beautiful 
design, some of them showing the influence of Polygnotus. In 
the later years of the century, when the empire of Athens was 
approaching its fall, drawing becomes laxer and more careless, 
and in the treatment of drapery we frequently note the over- 
elaboration of folds, the want of simplicity, which begin to mark 
contemporary sculpture. These changes of style can only be 



stood Zeus the supreme arbiter. On one side of him stood 
Oenomaiis with his wife Sterope, on the other Pelops and Hippo- 
dameia, the daughter of Oenomaiis, whose position at once 
indicates that she is on the side of the newcomer, whatever her 
parents may feel. Next on either side are the four-horse chariots 
of the two competitors, that of Oenomaus in the charge of his 
perfidious groom Myrtilus, who contrived that it should break 
down in the running, that of Pelops tended by his grooms. 
At either end, where the pediment narrows to a point, reclines a 




FIG. 33. East Pediment, Olympia. Two Restorations. 



'rempieof tnat tem pl e > 



Zeus. 



.satisfactorily followed in the vase rooms of the British Museum, 
or other treasuries of Greek art (see also A. B. Walters, History 
of Ancient Pottery; and the article CERAMICS). 

Among the sculptural works of this period the first place may 
be given to the great temple of Zeus at Olympia. The statue by 
Pheidias which once occupied the place of honour in 
was regarded as the noblest monu- 
ment of Greek religion, has of course disappeared, nor 
are we able with confidence to restore it. But the plan 
of the temple, its pavement, some of its architectural ornaments, 
remain. The marbles which occupied the pediments and the 
metopes of the temple have been in large part recovered, having 
been probably thrown down by earthquakes and gradually buried 
in the alluvial soil. The utmost ingenuity and science of the 
archaeologists of Germany have been employed in the recovery 
of the composition of these groups; and although doubt remains 
as to the places of some figures, and their precise attitudes, yet 
we may fairly say that we know more about the sculpture of 



river god, at one end Alpheus, the chief stream of Olympia, at 
the other end his tributary Cladeus. Only one figure remains, 
not noticed in the careful description of Pausanias, the figure 
of a handmaid kneeling, perhaps one of the attendants of Sterope. 
Our engraving gives two conjectural restorations of the pediment, 
that of Treu and that of Kekule, which differ principally in the 
arrangement of the corners of the composition; the position 
of the central figures and of the chariots can scarcely be called 
in question. The moment chosen is one, not of action, but of 
expectancy, perhaps of preparation for sacrifice. The arrange- 
ment is undeniably stiff and formal, and in the figures we note 
none of the trained perfection of style which belongs to the 
sculptures of the Parthenon, an almost contemporary temple. 
Faults abound, alike in the rendering of drapery and in the 
representation of the human forms, and the sculptor has 
evidently trusted to the painter who was afterwards to colour 
his work, to remedy some of his clumsiness, or to make clear the 
ambiguous. Nevertheless there is in the whole a dignity, a 




FIG. 34. West Pediment, Olympia. Two Restorations. 



the Olympian temple of Zeus than about the sculpture of any 
other great Greek temple. The exact date of these sculptures 
is not certain, but we may with some confidence give them to 
470-460 B.C. (In speaking of them we shall mostly follow the 
opinion of Dr Treu, whose masterly work in vol. iii. of the great 
German publication on Olympia is a model of patience and of 
science.) In the eastern pediment (fig. 33), as Pausanias tells 
us, were represented the preparations for the chariot-race 
between Oenomaus and Pelops, the result of which was to 
determine whether Pelops should find death or a bride and a 
kingdom. In the midst, invisible to the contending heroes, 



sobriety, and a simplicity, which reconcile us to the knowledge 
that this pediment was certainly regarded in antiquity as a noble 
work, fit to adorn even the palace of Zeus. In the other, the 
western pediment (fig. 34), the subject is the riot of the Centaurs 
when they attended the wedding of Peirithous in Thessaly, and, 
attempting to carry off the bride and her comrades, were slain 
by Peirithous and Theseus. In the midst of the pediment, 
invisible like Zeus in the eastern pediment, stands Apollo, while 
on either side of him Theseus and Peirithous attack the Centaurs 
with weapons hastily snatched. Our illustration gives two 
possible arrangements. The monsters are in various attitudes 



GREEK ART 



[480-400 B.C 



of attempted violence, of combat and defeat; with each grapples 
one of the Lapith heroes in the endeavour to rob them of their 
prey. In the corners of the pediment recline female figures, 
perhaps attendant slaves, though the farthest pair may best be 
identified as local Thessalian nymphs, looking on with the 
calmness of divine superiority, yet not wholly unconcerned in 
what is going forward. Though the composition of the two 
pediments differs notably, the one bearing the impress of a 
parade-like repose, the other of an overstrained activity, yet 




Olympia, Hi. 45. 

FIG. 35. Metope : Olympia ; restored. 

the style and execution are the same in both, and the short- 
comings must be attributed to the inferior skill of a local school 
of sculptors compared with those of Athens or of Aegina. It 
even appears likely that the designs also belong to a local school. 
Pausanias, it is true, tells us that the pediments were the work 
of Alcamenes, the pupil of Pheidias, and of Paeonius, a sculptor 
of Thrace, respectively; but it is almost certain that he was 

misled by the local guides, 
who would naturally be 
anxious to connect the 
sculptures of their great 
temple with well - known 
names. 

The metopes of the 
temple are in the same style 
of art as the pediments, but 
the defects of awkwardness 
and want of mastery are 
less conspicuous, because 
the narrow limits of the 
metope exclude any elabo- 
rate grouping. The sub- 
jects are provided by the 
twelve labours of Heracles; 
the figures introduced in 
each metope are but two or 
at most three; and the 
action is simplified as much 
as possible. The example 




FIG. 3 6.-Nike of Paeonius; restored. raues Aiding up the 

sky on a cushion, with the 

friendly aid of a Hesperid nymph, while Atlas, whom he has 
relieved of his usual burden, approaches bringing the apples 
which it was the task of Heracles to procure. 

Another of the fruits of the excavations of Olympia is the 
floating Victory by Paeonius, unfortunately faceless (fig. 36), 
which was set up in all probability in memory of the victory of 
the Athenians and their Messenian allies at Sphacteria in 425 B.C. 
The inscription states that it was dedicated by the Messenians 



and people of Naupactus from the spoils of their enemies, but 
the name of the enemy is not mentioned in the inscription. 
The statue of Paeonius, which comes floating down through the 
air with drapery borne backward, is of a bold and innovating 
type, and we may trace its influence in many works of the next 
age. 

Among the discoveries at Delphi none is so striking and 
valuable to us as the life-size statue in bronze of a charioteer 
holding in his hand the reins. This is maintained Delphic 
by M. Homolle to be part of a chariot-group set up charioteer. 
by Polyzalus, brother of Gelo and Hiero of Syracuse, 
in honour of a victory won in the chariot-race at the Pythian 
games at Delphi (fig. 37). The charioteer is evidently a high-born 
youth, and is clad in the long chiton which was necessary to 
protect a driver of a chariot from the rush of air. The date 
would be about 480-470 B.C. Bronze groups representing 
victorious chariots with their drivers were among the noblest 
and most costly dedications of antiquity; the present figure 
is our only satisfactory representative of them. In style the 
figure is very notable, tall and slight beyond all contemporary 
examples. The contrast between the conventional decorousness 
of face and drapery and the lifelike accuracy of hands and 




M (moires, Piot, 1897, 16. 

FIG. 37. Bronze Charioteer: Delphi. 

feet is very striking, and indicates the clashing of various 
tendencies in art at the time when the great style was formed 
in Greece. 

The three great masters of the 5th century, Myron, Pheidias 
and Polyclitus are all in some degree known to us from their 
works. Of Myron we have copies of two works, the Marsyas 
(Plate III. fig. 64) and the Discobolus. The Marsyas (a copy in 
the Lateran Museum) represents the Satyr so named in the 
grasp of conflicting emotions, eager to pick up the flutes which 
Athena has thrown down, but at the same time dreading her 
displeasure if he does so. The Discobolus has usually been 
judged from the examples in the Vatican and the British Museum, 
in which the anatomy is modernized and the head wrongly put on. 
We have now photographs of the very superior replica in the 
Lancelotti gallery at Rome, the pose of which is much nearer 
to the original. Our illustration represents a restoration made 
at Munich, by combining the Lancelotti head with the Vatican 
body (Plate IV. fig. 68). 

Of the works of Pheidias we have unfortunately no certain 
copy, if we except the small replicas at Athens of his Athena 
Parthenos. The larger of these (fig. 38) was found in 1880: 
it is very clumsy, and the wretched device by which a pillar 
is introduced to support the Victory in the hand of Athena can 
scarcely be supposed to have belonged to the great original. 
Tempting theories have been published by Furtwangler (Master- 
pieces of Greek Sculpture) and other archaeologists, which 
identify copies of the Athena Lemnia of Pheidias, his Pantarces, 






480-400 B.C.] 



GREEK ART 



485 




his Aphrodite Urania and other statues; but doubt hangs over 
all these attributions. 

A more pertinent and more promising question is, how far 
we may take the decorative sculpture of the Parthenon, since 
Lord Elgin's time the pride of the British Museum, as the 
actual work of Pheidias, or as done from his designs. Here 
again we have no conclusive evidence; but it appears from the 
testimony of inscriptions that the pediments at all events were 
not executed until after Pheidias's death. 

Of course the pediments and frieze of the Parthenon (q.v), 
whose work soever they may be, stand at the head of all Greek 

decorative s c u 1 pt u r e. 
Whether we regard the 
grace of the composi- 
tion, the exquisite finish 
of the statues in the 
round, or the delightful 
atmosphere of poetry 
and religion which sur- 
rounds these sculptures, 
they rank among the 
masterpieces of the 
world. The Greeks 
esteemed them far below 
the statue which the 
temple was made to 
shelter; but to us, who 
have lost the great 
figure in ivory and gold, 
the carvings of the casket 
which once contained it 
are a perpetual source of 
instruction and delight. 
The whole is repro- 
FIG. 38. Statuette of Athena Parthenos. duced by photography 
in A. S. Murray's Sculptures of the Parthenon. 

An abundant literature has sprung up in regard to these 
sculptures in recent years. It will suffice here to mention the 
discussions in Furtwangler's Masterpieces, and the very ingenious 
attempts of Sauer to determine by a careful examination of the 
bases and backgrounds of the pediments as they now stand how 
the figures must have been arranged in them. The two ends 
of the eastern pediment (Plate III. fig. 65) are the only fairly 
well-preserved part of the pediments. 

Among the pupils of Pheidias who may naturally be supposed 
to have worked on the sculptures of the Parthenon, the most 
notable were Alcamenes and Agoracritus. Some fragments 
remain of the great statue of Nemesis at Rhamnus by Agoracritus. 
And an interesting light has been thrown on Alcamenes by the 
discovery at Pergamum of a professed copy of his Hermes set 
up at the entrance to the Acropolis at Athens (Plate II. 
fig. 57). The style of this work, however, is conventional 
and archaistic, and we can scarcely regard it as typical of the 
master. 

Another noted contemporary who was celebrated mainly for 
his portraits was Cresilas, a Cretan. Several copies of his 
portrait of Pericles exist, and testify to the lofty and idealizing 
style of portraiture in this great agej 

We possess also admirable sculpture belonging to the other 
important temples of the Acropolis, the Erechtheum and the 
temple of Nike. The temple of Nike is the earlier, being possibly 
a memorial of the Spartan defeat at Sphacteria. The Erech- 
theum belongs to the end of our period, and embodies the 
delicacy and finish of the conservative school of sculpture at 
Athens just as the Parthenon illustrates the ideas of the more 
progressive school. The reconstruction of the Erechtheum has 
been a task, which has long occupied the attention of archaeo- 
logists (see the paper by Mr Stevens in the American Journal 
of Archaeology, 1906). Our illustration (Plate V. fig. 75) shows 
one of the Corae or maidens who sttpport the entablature of the 
south porch of the Erechtheum in her proper setting. This 
use of the female figure in place of a pillar is based on old Ionian 



precedent (see fig. 17) and is not altogether happy; but the 
idea is carried out with remarkable skill, the perfect repose 
and solid strength of the maiden being emphasized. 

Beside Pheidias of Athens must be placed the greatest of early 
Argive sculptors, Polyclitus. His two typical athletes, the 
Doryphorus or spear-bearer (Plate VI. fig. 80) and the Diadu- 
menus, have long been identified, and though the copies are not 
first-rate, they enable us to recover the principles of the master's 
art. 

Among the bases discovered at Olympia, whence the statues 
had been removed, are three or four which bear the name of 
Polyclitus, and the definite evidence furnished by pb/ ^ 
these bases as to the position of the feet of the 
statues which they once bore has enabled archaeologists, 
especially Professor Furtwangler, to identify copies of those 
statues among known works. Also newly discovered copies of 
Polyclitan works have made their appearance. At Delos there 
has been found a copy of the Diadumenus, which is of much 
finer work than the statue in the British Museum from Vaison. 
The Museum of Fine Arts at Boston, U.S.A., has secured a very 
beautiful statue of a young Hermes, who but for the wings on 
the temples might pass as a boy athlete of Polyclitan style 
(Plate II. fig. 60). In fact, instead of relying as regards the 
manner of Polyclitus on Roman copies of the Doryphorus and 
Diadumenus, we have quite a gallery of athletes, boys and men, 
who all claim relationship, nearer or more remote, to the school 
of the great Argive master. It might have been hoped that the 
excavations, made under the leadership of Professor Waldstein 
at the Argive Heraeum, would have enlightened us as to the 
style of Polyclitus. Jus.t as the sculptures of the Parthenon 
are the best monument of Pheidias, so it might seem likely that 
the sculptural decoration of the great temple which contained 
the Hera of Polyclitus would show us at large how his school 
worked in marble. Unfortunately the fragments of sculpture 
from the Heraeum are few. The most remarkable is a ferriaie 
head, which may perhaps come from a pediment (fig. 39). But 
archaeologists are not in agreement whether it is in style Poly- 




FIG. 39. Female Head : Heraeum. 

clitan or whether it rather resembles in style Attic works. Other 
heads and some highly-finished fragments of bodies come 
apparently from the metopes of the same temple. (See also 
article ARGOS.) 

Another work of Polyclitus was his Amazon, made it is said 
in competition with his great contemporaries, Pheidias, Cresilas 
and Phradmon, all of whose Amazons were preserved in the 
great temple of Artemis at Ephesus. In our museums are many 
statues of Amazons representing sth century originals. These 
have usually been largely restored, and it is no easy matter to 
discover their original type. Professor Michaelis has recovered 



4 86 



GREEK ART 



[400-300 B.C. 






successfully three types (fig. 40). The attribution of these is a 
matter of controversy. The first has been given to the chisel 
of Polyclitus; the second seems to represent the Wounded 
Amazon of Cresilas; the third has by some archaeologists been 
given to Pheidias. It does not represent a wounded amazon, 
but one alert, about to leap upon her horse with the help of a 
spear as a leaping pole. 

We can devote little more than a passing mention to the 
sculpture of other temples and shrines of the later 5th century, 
, . which nevertheless deserve careful study. The frieze 

from the temple of Apollo at Phigalia, representing 
Centaur and Amazon battles, is familiar to visitors of the British 
Museum, where, however, its proximity to the remains of the 






FIG. 40, Types of Amazons (Michaelis.) 

Parthenon lays stress upon the faults of grouping and execution 
which this frieze presents. It seems to have been executed by 
local Arcadian artists. More pleasing is the sculpture of the 
Ionic tomb called the Nereid monument, brought by Sir Charles 
Fellows from Lycia. Here we have not only a series of bands 
of relief which ran round the tomb, but also detached female 
figures, whence the name which it bears is derived. A recent 
view sees in these women with their fluttering drapery not 
nymphs of the sea, but personifications of sea-breezes. 

The series of known Lycian tombs has been in recent years 
enriched through the acquisition by the museum of Vienna of 
the sculptured friezes which adorned a heroon near Geul Bashi. 
In the midst of the enclosure was a tomb, and the walls of the 
enclosure itself were adorned within and without with a great 
series of reliefs, mostly of mythologic purport. Many subjects 
which but rarely occur in early Greek art, the siege of Troy, the 
adventure of the Seven against Thebes, the carrying*off of the 
daughters of Leucippus, Ulysses shooting down the Suitors, are 
here represented in detail. Professor Benndorf, who has pub- 
lished these sculptures in an admirable volume, is disposed to 
see in them the influence of the Thasian painter Polygnotus. 
Any one can see their kinship to painting, and their subjects 
recur in some of the great frescoes painted by Polygnotus, 
Micon and others for the Athenians. Like other Lycian sculp- 
tures, they contain non-Hellenic elements; in fact Lycia forms 
a link of the chain which extends from the wall-paintings of 
Assyria to works like the columns of Trajan and of Antoninus, 
but is not embodied in the more purely idealistic works of the 
highest Greek art. The date of the Vienna tomb is not much 
later than the middle of the sth century. A small part of the 
frieze of this monument is shown in fig. 41. It will be seen that 
in this fragment there are two scenes, one directly above the other. 
In the upper line Ulysses, accompanied by his son Telemachus, 
is in the act of shooting the suitors, who are reclining at table 
in the midst of a feast; a cup-bearer, possibly Melanthius, is 
escaping by a door behind Ulysses. In the lower line is the 
central group of a frieze which represents the hunting of the 



Calydonian boar, which is represented, as is usual in the best time 
of Greek art, as an ordinary animal and no monster. 

Archaeologists have recently begun to pay more attention 
to an interesting branch of Greek art which had until recently 
been neglected, that of sculptured portraits. The rt ft 
known portraits of the 5th century now include 
Pericles, Herodotus, Thucydides, Anacreon, Sophocles, Euripides, 
Socrates and others. As might be expected in a time when style 
in sculpture was so strongly pronounced, these portraits, when not 
later unfaithful copies, are notably ideal. They represent the 
great men whom they portray not in the spirit of realism. 
Details are neglected, expression is not elaborated; the sculptor 
tries to represent what is permanent in his subject rather than 
what is temporary. Hence these portraits do not seem to belong 
to a particular time of life; they only represent a man in the 
perfection of physical force and mental energy. And the race 
or type is clearly shown through individual traits. In some 
cases it is still disputed whether statues of this age represent 
deities or mortals, so notable are the repose and dignity which 
even human figures acquire under the hands of sth-century 
masters. The Pericles after Cresilas in the British Museum, 
and the athlete-portraits of Polyclitus, are good examples. 

Period III. 400-300 B.C. The high ideal level attained by 
Greek art at the end of the 5th century is maintained in the 4th. 
There cannot be any question of decay in it save at Athens, 
where undoubtedly the loss of religion and the decrease of 
national prosperity acted prejudicially. But in Peloponnesus 
the time was one of expansion; several new and important cities, 
such as Messene, Megalopolis and Mantinea, arose under the 
protection of Epaminondas. And in Asia the Greek cities were 
still prosperous and artistic, as were the cities of Italy and Sicily 
which kept their independence. On the whole we find during 
this age some diminution of the freshness and simplicity of art; 







Heroon of Cyeul Bashi Trysa. PI. 7. 

FIG. 41. Odysseus and Suitors; Hunting of Boar. 

it works less in the service of the gods and more in that of private 
patrons; it becomes less ethical and more sentimental and 
emotional. On the other hand, there can be no doubt that 
technique both in painting and sculpture advanced with rapid 
strides; artists had a greater mastery of their materials, and 
ventured on a wider range of subject. 

In the 4th century no new temples of importance rose at 
Athens; the Acropolis had taken its final form; but at Messene, 
Tegea, Epidaurus and elsewhere, very admirable buildings arose. 
The remains of the temple at Tegea are of wonderful beauty 
and finish; as are those of the theatre and the so-called Tholus 
of Epidaurus. In Asia Minor vast temples of the Ionic order 
arose, especially at Miletus and Ephesus. The colossal pillars 
of Miletus astonish the visitors to the Louvre; while the 
sculptured columns of Ephesus in the British Museum (Plate II. 
fig. 59) show a high level of artistic skill. The Mausoleum 
erected about 350 B.C. at Halicarnassus in memory of Mausolus, 
king of Caria, and adorned with sculpture by the most noted 



400-300 B.C.] 



GREEK ART 



487 



artists of the day, was reckoned one of the wonders of the world. 
It has been in part restored in the British Museum. Mr Oldfield's 
conjectural restoration, published in Archaeologia for 1895, 
though it has many rivals, surpasses them all in the lightness 
of the effect, and in close correspondence to the description by 
Pliny. We show a small part of the sculptural decoration, 
representing a battle between Greeks and Amazons (Plate IV. 
fig. 70), wherein the energy of the action and the careful balance 
of figure against figure are remarkable. We possess also the 
fine portraits of Mausolus himself and his wife Artemisia, which 
stood in or on the building, as well as part of a gigantic chariot 
with four horses which surmounted it. 

Another architectural work of the 4th century, in its way a 
gem, is the structure set up at Athens by Lysicrates, in memory 
of a choragic victory. This still survives, though the reliefs 
with which it is adorned have suffered severely from the weather. 

The 4th century is the brilliant period of ancient painting. 
It opens with the painters of the Asiatic School, Zeuxis and Par- 
rhasius and Protogenes, with their contemporaries Nicias and 
Apollodorus of Athens, Timanthes of Sicyon or Cythnus, and 



AAEZANAPOI 

A0HNA10Z 

EPPAIJIEN 



NIOBH 



<(>OIBH 



IAEA1PA 




Nat. Mus., Naples. 

FIG. 42. Greek Drawing of Women playing at Knucklebones. 

Euphranor of Corinth. It witnesses the rise of a great school 
at Sicyon, under Eupompus and Pamphilus, which was noted 
for its scientific character and the fineness of its drawing, and 
which culminated in Apelles, the painter of Alexander the Great, 
and probably the greatest master of the art in antiquity. To 
each of these painters a separate article is given, fixing their 
place in the history of the art. Of their paintings unfortunately 
we can form but a very inadequate notion. Vase-paintings, 
which in the sth century give us some notion at least of con- 
temporary drawing, are less careful in the 4th century. Now 
and then we find on them figures admirably designed, or success- 
fully foreshortened; but these are rare occurrences. The art 
of the vase decorator has ceased to follow the methods and 
improvements of contemporary fresco painters, and is pursued 
as a mere branch of commerce. 

But very few actual paintings of the age survive, and even 
these fragmentary remains have with time lost the freshness of 
their colouring; nor are they in any case the work of a note- 
worthy hand. We reproduce two examples. The first is from 
a stone of the vault of a Crimean grave (Plate IV. fig. 67). The 
date of the grave is fixed to the 4th century by ornaments found 
in it, among which was a gold coin of Alexander the Great. The 



Praxi- 
teles. 



representation is probably of Demeter or her priestess, her hair 
bound with poppies and other flowers. The original is of large 
size. The other illustration (fig. 42) represents the remains of 
a drawing on marble, representing a group of women playing 
knucklebones. It was found at Herculaneum. Though signed 
by one Alexander of Athens, who was probably a worker of the 
Roman age, Professor Robert is right in maintaining that 
Alexander only copied a design of the age of Zeuxis and Par- 
rhasius. In fact the drawing and grouping is so closely like that 
of reliefs of about 400 B.C. that the drawing is of great historic 
value, though there be no colouring. Several other drawings 
of the same class have been found at Herculaneum, and on the 
walls of the Transtiberine Villa at Rome (now in the Terme 
Museum). 

Until about the year 1880, our knowledge of the great Greek 
sculptors of the 4th century was derived mostly from the 
statements of ancient writers and from Roman 
copies, or what were supposed to be copies, of 
their works. We are now in a far more satisfactory 
position. We now possess an original work of Praxiteles, and 
sculptures executed under the immediate direction of, if not from 
the hand of, other great sculptors of that age Scopas, Timotheus 
and others. Among all the discoveries made at Olympia, none 
has become so familiar to the artistic world as that of the Hermes 
of Praxiteles. It is the first time that we have become possessed 
of a first-rate Greek original by one of the greatest of sculptors. 
Hitherto almost all the statues in our museums have been either 
late copies of Greek works of art, or else the mere decorative 
sculpture of temples and tombs, which was by the ancients 
themselves but little regarded. But we can venture without 
misgiving to submit the new Hermes to the strictest examination, 
sure that in every line and touch we have the work of a great 
artist. This is more than we can say of any of the literary 
remains of antiquity poem, play or oration. Hermes is repre- 
sented by the sculptor (fig. 43 
and Plate VI. fig. 82) in the act 
of carrying the young child 
Dionysus to the nymphs who 
were charged with his rearing. 
On the journey he pauses and 
amuses himself by holding out to 
the child-god a bunch of grapes, 
and watching his eagerness to 
grasp them. To the modern eye 
the child is not a success; only 
the latest art of Greece is at home 
in dealing with children. But the 
Hermes, strong without excessive 
muscular development, and grace- 
ful without leanness, is a model 
of physical formation, and his 
face expresses the perfection of 
health, natural endowment and 
sweet nature. The statue can 
scarcely be called a work of 
religious art in the modern or 
Christian sense of the word _ 

religious, but from the Greek ^''43 .Hermes of Praxiteles; 
point of view it is religious, as restored, 

embodying the result of the har- 
monious development of all human faculties and life in accord- 
ance with nature. 

The Hermes not only adds to our knowledge of Praxiteles, 
but also confirms the received views in regard to him. Already 
many works in galleries of sculpture had been identified as 
copies of statues of his school. Noteworthy among these are, 
the group at Munich representing Peace nursing the infant 
Wealth, from an original by Cephisodotus, father of Praxiteles; 
copies of the Cnidian Aphrodite of Praxiteles, especially one in 
the Vatican which is here illustrated (Plate V. fig. 71); copies 
of the Apollo slaying a lizard (Sauroctonus), of a Satyr (in the 
Capitol Museum), and others. These works, which are noted 




Olympic, iii. 53. 



GREEK ART 



[400-300 B.C. 



for their softness and charm, make us understand the saying of 
ancient critics that Praxiteles and Scopas were noted for the 
pathos of their works, as Pheidias and Polyclitus for the ethical 
quality of those they produced. But the pathos of Praxiteles 
is of a soft and dreamy character; there is no action, or next 
to none; and the emotions which he rouses are sentimental 
rather than passionate. Scopas, as we shall see, was of another 
mood. The discovery of the Hermes has naturally set archae- 
ologists searching in the museums of Europe for other works 
which may from their likeness to it in various respects be set 
down as Praxitelean in character. In the case of many of the 
great sculptors of Greece Strongylion, Silanion, Calamis and 
others it is of little use to search for copies of their works, 
since we have little really trustworthy evidence on which to 
base our inquiries. But in the case of Praxiteles we really stand 
on a safe level. Naturally it is impossible in these pages to give 
any sketch of the results, some almost certain, some very doubtful, 
of the researches of archaeologists in quest of Praxitelean works. 
But we may mention a few works which have been claimed 
by good judges as coming from the master himself. Professor 
Brunn claimed as work of Praxiteles a torso of a satyr in the 
Louvre, in scheme identical with the well-known satyr of the 
Capitol. Professor Furtwangler puts in the same category a 
delicately beautiful head of Aphrodite at Petworth. And his 
translator, Mrs Strong, regards the Aberdeen head of a young 
man in the British Museum as the actual work of Praxiteles. 
Certainly this last head does not suffer when placed beside the 
Olympian head of Hermes. At Mantinea has been found a basis 
whereon stood a group of Latona and her two children, Apollo 
and Artemis, made by Praxiteles. This base bears reliefs 
representing the musical contest of Apollo and Marsyas, with the 
Muses as spectators, reliefs very pleasing in style, and quite 
in the manner of Attic artists of the 4th century. But of course 
we must not ascribe them to the hand of Praxiteles himself; 
great sculptors did not themselves execute the reliefs which 
adorned temples and other monuments, but reserved them for 
their pupils. Yet the graceful figures of the Muses of Mantinea 
suggest how much was due to Praxiteles in determining the tone 
and character of Athenian art in relief in the 4th century. 
Exactly the same style which marks them belongs also to a mass 
of sepulchral monuments at Athens, and such works as the 
Sidonian sarcophagus of the Mourning Women, to be presently 
mentioned. 

Excavation on the site of the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea 
has resulted in the recovery of works of the school of Scopas. 
Scopas Pausanias tells us that Scopas was the architect of 
the temple, and so important in the case of a Greek 
temple is the sculptural decoration, that we can scarcely 
doubt that the sculpture also of the temple at Tegea was 
under the supervision of Scopas, especially as he was more 
noted as a sculptor than as an architect. In the pediments 
of the temple were represented two scenes from mythology, 
the hunting of the Calydonian boar and the combat between 
Achilles and Telephus. To one or other of these scenes belong 
several heads of local marble discovered on the spot, which are 
very striking from their extraordinary life and animation. 
Unfortunately they are so much injured that they can scarcely 
be made intelligible except by the help of restoration; we 
therefore engrave one of them, the helmeted head, as restored 
by a German sculptor (Plate III. fig. 63). The strong bony 
frame of this head, and its depth from front to back, are not 
less noteworthy than the parted lips and deeply set and strongly 
shaded eye;, the latter features impart to the head a vividness 
of expression such as we have found in no previous work of Greek 
art, but which sets the key to the developments of art which 
take place in the Hellenistic age. A draped torso of Atalanta 
from the same pediment has been fitted to one of these heads. 
Hitherto Scopas was known to us, setting aside literary records, 
only as one of the sculptors who had worked at the Mausoleum. 
Ancient critics and travellers, however, bear ample testimony to 
his fame, and the wide range of his activity, which extended to 
northern Greece, Peloponnese and Asia Minor. His Maenads 



and his Tritons and other beings of the sea were much copied in 
antiquity. But perhaps he reached his highest level in statues 
such as that of Apollo as leader of the Muses, clad in long drapery. 

The interesting precinct of Aesculapius at Epidaurus has 
furnished us with specimens of the style of an Athenian con- 
temporary of Scopas, who worked with him on the 
Mausoleum. An inscription which records the sums Timotheut, 
spent on the temple of the Physician-god, informs us i,^^w. 
that the models for the sculptures of the pediments, and 
one set of acroteria or roof adornments, were the work of Timo- 
theus. Of the pedimental figures and the acroteria considerable 
fragments have been recovered, and we may with confidence 
assume that at all events the models for these were by Timotheus. 
It is strange that the unsatisfactory arrangement whereby a 
noted sculptor makes models and some local workman the 
figures enlarged from those models, should have been tolerated 
by so artistic a people as the Greeks. The subjects of the pedi- 
ments appear to have been the common ones of battles between 
Greek and Amazon and between Lapith and Centaur. We 
possess fragments of some of the Amazon figures, one of which, 
striking downwards at the enemy, is here shown (fig. 44). Their 
attitudes are vigorous and alert; but the work shows no delicacy 
of detail. Figures of 
Nereids riding on 
horses, which were 
found on the same site, | 
may very probably be 
roof ornaments (acro- 
teria) of the temple. 
We have also several 
figures of Victory, 
which probably were 
acroteria on some 
smaller temple, per- 
haps that of Artemis. 
A base found at 
Athens, sculptured 
with figures of horse- 
men in relief, bears the 
name of Bryaxis, and 
was probably made by 
a pupil of his. Prob- 
able conjecture assigns 
to Leochares the 
originals copied in the FIG. 44. Amazon from Epidaurus. 
Ganymede of the Vatican, borne aloft by an eagle (Plate I. 
fig- S3) and the noble statue of Alexander the Great at Munich 
(see LEOCHARES). Thus we may fairly say that we are now 
acquainted with the work of all the great sculptors who worked 
on the Mausoleum Scopas, Bryaxis, Leochares and Timotheus; 
and are in a far more advantageous position than were the 
archaeologists of 1880 for determining the artistic problems 
connected with that noblest of ancient tombs. 

Contemporary with the Athenian school of Praxiteles and 
Scopas was the great school of Argos and Sicyon, of which 
Lysippus was the most distinguished member. Lysippus con- 
tinued the academic traditions of Polyclitus, but he was far 
bolder in his choice of subjects and more innovating in style. 
Gods, heroes and mortals alike found in him a sculptor who knew 
how to combine fine ideality with a vigorous actuality. He 
was at the height of his fame during Alexander's life, and the 
grandiose ambition of the great Macedonian found him ample 
employment, especially in the frequent representation of himself 
and his marshals. 

We have none of the actual works of Lysippus; but our best 
evidence for his style will be found in the statue of Agias an 
athlete (Plate V. fig. 74) found at Delphi, and shown by an 
inscription to be a marble copy of a bronze original by Lysippus. 
The Apoxyomenus of the Vatican (man scraping himself with a 
strigil) (Plate VI. fig. 79) has hitherto been regarded as a copy 
from Lysippus; but of this there is no evidence, and the style 
of that statue belongs rather to the 3rd century than the 4th. 




40O-300 B.C.] 



GREEK ART 



489 



The Agias, on the other hand, is in style contemporary with the 
works of 4th-century sculptors. 

Of the elaborate groups of combatants with which Lysippus 
enriched such centres as Olympia and Delphi, or of the huge bronze 
statues which he erected in temples and shrines, we can form no 
adequate notion. Perhaps among the extant heads of Alexander 
the one which is most likely to preserve the style of Lysippus 
is the head from Alexandria in the British Museum (Plate II. 
fig- 56), though this was executed at a later time. 

Many noted extant statues may be attributed with probability 
to the latter part of the 4th or the earlier part of the 3rd century. 
We will mention a few only. The celebrated group at Florence 
representing Niobe and her children falling before the arrows of 
Apollo and Artemis is certainly a work of the pathetic school, 
and may be by a pupil of Praxiteles. Niobe, in an agony of 
grief, which is in the marble tempered and idealized, tries to 
protect her youngest daughter from destruction (Plate VI. fig. 78). 
Whether the group can have originally been fitted into the gable 
of a temple is a matter of dispute. 

Two great works preserved in the Louvre are so noted that it is 
but necessary to mention them, the Aphrodite of Melos (Plate 
VI. fig. 77), in which archaeologists are now disposed to see the 
influence of Scopas, and the Victory of Samothrace (Plate III. figs. 
61 and 62), an original set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes after a 
naval victory won at Salamis in Cyprus in 306 B.C. over the 
fleet of Ptolemy, king of Egypt. 

Nor can we pass over without notice two works so celebrated 
as the Apollo of the Belvidere in the Vatican (Plate II. fig. 55), 
and the Artemis of Versailles. The Apollo is now by most 
archaeologists regarded as probably a copy of a work of Leochares, 
to whose Ganymede it bears a superficial resemblance. The 
Artemis is regarded as possibly due to some artist of the same 
age. But it is by no means clear that we have the right to 
remove either of these figures from among the statues of the 
Hellenistic age. The old theory of Preller, which saw in them 
copies from a trophy set up to commemorate the repulse of the 
Gauls at Delphi in 278 B.C., has not lost its plausibility. 

This may be the most appropriate place for mentioning the 
remarkable find made at Sidon in 1886 of a number of sarcophagi, 
which once doubtless contained the remains of kings 
of Sidon. They are now in the museum of Constanti- 
nople, and are admirably published by Hamdy Bey 
and T. Reinach (Une Necropole royale d Sidon, 1892- 
The sarcophagi in date cover a considerable period. 
The earlier are made on Egyptian models, the covers shaped 
roughly in the form of a human body or mummy. The later, 
however, are Greek in iorm, and are clearly the work of skilled 

Greek sculptors, who seem 
to have been employed by 
the grandees of Phoenicia 
in the adornment of their 
last resting-places. Four 
of these sarcophagi in par- 
ticular claim attention, 
and in fact present us 
with examples of Greek 
art of the sth and 4th 
centuries in several of its 
aspects. To the sth 
century belong the tomb 
of the Satrap, the reliefs of 
which bring before us the 
activities and glories of 
some unknown king, and 
the Lycian sarcophagus, 
so called from its form, 
which resembles that of 
tombs found in Lycia, and which is also adorned with reliefs 
which have reference to the past deeds of the hero buried in the 
tomb, though these deeds are represented, not in the Oriental 
manner directly, but in the Greek manner, clad in mythological 
forms. To the 4th century belong two other sarcophagi. One 



San-o- 
pting! of 
Sidon. 

1896). 




Hamdy et Reinach, Nicropole A Sidon, PI. 7. 
FIG. 45. Tomb of Mourning Women : 
Sidon. 



of these is called the Tomb of Mourning Women. On all sides 
of it alike are ranged a series of beautiful female figures, separated 
by Ionic pillars, each in a somewhat different attitude, though all 
attitudes denoting grief (fig. 45). The pediments at the ends of the 
cover are also closely connected with the mourning for the loss of 
a friend and protector, which is the theme of the whole decoration 
of the sarcophagus. We see depicted in them the telling of the 
news of the death, with the results in the mournful attitude of the 
two seated figures. The mourning women must be taken, not 
as the representation of any persons in particular, but generally 
as the expression of the feeling of a city. Such figures are familiar 
to us in the art of the second Attic school; we could easily find 
parallels to the sarcophagus among the 4th-century sepulchral 
reliefs of Athens. We can scarcely be mistaken in attributing 
the workmanship of this beautiful sarcophagus to some sculptor 
trained in the school of Praxiteles. And it is a conjecture full of 
probability that it once contained the body of Strato, king of 
Sidon, who ruled about 380 B.C., and who was proxenos or public 
friend of the Athenians. 

More celebrated is the astonishing tomb called that of 
Alexander, though there can be no doubt that, although it 
commemorates the victories and exploits of Alexander, it was 
made not to hold his remains, but those of some ruler of Sidon 
who was high in his favour. Among all the monuments of anti- 
quity which have come down to us, none is more admirable than 
this, and none more characteristic of the Greek genius. We give, 
in two lines, the composition which adorned one of the sides of 
this sarcophagus. It represents a victory of Alexander, probably 
that of the Granicus (fig. 46). On the left we see the Macedonian 
king charging the Persian horse, on the right his general 
Parmenio, and in the midst a younger officer, perhaps Cleitus. 
Mingled with the chiefs are foot-soldiers, Greek and Macedonian, 
with whom the Persians are mingled in unequal fray. What 
most strikes the modern eye is the remarkable freshness and 
force of the action and the attitudes. Those, however, who 
have seen the originals have been specially impressed with the 
colouring, whereof, of course, our engraving gives no hint, but 
which is applied to the whole surface of the relief with equal 
skill and delicacy. There are other features in the relief on 
which a Greek eye would have dwelt with special pleasure the 
exceedingly careful symmetry of the whole, the balancing of 
figure against figure, the skill with which the result of the battle 
is hinted rather than depicted. The composition is one in which 
the most careful planning and the most precise calculation are 
mingled with freedom of hand and expressiveness in detail. 
The faces in particular show more expression than would be 
tolerated in art of the previous century. We are unable as yet 
to assign an author or even a school to the sculptor of this 
sarcophagus; he comes to us as a new and striking phenomenon 
in the history of ancient art. The reliefs which adorn the other 
sides of the sarcophagus are almost equally interesting. On 
one side we see Alexander again, in the company of a Persian 
noble, hunting a lion. The short sides also show us scenes of 
fighting and hunting. In fact it can scarcely be doubted that 
if we had but a clue to the interpretation of the reliefs, they 
would be found to embody historic events of the end of the 4th 
century. There are but a few other works of art, such as the 
Bayeux tapestry and the Column of Trajan, which bring con- 
temporary history so vividly before our eyes. The battles with 
the Persians represented in some of the sculpture of the Parthenon 
and the temple of Nike at Athens are treated conventionally 
and with no attempt at realism; but here the ideal and the actual 
are blended into a work of consummate art, which is at the same 
time, to those who can read the language of Greek art, a historic 
record. The portraits of Alexander the Great which appear on 
this sarcophagus are almost contemporary, and the most 
authentic likenesses of him which we possess. The great Mace- 
donian exercised so strong an influence on contemporary art 
that a multitude of heads of the age, both of gods and men, and 
even the portraits of his successors, show traces of his type. 

We have yet to mention what are among the most charming 
and the most characteristic products of the Greek chisel, the 



490 



GREEK ART 



[300-50 B.C. 



beautiful tombs, adorned with seated or standing portraits or 
with reliefs, which were erected in great numbers on all the main 
roads of Greece. A great number of these from the Dipylon 
cemetery are preserved in the Central Museum at Athens, and 




Hamdy et Reinacb. Nicropole A Sidon, PI. 30. 

FIG. 46. Battle of The Granicus : Sarcophagus from Sidon. 



impress all visitors by the gentle sentiment and the charm of 
grouping which they display ( Gardner, Sculptured Tombs of 
Hellas). 

Period IV. 300-50 B.C. There can be no question but that 
the period which followed the death of Alexander, commonly 
called the age of Hellenism, was one of great activity and expan- 
sion in architecture. The number of cities founded by himself 
and his immediate successors in Asia and Egypt was enormous. 
The remains of these cities have in a few cases (Ephesus, 
Pergamum, Assus, Priene, Alexandria) been partially excavated. 
But the adaptation of Greek architecture to the needs of the 
semi-Greek peoples included in the dominions of the kings of 
Egypt, Syria and Pergamum is too vast a subject for us to enter 
upon here (see ARCHITECTURE). 

Painting during this age ceased to be religious. It was no 
longer for temples and public stoae that artists worked, but for 
private persons; especially they made frescoes for the decoration 
of the walls of houses, and panel pictures for galleries set up by 
rich patrons. The names of very few painters of the Hellenistic 
age have come down to us. There can be no doubt that the 
character of the art declined, and there were no longer produced 
great works to be the pride of cities, or to form an embodiment 
for all future time of the qualities of a deity or the circumstances 
of scenes mythical or historic. But at the same time the mural 
paintings of Pompeii and other works of the Roman age, which 
are usually more or less nearly derived from Hellenistic models, 
prove that in technical matters painting continued to progress. 
Colouring became more varied, groups more elaborate, per- 
spective was worked out with greater accuracy, and imagination 
shook itself free from many of the conventions of early art. 
Pompeian painting, however, must be treated of under Roman, 
not under Greek art. We figure a single example, to show the 
elaboration of painting at Alexandria and elsewhere, the wonder- 



ful Pompeian mosaic (fig. 47), which represents the victory of 
Alexander at Issus. This work being in stone has preserved it 
colouring; and it stands at a far higher level of art than ordinary 
Pompeian paintings, which are the work of mere house-decorators. 

This on the contrary is 
certainly copied from 
the work of a great 
master. It is instructive 
to compare it with the 
sarcophagus illustrated 
in Fig.46, whichit excels 
in perspective and in 
the freedom of indi- 
vidual figures, though 
thecompositionismuch 
less careful and precise. 
Alexanderchargesfrom 
the left (his portrait 
being the least success- 
ful part of the picture), 
and bears downayoung 
Persian; Darius in his 
chariot flees towards the 
right ; in the foreground 
a young knight is trying 
to manage a restive 
horse. It will be ob- 
served how very simple 
is the Indication of 
locality: a few stones 
and a broken tree stand 
for rocks and woods. 

Among the original 
sculptural creations of 
the early Hellenistic 
age, a prominent place 
is claimed by the statue 
of Fortune, typifying 
the city of Antioch 



(Plate VI. fig. 81), a work of Eutychides, a pupil of Lysippus. Of 
this we possess a small copy, which is sufficient to show how 
worthy of admiration was the original. We have a beautiful 
embodiment of the personality of the city, seated on a rock, 
holding ears of corn, while the river Orontes, embodied in a 
young male figure, springs forth at her feet. 

This is, so far as we know, almost the only work of the early 
part of the 3rd century which shows imagination. Sculptors 
often worked on a colossal scale, producing such monsters as 
the colossal Apollo at Rhodes, the work of Chares of Lindus, 
which was more than 100 ft. in height. But they did not show 
freshness or invention; and for the most part content themselves 




From a photograph by G. Brogi. 

FIG. 47. Mosaic of the Battle of Issus (Naples). 

with varying the types produced in the great schools of the 4th 
century. The wealthy kings of Syria, Egypt and Asia Minor 
formed art galleries, and were lavish in their payments; but 
it has often been proved in the history of art that originality 
cannot be produced by mere expenditure. 



-SO B.C.] 



GREEK ART 



491 




A great artist, whose date has been disputed, but who is 
ow assigned to the Hellenistic age, Damophon of Messene, 
known to us from his actual works. He set up in the shrine 
if the Mistress (Despoena) at Lycosura in Arcadia a great 
oup of figures consisting of Despoena, Demeter, Artemis 
d the Titan Anytus. Three colossal heads found on the spot 
robably belong to the three last-mentioned deities. We 
ustrate the head of Anytus, with wild disordered hair and 
rbulent expression (fig. 48). Dr Dorpfeld has argued, on 

architectural grounds, that 
shrine and images alike 
must be given to a later 
time than the 4th century; 
and this judgment is now 
confirmed by inscriptional 
and other evidence. 

In one important direc- 
tion sculpture certainly 
made progress. Hitherto 
Greek sculptors had con- 
tented themselves with 

-'fjw. ft T*SLi studying the human body 

JwBallM -flreWrJfyM whether in rest or motion, 
gKgpala. J^Jfym from outside. The dissec- 
tPNy* '.affiiSytf'SUB' tion of the human body, 

6 "EM ^iBlurHS with a consequent increase 

K, - in knowledge of anatomy, 

^1 ~ ""^^llllllT became usual at Alexandria 

fci^^^ :' in the medical school which 

;!^fc^^2 ^^^^B " flourished under the Ptole- 

^jjfc*'' j^&tataMdffi mies. This improved ana- 

i^BBH^H^H^^I^H^B tomical knowledge soon 

FIG. 4 8.-Head of Anytus: Lycosura. rea F ted U P" ** "* of 

sculpture. Works such as 

the Fighter of Agasias in the Louvre (Plate IV. fig. 69), and in a 
less degree the Apoxyomenus (Plate VI. fig. 79), display a 
remarkable internal knowledge of the human frame, such as 
could only come from the habit of dissection. Whether this 
was really productive of improvement in sculpture may be 
doubted. But it is impossible to withhold one's admiration 
from works which show an astonishing knowledge of the body 
of man down to its bony framework, and a power and mastery 
of execution which have never since been surpassed. 

With accuracy in the portrayal of men's bodies goes of necessity 
a more naturalistic tendency in portraiture. As we have seen, 
the art of portraiture was at a high ideal level in the Pheidian 
age; and even in the age of Alexander the Great, notable men 
were rendered rather according to the idea than the fact. To a 
base and mechanical naturalism Greek art never at any time 
descended. But from 300 B.C. onwards we have a marvellous 
series of portraits which may be termed rather characteristic 
than ideal, which are very minute in their execution, and delight 
in laying emphasis on the havoc wrought by time and life on 
the faces of noteworthy men. Such are the portraits of Demos- 
thenes, of Antisthenes, of Zeno and others, which exist in our 
galleries. And it was no long step from these actual portraits 
to the invention of characteristic types to represent the great 
men of a past generation, such as Homer and Lycurgus, or to 
form generic images to represent weatherbeaten fishermen or 
toothless old women. 

Our knowledge of the art of the later Hellenistic age has 
received a great accession since 1875 through the systematic 

labours directed by the German Archaeological Insti- 
Pe'" 0/ tute> wn ' c h have resulted in recovering the remains 
gamum. f Pergamum, the fortress-city which was the capital 

of the dynasty of the Philetaeri. Among the ancient 
buildings of Pergamum none was more ambitious in scale and 
striking in execution than the great altar used for sacrifices to 
Zeus, a monument supposed to be referred to in the phrase of 
the Apocalypse " where Satan's throne is." This altar, like many 
great sacrificial altars of later Greece, was a vast erection to 
which one mounted by many steps, and its outside was adorned 



with a frieze which represented on a gigantic scale, in the style 
of the 2nd century B.C., the battle between the gods and the 
giants. This enormous frieze (see PERGAMUM) is now one of the 
treasures of the Royal Museums of Berlin, and it cannot fail to 
impress visitors by the size of the figures, the energy of the action, 
and the strong vein of sentiment which pervades the whole, 
giving it a certain air of modernity, though the subject is strange 
to the Christian world. In early Greek art the giants where 
they oppose the gods are represented as men armed in full 
panoply, " in shining armour, holding long spears in their 
hands," to use the phrase in which Hesiod describes them. 
But in the Pergamene frieze the giants are strange compounds, 
having the heads and bodies of wild and fierce barbarians, 
sometimes also human legs, but sometimes in the place of legs 
two long serpents, the heads of which take with the giants them- 
selves a share in the battle. Sometimes also they are winged. 
The gods appear in the forms which had been gradually made 
for them in the course of Greek history, but they are usually 
accompanied by the animals sacred to them in cultus, between 
which and the serpent-feet of the giants a weird combat goes on. 
We can cbnjecture the source whence the Pergamene artist 
derived the shaggy hair, the fierce expression, the huge muscles 
of his giants (fig. 49); probably these features came originally 
from the Galatians, who at the time had settled in Asia Minor, 
and were spreading the terror of their name and the report of 
their savage devastations through all Asia Minor. The victory 
over the giants clearly stands for the victory of Greek civilization 
over Gallic barbarism ; and this meaning is made more emphatic 
because the gods are obviously inferior in physical force to their 
opponents, indeed, a large proportion of the divine combatants 
are goddesses. Yet everywhere the giants are overthrown, 
writhing in pain on the ground, or transfixed by the weapons of 
their opponents; everywhere the gods are victorious, yet in the 
victory retain much of their divine calm. The piecing together 
of the frieze at Berlin has been a labour of many years; it is 
now complete, and there is 
a special museum devoted to 
it. Some of the groups have 
become familiar to students 
from photographs, especially 
the group which represents 
Zeus slaying his enemies with 
thunderbolts, and the group 
wherein Athena seizes by the 
hair an overthrown opponent, 
who is winged, while Victory 
runs to crown her, and be- 
neath is seen Gaia, the earth- 
goddess who is the mother of 
the giants, rising out of the 
ground, and mourning over 
her vanquished and tortured 
children. Another and smaller 
frieze which also decorated 
the altar-place gives us scenes 
from the history of Telephus, 
who opposed the landing of 
the army of Agamemnon in 
Asia Minor and was over- FIG. 49- Giant from Great Altar: 
thrown by Achilles. This 

frieze, which is quite fragmentary, is put together by Dr Schneider 
in the Jahrbuch of the German Archaeological Institute for 1900. 
Since the Renaissance Rome has continually produced a crop 
of works of Greek art of all periods, partly originals brought 
from Greece by conquering generals, partly copies, such as the 
group at Rome formerly known as Paetus and Arria, and the 
overthrown giants and barbarians which came from the elaborate 
trophy set up by Attalus at Athens, of which copies exist in 
many museums. A noted work of kindred school is the group 
of Laocoon and his sons (Plate I. fig. 52), signed by Rhodian 
sculptors of the ist century B.C., which has been perhaps more 
discussed than any work of the Greek chisel, and served as a peg 




492 



GREEK FIRE 



Home. 



for the aesthetic theories of Lessing and Goethe. In our days 
the histrionic and strained character of the group is regarded as 
greatly diminishing its interest, in spite of the astounding skill 
and knowledge of the human body shown by the artists. To 
the same school belong the late representations of Marsyas 
being flayed by the victorious Apollo (Plate II. fig. 54), a some- 
what repulsive subject, chosen by the artists of this age as a 
means for displaying their accurate knowledge of anatomy. 

On what a scale some of the artists of Asia Minor would work 
is shown us by the enormous group, by Apollonius and Tauriscus 
of Tralles, which is called the Farnese Bull (Plate I. fig. 51), and 
which represents how Dirce was tied to a wild bull by her step- 
sons Zethus and Amphion. 

The extensive excavations and alterations which have taken 
place at Rome in recent years have been very fruitful; the 
results may be found partly in the palace of the 
Conservator! on the Capitol, partly in the new museum 
of the Terme. Among recently found statues none excel in 
interest some bronzes of large size dating from the Hellenistic age. 
In the figure of a seated boxer (Plate V. fig. 72), in scale somewhat 
exceeding life, attitude and gesture are expressive. Evidently 
the boxer has fought already, and is awaiting a further conflict. 
His face is cut and swollen; on his hands are the terrible caestus, 
here made of leather, and not loaded with iron, like the caestus 
described by Virgil. The figure is of astounding force; but 
though the face is brutal and the expression savage, in the sweep 
of the limbs there is nobility, even ideal beauty. To the last the 
Greek artist could not set aside his admiration for physical 
perfection. Another bronze figure of more than life-size is that 
of a king of the Hellenistic age standing leaning on a spear. He 
is absolutely nude, like the athletes of Polyclitus. Another 
large bronze presents us with a Hellenistic type of Dionysus. 

Besides the bronzes found in Rome we may set those recently 
found in the sea on the coast of Cythera, the contents of a ship 
sailing from Greece to Rome, and lost on the way. The date of 
these bronze statues has been disputed. In any case, even if 
executed in the Roman age, they go back to originals of the 5th 
and 4th centuries. The most noteworthy among them is a 
beautiful athlete (Plate V. fig. 73) standing with hand upraised, 
which reflects the style of the Attic school of the 4th century. 

After 146 B.C. when Corinth was destroyed and Greece became 
a Roman province, Greek art, though by no means extinct, 
worked mainly in the employ of the Roman conquerors (see 
ROMAN ART). 

IV. SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY.' I. General works on Greek Art. 
The only recent general histories of Greek art are: H. Brunn, 
Griechische Kunstgeschichte, bks. i. and ii., dealing with archaic art; 
W. Klein, Geschichte der griechischen Kunst, no illustrations; Perrot 
et Chipiez, Histoire de I'art dans I'antiquile, vols. vii. and viii. 
(archaic art only). 

Introductory are: P. Gardner, Grammar of Greek Art; J. E. 
Harrison, Introductory Studies in Greek Art; H. B. Walters, Art of 
the Greeks. 

Useful are also: H. Brunn, Geschichte der griechischen Kiinstler, 
(new edition, 1889); J. Overbeck, Die antiken Schriftquellen zw 
Geschichte der bildenden Kunste bet den Griechen; untranslated 
passages in Latin and Greek; the Elder Pliny's Chapters on the 
History of Art, edited by K. lex-Blake and E. Sellers; H. S. Jones, 
Ancient Writers on Greek Sculpture. 

II. Periodicals dealing with Greek Archaeology. England: 
Journal of Hellenic Studies; Annual of the British School at Athens; 
Classical Review. France: Revue archeologique ; Gazette arche- 
ologique; Bulletin de ' correspondence hellenic/ue. Germany: Jahr- 
buch des K. deutschen arch. Instituts; Mitteilungen des arch. Inst., 
Athenische Abteilung, Romische Abteilung; Antike Denkmaler. 
Austria: Jahreshefte des K. Osterreich. arch. Instituts. Italy: 
Publications of the Accademia dei Lincei; Monumenli antichi; Not. 
dei scavi; Bulletino comunale di Roma. Greece: Ephemeris 
archaiologike; Deltion archaiologikon; Praktika of the Athenian 
Archaeological Society. 

III. Greek Architecture. -^-General : Perrot et Chipiez, Histoire de 
I'art dans I'antiquite, vol. vii. ; A. Choisy, Histoire de I' architecture, 
vol. i.; Anderson and Spiers, Architecture of Greece and Rome; E. 
Boutmy, Philosophie de I' architecture en Grece; R. Sturgis, History of 
Architecture, vol. i.; A. Marquand, Greek Architecture. 

IV. Greek Sculpture. General: M. Collignon, Histoire de la 
sculpture grecque (2 vols.); E. A. Gardner, Handbook of Greek Sculp- 



1 The date. is given when the work cannot be considered new. 



lure ; A. Furtwangler, Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture, translated and 
edited by E. Sellers; Friederichs and Wolters, Bausteine zur 
Geschichte der griechisch-romischen Plastik (1887) ; von Mach, Hand- 
book of Greek and Roman Sculpture, 500 plates; H. Bulle, Der schone 
Mensch in der Kunst: Altertum, 216 plates; S. Reinach, Repertoire 
de la statuaire grecque et romaine, 3 vols. 

V. Greek Painting and Vases. Woltmannand Woermann, History 
of Painting, vol. i., translated and edited by S. Colvin (1880) ; H. B. 
Walters, History of Ancient Pottery (2 vols.); Harrison and MacCoIl, 
Greek Vase-paintings (1894); O. Rayet et M. Collignon, Histoire de 
la ceramique grecque (1888); P. Girard, La Peinture antique (1892); 
S. Reinach, Repertoire des vases peints grecs et etrusques (2 vols.); 
Furtwangler und Reichhold, "Griechische Vasenmalerei," Wiener 
Vorlegeblatter fur archdologische Ubungen (1887-1890). 

VI. Special Schools and Sites. A. Joubin, La Sculpture grecque 
entre les euerres mediques et I'epoque de Pericles ; C. Waldstein, Essays 
on the Art of Pheidias (1885); W. Klein, Praxiteles; G. Perrot, 
Praxitele; A. S. Murray, Sculptures of the Parthenon; W. Klein, 
Euphronios; E. Pottier, Douris; P. Gardner, Sculptured Tombs of 
Hellas; E. A. Gardner, Ancient Athens; A. Botticher, Olympia^ 
Bernoulli, Griechische Ikonographie ; P. Gardner, The Types of GreeK 
Coins (1883); E. A. Gardner, Six Greek Sculptors. 

VII. Books related to the subject. J. G. Frazer, Pausanias's 
Description of Greece (6 vols.); J. Lange, Darstellung des Menschen in 
der dlteren griechischen Kunst; E. Briicke, The Human Figure; its 
Beauties and Defects; A. Michaelis, Ancient Marbles in Great Britain 
(1882) ; Catalogue of Greek Sculpture in the British Museum (3 vols.) ; 
Catalogue of Greek Vases in the British Museum (4 vols.) ; J. B. Bury, 
History of Greece (illustrated edition) ; Baumeister, Denkmaler des 
klassischen Altertums (3 vols.). (P. G.) 

GREEK FIRE, the name applied to inflammable and 
destructive compositions used in warfare during the middle 
ages and particularly by the Byzantine Greeks at the sieges of 
Constantinople. The employment of liquid fire is represented 
on Assyrian bas-reliefs. At the siege of Plataea (429 B.C.) the 
Spartans attempted to burn the town by piling up against the 
walls wood saturated with pitch and sulphur and setting it on 
fire (Thuc. ii. 77), and at the siege of Delium (424 B.C.) a cauldron 
containing pitch, sulphur and burning charcoal, was placed 
against the walls and urged into flame by the aid of a bellows, 
the blast from which was conveyed through a hollow tree-trunk 
(Thuc. iv. 100). Aeneas Tacticus in the following century 
mentions a mixture of sulphur, pitch, charcoal, incense and tow, 
which was packed in wooden vessels and thrown lighted upon 
the decks of the enemy's ships. Later, as in receipts given by 
Vegetius (c. A.D. 350), naphtha or petroleum is added, and some 
nine centuries afterwards the same substances are found forming 
part of mixtures described in the later receipts (which probably 
date from the beginning of the I3th century) of the collection 
known as the Liber ignium of Marcus Graecus. In subsequent 
receipts saltpetre and turpentine make their appearance, and 
the modern " carcass composition," containing sulphur, tallow, 
rosin, turpentine, saltpetre and crude antimony, is a repre- 
sentative of the same class of mixtures, which became known 
to the Crusaders as Greek fire but were more usually called 
wildfire. Greek fire, properly so-called, was, however, of a some- 
what different character. It is said that in the reign of Con- 
stantine Pogonatus (648-685) an architect named Callinicus, 
who had fled from Heliopolis in Syria to Constantinople, prepared 
a wet fire which was thrown out from siphons (TO 5id TUV o-i<t>&vii)v 
(K<j>eponevov irvp vypov), and that by its aid the ships of the 
Saracens were set on fire at Cyzicus and their defeat assured. 
The art of compounding this mixture, which is also referred to 
as irvp dakao-ffiov, or sea fire, was jealously guarded at Con- 
stantinople, and the possession of the secret on several occasions 
proved of great advantage to the city. The nature of the 
compound is somewhat obscure. It has been supposed that the 
novelty introduced by Callinicus was saltpetre, but this view 
involves the difficulty that that substance was apparently not 
known till the I3th century, even if it were capable of accounting 
for the properties attributed to the wet fire. Lieut. -Colonel 
H. W. L. Hime, after a close examination of the available 
evidence, concludes that what distinguished Greek fire from the 
other incendiaries of the period was the presence of quicklime, 
which was well known to give rise to a large development of 
heat when brought into contact with water. The mixture, then, 
was composed of such materials as sulphur and naphtha with 



GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF 



493 



quicklime, and took fire spontaneously when wetted whence 
the name of wet fire or sea fire; and portions of it were " pro- 
jected and at the same time ignited by applying the hose of a 
water engine to the breech " of the siphon, which was a wooden 
tube, cased with bronze. 

See Lieut. -Col. H. W. L. Hime, Gunpowder and Ammunition, their 
Origin and Progress (London, 1904). 

GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF, the name given to the 
great rising of the Greek subjects of the sultan against the 
Ottoman domination, which began in 1821 and ended in 1833 
with the establishment of the independent kingdom of Greece. 
The circumstances that led to the insurrection and the general 
diplomatic situation by which its fortunes were from time to time 
affected are described elsewhere (see GREECE: History; TURKEY: 
History). The present article is confined to a description of the 
general character and main events of the war itself. If we 
exclude the abortive invasion of the Danubian principalities 
by Prince Alexander Ypsilanti (March 1821), which collapsed 
ignominiously as soon as it was disavowed by the tsar, the 
theatre of the war was confined to continental Greece, the Morea, 
and the adjacent narrow seas. Its history may, broadly speaking, 
be divided into three periods: the first (1821-1824), during 
which the Greeks, aided by numerous volunteers from Europe, 
were successfully pitted against the sultan's forces alone; the 
second, from 1824, when the disciplined troops of Mehemet Ali, 
pasha of Egypt, turned the tide against the insurgents; the 
third, from the intervention of the European powers in the 
autumn of 1827 to the end. 

When, on the 2nd of April 1821, Archbishop Germanos, head 
of the Hetaeria in the Morea, raised the standard of the cross at 
Kalavryta as the signal for a general rising of the Christian 
population, the circumstances were highly favourable. In the 
Morea itself, in spite of plentiful warning, the Turks were wholly 
unprepared; while the bulk of the Ottoman army, under the 
seraskier Khurshid Pasha, was engaged in the long task of 
reducing the intrepid Ali, pasha of lannina (see ALI, pasha of 
lannina). 

Another factor, and that the determining one, soon came to the 
aid of the Greeks. In warfare carried on in such a country as 
Greece, sea-girt and with a coast deeply indented, inland without 
roads and intersected with rugged mountains, victory as 
Wellington was quick to observe must rest with the side that 
has command of the sea. This was assured to the insurgents at 
the outset by the revolt of the maritime communities of the 
Greek archipelago. The Greeks of the islands had been accus- 
tomed from time immemorial to seafaring; their ships some 
as large as frigates were well armed, to guard against the 
Barbary pirates and rovers of their own kin; lastly, they had 
furnished the bulk of the sailors to the Ottoman navy which, 
now that this recruiting ground was closed, had to be manned 
hastily with impressed crews of dock-labourers and peasants, 
many of whom had never seen the sea. The Turkish fleet, 
" adrift in the Archipelago " as the British seamen put it 
though greatly superior in tonnage and weight of metal, could 
never be a match for the Greek brigs, manned as these were by 
trained, if not disciplined, crews. 

The war was begun by the Greeks without definite plan and 
without any generally recognized leadership. The force with 
Outbreak wn ' cn Germanos marched from Kalavryta against 
of the Patras was composed of peasants armed with scythes, 
insumc- clubs and slings, among whom the " primates " exer- 
tion. cised a somewhat honorary authority. The town 

itself was destroyed and those of its Mussulman inhabitants 
who could not escape into the citadel were massacred; but the 
citadel remained in the hands of the Turks till 1828. Mean- 
while, in the south, leaders of another stamp had appeared: 
Petros, bey of the Maina (q.v.) chief of the Mavromichales, who 
at the head of his clan attacked Kalamata and put the Mussul- 
man inhabitants to the sword; and Kolokotrones, a notable 
brigand once in the service of the Ionian government, who 
fortified by a vision of the Virgin captured Karytaena and 
slaughtered its infidel population. Encouraged by these 



successes the revolt spread rapidly; within three weeks there 
was not a Mussulman left in the open country, and the remnants 
of the once dominant class were closely besieged in the fortified 
towns by hosts of wild peasants and brigands. The flames of 
revolt now spread across the Isthmus of Corinth: early in April 
the Christians of Dervenokhoria rose, and the whole of Boeotia 
and Attica quickly followed suit; at the beginning of May the 
Mussulman inhabitants of Athens were blockaded in the Acro- 
polis. In the Morea, meanwhile, a few Mussulman fortresses still 
held out : Coron, Modon, Navarino, Patras, Nauplia, Monem vasia, 
Tripolitsa. One by one they fell, and everywhere were repeated 
the same scenes of butchery. The horrors culminated in the 
capture of Tripolitsa, the capital of the vilayet. In Sept- 
ember this was taken by storm; Kolokotrones rode in triumph 
to the citadel over streets carpeted with the dead; and the 
crowning triumph of the Cross was celebrated by a cold-blooded 
massacre of 2000 prisoners of all ages and both sexes. This 
completed the success of the insurrection in the Morea, where 
only Patras, Nauplia, and one or two lesser fortresses remained to 
the Turks. 

Meanwhile, north of the Isthmus, the fortunes of war had been 
less one-sided. In the west Khurshid's lieutenant, Omar 
Vrioni (a Mussulman Greek of the race of the Palaeologi), had 
inflicted a series of defeats on the insurgents, recaptured Levadia, 
and on the 3oth of June relieved the Acropolis; but the rout 
of the troops which Mahommed Pasha was bringing to his aid 
by the Greeks in the defile of Mount Oeta, and the news of the fall 
of Tripolitsa, forced him to retreat, and the campaign of 1821 
ended with the retirement of the Turks into Thessaly. 

The month of April had witnessed the revolt of the principal 
Greek islands, Spetsae on the 7th, Psara on the 23rd, Hydra 
on the 28th and Samos on the 3oth. Their fleets were divided 
into squadrons, of which one, under Tombazes, was deputed 
to watch for the entrance of the Ottomans into the archipelago, 
while the other under Andreas Miaoulis (q.v.) sailed to blockade 
Patras and watch the coasts of Epirus. At sea, as on land, the 
Greeks opened the campaign with hideous atrocities, almost 
their first exploit being the capture of a vessel carrying to Mecca 
the sheik-ul-Islam and his family, whom they murdered with 
every aggravation of outrage. 

These inauspicious beginnings, indeed, set the whole tone of 
the war, which was frankly one of mutual extermination. On 
both sides the combatants were barbarians, without 
discipline or competent organization. At sea the ^""^ r 
Greeks rapidly developed into mere pirates, and even / tne war . 
Miaoulis, for all his high character and courage, was 
often unable to prevent his captains from sailing home at critical 
moments, when pay or booty failed. On land the presence of 
a few educated Phanariots, such as Demetrios Ypsilanti or 
Alexander Mavrocordato, was powerless to inspire the rude 
hordes with any sense of order or of humanity in warfare; while 
every lull in the fighting, due to a temporary check to the Turks, 
was the signal for internecine conflicts due to the rivalry of 
leaders who, with rare exceptions, thought more of their personal 
power and profit than of the cause of Greece. 

This cause, indeed, was helped more by the impolitic re- 
prisals of the Turks than by the heroism of the insurgents. All 
Europe stood aghast at the news of the execution of . 
the Patriarch Gregorios of Constantinople (April 22, reprisal*. 
1821) and the wholesale massacres that followed, 
culminating as these did in the extermination of the 
prosperous community of Scio (Chios) in March 1822. The 
cause of Greece was now that of Christendom, of the Catholic 
and Protestant West, as of the Orthodox East. European 
Liberalism, too, gagged and fettered under Metternich's 
" system," recognized in the Greeks the champions 
of its own cause; while even conservative states- 
men, schooled in the memories of ancient Hellas, 
saw in the struggle a fight of civilization against 
barbarism. This latter belief, which was, moreover, flattering 
to their vanity, the Greek leaders were astute enough to foster; 
the propaganda of Adamantios Coraes (q.v.) had done its 



and the 
rising 
Phithel- 
lealsm. 



494 



GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF 






work; and wily brigands, like Odysseus of Ithaka, assuming 
the style and trappings of antiquity, posed as the champions 
of classic culture against the barbarian. All Europe, then, 
hailed with joy the exploit of Constantine Kanaris, who on the 
night of June 18-19 succeeded in steering a fire-ship among the 
Turkish squadron off Scio, and burned the flag-ship of the 
capudan-pasha with 3000 souls on board. 

Meanwhile Sultan Mahmud, now wide awake to the danger, 
had been preparing for a systematic effort to suppress the 
rising. The threatened breach with Russia had been avoided 
by Metternich's influence on the tsar Alexander; the death of 
Ali of lannina had set free the army of Khurshid Pasha, who now, 
as seraskier of Rumelia, was charged with the task of reducing 
the Morea. In the spring of 1822 two Turkish armies advanced 
southwards: one, under Omar Vrioni, along the coast of Western 
Hellas, the other, under Ali, pasha of Drama (Dramali), through 
Boeotia and Attica. Omar was held in check by the mud 
Bxpedi- ramparts of Missolonghi; but Dramali, after exacting 
tioaof fearful vengeance for the massacre of the Turkish 

garrison of the Acropolis at Athens, crossed the 

Isthmus and with the over-confidence of a conquering 
barbarian advanced to the relief of the hard-pressed garrison 
of Nauplia. He crossed the perilous defile of Dervenaki un- 
opposed; and at the news of his approach most of the members 
of the Greek government assembled at Argos fled in panic terror. 
Demetrios Ypsilanti, however, with a few hundred men joined 
the Mainote Karayanni in the castle of Larissa, which crowns 
the acropolis of ancient Argos. This held Dramali in check, 
and gave Kolokotrones time to collect an army. The Turks, 
in the absence of the fleet which was to have brought them 
supplies, were forced to retreat (August 6) ; the Greeks, inspired 
with new courage, awaited them in the pass of Dervenaki, where 
the undisciplined Ottoman host, thrown into confusion by an 
avalanche of boulders hurled upon them, was annihilated. In 
Western Greece the campaign had an outcome scarcely less 
disastrous for the Turks. The death of Ali of lannina had been 
followed by the suppression of the insurgent Suliotes and the 
advance of Omar Vrioni southwards to Missolonghi; but the 
town held out gallantly, a Turkish surprise attack, on the 6th of 
January 1823, was beaten off, and Omar Vrioni had to abandon 
the siege and retire northwards over the pass of Makrynoros. 

The victorious outcome of the year's fighting had a disastrous 
effect upon the Greeks. Their victories had been due mainly 

to the guerilla tactics of the leaders of the type of 
C amoagthe Kolokotrones; Mavrocordato, whose character and 
Greeks. antecedents had marked him out as the natural head 

of the new Greek state, in spite of his successful 
defence of Missolonghi, had been discredited by failures else- 
where; and the Greeks thus learned to despise their civilized 
advisers and to underrate the importance of discipline. The 
temporary removal of the common peril, moreover, let loose all 
the sectional and personal jealousies, which even in face of the 
enemy had been with difficulty restrained, and the year 1823 
witnessed the first civil war between the Greek parties. These 
internecine feuds might easily have proved fatal to the cause 
of Greece. In the Archipelago Hydriotes and Spetsiotes were 
at daggers drawn; the men of Psara were at open war with 
those of Samos; all semblance of discipline and cohesion had 
vanished from the Greek fleet. Had Khosrev, the new Ottoman 
admiral, been a man of enterprise, he might have regained the 
command of the sea and, with it, that of the whole situation. 
But the fate of his predecessor had filled him with a lively terror 
of Kanaris and his fire-ships; he contented himself with a 
Cam I a cn " se rouno ^ tne coasts of Greece, and was happy 
ofTsxt?" to return to safety under the guns of the Dardanelles 

without having accomplished anything beyond throw- 
ing supplies and troops into Coron, Modon and Patras. 
On land, meanwhile, the events of the year before practically 
repeated themselves. In the west an army of Mussulman and 
Catholic Albanians, under Mustai Pasha, advanced southwards. 
On the night of the 2ist of August occurred the celebrated 
exploit of Marko Botzaris and his Suliotes: a successful surprise 



attack on the camp of the Ottoman vanguard, in which the 
Suliote leader fell. The jealousy of the Aetolian militia for the 
Suliotes, however, prevented the victory being decisive; and 
Mustai advanced to the siege of Anatoliko, a little town in the 
lagoons near Missolonghi. Here he was detained until, on the 
nth of December, he was forced to raise the siege and retire 
northwards. His colleague, Yussuf Pasha, in East Hellas fared 
no better; here, too, the Turks gained some initial successes, 
but in the end the harassing tactics of Kolokotrones and his 
guerilla bands forced them back into the plain of the Kephissos. 
At the end of the year the Greeks were once more free to renew 
their internecine feuds. 

Just when these feuds were at their height, in the autumn 
of 1823, the most famous of the Philhellenes who sacrificed 
themselves for the cause of Greece, Lord Byron, arrived in 
Greece. 

The year 1824 was destined to be a fateful one for the Greek 
cause. The large loans raised in Europe, the first instalment 
of which Byron had himself brought over, while 
providing the Greeks with the sinews of war, provided Second 
them also with fresh material for strife. To the 1324. 
struggle for power was added a struggle for a share of 
this booty, and a second civil war broke out, Kolokotrones 
leading the attack on the forces of the government. Early in 
1825 the government was victorious; Kolokotrones was in 
prison; and Odysseus, the hero of so many exploits and so 
many crimes, who had ended by turning traitor and selling his 
services to the Turks, had been captured, imprisoned in the 
Acropolis, and finally assassinated by his former lieutenant 
Gouras (July 16, 1824). But a new and more terrible danger 
now threatened Greece. Sultan Mahmud, despairing of sup- 
pressing the insurrection by his own power, had reluctantly 
summoned to his aid Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, whose 
well-equipped fleet and disciplined army were now i a t ervea . 
thrown into the scale against the Greeks. Already, tioaot 
in June 1823, the pasha's son-in-law Hussein Bey 
had landed in Crete, and by April of the following 
year had reduced the insurgent islanders to submission. Crete 
now became the base of operations against the Greeks. On the 
1 9th of June Hussein appeared before Kasos, a nest of pirates 
of evil reputation, which he captured and destroyed. The same 
day the Egyptian fleet, under Ibrahim Pasha, sailed from 
Alexandria. Khosrev, too, emboldened by this new sense of 
support, ventured to sea, surprised and destroyed Psara (July 2), 
and planned an attack on Samos, which was defeated by Miaoulis 
and his fire-ships (August 16, 17). On the ist of September, 
however, Khosrev succeeded in effecting a junction with Ibrahim 
off Budrun, and two indecisive engagements followed with the 
united Greek fleet on the sth and loth. The object of Ibrahim 
was to reach Suda Bay with his transports, which the Greeks 
should at all costs have prevented. A first attempt was defeated 
by Miaoulis on the 1 6th of November, and Ibrahim was compelled 
to retire and anchor off Rhodes; but the Greek admiral was 
unable to keep his fleet together, the season was far advanced, 
his captains were clamouring for arrears of pay, and the Greek 
fleet sailed for Nauplia, leaving the sea unguarded. On the 
Sth of December Ibrahim again set sail, and reached Suda 
without striking a blow. Here he completed his preparations, 
and, on the 24th of February 1825, landed at Modon in the 
Morea with a force of 4000 regular infantry and 500 cavalry. 
The rest followed, without the Greeks making any effort to 
intercept them. 

The conditions of the war were now completely changed. 
The Greeks, who had been squandering the money provided 
by the loans in every sort of senseless extravagance, 
affected to despise the Egyptian invaders, but they 
were soon undeceived. On the 2ist of March Ibrahim 
had laid siege to Navarino, and after some delay a 
Greek force under Skourti, a Hydriote sea-captain, was sent to 
its relief. The Greeks had in all some 7000 men, Suliotes, 
Albanians, armatoli from Rumelia, and some irregular Bulgarian 
and Vlach cavalry. On the I9th of April they were met by 






Morea, 



GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF 



495 



Ibrahim at Krommydi with 2002 regular infantry, 400 cavalry 
and four guns. The Greek entrenchments were stormed at the 
point of the bayonet by Ibrahim's fellahin at the first onset; the 
defenders broke and fled, leaving 600 dead on the field. The 
news of this disaster, and of the fall of Pylos and Navarino that 
followed, struck terror into the Greek government; and in 
answer to popular clamour Kolokotrones was taken from prison 
and placed at the head of the army. But the guerilla tactics 
of the wily klepht were powerless against Ibrahim, who marched 
northward, and, avoiding Nauplia for the present, seized 
Tripolitsa, and made this the base from which his columns 
marched to devastate the country far and wide. 

Meanwhile from the north the Ottomans were making another 
supreme effort. The command of the army that was to operate 
Reshld * n west Hellas had been given to Reshid " Kutahia," 
"Kuta ft/a" pasha of lannina, an able general and a man of deter- 
besteges mined character. On the 6th of April, after bribing 
t ^ le Alb al " an clansmen to neutrality, he passed the 
defile of Makrynoros, which the Greeks had left 
undefended, and on the 7th of May opened the second siege of 
Missolonghi. For twelve months the population held out, re- 
pulsing the attacks of the enemy, refusing every offer of honour- 
able capitulation. This resistance was rendered possible by the 
Greek command of the sea, Miaoulis from time to time entering 
the lagoons with supplies; it came to an end when this command 
was lost. In September 1825 Ibrahim, at the order of the sultan, 
had joined Reshid before the town; piecemeal the outlying 
forts and defences now fell, until the garrison, reduced by 
starvation and disease, determined to hazard all on a final sortie. 
This took place on the night of the 22nd of April 1826; but a 
mistaken order threw the ranks of the Greeks into disorder, 
and the Turks entered the town pell-mell with the retreating 
crowd. Only a remnant of the defenders succeeded in gaining 
the forests of Mount Zygos, where most of them perished. 

The fall of Missolonghi, followed as this was by the submission 
of many of the more notable chiefs, left Reshid free to turn his 
attention to East Hellas, where Gouras had been ruling 
as a practically independent chief and in the spirit 
of a brigand. The peasants of the open country 
welcomed the Turks as deliverers, and Reshid's conciliatory 
policy facilitated his march to Athens, which fell at the first 
assault on the 25th of August, siege being at once laid to the 
Acropolis, where Gouras and his troops had taken refuge. 
Round this the war now centred; for all recognized that its 
fall would involve that of the cause of Greece. In these straits 
the Greek government entrusted the supreme command of the 
troops to Karaiskakis, an old retainer of Ali of lannina, a master 
of the art of guerilla war, and, above all, a man of dauntless 
courage and devoted patriotism. A first attempt to relieve the 
Acropolis, with the assistance of some disciplined troops under 
the French Colonel Fabvier, was defeated at Chaidari by the 
Turks. The garrison of the Acropolis was hard pressed, and the 
death of Gouras (October I3th) would have ended all, had not 
his heroic wife taken over the command and inspired the defenders 
with new courage. For months the siege dragged on, while 
Karaiskakis fought with varying success in the mountains, a 
final victory at Distomo (February 1827) over Omar Vrioni 
securing the restoration to the Greek cause of all continental 
Greece, except the towns actually held by the Turks. 

It was at this juncture that the Greek government, reinforced 
by a fresh loan from Europe, handed over the chief command 
at sea to Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald, <?..), and 
that of the land forces to General (afterwards Sir 
Church. Richard) Church, both Miaoulis and Karaiskakis 
consenting without demur to serve under them. 
Cochrane and Church at once concentrated their energies on the 
task of relieving the Acropolis. Already, on the sth of February, 
General Gordon had landed and entrenched himself on the hill 
of Munychia, near the ancient Piraeus, and the efforts of the 
Turks to dislodge him had failed, mainly owing to the fire of 
the steamer " Karteria " commanded by Captain Hastings. 
When Church and Cochrane arrived, a general assault on the 









Ottoman camp was decided on. This was preceded, on the 
2 sth of April, by an attack, headed by Cochrane, on the Turkish 
troops established near the monastery of St Spiridion, the result 
of which was to establish communications between the Greeks 
at Munychia and Phalerum and isolate Reshid's vanguard on 
the promontory of the Piraeus. The monastery held out for 
two days longer, when the Albanian garrison surrendered on 
terms, but were massacred by the Greeks as they were marching 
away under escort. For this miserable crime Church has, by 
some historians, been held responsible by default; it is clear, 
however, from his own account that no blame rests upon him 
(see his MS. Narrative, vol. i. chap ii. p. 34). The assault on 
the Turkish main camp was fixed for the 6th of May; but, 
unfortunately, a chance skirmish brought on an engagement 
the day before, in the course of which Karaiskakis was killed, 
an irreparable loss in view of his prestige with the wild armatoli. 
The assault on the following day was a disastrous failure. The 
Greeks, advancing prematurely over broken ground 
and in no sort of order, were fallen upon in flank by 
Reshid's horsemen, and fled in panic terror. The Athens. 
English officers, who in vain tried to rally them, 
themselves only just escaped by scrambling into their boats 
and putting off to the war-vessels, whose guns checked the 
pursuit and enabled a remnant of the fugitives to escape. 
Church held Munychia till the 27th, when he sent instructions 
for the garrison of the Acropolis to surrender. On the sth of 
June the remnant of the defenders marched out with the 
honours of war, and continental Greece was once more in the 
power of the Turks. Had Reshid at once advanced over the 
Isthmus, the Morea also must have been subdued; but he 
was jealous of Ibrahim, and preferred to return to lannina to 
consolidate his conquests. 

The fate of Greece was now in the hands of the Powers, who 
after years of diplomatic wrangling had at last realized that 
intervention was necessary if Greece was to be saved 
for European civilization. The worst enemy of the 
Greeks was their own incurable spirit of faction; in 
the very crisis of their fate, during the siege of Missolonghi, rival 
presidents and rival assemblies struggled for supremacy, and a 
third civil war had only been prevented by the arrival of Cochrane 
and Church. Under their influence a new National Assembly 
met at Troezene in March 1827 and elected as president Count 
Capo d' Istria (?..), formerly Russian minister for foreign affairs; 
at the same time a new constitution was promulgated which, 
when the very life of the insurrection seemed on the point of 
flickering out, set forth the full ideal of Pan-Hellenic dreams. 
Anarchy followed; war of Rumeliotes against Moreotes, of chief 
against chief; rival factions bombarded each other from the 
two forts at Nauplia over the stricken town, and in derision of 
the impotent government. Finally, after months of inaction, 
Ibrahim began once more his systematic devastation of the 
country. To put a stop to this the Powers decided to intervene 
by means of a joint demonstration of their fleets, in order to 
enforce an armistice and compel Ibrahim to evacuate the Morea 
(Treaty of London, July 6, 1827). The refusal of Ibrahim to 
obey, without special instruction from the sultan, led to the 
entrance of the allied British, French and Russian fleet into the 
harbour of Navarino and the bat tie of the-2othof October 1827 
(see NAVARINO). This, and the two campaigns of the Russo- 
Turkish war of 1828-29, decided the issue. 

AUTHORITIES. There is no trustworthy history of the war, based 
on all the material now available, and all the existing works must be 
read with caution, especially those by eye-witnesses, who were too 
often prejudiced or the dupes of the Greek factions. The best-known 
works are: G. Finlay, Hist, of the Greek Revolution (2 vols., London, 
1861); T. Gordon, Hist, of the Greek Revolution (London, 1833); 
C. W. P. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Geschichte Gnechenlands, ate. 
(Staatengeschichte der neuesten Zett) (2 vols., Leipzig, 1870-1874); 
F. C. H. L. Pouqueville, Histoire de la regeneration de la Greet, 6fc. 
(4 vols., Paris, 1824), the author was French resident at the court 
of AH of lannina and afterwards consul at Patras; Count A. 
Prokesch-Osten, Geschichte des Abfalls der Griechen vom turkischen 
Reich, Sfc. (6 vols., Vienna, 1867), the last four volumes consist- 
ing of pieces justificatives of much value. See also W. Alison 
Phillips, The War of Greek Independence (London and New York, 



GREEK LANGUAGE 



1897), a sketch compiled mainly from the above-mentioned works; 
Spiridionos Tricoupi, 'lanpla TTJS 'EXXi/vucfls ivavaaT&a(as (Athens, 
1853) ; J. Philemon, Aoni^iov luTopmln' irtpl TTJS 'EXXqvucqt iTrav<urT&.aas 
(Athens, 1859), in four parts: (i) History of the Hetaeria Philike, 
(2) The heralding of the war and the rising under Ypsilanti,(3 and 4). 
The insurrection in Greece to 1822, with many documents. Of great 
value also are the 29 volumes of Correspondence and Papers of Sir 
Richard Church, now jn the British Museum (Add MSS. 36,543- 
36,571). Among these is a Narrative by Church of the war in Greece 
during his tenure of the command (vols. xxi.-xxiii., Nos. 36,563- 
36,565), which contains the material for correcting many errors re- 
peated in most works on the war, notably the strictures of Finlay and 
others on Church's conduct before Athens. For further references 
see the bibliography appended to W. Alison Phillips's chapter on 
" Greece and the Balkan Peninsula " in the Cambridge Modern 
History, x. 803. (W. A. P.) 

GREEK LANGUAGE. Greek is one of the eight main 
branches into which the Indo-European languages (q.v.) are 
divided. The area in which it is spoken has been curiously 
constant throughout its recorded history. These limits are, 
roughly speaking, the shores of the Aegean, on both the 
European and the Asiatic side, and the intermediate islands 
(one of the most archaic of Greek dialects being found on the 
eastern side in the island of Cyprus), and the Greek peninsula 
generally from its southern promontories as far as the 
mountains which shut in Thessaly on the north. Beyond 
Mt. Olympus and the Cambunian mountains lay Macedonia, 
in which a closely kindred dialect was spoken, so closely 
related, indeed, that O. Hoffmann has argued (Die Makedonen, 
Gottingen, 1906) that Macedonian is not only Greek, but 
a part of the great Aeolic dialect which included Thessalian 
to the south and Lesbian to the east. In the north-west, 
Greek included many rude dialects little known even to the 
ancient Greeks themselves, and it extended northwards beyond 
Aetolia and Ambracia to southern Epirus and Thesprotia. 
In the Homeric age the great shrine of Pelasgian Zeus was at 
Dodona, but, by the time of Thucydides, Aetolia and all north 
of it had come to be looked upon as the most backward of Greek 
lands, where men lived a savage life, speaking an almost unin- 
telligible language, and eating raw flesh (ayvdjarbraTOi. dl yhuaaav 
(cat a>juo</>ayoi, Thuc. iii. 94, of the Aetolian Eurytanes). The 
Greeks themselves had no memory of how they came to occupy 
this land. Their earliest legends connected the origin of their 
race with Thessaly and Mt. Pindus, but Athenians and Arcadians 
also boasted themselves of autochthonous race, inhabiting a 
country wherein no man had preceded their ancestors. The 
Greek language, at any rate as it has come down to us, is 
remarkably perfect, in vowel sounds being the most primitive 
of any of the Indo-European languages, while its verb system 
has no rival in completeness except in the earliest Sanskrit of 
the Vedic literature. Its noun system, on the other hand, is 
. much less complete, its cases being more broken down than 
those of the Aryan, Armenian, Slavonic and Italic families. 

The most remarkable characteristic of Greek is one conditioned 
by the geographical aspect of the land. Few countries are so broken 
up with mountains as Greece. Not only do mountain ranges as 
elsewhere on the European continent run east and west, but other 
ranges cross them from north to south, thus dividing the portions 
of Greece at some distance from the sea into hollows without outlet, 
every valley being separated for a considerable part of the year 
from contact with every other, and inter-communication at all 
seasons being rendered difficult. Thus till external coercion from 
Macedon came into play it was never possible to establish a great 
central government controlling the Greek mainland. The geo- 
graphical situation of the islands in the Aegean equally led to the 
isolation of one little territory from another. To these geographical 
considerations may be added the inveterate desire of the Greeks 
to make the iroXis, the city state, everywhere and at all times an 
independent unit, a desire which, originating in the geographical 
conditions, even accentuated the isolating effect of the natural 
features of the country. Thus at one time in the little island of 
Amorgos there were no less than three separate and independent 
political units. The inevitable result of geographical and political 
division was the maintenance of a great number of local character- 
istics in language.^ differentiating in this respect also each political 
community from its nearest neighbours. It was only natural that 
the inhabitants of a country so little adapted to maintain a numerous 
population should have early sent off swarms to other lands. The 
earliest stage of colonization lies in the borderland between myth 
and history. The Greeks themselves knew that a population had 
preceded them in the islands of the Cyclades which they identified 



i with the Carians of Asia Minor (Herodotus i. 171 ; Thucydides i. 

' 4. 8). The same population indeed appears to have preceded them 
on the mainland of Greece, for there are similar place-names in Caria 
and in Greece which have no etymology in Greek. Thus the endings 
of words like Parnassus and Halicarnassus seem identical, and the 



common ending of place-names in -tvffos, K6piv0os, Ilpo/SdXtvflos, &c., 
seems to be the same in origin with the common ending of Asiatic 
names in -nda, Alinda, Karyanda, &c. Probably the earnest portion 
of Asia Minor to be colonized by the Greeks was the north-west, to 
which came settlers from Thessaly, when the early inhabitants were 
driven out by the Thesprotians, who later controlled Thessaly. The 
name Aeolis, which aftef times gave to the N.W. of Asia Minor, 
was the old name for Thessaly (Hdt. vii. 176). These Thesprotians 
were of the same stock as the Dorians, to whose invasion of the 
Peloponnese the later migration, which carried the lonians to Asia 
and the Cypriot Greeks to Cyprus, in all probability was due. From 
the north Aegean probably the Dorians reached Crete, where alone 
their existence is recorded by Homer (Odyssey, xix. 175 ff . ; Diodorus 
Siculus v. 80. 2) : cp. Fick, Vorgriechische Ortsnamen (1906). 

Among the Greeks of the pre-Dorian period Herodotus distin- 
guishes various stocks. Though the name is not Homeric, both 
Herodotus and Thucydides recognize an Aeolian stock which must 
have spread over Thessaly and far to the west till it was suppressed 
and absorbed by the Dorian stock which came in from the north- 
west. The name of Aeolis still attached in Thucydides' time to the 
western area of Calydon between the mountains and the N. side of 
the entrance to the Corinthian gulf (iii. 102). In Boeotia the same 
stock survived (Thuc. vii. 57. 5), overlaid by an influx of Dorians, 
and it came down to the isthmus; for the Corinthians, though 
speaking in historical times a Doric dialect, were originally Aeolians 
(Thuc. iv. 42). In the Peloponnese Herodotus recognizes (viii. 73) 
three original stocks, the Arcadians, the lonians of Cynuria. and the 
Achaeans. In Arcadia there is little doubt that the pre-Dorian 
population maintained itself and its language, just as in the moun- 
tains of Wales, the Scottish Highlands and Connemara the Celtic 
language has maintained itself against the Saxon invaders. By 
Herodotus' time the Cynurians had been doricized, while the lonians, 
along the south side of the Corinthian gulf, were expelled by the 
Achaeans (vii. 94, viii. 73), apparently themselves driven from their 
own homes by the Dorian invasion (Strabo viii. p. 333 fin.). How- 
ever this may be, the Achaeans of historical times spoke a dialect 
akin to that of northern Elis and of the Greeks on the north side of 
the Corinthian gulf. How close the relation may have been between 
the language of the Achaeans of the Peloponnese in the Homeric age 
and their contemporaries in Thessaly we have no means of ascertain- 
ing definitely, the documentary evidence for the history of the 
dialects being all very much later than Homeric times. Even in 
the Homeric catalogue Agamemnon has to lend the Arcadians ships 
to take them to Troy (Iliad, ii. 612). But a population speaking the 
same or a very similar dialect was probably seated on the eastern 
coast, and migrated at the beginning of the Doric invasion to Cyprus. 
As this population wrote not in the Greek alphabet but in a peculiar 
syllabary and held little communication with the rest of the Greek 
world, it succeeded in preserving in Cyprus a very archaic dialect 
very closely akin to that of Arcadia, and also containing a consider- 
able number of words found in the Homeric vocabulary but lost or 
modified in later Greek elsewhere. 

On this historical foundation alone is it possible to understand 
clearly the relation of the dialects in historical times. The prehistoric 
movements of the Greek tribes can to some extent be realized in 
their dialects, as recorded in their inscriptions, though all existing 
inscriptions belong to a much later period. Thus from the ancient 
Aeolis of northern Greece sprang the historical dialects of Thessaly 
and Lesbos with the neighbouring coast of Asia Minor. At an early 
period the Dorians had invaded and to some extent affected the 
character of the southern Thessalian and to a much greater extent 
that of the Boeotian dialect. The dialects of Locris, Phocis and 
Aetolia were a somewhat uncouth and unliterary form of Doric. 
According to accepted tradition, Elis had been colonized by Oxylus 
the Aetofian, and the dialect of the more northerly part of Elis, as 
already pointed out, is, along with the Achaean of the south side of 
the Corinthian gulf, closely akin to those dialects north of the 
Isthmus. The most southerly part of Elis Triphylia has a dialect 
akin to Arcadian. Apart from Arcadian the other dialects of the 
Peloponnese in historical times are all Doric, though in small details 
they differ among themselves. Though we are unable to check the 
statements of the historians as to the area occupied by Ionic in 
prehistoric times, it is clear from the legends of the close connexion 
between Athens and Troezen that the same dialect had been spoken 
on both sides of the Saronic gulf, and may well have extended, as 
Herodotus says, along the eastern coast of the Peloponnese and the 
south side of the Corinthian gulf. According to legend, the lonians 
expelled from the Peloponnese collected at Athens before they 
started on their migrations to the coast of Asia Minor. Be that as 
it may, legend and language alike connected the Athenians with the 
lonians, though by the 5th century B.C. the Athenians no longer 
cared to be known by the name (Hdt. i. 143). Lemnos, Imbros and 
Scyros, which had long belonged to Athens, were Athenian also in 
language. The great island of Euboea and all the islands of the 
central Aegean between Greece and Asia were Ionic. Chios, the most 



GREEK LANGUAGE 



497 



northerly Ionic island on the Asiatic coast, seems to have been origin- 
ally Aeolic, and its Ionic retained some Aeolic characteristics. The 
most southerly of the mainland towns which were originally Aeolic was 
Smyrna, but this at an early date became Ionic (Hdt. i. 149). The 
last important Ionic town to the south was Miletus, but at an early 
period Ionic widened its area towards the south also and took in 
Halicarnassus from the Dorians. According to Herodotus, there 
were four kinds of Ionic (xapaicrijpts 7\t!x7oijs Tfoatpts, i. 142). 
Herodotus tells us the areas in which these dialects were spoken, 
but nothing of the differences between them. They were (i) Samos, 
(2) Chios and Erythrae, (3) the towns in Lydia, (4] the towns in Caria. 
The language of the inscriptions unfortunately is a noivii, a conven- 
tional literary language which reveals no differences cf importance. 
Only recently has the characteristic so well known in Herodotus of K 
appearing in certain words where other dialects have jr (picas for 
OTUS, KOU for Troy, &c.) been found in any inscription. It is, how- 
ever, clear that this was a popular characteristic not considered to 
be sufficiently dignified for official documents. We may conjecture 
that the native languages spoken on the Lydian and Carian coasts 
had affected the character of the language spoken by the Greek 
immigrants, more especially as the settlers from Athens married 
Carian women, while the settlers in the other towns were a mixture 
of Greek tribes, many of them not Ionic at all (Hdt. i. 146). 

The more southerly islands of the Aegean and the most southerly 
peninsula of Asia Minor were Doric. In the Homeric age Dorians 
were only one of many peoples in Crete, but in historical times, 
though the dialects of the eastern and the western ends of the island 
differ from one another and from the middle whence our most 
valuable documents come, all are Doric. By Melos and Thera Dorians 
carried their language to Cos, Calymrus, C'nidus and Rhodes. 

These settlements, Aeolic, Ionic and Doric, grew and prospered, 
and like flourishing hives themselves sent out fresh swarms to other 
land. Most prosperous and energetic of all was Miletus, which 
established its trading posts in the Black Sea to the north and in the 
delta of the Nile (Naucratis) to the south. The islands also sent off 
their colonies, carrying their dialects with them, Paros to Thasos, 
Euboea to the peninsulas of Chalcidice; the Dorians of Mcgara 
guarded the entrance to the Black Sea at Chalcedon and Byzantium. 
While Achaean influence spread out to the more southerly Ionian 
islands, Corinth carried her dialect with her colonies to the coast of 
Acarnania, Leucas and Corcyra. But the greatest of all Corinthian 
colonies was much farther to the west at Syracuse in Sicily. Un- 
fortunately the continuous occupation of the same or adjacent sites 
has led to the loss of almost all that is early from Corinth and from 
Syracuse. Corcyra has bequeathed to us some interesting grave 
inscriptions from the 6th century B.C. Southern Italy and Sicily 
were early colonized by Greeks. According to tradition Cumae was 
founded not long after the Trojan War; even if we bring the date 
nearer the founding of Syracuse in 735 B.C., we have apparently no 
record earlier than the first half of the 5th century B.C., though it is 
still the earliest of Chalcidian inscriptions. Tarentum was a Laconian 
foundation, but the longest and most important document from a 
Laconian colony in Italy comes from Heraclea about the end of the 
4th century B.C. the report of a commission upon and the lease of 
temple lands with description and conditions almost of modern 
precision. To Achaea belonged the south Italian towns of Croton, 
Metapontum and Sybaris. The ancestry of the Greek towns of Sicily 
has been explained by Thucydides (vi. 2-5). Selinus, a colony of 
Mfyara. bewrays its origin in its dialect. Gela and Agrigentum no 
less clearly show their descent from Rhodes. According to tradition 
the great city of Cyrene in Africa was founded from Thera, itself an 
offshoot from Sparta. 

CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GREEK DIALECTS 

i. Arcadian and Cyprian. As Cyprian was written in a syllabary 
which could not represent a consonant by itself, did not distinguish 
between voiced, unvoiced and aspirated consonants, did not represent 
at all a nasal before another consonant, and did not distinguish 
between long and short vowels, the interpretation of the symbols is 
of the nature of a conundrum and the answer is not always certain. 
Thus the same combination of two symbols would have to stand 
for rire, roSt, Sore, &O(>TJ, rovSf, Tufif, T&, or). No inscription of more 
than a few words in length is found in either dialect earlier than 
the 5th century B.C. In both dialects the number of important in- 
scriptions is steadily increasing. Both dialects change final o to v, 
av6 passing into airb. Arcadian changes the verb ending -at into 
-01. Arcadian uses & or f for an original gai-sound, which appears in 
Attic Greek as /3: fXXw, Attic (SAXXw, " throw." In inflexion both 
agree in changing -no of masculine -a stems into ou (Arcadian carries 
this form also into the feminine -d stems), and in using locatives in 
-<u and -<H for the dative, such locatives being governed by the 
prepositions Airu and ! (before a consonant ks in Arcadian). Verbs 
in -aw, -co and -oo> are declined not as -o>, but as -/u verbs. The final 
i of the ending of the 3rd plural present changes the preceding r 
to a: ^tpavat, cp. Laconian (Doric) Qtpovri, Attic <fipowi, Lesbian 
<t>epoiai. Instead of the Attic TS, the interrogative pronoun appears 
as cris, the initial a in Arcadian being written with a special symbol 
* . The pronunciation is not certain. The original sound was qw, 
as in Latin quis, whence Attic Tls and Thessalian nis. In Arcadian 
KOI- the Aeolic particle and the Ionic <u> seem to be combined. 



2. Aeolic. Though Boeotian is overlaid with a Doric element, it 
nevertheless agrees with Thessalian and Lesbian in some character- 
istics. Unlike Greek generally, they represent the original qw of the 
word lor four by it before , where Attic and other dialects have T: 
Trerroptj, Attic Tirroptj. The corresponding voiced and aspirated 
sounds are similarly-treated : BiX4>aios the adjective in Thessalian to 
AeX<o, and <5p for 0r;p. They all tend to change o ton: impa, "name"; 
ou for co in Thessalian : "ATrXow, " Apollo " ; and u in Boeotian for 01 : 
fwta. (alula), " house." They also make the dative plural of the 
third declension in -tam, and the perfect participle active is declined 
like a present participle in -o>v. Instead of the Athenian method of 
giving the father's name in the genitive when a citizen is described, 
these dialects (especially Thessalian) tend to make an adjective: 
thus instead of the Attic ArmoaBirris fatiiaaSkmvs, Aeolic would 
rather have A. ArjMoo-0ceos. Thessalian stands midway between 
Lesbian and Boeotian, agreeing with Lesbian in the use of double 
consonants, where Attic has a single consonant, with or without 
lengthening of the previous syllable: inl, Attic tlpl for an 
original *esmi; o-i-AXXo, Attic 0-117X1; ; {.ivvos for an earlier tvFos, Attic 
JJTOS, Ionic {etcos, Doric r>os. Where Attic has -as from an earlier 
-avs or -OPTS, Lesbian has -cus: rals apxais accusative in Lesbian 
for older ravs apxavs. Lesbian has no oxyton words according to 
the grammarians, the accent being carried back to the penult or ante- 
penultimate syllable. It has also no " rough breathing," but this 
characteristic it shared with the Ionic of Asia M inor, and in the course 
of time with other dialects. The characteristic particle of the dialects 
is , which is used like the Doric <co, the Arcadian icav, and the Attic 
and Ionic fie. Thessalian and Lesbian agree in making their long 
vowels close, T belonging u (a close e, not a diphthong), iroip, 
" father." The u sound did not become u as in Attic and Ionic, 
and hence when the Ionic alphabet was introduced it was spelt <w, 
or when in contact with dentals u>v, as in 6viovp.a=&vviia, " name," 
Tu>i>xa = T<jx' r li "chance "; the pronunciation, therefore, must have 
been like the English sound in news, tune. Boeotian developed earlier 
than other dialects the changes in the vowels which characterize 
modern Greek : 01 became e, xal passing into KT} : compare jrore/p 
and FvKla above: became t in Ixt, " has." Thessalian shows 
some examples of the Homeric genitive in -oio: n-oXe/noio, &c. ; 
its ordinary genitive of o- stems is in -01. 

There are some points of connexion between this group and 
Arcadian-Cyprian: in both Thessalian and Cyprian the character- 
istic TTToXis (Attic, &c., iriXis) and Savxva- for Sct^vri are found, and 
both groups form the " contracting verbs " not in -co but in -pi. 
In the second group as in the first there is little that precedes the 
5th century B.C. Future additions to our materials may be expected 
to lessen the gap between the two groups and Homer. 

3. Ionic-Attic. One of the earliest of Greek inscriptions of the 
7th century, at least is the Attic inscription written in two lines 
from right to left upon a wine goblet (olcoxoij) given as a prize: 
hbs vvv 6pxffTov TTCIVTOV \ dToX6roTa Trcufti TOTO &Kav /zip. The last 
words are uncertain. Till lately early inscriptions in Ionic were 
few, but recently an early inscription has been found at Ephesus 
and a later copy of a long early inscription at Miletus. 

The most noticeable characteristic of Attic and Ionic is the change 
of a into TJ which is universal in Ionic but does not appear in Attic 
after another vowel or p. Thus both dialects used nfirrip, Ttp.ii from 
an earlier nanjp, rind, but Attic had ao<t>ia, irpayna and xipa, not 
ffo</>/?;, Tpfivna and X.&PTI as in Ionic. The apparent exception icopij 
is explained by the fact that in this word a digamma f has been lost 
after p, in Doric nbpFa. That the change took place after the lonians 
came into Asia is shown by the word MrjSoi, which in Cyprian is 
MSSoi; the Medes were certainly not known to the Greeks till long 
after the conquest of Ionia. While Aeolic and the greater part of 
Doric kept F, this symbol and the sound w represented by it had 
disappeared from both Ionic and Attic before existing records begin 
in other words, were certainly not in use after 800 B.C. The symbol 
was known and occurs in a few isolated instances. Both dialects 
agreed in changing u into M, so that a tt sound has to be represented 
by ou. The short o tended towards u, so that the contraction of 
o+o gave ov. In the same way short e tended towards i, so that the 
contraction of e+e gave , which was not a diphthong but a close 
e-sound. In Attic Greek these contractions were represented by O 
and E respectively till the official adoption of the Ionic alphabet at 
Athens in 403 B.C. So also were the lengthened syllables which 
represent in their length the loss of an earlier consonant, as t/nttva. 
and 2wjuo, Aeolic tiuvva., Ivtmta., which stand for a prehistoric 
*tiitvaa and *tvtn<ra, containing the -a- of the first aorist, and 
roiis, otKovs, 3xw< representing an earlier rbn, olVocs, IXOPTI 
(3 pi. present) or *txvTai (dative pi. of present participle). Both 
dialects also agreed in changing T before t into a (like Aeolic), as in 
?xowi above, and in the 3rd person singular of -/u verbs, rWrjo-t, 
SiSuffi, &c., and in noun stems, as in o&ais for an earlier *oirris. 
Neither dialect used the particle xc or ica, but both have an instead. 
One of the effects of the change of a into 77 was that the combination 
oo changed in both dialects to 770, which in all Attic records and in 
the later Ionic has become o by a metathesis in the quantity of the 
vowels: 1*065, earlier vaFAs, " temple," is in Homeric Greek ITTOS, 
in later Ionic and Attic vtus. In the dative (locative) plural of the 
-o stems, Ionic has generally -7710-1 on the analogy of the singular; 
Attic Mtid first the old locative form in -770-1, -oat., which survived 



498 



GREEK LANGUAGE 



in forms which became adverbs like 'Mfiv^ai and Bbpaai; but 
after 420 B.C. these were replaced by -ois, flupats, &c. The Ionic 
of Asia Minor showed many changes earlier than that of the Cyclades 
and Euboea. It lost the aspirate very early: hence in the Ionic 
alphabet H is e, not h; it changed ou and eu into ao and to, and 
very early replaced to a large extent the -M* by- the -to verbs. This 
confusion can be seen in progress in the Attic literature of the 5th 
and 4th centuries B.C., Stlaioiu gradually giving way to evua>, 
while the literature generally uses forms like &t>Ut for fe/>iij (impft.). 
In Attica also the aspiration which survived in the Ionic of Euboea 
and the Cyclades ceased by the end of the 5th century. The Ionic 
of Asia Minor has -105 as the genitive oi t-stems; the other forms of 
Ionic have -iSos. 

4. Doric. As already mentioned, the dialects of the North-West 
differ in several respects from Doric elsewhere. As general character- 
istics of Doric may be noted the contractions of a+ into T/, and 
of a+o or u into d, while the results in Attic and Ionic of these con- 
tractions are d and a respectively : kvLiai from vmau), Attic kvUa; 
rijua/tes I pi. pres. from TI/JOU, Attic TIHWHIV; Ti/iai' gen. pi. of TII& 
" honour, Attic rifuav. In inflection the most noticeable points are 
the pronominal adverbs in locative form : rovrii, TIJK (this from a 
stem limited to a few Doric dialects and the Bucolic Poets), rii&t, 
Sni, &c. ; the nom. pi. of the article rol, ral, not oi, oi, and so 
TOUTOI in Selinus and Rhodes; the 1st pi. of the verb in -;s, 
not in -iuv, cp. the Latin -mus; the aorist and future in --, where 
other dialects have -a-, or contraction from presents in-fw; Sucdfw, 
Stxiurw, Doric &IK&.&, &c. ; the future passive with active endings, 
iiript\ildTiatvvTi (Rhodes), found as yet only in the Doric islands 
and in the Doric prose of Archimedes; the particles oi " if " and 
KO with a similar value to the Aeolic at and the Attic-Ionic oc. 
Doric had an accentuation system different both from Aeolic and 
from Ionic-Attic, but the details of the system are very imperfectly 
known. 

In older works Doric is often divided into a dialectus severior and a 
dialectus mitis. But the difference is one of time rather than of 
place, the peculiarities of Doric being gradually softened down till 
it was ultimately merged in the lingua franca, the xotif}, which in 
time engulfed all the local dialects except the descendant of Spartan, 
Tzakoman. Here it is possible to mention its varieties only in the 
briefest form, (a) The southern dialects are well illustrated in the 
inscriptions of Laconia recently much increased in number by the 
excavations of the British School at Athens. Apart from some brief 
dedications, the earliest inscription of importance is the list of names 
placed on a bronze column soon after 479 B.C. to commemorate the 
tribes which had repulsed the Persians. The column, originally at 
Delphi, is now at Constantinople. The most striking features of the 
dialect are the retention of F at the beginning of words, as in the 
dedication from the 6th century Fai>alf)u>s (Annual of British 
School, xiv. 144). The dialect changed -a- between vowels into 
-h-, paha for HUGO. " muse." Later it changed 8 into a sound like the 
English th, which was represented by a. Before o-sounds t here and 
in some other Doric dialects changed toi: Si&s, <rt&s for 0e6j " god." 
The result of contraction and " compensatory lengthening " was not 
and ou as in Attic and Ionic, but i; andu: fintv infinitive = etcoi 
from *esmen', gen. sing, of o-stems in to: 6tu>, ace. pi. in -<js:0!;s; 
dy was represented by &&, not f, as in Attic-Ionic; /iu<n66 = 
nWife. The dialect has many strange words, especially in connexion 
with the state education and organization of the boys and young men. 
The Heraclean tables from a Laconian colony in S. Italy have curious 
forms in -aaai for the dat. pi. of the participle irpaaaburaaai Attic 
TpdTToufft. Of the dialect of Messenia we know little, the long 
inscription about mysteries from Andania being only about 100 B.C. 
From Argolis there are a considerable number of early inscriptions, 
and in a later form of the dialect the cures recorded at the temple of 
Asklepios at Epidaurus present many points of interest. There is 
also an inscription of the 6th century B.C. from the temple of 
Aphaia in Aegina. F survives in the old inscriptions: FfFptneva 
( = flpriitkva) ; vs , whether original or arising by sound change from -nty, 
persists till the 2nd century B.C.: Aovrrruxiwo = T) diriruxoucra, T&VS 
vl6vs = TOIIS uiois. The dialect of the Inachus valley seems to 
resemble Laconian more closely than does that of the rest of the 
Argolic area. Corinth and her colonies in the earliest inscriptions pre- 
serve Fand f( = Latin Q) before o and v sounds, and write and ^ by \a 
and <<r, the symbols which are used also for this purpose in old Attic. 
In the Corcyrean and Sicilian forms of the dialect, X before a dental 
appears as v : &urlat = $iXras ; and in Sicilian the perfect-active 
was treated as a present: 6t5oi/ca> for Siioma, &c. From Megara 
has come lately an obscure inscription from the beginning of the 5th 
century; its colony Selinus has inscriptions from the middle of the 
same century ; the inscriptions from Byzantium and its other Pontic 
colonies date only from Hellenistic times. In Crete, which shows a 
considerable variety of subdialects, the most important document is 
the great inscription from Gortyn containing twelve tables of family 
law, which was discovered in 1884. The local alphabet has no 
separate symbols for x and <t>, and these sounds are therefore written 
with K and TT. As in Argive the combination -us was kept both 
medially and finally except before words beginning with a consonant ; 
-ty- was represented by f , later by -TT-, as in Thessalian and Boeotian : 
OTOTTOI, Attic 6irA<roi; and finally by -66-; X combined with a pre- 
ceding vowel into an ow-diphthong : ainti, Attic dX*^, cp. the English 



pronunciation of talk, &c. In Gortyn and some other towns -06- was 
assimilated to -66-, where 9 must have been a spirant like the English 
th in thin; f of Attic Greek is represented initially by S, medially 
by 65, but in some towns by T and TT: S5As( = fuos), 5ucdaj> 
(=iucdfeii>). Final consonants are generally assimilated to the 
beginning of the next word. In inflection there are many local 
peculiarities. In Melos and Thera some very old inscriptions have , 
been found written in an alphabet without symbols for <f, x, $, {, 
which are therefore written as rh, .h or f h, ira, no. The contractions 
of e+ and of o+o are represented by E and O respectively. The 
old rock inscriptions of Thera are among the most archaic yet 
discovered. The most characteristic feature of Rhodian Doric 
is the infinitive in -utiv: Sbptiv, &c. ( = Attic SouVoi), which 
passed also to Gela and Agrigentum. The inscriptions from Cos 
are numerous, but too late to represent the earliest form of the 
dialect. 

(b) The dialects of N.W. Doric, Locrian, Phocian, Aetolian, with 
which go Elean and Achaean, present a more uncouth appearance 
than the other Doric dialects except perhaps Cretan. Only from 
Locris and Phocis come fairly old inscriptions; later a Kotvri was 
developed, in which the documents of the Aetolian league are 
written, and of which the most distinctive mark is the dative plural 
of consonant stems in -ois: dpx&rois (= Attic opxowi), i.y&vou 
(= Attic Ajwai.), &c. Phocian and the Locrian of Opus have also 
forms like Aeolic in -taai. In place of the dative in -<i>, locatives in 
-o i are used in Locrian and Phocian. Generally north of the Corinthian 
gulf the middle present participle from -tu>- verbs ends in -tiptvot; 
similar forms are found also in Elean. Locrian changed t before p 
into a: irorapa for ira-r^pa; cf. English Kerr and Carr, sergeant and 
Sargeaunt. ar appears for aB, and P and F are still much in use in 
the 5th century B.C. Many thousands of inscriptions were found in 
the French excavations at Delphi, but nothing earlier than the 5th 
century B.C. In the older inscriptions the Aeolic influence datives 
in -taai, oxt>/ja for oTO/ia is better marked than later. In the 
Laws of the Labyad phratry (about 400 B.C.) the genitive is in <n>, 
but a form in -w is also found, FoUta, which seems to be an old 
ablative fossilized as an adverb. The nom. pi. SOTTOPS is used 
for the ace. ; similar forms are found in Elean and Achaean. 

The more important of the older materials for Achaean come from 
the Achaean colonies of S. Italy, and being scanty give us only an 
imperfect view of the dialect, but it is clearly in its main features 
Doric. Much more remarkable is the Elean dialect known chiefly 
from inscriptions found at Olympia, some of which are as early as the 
beginning of the 6th century. The native dialect was replaced first 
by a Doric and then by the Attic KOLVTI, but under the Caesars the 
archaic dialect was restored. Many of its characteristics it shares 
with the dialects north of the Corinthian gulf, but it changes original 
e to d: /jLO.=nri, &c. ; 5 was apparently a spirant, as in modern Greek 
(=tk in English the, thine), and is represented by f in some of the 
earliest inscriptions. Final -s became -p; this is found also in 
Laconian; -ty- became -aa-, but was not simplified as in Attic to 
-a-: 8Wo = Attic &rra. 

As we have seen, lonians, Aetolians and Dorians tended to level 
local peculiarities and make a generally intelligible dialect in which 
treaties and other important records were framed. The language of 
literature is always of necessity to some extent a KOIVTI: with some 
Greek writers the use of a Koii^swag. especially necessary. The 
local dialect of Boeotia was not easily intelligible in other districts, 
and a writer like Pindar, whose patrons were mostly not Boeotians, 
had perforce to write in a dialect that they could understand. Hence 
he writes in a conventional Doric with Aeolic elements, which forms 
a strong contrast to that of Corinna, who kept more or less closely 
to the Boeotian dialect. For different literary purposes Greek had 
different icou-ai. A poet who would write an epic must adopt a 
form of language modelled on that of Homer and Hesiod ; Alcaeus 
and Sappho were the models for the love lyric, which was therefore 
Aeolic; Stesichorus was the founder of the triumphal ode, which, as 
he was a Dorian of Sicily, must henceforth be in Doric, though Pindar 
was an Aeolian, and its other chief representatives, Simonides and 
Bacchylides, were lonians from Ceos. The choral ode of tragedy 
was always conventional Doric, and in the iambics also are Doric 
words like pdu, Xdcj, &c. Elegy and epigram were founded on epic; 
the satirical iambics of Hipponaxand his late disciple Herondas are 
Ionic. The first Greek prose was developed in Ionia, of which an 
excellent example has been preserved to us in Herodotus. Thucy- 
dides was not an Ionian, but he could not shake himself free of the 
tradition: he therefore writes irp&aau, r&aaa, &c., with-acr-, which 
was Ionic, but is never found in Attic inscriptions nor in the writers 
who imitate the language of common life Aristophanes (when not 
parodying tragedy, or other forms of literature or dialect), Plato and 
the Orators (with the partial exception of Antiphon, who ordinarily 
has -aa-, but in the one speech actually intended for the law-courts 
-TT--). Similarly Hippocrates and his medical school in Cos wrote 
in Ionic, not, however, in the Ionic of Herodotus, but in a language 
more akin to the Ionic KOU^I of the inscriptions; and this dialect 
continued to be used in medicine later, much as doctors now use 
Latin for their prescriptions. The first literary document written 
in Attic prose is the treatise on the Constitution of Athens, which is 
generally printed amongst the minor works of Xenophon, but really 
belongs to about 425 B.C. From the fragment of Aristophanes' 



GREEK LANGUAGE 



499 



Banqueters and from the first speech of Lysias " Against 1 heomnestos 
it is clear that the Attic dialect had changed rapidly in the 6th and 
5th centuries B.C., and that much of the phraseology of Solon s aws 
was no longer intelligible by 400 B.C. Among the most difficult of 
the literary dialects to trace is the earliest the Homeric dialect. 
The Homeric question cannot be discussed here, and on that question 
it may be said quot homines tot sententiae. To the present writer, 
however, it seems probable that the poems were composed in Chios 
as tradition asserted; the language contains many Aeolisms, and 
the heroes sung are, except for the Athenians (very briefly referred 
to) , and possibly Telamoman Ajax, not of the Ionic stock. Chios was 
itself an Tonicized Aeolic colony (Diodorus v. 81 . 7). The hypothesis 
of a great poet writing on the basis of earlier Aeolic lays (nXIa 
AvSpajv) in Chios seems to explain the main peculiarities of the 
Homeric language, which, however, was modified to some extent 
in later times first under Ionic and afterwards under Athenian 
influence. , . , 

Of Dorian literature we know little. The works of Archimedes 
written in the Syracusan dialect were much altered in language by 
the late copyists. The most striking development of the late classical 
age in Doric lands is that of pastoral poetry, which, like Spenser, is 
" writ in no language," but, on a basis of Syracusan and possibly 
Coan Doric, has in its structure many elements borrowed from the 
Aeolic love lyric and from epic. 

From the latter part of the 5th century B.C. Athens became ever 
more important as a literary centre, and Attic prose became the 
model for the later KOUT?, which grew up as a consequence of the 
decay of the local dialects. For this decay there were several 
reasons. If the Athenian empire had survived the Peloponnesian 
War, Attic influence would no doubt soon have permeated the whole 
of that empire. This consummation was postponed. Attic became 
the court language of Macedon, and, when Alexander's conquests 
led to the foundation of great new towns, like Alexandria, filled with 
inhabitants from all parts of the Greek world, this dialect furnished 
a basis for common intercourse. Naturally the resultant dialect 
was not pure Attic. There were in it considerable traces of Ionic. 
In Attica itself the dialect was less uniform than elsewhere even in 
the 5th century B.C., because Athens was a centre of empire, litera- 
ture and commerce. Like every other language which is not under 
the dominion of the schoolmaster, it borrowed the names of foreign 
objects which it imported from foreign lands, not only from those of 
Greek-speaking peoples, but also from Egypt, Persia, Lydia, Phoe- 
nicia, Thrace and elsewhere. The lonians were great seafarers, and 
from them Athens borrowed words for seacraf t and even for the tides : 
&HTurra " ebb," pa\la " high tide," an Ionic word fcxfcj spelt in 
Attic fashion. From the Dorians it borrowed words connected with 
war and sport: Xoxo7<is, Kvvaytn, &c. A soldier of fortune like 
Xenophon, who spent most of his life away from Athens, introduced 
not only strange words but strange grammatical constructions also 
into his literary compositions. With Aristotle, not a born Athenian 
but long resident in Athens_, the Kourfi may be said to have begun. 
Some characteristics of Attic foreigners found it hard to acquire 
its subtle use of particles and its accent. Hence in Hellenistic Greek 
particles are comparatively rare. According to Cicero, Theophrastus, 
who came from as near Attica as Eretna in Euboea, was easily 
detected by a market-woman as no Athenian after he had lived 
thirty years in Athens. Thoucritus, an Athenian, who was taken 
prisoner in the Peloponnesian War and lived for many years in 
Epirus as a slave, was unable to recover the Athenian accent on his 
return, and his family lay under the suspicion that they were an 
alien's children, as his son tells us in Demosthenes' speech ' Against 
Eubulides." In the KOU^ there were several divisions, though the 
line between them is faint and irregular. There was a noivii of 
literary men like Polybius and of carefully prepared state documents, 
as at Magnesia or Pergamum; and a different /onw? of the vulgar 
which is represented to us in its Egyptian form in the Pentateuch, 
in a later and at least partially Palestinian form m the Gospels. 
Still more corrupt is the language which we find in the ill-written 
and ill-spelt private letters found amongst the Egyptian papyri. 
Not out of the old dialects but out of this KOLVJI arose modern Greek, 
with a variety of dialects no less bewildering than that of ancient 
Greek. In one place more rapidly, in another more slowly, the 
characteristics of modern Greek begin to appear. As we have seen, 
in Boeotia the vowels and diphthongs began to pass into the char- 
acteristic sounds of modern Greek four centuries before Christ. 
Dorian dialects illustrate early the passing of the old aspirate 6 
the sound of which was like the final t m English bit, into a sound like 
the English th in thin, pith, which it still retains in modern Greek 
The change of y between vowels into a y sound was charged by the 
comic poets against Hyperbolus the demagogue about 415 B.C 
Only when the Attic sound changes stood isolated amongst the Greek 
dialects did they give way in the noirfi to Ionic. Thus the forms 
with-<r<r- instead of -TT- won the day, while modern Greek shows thai 
sometimes the -pp- which Attic shared with some Doric dialects anc 
Arcadian was retained, and that sometimes the Ionic -pa-, which 
was also Lesbian and partly Doric, took its place. In other cases 
where Ionic and Attic did not agree, forms came in which were 
different from either: the genitives of masculine a stems were now 
formed as in Doric with , but the analogy of the other cases may 
have been the effective force. The form roii " temple," instead o 



onic Mji5, Attic , can only be Doric. 1 In the first five centuries of 

the Christian era came in the modern Greek characteristics of Itacism 

and vowel contraction, of the pronunciation of in and vr as mb 

and nd and many other sound changes, the loss of the dative and the 

confusion of the 1st with the 3rd declension, the dropping of the -fit 

conjugation, the loss of the optative and the assimilation of the 

mperfect and second aorist endings to those of the first aorist. 1 

There were meantime spasmodic attempts at the revival of the old 

anguage. Lucian wrote Attic dialogue with a facility almost equal 

o Plato; the old dialect was revived in the inscriptions of Sparta; 

rJalbilla, a lady-in-waiting on Hadrian's empress, wrote epigrams 

n Aeolic, and there were other attempts of the same kind. But they 

were only tours de force, KTJITOI 'ASiviios, whose flowers had no root 

n the spoken language and therefore could not survive. Even in 

the hands of a cultivated man like Plutarch the nounj of the 1st 

century A.D. looks entirely different from Attic Greek. Apart from 

non-Attic constructions, which are not very numerous, the difference 

consists largely in the new vocabulary of the philosophical schools 

since Aristotle, whose jargon had become part of the language of 

educated men in Plutarch's time, and made a difference in the 

anguage not unlike that which has been brought about in English 

ay the development of the natural sciences. It is hardly necessary 

:o say that these changes, whether of the icou>fi or of modern Greek, 

did not of necessity impair the powers of the language as an organ of 

expression; if elaborate inflection were a necessity for the highest 

literary merit, then we must prefer Cadmon to Milton and Cynewulf 

to Shakespeare. 

The Chief Characteristics of Greek. 

As is obvious from the foregoing account of the Greek dialects, 
it is not possible to speak of the early history of Greek as handed 
down to us as that of a single uniform tongue. From the earliest 
times it shows much variety of dialect accentuated by the geo- 
graphical characteristics of the country, but arising, at least in part, 
from the fact that the Greeks came into the country in separate 
waves divided from one another by centuries. For the history of the 
language it is necessary to take as a beginning the form of the Indo- 
European language from which Greek descended, so far as it can be 
reconstructed from a comparison of the individual I.E. languages 
(see INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES). The sounds of this language, so 
far as at present ascertained, were the following: 

(a) 1 1 vowels: a, a, e, e, i, i, o, o, u, u, 3 (a short indistinct vowel). 

(ft) 14 diphthongs: ai, au, ei, cu, oi, ou, di, au, ei, eu, oi, ou, ai, au. 

(c) 20 stop consonants. 

Labials: p, b, ph, bh (ph and bh being p and b followed by an 
audible breath, not / and v). 

Dentals : t, d, th, dh (th and dh not spirants like the two English 
sounds in thin and then, but aspirated t and d). 

Palatals: k, g, Kh, gh (kh and gh aspirates as explained above). 

Velars: q, g, qh, ph (velars differ from palatals by being produced 
against the soft palate instead of the roof of the mouth). 

Labio- velars : <fi, gt, <fth, gfh(these differ from the velars by being 
combined with a slight labial ai-sound). 

(d) Spirants 

Labial: w. 

Dental : s, z, post-dental s., ?, interdental possibly |>, 5. 
Palatal: x (Scotch ch), y. 

Velar : x (a deeply guttural x, heard now in Swiss dialects) , 3. 
Closely akin to w and y and often confused with them were 
the semi-vowels and j. 

(e) Liquids: /, r. 

(f) Nasals: m (labial), n (dental), n (palatal), n (velar), the last 
three in combination with similar consonants. 

(a) As far as the vowels are concerned, Greek retains the original 
state of things more accurately than any other language. The sounds 
of short e and short o in Attic and Ionic were close, so that e+e 
contracted to a long close e represented by <t, o+o to a long close o 
represented by ou. In these dialects u, both long and short, was 
modified to it, and they changed the long d to e, though Attic has o 
after , i and p. In Greek appeared regularly as a, but under the 
influence of analogy often as e and o. 

(6) The short diphthongs as a whole remained unchanged before a 
following consonant. Before a following vowel the dipnthong was 
divided between the two syllables, the i or u forming a consonant at 
the beginning of the second syllable, which ultimately disappeared. 
Thus from a root dheu- " run " comes a verb _for 6f-Fu, from 
an earlier *8ev-o>. The corresponding adjective is 6otn "swift," 
for 0o-fo-j, from an earlier *0cu-o-s. The only dialect which kept 
the whole diphthong in one syllable was Aeolic. The long diph- 
thongs, except at the ends of words, were shortened in Attic. Some 
of these appear merely as long vowels, having lost their second 
element in the proethnic period. Apparent long diphthongs like 
those in \jjrovpyla, atffoi arise by contraction of two syllables. 

(c) The consonants suffered more extensive change. The voiced 




1 Thumb, Die griechische Sprache im Zeitalter des Hellenismus 
oi), pp. 242-243. 
Thumb, op. at. p. 249. 



500 



GREEK LANGUAGE 



hima-), Gr. (8w)-xi/io-j; I.E. *stigh- (Skt. stigh-), Gr. orixes; 
I.E. *g*hen- (Skt. han-), Gr. flefvw (probably), </xW The palatal 
and velar series cannot be distinguished in Greek; for the differ- 
ences between them resort must be had to languages of the satem- 
group, such as Sanskrit, Zend or Slavonic, where the palatals appear 
as sibilants (see INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES). The labip-velar 
series present a great variety of forms in the different Greek dialects, 
and in the same dialect before different sounds. Thus in Attic before 
o vowels, nasals and liquids, the series appears as ir, (3, <; before e 
and i vowels as r, 0(5), 6; in combination with u, which led to loss 
of the S by dissimilation, K, y, x- Thus eVoyucu corresponds to the 
Latin sequo-r, apart from the ending; ftovs to Latin bos (borrowed 
from Sabine), English cow, <#>6vos ' slaughter," tirapvov, old Irish 
sonim, " I wound. ' Parallel to these forms with p are forms in the 
Italic languages except Latin and Faliscan, and in the Cymric 
group of the Celtic languages. The dental forms T, 8, 6 stand by 
themselves. Thus TIS (from the same root as iroD, voi, vbStv, etc.) 
is parallel to the Latin quis, the Oscan pis, old Irish da, Welsh pwy, 
"who?" "what?"; Attic rkrrapa, Ionic Ttaatpts "four" is 
parallel to Latin quattuor, Oscan jreropa, old Irish cethir, old Welsh 
petguar; rlait is from the same root as irotnj. For the voiced 
sound, ft is much more common than 5 before e and i sounds; thus 
ftios " life," from the same root as Skt. jivas, Latin wvus; /3iis 
" bowstring," Skt. jya, &c. In Arcado-Cyprian and Aeolic, JT and ft 
often precede e and * sounds. Thus parallel to Attic Ttrrapes 
Lesbian has irecro-upes, Homer irlavpts, Boeotian irerropes; Thes- 
salian /StXXofiot, Boeotian f)el\onai alongside of Attic /Jo&Xo/ioi, 
Lesbian /36XXo/*ai, Doric 0iiXo/icu and also 8^XoAi<u. In Arcadian 
and Cyprian the form corresponding to TIS was aa, in Thessalian 
KIS, where the labialization was lost (see the article on Q). 

A great variety of changes in the stopped consonants arose in 
combination with other sounds, especially i (a semivowel of the nature 
of English y), u (w) and s; -TI-, -0t- became first -aa- and later -a- in 
Attic Greek, -rr- in Boeotian (the precise pronunciation of -aa- and 
-TT- is uncertain) : Attic 6-ir6<ros, earlier 6-irA<7<ros, Boeotian d-irdrros, 
from the same stem as the Latin quot, quotiens; Homeric niaaos, 
Attic JMITOJ from *ne8u>s, Latin medius; -K^-, -xi- became -aa-, 
Attic -TT-: irlaaa. " pitch," Attic virra from *Aao, cp. Latin 
pix, picis, (\iiaawv, Attic kXarroiv comparative to Xox6s. fy and -yj 
became f: Zefa (Skt. Dyduf) eXirifw from i\irls, stem iXiriS- 
" hope," naarlfa from /idc7Ti, stem iiaarly- " lash." 

(a) The sound if was represented in the Greek alphabet by f , the 
" digamma," but in Attic and Ionic the sound was lost very early. 
In Aeolic, particularly Boeotian and Lesbian, it was persistent, and 
so also in many Doric dialects, especially at the beginning of words. 
When the Ionic alphabet was adopted by districts which had retained 
F, it was represented by /3: flpo&ov Aeolic for po&ov, i.e. FpoSov. 
In Attic it disappeared, leaving no trace; in Ionic it lengthened the 
preceding syllable; thus in Homer inro&daas is scanned with o long 
because the root of the verb contained F : &FCL-. Attic has {evos, 
but Ionic leicos for (.kvFos. Its combination with T became -aa-, 
Attic and Boeotian -rr-, in reairepes, reTT-opes, irerropes for I.E. qXetu-. 

But the most effective of all elements in changing the appearance 
of Greek words was the sound i. Before vowels at the beginning, 
or between vowels in the middle of words, it passed into an h sound, 
the " rough breathing." Thus ITTT&. is the same word as the Latin 
septem, English seven; aX-s has the same stem as the Latin sal, 
English sal-t; tfiui for tbhw is the same as the Latin uro (*euso). 
Combined with i or u also it passes into h: 7*171', Skt. syuman, 
"band"; ^56$, Doric" aMs, Latin sua(d)vis, English sweet; cp. 
OIKOIO for *FOIKOOU>, crjfo, Lesbian vaOos " temple, through yorts 
from *vaaFo-s connected with cauo " dwell." Before nasals and 
liquids s was assimilated: /t-5d, Latin mi-ru-s, English smile; 
vlifra, Latin nivem, English snow; \-iiyoj, Latin laxus, English slack; 
pka from *srey-o of the same origin as English stream (where t is a 
later insertion), imperfect Ipptov for *esreuom; cp. also <jn\op.n(lo^, 

A.y&VVl<t>OS, oXXTJKTOI. 

After nasals s is assimilated except finally; when assimilated, in all 
dialects except Aeolic the previous syllable is lengthened if not 
already long: Attic Iwijua, inuva for the first aorist *enemsa, 
*emensa; but Tbvs, rdvs, &c., of the accusative pi. either remained 
or became in Aeolic TO(J, rais, in Ionic and Attic rofcs, rAs, in Doric 
r<is, rds; cp. ri0e(s for "riflcirs, /Sdj for */3dirs, Is " one " for 
*sem-s, then by analogy of the neuter *sens. Assimilation of a to 
preceding p and X is a matter of dialect: Ionic 0ap<ro, but Attic 
Sappui, and so also the Doric of Thera: Jf/ceXo-a, but erretXa for 
*liTf\tra. With nasals t affected the previous syllable: rtKralvu 
(*reicT#ttj), where 1} is the nasal of the stem rkuruv, itself forming a 
syllable (see the article N for these so-called sonant nasals). Before 
i original m becomes n ; hence ftalva with n, though from the same 
root as English come. Original j does not survive in Greek, but is 
represented by the aspirate at the beginning of words, d7>'<5s = Skt. 
yajnas; medially after consonants it disappears, affecting the 
preceding consonant or syllable where a consonant precedes ; 
between vowels it disappears. A sound of the same kind is 
indicated in Cyprian and some other dialects as a glide or transition 
sound between two vowels. 

(e) The most remarkable feature in the treatment of the nasals is 
that when n or m forms a syllable by itself its consonant character 
disappears altogether and it is represented by the vowel o only: 



Latin tentus, a- negative particle, Latin in, English un; 
A-irX6os has the same prefix as the Latin sim-plex (sm). The liquids 
in similar cases show X<z or aX and pa or op: Ti-rXa-/i', jrt-jraXrai; 
tbpanov, Opaaus, Qapaos. 

The ends of words were modified in appearance by the loss of all 
stop-consonants and the change of final m to n, I5, Latin dixit; 
$vybv, Latin iugum. 

Accent. The vowel system of Greek has been so well preserved 
because it shows till late times very little in the way of stress accent. 
As in early Sanskrit the accent was predominantly a pitch accent 
(see ACCENT). 

Noun System. The I.E. noun had three numbers, but the dual 
was limited to pairs, the two hands, the two horses in the chariot, 
and was so little in use that the original form of the oblique cases 
cannot be restored with certainty. Ionic has no dual. The I.E. 
noun had the following cases: Nominative, Accusative, Genitive, 
Ablative, Instrumental, Locative and Dative. The vocative was 
not properly a case, because it usually stands outside the syntactical 
construction of the sentence; when a distinctive form appears, it is 
the bare stem, and there is no form (separate from the nominative) 
for the plural. Greek has confused genitive and ablative (the dis- 
tinction between them seems to have been derived from the pro- 
nouns), except for the solitary F Ua = otKoffcv in an inscription 
of Delphi. The instrumental, locative and dative are mixed in one 
case, partly for phonetic, partly for syntactical reasons. In Arcadian, 
Elean, Boeotian, and later widely in N. Greece, the locative -01 is 
used for the dative. The masculine o-stems make the nom. in 
most dialects in -05. The genitive is in -do (with o borrowed from 
the o-stems), which remains in Homer and Boeotian, appears in 
Arcado-Cyprian as -on, and with metathesis of quantity -o in 
Ionic. The Attic form in -ov is borrowed directly from the o-stems. 
In the plural the -ci and -o stems follow the article in making their 
nominatives in -ai and -ot instead of the original -as and -os. The 
neuter plural was in origin a collective singular, and for this reason 
takes a singular verb; the plural of fvy&v " yoke " was originally 
*iuga, and declined like any other -a stem. But through the influence 
of the masculine and feminine forms the neuter took the same oblique 
cases, and like its own singular made the accusative the same as the 
nominative. In the plural of -a and -o stems, the locative in -auri, 
-oicri was long kept apart from the instrumental-dative form in 
-ais, -otj. 

The Verb System. The verb system of Greek is more complete 
than that of any of the other I.E. languages. Its only rival, the early 
Vedic verb system, is already in decay when history begins, and 
when the classical period of Sanskrit arrives the moods have broken 
down, and the aorist, perfect, and imperfect tenses are syntactically 
confused. Throughout the Greek classical period the moods are 
maintained, but in the period of the KOIVJI the optative occurs less 
and less and finally disappears. The original I.E. had two voices, 
an active and a middle, and to these Greek has added a third, the 
passive, distinguished from the middle in many verbs by separate 
forms for the future and aorist, made with a syllable -0i)-, TI^IJ^OOMOI, 
iTitafttiv, though in this instance, TWCTOM<, the future middle, is 
often used with a passive sense. Other forms which Greek has added 
to the original system are the pluperfect in form a past of the 
perfect stem with aorist endings. It merely expressed the perfect 
action in past time, and, except as derived from the context, did not 
possess the notion of relative time (past at a time already past), 
which attaches to the Latin forms with the same name. The future 
optative was also a new formation, betraying its origin in the fact 
that it is almost entirely limited to Oratio Obliqua. The aorist 
imperatives were also new; the history of some of them, as the second 
sing. act. iravaov, is not very clear. The whole verb system is affected 
by the distinction between -o and -mi verbs; the former or thematic 
verbs have a so-called " thematic vowel " between the root and the 
personal suffix, while the -mi verbs attach the suffixes directly to 
the root. The distinction is really one between monosyllabic and 
disyllabic roots. The history of the personal endings is not altogether 
clear; the -o verbs have in the present forms for the 2nd and 3rd 
person in -j and -, which are not yet elucidated. In the rr.iddle, 
Greek does not entirely agree with Sanskrit in its personal endings, 
and the original forms cannot all be restored with certainty. The 
endings of the primary tenses differed from those of the secondary, 
but there has been a certain amount of confusion between them. 

The syntax of the verb is founded on the original I.E. distinction 
of the verb forms, not by time (tense), but by forms of action, pro- 
gressive action (present and imperfect), consummated action (aorist), 
state arising from action, emphatic or repeated action (perfect). 
For the details of this see INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. (i.) A grammar of Greek, which will deal fully 
with the whole material of the language, is at present a desideratum, 
and is hardly possible so long as new dialect material is being con- 
stantly added and while comparatively so little has been done on 
the syntax of the dialects. The greatest collection of material is 
to be found in the new edition of Runner's Griechische Grammatik, 
Laut- und Formenlehre, by Blass (2 vols., 1890-1892); Syntax, by 
Gerth (2 vols., 1896, 1900). Blass's part is useful only for material, 
the explanations being entirely antiquated. The only full historical 
account of the language (sounds, forms and syntax) at present in 
existence is K. Brugmann's Griechische Grammatik (3rd ed., 1900). 



GREEK LAW 



Gustav Meyer's Griechische Grammatik (nothing on accent or syntax), 
which did excellent pioneer work when it first appeared in 1880, was 
hardly brought up to date in its 3rd edition (1896), but is still useful 
for the dialect and bibliographical material collected. See also 
H. Hirt, Handbuch der griech. Laut- und Formenlehre (1902). Of 
smaller grammars in English perhaps the most complete is that of 
I. Thompson (London, 1902). The grammar of Homer was handled 
by D. B. Monro (2nd ed., Oxford, 1891). The syntax has been treated 
in many special works, amongst which may be mentioned W. W. 
Goodwin, Syntax of the Greek Moods and Tenses (new ed., 1889); 
B. L. Gildersleeve and C. W. E. Miller, Syntax of Classical Greek from 
Homer to Demosthenes, pt. i. (New York, 1901 and following); 
J. M. Stahl, Krilisch-historische Syntax des griechischen Verbums 
(1907); F. E. Thompson, Attic Greek Syntax (1907). (ii.) The 
relations between Greek and the other I.E. languages are very well 
brought out in P. Kretschmer's Einleitung in die Geschichte der 
griechischen Sprache (Gottingen, 1896). For comparative grammar 
see K. Brugmann and B. Delbruck, Grundriss der vergleichenden 
Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen (the 2nd ed., begun 1897, 
is still incomplete) and Brugmann's Kurze vergleichende Grammatik 
(1902-1903) ; A. Meillet, Introduction a I'etude comparative des langues 
indo-europeennes (2nd ed., 1908). Greek compared with Latin and 
English : P.Giles, A Short Manual of Comparative Philology for Classical 
Students (2nd ed., 1901, with an appendix containing a brief account 
and specimens of the dialects); Riemann and Goelzer, Grammaire 
comparative du Grec et du Latin (1901), a parallel grammar in 2 vols., 
specially valuable for syntax, (iii.) For the dialects two works have 
recently appeared, both covering in brief space the whole field: 
A. Thumb, Handbuch der griechischen Dialekte (with bibliographies 
for each dialect, 1909); C. D. Buck, Introduction to the Study of the 
Greek Dialects, Grammar, Selected Inscriptions, Glossary (Boston, 
1910). Works on a larger scale have been undertaken by R. Meister, 
by O. Hoffmann and by H. W. Smyth. For the KOIVTI may be 
specially mentioned A. Thumb, Die griech. Sprache in Zeilalter des 
Hellenismus (1901); E. Mayser, Grammatik d:r griechischen Papyri 
aus der Ptolemaerzeit: Laut- und Wortlehre (1906) ; H. St J. Thackeray, 
A Grammar of the Old Testament in Greek, vol. i. (1909); Blass, 
Grammar of New Testament Greek, trans, by Thackeray (1898) ; J. H. 
Moulton, A Grammar of New Testament Greek. I. Prolegomena (3rd 
ed., 1906). (iv.) For the development from the Koiir/i to modern 
Greek: A. N. Jannaris, An Historical Greek Grammar, chiefly of the 
Attic Dialect, as written and spoken from Classical Antiquity down 
to the Present Time (1901); G. N. Hatzidakis, Einleitung in die 
neugriechische Grammatik (1892); A. Thumb, Handbuch der neu- 
griechischen Volkssprache (2nd ed. 1910). (v.) The inscriptions are 
collected in Inscriptiones Graecae in the course of publication by 
the Berlin Academy, those important for dialect in the Sammlung 
der griech. Dialektinschriften, edited by Collitz and Bechtel. The 
earlier parts of this collection are to some extent superseded by 
later volumes of the Inscr. Graecae, containing better readings and 
new inscriptions. A good selection (too brief) is Solmsen's Inscrip- 
tiones Graecae ad inlustrandas dialectos selectae (3rd ed., 1910). A 
serviceable lexicon for dialect words is van Herwerden's Lexicon 
Graecum suppletorium et dialecticum (2nd ed., much enlarged, 2 vols. 
1910). (vi.) The historical basis for the distribution of the Greek 
dialects is discussed at length in the histories of E. Meyer (Geschichte 
des Altertums, ii.) and G. Busolt (Griechische Geschichte, i.) ; by Pro- 
fessor Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece, i. (1901), and P. Kretschmer 
in Glotta, i. 9 ff. See also A. Pick, Die vor griechischen Ortsnamen 
(I905)- (vii.) Bibliographies containing the new publications on 
Greek, with some account of their contents, appear from time 
to time in Indogermanische Forschungen: Anzeiger (Strassburg, 
Trubner), annually in Glotta (Gottingen, Vandenhoeck und 
Ruprecht), and The Year's Work in Classical Studies (London, 
Murray). (p. Gi.) 

GREEK LAW. Ancient Greek law is a branch of comparative 
jurisprudence the importance of which has been long ignored. 
Oree* law J urists have commonly left its study to scholars, who 
and com- have generally refrained from comparing the institu- 
parative tions of the Greeks with those of other nations. Greek 
law has, however, been partially compared with 
Roman law, and has been incidentally illustrated 
with the aid of the primitive institutions of the Germanic 
nations. It may now be studied in its earlier stages in the 
laws of Gortyn; its influence may be traced in legal docu- 
ments preserved in Egyptian papyri; and it may be recognized 
as a consistent whole in its ultimate relations to Roman law in 
the eastern provinces of the Roman empire. 

The existence of certain panhellenic principles of law is implied 
by the custom of settling a difference between two Greek states, 
or between members of a single state, by resorting to external 
arbitration. The general unity of Greek law is mainly to be 
seen in the laws of inheritance and adoption, in laws of commerce 
and contract, and in the publicity uniformly given to legal 
agreements. 



Juris- 
prudence. 



No systematic collection of Greek laws has come down to 
us. Our knowledge of some of the earliest notions of the subject 
is derived from the Homeric poems. For the details 
of Attic law we have to depend on ex parle statements Original 
in the speeches of the Attic orators, and we are some- rities. 
times enabled to check those statements by the 
trustworthy, but often imperfect, aid of inscriptions. Incidental 
illustrations of the laws of Athens may be found in the Laws 
of Plato, who deals with the theory of the subject without 
exercising any influence on actual practice. The Laws of 
Plato are criticized in the Politics of Aristotle, who, besides 
discussing laws in their relation to constitutions, reviews the 
work of certain early Greek lawgivers. The treatise on the 
Constitution of Athens includes an account of the jurisdiction of 
the various public officials and of the machinery of the law courts, 
and thus enables us to dispense with the second-hand testimony 
of grammarians and scholiasts who derived their information 
from that treatise (see CONSTITUTION OF ATHENS). The works 
of Theophrastus On the Laws, which included a recapitulation of 
the laws of various barbaric as well as Grecian states, are now 
represented by only a few fragments (Nos. 97-106, ed. Wimmer). 

Our earliest evidence is to be sought in the Homeric poems. 
In the primitive society of the heroic age (as noticed by Plato) 
written laws were necessarily unknown; for, " in 
that early period, they had no letters; they lived ^amer 
by habit and by the customs of their ancestors " (Law's, 
680 A). We find a survival from a still more primitive time in 
the savage Cyclops, who is " unfamiliar with dooms of law, or 
rules of right" (ovre SiKas ev tidora oDre flejworas, Od. ix. 215 
and 112 f.). 

Dike (Uteri), assigned by Curtius (Etym. 134) to the same root 
btUvvpi., primarily means a " way pointed out," a " course p 
scribed by usage," hence " way " or " fashion," " manner" 
or " precedent." In the Homeric poems it sometimes " 

signifies a " doom " of law, a legal " right," a " lawsuit "; while it 
is rarely synonymous with "justice," as in Od. xiv. 84, where 
" the gods honour justice," -rlovai Siicqv. 

Various senses of " right " are expressed in the same poems by 
themis (Oc/zis), a term assigned (ib. 254) to the same root as rWiim. 
In its primary sense themis is that which " has been laid _. 
down ' ; hence a particular decision or " doom." The Taetal *- 
plural themisles implies a body of such precedents, " rules of right," 
which the king receives from Zeus with his sceptre (II. ix. 99). 
Themis and dike have sometimes been compared with the Roman fas 
and jus respectively, the former being regarded as of divine, the 
latter of human origin ; and this is more satisfactory than the latest 
view (that of Hirzel), which makes " counsel " the primary meaning 
of themis. 

Thesmos (0rjt6s), an ordinance (from the same root as themis), is 
not found in " Homer," except in the last line of the _.. 
original form of the Odyssey (xxiii. 296), where it probably T. ""* 
refers to the " ordinance " of wedlock. The common 
term for law, v&nos, is first found in Hesiod, but not in a specially 
legal sense (e.g. Op. 276). 

A trial for homicide is one of the scenes represented on the 
shield of Achilles (//. xviii. 497-508). The folk are here to be 
seen thronging the market-place, where a strife has 
arisen between two men as to the price of a man that 
has been slain. The slayer vows that he has paid all 

/Xro iriW airodowcu) , the kinsman of the slain protests 
that he has received nothing (6.vedvtTO wblv IXiadai); both 
are eager to join issue before an umpire, and both are favoured 
by their friends among the folk, who are kept back by the heralds. 
The cause is tried by the elders, who are seated on polished 
stones in a sacred circle, and in the midst there lie two talents 
of gold, " to give to him who, among them all, sets forth the 
cause most rightly " (rtf So^ev os fjfra TO?<TI d'uaiv lOvvrara eiiroi). 



as 
pre- 



The discussions of the above passage have chiefly turned on two 




WERGELD, TEUTONIC PEOPLES, BRITAIN: Anglo-Saxon) of the old 
Germanic law (Grimm, Rechlsalterthumer, 661 f.), has been paid" or 
not. (This is accepted by Thonissen, Lipsius, Sidgwick and Ridge- 
way.) In the other view (b), it is held that the slayer " claimed to 
pay " the fine, and the kinsman of the slain " refused to accepc any 
compensation " (so Passow and Leaf, approved by Pollock). (2) The 
" two talents " (shown by Ridgeway to be a small sum, equal in 



502 



GREEK LAW 



value to two oxen) are awarded either (a) to the litigant who " pleads 
his cause most justly before them " (so Thpnissen, Shilleto and 
Lipsius, in accordance with the Attic use of phrases like 5k; tlttiv), 
or (6) to the judge " who, among all the elders, gives the most 
righteous judgment " (so Maine, approved by Sidgwick, Pollock, 
Leaf and Ridgeway). 

On this controversy, cf. Maine's Ancient Law, chap. x. pp. 385 f., 
405 f., ed. Pollock; .Thonissen, Droit ptnal (1875), 27; P. M. 
Laurence (on Shilleto's view) in Journal of Philology, viii. (1879), 
125 f. ; Ridgeway, ib. x. (1882), 30 f., and Journal of Hellenic Studies, 
viii. (1887), 133 f. ; and Leaf, ib. viii. 122 f., and in his Commentary 
on Iliad, ii. (1902), 610-614; a ' so J- H. Lipsius in Leipzif>er Studien, 
xii. (1890), 225-231, criticized by H. Sidgwick in Classical Review, 
viii. (1894), 1-4. 

We are told elsewhere in Homer that sometimes a man accepted 
blood-money from the slayer of his brother or his son, and that 
the slayer remained in the land after paying this penalty (II. ix. 
633). As a rule the slayer found it safest to flee (Od. xxiii. 
118 f.), but even so, he might be pursued by the friends of the 
slain (Od. xv. 272-278). If he remained, the land was not (as 
in later ages) deemed to be polluted by his presence. In Homer, 
Orestes does not slay Clytaemestra, and he needs no " purifica- 
tion " for slaying Aegisthus. 

The laws of Sparta are ascribed to the legislation of Lycurgus, 
whose traditional date is 884 B.C. Written laws are said to have 
Onek law been expressly forbidden by Lycurgus (Plutarch, 
givers: Lycurgus, 13) ; hence the " laws of Sparta " are simply 
Lycurgus a body of traditional observances. We learn that all 
at Sparta. ^^ f or homicide came before the Council of Elders 
and lasted for several days, and that all civil causes were tried 
by the ephors (q.v.). We are also told that originally the land 
was equally divided among the citizens of Sparta, and that this 
equality was enforced by law (Polybius vi. 45-46). Early in the 
4th century the ephor Epitadeus, owing to a disagreement with 
his son, enacted that every Spartan should be allowed to transfer 
his estate and his allotment to any other person (Plutarch, Agis, 
5), while Aristotle, in a much-debated passage of the Politics 
(iL 9. 14-15), criticizes the Spartan constitution for allowing the 
accumulation of property in a few hands, an evil aggravated by 
the large number of " heiresses"; " a man (he adds) may 
bestow his heiress on any one he pleases; and, if he dies intestate, 
this privilege descends to his heir." 

Law was first reduced to writing in the 7th century B.C. A 
written code is a necessary condition of just judgment, and 

such a code was the first concession which the people 

* n tne Greek cities extorted from the ruling aristocracies. 
laws. The change was generally effected with the aid of a 

single legislator entrusted with complete authority 
to draw up a code. 

The first communities to reach this stage of progress were 
the Greek colonies in the West. The Epizephyrian Locrians, 
Zaieaaa near the extreme south of Italy, received the earliest 
atLocri written code from Zaleucus (663 B.C.), whose strict 
BP h*rii and severe legislation put an end to a period of strife 

and confusion, though we know little of his laws, 
except that they attached definite penalties to each offence, 
and that they strictly protected the rights of property. Two 

centuries later, his code was adopted even by the 

Atnenian colony of Thurii in south Italy (443 B.C.). 
etc. Charondas, the " disciple " of Zaleucus, became the 

lawgiver, not only of his native town of Catana on the 
east coast of Sicily, but also of other Chalcidian colonies in 
Sicily and Italy. The laws of Charondas were marked by a 

^S^ 3 - 1 precision, but there was nothing (says Aristotle) 

that ^ e could claim as his own except the special 
. procedure against false witnesses (Politics, ii. 12. n). 

In the case of judges who neglected to serve in the 
law courts, he inflicted a large fine on the rich and a small fine 
on the poor (ib. vi. (iv.) 13. 2). Androdamas of Rhegium gave 
Phiioiaus ' aws on konucide ar d n heiresses to the Chalcidians 
of Corinth. of Thrace, while Philolaus cf Corinth provided the 

Thebans with " laws of adoption " with a view to 
preventing any change in the number of the allotments of land 
(ib. ii. 12. 8-14). 



Andro- 
damasot 



Local legislation in Crete is represented by the laws of the 
important city of Gortyn, which lies to the south of Ida in a 
plain watered by the Lethaeus. Part of that stream 
forms a sluice for a water-mill, and at or near this mill 
some fragmentary inscriptions were found by French 
archaeologists in 1857 and 1879. The great inscription, to 
which most of our knowledge of the laws is due, was not dis- 
covered until 1884. It had been preserved on a wall 27 ft. 
long and 5 ft. high, the larger part of which was buried in the 
ground, while its farthest extremity passed obliquely athwart 
the bed of the mill-stream. It was necessary to divert the water 
before the last four columns could be transcribed by the Italian 
scholar, Federico Halbherr, whose work was completed in the 
same year by the excavation and transcription of the first eight 
columns by the German scholar, E. Fabricius. In the following 
year Halbherr discovered more than eighty small fragments on 
the neighbouring site of a former temple of the Pythian 
Apollo. 

These fragments, which are far earlier than the great inscription 
above-mentioned, have been assigned to about 650 B.C. They 
precede the introduction of coined money into Crete, the penalties 
being reckoned, not in coins, but in caldrons. They deal with the 
powers of the magistrates and the observances of religion, but are 
mainly concerned with private matters of barter and sale, dowry 
and adoption, inheritance and succession, fines for trespass and 
questions of blood-money. As in the code of Zaleucus, we have a 
fixed scale of penalties, including the fine of a single tripod, and rang- 
ing from one to a hundred caldrons. 

The great inscription is perhaps two centuries later (c. 450 B.C.). 
It consists of a number of amendments or additions to an earlier code, 
and it deals exclusively with private law, in which the family and 
family property occupy the largest part. The procedure is entirely 
oral; oaths and other oral testimony are alone admitted; there are 
no documentary proofs, and no record of the verdict except in the 
memory of the judge or of his " remembrancer." All the causes are 
tried before a single judge, who varies according to the nature of the 
suit. Where the law specially enjoins it, he is bound to give judg- 
ment (SiKo&&ti>) in accordance with the law and the " witnesses or 
oaths," but, in other cases, he is permitted to take oath and decide 
(Kplvtiv) in view of " the contentions of the parties," as distinguished 
from " the declarations of the witnesses. Offences against the 
person are treated as matters of private compensation according to 
a carefully graduated tariff. In certain cases the defendant may 
clear himself by an " oath of purgation " with the support of " co- 
jurors " (Anwnorai), the Eideshelfer of old Germanic law (Grimm 
859 f-), who have no necessary knowledge of the facts. There is no 
interference with the exposure of infants, except in the interest of 
the father (if the child is free-born) or of the lord (in the case of serfs). 
The law of debt is primitive, though less severe than that of the early 
Romans. In contrast with these primitive elements we have others 
which are distinctly progressive. The estates of husband, wife and 
sons are regarded as absolutely distinct. Wills are unknown, even 
in their most restricted form. Elaborate provisions are made to 
secure with all speed the marriage of an " heiress "; she is bound to 
marry the eldest of her paternal uncles or to surrender part of her 
estate, and it is only if there are no paternal uncles that she is 
permitted to marry one (and that the eldest) of their sons. Adoption 
is made by the simple procedure of mounting a block of stone in the 
market-place and making a public announcement at a time when the 
citizens are assembled. The adopted son does not inherit any larger 
share than that of a daughter. Any one who desires to repudiate his 
adopted son makes a public announcement as before, and the person 
repudiated receives, by way of nominal compensation, the gift of a 
small number of staters. In these later " laws of Gortyn " we have 
reached the time when payments are made, not in " caldrons," but 
in coins. In the inscription itself the laws are simply described as 
" these writings." 

The text of the great inscription was first published by E. Fabricius 
in Ath. Milth. ix. (1885), 362-384; there is a cast of the whole in 
the Cambridge Museum of Classical Archaeology. Cf. Comparetti's 
Leggi di Gortyna (1893); Bucheler and Zittelmann in Rhein. Mus. 
xl. (1885); Dareste, Haussoullier and Th. Reinach, Inscr. juridiques 

f'ecques, iii. (1894), 352-493 (with the literature there quoted), 
ng. trans, by Roby in Law Quarterly Review (1886), 135-152; see 
also E. S. Roberts, Gk. Epigraphy, i. 39 f., 52 f., 325-332; J. W. 
Headlam in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xiii. (1892-1893), 48-69; 
P. Gardner and F. B. Jevons, Greek Antiquities (1895), 560-574; 
W. Wyse in Whibley's Companion to Greek Studies (1905), 378-383; 
and Hermann Lipsius, Zum Recht von Gortyns (Leipzig, 1909). 

A Roman writer ascribes to the Athenians the very invention 
of lawsuits ( Aelian, Var. Hist. iii. 38) , and. the Athenians 
themselves regarded their tribunals of homicide as 
institutions of immemorial antiquity (fsocr. Paneg. 40). 



GREEK LAW 



503 



Draco. 



On the abolition of the single decennial archon l in 683 B.C., his 
duties were distributed over several officials holding office for 
one year only. The judicial duties thenceforth discharged by 
the chief archon (the archon), in the case of citizens, 
wf/or *** were discharged by thepolemarch in the case of foreign 
archoas. settlers or metics (/ueroucot) ; while the king-archon, 
who succeeded to the religious functions of the ancient 
kings, decided cases connected with religious observances (see 
ARCHON). He also presided over the primitive council of the 
state, which was identical with the council of the Areopagus. 
It was possibly with a view to the recognition of the rights of the 
lower classes that, about the middle of the 7th century B.C., the 
three archons were raised to the number of nine by the institution 
of the joint board of the six Ihesmothetae, who super- 
intended the judicial system in general, kept a record 
of all legal decisions, and drew attention to any defects 
in the laws. It is probable that in their title we have 
the earliest example in Attic Greek of the use of thesmos in the 
sense of " law. " 

The constitution was at this time thoroughly oligarchical. 
With a view, however, to providing a remedy for the conflict 
between the several orders of the state, the first code 
of Athenian law was drawn up and published by Draco 
(strictly Dracon), who is definitely described as a thesmothetes 
(621). His laws were known as thesmoi. The distinctive part 
of his legislation was the law of homicide, which was held in 
such high esteem that it was left unaltered in the legislation of 
Solon and in the democratic restoration of 411 B.C. It is partly 
preserved in an inscription of 409, which has been restored with 
the aid of quotations from the orators (C.I. A. i. 61; Inscr. jurid. 
grecques, ii. i. 1-24; and Hicks, Gk. Hist. Inscr. No. 59). It drew 
a careful distinction between different kinds of homicide. Of 
the rest of Draco's legislation we only know that Aristotle 
(Politics, ii. 12, 13) was struck by the severity of the penalties, 
and that the creditor was permitted to seize the person of the 
debtor as security for his debt. 

The conflict of the orders was not allayed until both parties 
agreed in choosing Solon as mediator and as archon (594 B.C.). 
Solon cancelled all mortgages and debts secured on 
the person of the debtor, set free all who had become 
slaves for debt, and forbade such slavery for the future (see 
SOLON). Thenceforth every citizen had also " the right of appeal 
to the law-courts," and the privilege of claiming legal satisfaction 
on behalf of any one who was wronged. Cases of constitutional 
law (inter alia) came before large law-courts numbering hundreds 
of jurors, and the power of voting in these law-courts made the 
people masters of the constitution (Aristotle's Constitution of 
Athens, c. 9). Solon's legislation also had an important effect 
on the law of property. In primitive times, on a man's death, his 
money or lands remained in the family, and, even in the absence 
of direct descendants, the owner could not dispose of his property 
by will. Permission to execute a will was first given to Athenian 
citizens by the laws of Solon. But " the Athenian Will was only 
an inchoate Testament " (Maine's Ancient Law, c. vi.); for this 
permission was expressly limited to those citizens who had no 
direct male descendants (Dem. Lept. 102; Plutarch, Solon, 21; 
cf. Wyse on Isaeus, p. 325). 

The law of intestate succession is imperfectly preserved in 
[Dem.] 43, 51 (cf. Wyse, ib. p. 562 f.). In the absence of direct 
male descendants, a daughter who survived her father was 
known as an em/cXT/pos, not an " heiress," but a " person who 
went with the estate "; and, in the absence of a will, the right 
or duty of marrying the daughter followed (with certain obvious 
exceptions) the same rules as the right of succession to the 
estate (cf. Wyse, ib. p. 348 f.). 

Among the reforms of Cleisthenes (508) was the law of 

ostracism (q.v.). The privileges of the Areopagus were 

*BphaHf*. curtailed (while its right to try certain cases of homicide 

was left untouched) by the reforms of Ephialtes (462), 

1 For further information as to the evolution of the Athenian 
constitutionseeARCHON, AREOPAGUS, BOUL,ECCLESIA,STRATEGUS, 
and articles on all me chief legislators. 



Solon. 






and of Pericles, who also restored the thirty " local justices " 
(453), limited the franchise to those of citizen-blood 
by both parents (451), and was the first to assign to 
jurors a fee for their services in the law-courts, which 
was raised to three obols by Cleon (425). 

In contrast to legislative reforms brought about by lawgivers 
entrusted with special authority, such as Draco, Solon and 
Cleisthenes, there was the regular and normal course ordinary 
of public legislation. The legislative power was not course of 
exercised directly by the popular assembly (see 
ECCLESIA), but the preliminary consent of that body 
was necessary for the appointment of a legislative commission. 

In the 5th century (e.g. in 450 and 446 B.C.) certain com- 
missioners called <7U77pa0ts were appointed to draw up laws 
which, after approval by the council, were submitted Sya , 
to the assembly. The same term was still in use grapheis. 
in March 411 (Thuc. viii. 61). But in October, on Nomo- 
the overthrow of the Four Hundred, the commissioners tl>etae - 
are for the first time called nomolhetoe (ib. 97). 

The procedure in ordinary legislation was as follows. At the first 
meeting of the assembly in the year, the people was asked whether it 
would permit motions to be made for altering or supplementing the 
existing laws. A debate ensued, and, if such permission were granted , 
any citizen who wished to make a motion to the above effect was 
required to publish his proposals in the market-place, and to hand 
them to the secretary of the council (Boule) to be read aloud at more 
than one meeting of the assembly. At the third regular meeting the 
people appointed the legislative commissioners, who were drawn by 
lot from the whole number of those then qualified to act as jurors. 
The number, and the duration of the commission, were determined in 
each case by the people. The proceedings before the commission 
were conducted exactly in the manner of a lawsuit. Those who 
desired to see old laws repealed, altered or replaced by new laws 
came forward as accusers of those laws ; those of the contrary opinion, 
as defenders; and the defence was formally entrusted to public 
advocates specially appointed for the purpose (avrfyopoi). The 
number of the commissioners varied with the number or importance 
of the laws in question; there is evidence for the number 1001 (Dem. 
xxiv. 27). If a law approved by the commission was deemed to be 
unconstitutional, the proposer was liable to be prosecuted (by a 
ypo<i) Trap<u>6/jLui>) , just as in the case of the proposer of an unconstitu- 
tional decree in the public assembly. Formal proceedings might 
also be instituted against laws on the sole ground of their inexpedi- 
ency (see note on Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, p. 219, ed. 
Sandys). A prosecutor who (like Aeschines in his indictment of 
Ctesiphon) failed to obtain one-fifth of the votes was fined 1000 
drachmae (40), and lost the right to adopt this procedure in future. 
When a year had elapsed, the proposer of a law or a decree was free 
from personal responsibility. This was the case with Leptines, but 
the law itself could still be attacked, and, in this event, five advocates 
were appointed to defend it (o-toSucot), cf. Dem. Lept. 144, 146. 

Limits of space make it impossible to include in the present 
article any survey of the purport of the extant remains of the 
laws of Athens. Such a survey would begin with the 
laws of the family, including laws of marriage, adoption 
and inheritance, followed by the law of property 
and contracts, and the laws for the protection of life, the 
protection of the person, and the protection of the constitution. 
The texts have been collected and classified in T61fy's Corpus 
juris Atlici (1867), a work which can be supplemented or 
corrected with the aid of Aristotle's Constitution of Athens; 
while some of the recent expositions of the subject are mentioned 
in the bibliography at the end of this article. We now proceed 
to notice the law of homicide, but solely in connexion with 
jurisdiction. 

The general term fora tribunal is diKaariipiov (from StxAfco), 
Anglicized " dicastery." Of all the tribunals of Athens those 
for the trial of homicide were at once the most primitive 
and the least liable to suffer change through lapse ^on- the 
of time. In the old Germanic law all trials whatsoever 



were held in the open air (Grimm 793 f.). At Athens tiyetrt- 
this custom was characteristic of all the five primitive buaali for 
courts of homicide, the object being to prevent the 



prosecutor and the judges from coming under the 
same roof as one who was charged with the shedding of blood 
(Antiphon, De caede Herodis, ii). The place where the trial 
was held depended on the nature of the charge. 



54 



GREEK LAW 



1. The rock of the Acropolis, outside the earliest of the city- walls, 
was the proper place for the trial of persons charged with pre- 
Oa the meditated homicide, or with wounding with intent to kill. 
Areopagus. The penalty for the former crime was death ; for the latter 

' exile; and, in either case, the property was confiscated. 
If the yotes were equal, the person accused was acquitted. The 
proceedings lasted for three days, and each side might make two 
speeches. After the first speech the person accused of premeditated 
homicide was mercifully permitted to go into exile, in which case his 
property was confiscated, and in the ordinary course he remained in 
exile for the rest of his life. 

2. Charges of unpremeditated homicide, or of instigating another 
to inflict bodily harm on a third person, or of killing a slave or a 
At the resident alien or a foreigner, were tried at the Palladion, 
P lladton tne anc ' ent shrine of Pallas, east of the city-walls. The 

' punishment for unpremeditated homicide was exile 
(without confiscation) until such time as the criminal had propiti- 
ated the relatives of the person slain, or (failing that) for some 
definite time. The punishment for instigating a crime was the same 
as for actually committing it. 

At the Del- 3' Trials _at the Delphinion, the shrine of Apollo 
phlnlon Delphinios, in the same quarter, were reserved for special 
cases of either accidental or justifiable homicide. 

4. If a man already in exile for unpremeditated homicide were 
accused of premeditated homicide, or of wounding with intent to 
At kill, provision was made for this rare contingency by per- 
Phrcatto. mitting him to approach the shore of Attica and conduct 

his defence on board a boat, while his judges heard the 
cause on shore, at a " place of pits " called Phreatto, near the 
harbour of Zea. _ If the accused were found guilty, he incurred the 
proper penalty; if acquitted, he remained in exile. 

5. The court in the precincts of the Prytaneum, to the north of the 
Acropolis, was only of ceremonial importance. It " solemnly heard 
At the Pry anc ^ condemned undiscovered murderers, and animals or 
ianeum. inanimate objects that had caused the loss of life." 1 

The writ ran " against the doer of the deed," and any 
instrument of death that was found guilty was thrown across tl.c 
frontier. The trial was held by the four " tribe-kings" (^uXo/WiXtis), 
an archaic survival from before the time of Cleisthenes. (On these 
five courts see Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, -c. 57, and Dem. 
Aristocr. 65-79.) 

In all the courts of homicide the president was the archon-basi- 
leus, or king-archon, who on these occasions laid aside his crown. 
Ephetae Originally all these courts were under the jurisdiction of 
an ancient body of judges called the ephetae (fc-ai), 
whose institution was ascribed to Draco. The transfer of the first 
of the above courts to the council of the Areopagus is attributed 
to Solon. In practice the jurisdiction cf the ephetae (see also 
AREOPAGUS) was probably confined to the courts at the Palladion 
and Delphinion; but even there the rights of this primitive body 
became obsolete, for trials " at the Palladion " sometimes came before 
an ordinary tribunal of 500 or 700 jurors (Isocr. c. Callim. 52, 54; 
[Dem.] c. Neaeram, 10). 

Except in the case of the primitive courts of homicide, the 
right of jurisdiction was entrusted to the several archons until 
The the date of Solon (594). When the direct jurisdiction 

presidents of the archons was impaired by Solon's institution 
of the " right ' of appeal to the law-courts," the 
dignity of those officials was recognized by their having 
the privilege of presiding over the new tribunals (riyfuovLa 
SuaoTTjpiou). A similar position was assigned to the other 
The chief executive officers, such as the strategi (generals), the 
archoa. board of police called the " Eleven," and the financial 
officers, all of whom presided over cases connected 
with their respective departments. In their new position 
as presidents of the several courts, the archons received 
The kin P^ a i nts ) obtained from both parties the evidence which 
aKhoa.*" th . ev Proposed to present, formally presided at the 
trial, and gave instructions for the execution of the 
sentence. The choice of the presiding magistrate in each case 
was determined by the normal duties of his office. Thus the 
chief archon, the official guardian of orphans and 
widows, presided in all cases, public or private, con- 
nected with the family property of citizens (Aristotle, 
u.s. c. 56). The king-archon had charge of ah 1 offences against 
The religion, e.g. indictments for impiety, disputes within 

strategi. the famu y as to the right to hold a particular priest- 
hood, and all actions for homicide (c. 57). The third 

1 In the case of " animals," we may compare the Mosaic law of 
Exod. xxxi. 28 and the old Germanic law (Grimm 664); and in that 
of " inanimate objects," the English law of deodands (Blackstone i. 
300), repealed in 1846. See also Frazer on Pausanias, i. 28. 10. 



of the 

tribunals. 



The k- 

" 



archon, the polemarch, discharged in relation to resident aliens 
all such legal duties as were' discharged by the chief archon in 
relation to citizens (c. 58) . The trial of military offences 
was under the presidency of the strategi, who were 
assisted by the other military, officers in preparing 
the case for the court. The six junior archons, the thesmotheloe, 
acted as a board which was responsible for all cases not specially 
assigned to any other officials (details in c. 59). 

The Forty, who were appointed by lot, four for each of the 
ten tribes, acted as sole judges in petty cases where the damages 
claimed did not exceed ten drachmae. Claims beyond 
that amount they handed over to the arbitrators. 
The four representatives of any given tribe received 
notice of such claims brought against members of that tribe. It 
seems probable that they dealt with all private suits not other- 
wise assigned, but, unlike the archons, they did not prepare any 
case for the court but referred it, in the first instance, to a public 
arbitrator appointed by lot (c. 53). 2 

The public arbitrators (duuTifrai) were a body including all 
Athenian citizens in the sixtieth year of their age. The arbitrator, 
on receiving the case from the four representatives 
of the Forty, first endeavoured to bring the parties ^^ ub " c 
to an agreement. If this failed, he heard the evidence "raiors. 
and gave a decision. If the decision were accepted, 
the case was at an end, but, if either of the two parties insisted 
on appealing to a law-court, the arbitrator placed in two caskets 
(one for each party) copies of all the depositions, oaths and 
challenges, and of all the laws quoted in the case, sealed them up, 
and, after attaching a copy of his own decision, handed them 
over to the four representatives of the Forty, who brought the 
case into court and presided over the trial. Documents which 
had not been brought before the arbitrator could not be produced 
in court. The court consisted of 201 jurors where the sum in 
question was not more than 1000 drachmae (40); in other 
cases the number of jurors was 401 (c. 53). 

A small board of five appointed by lot, one for each pair of 
tribes, and known as the " introducers " (ehayoiyds) , brought 
up certain of the cases that had to be decided within 
a month ( fuwvoi SLKCU.), such as actions for restitution Eisago- 
of dowry, repayment of capital for setting up a business, ** *" 
and cases connected with banking. 

The largest and most important of the legal tribunals, the 
" dicastery " (par excellence), was known as the heliaea. The 
name, which is of uncertain origin, 3 denotes not only Hella 
the place where the court was held but also the members 
of the court, the heliastae of Aristophanes, the dicastae, or 
avdpts oiKaarai, of the Attic orators. During the palmy days 
of the Athenian democracy, in the interval between the Persian 
and the Peloponnesian wars, the total number liable to serve 
as jurors is said to have been 6000 (Aristotle, u.s. c. 24. 3), 
and this number was never exceeded (Aristoph. Vesp. 661 f.). 
Any Athenian citizen in full possession of his rights, and over 
thirty years of age, was entitled to be placed on the list (Aristotle, 
u.s. c. 63. 3). At the beginning of the year the whole body of 
jurors assembled on the hill of Ardettos looking down on the 
Panathenaic Stadium, and there took a solemn oath to the 
effect that they would judge according to the laws and decrees 
of the Athenian people and of the council of the Five Hundred 
(Boule), and that, in cases where there were no laws, they would 
decide to the best of their judgment; that they would hear both 
sides impartially, and vote on the case actually before the court. 
It has been suggested that, as the normal number of a court 
was 500, the maximum number of 6000 jurors was probably 
divided into ten sections of 500 each, with 1000 reserves. There 
is evidence in the 4th century for courts of 200, 400, 500, 700 and 

2 Cf. R. J. Bonner, in Classical Philology (Chicago, 1907), 407-418, 
who urges that only cases belonging to the Forty were subject to 
public arbitration. 

3 Connected either with iAlfeaOai, " to assemble," or rjXioj, or 
"HX (cf . Curt Wachsmuth, Stadt Athen, ii. (i) 359-364). The first is 
possibly right (cf. Rogers on Aristoph. Wasps, xvii. f.) ; the second 
implies that this large- court was held in the open air (Lipsius, Att. 
Recht, 172). 



GREEK LAW 



505 



" 



(in important political trials) various multiples of 500, namely, 
looo, 1500, 2000 or 2500. To some of these numbers one juror 
is added; it was probably added to all, to obviate the risk of 
the votes being exactly equal. 

The evidence as to the organization of the jurors in the early 
part of the 4th century is imperfect. Passages in Aristophanes 
(Ecclesiazusae, 682-688; Plutus, 1166 f.) imply that in 392-388 
B.C. the total number was divided into ten sections distinguished 
by the first ten letters of the Greek alphabet, A to K. Every 
juror, on his first appointment, received a ticket of boxwood 
(or of bionze) bearing his name with that of his father and his 
deme, and with one of the above letters in the upper left-hand 
corner. Of the bronze tickets many have been found (see 
notes on Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, c. 63, and fig. i in 
frontispiece, ed. Sandys). These tickets formed part of the 
machinery for allotting the jurors to the several courts. To 
guard against the possibility of bribery or other undue influence, 
the allotment did not take place until immediately before the 
hearing of the case. Each court contained an equal number 
of jurors from each of the ten tribes, and thus represented the 
whole body of the state. The juror, on entering the court 
assigned him, received a counter (see fig. 3 in frontispiece, U.S.), 
on presenting which at the end of the day he received his fee. 
The machinery for carrying out the above arrangements is 
minutely described at the end of Aristotle's Constitution of 
Athens (for details, cf. Gilbert, 397-399, Eng. trans., or Wyse 
in Whibley's Companion to Greek Studies, 387 f.). 

The law-courts gradually superseded most of the ancient 
judicial functions of the council and the assembly, but the 
council continued to hold a strict scrutiny (So/a/xacria) 
of candidates for office or for other privileges, while 
of the the council itself, as well as all other officials, had to 
council give account (evBvva) on ceasing to hold office. The 
""' . council also retained the right to deal with extra- 
" ordinary crimes against the state. It was open to any 
citizen to bring such crimes to the knowledge of the council in 
writing. The technical term for this information, denunciation 
or impeachment was eisangelia (eiaayytXia). The 
gel*".' council could inflict a fine of 500 drachmae (20), or, 
in important cases, refer the matter either to a law- 
court, as in the trial of Antiphon (Thuc. viii. 68), or to the 
ecclesia, as in that of Alcibiades (415 B.C.), and the strategi in 
command at Arginusae (406; Xen. Hell. i. 7. 19). The term 
tlaayytMa was also applied to denunciations brought against 
persons who wronged the orphan or the widow, or against a public 
arbitrator who had neglected his duty (Dem. Meidias, 86 f.). 

A " presentation " of criminal information (irpofto\rj) might 
be laid before the assembly with a view to obtaining its pre- 
liminary sanction for bringing the case before a 
judicial tribunal. Such was the mode of procedure 
adopted against persons who had brought malicious, groundless 
or vexatious accusations, or who had violated the sanctity of 
certain public festivals. The leading example of the former 
is the trial of the accusers who prompted the people to put to 
death the generals who had won the Battle of Arginusae (Xen. 
Hell. i. 7. 34) ; and, of the latter, the proceedings of Demosthenes 
against Meidias. 

Legal actions (5t/coi) were classified as private (i&tai) or 
public (Srin/Hncu). The latter were also described as ypatj>ai or 
"prosecutions," but some ypa<t>ai were called "private," 
o/ a /e-a/ wnen tne state was regarded as only indirectly injured 
actions. by a wrong done to an individual citizen (Dem. xxi. 47). 
A private suit could only be brought by the man 
directly interested, or, in the case of a slave, a ward or an alien, 
by the master, guardian or patron respectively; and, if the suit 
were successful, the sum claimed generally went to the plaintiff. 
Public actions may be divided into ordinary criminal cases, and 
offences against the state. As a rule they could be instituted 
by any person who possessed the franchise, and the penalty 
was paid to the state. If the prosecutor failed to obtain one-fifth 
of the votes, he had to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae (40), and 
lost the right of ever bringing a similar action. 



Probole. 



Lawsuits, whether public or private, were also distinguished 
as 6'i.Kcu. KO.TO. TWOS or Trpos nva, according as the defeated 
party could or could not be personally punished. Actions 
(ay&vts) were also distinguished as aySivts Tifiijroi (" to be 
assessed "), in which the amount of damages had to be deter- 
mined by the court, because it had not been fixed by law, and 
dri/iTjTOi (" not to be assessed "), in which the damages had not 
to be determined by the court, because they had already been 
fixed by law or by special agreement. 

Among special kinds of action were airayuyri, </>^y?j(7K and 
fvdti&s. These could only be employed when the offence 
was patent and could not be denied. In the first, the person 
accused was summarily arrested by the prosecutor and haled 
into the presence of the proper official. In the second, the 
accuser took the officer with him to arrest the culprit (Dem. 
xxii. 26). In the third, he lodged an information with the 
official, and left the latter to effect the capture, "fcdcrw, a general 
term for many kinds of legal " information," was a form of 
procedure specially directed against those who injured the fiscal 
interests of the state, and against guardians who neglected 
the pecuniary interests of their wards. 'Airoypatfrri was an action 
for confiscating property in private hands, which was claimed 
as belonging to the state, the term being derived from the 
claimants' written inventory of the property in question. 

The ordinary procedure in all lawsuits, public or private, 
began with a personal summons (irponcXTjcris) of the 
defendant by the plaintiff accompanied by two 
witnesses (/cXijrijpes). If the defendant failed to 
appear in court, these witnesses gave proof of the 
summons, and judgment went by default. 

The action was begun by presenting a written statement of 
the case to the magistrate who presided over trials of the class 
in question. If the statement were accepted, court-fees were 
paid by both parties in a private action, and by the prosecutor 
alone in a public action. The magistrate fixed a day for the 
preliminary investigation (di'd/cptcrts) , and, whenever several 
causes were instituted at the same, time, he drew lots to determine 
the order in which they should be taken. Hence the plaintiff 
was said " to have a suit assigned him by lot " (\ayxavav bitaiv), 
a phrase practically equivalent to " obtaining leave to bring an 
action." At the dcaKpi<r the plaintiff and defendant both 
swore to the truth of their statements. If the defendant raised 
no formal protest, the trial proceeded in regular course (tvdvStxia), 
but he might contend that the suit was inadmissible, and, to 
prove his point, might bring witnesses to confront those on the 
side of the plaintiff (dianaprvpla) , or he might rely on argument 
without witnesses by means of a written statement traversing 
that of the plaintiff (ira.paypa<trh) The person who submitted the 
special plea in bar of action naturally spoke first, and, if he 
gained the verdict, the main suit could not come on, or, at any 
rate, not in the way proposed or before the same court. A 
cross-action (avrtypa<pri) might be brought by the defendant, 
but the verdict did not necessarily affect that of the original 
suit. 

In the preliminary examination copies of the laws or other 
documents bearing on the case were produced. If any such 
document were in the hands of a third person, he 
could be compelled to produce it by an action for that 
purpose (s entftavcav KO.TaaTa.cnv). The depositions 
were ordinarily made before the presiding officer and were 
taken down in his presence. If a witness were compelled to 
be absent, a certified copy of his deposition might be sent 
(eKnaprvpla) . The depositions of slaves were not accepted, 
unless made under torture, and for receiving such evidence 
the consent of both parties was required. Either party could 
challenge the other to submit his slaves to the 
test (7rp6K\ij(ns eis fi&cravov) , and, in the event of the u-nges. 
challenge being refused, could comment on the fact 
when the case came before the court. Either party could also 
challenge the other to take an oath (irp6cXt;cr tij ftpicov), 
and, if the oath were declined, could similarly comment on the 
fact. 



GREEK LAW 






Mercantile cases had to be decided within the interval of a 
month; others might be postponed for due cause. If, on the 
day of trial, one of the parties was absent, his 
representative had to show cause under oath (wr- 
); if the other party objected, he did so under oath 
ojiKwrla). If the plea for delay were refused by the court, 
and it were the defendant who failed to appear, judgment went 
by default; in the absence of the plaintiff, the case was given 
in favour of the defendant. 

The official who had conducted the preliminary inquiry 
also presided at the trial. The proceedings began with a solemn 
sacrifice. The plea of the plaintiff and the formal reply of the 
defendant were then read by the clerk. The court was next 
addressed first by the plaintiff, next by the defendant; in some 
cases there were two speeches on each side. Every litigant was 
legally required to conduct his own case. The speeches were 
often composed by professional experts for delivery by the 
parties to the suit, who were required to speak in person, though 
one or more unprofessional supporters (ffwf/yopot.) might subse- 
quently speak in support of the case. The length of the speeches 
was in many cases limited by law to a fixed time recorded by 
means of a water-clock (clepsydra). Documents were not 
regarded as part of the speech, and, while these were being read, 
the clock was stopped (Goethe found a similar custom in force 
in Venice in October 1786). The witnesses were never cross- 
examined, but one of the litigants might formally interrogate 
the other. The case for the defence was sometimes finally 
supported by pathetic appeals on the part of relatives and 
friends. 

When the speeches were over, the votes were taken. In the 
5th century mussel-shells (xotpivai) were used for the purpose. 
Each of the jurors received a shell, which he placed in one of the 
two urns, in that to the front if he voted for acquittal; in that 
to the back if he voted for condemnation. If a second vote had 
to be taken to determine the amount of the penalty, wax tablets 
were used, on which the juror drew a long line, if he gave the 
heavy penalty demanded by the plaintiff; a short one, if he de- 
cided in favour of the lighter penalty proposed by the defendant. 

In the 4th century the mussel-shells were replaced by disks 
of bronze. Each disk (inscribed with the words ^H3>OS 
AHMOZIA) was about i in. in diameter, with a short tube running 
through the centre. This tube was either perforated or closed 
(see figs. 6 and 7 in frontispiece to Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, 
ed. Sandys). One of each kind was given to every juror, who 
was required to use the perforated or the closed disk, according 
as he voted for the plaintiff or for the defendant. On the 
platform there were two urns, one of bronze and one of wood. 
The juror placed in the hollow of his hand the disk that he 
proposed to use, and closed his fingers on the extremity of the 
tube, so that no one could see whether it were a perforated disk 
or not, and then deposited it in the bronze urn, and (with the 
same precaution to ensure secrecy) dropped the unused disk into 
the wooden urn. The votes were sorted by persons appointed 
by lot, and counted by the president of the court, and the 
result announced by the herald. For any second vote the same 
procedure was adopted (Aristotle, U.S., c. 68 of Kenyon's Berlin 
text). 

Pecuniary penalties were inflicted both in public and in 
private suits; personal penalties, in public suits only. Personal 
Penalties. P^naliies included sentences of death or exile, or 
different degrees of disfranchisement (dn^ia) with or 
without confiscation. Imprisonment before trial was common, 
and persons mulcted in penalties might be imprisoned 
until the penalties were paid, but imprisonment was never 
inflicted as the sole penalty after conviction. Foreigners alone 
could be sold into slavery. Sentences of death were carried 
out under the supervision of the board of police called the 
" Eleven." In ancient times a person condemned was hurled 
into a deep pit (the barathrum) in a north-western suburb of 
Athens. In later times he was compelled to drink the fatal 
draught of hemlock. Common malefactors were beaten to 
death with clubs. Fines were collected and confiscated property 



sold by special officials, called irptutTOpfS and TrcoXTjrot respec- 
tively. In private suits the sentence was executed by the state 
if the latter had a share in any fine imposed, or if imprison- 
ment were part of the penalty. Otherwise, the execution of the 
sentence was left to the plaintiff, who had the right of distraint, 
or, if this failed, could bring an action of ejectment (5u?) e^oiryrjs). 

From the verdict of the heliaea there was no appeal. But, 
if judgment had been given by default, the person condemned 
might bring an action to prove that he was not responsible for 
such default, rfiv t(n\\iov (sc. dinriv) o.vri\ayx^vtiv. The corre- 
sponding term for challenging the award of an arbitrator was 
T'fiv fir/ ovaav diriXa-y '\kveiv. He might also bring an action for 
false evidence (Slicri if/fvSonaprvpiGiv) against his opponent's 
witnesses, and, on their conviction, have the sentence annulled. 
This " denunciation " of false evidence was technically called 
e7ri<no?its and eiu<noj7rreo-0ai. 

The large number of the jurors made bribery difficult, but, 
as was first proved by Anytus (in 409), not impossible. It also 
diminished the feeling of personal responsibility, while character 
it increased the influence of political motives. In of the 
addressing such a court, the litigants were not above Athenian 
appealing to the personal interests of the general t * 1buaals - 
public. We have a striking example of this in the terms 
in which Lysias makes one of his clients close a speech in 
prosecution of certain retail corn-dealers who have incurred the 
penalty of death by buying more than 75 bushels of wheat at 
one time: " If you condemn these persons, you will be doing 
what is right, and will pay less for the purchase of your corn; 
if you acquit them, you will pay more " (xxii. 22). 

Speakers were also tempted to take advantage of the popular 
ignorance by misinterpreting the enactments of the law, and the 
jurors could look for no aid from the officials who formally 
presided over the courts. The latter were not necessarily experts, 
for they owed their own original appointment to the caprice of 
the lot. Almost the only officials specially elected as experts 
were the strategi, and these presided only in their own courts. 
Again, there was every temptation for the informer to propose 
the confiscation of the property of a wealthy citizen, who would 
naturally prefer paying blackmail to running the risk of having 
his case tried before a large tribunal which was under every 
temptation to decide in the interests of the treasury. In con- 
clusion we may quote the opinions on the judicial system of 
Athens which have been expressed by two eminent classical 
scholars and English lawyers. 

A translator of Aristophanes, Mr B. B. Rogers, records his opinion 
" that it would be. difficult to devise a judicial system less adapted 
for the due administration of justice " (Preface to Wasps, xxxv. f.), 
while a translator of Demosthenes, Mr C. R. Kennedy, observes that 
the Athenian jurors " were persons of no legal education or learning; 
taken at haphazard from the whole body of citizens, and mostly 
belonging to the lowest and poorest class. On the other hand, the 
Athenians were naturally the quickest and cleverest people in the 
world. Their wits were sharpened by the habit ... of taking an 
active part in important debates, and hearing the most splendid 
orators. There was so much litigation at Athens that they were 
constantly either engaged as jurors, or present as spectators in courts 
of law" (Private Orations, p. 361). 

AUTHORITIES. I. Greek Law. B. W. Leist, Grdco-italische 
Rechtsgeschichle (Jena, 1884); L. Mitteis, Reichsrecht und Volksrecht 
in den ostlichen Provinzen des romischen Kaiserreichs, mil Beilrdgen zur 
Kenntnis des griechischen Rechts (Leipzig, 1891); I. H. Lipsius, Von 
der Bedeutung des griechischen Rechts (Leipzig, 1893) ;G. Gilbert, " Zur 
Entwickelungsgeschichte des . . . griechischen Rechtes " in Jahrb. 
fiir kl. Philologie (Leipzig, l8g6);Ti. J. Hitzig, Die Bedeutung des 
alt griechischen Rechtes fiir die vergleichende Rechtsurissenschaft (Stutt- 
gart, 1906) ; R. Hirzel, Themis, Dike und Verwandtes (Leipzig, 1907) ; 
. J. Thonissen, Le Droit criminel de la Grece Ugendaire, followed by 
'.e Droit penal de la republique athenienne (Brussels, 1875). 

2. Attic Law. (a) Editions of Greek texts: I. B. T61fy, Corpus 
juris Attici (Pest and Leipzig, 1868); Aristotle's Constitution of 
Athens, ed. Kenyon (London, 1891, &c., and esp. ed. 4, Berlin, 1903) ; 
ed. 4, Blass (Leipzig, 1903) ; text with critical and explanatory notes, 
ed. Sandys (London, 1893); Lysias, ed. Frohberger (Leipzig, 1866- 
1871); Isaeus, ed. Wyse (Cambridge, 1904); Demosthenes, Private 
Orations, ed. Paley and Sandys, ed. 3 (Cambridge, 1896-1898); 
Against Midias, ed. Goodwin (Cambridge, 1906); Dareste, Haus- 
soullier, Th. Reinach, Inscr. juridiques grecques (Paris, 1891-1904). 
(b) Modern treatises: K. F. Hermann, De vestigiis institutorum 



ANCIENT] 



GREEK LITERATURE 



507 



. . . Atlicorum per Platonis de legibus libros indagandis (Marburg, 
1836); Staatsaltertumer, ed. 6, Thumser (Freiburg, 1892); Rechts- 
altertumer, ed. 3, Thalheim (Freiburg, 1884); G. Busolt, Staats- 
und Rechtsaltertumer, ed. 2 (Munich, 1892); U. von Wilamowitz- 
Mollendorff, Aristoteles und Athen (Berlin, 1893); G. Gilbert, Gk. 
Constitutional Antiquities (vol. i., Eng. trans., pp. 376-416, London, 
1895); J- H. Lipsius, (i) new ed. of Meier and Schomann, Der 
attische Process (Berlin, 1883-1887); (2) ed. 4 of Schomann, Gr. 
Altertiimer (Berlin, 1897-1902); (3) Das attische Recht und Rechts- 
verfahren (Leipzig, 1905) ; Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des 
anliquMs (Paris, 1877) ; G. Glotz, La Solidarite de la famille dans le 
droit criminel en Grece (Paris, 1904) ; L. Beauchet, Droit prive de la 
rep. athen. (4 vols., Paris, 1897); C. R. Kennedy, Appendices to 
transl. of Dem. vols. iii. and iv. (1856-1861); Smith's Dictionary of 
. . . Antiquities, ed. 3 (1891); F. B. Jevons, in Gardner and Jevons, 
Greek Antiquities (1895, pp. 526-597); W. Wyse, in Whibley's 
Companion to Greek Studies (Cambridge, 1905), pp. 377-402. 

(J. E. S.*) 

GREEK LITERATURE. The literature of the Greek language 
is broadly divisible into three main sections: (i) Ancient, (2) 
Byzantine, (3) Modern. These are dealt with below in that 
order. 

I. THE ANCIENT GREEK LITERATURE 

The ancient literature falls into three periods: (A) The 
Early Literature, to about 475 B.C.; epic, elegiac, iambic and 
lyric poetry; the beginnings of literary prose. (B) The Attic 
Literature 475-300 B.C.; tragic and comic drama; historical, 
oratorical and philosophical prose. (C) The Literature of the 
Decadence, 300 B.C. to A.D. 529; which may again be divided 
into the Alexandrian period, 300-146 B.C., and the Graeco- 
Roman period, 146 B.C. to A.D. 529. 

For details regarding particular works or the lives of their 
authors reference should be made to the separate articles devoted 
to the principal Greek writers. The object of the following 
pages is to sketch the literary development as a whole, to show 
how its successive periods were related to each other, and to 
mark the dominant characteristics of each. 

(A) The Early Literature. A process of natural growth may 
be traced through all the best work of the Greek genius. The 
Greeks were not literary imitators of foreign models; the forms 
of poetry and prose in which they attained to such unequalled 
excellence were first developed by themselves. Their literature 
had its roots in their political and social life; it is the spontaneous 
expression of that life in youth, maturity and decay; and the 
order in which its several fruits are produced is not the result 
of accident or caprice. Further, the old Greek literature has a 
striking completeness, due to the fact that each great branch of 
the Hellenic race bore a characteristic part in its development, 
lonians, Aeolians, Dorians, in turn contributed their share. 
Each dialect corresponded to a certain aspect of Hellenic life 
and character. Each found its appropriate work. 

The lonians on the coast of Asia Minor a lively and genial 
people, delighting in adventure, and keenly sensitive to every- 
thing bright and joyous created artistic epic poetry 
dialects. out ^ tne ^ avs * n wmc h Aeolic minstrels sang of the old 
Achaean wars. And among the lonians arose elegiac 
poetry, the first variation on the epic type. These found a 
fitting instrument in the harmonious Ionic dialect, the flexible 
utterance of a quick and versatile intelligence. The Aeolians of 
Lesbos next created the lyric of personal passion, in which the 
traits of their race its chivalrous pride, its bold but sensuous 
fancy found a fitting voice in the fiery strength and tenderness 
of Aeolic speech. The Dorians of the Peloponnesus, Sicily and 
Magna Graecia then perfected the choral lyric for festivals and 
religious worship; and here again an earnest faith, a strong 
pride in Dorian usage and renown had an apt interpreter in 
the massive and sonorous Doric. Finally, the Attic branch of 
the Ionian stock produced the drama, blending elements ofall 
the other kinds, and developed an artistic literary prose in 
history, oratory and philosophy. It is in the Attic literature 
that the Greek mind receives its most complete interpretation. 

A natural affinity was felt to exist between each dialect and 
that species of composition for which it had been specially used. 
Hence the dialect of the Ionian epic poets would be adopted 
with more or less thoroughness even by epic or elegiac poets who 



Hymn*. 



were not lonians. Thus the Aeolian Hesiod uses it in epos, the 
Dorian Theognis in elegy, though not without alloy. Similarly, 
the Dorian Theocritus wrote love-songs in Aeolic. All the 
faculties and tones of the language were thus gradually brought 
out by the co-operation of the dialects. Old Greek literature 
has an essential unity the unity of a living organism; and this 
unity comprehends a number of distinct types, each of which 
is complete in its own kind. 

Extant Greek literature begins with the Homeric poems. 
These are works of art which imply a long period of antecedent 
poetical cultivation. Of the pre-Homeric poetry we 
have no remains, and very little knowledge. Such 
glimpses as we get of it connect it with two different 
stages in the religion of the prehistoric Hellenes. The 
first of these stages is that in which the agencies or forms of 
external nature were personified indeed, yet with the conscious- 
ness that the personal names were only symbols. Some very 
ancient Greek songs of which mention is made may 
have belonged to this stage as the songs of Linus, 
lalemus and Hylas. Linus, the fair youth killed by 
dogs, seems to be the spring passing away before 
Sirius. Such songs have been aptly called " songs of the seasons." 
The second stage is that in which the Hellenes have now defini- 
tively personified the powers which they worship. Apollo, 
Demeter, Dionysus, Cybele, have now become to them beings 
with clearly conceived attributes. To this second stage belong 
the hymns connected with the names of the legendary 
bards, such as Orpheus, Musaeus, Eumolpus, who are 
themselves associated with the worship of the Pierian Muses and 
the Attic ritual of Demeter. The seats of this early sacred 
poetry are not only "Thracian" i.e. on the borders of northern 
Greece but also " Phrygian " and " Cretan." It belongs, 
that is, presumably to an age when the ancestors of the Hellenes 
had left the Indo-European home in central Asia, but had not 
yet taken full possession of the lands which were afterwards 
Hellenic. Some of their tribes were still in Asia; others were 
settling in the islands of the Aegean; others were passing through 
the lands on its northern seaboard. If there was a period when 
the Greeks possessed no poetry but hymns forming part of a 
religious ritual, it may be conjectured that it was not of long 
duration. Already in the Iliad a secular character belongs to the 
marriage hymn and to the dirge for the dead, which in ancient 
India were chanted by the priest. The bent of the Greeks was 
to claim poetry and music as public joys; they would not long 
have suffered them to remain sacerdotal mysteries. And among 
the earliest themes on which the lay artist in poetry was employed 
were probably war-ballads, sung by minstrels in the houses of 
the chiefs whose ancestors they celebrated. 

Such war-ballads were the materials from which the earliest 
epic poetry of Greece was constructed. By an " epic " poem 
the Greeks meant a narrative of heroic action in 
hexameter verse. The term CTTTJ meant at first simply 
"verses"; it acquired its special meaning only when 
lyric songs set to music, came to be distinguished from ibnj, 
verses not set to music, but merely recited. Epic poetry is the 
only kind of extant Greek poetry which is older than about 
700 B.C. The early epos of Greece is represented by the Iliad 
and the Odyssey, Hesiod and the Homeric hymns; also by 
some fragments of the " Cyclic " poets. 

After the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus, the Aeolian 
emigrants who settled in the north-west of Asia Minor brought 
with them the warlike legends of their chiefs, the 
Achaean princes of old. These legends lived in the 
ballads of the Aeolic minstrels, and from them passed 
southward into Ionia, where the Ionian poets gradually 
shaped them into higher artistic forms. Among the seven 
places which claimed to be the birthplace of Homer, that which 
has the best title is Smyrna. Homer himself is called " son of 
Meles " the stream which flowed through old Smyrna, on the 
border between Aeolia and Ionia. The tradition is significant in 
regard to the origin and character of the Iliad, for in the Iliad we 
have Achaean ballads worked up by Ionian art. A preponderance 



508 



GREEK LITERATURE 



[ANCIENT 



of evidence is in favour of the view that the Odyssey also, at 
least in its earliest form, was composed on the Ionian coast 
of Asia Minor. According to the Spartan account, Lycurgus 
was the first to bring to Greece a complete copy of the Homeric 
poems, which he had obtained from the Creophylidae, a clan or 
gild of poets in Samos. A better authenticated tradition connects 
Athens with early attempts to preserve the chief poetical treasure 
of the nation. Peisistratus is said to have charged some learned 
men with the task of collecting all " the poems of Homer "; 
but it is difficult to decide how much was comprehended under 
this last phrase, or whether the province of the commission 
went beyond the mere task of collecting. Nor can it be deter- 
mined what exactly it was that Solon and Hipparchus respec- 
tively did for the Homeric poems. Solon, it has been thought, 
enacted that the poems should be recited from an authorized 
text (e iwo/SoX^s) ; Hipparchus, that they should be recited 
in a regular order (e inro\fi\^etiis) . At any rate, we know that 
in the 6th century B.C. a recitation of the poems of Homer was 
one of the established competitions at the Panathenaea, held 
once in four years. The reciter was called a rhapsodist 
properly one who weaves a long, smoothly-flowing chant, then 
an epic poet who chants his own or another's poem. The 
rhapsodist did not, like the early minstrel, use the accompaniment 
of the harp; he gave the verses in a flowing recitative, bearing 
in his hand a branch of laurel, the symbol of Apollo's inspiration. 
In the sth century B.C. we find that various Greek cities had 
their own editions (at TroXirucai, Kara TroXets or iroXewi' 
exSoaets) of the poems, for recitation at their festivals. Among 
these were the editions of Massilia, of Chios and of Argolis. 
There were also editions bearing the name of the individual 
editor (at KO.T' &v5pa) the best known being that which 
Aristotle prepared for Alexander. The recension of the poems 
by Aristarchus (156 B.C.) became the standard one, and is 
probably that on which the existing text is based. The oldest 
Homeric MS. extant, Venetus A of the Iliad, is of the loth 
century; the first printed edition of Homer was that edited 
by the Byzantine Demetrius Chalcondyles (Florence, 1488). 

The ancient Greeks were almost unanimous in believing the 
Iliad and the Odyssey to be the work of one man, Homer, to whom 

they also ascribed some extant hymns, and probably 
Homeric mucn more besides. Aristotle and Aristarchus seem 
question, t have put Homer's date about 1044 B.C., Herodotus 

about 850 B.C. It is not till about 170 B.C. that the 
grammarians Hellanicus and Xenon put forward the view that 
Homer was the author of the Iliad, but not of the Odyssey. 
Those who followed them in assigning different authors to the 
two poems were called the Separators (Chorizontes). Aristarchus 
combated " the paradox of Xenon," and it does not seem to 
have had much acceptance in antiquity. Giovanni Battista 
Vico, a Neapolitan (1668-1744), seems to have been the first 
modern to suggest the composite authorship and oral tradition 
of the Homeric poems; but this was a pure conjecture in support 
of his theory that the names of ancient lawgivers and poets are 
often mere symbols. F. A. Wolf, in the Prolegomena to his 
edition (1795), was the founder of a scientific scepticism.. The 
Iliad, he said (for he recognized the comparative unity and 
consistency of the Odyssey), was pieced together from many 
small unwritten poems by various hands, and was first committed 
to writing in the time of Peisistratus. This view was in harmony 
with the tone of German criticism at the time; it was welcomed 
as a new testimony to the superiority of popular poetry, springing 
from fresh natural sources, to elaborate works of art: and it at 
once found enthusiastic adherents. For the course of Homeric 
controversy since Wolf the reader is referred to the article 
HOMER. 

The Ionian school of epos produced a number of poems 
founded on the legends of the Trojan war, and intended as 

introductions or continuations to the Iliad and the 
poems. Odyssey. The grammarian Proclus (A.D. 140) has 

preserved the names and subjects of some of these; 
but the fragments are very scanty. The Nostoi or Homeward 
Voyages, by Agias (or Hagias) of Troezen, filled up the gap of 



Hesiodic 
epos. 



ten years between the Iliad and the Odyssey; the Lay of Telegonus, 
by Eugammon of Cyrene, continued the story of the Odyssey 
to the death of Odysseus by the hand of Telegonus, the son 
whom Circe bore to him. Similarly the Cyprian Lays by Stasinus 
of Cyprus, ascribed by others to Hegesias (or Hegesinus) of 
Salami's or Halicarnassus, was introductory to the Iliad; the 
Aethiopis and the Sack of Troy, by Arctinus of Miletus, and the 
Little Iliad, by Lesches of Mytilene, were supplementary to it. 
These and many other names of lost epics some taken also 
from the Theban myths {Thebais, Epigoni, Oedipodea) serve 
to show how prolific was that epic school of which only two great 
examples remain. The name of epic cycle was properly applied 
to a prose compilation of abstracts from these epics, pieced 
together in the order of the events. The compilers were called 
"cyclic" writers; and the term has now been transferred to 
the epic poets whom they used. 1 

The epic poetry of Ionia celebrated the great deeds of heroes 
in the old wars. But in Greece proper there arose another 
school of epos, which busied itself with religious lore 
and ethical precepts, especially in relation to the rural 
life of Boeotia. This school is represented by the name 
of Hesiod. The legend spoke of him as vanquishing Homer 
in a poetical contest of Chalcis in Euboea; and it expresses the 
fact that, to the old Greek mind, these two names stood for two 
contrasted epic types. Nothing is certainly known of his date, 
except that it must have been subsequent to the maturity of 
Ionian epos. He is conjecturally placed about 850-800 B.C.; 
but some would refer him to the early part of the 7th century B.C. 
His home was at Ascra, a village in a valley under Helicon, 
whither his father had migrated from Cyme in Aeolis on the 
coast of Asia Minor. In Hesiod's Works and Days we have the 
earliest example of a didactic poem. The seasons and the labours 
of the Boeotian farmer's year are followed by a list of the days 
which are lucky or unlucky for work. The Theogony, or " Origin 
of the Gods," describes first how the visible order of nature arose 
out of chaos; next, how the gods were born. Though it never 
possessed the character of a sacred book, it remained a standard 
authority on the genealogies of the gods. So far as a corrupt 
and confused text warrants a judgment, the poet was piecing 
together not always intelligently the fragments of a very old 
cosmogonic system, using for this purpose both the hymns 
preserved in the temples and the myths which lived in folklore. 
The epic lay in 480 lines called the Shield of Heracles partly 
imitated from the iSth book of the Iliad is the work of an 
author or authors later than Hesiod. In the Hesiodic poetry, 
as represented by the Works and Days and the Theogony, we 
see the influence of the temple at Delphi. Hesiod recognizes 
the existence of baifjavei spirits of the departed who haunt 
the earth as the invisible guardians of justice; and he connects 
the office of the poet with that of the prophet. The poet is one 
whom the gods have authorized to impress doctrine and practical 
duties on men. A religious purpose was essentially characteristic 
of the Hesiodic school. Its poets treated the old legends as 
relics of a sacred history, and not merely, in the Ionian manner, 
as subjects of idealizing art. Such titles as the Maxims of 
Cheiron and the Lay of Melampus, the seer lost poems of the 
Hesiodic school illustrate its ethical and its mystic tendencies. 

The Homeric Hymns are a collection of pieces, some of them 
very short, in hexameter verse. Their traditional title is 
Hymns or Preludes of Homer and the Homeridae. The 
second of the alternative designations is the true one. L*^ rf 
The pieces are not " hymns " used in formal worship, hymns. 
but " preludes " or prefatory addresses (vpooliua.) 
with which the rhapsodists ushered in their recitations of epic 
poqtry. The " prelude " might be addressed to the presiding 
god of the festival, or to any local deity whom the reciter wished 
to honour. The pieces (of which there are 33) range in date 
perhaps from 750 to 500 B.C. (though some authorities assign 
dates as late as the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. ; see ed. by Sikes 
and Allen, e.g. p. 228), and it is probable that the collection was 

1 For authorities and criticisms see T. W. Allen in Classical 
Quarterly (Jan. and April 1908). 



ANCIENT] 



GREEK LITERATURE 



509 



formed in Attica, for the use of rhapsodists. The style is that 
of the Ionian or Homeric epos; but there are also several traces 
of the Hesiodic or Boeotian school. The principal " hymns " 
are (i) to Apollo (generally treated as two or more hymns 
combined in one); (2) to Hermes; (3) to Aphrodite; and (4) 
to Demeter. The hymn to Apollo, quoted by Thucydides (iii. 
104) as Homer's, is of peculiar interest on account of the lines 
describing the Ionian festival at Delos. Two celebrated pieces 
of a sportive kind passed under Homer's name. The MargiUs 
a comic poem on one " who knew many things but knew them 
all badly " is regarded by Aristotle as the earliest germ of 
comedy, and was possibly as old as 700 B.C. Only a few lines 
remain. The Batracho(myd)machia, or Battle of the Frogs and 
Mice probably belongs to the decline of Greek literature, perhaps 
to the 2nd century B.C. 1 About 300 verses of it are extant. 

In the Iliad and the Odyssey the personal opinions or sym- 
pathies of the poet may sometimes be conjectured, but they are 
Traasi- not declared or even hinted. Hesiod, indeed, some- 
Won from times gives us a glimpse of his own troubles or views. 
epos to Yet Hesiod is, on the whole, essentially a prophet. 
elegy. -p ne messa g e which he delivers is not from himself; 
the truths which he imparts have not been discovered 
by his own search. He is the mouthpiece of the Delphian 
Apollo. Personal opinion and feeling may tinge his utterance, 
but they do not determine its genera) complexion. The egotism 
is a single thread; it is not the basis of the texture. Epic poetry 
was in Greece the foundation of all other poetry; for many 
centuries no other kind was generally cultivated, no other could 
speak to the whole people. Politically, the age was monarchical 
or aristocratic; intellectually, it was too simple for the analysis 
of thought or emotion. Kings and princes loved to hear of the 
great deeds of their ancestors; common men loved to hear of 
them too, for they had no other interest. The mind of Greece 
found no subject of contemplation so attractive as the warlike 
past of the race, or so useful as that lore which experience and 
tradition had bequeathed. But in the course of the 8th century 
B.C. the rule of hereditary princes began to disappear. Monarchy 
gave place to oligarchy, and this often after the intermediate 
phase of a tyrannis to democracy. Such a change was neces- 
sarily favourable to the growth of reflection. The private citizen 
is no longer a mere cipher, the Homeric rts, a unit in the dim 
multitude of the king-ruled folk; he gains more power of 
independent action, his mental horizon is widened, his life 
becomes fuller and more interesting. He begins to feel the need 
of expressing the thoughts and feelings that are stirred in him. 
But as yet a prose literature does not exist; the new thoughts, 
like the old heroic stories, must still be told in verse. The forms 
of verse created by this need were the Elegiac and the Iambic. 

The elegiac metre is, in form, a simple variation on the epic 
metre, obtained by docking the second of two hexameters so as 
E i to make it a verse of five feet or measures. But the 

poetical capabilities of the elegiac couplet are of a 
wholly different kind from those of heroic verse. e\eyos seems 
to be the Greek form of a name given by the Carians and Lydians 
to a lament for the dead. This was accompanied by the soft 
music of the Lydian flute, which continued to be associated with 
Greek elegy. The non-Hellenic origin of elegy is indicated by 
this very fact. The flute was to the Greeks an Asiatic instru- 
ment string instruments were those which they made their own 
and it would hardly have been wedded by them to a species of 
poetry which had arisen among themselves. The early elegiac 
poetry of Greece was by no means confined to mourning for the 
dead. War, love, politics, proverbial philosophy, were in turn 
its themes; it dealt, in fact, with the chief interest of the poet 
and his friends, whatever that might be at the time. It is the 
direct expression of the poet's own thoughts, addressed to a 
sympathizing society. This is its first characteristic. The 
second is that, even when most pathetic or most spirited, it 
still preserves, on the whole, the tone of conversation or of 

1 Others attribute it, as well as the Margites, to Pigres of Hali- 
carnassus, the supposed brother of the Carian queen Artemisia, 
who fought on the side of Xerxes at the battle of Salamis. 



narrative. Greek elegy stops short of lyric passion. English 
elegy, whether funereal as in Dryden and Pope, or reflective 
as in Gray, is usually true to the same normal type. Roman 
elegy is not equally true to it, but sometimes tends to trench on 
the lyric province. For Roman elegy is mainly amatory or 
sentimental; and its masters imitated, as a rule, not the early 
Greek elegists, not Tyrtaeus or Theognis, but the later Alexandrian 
elegists, such as Callimachus or Philetas. Catullus introduced 
the metre to Latin literature, and used it with more fidelity than 
his followers to its genuine Greek inspiration. 

Elegy, as we have seen, was the first slight deviation from 
epos. But almost at the same time another species arose which 
had nothing in common with epos, either in form or in 
spirit. This was the iambic. The word iajt|3os, fen** 
iambus (linmiv, to dart or shoot) was used in reference 
to the licensed raillery at the festivals of Demeter; it was the 
maiden lambe, the myth said, who drew the first smile from 
the mourning goddess. The' iambic metre was at first used for 
satire; and it was in this strain that it was chiefly employed 
by its earliest master of note, Archilochus of Paros (670 B.C.). 
But it was adapted to the expression generally of any pointed 
thought. Thus it was suitable to fables. Elegiac and iambic 
poetry both belong to the borderland between epic and lyric. 
While, however, elegy stands nearer to epos, iambic stands 
nearer to the lyric. Iambic poetry can express the personal 
feeling of the poet with greater intensity than elegy does; on 
the other hand, it has not the lyric flexibility, self-abandonment 
or glow. As we see in the case of Solon, iambic verse could 
serve for the expression of that deeper thought, that more 
inward self-communing, for which the elegiac form would have 
been inappropriate. 

But these two forms of poetry, both Ionian, the elegiac and 
the iambic, belong essentially to the same stage of the literature. 
They stand between the Ionian epos and the lyric poetry of the 
Aeolians and Dorians. The earliest of the Greek elegists, Callinus 
and Tyrtaeus, use elegy to rouse a warlike spirit in sinking 
hearts. Archilochus too wrote warlike elegy, but used it also 
in other strains, as in lament for the dead. The elegy of Mimner- 
mus of Smyrna or Colophon is the plaintive farewell of an ease- 
loving Ionian to the days of Ionian freedom. In Solon elegy 
takes a higher range; it becomes political and ethical. 2 Theognis 
represents the maturer union of politics with a proverbial 
philosophy. Another gnomic poet was Phocylides of Miletus; 
an admonitory poem extant under his name is probably the 
work of an Alexandrine Jewish Christian. Xenophanes gives 
a philosophic strain to elegy. With Simonides of Ceos it reverts, 
in an exquisite form, to its earliest destination, and becomes 
the vehicle of epitaph on those who fell in the Persian Wars. 
Iambic verse was used by Simonides (or Semonides) of Amorgus, 
as by Archilechus, for satire but satire directed against classes 
rather than persons. Solon's iambics so far preserve the old 
associations of the metre that they represent the polemical or 
controversial side of his political poetry. Hipponax of Ephesus 
was another iambic satirist using the aKafav (" limping ") or 
choliambic verse, produced by substituting a spondee for an 
iambus in the last place. But it was not until the rise of the 
Attic drama that the full capabilities of iambic verse were seen. 

The lyric poetry of early Greece may be regarded as the final 
form of that effort at self-expression which in the elegiac and 
iambic is still incomplete. The lyric expression is 
deeper and more impassioned. Its intimate union 
with music and with the rhythmical movement of 
the dance gives to it more of an ideal character. At the same 
time the continuity of the music permits pauses to the voice 
pauses necessary as reliefs after a climax. Before lyric poetry 
could be effective, it was necessary that some progress should 
have been made in the art of music. The instrument used by 
the Greeks to accompany the voice was the four-stringed lyre, 
and the first great epoch in Greek music was when Terpander 
of Lesbos (66c B.C.), by adding three strings, gave the lyre the 

9 The extant fragments of Solon have been augmented by lengthy 
quotations in the Constitution of Athens. 



GREEK LITERATURE 



[ANCIENT 



compass of the octave. Further improvements are ascribed to 
Olympus and Thaletas. By 500 B.C. Greek music had probably 
acquired all the powers of expression which the lyric poet could 
demand. The period of Greek lyric poetry may be roughly 
defined as from 670 to 440 B.C. Two different parts in its 
development were taken by the Aeolians and the Dorians. 

The lyric poetry of the Aeolians especially of Lesbos was 

essentially the utterance of personal feeling, and was usually 

intended for a single voice, not for a chorus. Lesbos, 

'school" * n t ^ le 7 1 ^ centurv B - c -> had attained some naval 

and commercial importance. B ut the strife of oligarchy 
and democracy was active; the Lesbian nobles were often 
driven by revolution to exchange their luxurious home-life 
for the hardships of exile. It is such a life of contrasts and 
excitements, working on a sensuous and fiery temperament, 
that is reflected in the fragments of Alcaeus. In these glimpses 
of war and love, of anxiety for the storm-tossed state and of 
careless festivity, there is much of the cavalier spirit; if Archi- 
lochus is in certain aspects a Greek Byron, Alcaeus might be 
compared to Lovelace. The other great representative of the 
Aeolian lyric is Sappho, the only woman of Greek race who is 
known to have possessed poetical genius of the first order. 
Intensity and melody are the characteristics of the fragments 
that remain to us. 1 Probably no poet ever surpassed Sappho 
as an interpreter of passion in exquisitely subtle harmonies of 
form and sound. Anacreon of Teos, in Ionia, may be classed 
with the Aeolian lyrists in so far as the matter and form of his 
work resembled theirs, though the dialect in which he wrote was 
mainly the Ionian. A few fragments remain from his hymns 
to the gods, from love-poems and festive songs. The collection 
of sixty short pieces which passes current under his name date 
only from the loth century. The short poems which it comprises 
are of various age and authorship, probably ranging in date 
from c. 200 B.C. to A.D. 400 or 500. They have not the pure style, 
the flexible grace, or the sweetness of the classical fragments; 
but the verses, though somewhat mechanical, are often pretty. 
The Dorian lyric poetry, in contrast with the Aeolian, had 
more of a public than of a personal character, and was for the 
D most part choral. Hymns or choruses for the public 

school. worship of the gods, and odes to be sung at festivals on 

occasions of public interest, were its characteristic 
forms. Its central inspiration was the pride of the Dorians in 
the Dorian past, in their traditions of worship, government and 
social usage. The history of the Dorian lyric poetry does not 
present us with vivid expressions of personal character, like 
those of Alcaeus and Sappho, but rather with a series of artists 
whose names are associated with improvements of form. Thus 
Alcman (the Doric form of Alcmaeon; 660 B.C.) is said to have 
introduced the balanced movement of strophe and antistrophe. 
Stesichorus, of Himera in Sicily, added the epode, sung by the 
chorus while stationary after these movements; Arion of 
Methymna in Lesbos gave a finished form to the choral hymn 
(" dithyramb ") in honour of Dionysus, and organized the 
" cyclic " or circular chorus which sang it at the altar. Ibycus 
of Rhegium (c. 540) wrote choral lyrics after Stesichorus and 
glowing love-songs in the Aeolic style. 

} The culmination of the lyric poetry is marked by two great 
names, Simonides and Pindar. Simonides (556-468) was an 

Ionian of the island of Ceos, but his lyrics belonged by 
flT"'** form to the choral Dor ian school. Many of his subjects 
Piadar. were taken from the events of the Persian wars: his 

epitaphs on those who fell at Thermopylae and Salamis 
were celebrated. In him the lyric art of the Dorians is interpreted 
by Ionian genius, and Athens where part of his life was passed 
is the point at which they meet. Simonides is the first Greek 

1 Since the above was written, four considerable fragments 
generally assigned to Sappho have been discovered : a prayer to 
the Nereids for the safe return of her brother Charaxus; the leave- 
taking of a favourite pupil ; a greeting to Atthis, one of her friends, 
in Lydia; the fourth, much mutilated, addressed to another pupil, 
Gongyla. They are of great beauty and throw considerable light 
on the personality of Sappho and the language and metre of her 
poems. 



lyrist whose significance is not merely Aeolian or Dorian but 
Panhellenic. The same character belongs even more completely 
to his younger contemporary. Pindar (si8-c. 443) was born 
in Boeotia of a Dorian stock; thus, as Ionian and Dorian 
elements meet in Simonides, so Dorian and Aeolian elements 
meet in Pindar. Simonides was perhaps the most tender and 
most exquisite of the lyric poets. Pindar was the boldest, the 
most fervid and the most sublime. His extant fragments 2 
represent almost every branch of the lyric art. But he is known 
to us mainly by forty-four Epinicia, or odes of victoiy, for the 
Olympian, Pythian, Nemean and Isthmian festivals. The 
general characteristic of the treatment is that the particular 
victory is made the occasion of introducing heroic legends 
connected with the family or city of the victor, and of inculcating 
the moral lessons which they teach. No Greek lyric poetry 
can be completely appreciated apart from the music, now lost, 
to which it was set. Pindar's odes were, further, essentially 
occasional poems; they abound in allusions of which the effect 
is partly or wholly lost on us; and the glories which they cele- 
brate belong to a life which we can but imperfectly realize. 
Of all the great Greek poets, Pindar is perhaps the one to whom 
it is hardest for us to do justice; yet we can- at least recognize 
his splendour of imagination, his strong rapidity and his soaring 
flight. 

Bacchylides of Ceos (c. 504-430), the youngest of the three 
great lyric poets and nephew of Simonides, was known only by 
scanty fragments until the discovery of nineteen poems on an 
Egyptian papyrus in 1896. They consist of thirteen (or fourteen) 
epinicia, two of which celebrate the same victories as two odes 
of Pindar. The papyrus also contains six odes for the festivals 
of gods or heroes. The poems contain valuable information on 
the court life of the time and legendary history. Bacchylides, 
the little " Cean nightingale," is inferior to his great rival Pindar, 
" the Swan of Dirce," in originality and splendour of language, 
but he writes simply and elegantly, while his excellent yv&tiat 
attracted readers of a philosophical turn of mind, amongst them 
the emperor Julian. 

Similarly, the scanty fragments of Timotheus of Miletus 
(d. 357), musical composer and poet, and inventor of the eleven- 
stringed lyre, were increased by the discovery in 1002 of some 
250 lines of his " nome " the Persae, written after the manner of 
Terpander. The beginning is lost; the middle describes the 
battle of Salamis; the end is of a personal nature. The papyrus 
is the oldest Greek MS. and belongs to the age of Alexander the 
Great. The language is frequently very obscure, and the whole 
is a specimen of lyric poetry in its decline. 

(B) The Attic Literature. The lonians of Asia Minor, the 
Aeolians and the Dorians had now performed their special parts 
in the development of Greek literature. Epic poetry had inter- 
preted the heroic legends of warlike deeds done by Zeus-nourished 
kings and dhiefs. Then, as the individual life became more and 
more elegiac and iambic poetry had become the social expression 
of that life in all its varied interests and feelings. Lastly, lyric 
poetry had arisen to satisfy a twofold need to be the more 
intense utterance of personal emotion, or to give choral voice, at 
stirring moments, to the faith or fame, the triumph or the sorrow, 
of a city or a race. A new form of poetry was now to be created, 
with elements borrowed from all the rest. And this was to be 
achieved by the people of Attica, in whose character and 
language the distinctive traits of an Ionian descent were 
tempered with some of the best qualities of the Dorian stock. 

The drama (q.v.) arose from the festivals of Dionysus, the 
god of wine, which were held at intervals from the beginning of 
winter to the beginning of spring. A troop of rustic 
worshippers would gather around the altar of the god, 
and sing a hymn in his honour, telling of his victories 
or sufferings in his progress over the earth. " Tragedy " meant 
" the goat-song," a goat (rp&yos) being sacrificed to Dionysus 
before the hymn was sung. " Comedy," " the village- 
song," is the same hymn regarded as an occasion for 

* Recently increased by specimens of the Partheneia (choral 
songs for maidens) and paeans. 



ANCIENT] 



GREEK LITERATURE 



rustic jest. Then the leader of the chorus would assume the 
part of a messenger from Dionysus, or even that of the god 
himself, and recite an adventure to the worshippers, who made 
choral response. The next step was to arrange a dialogue between 
the leader(copii</>aios, coryphaeus) and one chosen member of the 
chorus, hence called " the answerer " (woKpirfis, hypocrites, 
afterwards the ordinary word for " actor "). This last improve- 
ment is ascribed to the Attic Thespis (about 536 B.C.). The 
elements of drama were now ready. The choral hymn to 
Dionysus (the " dithyramb ") had received an artistic form 
from the Dorians; dialogue, though only between the leader 
of the chorus and a single actor, had been introduced in Attica. 
Phrynichus, an Athenian, celebrated in this manner some events 
of the Persian Wars; but in his " drama " there was still only 
one actor. Choerilus of Athens and Pratinas of Phlius, who 
belonged to the same period, developed the satyric drama; 
Pratinas also wrote tragedies, dithyrambs, and hyporchemata 
(lively choral odes chiefly in honour of Apollo). 

Aeschylus (born 525 B.C.) became the real founder of tragedy 
by introducing a second actor, and thus rendering the dialogue 
Aesch lus independent of the chorus. At the same time the 
choral song hitherto the principal part of the per- 
formance became subordinate to the dialogue; and drama 
was mature. Aeschylus is also said to have made various 
improvements of detail in costume and the like; and it was 
early in his career that the theatre of Dionysus under the acropolis 
was commenced the first permanent home of Greek drama, in 
place of the temporary wooden platforms which had hitherto 
been used. The system of the " trilogy " and the " tetralogy " 
is further ascribed to Aeschylus, the " trilogy " being properly 
a series of three tragedies connected in subject, such as the 
Agamemnon, Choephori, Eumenides, which together form the 
Oresteia, or Story of Orestes. The " tetralogy " is such a triad 
with a " satyric drama " added that is, a drama in which 
" satyrs," the grotesque woodland beings who attended on 
Dionysus, formed the chorus, as in the earlier dithyramb from 
which drama sprang. The Cyclops of Euripides is the only 
extant specimen of a satyric drama. In the seven tragedies 
which alone remain of the seventy which Aeschylus is said to 
have composed, the forms of kings and heroes have a grandeur 
which is truly Homeric; there is a spirit of Panhellenic patriot- 
ism such as the Persian Wars in which he fought might well 
quicken in a soldier-poet; and, pervading all, there is a strain 
of speculative thought which seeks to reconcile the apparent 
conflicts between the gods of heaven and of the underworld by 
the doctrine that both alike, constrained by necessity, are work- 

Sophocies * n S ou ^ ^ e ' aw ^ r '8 n ' eousness - Sophocles, who was 
born thirty years after Aeschylus (495 B.C.), is the 
most perfect artist of the ancient drama. No one before or after 
him gave to Greek tragedy so high a degree of ideal beauty, 
or appreciated so finely the possibilities and the limitations of its 
sphere. He excels especially in drawing character; his Antigone, 
his Ajax, his Oedipus indeed, all the chief persons of his dramas 
are typical studies in the great primary emotions of human 
nature. He gave a freer scope to tragic dialogue by adding a 
third actor; and in one of his later plays, the Oedipus at Colonus, 
a fourth actor is required. From the time when he won the 
tragic prize against Aeschylus in 468 to his death in 405 B.C. 
he was the favourite dramatist of Athens; and for us he is not 
only a great dramatist, but also the most spiritual representative 
of the age of Pericles. The distinctive interest of Euripides is of 
Euripides. anot her kind. He was only fifteen years younger than 
Sophocles; but when he entered on his poetical career, 
the old inspirations of tragedy were already failing. Euripides 
marks a period of transition in the tragic art, and is, in fact, the 
mediator between the classical and the romantic drama. The 
myths and traditions with which the elder dramatists had dealt 
no longer commanded an unquestioning faith. Euripides himself 
was imbued with the new intellectual scepticism of the day; 
and the speculative views which were conflicting in his own mind 
are reflected in his plays. He had much picturesque and pathetic 
power; he was a master of expression; and he shows ingenuity 



Aristo- 
phanes. 



in devising fresh resources for tragedy especially in his manage- 
ment of the choral songs. Aeschylus is Panhellenic, Sophocles 
is Athenian, Euripides is cosmopolitan. He stands nearer to the 
modern world than either of his predecessors; and though with 
him Attic tragedy loses its highest beauty, it acquires new 
elements of familiar human interest. 

In Attica, as in England, a period of rather less than fifty years 
sufficed for the complete development of the tragic art. The 
two distinctive characteristics of Athenian drama are its origin- 
ality and its abundance. The Greeks of Attica were not the 
only inventors of drama, but they were the first people who 
made drama a complete work of art. And the great tragic poets 
of Attica were remarkably prolific. Aeschylus was the reputed 
author of 70 tragedies, Sophocles of 113, Euripides of 92; and 
there were others whose productiveness was equally great. 

Comedy represented the lighter side, as tragedy the graver 
side, of the Dionysiac worship; it was the joy of spring following 
the gloom of winter. The process of growth was comedy 
nearly the same as in tragedy; but the Dorians, not 
the lonians of Attica, were the first who added dialogue to the 
comic chorus. Susarion, a Dorian of Megara, exhibited, about 
580 B.C., pieces of the kind known as " Megarian farces." 
Epicharmus of Cos (who settled at Syracuse) gave literary form 
to the Doric farce, and treated in burlesque style the stories of 
gods and heroes, and subjects taken from everyday life. His 
Syracusan contemporary Sophron (c. 450) was a famous writer 
of mimes, chiefly scenes from low-class life. The most artistic 
form of comedy seems, however, to have been developed in 
Attica. The greatest names before Aristophanes are those of 
Cratinus and Eupolis; but from about 470 B.C. there seems to 
have been a continuous succession of comic dramatists, amongst 
them Plato Comicus, the author of 28 comedies, political satires 
and parodies after the style of the Middle Comedy. 
Aristophanes came forward as a comic poet in 427 B.C., 
and retained his popularity for about forty years. He 
presents a perhaps unique union of bold fancy, exquisite humour, 
critical acumen and lyrical power. His eleven extant comedies may 
be divided into three groups, according as the licence of political 
satire becomes more and more restricted. In the Acharnians, 
Knights, Clouds, Wasps and Peace (425-421) the poet uses 
unrestrained freedom. In the Birds, Lysistrata, Thesmopkori- 
azusae and Frogs (414-405) a greater reserve may be perceived. 
Lastly, in the Ecclesiazusae and the Plutus (392-388) personal 
satire is almost wholly avoided. The same general tendency 
continued. The so-called " Middle Comedy " (390-320) repre- 
sents the transition from the Old Comedy, or political satire, to 
satire of a literary or social nature; its chief writers were Anti- 
phanes of Athens and Alexis of Thurii. The " New Comedy " 
(320-250) resembled the modern " comedy of manners." 

Its chief representative was Menander (342-291), the author of 
105 comedies. Fragments have been discovered of seven of 
these, of sufficient length to give an idea of their dramatic action. 
His plays were produced on the stage as late as the time of 
Plutarch, and his yvuiiai, distinguished by worldly wisdom, 
were issued in the form of anthologies, which enjoyed great 
popularity. Other prominent writers of this class were Diphilus, 
Philemon, Posidippus and Apollodorus of Carystus. About 
330 B.C. Rhinthon of Tarentum revived the old Doric farce in 
his Hilarotragoediae or travesties of tragic stories. These 
successive periods cannot be sharply or precisely marked off. 
The change which gradually passed over the comic drama was 
simply the reflection of the change which passed over the political 
and social life of Athens. The Old Comedy, as we see it in the 
earlier plays of Aristophanes, was probably the most powerful 
engine of public criticism that has ever existed in any community. 
Unsparing personality was its essence. The comic poet used 
this recognized right on an occasion at once festive and sacred, 
in a society where every man of any note was known by name 
and sight to the rest. The same thousands who heard a policy 
or a character denounced or lauded in the theatre might be 
required to pass sentence on it in the popular assembly or in 
the courts of law. 



512 



GREEK LITERATURE 



[ANCIENT 



Literary 
prose. 



The development of Greek poetry had been completed before 
a prose literature had begun to exist. The earliest name in 

extant Greek prose literature is that of Herodotus; 

and, when he wrote, the Attic drama had already 

passed its prime. There had been, indeed, writers of 
prose before Herodotus; but there had not been, in the proper 
sense of the term, a prose literature. The causes of this compara- 
tively late origin of Greek literary prose are independent of 
the question as to the time at which the art of writing began to 
be generally used for literary purposes. Epic poetry exercised 
for a very long period a sovereign spell over the Greek mind. 
In it was deposited all that the race possessed of history, theology, 
philosophy, oratory. Even after an age of reflection had begun, 
elegiac poetry, the first offshoot of epic, was, with iambic verse, 
the vehicle of much which among other races would have been 
committed to prose. The basis of Greek culture was essentially 
poetical. A political cause worked in the same direction. In 
the Eastern monarchies the king was the centre of all, and the 
royal records afforded the elements of history from a remote date. 
The Greek nation was broken up into small states, each busied 
with its own affairs and its own men. It was the collision 
between the Greek and the barbarian world which first provided 
a national subject for a Greek historian. The work of Herodotus, 
in its relation to Greek prose, is so far analogous to the Iliad 
in its relation to Greek poetry, that it is the earliest work of art, 
and that it bears a Panhellenic stamp. 

The sense and the degree in which Herodotus was original 
may be inferred from what is known of earlier prose-writers. 

For about a century before Herodotus there had been 

a series of writers in philosophy, mythology, geography 
writers. and history. The earliest, or among the earliest, of 

the philosophical writers were Pherecydes of Syros 
(550 B.C.) and the Ionian Anaximenes and Anaximander. It 
is doubtful whether Cadmus of Miletus, supposed to have been 
the first prose writer, was an historical personage. The Ionian 
writers, especially called Xtxycry p<x$oi, " narrators in prose " 
(as distinguished from rcwrotoi, makers of verse), were those 
who compiled the myths, especially in genealogies, or who 
described foreign countries, their physical features, usages 
and traditions. Hecataeus of Miletus (500 B.C.) is the best- 
known representative of the logographi in both these branches. 
Hellanicus of Mytilene (450 B.C.), among whose works was a 
history of Attica, appears to have made a nearer approach to 
the character of a systematic historian. Other logographi were 
Charon of Lampsacus; Pherecydes of Leros, who wrote on 
the myths of early Attica; Hippys of Rhegium, the oldest writer 
on Italy and Sicily; and Acusilaus of Argos in Boeotia, author 
of genealogies (see LOGOGRAPHI, and GREECE: Ancient History, 
" Authorities "). 

Herodotus was born in 484 B.C.; and his history was probably 
not completed before the beginning of the Peloponnesian War 
Her0m (431 B.C.). His subject is the struggle between Greece 
dotus. an d Asia, which he deduces from the legendary rape 

of the Argive lo by Phoenicians, and traces down to the 
final victory of the Greeks over the invading host of Xerxes. 
His literary kinship with the historical or geographical writers 
who had preceded him is seen mainly in two things. First, 
though he draws a line between the mythological and the 
historical age, he still holds that myths, as such, are worthy to 
be reported, and that in certain cases it is part of his duty to 
report them. Secondly, he follows the example of such writers 
as Hecataeus in describing the natural and social features of 
countries. He seeks to combine the part of the geographer or 
intelligent traveller with his proper part as historian. But when 
we turn from these minor traits to the larger aspects of his work, 
Herodotus stands forth as an artist whose conception and whose 
method were his own. His history has an epic unity. Various 
as are the subordinate parts, the action narrated is one, great and 
complete; and the unity is due to this, that Herodotus refers all 
events of human history to the principle of divine Nemesis. 
If Sophocles had told the story of Oedipus in the Oedipus 
Tyrannus alone, and had not added to it the Oedipus at Colonus, 



it would have been comparable to the story of Xerxes as told by 
Herodotus. Great as an artist, great too in the largeness of his 
historical conception, Herodotus fails chiefly by lack of insight 
into political cause and effect, and by a general silence in regard 
to the history' of political institutions. Both his strength and 
his weakness are seen most clearly when he is contrasted with 
that other historian who was strictly his contemporary and 
who yet seems divided from him by centuries. 

Thucydides was only thirteen years younger than Herodotus; 
but the intellectual space between the men is so great that they 
seem to belong to different ages. Herodotus is the 
first artist in historical writing; Thucydides is the aides' 
first thinker. Herodotus interweaves two threads of 
causation human agency, represented by the good or bad 
qualities of men, and divine agency, represented by the vigilance 
of the gods on behalf of justice. Thucydides concentrates his 
attention on the human agency (without, however, denying the 
other), and strives to trace its exact course. The subject of 
Thucydides is the Peloponnesian War. In resolving to write 
its history, he was moved, he says, by these considerations. It 
was probably the greatest movement which had ever affected 
Hellas collectively. It was possible for him as a contemporary 
to record it with approximate accuracy. And this record was 
likely to have a general value, over and above its particular 
interest as a record, seeing that the political future was likely 
to resemble the political past. This is what Thucydides means 
when he calls his work " a possession for ever." The speeches 
which he ascribes to the persons of the history are, as regards 
form, his own essays in rhetoric of the school to which Antiphon 
belongs. As regards matter, they are always so far dramatic 
that the thoughts and sentiments are such as he conceived 
possible for the supposed speaker. Thucydides abstains, as a 
rule, from moral comment; but he tells his story as no one 
could have told it who did not profoundly feel its tragic force; 
and his general claim to the merit of impartiality is not invali- 
dated by the possible exceptions difficult to estimate in the 
cases of Cleon and Hyperbolus. 

Strong as is the contrast between Herodotus and Thucydides, 
their works have yet a character which distinguish both alike 
from the historical work of Xenophon in the Anabasis 
and the Hellenica. Herodotus gives us a vivid drama . p /, ofl " 
with the unity of an epic. Thucydides takes a great 
chapter of contemporary history and traces the causes which 
are at work throughout it, so as to give the whole a scientific 
unity. Xenophon has not the grasp either of the dramatist 
or of the philosopher. His work does not possess the higher 
unity either of art or of science. The true distinction of Xeno- 
phon consists in his thorough combination of the practical with 
the literary character. He was an accomplished soldier, who 
had done and seen much. He was also a good writer, who could 
make a story both clear and lively. But the several parts of 
the story are not grouped around any central idea, such as a 
divine Nemesis is for Herodotus, or such as Thucydides finds 
in the nature of political man. The seven books of the Hellenica 
form a supplement to the history of Thucydides, beginning in 
411 and going down to 362 B.C. The chief blot on the Hellenica 
is the author's partiality to Sparta, and in particular to Agesilaus. 
Some of the greatest achievements of Epaminondas and Pelopidas 
are passed over in silence. On the whole, Xenophon is perhaps 
seen at his best in his narrative of the Retreat of the Ten Thousand 
a subject which exactly suits him. The Cyropaedeia is a 
romance of little historical worth, but with many good passages. 
The Recollections of Socrates, on the other hand, derive their 
principal value from being uniformly matter-of-fact. In his 
minor pieces on various subjects Xenophon appears as the 
earliest essayist. It may be noted that one of the essays errone- 
ously ascribed to him that On the Athenian Polity is probably 
the oldest specimen in existence of literary Attic prose. 

His contemporaries Ctesias of Cnidus and Philistus of Syracuse 
wrote histories of -Persia and Sicily. In the second half of the 
4th century a number of histories were compiled by literary 
men of little practical knowledge, who had been trained in the 



ANCIENT] 



GREEK LITERATURE 



story. 



hetorical schools. Such were Ephorus of Cyme and Theopompus 
of Chios, both pupils of Isocrates; and the writers of Atthides 
(chronicles of Attic history), the chief of whom were Androtion 
nd Philochorus. Timaeus of Tauromenium was the author of 
great work on Sicily, and introduced the system of reckoning 
by Olympiads. 

The steps by which an Attic prose style was developed, and the 
principal forms which it assumed, can be traced most clearly 
in the Attic orators. Every Athenian citizen who 
aspired to take part in the affairs of the city, or even 
be qualified for self-defence before a law-court, required 
have some degree of skill in public speaking; and an 
Athenian audience looked upon public debate, whether political 
or forensic, as a competitive trial of proficiency in a fine art. 
Icnce the speaker, no less than the writer, was necessarily a 
student of finished expression; and oratory had a more direct 
Suence on the general structure of literary prose than has ever 
erhaps been the case elsewhere. A systematic rhetoric took 
its rise in Sicily, where Corax of Syracuse (466 B.C.) devised his 
Irt of Words to assist those who were pleading before the law- 
courts; and it was brought to Athens by his disciple Tisias. 
The teaching of the Sophists, again, directed attention, though 
a superficial and imperfect way, to the elements of grammar 
nd logic; and Gorgias of Leontini whose declamation, however 
turgid, must have been striking gave an impulse at Athens 
the taste for elaborate rhetorical brilliancy. 
Antiphon represents the earliest, and what has been called 
Sie grand, style of Attic prose; its chief characteristics are 
a grave, dignified movement, a frequent emphasis 
orators. on ver bal contrasts, and a certain austere elevation. 
The interest of Andocides is mainly historical; but 
he has graphic power. Lysias, the representative of the " plain 
style," breaks through the rigid mannerism of the elder school, 
id uses the language of daily life with an ease and grace which, 
hough the result of study, do not betray their art. He is, in his 
own way, the canon of an Attic style; and his speeches, written 
for others, exhibit also a high degree of dramatic skill. Isocrates, 
vhose manner may be regarded as intermediate between that 
of Antiphon and that of Lysias, wrote for readers rather than 
for hearers. The type of literary prose which he founded is 
stinguished by ample periods, by studied smoothness and by 
he temperate use of rhetorical ornament. From the middle 
of the 4th century B.C. the Isocratic style of prose became 
eneral in Greek literature. From the school of Rhodes, in which 
it became more florid, it passed to Cicero, and through him it 
i helped to shape the literary prose of the modern world. The 
speeches of Isaeus in will-cases are interesting, apart from 
their bearing on Attic life, because in them we see, as Dionysius 
says, " the seeds and the beginnings " of that technical mastery 
in rhetorical argument which Demosthenes carries to perfection. 
Isaeus has also, in a degree, some of the qualities of 
thenes. Lysias. Demosthenes excels all other masters of 
Greek prose not only in power but in variety; his 
political speeches, his orations in public or private causes, show 
his consummate and versatile command over all the resources 
of the language. In him the development of Attic prose is 
completed, and the best elements in each of its earlier phases are 
united. The modern world can more easily appreciate Demos- 
thenes as a great natural orator than as an elaborate artist. 
But, in order to apprehend his place in the history of Attic prose, 
we must remember that the ancients felt him to be both; and 
that he was even reproached by detractors with excessive study 
of effect. Aeschines is the most theatrical of the Greek orators; 
he is vehement, and often brilliant, but seldom persuasive. 
Hypereides was, after Demosthenes, probably the most effective; 
he had much of the grace of Lysias, but also a wit, a fire and a 
pathos which were his own. Portions of six of his speeches, 
found in Egypt between 1847 and i8go, are extant. The one 
oration of Lycurgus which remains to us is earnest and stately, 
reminding us both of Antiphon and of Isocrates. Dinarchus 
was merely a bad imitator of Demosthenes. There seems more 
reason to regret that Demades is not represented by larger 
xn. 17 



fragments. The decline of Attic oratory may be dated from 
Demetrius of Phalerum (318 B.C.), the pupil of Aristotle, and the 
first to introduce the custom of making speeches on imaginary 
subjects as practised in the rhetorical schools. Cicero names him 
as the first who impaired the vigour of the earlier eloquence, 
" preferring his own sweetness to the weight and dignity of his 
predecessors." He forms a connecting link between Athens and 
Alexandria, where he found refuge after his downfall and pro- 
moted the foundation of the famous library. 

In later times oratory chiefly flourished in the coast and 
island settlements of Asia Minor, especially Rhodes. Here a 
new, florid style of oration arose, called the " Asiatic," which 
owed its origin to Hegesias of Magnesia (c. 250 B.C.). 

The place of Plato in the history of Greek literature is as 
unique as his place in the history of Greek thought. The literary 
genius shown in the dialogues is many-sided: it p ft / /OJ0 . 
includes dramatic power, remarkable skill in parody, phkal 
a subtle faculty of satire, and, generally, a command prose- 
over the finer tones of language. In passages of p }"?'"? d 

, . I** t Aristotle, 

continuous exposition, where the argument rises into 
the higher regions of discussion, Plato's prose takes a more 
decidedly poetical colouring never florid or sentimental, 
however, but lofty and austere. In Plato's later works such, 
for instance, as the Laws, Timaeus, Critias we can perceive 
that his style did not remain unaffected by the smooth literary 
prose which contemporary writers had developed. Aristotle's 
influence on the form of Attic prose literature would probably 
have been considerable if his Rlietoric had been published while 
Attic oratory had still a vigorous life before it. But in this, 
as in other departments of mental effort, it was Aristotle's 
lot to set in order what the Greek intellect had done in that 
creative period which had now come to an end. His own chief 
contribution to the original achievements of the race was the 
most fitting one that could have been made by him in whose 
lifetime they were closed. He bequeathed an instrument by 
which analysis could be carried further, he founded a science 
of reasoning, and left those who followed him to apply it in all 
those provinces of knowledge which he had mapped out. 1 
Theophrastus, his pupil and his successor in the Lyceum, opens 
the new age of research and scientific classification with his 
extant works on botany, but is better known to modern readers 
by his lively Characters, the prototypes of such sketches in 
English literature as those of Hall, Overbury and Earle. 

(C) The Literature of the Decadence. The period of decadence 
in Greek literature begins with the extinction of free political 
life in the Greek cities. So long as the Greek common- character 
wealths were independent and vigorous, Greek life of the 
rested on the identity of the man with the citizen. a**" 
The city state was the highest unit of social organiza- age ' 
tion; the whole training and character of the man were viewed 
relatively to his membership of the city. The market-place, 
the assembly, the theatre were places of frequent meeting, where 
the sense of citizenship was quickened, where common standards 
of opinion or feeling were formed. Poetry, music, sculpture, 
literature, art, in all their forms, were matters of public interest. 
Every citizen had some degree of acquaintance with them, and 
was in some measure capable of judging them. The poet and the 
musician, the historian and the sculptor, did not live a life of 
studious seclusion or engrossing professional work. They were, 
as a rule, in full sympathy with the practical interests of their 
time. Their art, whatever its form might be, was the concen- 
trated and ennobled expression of their political existence. 
Aeschylus breathed into tragedy the inspiration of one who had 
himself fought the great fight of national liberation. Sophocles 
was the colleague of Pericles in a high military command. 
Thucydides describes the operations of the Peloponnesian War 
with the practical knowledge of one who had been in charge of 
a fleet. Ictinus and Pheidias gave shape in stone, not to mere 
visions of the studio, but to the more glorious, because more 

1 His Constitution of Athens (<?..), of which a papyrus MS. was 
found in Egypt and published in 1891, forms part of a larger worjc 
on the constitution of 158 Greek and foreign cities. 



5M- 



GREEK LITERATURE 



[ANCIENT 



real and vivid, perceptions which had been quickened in them 
by a living communion with the Athenian spirit, by a daily 
contemplation of Athenian greatness, in the theatre where 
tragic poets idealized the legends of the past, in the ecclesia 
where every citizen had his vote on the policy of the state, or in 
that free and gracious society, full of beauty, yet exempt from 
vexatious constraint, which belonged to the age of Pericles. 
The tribunal which judged these works of literature or art was 
such as was best fitted to preserve the favourable conditions 
under which they arose. Criticism was not in the hands of a 
literary clique or of a social caste. The influence of jealousy or 
malevolence, and the more fatal influence of affectation, had 
little power to affect the verdict. The verdict was pronounced 
by the whole body of the citizens. The success or failure of a 
tragedy was decided, not by the minor circumstance that it 
gained the first or second prize, but by the collective opinion of 
the citizens assembled in the theatre of Dionysus. A work of 
architecture or sculpture was approved or condemned, not by 
the sentence of a few whom the multitude blindly followed, but 
by the general judgment of some twenty thousand persons, each 
of whom was in some degree qualified by education and by habit 
to form an independent estimate. The artist worked for all his 
fellow-citizens, and knew that he would be judged by all. The 
soul of his work was the fresh and living inspiration of nature; 
it was the ennobled expression of his own life; and the public 
opinion before which it came was free, intelligent and sincere. 

Philip of Macedon did not take away the municipal inde- 
pendence of the Greek cities, but he dealt a death-blow to the 
old political life. The Athenian poet, historian, artist 
litioif'o' m ' nt still do good work, but he could never again have 
Hellenism, that which used to be the very mainspring of all such 
activity the daily experience and consciousness of 
participation in the affairs of an independent state. He could 
no longer breathe the invigorating air of constitutional freedom, 
or of the social intercourse to which that freedom lent dignity as 
well as grace. Then came Alexander's conquests; Greek civiliza- 
tion was diffused over Asia and the East by means of Greek 
colonies in which Asiatic and Greek elements were mingled. 
The life of such settlements, under the monarchies into which 
Alexander's empire broke up, could not be animated by the spirit 
of the Greek commonwealths in the old days of political freedom. 
But the externals of Greek life were there the temples, the 
statues, the theatres, the porticos. Ceremonies and festivals 
were conducted in the Greek manner. In private life Greek 
usages prevailed. Greek was the language most used; Greek 
books were in demand. The mixture of races would always in 
some measure distinguish even the outward life of such a com- 
munity from that of a pure Greek state; and the facility with 
which Greek civilization was adopted would vary in different 
places. Syria, for example, was rapidly and completely Hellen- 
ized. Judaea resisted the process to the last. In Egypt a Greek 
aristocracy of office, birth and intellect existed side by side with 
a distinct native life. But, viewed in its broadest aspect, this 
new civilization may be called Hellenism. Hellenism (q.v.) 
means the adoption of Hellenic ways; and it is properly applied 
to a civilization, generally Hellenic in external things, pervading 
people not necessarily or exclusively Hellenic by race. What the 
Hellenic literature was to Hellas, that the Hellenistic literature 
was to Hellenism. The literature of Hellenism has the Hellenic 
form without the Hellenic soul. The literature of Hellas was 
creative; the literature of Hellenism is derivative. 

Alexandria was the centre of Greek intellectual activity from 
Alexander to Augustus. Its " Museum," or college, and its 
library, both founded by the first Ptolemy (Soter), 
gave it such attractions for learned men as no other 
city could rival. The labours of research or arrange- 
ment are those which characterize the Alexandrian 
Even in its poetry spontaneous motive was replaced by 
erudite skill, as in the hymns, epigrams and elegies of Calli- 
Poetry. machus, in the enigmatic verses of Lycophron, in 
the highly finished epic of Apollonius Rhodius, and 
in the versified lore, astronomical or medical, of Aratus and 



The Alex 

aadrlan 

period. 

period. 



Nicander. The mimes of Herodas (or Herondas) of Cos (c. 200 
B.C.), written in the Ionic dialect and choliambic verse, represent 
scenes from everyday life. The papyrus (published in 1891) 
contains seven complete poems and fragments of an eighth. 
They are remarkably witty and full of shrewd observations, but 
at times coarse. The pastoral poetry of the age Dorian by 
origin was the most pleasing; for this, if it is to please at all, 
must have its spring in the contemplation of nature. Theocritus 
is not exempt from the artificialism of the Hellenizing literature; 
but his true sense of natural beauty entitles him to a place in 
the first rank of pastoral poets. Bion of Ionia and Moschus of 
Syracuse also charm by the music and often by the pathos of 
their bucolic verse. Excavations on the site of the temple of 
Asclepius at Epidaurus have brought to light two hexameter 
poems and a paean (in Ionic metre) on Apollo and Asclepius by 
a local poet named Isyllus, who flourished about 280. Tragedy 
was represented by the poets known as the Alexandrian Pleiad. 
But it is not for its poetry of any kind that this period of Greek 
literature is memorable. Its true work was in erudition 
and science. Aristarchus (156 B.C.), the greatest in a E ia a 
long line of Alexandrian critics, set the example of a science. 
more thorough method in revising and interpreting the 
ancient texts, and may in this sense be said to have become 
the founder of scientific scholarship. The critical studies of 
Alexandria, carried on by the followers of Aristarchus, gradually 
formed the basis for a science of grammar. The earliest Greek 
grammar is that of Dionysius Thrax (born c. 166), a pupil of 
Aristarchus. Translation was another province of work which 
employed the learned of Alexandria where the Septuagint 
version of the Old Testament was begun, probably about 300- 
250 B.C. Chronology was treated scientifically by Eratosthenes, 
and was combined with history by Manetho in his chronicles 
of Egypt, and by Berossus in his chronicles of Chaldaea. Euclid 
was at Alexandria in the reign of Ptolemy Soter. Herophilus 
and Erasistratus were distinguished physicians and anatomists, 
and the authors of several medical works. The general results 
of the Alexandrian period might perhaps be stated summary 
thus. Alexandria produced a few eminent men of 
science, some learned poets (in a few cases, of great literary 
merit) and many able scholars. The preservation of the best 
Greek literature was due chiefly to the unremitting care of the 
Alexandrian critics, whose appreciation of it partly compensated 
for the decay of the old Greek perceptions in literature and art, 
and who did their utmost to hand it down in a form as free as 
possible from the errors of copyists. On the whole, the patronage 
of letters by the Ptolemies had probably as large a measure of 
success as was possible under the existing conditions; and it was 
afforded at a time when there was special danger that a true 
literary tradition might die out of the world. 

The Graeco-Roman period in the literature of Hellenism may 

Greece 



The 

Oraeco- 
Roman 
period. 



be dated from the Roman subjugation of Greece, 
made a captive of the rough conqueror," but it did 
not follow from this intellectual conquest that Athens 
became once more the intellectual centre of the world. 
Under the empire, indeed, the university of Athens 
long enjoyed a pre-eminent reputation. But Rome gradually 
became the point to which the greatest workers in every kind 
were drawn. Greek literature had already made a home there 
before the close of the 2nd century B.C. Sulla brought a Greek 
library from Athens to Rome. Such men as Cicero and Atticus 
were indefatigable collectors and readers of Greek books. The 
power of speaking and writing the Greek language became an 
indispensable accomplishment for highly edHcated Romans. 
The library planned by Julius Caesar and founded by Augustus 
had two principal departments, one for Latin, the other for Greek 
works. Tiberius, Vespasian, Domitian and Trajan contributed 
to enlarge the collection. Rome became more and more the 
rival of Alexandria, not only as possessing great libraries, but 
also as a seat of learning at which Greek men of letters found 
appreciation and encouragement. Greek poetry, especially 
in its higher forms, rhetoric and literary criticism, history and 
philosophy, were all cultivated by Greek writers at Rome. 



ANCIENT] 



GREEK LITERATURE 



146-30 

I.C. 



The first part of the Graeco-Roman period may be defined 
as extending from 146 B.C. to the close of the Roman republic. 
At its commencement stands the name of one who 
nad more real affinity than any of his contemporaries 
with the great writers of old Athens, and who, at the 
same time, saw most clearly how the empire of the 
world was passing to Rome. Thesubjectof Polybius (c. 205-120) 
was the history of Roman conquest from 264 to 146 B.C. His 
style, plain and straightforward, is free from the florid rhetoric 
of the time. But the distinction of Polybius is that he is the 
last Greek writer who in some measure retains the spirit of the 
old citizen-life. He chose his subject, not because it gave scope 
to learning or literary skill, but with a motive akin to that which 
prompted the history of Thucydides namely, because, as a 
Greek citizen, he felt intensely the political importance of those 
wars which had given Rome the mastery of the world. The 
chief historical work which the following century produced 
the Universal History of Diodorus Siculus (fl. c. 50 B.C.) 
resembled that of Polybius in recognizing Rome as the political 
centre of the earth, as the point on which all earlier series of 
events converged. In all else Diodorus represents the new 
age in which the Greek historian had no longer the practical 
knowledge and insight of a traveller, a soldier or a statesman, 
but only the diligence, and usually the dulness, of a laborious 
compiler. 

The Greek literature of the Roman empire, from Augustus 
to Justinian, was enormously prolific. The area over which 
Second tne Greek language was diffused either as a medium 
part: of intercourse or as an established branch of the higher 

30 B.C.- education was co-extensive with the empire itself. 
A.D.S29. ^ n j mmense store of materials had now been 
accumulated, on which critics, commentators, compilers, 
imitators, were employed with incessant industry. In very 
many of its forms, the work of composition or adaptation had 
been reduced to a mechanical knack. If there is any one charac- 
teristic which broadly distinguishes the Greek literature of these 
five centuries, it is the absence of originality either in form or in 
matter. Lucian is, in his way, a rare exception; and his great 
popularity he is the only Greek writer of this period, except 
Plutarch, who has been widely popular illustrates the flatness 
of the arid level above which he stands out. The sustained 
abundance of literary production under the empire was partly 
due to the fact that there was no open political career. Never, 
probably, was literature so important as a resource for educated 
men; and the habit of reciting before friendly or obsequious 
audiences swelled the number of writers whose taste had been 
cultivated to a point just short of perceiving that they ought 
not to write. 

In the manifold prose work of this period, four principal 
departments may be distinguished, (i) History, with Biography, 
Depart- an< ^ Geography. History is represented by Dionysius 
meats ot of Halicarnassus also memorable for his criticisms on 
prose the orators and his effort to revive a true standard 
terature. Q ^uk prose by Cassius Dio, Josephus, Arrian, 
Appian, Herodian, Eusebius and Zosimus. In biography, the 
foremost names are Plutarch, Diogenes Laertius and Philo- 
stratus; in geography, Hipparchus of Nicaea, Strabo, Ptolemy 
and Pausanias. (2) Erudition and Science. The learned labours 
of the Alexandrian schools were continued in all their various 
fields. Under this head may be mentioned such works 
as the lexicons of Julius Pollux, Harpocration and Hesychius, 
Hephaestion's treatise on metre, and Herodian's system of 
accentuation; the commentaries of Galen on Plato and on 
Hippocrates; the learned miscellanies of Athenaeus, Aelian 
and Stobaeus; and the Stratagems of Polyaenus. (3) Rhetoric 
and Belles-Lettres. The most popular writers on the theory 
of rhetoric were Hermagoras, Hermogenes, Aphthonius and 
Cassius Longinus the last the reputed author of the essay 
On Sublimity. Among the most renowned teachers of rhetoric 
now distinctively called " Sophists," or rhetoricians were 
Dio Chrysostom, AeliusAristides,Themistius,Himerius,Libanius 
and Herodes Atticus. Akin to the rhetorical exercises were 






various forms of ornamental or imaginative prose dialogues, 
letters, essays or novels. Lucian, in his dialogues, exhibits 
more of the classical style and of the classical spirit than any 
writer of the later age; he has also a remarkable affinity with 
the tone of modern satire, as in Swift or Voltaire. His Attic 
prose, though necessarily artificial, was at least the best that 
had been written for four centuries. The emperor Julian was 
the author both of orations and of satirical pieces. The chief 
of the Greek novelists (the forerunner of whom was Aristides 
of Miletus, c. 100 B.C., in his Milesian Tales) are Xenophon of 
Ephesus and Longus, representing a purely Greek type of 
romance, and Heliodorus with his imitators Achilles Tatius 
and Chariton representing a school influenced by Oriental 
fiction. There were also many Christian romances in Greek, 1 
usually of a religious tendency. Alciphron's fictitious Letters 
founded largely on the New Comedy of Athens represent the 
same kind of industry which produced the letters of Phalaris, 
Aristaenetus and similar collections. (4) Philosophy is repre- 
sented chiefly by Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius, in both of 
whom the Stoic element is the prevailing one; by the Neo- 
platonists, such as Plotinus, Porphyry, lamblichus; and by 
Proclus, of that eclectic school which arose at Athens in the 
5th century A.D. 

The Greek poetry of this period presents no work of high 
merit. Babrius versified the Aesopic Fables; Oppian (or two 
poets of this name) wrote didactic poems on fishing veree. 
and hunting; Nonnus and Quintus Smyrnaeus made 
elaborate essays in epic verse; and the Orphic lore inspired 
some poems and hymns of a mystic character. The so-called 
Sibylline Oracles, in hexameter verse, range in date from about 
170 B.C. to A.D. 700, and are partly the expression of the Jewish 
longings for the restoration of Israel, partly predictions of the 
triumph of Christianity. By far the most pleasing com- 
positions in verse which have come to us from this age 
are some of the short poems in the Greek Anthology, 
which includes some pieces as early as the beginning of 
the sth century B.C. and some as late as the 6th century of the 
Christian era. 

The 4th century may be said to mark the beginning of the 
last stage in the decay of literary Hellenism. From that point 
the decline was rapid and nearly continuous. The attitude 
of the church towards it was no longer that which had been held 
by Clement of Alexandria, by Justin Martyr or by Origen. 
There was now a Christian Greek literature, and a Christian 
Greek eloquence of extraordinary power. The laity became 
more and more estranged from the Greek literature however 
intrinsically pure and noble of the pagan past. At the same 
time the Greek language which had maintained its purity in 
Italian seats was becoming corrupted in the new Greek Rome 
of the East. In A.D. 529 Justinian put forth an edict by which 
the schools of heathen philosophy were formally closed. The 
act had at least a symbolical meaning. It is necessary to guard 
against the supposition that such assumed landmarks in political 
or literary history always mark a definite transition from one 
order of things to another. But it is practically convenient, 
or necessary, to use such landmarks. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The first attempt at a connected history of 
Greek literature was the monumental and still indispensable work 
of J. A. Fabricius (14 vols., 1705-1728; new ed. in 12 vols. by 
G. C. Harless, 1790-1809); this was followed by F. Scholl's Hist. 
de la literature grecque (1813). Both these works begin with the 
earliest times and go down to the latest period of the Byzantine 
empire. Of more modern and recent works the following may be 
mentioned: G. Bernhardy, Grundriss der griechischen Literatur 
(1836-1845; 4th ed., 1876-1880; 5th ed. of vof i., by R. Volkmann, 
1892), chiefly confined to the poets; C. O. Mttller, History of Greek 
Literature (unfinished), written for the London Society for the 
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and published in English in 1840, 
the translation being by G. Cornewafl Lewis and I. W. Donaldson 
(the latter completed the work to the end of the Byzantine period 
for the edition of 1858; the German text was published by E. 
Miiller in 1841; 4th ed. by E. Heitz, 1882-1884); W. Mure, Critical 
History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece (1850- 
1857); T. Bergk, Griechische Literaturgeschichte (1872-1894, vols. 
2, 3, ed. G. Hinrichs, vol. 4 by R. Peppmuller) containing epos, 



5 i6 



GREEK LITERATURE 



[BYZANTINE 



Defini- 
tion. 



lyric, drama down to Euripides, and the beginnings of prose; R. 
Nicolai, Griechische Lileraturgeschichte (2nd ed., 1873-1878), useful 
for bibliography, but in other respects unsatisfactory; J. P. Mahaffy, 
Hist, of Classical Greek Literature (4th ed., 1903) ; A. and M. Croiset, 
Hist, de la literature grecque (1887-1899, 2nd ed. 1896); W. 
Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Literatur bis auf die Zeit Justinians 
(4th ed., 1905; 5th ed., pt. i., by O. Stahlin and W. Schmid, 1908), 
by far the most serviceable handbook for the student. F. Susemihl's 
Geschichte der griechischen Literatur in der Alexandrinerzeit (1891- 
1892) is especially valuable for its notes. Of smaller manuals the 
following will be found most useful: G. G. Murray, History of 
Ancient Greek Literature (1897); F. B. Jevons, History of Greek 
Literature (3rd ed., 1900) down to the time of Demosthenes; A. and 
M. Croiset, Manuel d'hist. de la litterature grecque (1900; Eng. trans., 
by G. F. Heffelbower, N.Y., 1904) ; also the general sketches by 
U. von Wilamowitz-Mollendorff in Die Kultur der Gegenwart, i. 8 
(1905), by A. Gercke in the Sammlung Goschen (Leipzig, 2nd ed., 
1905), and by R. C. Jebb in Companion to Greek Studies (Cambridge, 
1905). Other works generally connected with the subject are: 
E. Hubner, Bibliographic der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft 
(2nd ed., 1889), pp. 161-171; W. Engelmann, Bibliotheca scriptorum 
classicorum (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1880); J. B. Mayor, Guide to 
the Choice of Classical Books (1896), p. 86; W. Kroll, Die Alter- 
tumswissenschaft im letzten Vierteljahrhundert 1875-1900 (1905), 
p. 465 foil.; I. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (1906 
1908) ; " Bibliotheca philplogica classica," in C. Bursian's Jahres- 
bericht uber die Fortschritte der klassischen Altertumsiyissenschaft; 
articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie der klassischen Alter- 
tumswissenschaft (1894 ) (R. C. J.; X.) 

II. BYZANTINE LITERATURE 

By "Byzantine literature" is generally meant the literature, 
written in Greek, of the so-called Byzantine period. There is no 
justification whatever for the inclusion of Latin works 
of the time of the East Roman empire. The close of 
the Byzantine period is clearly marked by the year 
1453, at which date, with the fall of the Eastern empire, the 
peculiar culture and literary life of the Byzantines came to an 
end. It is only as regards the beginning of the Byzantine period 
that any doubts exist. There are no sufficient grounds for dating 
it from Justinian, as was formerly often done. In surveying the 
whole development of the political, ecclesiastical and literary 
life and of the general culture of the Roman empire, and particu- 
larly of its eastern portion, we arrive, on the contrary, at the 
conclusion that the actual date of the beginning of this new era 
i.e. the Christian-Byzantine, in contradistinction to the Pagan- 
Greek and Pagan- Roman falls within the reign of Constantine 
the Great. By the foundation of the new capital city of Con- 
stantinople (which lay amid Greek surroundings) and by the 
establishment of the Christian faith as the state religion, Con- 
stantine finally broke with the Roman-Pagan tradition, and 
laid the foundation of the Christian-Byzantine period of develop- 
ment. Moreover, in the department of language, so closely 
allied with that of literature, the 4th century marks a new epoch. 
About this time occurred the final disappearance of a character- 
istic of the ancient Greek language, important alike in poetry 
and in rhythmic prose, the difference of " quantity." Its place 
was henceforth taken by the accent, which became a determining 
principle in poetry, as well as for the rhythmic conclusion of the 
prose sentence. Thus the transition from the old musical 
language to a modern conversational idiom was complete. 

The reign of Constantine the Great undoubtedly marks the 

beginning of a new period in the most important spheres of 

national life, but it is equally certain that in most of 

Trans/- them ancient tradition long continued to exercise an 

tloaal . - , 

period. influence. Sudden breaches of continuity are less 
common in the general culture and literary life of the 
world than in its political or ecclesiastical development. This 
is true of the transition from pagan antiquity to the Christian 
middle ages. Many centuries passed before the final victory of 
the new religious ideas and the new spirit in public and private 
intellectual and moral life. The last noteworthy remnants of 
paganism disappeared as late as the 6th and 7th centuries. The 
last great educational establishment which rested upon pagan 
foundations the university of Athens was not abolished till 
A.D. 529. The Hellenizing of the seat of empire and of the state, 
which was essential to the independent development of Byzantine 



literature, proceeds yet more slowly. The first purely Greek 
emperor was Tiberius II. (578-582); but the complete Hellen- 
izing of the character of the state had not been accomplished 
until the 7th century. We shall, therefore, regard the period 
from the 4th to the 7th century as that of the transition between 
ancient times and the middle ages. This period coincides with 
the rise of a new power in the world's history Islam. But 
though, in this transitional period, the old and the new elements 
are both to a large extent present and are often inextricably 
interwoven, yet it is certain that the new elements are, both as 
regards their essential force and their influence upon the succeed- 
ing period, of infinitely greater moment than the decrepit and 
mostly artificial survivals of the antique. 

In order to estimate rightly the character of Byzantine 
literature and its distinctive peculiarities, in contradistinction 
to ancient Greek, it is imperative to examine the great Mixed 
difference between the civilizations that produced character 
them. The Byzantine did not possess the homo- of By- 
geneous, organically constructed system of the ancient "JJJjJ? 
civilization, but was the outcome of an amalgamation 
of which Hellenism formed the basis. For, although the Latin 
character of the empire was at first completely retained, even 
after its final division in 395, yet the dominant position of Greek 
in the Eastern empire gradually led to the Hellenizing of the 
state. The last great act of the Latin tradition was the codifica- 
tion, in the Latin language, of the law by Justinian (527-565). 
But it is significant that the Novels of Justinian were composed 
partly in Greek, as were all the laws of the succeeding period. 
Of the emperors in the centuries following Justinian, many of 
course were foreigners, Isaurians, Armenians and others; but in 
language and education they were all Greeks. In the last five 
centuries of the empire, under the Comneni and the Palaeologi, 
court and state are purely Greek. 

In spite of the dominant position of Greek in the Eastern 
empire, a linguistic and national uniformity such as formed the 
foundation of the old Latin Imperium Romanum never existed 
there. In the West, with the expansion of Rome's political 
supremacy, the Latin language and Latin culture were every- 
where introduced first into the non-Latin provinces of Italy, 
later into Spain, Gaul and North Africa, and at last even into 
certain parts of the Eastern empire. This Latinizing was so 
thorough that it weathered all storms, and, in the countries 
affected by it, was the parent of new and vigorous nationalities, 
the French, the Spaniards, the Portuguese and the Rumanians. 
Only in Africa did " Latinism " fail to take root permanently. 
From the 6th century that province relapsed into the hands of 
the native barbarians and of the immigrant Arabs, and both the 
Latin and the Greek influences (which had grown in strength 
during the period of the Eastern empire) were, together with 
Christianity, swept away without leaving a trace behind. It 
might have been expected that the Hellenizing of the political 
system of the Eastern empire would have likewise entailed the 
Hellenizing of the non-Greek portions of the empire. Such, 
however, was not the case; for all the conditions precedent 
to such a development were wanting. The non-Greek portions 
of the Eastern empire were not, from the outset, gradually 
incorporated into the state from a Greek centre, as were the 
provinces in the West from a Latin centre. They had been 
acquired in the old period of the homogeneous Latin Imperium. 
In the centuries immediately following the division of the empire, 
the idea of Hellenizing the Eastern provinces could not take 
root, owing to the fact that Latin was retained, at least in 
principle, as the state language. During the later centuries, 
in the non-Greek parts, centrifugal tendencies and the destructive 
inroads of barbarians began on all sides; and the government 
was too much occupied with the all but impossible task of 
preserving the political unity of the empire to entertain seriously 
the wider aim of an assimilation of language and culture. More- 
over, the Greeks did not possess that enormous political energy 
and force which enabled the Romans to assimilate foreign races; 
and, finally, they were confronted by sturdy Oriental, mostly 
Semitic, peoples, who were by no means so easy to subjugate as 



BYZANTINE] 



GREEK LITERATURE 



were the racially related inhabitants of Gaul and Spain. Their 
impotence against the peoples of the East will be still less hardly 
judged if we remember the fact already mentioned, that even 
the Romans were within a short period driven back and over- 
whelmed by the North African Semites who for centuries had 
been subjected to an apparently thorough process of Latin- 
ization. 

The influence of Greek culture then, was very slight; how 
little indeed it penetrated into the oriental mind is shown by the 
fact that, after the violent Arab invasion in the south-east 
corner of the Mediterranean, the Copts and Syrians were able 
to retain their language and their national characteristics, 
while Greek culture almost completely disappeared. The one 
great instance of assimilation of foreign nationalities by the 
Greeks is the Hellenizing of the Slavs, who from the 6th century 
had migrated into central Greece and the Peloponnese. All 
other non-Greek tribes of any importance which came, whether 
for longer or for shorter periods, within the sphere of the Eastern 
empire and its civilization such as the Copts, Syrians, 
Armenians, Georgians, Rumanians, Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians 
one and all retained their nationality and language. The 
complete Latinizing of the West has, accordingly, no counterpart 
in a similar Hellenizing of the East. This is clearly shown during 
the Byzantine period in the progress of Christianity. Every- 
where in the West, even among the non-Romanized Anglo- 
Saxons, Irish and Germans, Latin maintained its position in the 
church services and in the other branches of the ecclesiastical 
system; down to the Reformation the church remained a 
complete organic unity. In the East, at the earliest period of 
its conversion to Christianity, several foreign tongues competed 
with Greek, i.e. Syrian, Coptic, Armenian, Georgian, Gothic, 
Old-Bulgarian and others. The sacred books were translated 
into these languages and the church services were held in them 
and not in Greek. One noticeable effect of this linguistic division 
in the church was the formation of various sects and national 
churches (cf. the Coptic Nestorians, the Syrian Monophysites, 
the Armenian and, in more recent times, the Slavonic national 
churches). The Church of the West was characterized by 
uniformity in language and in constitution. In the Eastern 
Church parallel to the multiplicity of languages developed also 
a corresponding variety of doctrine and constitution. 

Though the character of Byzantine culture is mainly Greek, 
and Byzantine literature is attached by countless threads to 
ancient Greek literature, yet the Roman element 
influence. f rrns a verv essential part of it. The whole political 
character of the Byzantine empire is, despite its 
Greek form and colouring, genuinely Roman. Legislation and 
administration, the military and naval traditions, are old Roman 
work, and as such, apart from immaterial alterations, they 
continued to exist and operate, even when the state in head and 
limbs had become Greek. It is strange, indeed, how strong 
was the political conception of the Roman state (Slaatsgedanke), 
and with what tenacity it held its own, even under the most 
adverse conditions, down to the latter days of the empire. The 
Greeks even adopted the name " Romans," which gradually 
became so closely identified with them as to supersede the name 
" Hellenes "; and thus a political was gradually converted into 
an ethnographical and linguistic designation. Rhomaioi was 
the most common popular term for Greeks during the Turkish 
period, and remains so still. The old glorious name " Hellene " 
was used under the empire and even during the middle ages 
in a contemptuous sense " Heathen " and has only in quite 
modern times, on the formation of the kingdom of " Hellas," 
been artificially revived. The vast organization of the Roman 
political system could not but exercise in various ways a profound 
influence upon Byzantine civilization; and it often seemed 
as if Roman political principles had educated and nerved the 
unpolitical Greek people to great political enterprise. The 
Roman influence has left distinct traces in the Greek language, 
Greek of the Byzantine and modern period is rich in Latin 
terms for conceptions connected with the departments of justice, 
administration and the imperial court. In literature such 



The 
Orient. 



" barbarisms " were avoided as far as possible, and were replaced 
by Greek periphrases. 

But by far the most momentous and radical change wrought 
on the old Hellenism was effected by Christianity; and yet 
the transition was, in fact, by no means so abrupt as 
one might be led to believe by comparing the Pagan- 
Hellenic culture of Plato's day with the Christian- 
Byzantine of the time of Justinian. For the path had been 
most effectually prepared for the new religion by the crumbling 
away of the ancient belief in the gods, by the humane doctrine 
of the Stoics, and, finally, by the mystic intellectual tendencies 
of Neoplatonism. Moreover, in many respects Christianity met 
paganism halfway by adapting itself to popular usages and 
ideas and by adopting important parts of the pagan literature. 
The whole educational system especially, even in Christian times, 
was in a very remarkable manner based almost entirely on the 
methods and material inherited from paganism. Next to the 
influences of Rome and of Christianity, that of the East was of 
importance in developing the Byzantine civilization, and in 
lending Byzantine literature its distinctive character. 
Much that was oriental in the Eastern empire dates 
back to ancient times, notably to the period of Alex- 
ander the Great and his successors. Since the Greeks had 
at that period Hellenized the East to the widest extent, and 
had already founded everywhere flourishing cities, they them- 
selves fell under the manifold influences of the soil they occupied. 
In Egypt, Palestine and Syria, in Asia Minor as far inland 
as Mesopotamia, Greek and oriental characteristics were often 
blended. In respect of the wealth and the long duration of 
its Greek intellectual life, Egypt stands supreme. It covers 
a period of nearly a thousand years from the foundation of 
Alexandria down to the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs (A.D. 
643). The real significance of Egyptian Hellenism during 
this long period can be properly estimated only if a practical 
attempt be made to eliminate from the history of Greek literature 
and science in pagan and in Christian times all that owed its 
origin to the land of the Nile. The soil of Egypt proved itself 
especially productive Of Greek literature under the Cross (Origen, 
Athanasius, Anus, Synesius), in the same way as the soil of 
North Africa was productive of Latin literature (Tertullian, 
Cyprian, Lactantius, Augustine). Monastic life, which is one 
of the chief characteristic elements of Christian-Byzantine 
civilization, had its birth in Egypt. 

Syria and Palestine came under the influence of Greek civiliza- 
tion at a later date than Egypt. In these, Greek literature and 
culture attained their highest development between the 3rd and 
the 8th centuries of the Christian era. Antioch rose to great 
influence, owing at first to its pagan school of rhetoric and 
later to its Christian school of exegesis. Gaza was renowned for 
its school of rhetoric; Berytus for its academy of law. It is 
no mere accident that sacred poetry, aesthetically the most 
valuable class of Byzantine literature, was born in Syria and 
Palestine. 

In Asia Minor, the cities of Tarsus, Caesarea, Nicaea, Smyrna, 
Ephesus, Nicopolis, &c., were all influential centres of Greek 
culture and literature. For instance, the three great fathers 
of Cappadocia, Basil, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus 
all belonged to Asia Minor. 

If all the greater Greek authors of the first eight centuries 
of the Christian era, i.e. the period of the complete development 
of Byzantine culture, be classified according to the countries 
of their birth, the significant fact becomes evident that nine- 
tenths come from the African and Asiatic districts, which were 
for the most part opened up only after Alexander the Great, 
and only one-tenth' from European Greece. In other words, 
the old original European Greece was, under the emperors, 
completely outstripped in intellectual productive force by the 
newly founded African and Asiatic Greece. This huge tide 
of conquest which surged from Greece over African and Syrian 
territories occupied largely by foreign races and ancient 
civilizations, could not fail to be fraught with serious con- 
sequences for the Greeks themselves. The experience of the 



5 i8 



GREEK LITERATURE 



[BYZANTINE 



Romans in their conquest of Greece (Graecia capta ferum mclorem 
cepif) repeated itself in the conquest of the East by Greece, 
though to a minor extent and in a different way. The whole 
literature of Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor cannot, despite 
its international and cosmopolitan character, disavow the 
influence of- the Oriental soil on which it was nourished. Yet the 
growth of too strong a local colouring in its literature was 
repressed, partly by the checks imposed by ancient Greek 
tradition, partly by the spirit of Christianity which reconciled 
all national distinctions. Even more clearly and unmistakably 
is Oriental influence shown in the province of Byzantine art, 
as Joseph Strzygowski has conclusively proved. 

The greater portion of Greek literature from the close of 
ancient times down to the threshold of modern history was 
Laa see wf i^ten in a language identical in its principal features 
with the common literary language, the so-called 
Koine, which had its origin in the Alexandrian age. This is the 
literary form of Greek as a universal language, though a form 
that scintillates with many facets, from an almost Attic diction 
down to one that approaches the language of everyday life 
such as we have, for instance, in the New Testament. From 
what has been already said, it follows that this stable literary 
language cannot always have remained a language of ordinary 
life. For, like every living tongue, the vernacular Greek continu- 
ally changed in pronunciation and form, as well as in vocabulary 
and grammar, and thus the living language surely and gradually 
separated itself from the rigid written language. This gulf was, 
moreover, considerably widened owing to the fact that there 
took place in the written language a retrograde movement, 
the so-called " Atticism." Introduced by Dionysius of Hali- 
carnassus in the ist century before Christ, this linguistic- 
literary fashion attained its greatest height in the and century 
A.D., but still continued to flourish in succeeding centuries, and, 
indirectly, throughout the whole Byzantine period. It is true 
that it often seemed as though the living language would be 
gradually introduced into literature; for several writers, such 
as the chronicler Malalas in the 6th century, Leontius of Neapolis 
(the author of Lives of Saints) in the 7th century, the chronicler 
Theophanes at the beginning of the pth century, and the emperor 
Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the loth century, made in 
their writings numerous concessions to the living language. 
This progressive tendency might well have led, in the nth and 
1 2th centuries, to the founding in the Greek vernacular of a new 
literary language similar to the promising national languages 
and literature which, at that period, in the Romance countries, 
developed out of the despised popular idiom. In the case of the 
Byzantines, unfortunately, such a radical change never took 
place. All attempts in the direction of a popular reform of the 
literary language, which were occasionally made in the period 
from the 6th to the loth centuries, were in turn extinguished 
by the resuscitation of classical studies, a movement which, 
begun in the gth century by Photius and continued in the nth 
by Psellus, attained its full development under the Comneni 
and the Palaeologi. This classical renaissance turned back the 
literary language into the old ossified forms, as had previously 
happened in the case of the Atticism of the early centuries of 
the empire. In the West, humanism (so closely connected 
with the Byzantine renaissance under the Comneni and the 
Palaeologi) also artificially reintroduced the "Ciceronian" 
Latin, but was unable seriously to endanger the development 
of the national languages, which had already attained to full 
vitality. In Byzantium, the humanistic movement came 
prematurely, and crushed the new language before it had fairly 
established itself. Thus the language of the Byzantine writers 
of the nth-isth centuries is almost Old Greek in colour; artifici- 
ally learnt by grammar, lexicon and assiduous reading, it 
followed Attic models more and more slavishly; to such an 
extent that, in determining the date of works, the paradoxical 
principle holds good that the more ancient the language, the 
more recent the author. 

Owing to this artificial return to ancient Greek, the contrast 
that had long existed with the vernacular was now for the first 



time fully revealed. The gulf between the two forms of language 
could no longer be bridged; and this fact found its expression 
in literature also. While the vulgarizing authors of the 6th-ioth 
centuries, like the Latin-writing Franks (such as Gregory of 
Tours), still attempted a compromise between the language of 
the schools and that of conversation, we meet after the I2th 
century with authors who freely and naturally employed the 
vernacular in their literary works. They accordingly form the 
Greek counterpart of the oldest writers in Italian, French and 
other Romance languages. That they could not succeed like 
their Roman colleagues, and always remained the pariahs of 
Greek literature, is due to the all-powerful philological-anti- 
quarian tendency which existed under the Comneni and the 
Palaeologi. Yet once more did the vernacular attempt to assert 
its literary rights, i.e. in Crete and some other islands in the 
i6th and I7th centuries. But this attempt also was foiled by 
the classical reaction of the ipth century. Hence it comes about 
that Greek literature even in the 2oth century employs gram- 
matical forms which were obsolete long before the loth century. 
Thus the Greeks, as regards their literary language, came into 
a cul de sac similar to that in which certain rigidly conservative 
Oriental nations find themselves, e.g. the Arabs and Chinese, who, 
not possessing a literary language suited to modern requirements, 
have to content themselves with the dead Old-Arabic or the 
ossified Mandarin language. The divorce of the written and 
spoken languages is the most prominent and also the most fatal 
heritage that the modern Greeks have received from their 
Byzantine forefathers. 

The whole Byzantine intellectual life, like that of the Western 
medieval period, is dominated by theological interests. Theology 
accordingly, in literature too, occupies the chief place, Oenera/ 
in regard to both quantity and quality. Next to it character 
comes the writing of history, which the Byzantines ofBy- 
cultivated with great conscientiousness until after 
the fall of the empire. All other kinds of prose writing, 
e.g. in geography, philosophy, rhetoric and the technical sciences, 
were comparatively neglected, and such works are of value for 
the most part only in so far as they preserve and interpret old 
material. In poetry, again, theology takes the lead. The poetry 
of the Church produced works of high aesthetic merit and endur- 
ing value. In secular poetry, the writing of epigrams especially 
was cultivated with assiduity and often with ability. In popular 
literature poetry predominates, and many productions worthy of 
notice, new both in matter and in form, are here met with. 

The great classical period of Greek theological literature is 
that of the 4th century. Various factors contributed to this 
result some of them positive, particularly the Theology 
establishment of Christianity as the official religion 
and the protection accorded to it by the state, others negative, 
i.e. the heretical movements, especially Arianism, which at this 
period arose in the east of the empire and threatened the unity 
of the doctrine and organization of the church. It was chiefly 
against these that the subtle Athanasius of Alexandria directed 
his attacks. The learned Eusebius founded a new department 
of literature, church history. In Egypt, Antonius (St Anthony) 
founded the Greek monastic system; Synesius of Cyrene, like 
his greater contemporary Augustine in the West, represents 
both in his life and in his writings the difficult transition from 
Plato to Christ. At the centre, in the forefront of the great 
intellectual movement of this century, stand the three great 
Cappadocians, Basil the Great, the subtle dogmatist, his brother 
Gregory of Nyssa, the philosophically trained defender of the 
Christian faith, and Gregory of Nazianzus, the distinguished 
orator and poet. Closely allied to them was St Chrysostom, 
the courageous champion of ecclesiastical liberty and of moral 
purity. To modern readers the greater part of this literature 
appears strange and foreign; but, in order to be appreciated 
rightly, it must be regarded as the outcome of the period in 
which it was produced, a period stirred to its depths by religious 
emotions. For the times in which they lived and for their 
readers, the Greek fathers reached the highest attainable; 
though, of course, they produced nothing of such general human 



BYZANTINE] 



GREEK LITERATURE 



interest, nothing so deep and true, as the Confessions of St 
Augustine, with which the poetical autobiography of Gregory 
of Nazianzus cannot for a moment be compared. 

The glorious bloom of the 4th century was followed by a 
perceptible decay in theological intellectual activity. Inde- 
pendent production was in succeeding centuries almost solely 
prompted by divergent dogmatical views and heresies, for the 
refutation of which orthodox authors were impelled to take up 
the pen. In the 5th and 6th centuries a more copious literature 
was called into existence by the Monophysites, who maintained 
that there was but one nature in Christ; in the 7th century by 
the Monothelites, who acknowledged but one will in Christ; 
in the 8th century by the Iconoclasts and by the new teaching 
of Mahomet. One very eminent theologian, whose importance 
it has been reserved for modern times to estimate aright 
Leontius of Byzantium (6th century) was the first to introduce 
Aristotelian definitions into theology, and may thus be called 
the first scholastic. In his works he attacked the heretics of 
his age, particularly the Monophysites, who were also assailed 
by his contemporary Anastasius of Antioch. The chief adver- 
saries of the Monothelites were Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem 
(whose main importance, however, is due to his work in other 
fields, in hagiography and homiletics), Maximus the Confessor, 
and Anastasius Sinaites, who also composed an interpretation 
of the Hexaemeron in twelve books. Among writers in the 
departments of critical interpretation and asceticism in this 
period must be enumerated Procopius of Gaza, who devoted 
himself principally to the exegesis of the Old Testament; 
Johannes Climax (6th century), named after his much-read 
ascetic work Klimax (Jacob's ladder); and Johannes Moschus 
(d. 61 9) , whose chief work Leimon (" spiritual pasture ") describes 
monastic life in the form of statements and narratives of their 
experiences by monks themselves. The last great heresy, which 
shook the Greek Church to its very foundations, the Iconoclast 
movement, summoned to the fray the last great Greek theologian, 
John of Damascus (Johannes Damascenus). Yet his chief merit 
lies not so much in his polemical speeches against the Iconoclasts, 
and in his much admired but over-refined poetry, as in his great 
dogmatic work, The Fountain of Knowledge, which contains the 
first comprehensive exposition of Christian dogma. It has 
remained the standard work on Greek theology down to the 
present day. Just as the internal development of the Greek 
Church in all essentials reached its limit with the Iconoclasts, 
so also its productive intellectual activity ceased with John of 
Damascus. Such theological works as were subsequently 
produced, consisted mostly in the interpretation and revision 
of old materials. An extremely copious, but unfruitful, literature 
was produced by the disputes about the reunion of the Greek 
and Roman Churches. Of a more independent character is the 
literature which in the 1 4th century centred round the dissensions 
of the Hesychasts. 

Among theologians after John of Damascus must be mentioned: 
the emperor Leo VI., the Wise (886-911), who wrote numerous 
homilies and church hymns, and Theodorus of Studium (759- 
826), who in his numerous writings affords us instructive glimpses 
of monastic life. Pre-eminent stands the figure of the patriarch 
Photius. Yet his importance consists less in his writings, which 
often, to a remarkable extent, lack independence of thought 
and judgment, than in his activity as a prince of the church. 
For he it was who carried the differences which had already 
repeatedly arisen between Rome and Constantinople to a point 
at which reconciliation was impossible, and was mainly instru- 
mental in preparing the way for the separation of the Greek and 
Latin Churches accomplished in 1054 under the patriarch 
Michael Cerularius. In the nth century the polyhistor Michael 
Psellus also wrote polemics against the Euchites, among whom 
the Syrian Gnosis was reviving. All literature, including 
theology, experienced a considerable revival under the Comneni. 
In the reign of Alexius I. Comnenus (1081-1118), Euthymius 
Zigabenus wrote his great dogmatic work, the Dogmatic Panoply, 
which, like The Fountain of Knowledge of John of Damascus in 
earlier times, was partly positive, furnishing an armoury of 



theology, partly negative and directed against the sects. In 
addition to attacking the dead and buried doctrines of the 
Monothelites, Iconoclasts, &c., to fight which was at this time 
a mere tilting at windmills, Zigabenus also carried on a polemic 
against the heretics of his own day, the Armenians, Bogomils 
and Saracens. Zigabenus's Panoply was continued and enlarged 
a century later by the historian Nicetas Acominatus, who 
published it under the title Treasure of Orthodoxy. To the 
writings against ancient heresies were next added a flood of 
tracts, of all shapes and sizes, " against the Latins," i.e. against 
the Roman Church, and among their authors must also be 
enumerated an emperor, the gifted Theodore II. Lascaris (1254- 
1258). The chief champion of the union with the Roman Church 
was the learned Johannes Beccus (patriarch of Constantinople 
1275-1282). Of his opponents by far the most eminent was 
Gregory of Cyprus, who succeeded him on the patriarchal throne. 
The fluctuations in the fortunes of the two ecclesiastical parties 
are reflected in the occupation of the patriarchal throne. The 
battles round the question of the union, which were waged with 
southern passion, were for a while checked by the dissensions 
aroused by the mystic tendency of the Hesychasts. The impetus 
to this great literary movement was given by the monk Barlaam, 
a native of Calabria, who came forward in Constantinople as an 
opponent of the Latins and was in 1339 entrusted by Andronicus 
III. with a mission to Pope Benedict XII. at Avignon. He 
condemned the doctrine of the Hesychasts, and attacked them 
both orally and in writing. Among those who shared his views 
are conspicuous the historian Nicephorus Gregoras and Gregorius 
Acindynus, the latter of whom closely followed Thomas Aquinas 
in his writings. In fact the struggle against the Hesychasts was 
essentially a struggle between sober western scholasticism and 
dreamy Graeco-Oriental mysticism. On the side of the Hesychasts 
fought Gregorius Palamas, who tried to give a dogmatic founda- 
tion to the mysticism of the Hesychasts, Cabasilas, and the 
emperor John VI. Cantacuzenus who, after his deposition, 
sought, in the peaceful retreat of a monastery, consolation in 
theological studies, and in his literary works refuted the Jews 
and the Mahommedans. For the greatest Byzantine " apologia " 
against Islamism we are indebted to an emperor, Manuel II. 
Palaeologus (1391-1425), who by learned discussions tried to 
make up for the deficiency in martial prowess shown by the 
Byzantines in their struggle with the Turks. On the whole, 
theological literature was in the last century of the empire 
almost completely occupied with the struggles for and against 
the union with Rome. The reason lay in the political conditions. 
The emperors saw more and more clearly that without the aid 
of the West they would no longer be able to stand their ground 
against the Turks, the vanguard of the armies of the Crescent; 
while the majority of Byzantine theologians feared that the 
assistance of the West would force the Greeks to unite with 
Rome, and thereby to forfeit their ecclesiastical independence. 
Considering the supremacy of the theological party in Byzantium, 
it was but natural that religious considerations should gain the 
day over political; and this was the view almost universally 
held by the Byzantines in the later centuries of the empire; 
in the words of the chronicler Ducas: "it is better to fall into 
the hands of the Turks than into those of the Franks." The 
chief opponent of the union was Marcus Eugenicus, metropolitan 
of Ephesus, who, at the Council of Florence in 1439, denounced 
the union with Rome accomplished by John VIII. Palaeologus. 
Conspicuous there among the partisans of the union, by reason 
of his erudition and general literary merit, was Bessarion, after- 
wards cardinal, whose chief activity already falls under the 
head of Graeco-Italian humanism. 

Hagiography, i.e. the literature of the acts of the martyrs 
and the lives of the saints, forms an independent group and 
one comparatively unaffected by dogmatic struggles. 
The main interest centres here round the objects 
described, the personalities of the martyrs and saints 
themselves. The authors, on the other hand the Acts of the 
Martyrs are mostly anonymous keep more in the background 
than in other branches of literature. The man whose name is 



520 



GREEK LITERATURE 



[BYZANTINE 



mainly identified with Greek hagiography, Symeon Metaphrastes, 
is important not as an original author, but only as an editor. 
Symeon revised in the loth century, according to the rhetorical 
and linguistic principles of his day, numerous old Acts of the 
Martyr*, and incorporated them in a collection consisting of 
several volumes, which was circulated in innumerable copies, 
and thus to a great extent superseded the older original texts. 
These Acts of the Martyrs, in point of time, are anterior to our 
period; but of the Lives of Saints the greater portion belong 
to Byzantine literature. They began with biographies of monks 
distinguished for their saintly living, such as were used by 
Palladius about 420 in his Historia Lausiaca. The most famous 
work of this description is that by Athanasius of Alexandria, 
viz. the biography of St Anthony, the founder of monachism. 
In the 6th century Cyril of Scythopolis wrote several lives of 
saints, distinguished by a simple and straightforward style. 
More expert than any one else in reproducing the na'ive popular 
style was Leontius of Neapolis in Cyprus who, in the 7th century, 
wrote, among other works, a life of St John the Merciful, arch- 
bishop of Alexandria, which is very remarkable as illustrating 
the social and intellectual conditions of the time. From the 
popular Lives of Saints, which for the reading public of the 
middle ages formed the chief substitute for modern " belles 
lettres," it is easy to trace the transition to the religious novel. 
The most famous work of this class is the history of BARLAAM 

AND JOSAPHAT (<?..). 

The religious poetry of the Greeks primarily suffered from 
the influence of the ancient Greek form, which was fatal to 
original development. The oldest work of this class is 
the hymn, composed in anapaestic monometers and 
dimeters, which was handed down in the manuscripts 
with the Paedagogus of Clement of Alexandria (d. about 215), 
but was probably not his work. The ne'xt piece of this class 
is the famous " Maidens' Song " in the Banquet of St Methodius 
(d. about 311), in which many striking violations of the old 
rules of quantity are already apparent. More faithful to the 
tradition of the schools was Gregory of Nazianzus. But, owing 
to the fact that he generally employed antiquated versification 
and very erudite language, his poems failed to reach the people 
or to find a place in the services of the church. Just as little 
could the artificial paraphrase of the Psalms composed by the 
younger Apollinaris, or the subtle poems of Synesius, become 
popular. It became more and more patent that, with the archaic 
metre which was out of keeping with the character of the living 
language, no genuine poetry suited to the age could possibly be 
produced. Fortunately, an entirely new form of poetical art 
was discovered, which conferred upon the Greek people the 
blessings of an intelligible religious poetry the rhythmic poem. 
This no longer depended on difference of quantity in the syllables, 
which had disappeared from the living language, but on the 
accent. Yet the transition was not effected by the substitution 
of accent for the old long syllables ; the ancient verse form was 
entirely abandoned, and in its stead new and variously con- 
structed lines and strophes were formed. In the history of the 
rhythmic sacred poetry three periods are clearly marked the 
preparatory period; that of the hymns; and that of the Canones. 
About the first period we know, unfortunately, comparatively 
little. It appears that in it church music was in the main confined 
to the insertion of short songs between the Psalms or other 
portions of Holy Writ and the acclamations of the congregation. 
The oldest rhythmic songs date from Gregory of Nazianzus 
his " Maidens' Song " and his " Evening Hymn." Church 
poetry reached its highest expression in the second period, in 
the grand development of the hymns, i.e. lengthy songs compris- 
ing from twenty to thirty similarly constructed strophes, each 
connected with the next in acrostic fashion. Hymnology, 
again, attained its highest perfection in the first half of the 6th 
century with Romanos, who in the great number and excellence 
of his hymns dominated this species of poetry, as Homer did 
the Greek epic. From this period dates, moreover, the most 
famous song of the Greek Church, the so-called Acathistus, an 
anonymous hymn of praise to the Virgin Mary, which has 



sometimes, but erroneously, been attributed to the patriarch 
Sergius. 

Church poetry entered upon a new stage, characterized by an 
increase in artistic finish and a falling off in poetical vigour, 
with the composition of the Canones, songs artfully caaoaet 
built up out of eight or nine lyrics, all differently 
constructed. Andreas, archbishop of Crete (c. 650-720), is 
regarded as the inventor of this new class of song. His chief 
work, " the great Canon," comprises no less than 250 strophes. 
The most celebrated writers of Canones are John of Damascus 
and Cosmas of Jerusalem, both of whom flourished in the first 
half of the 8th century. The " vulgar " simplicity of Romanos 
was regarded by them as an obsolete method; they again 
resorted to the classical style of Gregory of Nazianzus, and John 
of Damascus even took a special delight in the most elaborate 
tricks of expression. In spite of this, or perhaps on that very 
account, both he and Cosmas were much admired in later times, 
were much read, and as was very necessary much commen- 
tated. Later, sacred poetry was more particularly cultivated 
in the monastery of the Studium at Constantinople by the abbot 
Theodorus and others. Again, in the gth century, Joseph, " the 
hymn-writer," excelled as a writer of songs, and, finally, John 
Mauropus (nth century), bishop of Euchaita, John Zonaras 
(i2th century), and Nicephorus Blemmydes (i3th century), 
were also distinguished as authors of sacred poems, i.e. Canones. 
The Basilian Abbey of Grotta Ferrata near Rome, founded in 
1004, and still existing, was also a nursery of religious poetry. 
As regards the rhythmic church poetry, it may now be regarded 
as certain that its origin was in the East. Old Hebrew and 
Syrian models mainly stimulated it, and Romanos (q.v.) was 
especially influenced by the metrical homilies of the great Syrian 
father Ephraem (d. about 373). 

In profane literature the writing of history takes the first 
place, as regards both form and substance. The Greeks have 
always been deeply interested in history, and they have profane 
never omitted, amid all the vicissitudes of their literature; 
existence, to hand down a record to posterity. Thus, historical 
they have produced a literature extending from the 
Ionian logographers and Herodotus down to the times of 
Sultan Mahommed II. In the Byzantine period all historical 
accounts fall under one of two groups, entirely different, both in 
form and in matter, (i) historical works, the authors of which 
described, as did most historians of ancient times, a period of 
history in which they themselves had lived and moved, or one 
which only immediately preceded their own times; and (2) 
chronicles, shortly recapitulating the history of the world. This 
latter class has no exact counterpart in ancient literature. The 
most clearly marked stage in the development of a Christian- 
Byzantine universal history was the chronicle (unfortunately 
lost) written by the Hellenized Jew, Justus of Tiberias, at the 
beginning of the 2nd century of the Christian era; this work 
began with the story of Moses. 

Byzantine histories of contemporary events do not differ 
substantially from ancient historical works, except in their 
Christian colouring. Yet even this is often very faint and blurred 
owing to close adherence to ancient methods. Apart from this, 
neither a new style nor a new critical method nor any radically 
new views appreciably altered the main character of Byzantine 
historiography. In their style most Byzantine compilers of 
contemporary history followed the beaten track of older his- 
torians, e.g. Herodotus, Thucydides, and, in some details, also 
Polybius. But, in spite of their often excessive tendency to 
imitation, they displayed considerable power in the delineation 
of character and were not wanting in independent judgment. 
As regards the selection of their matter, they adhered to the 
old custom of beginning their narrative where their predecessors 
left off. 

The outstripping of the Latin West by the Greek East, which 
after the close of the 4th century was a self-evident fact, is 
reflected in historiography also. After Constantine the Great, 
the history of the empire, although its Latin character was 
maintained until the 6th century, was mostly written by Greeks; 



BYZANTINE] 



GREEK LITERATURE 



e.g. Eunapius (c. 400), Olympiodorus (c. 450), Priscus (c. 450), 
Malchus (c. 490), and Zosimus, the last pagan historian (c. 500), 
all of whom, with the exception of Zosimus, are unfortunately 
preserved to us only in fragments. Historiography received a 
great impulse in the 6th century. The powerful Procopius and 
Agathias (?..), tinged with poetical rhetoric, described the 
stirring and eventful times of Justinian, while Theophanes of 
Byzantium, Menander Protector, Johannes of Epiphaneia and 
Theophylactus of Simocatta described the second half of the 
6th century. Towards the close of the 6th century also flourished 
the last independent ecclesiastical historian, Evagrius, who 
wrote the history of the church from 431 to 593. There now 
followed, however, a lamentable falling off in production. 
From the yth to the loth century the historical side is 
represented by a few chronicles, and it was not until the loth 
century that, owing to the revival of ancient classical studies, 
the art of writing history showed some signs of life. Several 
historical works are associated with the name of the emperor 
Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus. To his learned circle be- 
longed also Joseph Genesius, who at the emperor's instance 
compiled the history of the period from 813 to 886. A little work, 
interesting from the point of view of historical and ethnographical 
science, is the account of the taking of Thessalonica by the Cretan 
Corsairs (A.D. 904), which a priest, Johannes Cameniata, an 
eyewitness of the event, has bequeathed to posterity. There 
is also contained in the excellent work of Leo Diaconus (on the 
period from 959 to 975) a graphic account of the bloody wars of 
the Byzantines with the Arabs in Crete and with the Bulgarians. 
A continuation was undertaken by the philosopher Michael 
Psellus in a work covering the period from 976 to 1077. A 
valuable supplement to the latter (describing the period from 
1034 to 1079) was supplied by the jurist Michael Attaliata. 
The history of the Eastern empire during the Crusades was 
written in four considerable works, by Nicephorus Bryennius, 
his learned consort Anna Comnena, the " honest Aetolian," 
Johannes Cinnamus, and finally by Nicetas Acominatus in an 
exhaustive work which is authoritative for the history of the 
4th Crusade. The melancholy conditions and the ever increasing 
decay of the empire under the Palaeologi (i3th-i5th centuries) 
are described in the same lofty style, though with a still closer 
following of classical models. The events which took place 
between the taking of Constantinople by the Latins and the 
restoration of Byzantine rule (1203-1261) are recounted by 
Georgius Acropolita, who emphasizes his own share in them. 
The succeeding period was written by the versatile Georgius 
Pachymeres, the erudite and high-principled Nicephorus 
Gregoras, and the emperor John VI. Cantacuzenus. Lastly, 
the death-struggle between the East Roman empire and the 
mighty rising power of the Ottomans was narrated by three 
historians, all differing in culture and in style, Laonicus Chalco- 
condyles, Ducas and Georgius Phrantzes. With them may be 
classed a fourth (though he lived outside the Byzantine period), 
Critobulus, a high-born Greek of Imbros, who wrote, in the style 
of the age of Pericles, the history of the times of the sultan 
Mahommed II. (down to 1467). 

The essential importance of the Byzantine chronicles (mostly 
chronicles of the history of the world from the Creation) consists 
in the fact that they in part replace older lost works, 
teles"' an( i tnus fiM U P man y g a P s in ur historical survey 
(e.g. for the period from about 600 to 800 of which 
very few records remain). They lay no claim to literary merit, 
but are often serviceable for the history of language. Many such 
chronicles were furnished with illustrations. The remains of 
one such illustrated chronicle on papyrus, dating from the 
beginning of the $th century, has been preserved for us by the 
soil of Egypt. 1 The authors of the chronicles were mostly monks, 
who wished to compile handbooks of universal history for their 
brethren and for pious laymen; and this explains the strong 
clerical and popular tendency of these works. And it is due to 

1 See Ad. Bauer and J. Strzygowski, " Eine alexandrinische 
Weltchronik " (1905) (Denkschrift der kaiserlich. Akademie der 
Wissenschaflen, li.). 



these two qualities that the chronicles obtained a circulation 
abroad, both in the West and also among the peoples Christian- 
ized from Byzantium, e.g. the Slavs, and in all of them sowed the 
seeds of an indigenous historical literature. Thus the chronicles, 
despite the jejuneness of their style and their uncritical treatment 
of material were for the general culture of the middle ages of far 
greater importance than the erudite contemporary histories 
designed only for the highly educated circles in Byzantium. 
The oldest Byzantine chronicle of universal history preserved 
to us is that of Malalas (6th century), which is also the purest 
type of this class of literature. In the 7th century was completed 
the famous Easter or Paschal Chronicle (Chronicon Paschale). 
About the end of the 8th or the beginning of the gth century 
Georgius Syncellus compiled a concise chronicle, which began 
with the Creation and was continued down to the year 284. 
At the request of the author, when on his death-bed, the con- 
tinuation of this work was undertaken by Theophanes Confessor, 
who brought down the account from A.D. 284 to his own times 
(A.D. 813). This exceedingly valuable work of Theophanes 
was again continued (from 813-961) by several anonymous 
chroniclers. A contemporary of Theophanes, the patriarch 
Nicephorus, wrote, in addition to a Short History of the period 
from 602 to 769, a chronological sketch from Adam down to the 
year of his own death in 829. Of great influence on the age that 
followed was Georgius Monachus, only second in importance 
as chronicler of the early Byzantine period, who compiled a 
chronicle of the world's history (from Adam until the year 843, 
the end of the Iconoclast movement), far more theological and 
monkish in character than the work of Theophanes. Among 
later chroniclers Johannes Scylitza stands out conspicuously. 
His work (covering the period from 811 to 1057), as regards the 
range of its subject-matter, is something between a universal 
and a contemporary history. Georgius Cedrenus (c. noo) 
embodied the whole of Scylitza's work, almost unaltered, in 
his Universal Chronicle. In the 1 2th century the general increase 
in literary production was evident also in the department of 
chronicles of the world. From this period dates, for instance, 
the most distinguished and learned work of this class, the great 
universal chronicle of John Zonaras. In the same century 
Michael Glycas compiled his chronicle of the world's history, a 
work written in the old popular style and designed for the 
widest circles of readers. Lastly, in the i2th century, Con- 
stantine Manasses wrote a universal chronicle in the so-called 
" political " verse. With this verse-chronicle must be classed 
the imperial chronicle of Ephraem, written in Byzantine trimeters 
at the beginning of the i4th century. 

Geography and topography, subjects so closely connected 
with history, were as much neglected by the Byzantines as by 
their political forerunners, the Romans. Of purely 
practical importance are a few handbooks of navigation, graphy 
itineraries, guides for pilgrims, and catalogues of 
provinces and cities, metropolitan sees and bishoprics. The 
geographical work of Stephanus of Byzantium, which dates 
from Justinian's time, has been lost. To the same period belongs 
the only large geographical work which has been preserved to us, 
the Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes. For the 
topography of Constantinople a work entitled Ancient History 
(Patria) of Constantinople, which may be compared to the 
medieval Mirabilia urbis Romae, and in late manuscripts has 
been wrongly attributed to a certain Codinus, is of great import- 
ance. 

Ancient Greek philosophy under the empire sent forth two 
new shoots Neopythagoreanism and Neoplatonism. It was 
the latter with which moribund paganism essayed to 
stem the advancing tide of Christianity. The last great 
exponent of this philosophy was Proclus in Athens 
(d. 485). The dissolution, by order of Justinian, of the school 
of philosophy at Athens ill 529 was a fatal blow to this nebulous 
system, which had long since outlived the conditions that made it 
a living force. In the succeeding period philosophical activity 
was of two main kinds; on the one hand, the old philosophy, 
e.g. that of Aristotle, was employed to systematize Christian 






522 



GREEK LITERATURE 



[BYZANTINE 



doctrine, while, on the other, the old works were furnished with 
copious commentaries and paraphrases. Leontius of Byzantium 
had already introduced Aristotelian definitions into Christology ; 
but the real founder of medieval ecclesiastical philosophy was 
John of Damascus. Owing, however, to his having early attained 
to canonical authority, the independent progress of ecclesiastical 
philosophy was arrested; and to this it is due that in this 
respect the later Byzantine period is far poorer than is the West. 
Byzantium cannot boast a scholastic like Thomas Aquinas. 
In the nth century philosophical studies experienced a satis- 
factory revival, mainly owing to Michael Psellus, who brought 
Plato as well as Aristotle again into fashion. 

Ancient rhetoric was cultivated in the Byzantine period with 
greater ardour than scientific philosophy, being regarded as an 
indispensable aid to instruction. It would be difficult 
to imagine anything more tedious than the numerous 
theoretical writings on the subject and the examples of their 
practical application: mechanical school essays, which here 
count as " literature," and innumerable letters, the contents of 
which are wholly insignificant. The evil effects of this were 
felt beyond the proper sphere of rhetoric. The anxious attention 
paid to the laws of rhetoric and the unrestricted use of its 
withered flowers were detrimental to a great part of the rest of 
Byzantine literature, and greatly hampered the development 
of any individuality and simplicity of style. None the less, 
among the rhetorical productions of the time are to be found a 
few interesting pieces, such as the Philopatris, in the style of 
Lucian, which gives us a remarkable picture of the times of 
Nicephorus Phocas (loth century). In two other smaller works 
a journey to the dwellings of the dead is described, after the 
pattern of Lucian 's Nekyomanteia, viz. in Timarion (i 2th century) 
and in Mazaris' Journey to the Underworld (c. 1414). A very 
charming representative of Byzantine rhetoric is Michael 
Acominatus, who, in addition to theological works, wrote 
numerous occasional speeches, letters and poems. 

In the field of scientific production, which can be accounted 
literature in the modern acceptation of the term only in a limited 
sense, Byzantium was dominated to an extravagant 
and even grotesque extent by the rules of what in 
modern times is termed " classical scholarship." 
The numerous works which belong to this category, such as 
grammars, dictionaries, commentaries on ancient authors, 
extracts from ancient literature, and metrical and musical 
treatises, are of little general interest, although of great value 
for special branches of philological study, e.g. for tracing the 
influences through which the ancient works handed down to 
us have passed, as well as for their interpretation and emenda- 
tion; for information about ancient authors now lost; for the 
history of education; and for the underlying principles of in- 
tellectual life in Byzantium. The most important monument of 
Byzantine philology is, perhaps, the Library of the patriarch 
Photius. The period from about 650 to 850 is marked by a 
general decay of culture. Photius, who in the year 850 was 
about thirty years of age, now set himself with admirable 
energy to the task of making ancient literature, now for the most 
part dead and forgotten, known once more to his contemporaries, 
thus contributing to its preservation. He gave an account 
of all that he read, and in this way composed 280 essays, which 
were collected in what is commonly known as the Library 
or Myriobiblon. The character of the individual sketches is 
somewhat mechanical and formal; a more or less complete 
account of the contents is followed by critical discussion, which 
is nearly always confined to the linguistic form. With this 
work may be compared in importance the great Lexikon of 
Suidas, which appeared about a century later, a sort of encyclo- 
paedia, of which the main feature was its articles on the history 
of literature. A truly sympathetic figure is Eustathius, the 
famous archbishop of Thessalonica (i 2th century). His volumin- 
ous commentaries on Homer, however, rivet the attention less 
than his enthusiastic devotion to science, his energetic action 
on behalf of the preservation of the literary works of antiquity, 
and last, not least, his frank and heroic character, which had 



The 
sciences. 



nothing in it of the Byzantine. If, on the other hand, acquaint- 
ance with a caricature of Byzantine philology be desired, it is 
afforded by Johannes Tzetzes, a contemporary of Eustathius, 
a Greek in neither name nor spirit, narrow-minded, angular, 
superficial, and withal immeasurably conceited and ridiculously 
coarse in his polemics. The transition to Western humanism 
was effected by the philologists of the period of the Palaeologi, 
such as Maximus Planudes, whose translations of numerous 
works renewed the long-broken ties between Byzantium and the 
West; Manuel Moschopulus, whose grammatical works and 
commentaries were, down to the i6th century, used as school 
text-books; Demetrius Triclinius, distinguished as a textual 
critic; the versatile Theodorus Metochites, and others. 

Originally, as is well known, Latin was the exclusive language 
of Roman law. But with Justinian, who codified the laws in his 
Corpus juris, the Hellenizing of the legal language 
also began. The Institutes and the Digest were trans- 
lated into Greek, and the Novels also were issued in 
a Greek form. Under the Macedonian dynasty there began, after 
a long stagnation, the resuscitation of the code of Justinian. 
The emperor Basilius I. (867-886) had extracts made from the 
existing law, and made preparations for the codifying of all laws. 
But the whole work was not completed till the time of Leo VI. 
the Wise (886-912), and Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus 
(912-959), when it took the form of a grand compilation from 
the Digests, the Codex, and the Novels, and is commonly known 
as the Basilica (TA ^curiXi/ci). In the East it completely super- 
seded the old Latin Corpus juris of Justinian. More that was 
new was produced, during the Byzantine period, in canon law 
than in secular legislation. The purely ecclesiastical rules of 
law, the Canones, were blended with those of civil law, and thus 
arose the so-called Nomocanon, the most important edition of 
which is that of Theodorus Bestes in 1090. The alphabetical 
handbook of canon law written by Matthaeus Blastares about 
the year 1335 also exercised a great influence. 

In the province of mathematics and astronomy the remarkable 
fact must be recorded that the revival among the Greeks of 
these long-forgotten studies was primarily due to Matbe- 
Perso-Arabian influence. The Great Syntaxis of mattes 
Ptolemy operated in the oriental guise of the Almagest. aad '*' 
The most important direct source of this intellectual 
loan was not Arabia, however, but Persia. Towards the close 
of the I3th century the Greeks became acquainted with Persian 
astronomy. At the beginning of the I4th oentury Georgius 
Chrysococca and Isaac Argyrus wrote astronomical treatises 
based on Persian works. Then the Byzantines themselves, 
notably Theodorus Metochites and Nicephorus Gregoras, at 
last had recourse to the original Greek sources. 

The Byzantines did much independent work in the field of 
military science. The most valuable work of the 
period on this subject is one on tactics, which has 
come down to posterity associated with the name of 
Leo VI., the Wise. 

Of profane poetry in complete contrast to sacred poetry 
the general characteristic was its close imitation of the antique 
in point of form. All works belonging to this category 
reproduce the ancient style and are framed after 
ancient models. The metre is, for the most part, 
either the Byzantine regular twelve-syllable trimeter, or the 
" political " verse; more rarely the heroic and Anacreontic 
measures. 

Epic popular poetry, in the ancient sense, begins only with 
the vernacular Greek literature (see below); but among the 
literary works of the period there are several which can 
be compared with the epics of the Alexandrine age. 
Nonnus (c. 400) wrote, while yet a pagan, a fantastic epic on the 
triumphal progress of the god Dionysus to India, and, as a 
Christian, a voluminous commentary on the gospel of St John. 
In the 7th century, Georgius Pisides sang in several lengthy 
iambic poems the martial deeds of the emperor Heraclius, while 
the deacon Theodosius (loth century) immortalized in extrava- 
gant language the victories of the brave Nicephorus Phocas. 






BYZANTINE] 



GREEK LITERATURE 



523 



Didactic 
poems. 



The 
epigram, 



From the nth century onwards, religious, grammatical, 
astrological, medical, historical and allegorical poems, framed 
partly in duodecasyllables and partly in " political " 
verse, made their appearance in large quantities. 
Didactic religious poems were composed, for example, 
by Philippus (6 MOVOT POTTOS, Solitarius, c. uoo), grammatico- 
philological poems by Johannes Tzetzes, astrological by Johannes 
Camaterus (i2th century), others on natural science by Manuel 
Philes (i4th century) and a great moral, allegorical, didactic 
epic by Georgius Lapithes (i4th century). 

To these may be added some voluminous poems, which in 
style and matter must be regarded as imitations of the ancient 
Greek romances. They all date from the 1 2th century, 
a fact evidently connected with the general revival of 
culture which characterizes the period of the Comneni. Two 
of these romances are written in the duodecasyllable metre, 
viz. the story of Rodanthe and Dosicles by Theodorus Prodromus, 
and an imitation of this work, the story of Drusilla and Charicles 
by Nicetas Eugenianus; one in " political " verse, the love story 
of Aristander and Callithea by Constantine Manasses, which has 
only been preserved in fragments, and lastly one in prose, the 
story of Hysmine and Hysminias, by Eustathius (or Eumathius) 
Macrembolita, which is the most insipid of all. 

The objective point of view which dominated the whole 
Byzantine period was fatal to the development of a profane 
Lyrics lyrical poetry. At most a few poems by Johannes 
Geometres and Christophorus of Mytilene and others, 
in which personal experiences are recorded with some show of 
taste, may be placed in this category. The dominant form 
for all subjective poetry was the epigram, which was employed 
in all its variations from playful trifles to long elegiac and 
narrative poems. Georgius Pisides (7th century) treated the 
most diverse themes. In the pth century Theodorus of Studium 
had lighted upon the happy idea of immortalizing 
monastic life in a series of epigrams. The same 
century produced the only poetess of the Byzantine 
period, Casia, from whom we have several epigrammatic pro- 
ductions and church hymns, all characterized by originality. 
Epigrammatic poetry reached its highest development in the 
loth and nth centuries, in the productions of Johannes Geo- 
metres, Christophorus of Mytilene and John Mauropus. Less 
happy are Theodorus Prodromus (i2th century) and Manuel 
Philes (i4th century). From the beginning of the loth century 
also dates the most valuable collection of ancient and of Byzantine 
epigrammatic poems, the Anthologia Palatina (see ANTHOLOGY). 
Dramatic poetry, in the strict sense of the term, was as 
completely lacking among the Byzantine Greeks as was the 
condition precedent to its existence, namely, public 
performance. Apart from some moralizing allegorical 
dialogues (by Theodorus Prodromus, Manuel Philes and others), 
we possess only a single work of the Byzantine period that, at 
least in external form, resembles a drama: the Sufferings of 
Christ (Xpn-6s Haax^v). This work, written probably in the 
1 2th century, or at all events not earlier, is a cento, i.e. is in great 
measure composed of verses culled from ancient writers, e.g. 
Aeschylus, Euripides and Lycophron; but it was certainly 
not written with a view to the dramatic production. 

The vernacular literature stands alone, both in form and in 
contents. We have here remarkable originality of conception 
and probably also entirely new and genuinely medieval 
matter - While in the artificial literature prose is 
literature, pre-eminent, in the vernacular literature, poetry, 
both in quantity and quality, takes the first place, as 
was also the case among the Latin nations, where the vulgar 
tongue first invaded the field of poetry and only later that of 
prose. Though a few preliminary attempts were made (proverbs, 
acclamations addressed by the people to the emperor, &c.), the 
Greek vernacular was employed for larger works only from the 
1 2th century onwards; at first in poems, of which the major 
portion were cast in " political " verse, but some in the trochaic 
eight-syllabled line. Towards the close of the isth century 
rhyme came into use. The subjects treated in this vernacular 



Drama. 



poetry are exceedingly diverse. In the capital city a mixture 
of the learned and the popular language was first used in poems 
of admonition, praise and supplication. In this oldest class 
of " vulgar " works must be reckoned the Spaneas, an admoni- 
tory poem in imitation of the letter of Pseudo-Isocrates addressed 
to Demonicus; a supplicatory poem composed in prison by the 
chronicler Michael Glycas, and several begging poems of Theo- 
dorus Prodromus (Ptochoprodromos). In the succeeding period 
erotic poems are met with, such as the Rhodian love songs 
preserved in a MS. in the British Museum (ed. W. Wagner, 
Leipzig, 1879), fairy-tale like romances such as the Story of 
Ptocholeon, oracles, prayers, extracts from Holy Writ, lives of 
saints, &c. Great epic poems, in which antique subjects are 
treated, such as the legends of Troy and of Alexander, form a 
separate group. To these may be added romances in verse after 
the manner of the works written in the artificial classical 
language, e.g. Callimachus and Chrysorrhoe, Belthandrus and 
Chrysantza, Lybistrus and Rhodamne, also romances in verse 
after the Western pattern, such as Phlorius and Plalziaphlora 
(the old French story of Flore et Blanchefleur) . Curious are 
also sundry legends connected with animals and plants, such 
as an adaptation of the famous medieval animal fables 
of the Physiologus, a history of quadrupeds, and a book 
of birds, both writ-ten with a satirical intention, and, lastly, a 
rendering of the story of Reynard the Fox. Of quite peculiar 
originality also ars several legendary and historical poems, in 
which famous heroes and historical events are celebrated. 
There are, for instance, poems on the fall of Constantinople, the 
taking of Athens and Trebizond, the devastating campaign of 
Timur, the plague in Rhodes in 1498, &c. In respect of import- 
ance and antiquity the great heroic epic of Digenis Akritas 
stands pre-eminent. 

Among prose works written in the vulgar tongue, or at least 
in a compromise with it, may be mentioned the Greek rendering 
of two works from an Indian source, the Book of the 
Seven Wise Masters (as Syntipas the Philosopher by " Vul x* r " 
Michael Andreopulus) , and the Hitopadera or Mirror ^ors. 
of Princes (through the Arabic Kalilah and Dimnah 
by Simeon Sethus as Sre^awTTjs /cat 'iKnjXd-njs), a fish book, a 
fruit book (both skits on the Byzantine court and official circles). 
To these must be added the Greek laws of Jerusalem and of 
Cyprus of the i2th and i3th centuries, chronicles, &c. In spite 
of many individual successes, the literature written in the 
vulgar tongue succumbed, in the race for existence, to its elder 
sister, the literature written in classical and polished Greek. 
This was mainly due to the continuous employment of the 
ancient language in the state, the schools and the church. 

The importance of Byzantine culture and literature in the 
history of the world is beyond dispute. The Christians of the 
East Roman empire guarded for more than a thousand oeneni 
years the intellectual heritage of antiquity against the signia- 
violent onslaught of the barbarians. They also called caace of 
into life a peculiar medieval culture and literature, //^.""ure 6 
They communicated the treasures of the old pagan 
as well as of their own Christian literature to neighbouring 
nations; first to the Syrians, then to the Copts, the Armenians, 
the Georgians; later, to the Arabians, the Bulgarians, the Serbs 
and the Russians. Through their teaching they created a new 
East European culture, embodied above all in the Russian 
empire, which, on its religious side, is included in the Orthodox 
Eastern Church, and from the point of view of nationality 
touches the two extremes of Greek and Slav. Finally the learned 
men of the dying Byzantine empire, fleeing from the barbarism 
of the Turks, transplanted the treasures of old Hellenic wisdom 
to the West, and thereby fertilized the Western peoples with 
rich germs of culture. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. I. General sources: K. Krumbacher, Geschichte 
der byzantinischen Literatur (2nd ed., 1897), supplemented in Die 
byzantinische Zeitschrift (1892 seq.), and the Byzantinisches Archiv 
(1898 seq.), which is intended for the publication of more exhaustive 
matter. The Russian works in this department are comprised in 
the Vizantiisky Vremennik (1894 seq.). 

2. Language: Grammar: A. N. Jannaris (Giannaris), An 



524 



GREEK LITERATURE 



[MODERN 



Historical Greek Grammar (1897); A. Dieterich. " Untersuchungen 
zur Geschichte der griechischen Sprache von der hellenistischen Zeit 
bis zum loten Jahrhundert," in Byzani. Archiv, i. (1898). Glossary : 
Ducange, Glossarium ad scriptures mediae el infimae Graecitatis 
(1688), in which particular attention is paid to the " vulgar " 
language; E. A. Sophocles, Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine 
Periods (yd ed., 1888). 

3. Theology : Chief work, A. Ehrhard in Krumbacher's Geschichte 
der byz. Lit. pp. 1-218. For the ancient period, cf. the works on 
Greek patrology (underarticleFATHERSOFTHECnuRCH). Collective 
edition of the Fathers (down to the isth century); Patrologia, 
series Graeca (ed. by Migne, 161 vols., 1857-1866). Church poetry: 
A collection of Greek Church hymns was published by W. Christ 
and M. Paranikas, entitled Anthologia Graeca carminum Christia- 
norum (1871). Many unedited texts, particularly the songs of 
Romanos, were published by Cardinal J. B. Pitra, under the title 
Analecta sacra spicilegio Solesmensi parata (1876). A complete 
edition of the hymns is edited by K. Krumbacher. 

4. Historical literature: A collective edition of the Byzantine 
historians and chroniclers was begun under Louis XIV., and con- 
tinued later (1648-1819), called the Paris Corpus. This whole 
collection was on B. G. Niebuhr's advice republished with some 
additions (Bonn, 1828-1878), under the title Corpus scriptorum 
historiae Byzantinae. The most important authors have also 
appeared in the Bibliotheca Teubneriana. A few Byzantine and 
oriental historical works are also contained in the collection edited 
by J. B. Bury (1898 seq.). 

5. Vernacular Greek literature: The most important collective 
editions are: W. Wagner, Medieval Greek Texts (1870), Carmina 
Graeca Medii Aevi (1874), Trois Poemes grecs du moyen age (1881); 
E. Legrand, Collection de monuments pour servir & I'etude de la langue 
n6o-hellenique (in 26 parts, 1869-1875), Bibliotheque grecque vulgaire 
(in 8 vols., 1880-1896). (K. KR.) 

III. MODERN GREEK LITERATURE (1453-1908) 

After the capture of Constantinople, the destruction of Greek 
national life and the almost total effacement of Greek civilization 
naturally involved a more or less complete cessation of Greek 
literary production in the regions subjected to the rule of a 
barbarous conqueror. Learned Greeks found a refuge away 
from their native land; they spoke the languages of foreign 
people, and when they wrote books they often used those 
languages, but in most cases they also wrote in Greek. The 
fall of Constantinople must not therefore be taken as indicating 
a break in the continuity of Greek literary history. Nor had 
that event so decisive an influence as has been supposed on the 
revival of learning in western Europe. The crusades had 
already brought the Greeks and Westerns together, and the rule 
of the Franks at Constantinople and in the Levant had rendered 
the contact closer. Greeks and Latins had keenly discussed the 
dogmas which divided the Eastern and Western Churches; 
some Greeks had adopted the Latin faith or had endeavoured 
to reconcile the two communions, some had attained preferment 
in the Roman Church. Many had become connected by marriage 
or other ties with the Italian nobles who ruled in the Aegean 
or the Heptanesos, and circumstances led them to settle in Italy. 
Of the writers who thus found their way to the West before the 
taking of Constantinople the most prominent were Leon or 
Leontios Pilatos, Georgius Gemistus, or Pletho, Manuel and 
John Chrysoloras, Theodore Gazes, George of Trebizond and 
Cardinal Bessarion. 

The Ottoman conquest had reduced the Christian races in 
the plains to a condition of serfdom, but the spirit of liberty 

continued to breathe in the mountains, where groups 
lei" htic f des P erate men > the Klephts and the Haiduks, 
poetry. maintained the struggle against alien tyranny. The 

adventurous and romantic life of these champions 
of freedom, spent amid the noblest solitudes of nature and often 
tinged with the deepest tragedy, naturally produced a poetry 
of its own, fresh, spontaneous and entirely indigenous. The 
Klephtic ballads, all anonymous and composed in the language 
of the people, are unquestionably the best and most genuine 
Greek poetry of this epoch. They breathe the aroma of the 
forests and mountains; like the early rhapsodies of antiquity, 
which peopled nature with a thousand forms, they lend a voice 
to the trees, the rocks, the rivers and to the mountains themselves, 
which sing the prowess of the Klepht, bewail his death and 
comfort his disconsolate wife or mother. Olympia boasts to 



Ossa that the footstep of the Turk has never desecrated its 
valleys; the standard of freedom floats over its springs; there 
is a Klepht beneath every tree of its forests; an eagle sits on its 
summit with the head of a warrior in its talons. The dying 
Klepht bids his companions make him a large and lofty tomb 
that he may stand therein and load his musket: " Make a 
window in the side that the swallows may tell me that spring has 
come, that the nightingales may sing me the approach of flowery 
May." The wounded Vervos is addressed by his horse: " Rise, 
my master, let us go and find our comrades." " My bay horse, 
I cannot rise; I am dying: dig me a tomb with thy silver-shod 
hoof; take me in thy teeth and lay me therein. Bear my arms 
to my companions and this handkerchief to my beloved, that 
she may see it and lament me." Another type of the popular 
poetry is presented by the folk-songs of the Aegean islanders 
and the maritime population of the Asiatic coast. In many of 
the former the influence of the Prankish conquest is apparent. 
Traces of the ancient mythology are often to be found in the 
popular songs. Death is commonly personified by Charon, who 
struggles with his victim; Charon is sometimes worsted, but as 
a rule he triumphs in the conflict. 

In Crete, which for nearly two centuries after the fall of 
Constantinople remained under Venetian rule, a school of Greek 
poetry arose strongly impressed with Italian influences. 
The language employed is the dialect of the Candiotes, 
with its large admixture of Venetian words. The 
first product of this somewhat hybrid literature was Erotocritos, 
an epic poem in five cantos, which relates the love story of Arete, 
daughter of Hercules, king of Athens, and Erotocritos, the son 
of his minister. The poem presents an interesting picture of 
Greece under the feudal Prankish princes, though professing 
to describe an episode of the classical epoch; notwithstanding 
some tedious passages, it possesses considerable merit and 
contains some charming scenes. The metre is the rhymed 
alexandrine. Of the author, Vicence Cornaro, who lived in the 
middle or end of the i6th century, little is known; he probably 
belonged to the ducal family of that name, from which Tasso 
was descended. The second poem is the Erophile of George 
Chortakis, a Cretan, also written in the Candiote dialect. It is 
a tragic drama, the scene of which is laid in Egypt. The dialogue 
is poor, but there are some fine choral interludes, which perhaps 
are by a different hand. Chortakis, who was brought up at 
Retimo, lived at the end of the i6th and beginning of the i7th 
centuries. The third Cretan poem worthy of notice is the 
Shepherdess, a charming and graceful idyll written by Nicolas 
Drimyticos, a native of Apokorona, early in the i7th century. 
Other Cretan poets were J. Gregoropoulos and G. Melissinos 
(1500), who wrote epigrams, and Maroulos (1493), who 
endeavoured to write Pindaric odes. 

Among the Greeks who were prominent in spreading a know- 
ledge of Greek in Europe after the fall of Constantinople were 
John Argyropulos, Demetrius Chalcondyles, Con- 
stantine and John Lascaris and Marcus Musurus, a 
Cretan. These men wrote in the accepted literary 
language; in general, however, they were rather 
employed about literature than engaged in producing 
it. They taught Greek; several of them wrote Greek 
grammars; they transcribed and edited Greek classical writers, 
and they collected manuscripts. Their stores enriched the 
newly founded libraries of St Mark at Venice, of the Escorial, 
of the Vatican and of the National Library in Paris. But none 
of them accomplished much in literature strictly so called. The 
question which most deeply interested them was that of the rival 
merits of the Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies, over which 
a controversy of extraordinary bitterness broke out towards the 
close of the 1 5th century. The dispute was in reality theological 
rather than philosophical; the cause of Plato was championed 
by the advocates of a union between the Eastern and Western 
Churches, that of Aristotle was upheld by the opposing party, 
and all the fury of the old Byzantine dogmatic controversies 
was revived. The patriarch, George Kurtesios or Gennadius, 
whom Mahommed II. had appointed after the capture of 



Literary 
activity 
after the 
fall of 
Constan- 
tinople. 






MODERN] 



GREEK LITERATURE 



525 



Constantinople, wrote a treatise in favour of Aristotle and ex- 
communicated Gemistus Pletho, the principal writer among 
the Platonists. On the other hand, George of Trebizond, who 
attacked Pletho with unmeasured virulence, was compelled 
to resign his post of secretary to Pope Nicholas V. and was 
imprisoned by Pope Paul I. Scholarship was not wholly extinct 
in Greece or among the Greeks for a considerable time after the 
Turkish conquest. Arsenius, who succeeded Musurus as bishop of 
Monemvasia (1510), wrote commentaries on Aristophanes and 
Euripides; his father, Apostoles, made a collection of Greek 
proverbs. Aemilius Portos, a Cretan, and Leo Allatios (1600- 
1650) of Chios edited a number of works of the classical and 
later periods with commentaries and translations; Allatios 
also wrote Greek verses showing skill and cleverness. Constan- 
tine Rhodokanakes, physician to Charles II. of England, wrote 
verses on the return of that monarch to England. About the 
time of the fall of Constantinople we meet with some versifiers 
who wrote poems in the spoken dialect on historical subjects; 
among these were Papaspondylos Zotikos (1444), Georgilas 
Limenitis (1450-1500) and Jacobos Trivoles (beginning of the 
i6th century); their poems have little merit, but are interesting 
as specimens of the popular language of the day and as illustrating 
the manners and ideas of contemporary Greeks. 

Among the prose writers of the i6th century were a number 
of chroniclers. At the end of the isth, Kritobulos of Imbros, 
who had been private secretary of Mahommed II., 
works 1 wrote the history of his master, Emmanuel Melaxos 
a history of the patriarchate, and Phranzes a history 
of the Palaeologi. Theodosius Zygomalas (1580) wrote a 
history of Constantinople from 1391 to 1578. In the lyth 
century Demetrius Cantemir, a Moldavian by birth, wrote a 
history of the Ottoman empire, and G. Kontares tales of ancient 
Athens. Others composed chronicles of Cyprus and Crete, 
narratives of travels and biographies of saints. Most of these 
works are written in the literary language, the study of which 
was kept alive by the patriarchate and the schools which it 
maintained at Constantinople and elsewhere. Various theo- 
logical and philosophical works, grammars and dictionaries 
were written during this period, but elegant literature practically 
disappears. 1 

A literary revival followed in the i8th century, the precursor 
of the national uprising which resulted in the independence of 
Greece. The efforts of the great Phanariote families 
r* e at Constantinople, the educational zeal of the higher 

revival. Greek clergy and the munificence of wealthy Greeks 
in the provinces, chiefly merchants who had acquired 
fortunes by commerce, combined to promote the spread of 
education among a people always eager for instruction. The 
Turks, indifferent to educational matters, failed to discern the 
significance of the movement. Schools were established in 
every important Greek town, and school-books and translations 
from Western languages issued from the presses of Venice, Triest, 
Vienna and other cities where the Greeks possessed colonies. 
Young men completed their studies in the Western universities 
and returned to the East as the missionaries of modern civiliza- 
tion. For the greater part of the i8th century the literature was 
mainly theological. Notable theological writers of this epoch 
were Elias Miniates, an elegant preacher, whose sermons are 
written in the popular language, and Meletios of lannina, 
metropolitan of Athens, whose principal works were an ecclesi- 
astical history, written in ancient Greek, and a descriptive 
geography of Greece in the modern language, composed, like the 
work of Pausanias, after a series of tours. The works of two 
distinguished prelates, both natives of Corfu and both ardent 
partisans of Russia, Nikephoros Theotokes (1731 ?-i8oo) and 
Eugenios Bulgares (1715-1806), mark the beginning of the 
national and literary renaissance. They wrote much in defence 

1 The patriarch Cyrillos Lucares (1572-1638), who had studied for 
a time in England and whose sympathies with Protestantism made 
him many enemies, established a Greek printing-press at Constanti- 
nople, from which he had the temerity to issue a work condemning 
the faith of Mahomet; he was denounced to the Turks by the 
Jesuits, and his printing-press was suppressed. 



revival. 



of Greek orthodoxy against Latin heresy. Theotokes, famous 
as a preacher, wrote, besides theological and controversial works, 
treatises on mathematics, geography and physics. Bulgares 
was a most prolific author; he wrote numerous translations and 
works on theology, archaeology, philosophy, mathematics, 
physics and astronomy; he translated the Aeneid and Georgics 
of Virgil into Homeric verse at the request of Catherine II. His 
writings exercised a considerable influence over his contem- 
poraries. 

The poets of the earlier period of the Greek revival were 
Constantinos Rhigas (?..), the Alcman of the revolutionary 
movement, whose songs fired the spirit of his fellow- 
countrymen; Christopoulos (1772-1847), a Phanariote, 
who wrote some charming Anacreontics, and Jacobos 
Rizos Neroulos (1778-1850), also a Phanariote, author 
of tragedies, comedies and lyrics, and of a work in French on 
modern Greek literature. They are followed in the epoch of 
Greek independence by the brothers Panagiotes and Alexander 
Soutzos (1800-1868 and 1803-1863) and Alexander Rhizos 
Rhangabes (Rhankaves, 1810-1892), all three Phanariotes. Both 
Soutzos had a rich command of musical language, were highly 
ideal in their conceptions, strongly patriotic and possessed an 
ardent love of liberty. Both imitated to some extent Byron, 
Lamartine and Beranger; they tried various forms of poetry, 
but the genius of Panagiotes was essentially lyrical, that of 
Alexander satirical. The other great poet of the Greek revival, 
Alexander Rizos Rhangabe, was a writer with a fine poetic 
feeling, exquisite diction and singular beauty and purity of 
thought and sentiment. Besides numerous odes, hymns, 
ballads, narrative poems, tragedies and comedies, he wrote 
several prose works, including a history of ancient Greece, a 
history of modern Greek literature, several novels and works on 
ancient art and archaeology. Among the numerous dramatic 
works of this time may be mentioned the Mapia Aotirarpj of 
Demetrios Bernardakes, a Cretan, the scene of which is laid in 
the Morea at the time of the crusades. 

In prose composition, as in poetry, the national revival was 
marked by an abundant output. Among the historians the 
greatest is Spiridon Trikoupis, whose History of the p^se 
Revolution is a monumental work. It is distinguished writers 
by beauty of style, clearness of exposition and an of the 
impartiality which is all the more remarkable as the 
author played a leading part in the events which he narrates. 
Almost all the chiefs of the revolutionary movement left their 
memoirs; even Kolokotrones, who was illiterate, dictated his 
recollections. John Philemon, of Constantinople, wrote a history 
of the revolution in six volumes. He was an ardent partisan 
of Russia, and as such was opposed to Trikoupis, who was 
attached to the English party. K. Paparrhegopoulos's History 
of the Greek Nation is especially valuable in regard to the later 
periods; in regard to the earlier he largely follows Gibbon and 
Grote. With him may be mentioned Moustoxides of Corfu, 
who wrote on Greek history and literature; Sakellarios, who 
dealt with the topography and history of Cyprus; N. Dragoumes, 
whose historical memoirs treat of the period which followed 
the revolution; K. Assopios, who wrote on Greek literature 
and history. In theology Oeconomos fills the place occupied 
by Miniates in the I7th century as a great preacher. Kontogones 
is well known by his History of Patristic Literature of the First 
Three Centuries and his Ecclesiastical History, and Philotheos 
Bryennios, bishop of Serres, by his elaborate edition of Clemens 
Romanus. Kastorches wrote well on Latin literature. Great 
literary activity in the domains of law, political economy, mathe- 
matics, the physical sciences and archaeology displayed itself 
in the generation after the establishment of the Greek kingdom. 

But the writer who at the time of the national revival not 
only exercised the greatest influence over his contemporaries 
but even to a large extent shaped the future course 
of Greek literature was Adamantios Corae's (Korais) 
of Chios. This remarkable man, who devoted his life to 
philological studies, was at the same time an ardent patriot, 
I and in the prolegomena to his numerous editions of the classical 



Corae's. 



526 



GREEK LITERATURE 



[MODERN 



writers, written in Greek or French, he strove to awake the 
interest of his countrymen in the past glories of their race or 
administered to them sage counsels, at the same time addressing 
ardent appeals to civilized Europe on their behalf. The great 
importance of Coraes, however, lies in the fact that he was 
practically the founder of the modern literary language. 

In contemporary Greek literature two distinct forms of the 
modern language present themselves the vernacular (1) 
Tae KajSoni^ovftevr]) and the purified (i^ Kodaptvovo'a.). 

modern The former is the oral language, spoken by the whole 
literary Greek world, with local dialectic variations; the 
language. latter jg based on the Greek of the Hellenistic writers, 
modified, but not essentially altered, in successive ages by the 
popular speech. At the time of the War of Independence the 
enthusiasm of the Greeks and the Philhellenes was fired by the 
memory of an illustrious past, and at its close a classical reaction 
followed: the ancient nomenclature was introduced in every 
department of the new state, towns and districts received their 
former names, and children were christened after Greek heroes 
and philosophers instead of the Christian saints. In the literary 
revival which attended the national movement, two schools 
of writers made their appearance the purists, who, rejecting 
the spoken idiom as degenerate and corrupt, aimed at the 
restoration of the classical language, and the vulgarists, who 
regarded the vernacular or " Romaic " as the genuine and 
legitimate representative of the ancient tongue. A controversy 
which had existed in former times was thus revived, with the 
result that a state of confusion still prevails in the national 
literature. The classical scholar who is as yet unacquainted 
with modern Greek will find, in the pages of an ordinary periodical 
or newspaper, specimens of the conventional literary language 
which he can read with ease side by side with poems or even 
prose in the vernacular which he will be altogether unable to 
interpret. 

The vernacular or oral language is never taught, but is univers- 
ally spoken. It has been evolved from the ancient language by 

a natural and regular process, similar to that which 
Reform* has produced the Romance languages from the Latin, 
Coraes. or tne R uss i an > Bulgarian and Servian from the 

old Slavonic. It has developed on parallel lines with 
the modern European languages, and in obedience to the same 
laws; like them, it might have grown into a literary language 
had any great writers arisen in the middle ages to do for it what 
Dante and his successors of the trecento did for Italian. But 
the effort to adapt it to the requirements of modern literature 
could hardly prove successful. In the first place, the national 
sentiment of the Greeks prompts them to imitate the classical 
writers, and so far as possible to appropriate their diction. 
The beauty and dignity of the ancient tongue possesses such an 
attraction for cultivated writers that they are led insensibly to 
adopt its forms and borrow from its wealth of phrase and idiom. 
In the next place, a certain literary tradition and usage has 
already been formed which cannot easily be broken down. For 
more than half a century the generally accepted written language, 
half modern half ancient, has been in use in the schools, the 
university, the parliament, the state departments and the 
pulpit, and its influence upon the speech of the more educated 
classes is already noticeable. It largely owes its present form 
though a fixed standard is still lacking to the influence and 
teaching of Coraes. As in the time of the decadence a mtvi) 
6idXtKTOS stood midway between the classical language and the 
popular speech, so at the beginning of the igth century there 
existed a common literary dialect, largely influenced by the 
vernacular, but retaining the characteristics of the old Hellenistic, 
from which it was derived by an unbroken literary tradition. 
This written language Coraes took as the basis of his reforms, 
purging it of foreign elements, preserving its classical remnants 
and enlarging its vocabulary with words borrowed from the 
ancient lexicon or, in case of need, invented in accordance with 
a fixed principle. He thus adopted a middle course, discounten- 
ancing alike the pedantry of the purists and the over-confident 
optimism of the vulgarists, who found in the uncouth popular 



speech all the material for a langue savante. The language 
which he thus endeavoured to shape and reconstruct is, of 
course, conventional and artificial. In course of time it will 
probably tend to approach the vernacular, while the latter 
will gradually be modified by the spread of education. The 
spoken and written languages, however, will always be separated 
by a wide interval. 

Many of the best poets of modern Greece have written in the 
vernacular, which is best adapted for the natural and spontaneous 
expression of the feelings. Dionysios Solomos (1798- 
1857), the greatest of them all, employed the dialect Crttro' 
of the Ionian Islands. Of his lyrics, which are full of to the 
poetic fire and inspiration, the most celebrated is his *"** 
" Ode to Liberty." Other poets, of what may be cular ' 
described as the Ionic school, such as Andreas Kalvos (1796- 
1869), Julius Typaldos (1814-1883), John Zampelios (1787-1856), 
and Gerasimos Markoras (b. 1826), followed his example in 
using the Heptanesian dialect. On the other hand, Georgios 
Terzetes (1806-1874), Aristotle Valaorites (1824-1879) and 
Gerasimos Mavrogiannes, though natives of the Ionian Islands, 
adopted in their lyrics the language of the Klephtic ballads 
in other words, the vernacular of the Pindus range and the 
mountainous district of Epirus. This dialect had at least the 
advantage of being generally current throughout the mainland, 
while it derived distinction from the heroic exploits of the 
champions of Greek liberty. The poems of Valaorites, which are 
characterized by vivid imagination and grace of style, have made 
a deep impression on the nation. Other poets who largely 
employed the Epirotic dialect and drew their inspiration from 
the Klephtic songs were John Vilaras (1771-1823), George 
Zalokostas (1805-1857) in his lyric pieces, and Theodore Aphen- 
toules, a Cretan (d. 1893). With the poems of this group may 
be classed those of Demetrius Bikelas (b. 1835). The popular 
language has been generally adopted by the younger generation 
of poets, among whom may be mentioned Aristomenes Probelegios 
(b. 1850), George Bizyenos (1853-1896), George Drosines, Kostes 
Palamas (b. 1859), John Polemes, Argyres Ephthaliotes, and 
Jacob Polylas (d. 1896). 

Contemporary with the first-mentioned or Ionic group, there 
existed at Constantinople a school of poets who wrote in the 
accepted literary language, and whose writings serve 
as models for the later group which gathered at Athens 
after the emancipation of Greece. The literary 
traditions founded by Alexander Rizos Rhangabes convea- 
(1810-1892) and the brothers Alexander and Panagiotis tlonal 
Soutzos (1803-1863 and 1800-1868), who belonged l " > ua ^ e - 
to Phanariot families, were maintained in Athens by Spiridion 
Basiliades (1843-1874) Angelos Vlachos (b. 1838), John Kara- 
soutzas (1824-1873), Demetrios Paparrhegopoulos (1843-1873), 
and Achilles Paraschos (b. 1838). The last, a poet of fine feeling, 
has also employed the popular language. In general the practice 
of versification in the conventional literary language has declined, 
though sedulously encouraged by the university of Athens, and 
fostered by annual poetic competitions with prizes provided by 
patriotic citizens. Greek lyric poetry during the first half of 
the century was mainly inspired by the patriotic sentiment 
aroused by the struggle for independence, but in the present 
generation it often shows a tendency towards the philosophic 
and contemplative mood under the influence of Western models. 

There has been an abundant production of dramatic literature 
in recent years. In succession to Alexander Rhangabes, John 
Zampelios and the two Soutzos, who belong to the 
past generation, Kleon Rhangabes, Angelos Vlachos, 
Demetrios Koromelas, Basiliades and Bernadakes tr 
are the most prominent among modern dramatic lators and 
writers. Numerous translations of foreign master- * atlrists ~ 
pieces have appeared, among which the metrical versions of 
Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear, Hamlet, Macbeth and The 
Merchant of Venice, by Demetrios Bikelas* deserve mention as 
examples of artistic excellence. Goethe's Faust has been 
rendered into verse by Probelegios, and Hamlet, Antony and 
Cleopatra, Coriolanus and Julius Caesar, into prose by Damiroles. 



GREEK RELIGION 



527 






Among recent satirists, George Soures (b. 1853) occupies a unique 
position. He reviews social and political events in the 'Pw/ijjos, 
a witty little newspaper written entirely in verse, which is read 
with delight by all classes of the population. 

Almost all the prose writers have employed the literary 
language. In historical research the Greeks continue to display 
much activity and erudition, but no great work 
comparable to Spiridion Trikoupis's History of the 
Revolution has appeared in the present generation. 
A history of the Greek nation from the earliest times 
to the present day, by Spiridion Lampros, and a general history 
of the ipth century by Karolides, have recently been published. 
The valuable Mvrmtia. of Sathas, the jucXeroi Buf avrivrjs wropias 
of Spiridion Zampelios and Mavrogiaunes's History of the 
Ionian Islands deserve special mention, as well as the essays 
of Bikelas, which treat of the Byzantine and modern epochs of 
Greek history. Some of the last-named were translated into 
English by the late marquis of Bute. Among the writers on 
jurisprudence are Peter Paparrhegopoulos, Kalligas, Basileios 
Oekonomedes and Nikolaos Saripolos. Brailas-Armenes and 
John Skaltzounes, the latter an opponent of Darwin, have 
written philosophical works. The Ecclesiastical History of 
Diomedes Kyriakos and the Theological Treatises of Archbishop 
Latas should be noted. The best-known writers of philological 
works are Constantine Kontos, a strong advocate of literary 
purism, George Hatzidakes, Theodore Papademetrakopoulos 
and John Psichari; in archaeology, Stephen Koumanoudes, 
Panagiotes Kawadias and Christos Tsountas have won a 
recognized position among scholars. John Svoronos is a high 
authority on numismatics. The works of John Hatzidakes 
on mathematics, Anast. Christomanos on chemistry, and 
Demetrios Aeginetes on astronomy are well known. 

The earlier works of fiction, written in the period succeeding 
the emancipation of Greece, were much affected by foreign 
Fiction. influence. Modern Greece has not produced any great 
novelist. The KpijriKoi ya/joi of Spiridion Zampelios, 
the scene of which is laid in Crete, and the Thanos Blechas 
of Kalligas are interesting, the former for accuracy of 
historical detail, the latter as a picture of peasant life in the 
mountains of Greece. Original novel writing has not been much 
cultivated, but translations of foreign romances abound. In 
later times the short story has come into vogue through the 
example of D. Bikelas, whose tales have acquired great popu- 
larity; one of them, Loukis Laras, has been translated into 
many languages. The example of Bikelas has been followed by 
Drosines Karkavitzas, Ephthaliotis, Xenopoulos and many 
others. 

The most distinguished of the writers who adhere to the 
vernacular in prose is John Psichari, professor of the Ecole des 
Prose Hautes Etudes in Paris. He is the recognized leader of 
writers the vulgarists. Among the best known of his works 
la the are To rat-tidl /uou, a narrative of a journey in Greek 
lands, Tempo TOV Tiavvipri, 'H ZouXea, and 6 Md,7os. 
The tales of Karkavitzas and Ephthaliotis are also in 
the vernacular. Among the younger of M. Psichari's followers 
is M. Palli, who has recently published a translation of the Iliad. 
Owing to the limited resources of the popular language, the 
writers of this school are sometimes compelled to employ strange 
and little-known words borrowed from the various dialects. 
The vernacular has never been adopted by writers on scientific 
subjects, owing to its inherent unsuitability and the incongruity 
arising from the introduction of technical terms derived from 
the ancient language. Notwithstanding the zeal of its adherents, 
it seems unlikely to maintain its place in literature outside the 
domain of poetry; nor can any other result be expected, unless 
its advocates succeed in reforming the system of public instruc- 
tion in Greece. 

Many periodicals are published at Athens, among which 
may be mentioned the Athena, edited by Constantine Kontos, 
the Ethnike Agoge, a continuation of the old Hestia, the 
Harmonia and the AidirXeuns TUV iraiSuv, an educational 
review. The Parnassos, the Archaeological Society and other 






learned bodies issue annual or quarterly reports. The Greek 
journals are both numerous and widely read. They contain 
much clever writing, which is often marred by inac- 
curacy and a deficient sense of responsibility. Their ^"J tod " d 
tendency to exaggerated patriotic sentiment sometimes j 00 * n a"s. 
borders on the ludicrous. For many years the Nea 
Hemfra of Trieste exerted a considerable influence over the Greek 
world, owing to the able political reviews of its editor, Anastasios 
Byzantios (d. 1898), a publicist of remarkable insight and 
judgment. 

AUTHORITIES. Constantine Sathas.NwxXXiji-uci) <t>i\o\oyia (Athens, 
1868) ; D. Bikelas, Ilepi veocXXijvix^: 01X0X07105 SoKl/uov (London, 1871), 
reprinted in AioXes noi Apa/jy^o-us (Athens, 1893); I. S. Blackie, 
Horae Hellenicae (London, 1874) ; R. Nicolai, Geschichte der neugrie- 
chischen Liter alur (Leipzig, 1876); A. R. Rhangab, Histoire litte- 
raire de la Grece moderne (Paris, 1877); C. Gidel, Etudes .sur la 
litterature grecque moderne (Paris, 1878); E. Legrand, Bibliotheque 
grecque vulgaire (vol. i., Paris, 1880); J. Lamber, Poetes grecs con- 
temporains (Paris, l88'l); Kontos, rX&xr<rutai jropoTijpiJaeij (Athens, 
1882); Rhangab6 and Sanders, Geschichte der neugriechischen 
Literatur von ihren Anfdngen bis auf die neueste Zeit (Leipzig, 1885) ; 
J. Psichari, Essais de grammaire historique neo-grecque (2 vols.,* 
Paris, 1886 and 1889); Etudes de philologie neo-grecque (Paris, 
1892); F. Blass, Die Aussprache des Griechischen (yd ed., Berlin, 
1888); Papademetrakopoulos, Baaaras iXXjpucTjj 7rpo0opai (Athens. 
1889) ; M. Konstantinides, Neo-hellenica (Dialogues in Modern Greek, 
with Appendix on the Cypriot Dialect) (London, 1892); Rhoi'des, 
Td EtawXa. rXa>o-<7i) /wXiTjj (Athens, 1893) ; Polites, MeXerai irtpl TOV 
ftlov xal TTJJ y\u<r<r>is 'E\\ijvtKov Xaou (2 vols., Athens, 1899). 

For the Klephtic ballads and folk-songs: C. Fauriel, Chants 
populaires de la Grece moderne (Paris, 1824, 1826); Passow, Popu- 
laria carmina Graeciae recentioris (Leipzig, 1860); von Hahn, 
Griechische und albanesische Mdrchen (Leipzig, 1864); Te^opkijs, 
AiavorpayovHa (2nd ed., Athens, 1868) ; E. Legrand, Recuett de chansons 
populaires grecques (Paris, 1874); Recueil de contes populaires grecs 
(Paris, 1881); Paul de Lagarde, Neugriechisches aus Kleinasien 
(Gottingen, 1886); A. Jannaris, "Aaisara K/nrru<&. (Kreta's Volks- 
lieder) (Leipzig, 1876); A. Sakellariou, Td Kmrpieucd (Athens, 
1891); Ziaypa.<t>eios 'Ay&v, published by the 'EXXiji-ixAj 0iXoXo7A? 
<r&XXo7os (Constantinople, 1891). Translations: L. Garnett, Greek 
Folksongs from the Turkish Provinces of Greece (London, 1885) ; 
E. M. Geldart, Folklore of Modern Greece (London, 1884). Lexicons : 
A. N. Jannaris, A Concise Dictionary of the English and Modern 
Greek Languages (English-Greek) (London, 1895); Byzantios 
(Skarlatos D.), Aefa&v TTJS 'EXXjji-urijs y\&<r<n)s (Athens, 1895); 
A. Sakellario, Atfuciy TTJJ EXXjjiairijs -yXwffcnjs (5th ed., Athens, 1898); 
S. Koumanoudes, ^vvaywy/i vtuv Xi&uv (Athens, 1900). Grammars: 
Mitsotakes, Praktische Grammatik der neugriechischen Schrift- und 
Umgangssprache (Stuttgart, 1891); M. Gardner, A Practical Modern 
Greek Grammar (London, 1892); G. N. Hatzidakes, Einleitung in 
die neugriechische Grammatik (Leipzig, 1892); E. Vincent and T. G. 
Dickson, Handbook to Modern Greek (London, 1893); A. Thumb, 
Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache (Strassburg, 1895); 
C. Wied, Die Kunst der neugriechischen Volkssprache durch 
Selbstunterricht schnell und leicht zu lernen (2nd ed., undated, 
Vienna); A. N. Jannaris, Historical Greek Grammar (London, 
1897). (J- D. B.) 

GREEK RELIGION. The recent development of anthropo- 
logical science and of the comparative study of religions has 
enabled us at last to assign to ancient Greek religion its proper 
place in the classification of creeds and to appreciate its import- 
ance for the history of civilization. In spite of all the diversities 
of local cults we may find a general definition of the theological 
system of the Hellenic communities, and with sufficient accuracy 
may describe it as an anthropomorphic polytheism, preserving 
many traces of a pre-anthropomorphic period, unchecked by 
any exacting dogma or tradition of revelation, and therefore 
pliantly adapting itself to all the changing circumstance of the 
social and political history of the race, and easily able to assimilate 
alien ideas and forms. Such a religion, continuing in whole or 
in part throughout a period of at least 2000 years, was more 
capable of progress than others, possibly .higher, that have 
crystallized at an early period into a fixed dogmatic type; and 
as, owing to its essential character, it could not be convulsed 
by any inner revolution that might obliterate the deposits of 
its earlier life, it was likely to preserve the imprints of the succes- 
sive ages of culture, and to reveal more clearly than any other 
testimony the evolution of the race from savagery to civilization. 
Hence it is that Greek religion appears to teem with incongruities, 
the highest forms of religious life being often confronted with the 
most primitive. And for this reason the student of savage 



GREEK RELIGION 



anthropology and the student of the higher religions of the 
world are equally rewarded by its study. 

Modern ethnology has arrived at the conviction that the 
Hellenic nation, like others that have played great parts in 
history, was the product of a blend of populations, the conquering 
tribes of Aryan descent coming from the north and settling among 
and upon certain pre-Hellenic Mediterranean stocks. The conclu- 
sion that is naturally drawn from this is that Hellenic religion 
is also the product of a blend of early Aryan or Indo-Germanic 
beliefs with the cult-ideas and practices of the Mediterranean 
area that were from of old indigenous in the lands which the 
later invaders conquered. But to disentangle these two com- 
ponent parts of the whole, which might seem to be the first 
problem for the history of the development of this religion, is 
by no" means an easy task; we may advance further towards 
its solution, when the mysterious pre-Hellenic Mediterranean 
language or group of languages, of which traces remain in 
Hellenic place-names, and which may be lying uninterpreted 
on the brick-tablets of the palace of Cnossus, has found its 
interpreter. For the first question is naturally one of language. 
But the comparative study of the Indo-European speech-group, 
great as its philological triumphs have been, has been meagre 
in its contributions to our positive knowledge of the original 
belief of the primitive stock. It is not possible to reconstruct 
a common Indo-European religion. The greater part of the 
separate Aryan cult-systems may have developed after the 
diffusion and may have been the result of contact in prehistoric 
days with non-Aryan peoples. And many old religious etymo- 
logical equations, such as Qi>pav6s = Sanskrit Varuna, 'Ep/ur)s = 
Sarameyas, Athena = Ahana, were uncritically made and have 
been abandoned. The chief fact that philology has revealed 
concerning the religious vocabulary of the Aryan peoples is that 
many of them are found to have designated a high god by a word 
derived from a root meaning " bright," and which appears in 
Zeus, Jupiter, Sanskrit Dyaus. This is important enough, 
but we should not exaggerate its importance, nor draw the 
unwarranted inference that therefore the primitive Indo- 
Europeans worshipped one supreme God, the Sky-Father. 
Besides the word " Zeus," the only other names of the Hellenic 
pantheon that can be explained wholly or partly as words of 
Aryan formation are Poseidon, Demeter, Hestia, Dionysus 
(whose name and cult were derived from the Aryan stock of the 
Thraco-Phrygians) and probably Pan. But other names, such 
as Athena, Ares, Apollo, Artemis, Hera, Hermes, have no 
discovered affinities with other Aryan speech-groups; and yet 
there is nothing suspiciously non-Aryan in the formation of these 
words, and they may all have belonged to the earliest Hellenic- 
Aryan vocabulary. In regard to others, such as Rhea, 
Hephaestus and Aphrodite, it is somewhat more probable that 
they belonged to an older pre-Hellenic stock that survived in 
Crete and other islands, and here and there on the mainland; 
while we know that Zeus derived certain unintelligible titles 
in Cretan cult from the indigenous Eteo-cretan speech. 

A minute consideration of a large mass of evidence justifies 
the conclusion that the main tribes of the Aryan Hellenes, 
pushing down from the north, already possessed certain deities 
in common such as Zeus, Poseidon and Apollo with whom they 
associated certain goddesses, and that they maintained the cult 
of Hestia or " Holy Hearth." Further, a comparison of the 
developed religions of the respective Aryan peoples suggests 
that they tended to give predominance to the male divinity, 
although we have equally good reason to assert that the cult of 
goddesses, and especially of the earth-goddess, is a genuinely 
" Aryan " product. But when the tribes of this family poured 
into the Greek peninsula, it is probable that they would find 
in certain centres of a very ancient civilization, such as Argolis 
and Crete, the dominant cult of a female divinity. 1 The recent 

1 This has often been explained as a resu4t of Mutterrecht, or 
reckoning descent through the female: for reasons against this 
hypothesis see L. R. Farnell in Archill fur vergleichende Religions- 
wissenschaft (1904); cf. A. J. Evans, " Mycenaean Tree and Pillar 
Cult," in Journ. of Hellenic Studies (1901). 



excavations on the site of the Hera temple at Argos prove that a 
powerful goddess was worshipped here many centuries before it 
is probable that the Hellenic invader appeared. He may have 
even found the name Hera there, or may have brought it with 
him and applied it to the indigenous divinity. Again, we are 
certain that the great mother-goddess of Crete, discovered by 
Dr Arthur Evans, is the ancestress of Rhea and of the Greek 
" Mother of the gods ": and it is a reasonable conjecture that 
she accounts for many of the forms of Artemis and perhaps for 
Athena. But the evidence by no means warrants us in assuming 
as an axiom that wherever we find a dominant goddess-cult, 
as that of Demeter at Eleusis, we are confronted with a non- 
Hellenic religious phenomenon. The very name " Demeter " 
and the study of other Aryan religions prove the prominence 
of the worship of the earth-goddess in our own family of the 
nations. Finally, we must reckon with the possibility that the 
other great nations which fringed the Mediterranean, Hittite, 
Semitic and Egyptian peoples, left their impress on early Greek 
religion, although former scholars may have made rash use of 
this hypothesis. 2 

Recognizing then the great perplexity of these problems 
concerning the ethnic origins of Hellenic religion, we may at 
least reduce the tangle of facts to some order by ... 
distinguishing its lower from its higher forms, and 
thus provide the material for some theory of evolution. We 
may collect and sjft the phenomena that remain over from a 
pre-anthropomorphic period, the imprints of a savage past, 
the beliefs and practices that belong to the animistic or even the 
pre-animistic period, fetishism, the worship of animals, human 
sacrifice. We shall at once be struck with the contrast between 
such civilized cults as those of Zeus, Athena, Apollo, high personal 
divinities to whom the attributes of a progressive morality could 
be attached, and practices that long survived in backward 
communities, such as the Arcadian worship of the thunder and 
the winds, the cult of Zeus Kspawos " the thunder " at Mantinea 
and Zeus KaTnrxoras in Laconia, who is none other than the 
mysterious meteoric stone that falls from heaven. These 
are examples of a religious view in which certain natural pheno- 
mena or objects are regarded as mysteriously divine or sacred 
in their own right and a personal divinity has not yet emerged 
or been separated from them. A noteworthy product of primitive 
animistic feeling is the universally prevalent cult of Hestia, 
who is originally " Holy Hearth " pure and simple, and who 
even under the developed polytheism, in which she played no 
small part, was never established as a separate anthropomorphic 
personage. 

The animistic belief that certain material objects can be 
charged with a divine potency or spirit gives rise to fetishism, 
a term which properly denotes the worshipful or 
superstitious use of objects made by art and invested 
with mysterious power, so as to be used like amulets for 
the purposes of protective magic or for higher purposes of 
communion with the divinity. From the earliest discoverable 
period down to the present day fetishism has been a powerful 
factor in the religion of the Graeco-Roman world. The import- 
ance of the sacred stone and pillar in the " Mycenaean " or 
" Minoan " period which preceded Homer has been impressively 
shown by Dr Arthur Evans, and the same fetishistic worship 
continued throughout the historic ages of classic paganism, the 
rude aniconic emblem of pillar or tree-trunk surviving often 
by the side of the iconic masterpiece. It is a reasonable con- 
jecture that the earliest anthropomorphic images of divinities, 
which were beginning to make their appearance by the time of 
Homer, were themselves evolved by slow transformation from 
the upright sacred column. And the altar itself may have 
arisen as another form of this; the simple heap of stones, such 

*V. BeYard has recently revived the discredited theory of a 
prevalent Phoenician influence in his ingenious but uncritical 
work, L'Origine des cultes arcadiens. M. P. Foucart believes in 
very early borrowing from Egypt, as explaining much in the religion 
of Demeter and Dionysus; see Les Grands Mys&res d'lLleusis and 
Le Culte de Dionysos en Altique. 



* 



GREEK RELIGION 



529 



as those erected to Hermes by the way-side and called 'Ep/xaToi 
X60oi, may have served both as a place of worship and as an 
agalma that could attract and absorb a divine potency into 
itself. Hence the fetishistic power of the altar was fully 
recognized in Greek ritual, and hence also in the cult of 
Apollo Agyieus the god and the altar are called by the same 
name. 

It has been supposed that the ancestors of the historic Greeks, 
before they were habituated to conceive of their divinities as in 
human form, may have been accustomed to invest them with 
animal attributes and traits. We must not indeed suppose it 
to be a general law of religious evolution that " theriomorphism " 
must always precede anthropomorphism and that the latter 
transcends and obliterates the former. The two systems can 
exist side by side, and savages of low religious development can 
conceive of their deities as assuming at one time human, at 
another bestial, shape. Now the developed Greek religion was 
devotedly anthropomorphic, and herein lay its strength and its 
weakness; nevertheless, the advanced Hellene could imagine 
his Dionysus entering temporarily into the body of the sacrificial 
bull or goat, and the men of Phigalia in Arcadia were attached to 
their horse-headed Demeter, and the primitive Laconians 
possibly to a ram-headed Apollo. Theriolatry in itself, i.e. the 
worship of certain animals as of divine power in their own right, 
apart from any association with higher divinities, can scarcely 
be traced among the Greek communities at any period. They 
are not found to have paid reverence to any species, though 
individual animals could acquire temporarily a divine character 
through communion with the altar or with the god. The wolf 
might at one time have been regarded as the incarnation of 
Apollo, the wolf-god, and here and there we find faint traces of 
a wolf-sacrifice and of offerings laid out for wolves. But the 
occasional propitiation of wild beasts may fall short of actual 
worship. The Athenian who slew a wolf might give it a sumptu- 
ous funeral, probably to avoid a blood-feud with the wolf's 
relatives, yet the Athenian state offered rewards for a wolf's 
head. Nor did any Greek individual or state worship flies as a 
class, although a small oblation might be thrown to the flies 
before the great sacrifice to Apollo on the Leucadian rock, to 
please them and to persuade them not to worry the worshippers 
at the great solemnity, where the reek of roast flesh would be 
likely to attract them. 

Theriolatry suggests totemism; and though we now know 
that the former can arise and exist quite independently of the 
latter, recent anthropologists have interpreted the 
apparent sanctity or prestige of certain animals in 
parts of Greek mythology and religion as the deposit 
of an earlier totemistic system. But this interpretation, 
originated and maintained with great acumen by Andrew Lang 
and W. Robertson Smith, appears now somewhat hazardous; 
and as a scientific hypothesis there are many flaws in it. The 
more observant study of existing totem-tribes has weakened 
our impression of the importance of totemism as a primitive 
religious phenomenon. It is in reality more important as a 
social than as a religious factor. If indeed we choose to regard 
totemism as a mere system of nomenclature, by which a tribe 
names itself after some animal or plant, then we might quote a 
few examples of Hellenic tribes totemistic in this sense. But 
totemism is a fact of importance only when it affects the tribal 
marriage laws or the tribal religion. And the tribal marriage 
laws of ancient Greece, so far as they are known, betray no clear 
mark of totemistic arrangements; nor does the totemism of 
contemporary savages appear to affect their religion in any such 
way as to suggest a natural explanation for any of the peculiar 
phenomena of early Hellenic polytheism. Here and there we 
have traces of a snake-tribe in Greece, the 'Oriels in Aetolia, 
the '0<j>urf(vtii in Cyprus and Parium, but we are not told that 
these worshipped the snake, though the latter clan were on terms 
of intimacy with it. Where the snake was actually worshipped 
in Hellenic cult the cases are few and doubtful it may have 
been regarded as the incarnation of the ancestor or as the avatar 
of the under-world divinity. 



Finally, among the primitive or savage phenomena the 
practice of human sacrifice looms large. Encouraged at one 
time by the Delphic oracle, it was becoming rare and 
repellent to the conscience by the 6th century B.C.; Human 
but it was not wholly extinct in the Greek world even /^ 
by the time of Porphyry. The facts are very complex 
and need critical handling, and a satisfying scientific explanation 
of them all is still to be sought. 

We can now observe the higher aspects of the advanced 
polytheism. And at the outset we must distinguish between 
mythology and religion strictly understood, between the stories 
about the divinities and the private or public religious service. 
No doubt the former are often a reflection of the latter, in many 
cases being suggested by the ritual which they may have been 
invented to interpret, and often envisaging important cult-ideas. 
Such for example are the myths about the purification and trial 
of Orestes, Theseus, Ixion, the story of Demeter's sorrow, of the 
sufferings and triumph of Dionysus, and those about the abolition 
of human sacrifice. Yet Greek mythology as a whole was irre- 
sponsible, without reserve, and unchecked by dogma or sacerdotal 
prohibition; and frequently it sank below the level of the 
current religion, which was almost free from the impurities 
which shock the modern reader of Hellenic myths. Nor again 
did any one feel himself called upon to believe any particular 
myth; in fact, faith, understood in the sense in which the term 
is used in Christian theology, as the will to believe certain 
dogmatic statements about the nature and action of divinity, 
is a concept which was neither named nor recognized in Hellenic 
ethics or religious doctrine; only, if a man proclaimed his 
disbelief in the existence of the gods and refused to join in the 
ritual of the community, he would become " suspect," and 
might at times be persecuted by his fellows. Greek religion 
was not so much an affair of doctrine as of ritual, religious 
formulae of which the cult-titles of the divinities were an im- 
portant component, and prayer; and the most illuminative 
sources of our knowledge of it are the ritual-inscriptions and 
other state-documents, the private dedications, the monuments 
of religious art and certain passages in the literature, philology 
and archaeology being equally necessary to the equipment of 
the student. 

We are tempted to turn to Homer as the earliest authority. 
And though Homer is not primitive and does not present even 
an approximately complete account of Greek religion, 
we can gather from his poems a picture of an advanced 
polytheism which in form and structure at least is Homer. 
that which was presented to the world of Aeschylus. 
We discern a pantheon already to some extent systematized, 
a certain hierarchy and family of divinities in which the 
supremacy of Zeus is established as incontestable. And the 
anthropomorphic impulse, the strongest trend in the Greek 
religious imagination, which filled the later world with fictitious 
personages, generating transparent shams such as an Ampi- 
dromus for the ritual of the Ampidromia, Amphiction for the 
Amphictiones, a hero K^pa/ws for the gild of potters, is already 
at its height in the Homeric poems. The deities are already 
clear-cut, individual personalities of distinct ethos, plastically 
shaped figures such as the later sculpture and painting could 
work upon, not vaguely conceived numina like the forms of the 
old Roman religion. Nor can we call them for the most part 
nature-deities like the personages of the Vedic system, thinly 
disguised " personifications " of natural phenomena. Athena 
is not the blue sky nor Apollo the sun; they are simply Athena 
and Apollo, divine personages with certain powers and character, 
as real for their people as Christ and the Virgin for Christendom. 
By the side of these, though generally in a subordinate position, 
we find that Homer recognized certain divinities that we may 
properly call nature-powers, such as Helios, Gaia and the river- 
deities, forms descending probably from a remote animistic 
period, but maintaining themselves within the popular religion 
till the end of Paganism. Again, though Homer may talk and 
think at times with levity and banalill about his deities, his 
deeper utterances impute an advanced morality to the supreme 



530 



GREEK RELIGION 



God. His Zeus is on the whole a power of righteousness, dealing 
with men by a righteous law of nemesis, never being himself the 
author of evil an idea revealed in the opening passage of the 
Odyssey but protecting the good and punishing the wicked. 
Vengeance, indeed, was one of the attributes of divinity both 
for Homer and the average Greek of the later period, as it is in 
Judaic and Christian theology, though Plato and Euripides 
protested strongly against such a view. But the Homeric Zeus 
is equally a god of pity and mercy, and the man who neglects 
the prayers of the sorrowful and afflicted, who violates the 
sanctity of the suppliant and guest, or oppresses the poor or 
the wanderer, may look for divine punishment. Though not 
regarded as the physical author of the universe or the Creator, 
he is in a moral sense the father of gods and men. And though 
the sense of sin and the need of piacular sacrifice are expressed 
in the Homeric poems, the relations between gods and men that 
they reveal are on the whole genial and social; the deity sits 
unseen at the good man's festal sacrifice, and there is a simple 
apprehension of the idea of divine communion. There is also 
indeed a glimmering of the dark background of the nether 
world, and the chthonian powers that might send up the Erinys 
to fulfil the curse of the wronged. Yet on the whole the religious 
atmosphere is generally cheerful and bright; freer than that of 
the later ages from the taint of magic and superstition; nor is 
Homer troubled much about the life after death; he scarcely 
recognizes the cult of the dead, 1 and is not oppressed by fear 
of the ghost-world. 

If we look now broadly over the salient facts of the Greek 
public and private worship of the historic period we find much 
in it that agrees with Homeric theology. His 
Homeric'" " Oly m pi an " system retains a certain life almost to 
period. the end of Paganism, and it is a serious mistake to 
suppose that it had lost its hold upon the people of 
the sth and 4th century B.C. We find it, indeed, enriched in 
the post-Homeric period with new figures of prestige and power ; 
Dionysus, of whom Homer had only faintly heard, becomes a 
high god with a worship full of promise for the future. Demeter 
and Kore, the mother and the girl, whom Homer knew well 
enough but could not use for his epic purposes, attract the ardent 
affections and hopes of the people; and Asclepius, whom the 
old poet did not recognize as a god, wins a conspicuous place 
in the later shrines. But much that has been said of the Homeric 
may be said of the later classical theology. The deities remain 
anthropomorphic, and appear as clearly defined individuals. 
A certain hierarchy is recognized; Zeus is supreme, even in 
the city of Athena, but each of the higher divinities played 
many parts, and local enthusiasm could frustrate the depart- 
mental system of divine functions; certain members of the 
pantheon had a preference for the life of the fields, but as the 
polis emerged from the village communities, Demeter, Hermes, 
Artemis and others, the gods and goddesses of the husbandmen 
and shepherds, become powers of the council-chamber and the 
market-place. The moral ideas that we find in the Homeric 
religion are amply attested by cult-records of the later period. 
The deities are regarded on the whole as beneficent, though 
revengeful if wronged or neglected; the cult-titles used in prayer, 
which more than any other witnesses reveal the thought and 
wish of the worshipper, are nearly always euphemistic, the 
doubtful title of Demeter Erinys being possibly an exception. 
The important cults of Zeus 'I/cecrws and IIpooTpoTraios, the 
suppliant's protecting deity, embody the ideas of pity and mercy 
that mark advanced religion; and many momentous steps in 
the development of morality and law were either suggested or 
assisted by the state-religion. For example, the sanctity of 
the oath, the main source of the secular virtue of truthfulness, 
was originally a religious sanction, and though the Greek may 
have been prone to perjury, yet the Hellenic like the Hebraic 
religious ethics regarded it as a heinous sin. The sanctity of 

1 This became very powerful from the 7th century onward, and 
there are reasons for supposing that it existed in the pre-Homeric, 
or Mycenaean, period; vide Rohde's Psyche (new edition), Tsountas 
and Manatt, The Mycenaean Age. 



family duties, the sacredness of the life of the kinsman, were 
ideas fostered by early Hellenic religion before they generated 
principles of secular ethics. In the post-Homeric period, the 
development of the doctrine of purity, which was associated 
with the Apolline religion, combining with a growing dread of 
the ghost-world, stimulated and influenced in many important 
ways the evolution of the Greek law concerning homicide. 1 
And the beginnings of international law and morality were 
rooted in religious sanctions and taboo. In fact, Greek state- 
life was indebted in manifold ways to Greek religion, and the 
study of the Greek oracles would alone supply sufficient testimony 
of this. In many cases the very origin of the state was religious, 
the earliest polis sometimes having arisen under the shadow 
of the temple. 

Yet as Greek religion was always in the service of the state, 
and the priest a state-official, society was the reverse of theocratic. 
Secular advance, moral progress and the march of science, 
could never long be thwarted by religious tradition; on the 
contrary, speculative thought and artistic creation were con- 
sidered as attributes of divinity. We may say that the religion 
of Hellas penetrated the whole life of the people, but rather 
as a servant than as a master. 

Distinct and apart from these public worships and those of 
the clan and family were the mystic cults of Eleusis, Andania 
and Samothrace, and the private services of the mystic brother- 
hoods. The latter were scattered broadcast over Hellas, and 
the influence of the former was strengthened and their significance 
intensified by the wave of mysticism that spread at first from 
the north from the beginning of the 7th century onwards, and 
derived its strength from the power of Dionysus and the Orphic 
brotherhoods. New ideals and hopes began to stir in the 
religious consciousness, and we find a strong Salvationist tendency, 
the promise of salvation relying on mystic communion with 
the deity. Also a new and vital principle is at work; Orphism 
is the only force in Greek religion of a clear apostolic purpose, 
for it broke the barriers of the old tribal and civic cults, and 
preached its message to bond and free, Hellene and barbarian. 

The later history of Greek paganism is mainly concerned 
with its gradual penetration by Oriental ideas and worships, 
and the results of this BeoKpaala are discerned in an ever increas- 
ing mysticism and a tendency towards monotheism. Obliterated 
as the old Hellenic religion appeared to be by Christianity, it 
nevertheless retained a certain life, though transformed, under 
the new creed to which it lent much of its hieratic organization 
and religious terminology. The indebtedness of Christianity 
to Hellenism is one of the most interesting problems of com- 
parative religion; and for an adequate estimate a minute 
knowledge of the ritual and the mystic cults of Hellas is one of 
the essential conditions. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Older Authorities: A. Maury, Histoire des 
religions de la Grece antique (3 vols., 1857-1859) ; Welcker, Griechische 
Gotterlehre (3 vols., 1857-1863); Preller, Griechische Mythologie, 
2 vols. (4th edition by C. Robert, 1887), all antiquated in regard to 
theory, but still of some value for collection of materials. Recent 
Literature (a) General Treatises: O. Gruppe, "Griechische 
Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte " in Iwan von Mailer's Handbuch 
der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, v. 2. 2 (19021906); L. 
R. Farnelj's Cults of the Greek States, 4 vols. (1896-1906, vol. 5, 
1908); Miss Jane Harrison's Prolegomena to the Study of Greek 
Religion (ed. 1908) ; Chantepie de la Saussaye's Lehrbuchder Religions- 
geschichte (Greek section, 1904); (6) Special Works or Dissertations: 
articles in Roscher's Ausjuhrliches Lexikon der griechischen und 
romischen Mythologie, and Pauly-Wissowa Encyklopddie (1894- ) ; 
Immerwahr, Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens (1891); Wide, Lakonische 
Kulte (1893); de Visser, De Graecorum diis non referentibus speciem 
humanam (Leiden, 1900). Greek Ritual and Festivals A. Mommsen, 
Feste der Stadt Athen (1898); P. Stengel, " Die griechischen Sacral- 
altertumer " in Iwan von Miiller's Handbuch, v. 3 (1898); 
W. H. D. Rouse, Greek Votive Offerings (1902). Greek Religious 
Thought and Speculation L. Campbell s Religion in Greek Literature 
(1898); Ducharme, La Critique des traditions religieuses chez les 
Grecs des origines au temps de Plutarque (Paris, 1904). See also 
articles on individual deities, and cf. ROMAN RELIGION; MYSTERIES; 
MITHRAS. (L. R. F.) 



8 See L. R. Farnell, Evolution of Religion (Hibbert Lectures, 
1905), pp. 139-152- 



GREELEY, HORACE 



GREELEY, HORACE (1811-1872), American statesman and 
man of letters, was born at Amherst, New Hampshire, on the 
3rd of February 181 1. His parents were of Scottish-Irish descent, 
but the ancestors of both had been in New England for several 
generations. He was the third of seven children. His father, 
Zaccheus Greeley, owned a farm of 50 acres of stony, sterile 
land, from which a bare support was wrung. Horace was a 
feeble and precocious lad, taking little interest in the ordinary 
sports of childhood, learning to read before he was able to talk 
plainly, and the prodigy of the neighbourhood for accurate 
spelling. Before Horace was ten years old (1820), his father 
became bankrupt, his home was sold by the sheriff, and Zaccheus 
Greeley himself fled the state to escape arrest for debt. The 
family soon removed to West Haven, Vermont, where, all 
working together, they made a scanty living as day labourers. 
Horace from childhood desired to be a printer, and, when barely 
eleven years old, tried to be taken as an apprentice in an office 
at Whitehall, New York, but was rejected on account of his 
youth. After three years more with the family as a day labourer 
at West Haven, he succeeded, with his father's consent, in being 
apprenticed in the office of The Northern Spectator, at East 
Poultney, Vermont. Here he soon became a good workman, 
developed a passion for politics and especially for political 
statistics, came to be depended upon for more or less of the 
editing of the paper, and was a figure in the village debating 
society. He received only $40 a year, but he sent most of his 
money to his father. In June 1830 The Northern Spectator was 
suspended. Meantime his father had removed to a small tract 
of wild land in the dense forests of Western Pennsylvania, 
30 m. from Erie. The released apprentice now visited his parents, 
and worked for a little time with them on the farm, meanwhile 
seeking employment in various printing offices, and, when he 
got it, giving nearly all his earnings to his father. At last, with 
no further prospect of work nearer home, he started for New 
York. He travelled on foot and by canal-boat, entering New 
York in August 1831, with all his clothes in a bundle carried 
over his back with a stick, and with but $10 in his pocket. 
More than half of this sum was exhausted while he made vain 
efforts to find employment. Many refused to employ him, in 
the belief that he was a runaway apprentice, and his poor, 
ill-fitting apparel and rustic look were everywhere greatly against 
him. At last he found work on a 32010 New Testament, set 
in agate, double columns, with a middle column of notes in 
pearl. It was so difficult and so poorly paid that other printers 
had all abandoned it. He barely succeeded in making enough 
to pay his board bill, but he finished the task, and thus found 
subsequent employment easier to get. 

In January 1833 Greeley formed a partnership with Francis 
V. Story, a fellow-workman. Their combined capital amounted 
to about $150. Procuring their type on credit, they opened a 
small office, and undertook the printing of the Morning Post, the 
first cheap paper published in New York. Its projector, Dr 
Horatio D. Shepard, meant to sell it for one cent, but under the 
arguments of Greeley he was persuaded to fix the price at two 
cents. The paper failed in less than three weeks, the printers 
losing only $50 or $60 by the experiment. They still had a Bank 
Note Reporter to print, and soon got the printing of a tri-weekly 
paper, the Constitutionalist, the organ of some lottery dealers. 
Within six months Story was drowned, but his brother-in-law, 
Jonas Winchester, took his place in the firm. Greeley was now 
asked by James Gordon Bennett to go into partnership with him 
in starting The Herald. He declined the venture, but recommended 
the partner whom Bennett subsequently took. On the 2nd of 
March 1834, Greeley and Winchester issued the first number of 
The New Yorker, a weekly literary and news paper, the firm then 
supposing itself to be worth about $3000. Of the first number 
they sold about 100 copies; of the second, nearly 200. There 
was an average increase for the next month of about too copies 
per week. The second volume began with a circulation of about 
4550 copies, and with a loss on the first year's publication of 
$3000. The second year ended with 7000 subscribers and a 
further loss of $2000. By the end of the third year The New 



Yorker had reached a circulation of 9500 copies, and had sustained 
a total loss of $7000. It was published seven years (until the 
20th of September 1841), and was never profitable, but it was 
widely popular, and it gave Greeley, who was its sole editor, 
much prominence. On the 5th of July 1836 Greeley married 
Miss Mary Y. Cheney, a Connecticut school teacher, whom he had 
met in a Grahamite (vegetarian) boarding-house in New York. 

During the publication of The New Yorker he added to the 
scanty income which the job printing brought him by supplying 
editorials to the short-lived Daily Whig and various other publica- 
tions. In 1838 he had gained such standing as a writer that he 
was selected by Thurlow Weed, William H. Seward, and other 
leaders of the Whig Party, for the editorship of a campaign paper 
entitled The Jejfersonian, published at Albany. He continued 
The New Yorker, and travelled between Albany and New York 
each week to edit the two papers. The Jefersonian was a quiet and 
instructive rather than a vehement campaign sheet, and the 
Whigs believed that it had a great effect upon the elections of 
the next year. When, on the 2nd of May 1840, some time after 
the nomination by the Whig party of William Henry Harrison 
for the Presidency, Greeley began the publication of a new 
weekly campaign paper, The Log Cabin, it sprang at once into a 
great circulation; 40,000 copies of the first number were sold, 
and it finally rose to 80,000. It was considered a brilliant 
political success, but it was not profitable, and in September 
1841 was merged in the Weekly Tribune. On the 3rd of April 
1841, Greeley announced that on the following Saturday (April 
ioth) he would begin the publication of a daily newspaper of the 
same general principles, to be called The Tribune. He was now 
entirely without money. From a personal friend, James Cogges- 
hall, he borrowed $1000, on which capital and the editor's reputa- 
tion The Tribune was founded. It began with 500 subscribers. 
The first week's expenses were $525 and the receipts $92. By 
the end of the fourth week it had run up a circulation of 6000, and 
by the seventh reached n,ooo, which was then the full capacity 
of its press. It was alert, cheerful and aggressive, was greatly 
helped by the attacks of rival papers, and promised success 
almost from the start. 

From this time Greeley was popularly identified with The 
Tribune, and its share in the public discussion of the time is his 
history. It soon became moderately prosperous, and his assured 
income should have placed him beyond pecuniary worry. His 
income was long above $15,000 per year, frequently as much as 
$35,000 or more. But he lacked business thrift, inherited a 
disposition to endorse for his friends, and was often unable to 
distinguish between deserving applicants for aid and adventurers. 
He was thus frequently straitened, and, as his necessities pressed, 
he sold successive interests in his newspaper. At the outset he 
owned the whole of it. When it was already firmly established 
(in July 1841), he took in Thomas McElrath as an equal partner, 
upon the contribution of $2000 to the common fund. By the 
ist of January 1849 he had reduced his interest to 315 shares out 
of 100; by July 2nd, 1860, to 15 shares; in 1868 he owned only 
9; and in 1872, only 6. In 1867 the stock sold for $6500 per 
share, and his last sale was for $9600. He bought wild lands, 
took stock in mining companies, desiccated egg companies, 
patent looms, photo-lithographic companies, gave away pro- 
fusely, lent to plausible rascals, and was the ready prey of every 
new inventor who chanced to find him with money or with 
property that he could readily convert into money. 

In September 1841 Greeley merged his weekly papers, The 
Log Cabin and The New Yorker, into The Weekly Tribune, which 
soon attained as wide circulation as its predecessors, and was 
much more profitable. It rose in a time of great political excite- 
ment to a total circulation of a quarter of a million, and it some- 
times had for successive years 140,000 to 150,000. For several 
years it was rarely much below 100,000. Its subscribers were 
found throughout all quarters of the northern half of the Union 
from Maine to Oregon, large packages going to remote districts 
beyond the Mississippi or Missouri, whose only connexion with 
the outside world was through a weekly or semi-weekly mail. 
The readers of this weekly paper acquired a personal affection for 



532 



GREELEY, HORACE 



its editor, and he was thus for many years the American writer 
most widely known and most popular among the rural classes. 
The circulation of The Daily Tribune was never proportionately 
great its advocacy of a protective tariff, prohibitory liquor 
legislation and other peculiarities, repelling a large support 
which it might otherwise have commanded in New York. It 
rose within a short time after its establishment to a circulation of 
20,000, reached 50,000 and 60,000 during the Civil War, and 
thereafter ranged at from 30,000 to 45,000. After May 1845 a 
semi-weekly edition was also printed, which ultimately reached 
a steady circulation of from 15,000 to 25,000. 

From the outset it was a cardinal principle with Greeley to 
hear all sides, and to extend a special hospitality to new ideas. 
In March 1842 The Tribune began to give one column daily to a 
discussion of the doctrines of Charles Fourier, contributed by 
Albert Brisbane. Gradually Greeley came to advocate some of 
these doctrines editorially. In 1846 he had a sharp discussion 
upon them with a former subordinate, Henry J. Raymond, then 
employed upon a rival journal. It continued through twelve 
articles on each side, and was subsequently published in book 
form. Greeley became personally interested in one of the 
Fourierite associations, the North American Phalanx, at Red 
Bank, N. J. (1843-1855), while the influence of his discussions 
doubtless led to or gave encouragement to other socialistic 
experiments, such as that at Brook Farm. When this was 
abandoned, its leader George Ripley, with one or two other 
members, sought employment from Greeley upon The Tribune. 
Greeley dissented from many of Fourier's propositions, and in 
later years was careful to explain that the principle of association 
for the common good of working men and the elevation of labour 
was the chief feature which attracted him. Co-operation among 
working men he continued to urge throughout his life. In 1850 
the Fox Sisters, on his wife's invitation, spent several weeks in his 
house. His attitude towards their "rappings" and "spiritual 
manifestations" was one of observation and inquiry; and in his 
Recollections he wrote concerning these manifestations: " That 
some of them are the result of juggle, collusion or trick I am 
confident; that others are not, I decidedly believe." 

From boyhood he had believed in a protective tariff, and 
throughout his active life he was its most trenchant advocate 
and propagandist. Besides constantly urging it in the columns 
of The Tribune, he appeared as early as 1843 in a public debate 
on " The Grounds of Protection," with Samuel J. Tilden and 
Parke Godwin as his opponents. A series of popular essays 
on the subject were published over his own signature in The 
Tribune in 1869, and subsequently republished in book form, 
with a title-page describing protection to home industry as a 
system of national co-operation for the elevation of labour. 
He opposed woman suffrage on the ground that the majority 
of women did not want it and never would, and declared that 
until woman should " emancipate herself from the thraldom 
to etiquette," he " could not see how the ' woman's rights 
theory ' is ever to be anything more than a logically defensible 
abstraction." He aided practical efforts, however, for extend- 
ing the sphere of woman's employments. He opposed the 
theatres, and for a time refused to publish their advertisements. 
He held the most rigid views on the sanctity of marriage and 
against easy divorce, and vehemently defended them in con- 
troversies with Robert Dale Owen and others. He practised 
and pertinaciously advocated total abstinence from spirituous 
liquors, but did not regard prohibitory laws as always wise. 
He denounced the repudiation of state debts or the failure to 
pay interest on them. He was zealous for Irish repeal, once 
held a place in the " Directory of the Friends of Ireland," and 
contributed liberally to its support. He used the occasion of 
Charles Dickens's first visit to America to urge international 
copyright, and was one of the few editors to avoid alike the 
flunkeyism with which Dickens was first received, and the 
ferocity with which he was assailed after the publication of his 
American Notes. On the occasion of Dickens's second visit to 
America, Greeley presided at the great banquet given him 
by the press of the country. He made the first elaborate reports 



of popular scientific lectures by Louis Agassiz and other authori- 
ties. He gave ample hearing to the advocates of phonography 
and of phonographic spelling. He was one of the most conspicu- 
ous advocates of the Pacific railroads, and of many other internal 
improvements. 

But it is as an anti-slavery leader, and as perhaps the chief 
agency in educating the mass of the Northern people to that 
opposition through legal forms to the extension of slavery 
which culminated in the election of Abraham Lincoln and the 
Civil War, that Greeley's main work was done. Incidents in 
it were his vehement opposition to the Mexican War as a scheme 
for more slavery territory, the assault made upon him in Washing- 
ton by Congressman Albert Rust of Arkansas in 1856, an indict- 
ment in Virginia in the same year for circulating incendiary 
documents, perpetual denunciation of him in Southern news- 
papers . and speeches, and the hostility of the Abolitionists, 
who regarded his course as too conservative. His anti-slavery 
work culminated in his appeal to President Lincoln, entitled 
" The Prayer of Twenty Millions," in which he urged " that all 
attempts to put down the rebellion and at the same time uphold 
its inciting cause " were preposterous and futile, and that 
" every hour .of deference to slavery " was " an hour of added 
and deepened peril to the Union." President Lincoln in his 
reply said: " My paramount object is to save the Union, 
and not either to save or destroy slavery. . . . What I do 
about slavery and the coloured race, I do because I believe it 
helps to save this Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because 
I do not believe it would help to save the Union ... I have here 
stated my purpose according to my views of official duty; and 
I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish 
that all men everywhere could be free." Precisely one month 
after the date of this reply the Emancipation Proclamation was 
issued. 

Greeley's political activity, first as a Whig, and then as one 
of the founders of the Republican party, was incessant; but he 
held few offices. In 1848-1849 he served a three months' term 
in Congress, filling a vacancy. He introduced the first bill for 
giving small tracts of government land free to actual settlers, 
and published an exposure of abuses in the allowance of mileage 
to members, which corrected the evil, but brought him much 
personal obloquy. In the National Republican Convention in 
1860, not being sent by the Republicans of his own state on 
account of his opposition to William Seward as a candidate, 
he was made a delegate for Oregon. His active hostility to 
Seward did much to prevent the success of that statesman, 
and to bring about instead the nomination of Abraham Lincoln. 
This was attributed by his opponents to personal motives, and 
a letter from Greeley to Seward, the publication of which he 
challenged, was produced, to show that in his struggling days 
he had been wounded at Seward's failure to offer him office. In 
1861 he was a candidate for United States senator, his principal 
opponent being William M. Evarts. When it was clear that 
Evarts could not be elected, his supporters threw their votes 
for a third candidate, Ira Harris, who was thus chosen over 
Greeley by a small majority. At the outbreak of the war he 
favoured allowing the Southern states to secede, provided a 
majority of their people at a fair election should so decide, 
declaring " that he hoped never to live in a Republic whereof 
one section was pinned to the other by bayonets." When the 
war began he urged the most vigorous prosecution of it. The 
" On to Richmond " appeal, which appeared day after day in 
The Tribune, was incorrectly attributed to him, and it did not 
wholly meet his approval; but after the defeat in the first battle 
of Bull Run he was widely blamed for it. In 1864 he urged 
negotiations for peace with representatives of the Southern 
Confederacy in Canada, and was sent by President Lincoln to 
confer with them. They were found to have no sufficient 
authority. In 1864 he was one of the Lincoln Presidential 
electors for New York. At the close of the war, contrary to 
the general feeling of his party, he urged universal amnesty and 
impartial suffrage as the basis of reconstruction. In 1867 his 
friends again wished to elect him to the Senate of the United 



GREELEY 



533 



States, and the indications were all in his favour. But he refused 
to be elected under any misapprehension of his attitude, and 
with what his friends thought unnecessary candour re-stated 
his obnoxious views on universal amnesty at length, just before 
the time for the election, with the certainty that this would pre- 
vent his success. Some months later he signed the bail bond of 
Jefferson Davis, and this provoked a torrent of public indigna- 
tion. He had written a popular history of the late war, the first 
volume having an immense sale and bringing him unusually 
large profits. The second was just issued, and the subscribers, 
in their anger, refused by thousands to receive it. An un- 
successful attempt was also made to expel him from the Union 
League Club of New York. 

In 1867 he was a delegate-at -large to the convention for the 
revision of the state constitution, and in 1869 and 1870 he was 
the Republican candidate for controller of the state and member 
of Congress respectively, but in each case was defeated. 

He was dissatisfied with General Grant's administration, and 
became its sharp critic. The discontent which he did much to 
develop ended in the organization of the Liberal Republican 
party, which held its National Convention at Cincinnati in 
1872, and nominated Greeley for the presidency. For a time 
the tide of feeling ran strongly in his favour. It was first checked 
by the action of his life-long opponents, the Democrats, who 
also nominated him at their National Convention. He expected 
their support, on account of his attitude toward the South 
and hostility to Grant, but he thought it a mistake to give him 
their formal nomination. The event proved his wisdom. Many 
Republicans who had sympathized with his criticisms of the 
administration, and with the declaration of principles adopted 
at the first convention, were repelled by the coalition. This 
feeling grew stronger until the election. His old party associates 
regarded him as a renegade, the Democrats gave him a half- 
hearted support. The tone of the canvass was one of unusual 
bitterness, amounting sometimes to actual ferocity. In August, 
on representations of the alarming state of the contest, he took 
the field in person, and made a series of campaign speeches, 
beginning in New England and extending throughout Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio and Indiana, which aroused great enthusiasm, 
and were regarded at the time by both friends and opponents 
as the most brilliant continuous exhibition of varied intellectual 
power ever made by a candidate in a presidential canvass. 
General Grant received in the election 3,597,070 votes, Greeley 
2,834,079. The only states Greeley carried were Georgia, 
Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, Tennessee and Texas. 

He had resigned his editorship of The Tribune immediately 
after the nomination; he now resumed it cheerfully; but it 
was soon apparent that his powers had been overstrained. 
For years he had suffered greatly from sleeplessness. During 
the intense excitement of the campaign the difficulty was 
increased. Returning from his campaign tour, he went immedi- 
ately to the bedside of his dying wife, and for some weeks had 
practically no sleep at all. This resulted in an inflammation 
of the upper membrane of the brain, delirium and death. He 
expired on the 29th of November 1872. His funeral was a 
simple but impressive public pageant. The body lay in state 
in the City Hall, where it was surrounded by crowds of many 
thousands. The ceremonies were attended by the President 
and Vice-President of the United States, the Chief-Justice of 
the Supreme Court, and a large number of eminent public men 
of both parties, who followed the hearse in a solemn procession, 
preceded by the mayor and other civic authorities, down 
Broadway. He had been the target of constant attack during 
his life, and his personal foibles, careless dress and mental 
eccentricities were the theme of endless ridicule. But his 
death revealed the high regard in which he was generally held 
as a leader of opinion and faithful public servant. " Our later 
Franklin " Whittier called him, and it is in some such light his 
countrymen remember him. 

In 1851 Greeley visited Europe for the first time, serving 
as a juryman at the Crystal Palace Exhibition, appearing before 
a committee of the House of Commons on newspaper taxes, 



and urging the repeal of the stamp duty on advertisements. 
In 1855 he made a second trip to Europe. In Paris he was 
arrested on the suit of a sculptor, whose statue had been injured 
in the New York World's Fair (of which he had been a director), 
and spent two days in Clichy, of which he gave an amusing 
account. In 1859 he visited California by the overland route, 
and had numerous public receptions. In 1871 he visited Texas, 
and his trip through the southern country, where he had once 
been so hated, was an ovation. About 1852 he purchased a 
farm at Chappaqua, New York, where he afterwards habitually 
spent his Saturdays, and experimented in agriculture. He 
was in constant demand as a lecturer from 1843, when he made 
his first appearance on the platform, always drew large audiences, 
and, in spite of his bad management in money matters, received 
considerable sums, sometimes $6000 or $7000 for a single 
winter's lecturing. He was also much sought for as a con- 
tributor, over his own signature, to the weekly newspapers, 
and was sometimes largely paid for these articles. In religious 
faith he was from boyhood a Universalist, and for many years 
was a conspicuous member of the leading Universalist church 
in New York. 

His published works are: Hints Toward Reforms (1850); 
Glances at Europe (1851); History of the Struggle for Slavery 
Extension (1856); Overland Journey to San Francisco (1860); 
The American Conflict, (2 vols., 1864-1866); Recollections of a 
Busy Life (1868; new edition, with appendix containing an 
account of his later years, his argument with Robert Dale Owen 
on Marriage and Divorce, and Miscellanies, 1873); Essays 
on Political Economy (-iS^o); and What I know of Farming 
(1871). He also assisted his brother-in-law, John F. Cleveland, 
in editing A Political Text-book (1860), and supervised for many 
years the annual issues of The Whig Almanac and The Tribune 
Almanac, comprising extensive political statistics. 

The best Lives of Greeley are those by James Parton (New York, 
1855; new ed., Boston, 1872) and W. A. Linn (N.Y. 1903). Lives 
have also been written by L. U. Reavis (New York, 1872), and L. 
D. Ingersoll (Chicago, 1873); and there is a Memorial of Horace 
Greeley (New York, 1873). (W. R.) 

GREELEY, a city and the county-seat of Weld county, 
Colorado, U.S.A., about 50 m. N. by E. of Denver. Pop. (1890) 
2 395; (1900) 3 2 3 (286 foreign-born); (1910) 8179. It is 
served by the Union Pacific and the Colorado & Southern railways. 
In 1908 a franchise was granted to the Denver & Greeley Electric 
railway. The city is the seat of the State Normal School of 
Colorado (1889). There are rich coal-fields near the city. The 
county is naturally arid and unproductive, and its agricultural 
importance is due to an elaborate system of irrigation. In 
1899 Weld county had under irrigation 226,613 acres, repre- 
senting an increase of 102-2% since 1889, and a much larger 
irrigated area than in any other county of the state. Irrigation 
ditches are supplied with water chiefly from the Cache la Poudre, 
Big Thompson and South Platte rivers, near the foothills. 
The principal crops are potatoes, sugar beets, onions, cabbages 
and peas; in 1899 Weld county raised 2,821,285 bushels of 
potatoes on 23,195 acres (53% of the potato acreage for the 
entire state). The manufacture of beet sugar is a growing 
industry, a large factory having been established at Greeley 
in 1902. Beets are also grown as food for live stock, especially 
sheep. Peas, tomatoes, cabbages and onions are canned here. 
Greeley was founded in 1870 by Nathan Cook Meeker (1817- 
1879), agricultural editor of the New York Tribune. With the 
support of Horace Greeley (in whose honour the town was named), 
he began in 1869 to advocate in The Tribune the founding of an 
agricultural colony in Colorado. Subsequently President Hayes 
appointed him Indian agent at White River, Colorado, and he 
was killed at what is now Meeker, Colorado, in an uprising of the 
Ute Indians. Under Meeker's scheme, which attracted mainly 
people from New England and New York state, most of whom 
were able to contribute at least a little capital, the Union Colony 
of Colorado was organized and chartered, and bought originally 
11,000 acres of land, each member being entitled to buy from it 
one residence lot, one business lot, and a tract of farm land. 



534 



GREEN, A. H. GREEN, M. 



The funds thus acquired were, to a large extent, expended 
in making public improvements. A clause inserted in all deeds 
forbade the sale of intoxicating liquors on the land concerned, 
under pain of the reversion of such property to the colony. 
The initiation fees ($5) were used for the expenses of locating the 
colony, and the membership certificate fees ($150) were ex- 
pended in the construction of irrigating ditches, as was the 
money received from the sale of town lots, except about $13,000 
invested in a school building (now the Meeker Building). Greeley 
was organized as a town in 1871, and was chartered as a city of the 
second class in 1886. The "Union Colony of Colorado" still exists 
as an incorporated body and holds reversionary rights in streets, 
alleys and public grounds, and in all places " where intoxicating 
liquors are manufactured, sold or given away, as a beverage." 

See Richard T. Ely, " A Study of a ' Decreed ' Town," Harper's 
Magazine, vol. 106 (1902-1903), p. 390 sqq. 

GREEK, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832-1896), English geolo- 
gist, son of the Rev. Thomas Sheldon Green, master of the 
Ashby Grammar School, was born at Maidstone on the loth of 
October 1832. He was educated partly at his father's school, 
Ashby-de-la-Zouch, and afterwards at Gonville and Caius 
College, Cambridge, where he graduated as sixth wrangler 
in 1855 and was elected a fellow of his college. In 1861 he 
joined the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and surveyed 
large areas of the midland counties, Derbyshire and Yorkshire. 
He wrote (wholly or in part) memoirs on the Geology of Banbury 
(1864), of Stockport (1866), of North Derbyshire (1869, 2nd ed. 
1887), and of the Yorkshire Coal-field (1878). In 1874 he retired 
from the Geological Survey, having been appointed professor 
of geology in the Yorkshire College at Leeds; in 1885 he became 
also professor of mathematics, while for many years he held 
the lectureship on geology at the school of military engineering 
at Chatham. He was elected F.R.S. in 1886, and two years later 
was chosen professor of geology in the university of Oxford. 
His manual of Physical Geology (1876, 3rd ed. 1882) is an excellent 
book. He died at Boar's Hill, Oxford, on the igth of August 1896. 

A portrait of him, with brief memoir, was published in Proc. 
Yorksh. Geol. and Polytechnic Soc. xiii. 232. 

GREEN, DUFF (1791-1875), American politician and journalist, 
was born in Woodford county, Kentucky, on the i5th of August 
1791. He was a school teacher in his native state, served during 
the War of 1812 in the Kentucky militia, and then settled in 
Missouri, where he worked as a schoolmaster and practised law. 
He was a member of the Missouri Constitutional Convention 
of 1820, and was elected to the state House of Representatives 
in 1820 and to the state Senate in 1822, serving one term in each 
house. Becoming interested in journalism, he purchased and 
for two years edited the St Louis Enquirer. In 1825 he bought 
and afterwards edited in Washington, D.C., The United States 
Telegraph, which soon became the principal organ of the Jackson 
men in opposition to the Adams administration. Upon Andrew 
Jackson's election to the presidency, the Telegraph became the 
principal mouthpiece of the administration, and received printing 
patronage estimated in value at $50,000 a year, while Green 
became one of the coterie of unofficial advisers of Jackson 
known as the " Kitchen Cabinet." In the quarrel between 
Jackson and John C. Calhoun, Green supported the latter, and 
through the columns of the Telegraph violently attacked the 
administration. In consequence, his paper was deprived of the 
government printing in the spring of 1831. Green, however, 
continued to edit it in the Calhoun interest until 1835, and gave 
vigorous support to that leader's nullification views. From 1835 
to 1838 he edited The Reformation, a radically partisan publica- 
tion, devoted to free trade and the extreme states' rights theory. 
In 1841-1843 he was in Europe on behalf of the Tyler administra- 
tion, and he is said to have been instrumental in causing the 
appointment of Lord Ashburton to negotiate in Washington 
concerning the boundary dispute between Maine and Canada. 
In January 1843 Green established in New York City a short-lived 
journal, The Republic, to combat the spoils system and to 
advocate free trade. In September 1844 Calhoun, then secretary 
of state, sent Green to Texas ostensibly as consul at Galveston, 



but actually, it appears, to report to the administration, then 
considering the question of the annexation of Texas, concerning 
the political situation in Texas and Mexico. After the close of 
the war with Mexico Green was sent to that country in 1849 
by President Taylor to negotiate concerning the moneys which, 
by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States had 
agreed to pay; and he saved his country a considerable sum by 
arranging for payment in exchange instead of in specie. Subse- 
quently Green was engaged in railway building in Georgia and 
Alabama. On the loth of June 1875 he died in Dalton, Georgia, 
a city which in 1848 he had helped to found. 

GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837-1883), English historian, 
was born at Oxford on i2th December 1837, and educated at 
Magdalen College School and at Jesus College, where he obtained 
an open scholarship. On leaving Oxford he took orders and 
became the incumbent of St Philip's, Stepney. His preaching 
was eloquent and able; he worked diligently among his poor 
parishioners and won their affection by his ready sympathy. 
Meanwhile he studied history in a scholarly fashion, and wrote 
much for the Saturday Review. Partly because his health was 
weak and partly because he ceased to agree with the teaching 
of the Church of England, he abandoned clerical life and devoted 
himself to history; in 1868 he took the post of librarian at 
Lambeth, but his health was already breaking down and he 
was attacked by consumption. His Short History of the English 
People (1874) at once attained extraordinary popularity, and 
was afterwards expanded in a work of four volumes (1877-1880). 
Green is pre-eminently a picturesque historian; he had a vivid 
imagination and a keen eye for colour. His chief aim was to 
depict the progressive life of the English people rather than to 
write a political history of the English state. In accomplishing 
this aim he worked up the results of wide reading into a series 
of brilliant pictures. While generally accurate in his statement 
of facts, and showing a firm grasp of the main tendency of a 
period, he often builds more on his authorities than is warranted 
by their words, and is apt to overlook points which would have 
forced him to modify his representations and lower the tone of 
his colours. From his animated pages thousands have learned 
to take pleasure in the history of their own people, but could 
scarcely learn to appreciate the complexity inherent in all 
historical movement. His style is extremely bright, but it 
lacks sobriety and presents some affectations. His later histories, 
The Making of England (1882) and The Conquest of England 
(1883), are more soberly written than his earlier books, and are 
valuable contributions to historical knowledge. Green died at 
Mentone on the 7th of March 1883. He was a singularly attrac- 
tive man, of wide intellectual sympathies and an enthusiastic 
temperament; his good-humour was unfailing and he was a 
brilliant talker; and his work was done with admirable courage 
in spite of ill-health. It is said that Mrs Humphry Ward's 
Robert Elsmere is largely a protrait of him. In 1877 Green 
married Miss Alice Stopford; and Mrs Green, besides writing 
a memoir of her husband, prefixed to the 1888 edition of his 
Short History, has herself done valuable work as an historian, 
particularly in her Henry II. in the " English Statesmen " 
series (1888), her Town Life in the i$th Century (1894), and The 
Making of Ireland and its Undoing (1908). 

See the Letters of J. R. Green (1901), edited by Leslie Stephen. 

(W. Hu.) 

GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737), English poet, was born of 
Nonconformist parents. He had a post in the custom house, 
and the few anecdotes that have been preserved of him show him 
to have been as witty as his poems would lead one to expect. 
He died unmarried at his lodging in Nag's Head Court, Grace- 
church Street, in 1737. His Grotto, a poem on Queen Caroline's 
grotto at Richmond, was printed in 1732; and his chief poem, 
The Spleen, in 1737 with a preface by his friend Richard Glover. 
These and some other short poems were printed in Dodsley's 
collection (1748), and subsequently in various editions of the 
British poets. They were edited in 1796 with a preface by Dr 
Aikin and in 1883 by R. E. A. Willmott with the poems of Gray 
and others. The Spleen is an epistle to Mr Cuthbert Jackson, 



GREEN, T. H. 



535 



advocating cheerfulness, exercise and a quiet content as remedies. 
It is full of witty sayings. Thomas Gray said of it: " There 
is a profusion of wit everywhere; reading would have formed 

i judgment, and harmonized his verse, for even his wood-notes 
often break out into strains of real poetry and music." 

GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882), English philosopher, 
the most typical English representative of the school of thought 
called Neo-Kantian, or Neo-Hegelian, was born on the 7th of 
April 1836 at Birkin, a village in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 
of which his father was rector. On the paternal side he was de- 
scended from Oliver Cromwell, whose honest, sturdy independence 
of character he seemed to have inherited. His education was 
conducted entirely at home until, at the age of fourteen, he 
entered Rugby, where he remained five years. In 1855 he 
became an undergraduate member of Balliol College, Oxford, 
of which society he was, in 1860, elected fellow. His life, hence- 
forth, was devoted to teaching (mainly philosophical) in the 
university first as college tutor, afterwards, from 1878 until his 
death (at Oxford on the 26th of March 1882) as Whyte's Professor 
of Moral Philosophy. The lectures he delivered as professor form 
the substance of his two most important works, viz. the Pro- 
legomena to Ethics and the Lectures on the Principles of Political 
Obligation, which contain the whole of his positive constructive 
teaching. These works were not published until after his death, 
but Green's views were previously known indirectly through the 
Introduction to the standard edition of Hume's works by Green 
and T. H. Grose (d. 1006), fellow of Queen's College, in which 
the doctrine of the " English " or " empirical " philosophy 
was exhaustively examined. 

Hume's empiricism, combined with a belief in biological 
evolution (derived from Herbert Spencer), was the chief feature 
in English thought during the third quarter of the ipth century. 
Green represents primarily the reaction against doctrines which, 
when carried out to their logical conclusion, not only " rendered 
all philosophy futile," but were fatal to practical life. By 
reducing the human mind to a series of unrelated atomic sensa- 
tions, this teaching destroyed the possibility of knowledge, and 
further, by representing man as a " being who is simply the result 
of natural forces," it made conduct, or any theory of conduct, 
unmeaning; for life in any human, intelligible sense implies a 
personal self which (i) knows what to do, (2) has power to do it. 
Green was thus driven, not theoretically, but as a practical 
necessity, to raise again the whole question of man in relation 
to nature. When (he held) we have discovered what man in him- 
self is, and what his relation to his environment, we shall then 
know his function what he is fitted to do. In the light of this 
knowledge we shall be able to formulate the moral code, which, 
in turn, will serve as a criterion of actual civic and social institu- 
tions. These form, naturally and necessarily, the objective 
expression of moral ideas, and it is in some civic or social whole 
that the moral ideal must finally take concrete shape. 

To ask "What is man?" is to ask "What is experience?" 
for experience means that of which I am conscious. The facts 
of consciousness are the only facts which, to begin with, we are 
justified in asserting to exist. On the other hand, they are valid 
evidence for whatever is necessary to their own explanation, 
i.e. for whatever is logically involved in them. Now the 
most striking characteristic of man, that in fact which marks him 
specially, as contrasted with other animals, is //-consciousness. 
The simplest mental act into which we can analyse the operations 
of the human mind the act of sense-perception is never 
merely a change, physical or psychical, but is the consciousness of 
a change. Human experience consists, not of processes in an 
animal organism, but of these processes recognized as such. 
That which we perceive is from the outset an apprehended fact 
that is to say, it cannot be analysed into isolated elements (so- 
called sensations) which, as such, are not constituents of con- 
sciousness at all, but exists from the first as a synthesis of relations 
in a consciousness which keeps distinct the " self " and the various 
elements of the " object," though holding all together in the 
unity of the act of perception. In other words, the whole mental 
structure we call knowledge consists, in its simplest equally with 



its most complex constituents, of the " work of the mind." Locke 
and Hume held that the work of the mind was eo ipso unreal 
because it was " made by " man and not " given to " man. 
It thus represented a subjective creation, not an objective fact. 
But this consequence follows only upon the assumption that the 
work of the mind is arbitrary, an assumption shown to be un- 
justified by the results of exact science, with the distinction, 
universally recognized, which such science draws between truth 
and falsehood, between the real and " mere ideas." This 
(obviously valid) distinction logically involves the consequence 
that the object, or content, of knowledge, viz. reality, is an 
intelligible ideal reality, a system of thought relations, a spiritual 
cosmos. How is the existence of this ideal whole to be accounted 
for? Only by the existence of some " principle which renders all 
relations possible and is itself determined by none of them "; an 
eternal self-consciousness which knows in whole what we know 
in part. To God the world is, to man the world becomes. Human 
experience is God gradually made manifest. 

Carrying on the same analytical method into the special 
department of moral philosophy, Green held that ethics applies 
to the peculiar conditions of social life that investigation into 
man's nature which metaphysics began. The faculty employed 
in this further investigation is no " separate moral faculty," 
but that same reason which is the source of all our knowledge 
ethical and other. Self-reflection gradually reveals to us human 
capacity, human function, with, consequently, human responsi- 
bility. It brings out into clear consciousness certain potentialities 
in the realization of which man's true good must consist. As 
the result of this analysis, combined with an investigation into 
the surroundings man lives in, a " content " a moral code 
becomes gradually evolved. Personal good is perceived to be 
realizable only by making actual the conceptions thus arrived at. 
So long as these remain potential or ideal, they form the motive 
of action; motive consisting always in the idea of some " end " 
or " good " which man presents to himself as an end in the attain- 
ment of which he would be satisfied, that is, in the realization of 
which he would find his true self. The determination to realize 
the self in some definite way constitutes an " act of will," which, as 
thus constituted, is neither arbitrary nor externally determined. 
For the motive which may be said to be its cause lies in the man 
himself, and the identification of the self with such a motive 
is a ^/-determination, which is at once both rational and free. 
The " freedom of man " is constituted, not by a supposed ability 
to do anything he may choose, but in the power to identify him- 
self with that true good which reason reveals to him as his true 
good. This good consists in the realization of personal character ; 
hence the final good, i.e. the moral ideal, as a whole, can be 
realized only in some society of persons who, while remaining ends 
to themselves in the sense that their individuality is not lost but 
rendered more perfect, find this prefection attainable only when 
the separate individualities are integrated as part of a social 
whole. Society is as necessary to form persons as persons are 
to constitute society. Social union is the indispensable condition 
of the development of the special capacities of the individual 
members. Human self-perfection cannot be gained in isola- 
tion; it is attainable only in inter-relation with fellow-citizens 
in the social community. 

The law of our being, so revealed, involves in its turn civic or 
political duties. Moral goodness cannot be limited to, still less 
constituted by, the cultivation of self-regarding virtues, but con- 
sists in the attempt to realize in practice that moral ideal which 
self-analysis has revealed to us as our ideal. From this fact 
arises the ground of political obligation, for the institutions of 
political or civic life are the concrete embodiment of moral 
ideas in terms of our day and generation. But, as society exists 
only for the proper development of persons, we have a criterion 
by which to test these institutions, viz. do they, or do they not, 
contribute to the development of moral character in the individual 
citizens ? It is obvious that the final moral ideal is not realized 
in any body of civic institutions actually existing, but the same 
analysis which demonstrates this deficiency points out the 
direction which a true development will take. Hence arises the 



GREEN, V. GREENAWAY 



conception of rights and duties which should be maintained by 
law, as opposed to those actually maintained; with the further 
consequence that it may become occasionally a moral duty to 
rebel against the state in the interest of the state itself, that is, 
in order better to subserve that end or function which constitutes 
the raison d'Ure of the state. The state does not consist in any 
definite concrete organization formed once for all. It represents 
a " general will " which is a desire for a common good. Its 
basis is not a coercive authority imposed upon the citizens from 
without, but consists in the spiritual recognition, on the part of 
the citizens, of that which constitutes their true nature. " Will, 
not force, is the basis of the state." 

Green's teaching was, directly and indirectly, the most potent 
philosophical influence in England during the last quarter of the 
igth century, while his enthusiasm for a common citizenship, and 
his personal example in practical municipal life, inspired much of 
the effort made, in the years succeeding his death, to bring the 
universities more into touch with the people, and to break down 
the rigour of class distinctions. 

Of his philosophical doctrine proper, the most striking char- 
acteristic is Integration, as opposed to Disintegration, both in 
thought and in reality. " That which is " is a whole, not an aggregate ; 
an organic complex of parts, not a mechanical mass; a " whole " 
too not material but spiritual, a " world of thought-relations." 
On the critical side this teaching is now admittedly valid against 
the older empiricism, and the cogency of the reasoning by which 
his constructive theory is supported is generally recognized. Never- 
theless, Green's statement of his conclusions presents important 
difficulties. Even apart from the impossibility of conceiving a 
whole of relations which are relations and nothing else (this ob- 
jection is perhaps largely verbal), no explanation is given of the 
fact (obvious in experience) that the spiritual entities of which the 
Universe is composed appear material. Certain elements present 
themselves in feeling which seem stubbornly to resist any attempt 
to explain them in terms of thought. While, again, legitimately 
insisting upon personality as a fundamental constituent in any 
true theory of reality, the relation between human individualities 
and the divine Person is left vague and obscure; nor is it easy to 
see how the existence of several individualities human or divine 
in one cosmos is theoretically possible. It is at the solution of these 
two questions that philosophy in the immediate future may be 
expected to work. 

Green's most important treatise the Prolegomena to Ethics 
practically complete in manuscript at his death was published 
in the year following, under the editorship of A. C. Bradley (4th ed., 
1899). Shortly afterwards R. L. Nettleship's standard edition of 
his Works (exclusive of the Prolegomena) appeared in three volumes: 
vol. i. containing reprints of Green's criticism of Hume, Spencer, 
Lewes; vol. ii. Lectures on Kant, on Logic, on the Principles of 
Political Obligation; vol. iii. Miscellanies, preceded by a full Memoir 
by the Editor. The Principles of Political Obligation was afterwards 
published in separate form. A criticism of Neo-Hegelianism will be 
found in Andrew Seth (Pringle Pattison), Hegelianism and Person- 
ality. See also articles in Mind (January and April 1884) by A. J. 
Balfour and Henry Sidgwick, in the Academy (xxviii. 242 and xxv. 
297) by S. Alexander, and in the Philosophical Review (vi., 1897) 
by S. S. Laurie; W. H. Fairbrother, Philosophy of T. H. Green 
(London and New York, 1896); D. G. Ritchie, The Principles of 
State Interference (London, 1891); H. Sidgwick, Lectures on the 
Philosophy of Kant (London, 1905); J. H. Muirhead, The Service of 
the State: Four Lectures on the Political Teaching of T. H. Green 
(1908); A. W. Benn, English Rationalism in the XlXth Century 
(1906), vol. ii., pp. 401 foil. (W. H. F.,* X.) 

GREEN, VALENTINE (1730-1813), British engraver, was 
born at Halesowen. He was placed by his father in a solicitor's 
office at Evesham, where he remained for two years; but ulti- 
mately he decided, on his own responsibility, to abandon the 
legal profession and became a pupil of a line engraver at Worcester. 
In 1765 he migrated to London and began work as a mezzotint 
engraver, having taught himself the technicalities of this art, and 
quickly rose to a position in absolutely the front rank of British 
engravers. He became a member of the Incorporated Society of 
Artists in 1767, an associate-engraver of the Royal Academy 
in 1775, and for some forty years he followed his profession with 
the greatest success. The exclusive right of engraving and 
publishing plates from the pictures in the Diisseldorf gallery was 
granted him by the duke of Bavaria in 1789, but, after he had 
issued more than twenty of these plates, the siege of that city by 
the French put an end to this undertaking and caused him 
serious financial loss. From this cause, and through the failure 
of certain other speculations, he was reduced to poverty; and in 
consequence he took the post of keeper of the British Institution 



in 1805, and continued in this office for the remainder of his 
life. During his career as an engraver he produced some 
four hundred plates after portraits by Reynolds, Romney, 
and other British artists, after the compositions of Benjamin 
West, and after pictures by Van Dyck, Rubens, Murillo, and 
other old masters. It is claimed for him that he was one of the 
first engravers to show how admirably mezzotint could be applied 
to the translation of pictorial compositions as well as portraits, 
but at the present time it is to his portraits that most attention 
is given by collectors. His engravings are distinguished by 
exceptional richness and subtlety of tone, and by very judicious 
management of relations of light and shade; and they have, 
almost without exception, notable freshness and grace of handling. 

See Valentine Green, by Alfred Whitman (London, 1902). 

GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (1825-190x3), American Hebrew 
scholar, was born in Groveville, near Bordentown, New Jersey, 
on the 27th of January 1825. He was descended in the sixth 
generation from Jonathan Dickinson, first president of the 
College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), and his 
ancestors had been closely connected with the Presbyterian 
church. He graduated in 1840 from Lafayette College, where he 
was tutor in mathematics (1840-1842) and adjunct professor 
(1843-1844). In 1846 he graduated from Princeton Theological 
Seminary, and was instructor in Hebrew there in 1 846-1 849. He 
was ordained in 1848 and was pastor of the Central Presbyterian 
church of Philadelphia in 1849-1851. From August 1851 until 
his death, in Princeton, New Jersey, on the loth of February 
1900, he was professor of Biblical and Oriental Literature in 
Princeton Theological Seminary. From 1859 the title of his chair 
was Oriental and Old Testament Literature. In 1868 he refused 
the presidency of Princeton College; as senior professor he was 
long acting head of the Theological Seminary. He was a great 
Hebrew teacher: his Grammar of the Hebrew Language (1861, 
revised 1888) was a distinct improvement in method on Gesenius, 
Roediger, Ewald and Nordheimer. All his knowledge of Semitic 
languages he used in a " conservative Higher Criticism," which is 
maintained in the following works: The Pentateuch Vindicated 
from the Aspersions of Bishop Colenso (1863), Moses and the 
Prophets (1883), The Hebrew Feasts in their Relation to Recent 
Critical Hypotheses Concerning the Pentateuch (1885), The Unity of 
the Book of Genesis (1895), The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch 
(1895), and A General Introduction to the Old Testament, vol.i. 
Canon (1898), vol. ii. Text (1899). He was the scholarly leader of 
the orthodox wing of the Presbyterian church in America, and was 
moderator of the General Assembly of 1891. Green was chair- 
man of the Old Testament committee of the Anglo-American 
Bible revision committee. 

See the articles by John D. Davis in The Biblical World, new 
series, vol. xv., pp. 406-413 (Chicago, 1900), and The Presbyterian 
and Reformed Review, vol. xi. pp. 377-396 (Philadelphia, 1900). 

GREENAWAY, KATE (1846-1901), English artist and book 
illustrator, was the daughter of John Greenaway, a well-known 
draughtsman and engraver on wood, and was born in London on 
the i7th of March 1846. After a course of study at South 
Kensington, at " Heatherley's " life classes, and at the Slade 
School, Kate Greenaway began, in 1868, to exhibit water-colour 
drawings at the Dudley Gallery, London. Her more remarkable 
early work, however, consisted of Christmas cards, which, by 
reason of their quaint beauty of design and charm of draughts- 
manship, enjoyed an extraordinary vogue. Her subjects were, 
in the main, young girls, children, flowers, and landscape; and 
the air of artless simplicity, freshness, humour, and purity of 
these little works so appealed to public and artists alike that the 
enthusiastic welcome habitually accorded to them is to be attri- 
buted to something more than love of novelty. In the line she had 
struck out Kate Greenaway was encouraged by H. Stacy Marks, 
R.A., and she refused to listen to those friends who urged her to 
return to a more conventional manner. Thenceforward her 
illustrations for children (such as for Little Folks, 1873, et seq.) 
attracted much attention. In 1877 her drawings at the Dudley 
Gallery were sold for 54, and her Royal Academy picture for 
eighteen guineas; and in the same year she began to draw for the 



GREENBACKS GREENCASTLE 



537 



lluslrated London News. In the year 1879 she produced Under 
Window, of which 150,000 copies are said to have been sold, 

id of which French and German editions were also issued. 

hen followed The Birthday Book, Mother Goose, Little Ann, and 
Dther books for children which were appreciated not less by 

dults, and were to be found on sale in the bookshops of every 

ipital in Europe and in the cities of America. The extraordinary 

access achieved by the young girl may be estimated by the 
amounts paid to her as her share of the profits: for Under the 
ow she received 1130; for The Birthday Book, 1250; 
for Mother Goose, 905; and for Little Ann, 567. These four 
oks alone produced a clear return of 8000. " Toy-books " 

bough they were, these little works created a revolution in 

[lustration, and so were of real importance; they were loudly 
applauded by John Ruskin (Art of England and Fors Clamgera), 
by Ernest Chesneau and Arsene Alexandre in France, by Dr 

luther in Germany, and by leading art-critics throughout the 
vorld. In 1890 Kate Greenaway was elected a member of the 
Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours, and in 1891 , 1 894 and 
1898 she exhibited water-colour drawings, including illustrations 
for her books, at the gallery of the Fine Art Society (by which a re- 
presentative selection was exhibited in i902),wheretheysurprised 
the world by the infinite delicacy,tenderness, and grace which they 
displayed. A leading feature in Miss Greenaway's work was her 
revival of the delightfully quaint costume of the beginning of the 
igth century; this lent humour to her fancy, and so captivated 
the public taste that it has been said, with poetic exaggeration, 
that " Kate Greenaway dressed the children of two continents." 
Her drawings of children have been compared with Stothard's 
for grace and with Reynolds's for naturalness, and those of flowers 
with the work of van Huysum and Botticelli. From 1883 to 
1897, with a break only in 1896, she issued a series of Kate 
Greenaway's Almanacs. Although she illustrated The Pied 
Piper of Hamelin and other works, the artist preferred to pro- 
vide her own text; the numerous verses which were found among 
her papers after her death prove that she might have added to her 
reputation with her pen. She had great charm of character, but 
was extremely shy of public notice, and not less modest in private 
life. She died atHampstead on the 6th of November 1901. 

See the Life, by M. H. Spielmann and G. S. Layard (1905). 

(M.H. S.) 

GREENBACKS, a form of paper currency in the United 
States, so named from the green colour used on the backs of 
the notes. They are treasury notes, and were first issued by 
the government in 1862, " as a question of hard necessity," 
to provide for the expenses of the Civil War. The government, 
following the example of the banks, had suspended specie pay- 
ment. The new notes were therefore for the time being an 
inconvertible paper currency, and, since they were made legal 
tender, were really a form of fiat money. The first act, providing 
for the issue of notes to the amount of $150,000,000, was that 
of the 25th February 1862; the acts of nth July 1862 and 
3rd March 1863 each authorized further issues of $150,000,000. 
The notes soon depreciated in value, and at the lowest were 
worth only 35 cents on the dollar. The act of i2th April 1866 
authorized the retirement of $10,000,000 of notes within six 
months and of $4,000,000 per month thereafter; this was dis- 
continued by act of 4th February 1868. On ist January 1879 
specie payment was resumed, and the nominal amount of notes 
then stood at $346,681,000, which is still outstanding. 

The so-called Greenback party (also called the Independent, and the 
National party) first appeared in a presidential campaign in 1876, 
when its candidate, Peter Cooper, received 81,740 votes. It advo- 
cated increasing the volume of greenbacks, forbidding bank issues, 
and the paying in greenbacks of the principal of all government 
bonds not expressly payable in coin. In 1878 the party, by various 
fusions, cast over 1,000,000 votes and elected 14 Congressmen; and 
in 1880 there was fusion with labour reformers and it cast 308,578 
votes for its presidential candidate, J. B. Weaver, and elected 8 
Congressmen. In 1884 their candidate Benjamin F. Butler (also the 
candidate of the Anti-Monopoly party) received 175,370 votes. 
Subsequently the party went out of existence. 

GREEN BAY, a city and the county-seat of Brown county, 
Wisconsin, U.S.A., at the S. extremity of Green Bay, at the 



mouth of the Fox river, 114 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 
9069; (1900) 18,684, of whom 4022 were foreign-born and 33 
were negroes; (1910 census) 25,236. The city is served 

by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee 
& St Paul, the Kewaunee, Green Bay & Western, and the 
Green Bay & Western railways, by an inter-urban electric 
railway connecting with other Fox River Valley cities, and 
by lake and river steamboat lines. Green Bay lies on high 
level ground on both sides of the river, which is here crossed 
by several bridges. The city has the Kellogg Public Library, 
the Brown County Court House, two high schools, a business 
college, several academies, two hospitals, an orphan asylum 
and the State Odd Fellows' Home. It is the seat of a Roman 
Catholic cathedral, the bishopric being the earliest established 
in the North-west. The so-called " Tank Cottage," now in 
Washington Park, is said to be the oldest house in Wisconsin; 
it was built on the W. bank of the river near its mouth by Joseph 
Roy, a French-Canadian voyageur, in 1766, was subsequently 
somewhat modified, and in 1908 was bought and removed to 
its present site by the Green Bay Historical Society. Midway 
between Green Bay and De Pere (5 m. S.W. of Green Bay) 
is the state reformatory, opened in 1899-1901. Green Bay's 
fine harbour accommodates a considerable lake commerce, and 
the city is the most important railway and wholesale distributing 
centre in N.E. Wisconsin. Its manufactures include lumber 
and lumber products, furniture, wagons, woodenware, farm 
implements and machinery, flour, beer, canned goods, brick 
and tile and dairy products; and it has lumber yards, grain 
elevators, fish warehouses and railway repair shops. The 
total value of the factory product in 1905 was $4,873,027, an 
increase of 79-9% since 1900. The first recorded visit of a 
European to the vicinity of what is now Green Bay is that of 
Jean Nicolet, who was sent west by Champlain in 1634, and 
found, probably at the Red Banks, some 10 m. below the present 
city, a village of Winnebago Indians, who he thought at first 
were Chinese. Between 1654 and 1658 Radisson and Groseilliers 
and other coureurs des bois were at Green Bay. Claude Jean 
Allouez, the Jesuit missionary, established a mission on the W. 
shore of the bay, about 20 m. from the present city. Later 
he removed his mission to the Red Banks, and in the winter 
of 1671-1672 established it permanently 5 m. above the present 
city, at Rapides des Peres, on the E. shore of the Fox river. 
In 1673 Joliet and Marquette visited the spot. In 1683-1685 
Le Sueur and Nicholas Perrot traded with the Indians here. 
In 1718-1720 Fort St Francis was erected at the mouth of the 
river on the W. bank, and after being several times deserted 
was permanently re-established in 1732. About 1745 Augustin 
de Langlade established a trading post at La Baye and later 
brought his family there from Mackinac. This was the first 
permanent settlement at Green Bay and in Wisconsin. The 
British garrison which occupied the fort from 1761 to 1763, 
during which time the fort received the name of Fort Edward 
Augustus, was removed at the time of Pontiac's rising, and the 
fort was never re-garrisoned by the English, except for a short 
time during the War of 1812. The inhabitants of La Baye 
were, however, acknowledged subjects of Great Britain, the 
jurisdiction of the United States being practically a dead letter 
until the American fort (Fort Howard) was garrisoned in 1816. 
As early as 1810 fur traders, employed by John Jacob Astor, 
were stationed here; about 1820 Astor erected a warehouse 
and other buildings; and for many years Green Bay consisted 
of two distinct settlements, Astor and Navarino, which were 
finally united in 1839 as Green Bay. The city was chartered 
in 1854. In 1893 Fort Howard was consolidated with it. The 
Green Bay Intelligencer, the first newspaper in Wisconsin, 
began publication here in 1833. 

See Neville and Martin, Historic Green Bay (Green Bay, 1893); 
and Martin and Beaumont, Old Green Bay (Green Bay, 1900). 

GREENCASTLE, a city and the county-seat of Putnam 
county, Indiana, U.S.A., about 38 m. W. by S. of Indianapolis 
and on the Big Walnut river. Pop. (1900) 3661; (1910) 3790. 
It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis, 



538 



GREENE, G. W. GREENE, N. 



the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Vandalia, and the 
Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern (electric) railways. It has 
manufactures of some importance, including lumber, pumps, 
kitchen-cabinets, drag-saws, lightning-rods and tin-plate, is in 
the midst of a blue grass region, and is a shipping point for beef 
cattle. The city has a Carnegie library and is the seat of the 
de Pauw University (co-educational), a Methodist Episcopal 
institution, founded as Indiana Asbury University in 1837, 
and renamed in 1884 in honour of Washington Charles de Pauw 
(1822-1887), a successful capitalist, banker and glass manu- 
facturer. The total gifts of Mr de Pauw and his family to the 
institution amount to about $600,000. Among the presidents 
of the university have been Bishop Matthew Simpson, Bishop 
Thomas Bowman (b. 1817), and Bishop Edwin Holt Hughes 
(b. 1866), all of the Methodist Episcopal church. The university 
comprises the Asbury College of Liberal Arts, a School of Music, 
a School of Art and an Academy, and had in 1909-1910 
43 instructors, a library of 37,000 volumes, and 1017 students. 
Greencastle was first settled about 1820, and was chartered 
as a city in 1861. 

GREENE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1811-1883), American 
historian, was born at East Greenwich, Rhode Island, on the 
8th of April 1811, the grandson of Major-General Nathanael 
Greene. He entered Brown University in 1824, left in his junior 
year on account of ill-health, was in Europe during the next 
twenty years, except in 1833-1834, when he was principal 
of Kent Academy at East Greenwich, and was the United States 
consul at Rome from 1837 to 1845. He was instructor in 
modern languages in Brown University from 1848 to 1852; 
and in 1871-1875 was non-resident lecturer in American history 
in Cornell University. He died at East Greenwich, Rhode 
Island, on the 2nd of February 1883. His published works 
include French and Italian text-books; Historical Studies 
(1850); Biographical Studies (1860); Historical View of the 
American Revolution (1865); Life of Nathanael Greene (3 vols., 
1867-1871); The German Element in the War of American 
Independence (1876) ; and a Short History of Rhode Island (1877). 

GREENE, MAURICE (1695-1755) English musical composer, 
was born in London. He was the son of a clergyman in the 
city, and soon became a chorister of St Paul's cathedral, where 
he studied under Charles King, and subsequently under Richard 
Brind, organist of the cathedral from 1707 to 1718, whom, on 
his death in the last-named year, he succeeded. Nine years 
later he became organist and composer to the chapel royal, 
on the death of Dr Croft. In 1730 he was elected to the chair 
of music in the university of Cambridge, and had the degree 
of doctor of music conferred on him. Dr Greene was a 
voluminous composer of church music, and his collection of 
Forty Select Anthems became a standard work of its kind. He 
wrote a " Te Deum," several oratorios, a masque, The Judgment 
of Hercules, and a pastoral opera, Phoebe (1748); also glees and 
catches: and a collection of Catches and Canons for Three and 
Four Voices is amongst his compositions. In addition he com- 
posed many occasional pieces for the king's birthday, having 
been appointed master of the king's band in 1735. But it is 
as a composer of church music that Greene is chiefly remembered. 
It is here that his contrapuntal skill and his sound musical 
scholarship are chiefly shown. With Handel, Greene was 
originally on intimate terms, but his equal friendship for 
Buononcini, Handel's rival, estranged the German master's 
feelings from him, and all personal intercourse between them 
ceased. Greene, in conjunction with the violinist Michael 
Christian Festing (1727-1752) and others, originated the Society 
of Musicians, for the support of poor artists and their families. 
He died on the ist of December 1755. 

GREENE, NATHANAEL (1742-1786), American general, son 
of a Quaker farmer and smith, was born at Potowomut, in 
the township of Warwick, Rhode Island, on the 7th of August 
(not, as has been stated, 6th of June) 1742. Though his father's 
sect discouraged " literary accomplishments," he acquired a 
large amount of general information, and made a special study 
of mathematics, history and law. At Coventry, R.I. , whither 



he removed in 1770 to take charge of a forge built by his father 
and his uncles, he was the first to urge the establishment of a 
public school; and in the same year he was chosen a member 
of the legislature of Rhode Island, to which he was re-elected 
in 1771, 1772 and 1775. He sympathized strongly with the 
Whig, or Patriot, element among the colonists, and in 1774 
joined the local militia. At this time he began to study the art 
of war. In December 1774 he was on a committee appointed 
by the assembly to revise the militia laws. His zeal in attending 
to military duty led to his expulsion from the Society of Friends. 

In 1775, in command of the contingent raised by Rhode Island, 
he joined the American forces at Cambridge, and on the 22nd 
of June was appointed a brigadier by Congress. To him 
Washington assigned the command of the city of Boston after 
it was evacuated by Howe in March 1776. Greene's letters of 
October 1775 and January 1776 to Samuel Ward, then a delegate 
from Rhode Island to the Continental Congress, favoured a 
declaration of independence. On the gth of August 1776 he 
was promoted to be one of the four new major-generals and was 
put in command of the Continental troops on Long Island; 
he chose the place for fortifications (practically the same as that 
picke'd by General Charles Lee) and built the redoubts and 
entrenchments of Fort Greene on Brooklyn Heights. Severe 
illness prevented his taking part in the battle of Long Island. 
He was prominent among those who advised a retreat from New 
York and the burning of the city, so that the British might not 
use it. Greene was placed in command of Fort Lee, and on the 
25th of October succeeded General Israel Putnam in command 
of Fort Washington. He received orders from Washington to 
defend Fort Washington to the last extremity, and on the nth of 
October Congress had passed a resolution to the same effect ; but 
later Washington wrote to him to use his own discretion. Greene 
ordered ColonelMagaw, whowas in immediate command,to defend 
the place until he should hear from him again, and reinforced 
it to meet General Howe's attack. Nevertheless, the blame for 
the losses of Forts Washington and Lee was put upon Greene, 
but apparently without his losing the confidence of Washington, 
who indeed himself assumed the responsibility. At Trenton 
Greene commanded one of the two American columns, his own, 
accompanied by Washington, arriving first; and after the 
victory here he urged Washington to push on immediately to 
Princeton, but was over-ruled by a council of war. At the 
Brandywine Greene commanded the reserve. At Germantown 
Greene's command, having a greater distance to march than the 
right wing under Sullivan, failed to arrive in good time a failure 
which Greene himself thought (without cause) would cost him 
Washington's regard; on this, with the affair of Fort Washington, 
Bancroft based his unfavourable estimate of Greene's ability. 
But on their arrival, Greene and his troops distinguished them- 
selves greatly. 

At the urgent request of Washington, on the 2nd of March 
1778, at Valley Forge, he accepted the office of quartermaster- 
general (succeeding Thomas Mifflin), and of his conduct in this 
difficult work, which Washington heartily approved, a modern 
critic, Colonel H. B. Carrington, has said that it was " as good 
as was possible under the circumstances of that fluctuating 
uncertain force." He had become quartermaster-general on 
the understanding, however, that he should retain the right to 
command troops in the field; thus we find him at the head of 
the right wing at Monmouth on the 28th of June. In August 
Greene and Lafayette commanded the land forces sent to Rhode 
Island to co-operate with the French admiral d'Estaing, in an 
expedition which proved abortive. In June 1780 Greene com- 
manded in a skirmish at Springfield, New Jersey. In August 
he resigned the office of quartermaster-general, after a long and 
bitter struggle with Congress over the interference in army 
administration by the Treasury Board and by commissions 
appointed by Congress. Before his resignation became effective 
it fell to his lot to preside over the court which, on the 2pth of 
September, condemned Major John Andr6 to death. 

On the I4th of October he succeeded Gates as commander-in- 
chief of the Southern army, and took command at Charlotte, N.C., 



GREENE, ROBERT 



539 



on the 2nd of December. The army was weak and badly 
equipped and was opposed by a superior force under Cornwallis. 
Greene decided to divide his own troops, thus forcing the division 
of the British as well, and creating the possibility of a strategic 
interplay of forces. This strategy led to General Daniel Morgan's 
victory of Cowpens (just over the South Carolina line) on the 
zyth of January 1781, and to the battle at Guilford Court 
House, N.C. (March 15), in which after having weakened the 
British troops by continual movements, and drawn in reinforce- 
ments for his own army, Greene was defeated indeed, but only 
at such cost to the victor that Tarleton called it " the pledge of 
ultimate defeat." Three days after this battle Cornwallis 
withdrew toward Wilmington. Greene's generalship and judg- 
ment were again conspicuously illustrated in the next few weeks, 
in which he allowed Cornwallis to march north to Virginia and 
himself turned swiftly to the reconquest of the inner country 
of South Carolina. This, in spite of a reverse sustained at Lord 
Rawdon's hands at Hobkirk's Hill (2 m. N. of Camden) on the 
25th of April, he achieved by the end of June, the British retiring 
to the coast. Greene then gave his forces a six weeks' rest on 
the High Hills of the Santee, and on the 8th of September, with 
2600 men, engaged the British under Lieut.-Colonel James 
Stuart (who had succeeded Lord Rawdon) at Eutaw Springs; 
the battle, although tactically drawn, so weakened the British 
that they withdrew to Charleston, where Greene penned them 
during the remaining months of the war. Greene's Southern 
campaign showed remarkable strategic features that remind one 
of those of Turenne, the commander whom he had taken as his 
model in his studies before the war. He excelled in dividing, 
eluding and tiring his opponent by long marches, and in actual 
conflict forcing him to pay for a temporary advantage a price 
that he could not afford. He was greatly assisted by able 
subordinates, including the Polish engineer, Tadeusz Kosciusko, 
the brilliant cavalry captains, Henry (" Light-Horse Harry ") 
Lee and William Washington, and the partisan leaders, Thomas 
Sumter and Francis Marion. 

South Carolina and Georgia voted Greene liberal grants of 
lands and money. The South Carolina estate, Boone's Barony, 
S. of Edisto in Bamberg County, he sold to meet bills for the 
rations of his Southern army. On the Georgia estate, Mulberry 
Grove, 14 m. above Savannah, on the river, he settled in 1785, 
after twice refusing (1781 and 1784) the post of secretary of war, 
and there he died of sunstroke on the ipthof June 1786. Greene 
was a singularly able, and like other prominent generals on 
the American side a self-trained soldier, and was second 
only to Washington among the officers of the American army 
in military ability. Like Washington he had the great gift of 
using small means to the utmost advantage. His attitude 
towards the Tories was humane and even kindly, and he 
generously defended Gates, who had repeatedly intrigued 
against him, when Gates's conduct of the campaign in the South 
was criticized. There is a monument to Greene in Savannah 
(1829). His statue, with that of Roger Williams, represents the 
state of Rhode Island in the National Hall of Statuary in the 
Capitol at Washington; in the same city there is a bronze 
equestrian statue of him by H. K. Brown. 

See the Life of Nalhanael Greene (3 vols., 1867-1871), by his grand- 
son, George W. Greene, and the biography (New York, 1893), by 
Brig.-Gen. F. V. Greene, in the " Great Commanders Series." 

GREENE, ROBERT (c. 1560-1592), English dramatist and 
miscellaneous writer, was born at Norwich about 1560. The 
identity of his father has been disputed, but there is every 
reason to believe that he belonged to the tradesmen's class and 
had small means. It is doubtful whether Robert Greene attended 
Norwich grammar school; but, as an eastern counties man 
(to one of whose plays, Friar Bacon, the Norfolk and Suffolk 
borderland owes a lasting poetic commemoration) he naturally 
found his way to Cambridge, where he entered St John's College 
as a sizar in 1575 and took his B.A. thence in 1579, proceeding 
M.A. in 1583 from Clare Hall. His life at the university was, 
according to his own account, spent " among wags as lewd as 
himself, with whom he consumed the flower of his youth." In 



1 588 he was incorporated at Oxford, so that on some of his title- 
pages he styles himself " utriusque Academiae in Artibus 
Magister "; and Nashe humorously refers to him as " utriusque 
Academiae Robertus Greene." Between the years 1578 and 
1583 he had travelled abroad, according to his own account 
very extensively, visiting France, Germany, Poland and Denmark, 
besides learning at first-hand to " hate the pride of Italic " 
and to know the taste of that poet's fruit, " Spanish mirabolones." 
The grounds upon which it has been suggested that he took holy 
orders are quite insufficient; according to the title-page of a 
pamphlet published by him in 1585 he was then a " student in 
phisicke." Already, however, after taking his M.A. degree, he 
had according to his own account begun his London life, and his 
earliest extant literary production was in hand as early as 1580. 
He now became " an author of playes and a penner of love- 
pamphlets, so that I soone grew famous in that qualitie, that 
who for that trade growne so ordinary about London as Robin 
Greene?" " Glad was that printer," says Nashe, " that might 
bee so blest to pay him deare for the very dregs of his wit." 
By his own account he rapidly sank into the worst debaucheries 
of the town, though Nashe declares that he never knew him 
guilty of notorious crime. He was not without passing impulses 
towards a more righteous and sober life, and was derided in 
consequence by his associates as a " Puritane and Presizian." 
It is possible that he, as well as his bitter enemy, Gabriel Harvey, 
exaggerated the looseness of his conduct. His marriage, which 
took place in 1585 or 1586, failed to steady him; if Francesco, 
in Greene's pamphlet Never too late to mend (1590), is intended 
for the author himself, it had been a runaway match; but the 
fiction and the autobiographical sketch in the Repentance agree 
in their account of the unfaithfulness which followed on the part 
of the husband. He lived with his wife, whose name seems to 
have been Dorothy (" Doll "; and cf. Dorothea in James IV.), 
for a while; " but forasmuch as she would perswade me from my 
wilful wickednes, after I had a child by her, I cast her off, having 
spent up the marriage-money which I obtained by her. Then 
left I her at six or seven, who went into Lincolnshire, and I to 
London," where his reputation as a playwright and writer of 
pamphlets of " love and vaine fantasyes " continued to increase, 
and where his life was a feverish alternation of labour and 
debauchery. In his last years he took it upon himself to make 
war on the cutpurses and " conny-catchers " with whom he came 
into contact in the slums, and whose doings he fearlessly exposed 
in his writings. He tells us how at last he was friendless " except 
it were in a fewe alehouses," where he was respected on account 
of the score he had run up. When the end came he was a 
dependant on the charity of the poor and the pitying love of the 
unfortunate. Henri Murger has drawn no picture more sickening 
and more pitiful than the story of Greene's death, as told by his 
Puritan adversary, Gabriel Harvey a veracious though a far 
from unprejudiced narrator. Greene had taken up the cudgels 
provided by the Harvey brothers on their intervention in the 
Marprelate controversy, and made an attack (immediately 
suppressed) upon Gabriel's father and family in the prose-tract 
A Quip for an Upstart Courtier, or a Quaint Dispute between 
Velvet Breeches and Cloth Breeches (1592). After a banquet 
where the chief guest had been Thomas Nashe an old associate 
and perhaps a college friend of Greene's, any great intimacy with 
whom, however, he seems to have been anxious to disclaim 
Greene had fallen sick " of a surfeit of pickle herringe and 
Rennish wine." At the house of a poor shoemaker near Dowgate, 
deserted by all except his compassionate hostess (Mrs Isam) and 
two women one of them the sister of a notorious thief named 
" Cutting Ball," and the mother of his illegitimate son, Fortunatus 
Greene he died on the 3rd of September 1592. Shortly before 
his death he wrote under a bond for 10 which he had given to 
the good shoemaker, the following words addressed to his long- 
forsaken wife: " Doll, I charge thee, by the loue of our youth 
and by my soules rest, that thou wilte see this man paide; for 
if hee and his wife had not succoured me, I had died in the 
streetes. Robert Greene." 

Four Letters and Certain Sonnets, Harvey's attack on Greene, 



540 



GREENE, ROBERT 



appeared almost immediately after his death, as to the circum- 
stances of which his relentless adversary had taken care to inform 
himself personally. Nashe took up the defence of his dead friend 
and ridiculed Harvey in Strange News (1593); and the dispute 
continued for some years. But, before this, the dramatist Henry 
Chettle published a pamphlet from the hand of the unhappy 
man, entitled Greene's Groat' s-worth of Wit bought with a Million 
of Repentance (1592), containing the story of Roberto, who may 
be regarded, for practical purposes, as representing Greene 
himself. This ill-starred production may almost be said to have 
done more to excite the resentment of posterity against Greene's 
name than all the errors for which he professed his repentance. 
For in it he exhorted to repentance three of his quondam acquaint- 
ance. Of these three Marlowe was one to whom and to whose 
creation of " that Atheist Tamberlaine " he had repeatedly 
alluded. The second was Peele, the third probably Nashe. 
But the passage addressed to Peele contained a transparent 
allusion to a fourth dramatist, who was an actor likewise, as 
" an vpstart crow beautified with our feathers, that with his 
Tygres heart wrapt in a player's hyde supposes hee is as well able 
to bombast out a blanke- verse as the best of you; and being an 
absolute lohannes-fac-totum, is in his owne conceyt the onely 
shake-scene in a countrey." The phrase italicized parodies 
a passage occurring in The True Tragedie of Richard, Duke of 
York, &c., and retained in Part III. of Henry VI. If Greene 
(as many eminent critics have thought) had a hand in The True 
Tragedie, he must here have intended a charge of plagiarism 
against Shakespeare. But while it seems more probable that 
(as the late R. Simpson suggested) the upstart crow beautified 
with the feathers of the three dramatists is a sneering description 
of the actor who declaimed their verse, the animus of the whole 
attack (as explained by Dr Ingleby) is revealed in its concluding 
phrases. This " shake-scene," i.e. this actor had ventured to 
intrude upon the domain of the regular staff of playwrights 
their monopoly was in danger! 

Two other prose pamphlets of an autobiographical nature were 
issued posthumously. Of these, The Repentance of Robert 
Greene, Master of Arts (1592), must originally have been written 
by him on his death-bed, under the influence, as he says, of 
Father Parsons's Booke of Resolution (The Christian Directorie, 
appertayning to Resolution, 1582, republished in an enlarged 
form, which became very popular, in 1585); but it bears traces 
of having been improved from the original; while Greene's 
Vision was certainly not, as the title-page avers, written during 
his last illness. 

Altogether not less than thirty-five prose-tracts are ascribed 
to Greene's prolific pen. Nearly all of them are interspersed 
with verses; in their themes they range from the " misticall " 
wonders of the heavens to the familiar but " pernitious sleights " 
of the sharpers of London. But the most widely attractive of 
his prose publications were his " love-pamphlets," which brought 
upon him the outcry of Puritan censors. The earliest of his 
novels, as they may be called, Mamillia, was licensed in 1583. 
This interesting story may be said to have accompanied Greene 
through life; for even part ii., of which, though probably com- 
pleted several years earlier, the earliest extant edition bears the 
date 1593, had a sequel, The Anatomie of Love's Flatteries, which 
contains a review of suitors recalling Portia's in The Merchant 
of Venice. The Myrrour of Modestie (the story of Susanna) 
(1584); The Historie of Arhaslo,. King of Denmarke (1584); 
Morando, the Tritameron of Love (a rather tedious imitation of the 
Decameron (1584); Planetomachia (1585) (a contention in story- 
telling between Venus and Saturn); Penelope's Web (1587) 
(another string of stories); Alcida, Greene's Metamorphosis 
(1588), and others, followed. In these popular productions he 
appears very distinctly as a follower of John Lyly; indeed, the 
first part of Mamillia was entered in the Stationers' Registers 
in the year of the appearance of Euphues, and two of Greene's 
novels are by their titles announced as a kind of sequel to the 
parent romance: Euphues his Censure to Philautus (1587), 
Menaphon. Camilla's Alarum to Slumbering Euphues (1589), 
named in some later editions Greene's Arcadia. This pastoral 



romance, written in direct emulation of Sidney's, with a heroine 
called Samila, contains St Sephestia's charming lullaby, with 
its refrain " Father's sorowe, father's joy." But, though Greene's 
style copies the balanced oscillation, and his diction the ornate- 
ness (including the proverbial philosophy) of Lyly, he contrives 
to interest by the matter as well as to attract attention by the 
manner of his narratives. Of his highly moral intentions he 
leaves the reader in no doubt, since they are exposed on the 
title-pages. The full title of the Myrrour of Modestie for instance 
continues: " wherein appeareth as in a perfect glasse how the 
Lord delivereth the innocent from all imminent perils, and 
plagueth the blood-thirsty hypocrites with deserved punish- 
ments," &c. On his Pandosto, The Triumph of Time (1588) 
Shakespeare founded A Winter's Tale; in fact, the novel contains 
the entire plot of the comedy, except the device of the living 
statue; though some of the subordinate characters in the play, 
including Autolycus, were added by Shakespeare, together with 
the pastoral fragrance of one of its episodes. 

In Greene's Never too Late (1590), announced as a " Powder 
of Experience: sent to all youthfull gentlemen " for their 
benefit, the hero, Francesco, is in all probability intended for 
Greene himself, the sequel or second part is, however, pure fiction. 
This episodical narrative has a vivacity and truthfulness of 
manner which savour of an i8th century novel rather than of 
an Elizabethan tale concerning the days of " Palmerin, King 
of Great Britain." Philador, the prodigal of The Mourning 
Garment (1590), is obviously also in some respects a portrait of 
the writer. The experiences of the Roberto of Greene's Groat' s- 
uiorlh of Wit (1592) are even more palpably the experiences of 
the author himself, though they are possibly overdrawn for a 
born rhetorician exaggerates everything, even his own sins. 
Besides these and the posthumous pamphlets on his repentance, 
Greene left realistic pictures of the very disreputable society 
to which he finally descended, in his pamphlets on " conny- 
catching ": A Notable Discovery of Coosnage (1591), The Blacke 
Bookes Messenger. Laying open the Life and Death of Ned 
Browne, one of the most Notable Cutpurses, Crossbilers, and 
Conny-catchers that ever lived in England (1592). Much in 
Greene's manner, both in his romances and in his pictures of 
low life, anticipated what proved the slow course of the actual 
development of the English novel; and it is probable that his 
true metier, and that which best suited the bright fancy, ingenuity 
and wit of which his genius was compounded, was pamphlet- 
spinning and story-telling rather than dramatic composition. 
It should be added that, euphuist as Greene was, few of his 
contemporaries in their lyrics warbled wood-notes which like 
his resemble Shakespeare's in their native freshness. 

Curiously enough, as Mr Churton Collins has pointed out, 
Greene, except in the two pamphlets written just before his 
death, never refers to his having written plays; and before 1592 
his contemporaries are equally silent as to his labours as a 
playwright. Only four plays remain to us of which he was 
indisputably the sole author. The earliest of these seems to 
have been the Comicall History of Alphonsus, King of Arragon, 
of which Henslowe's Diary contains no trace. But it can hardly 
have been first acted long after the production of Marlowe's 
Tamburlaine, which had, in all probability, been brought on the 
stage in 1587. For this play, " comical " only in the negative 
sense of having a happy ending, was manifestly written in 
emulation as well as in direct imitation of Marlowe's tragedy. 
While Greene cannot have thought himself capable of surpassing 
Marlowe as a tragic poet, he very probably wished to outdo him 
in " business, " and to equal him in the rant which was sure to 
bring down at least part of the house. Alphonsus is a history 
proper a dramatized chronicle or narrative of warlike events. 
Its fame could never equal that of Marlowe's tragedy; but its 
composition showed that Greene could seek to rival the most 
popular drama of the day, without falling very far short of his 
model. 

In the Honourable History of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay 
(not known to have been acted before February, 1592, but 
probably written in 1 589) Greene once more attempted to emulate 



GREENFIELD GREENHEART 



Marlowe; and he succeeded in producing a masterpiece of his 
own. Marlowe's Doctor Faustus, which doubtless suggested the 
composition of Greene's comedy, reveals the mighty tragic 

enius of its author; but Greene resolved on an altogether 
distinct treatment of a cognate theme. Interweaving with the 

opular tale of Friar Bacon and his wondrous doings a charming 
idyl (so far as we know, of his own invention), the story of Prince 
iward's love for the Fair Maid of Fressingfield, he produced a 

amedy brimful of amusing action and genial fun. Friar Bacon 

emains a dramatic picture of English Elizabethan life with 
which The Merry Wives alone can vie; and not even the ultra- 

assicism in the similes of its diction can destroy the naturalness 
which constitutes its perennial charm. The History of Orlando 
Furioso, one of the Twelve Peeres of France has on unsatisfactory 
evidence been dated as before 1586, and is known to have been 
acted on the zist of February 1592. It is a free dramatic 
adaptation of Ariosto, Harington's translation of whom appeared 
1591, and who in one passage is textually quoted; and it 

sntains a large variety of characters and a superabundance of 

ction. Fairly lucid in arrangement and fluent in style, the 
treatment of the madness of Orlando lacks tragic power. Very 

ew dramatists from Sophocles to Shakespeare have succeeded 
in subordinating the grotesque effect of madness to the tragic; 
and Greene is not to be included in the list. 

In The Scottish Historic of James IV. (acted 1592, licensed 
for publication 1594) Greene seems to have reached the climax 
of his dramatic powers. The " historical " character of this play 
is pure pretence. The story is taken from one of Giraldi 
Cinthio's tales. Its theme is the illicit passion of King James for 
the chaste lady Ida, to obtain whose hand he endeavours, at the 
suggestion of a villain called Ateukin, to make away with his own 
wife. She escapes in doublet and hose, attended by her faithful 
dwarf; but, on her father's making war upon her husband to 
avenge her wrongs, she brings about a reconciliation between 
them. Not only is this well-constructed story effectively worked 
out, but the characters are vigorously drawn, and in Ateukin 
there is a touch of lago. The fooling by Slipper, the clown of the 
piece, is unexceptionable; and, lest even so the play should hang 
heavy on the audience, its action is carried off by a " pleasant 
comedie " i.e. a prelude and some dances between the acts 
" presented by Oboram, King of Fayeries," who is, however, a 
very different person from the Oberon of A Midsummer Night's 
Dream. 

George-a-Greene the Pinner of Wakefield (acted IS93, printed 
1599), a delightful picture of English life fully worthy of the 
author of Friar Bungay, has been attributed to him; but the 
external evidence is very slight, and the internal unconvincing. 
Of the comedy of Fair Em, which resembles Friar Bacon in more 
than one point, Greene cannot have been the author; the 
question as to the priority between the two plays is not so easily 
solved. The conjecture as to his supposed share in the plays on 
which the second and third parts of Henry VI. are founded has 
been already referred to. He was certainly joint author with 
Thomas Lodge of the curious drama called A Looking Glasse for 
London and England (acted in 1592 and printed in 1594) a 
dramatic apologue conveying to the living generation of English- 
men the warning of Nineveh's corruption and prophesied doom. 
The lesson was frequently repeated in the streets of London by 
the " Ninevitical motions " of the puppets; but there are both 
fire and wealth of language in Greene and Lodge's oratory. The 
comic element is not absent, being supplied in abundance by 
Adam, the clown of the piece, who belongs to the family of 
Slipper, and of Friar Bacon's servant, Miles. 

Greene's dramatic genius has nothing in it of the intensity of 
Marlowe's tragic muse; nor perhaps does he ever equal Peele at 
his best. On the other hand, his dramatic poetry is occasionally 
animated with the breezy freshness which no artifice can simulate. 
He had considerable constructive skill, but he has created no 
character of commanding power unless Ateukin be excepted; 
but his personages are living men and women, and marked out 
from one another with a vigorous but far from rude hand. His 
comic humour is undeniable, and he had the gift of light and 



graceful dialogue. His diction is overloaded with classical 
ornament, but his versification is easy and fluent, and its cadence 
is at times singularly sweet. He creates his best effects by the 
simplest means; and he is indisputably one of the most attractive 
of early English dramatic authors. 

Greene's dramatic works and poems were edited by Alexander 
Dyce in 1831 with a life of the author. This edition was reissued 
in one volume in 1858. His complete works were edited for the 
Huth Library by A. B. Grosart. This issue (1881-1886) contains a 
translation of Nicholas Storojhenko's monograph on Greene (Moscow, 
1878). Greene's plays and poems were edited with introductions 
and notes by J. Churton Collins in 2 vols. (Oxford, 1905) ; the 
general introduction to this edition has superseded previous accounts 
of Greene and his dramatic and lyrical writings. An account of 
his pamphlets is to be found in J. J. Jusserand's English Novel in 
the Time of Shakespeare (Eng. trans., 1890). See also W. Bernhardi, 
Robert Greenes Leben und Schriften (1874); F. M. Bodenstedt, in 
Shakespeare's Zeitgenossen und ihre Werke (1858); and an intro- 
duction by A. W. Ward to Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay (Oxford, 
1886, 4th ed., 1901). (A. W. W.) 

GREENFIELD, a township and the county-seat of Franklin 
county, in N.E. Massachusetts, U.S.A., including an area of 
20 sq. m. of meadow and hill country, watered by the Green 
and Deerfield rivers and various small tributaries. Pop. (1890) 
5252, (1900) 7927, of whom 1431 were foreign-born; (1910 
census) 10,427. The principal village, of the same name as 
the township, is situated on the N. bank of the Deerfield river, 
and on the Boston & Maine railway and the Connecticut Valley 
street railway (electric). Among Greenfield's manufactures are 
cutlery, machinery, and taps and dies. Greenfield, originally 
part of Deerfield, was settled about 1682, was established as a 
" district " in 1753, and on the 23rd of August 1775 was, by a 
general Act, separated from Deerfield and incorporated a^ a 
separate township, although it had assumed full township rights 
in 1774 by sending delegates to the Provincial Congress. In 
1793 part of it was taken to form the township of Gill; in 1838 
part of it was annexed to Bernardston; and in 1896 it annexed 
a part of Deerfield. It was much disaffected at the time of 
Shays's Rebellion. 

See F. M. Thompson, History of Greenfield (2 vols., Greenfield, 
1904). 

GREENFINCH (Ger. Griinfink), or GREEN LINNET, as it is very 
often called, a common European bird, the Fringilla chloris of 
Linnaeus, ranked by many systematists with one section of haw- 
finches, Coccothraustes, but apparently more nearly allied to the 
other section Hesperiphona, and perhaps justifiably deemed the 
type of a distinct genus, to which the name Chloris or Ligurinus 
has been applied. The cock, in his plumage of yellowish-green 
and yellow is one of the most finely coloured of common English 
birds, but he. is rather heavily built, and his song is hardly com- 
mended. The hen is much less brightly tinted. Throughout 
Britain, as a rule, this species is one of the most plentiful birds, 
and is found at all seasons of the year. It pervades almost the 
whole of Europe, and in Asia reaches the river Ob. It visits 
Palestine, but is unknown in Egypt. It is, however, abundant 
in Mauritania, whence specimens are so brightly coloured that 
they have been deemed to form a distinct species, the Ligurinus 
aurantiitientris of Dr Cabanis, but that view is now generally 
abandoned. In the north-east of Asia and its adjacent islands 
occur two allied species the Fringilla sinica of Linnaeus and the 
F. kawarahiba of Temminck. (A. N.) 

GREENHEART, one of the most valuable of timbers, the 
produce of Nectandra Rodiaei, natural order Lauraceae, a large 
tree, native of tropical South America and the West Indies. The 
Indian name of the tree is sipiri or bibiru, and from its bark and 
fruits is obtained the febrifuge principle bibirine. Greenheart 
wood is of a dark-green colour, sap wood and heart wood being so 
much alike that they can with difficulty be distinguished from 
each other. The heart wood is one of the most durable of all 
timbers, and its value is greatly enhanced by the fact that it is 
proof against the ravages of many marine borers which rapidly 
destroy piles and other submarine structures of most other 
kinds of wood available for such purposes. In the Kelvingrove 
Museum, Glasgow, there are two pieces of planking from a wreck 
submerged during eighteen years on the west coast of Scotland. 



542 



GREENLAND 



The one specimen greenheart is merely slightly pitted on the 
surface, the body of the wood being perfectly sound and untouched, 
while the other teak is almost entirely eaten away. Green- 
heart, tested either by transverse or by tensile strain, is one of 
the strongest of all woods, and it is also exceedingly dense, its 
specific gravity being about 1150. It is included in the second 
line of Lloyd's Register for shipbuilding purposes, and it is exten- 
sively used for keelsons, beams, engine-bearers and planking, &c., 
as well as in the general engineering arts, but its excessive weight 
unfits it for many purposes for which its other properties would 
render it eminently suitable. 

GREENLAND (Danish, &c., Gronland), a large continental 
island, the greater portion of which lies within the Arctic Circle, 
while the whole is arctic in character. It is not connected with 
any portion of Europe or America except by suboceanic ridges; 
but in the extreme north it is separated only by a narrow strait 
from EflesmereLand in the archipelago of the American continent. 
It is bounded on the east by the North Atlantic, the Norwegian 
and Greenland Seas Jan Mayen, Iceland, the Faeroe Islands 
and the Shetlands being the only lands between it and Norway. 
Denmark Strait is the sea between it and Iceland, and the 
northern Norwegian Sea or Greenland Sea separates it from 
Spitsbergen. On the west Davis Strait and Baffin Bay separate 
it from Baffin Land. The so-called bay narrows northward into 
the strait successively known as Smith Sound, Kane Basin, 
Kennedy Channel and Robeson Channel. A submarine ridge, 
about 300 fathoms deep at its deepest, unites Greenland with 
Iceland (across Denmark Strait), the Faeroes and Scotland. A 
similar submarine ridge unites it with the Cumberland Peninsula 
of Baffin Land, across Davis Strait. Two large islands (with 
others smaller) lie probably off the north coast, being apparently 
divided from it by very narrow channels which are not yet ex- 
plored. If they be reckoned as integral parts of Greenland, then 
the north coast, fronting the polar sea, culminates about 83 40' N. 
Cape Farewell, the most southerly point (also on a small island), 
is in 59 45' N. The extreme length of Greenland may therefore 
be set down at about 1650 m., while its extreme breadth, which 
occurs about 77 30' N., is approximately 800 m. The area 
is estimated at 827,275 sq. m. Greenland is a Danish colony, 
inasmuch as the west coast and also the southern east coast 
belong to the Danish crown. The scattered settlements of 
Europeans on the southern parts of the coasts are Danish, and the 
trade is a monopoly of the Danish government. 

The southern and south-western coasts have been known, 
as will be mentioned later, since the loth century, when Norse 
settlers appeared there, and the names of many famous arctic 
explorers have been associated with the exploration of Greenland. 
The communication between the Norse settlements in Greenland 
and the motherland Norway was broken off at the end of the I4th 
and the beginning of the isth century, and the Norsemen's 
knowledge about their distant colony was gradually more or 
less forgotten. The south and west coast of Greenland was then 
re-discovered by John Davis in July 1585, though previous ex- 
plorers, as Cortereal, Frobisher and others, had seen it, and at the 
end of the i6th and the beginning of the i7th century the work 
of Davis (1586-1588), Hudson (1610) and Baffin (1616) in the 
western seas afforded some knowledge of the west coast. This 
was added to by later explorers and by whalers and sealers. 
Among explorers who in the ipth century were specially con- 
nected with the north-west coast may be mentioned E. A. 
Inglefield (1852) who sailed into Smith's Sound, 1 Elisha KentKane 
(1853-1855)* who worked northward through Smith Sound into 
Kane Basin, and Charles Francis Hall (1871) who explored the 
strait (Kennedy Channel and Robeson Channel) to the north of 
this. 3 

The northern east coast was sighted by Hudson (1607) in about 
73 30' N. (C. Hold with Hope), and during the i?th century and 

1 Inglefield, Summer Search for Franklin (London, 1853). 

* Second Grinnell Expedition (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1856). 

3 Davis, Polaris (Hall's) North Polar Expedition (Washington, 
1876). See also Bessels, Die amerikanische Nordpol- Expedition 
(Leipzig, 1879). 



later this northern coast was probably visited by many Dutch 
whalers. The first who gave more accurate information was the 
Scottish whaler, Captain William Scoresby, jun. (1822), who, 
with his father, explored the coast between 69 and 75 N., and 
gave the first fairly trustworthy map of it. 4 Captains Edward 
Sabine and Clavering (1823) visited the coast between 72 5' and 
75 12' N. and met the only Eskimo ever seen in this part of 
Greenland. The second German polar expedition in 1870, 
under Carl Christian Koldewey 6 (1837-1908), reached 77 N. 
(Cape Bismarck); and the duke of Orleans, in 1905, ascertained 
that this point was on an island (the Dove Bay of the German 
expedition being in reality a strait) and penetrated farther north, 
to about 78 16'. From this point the north-east coast remained 
unexplored, though a sight was reported in 1670 by a whaler 
named Lambert, and again in 1775 as far north as 79 by Daines 
Barrington, until a Danish expedition under Mylius Erichsen in 
1906-1908 explored it, discovering North-East Foreland, the 
easternmost point (see POLAR REGIONS and map). The 
southern part of the east coast was first explored by the Dane 
Wilhelm August Graah (1829-1830) between Cape Farewell and 
65 16' N. 6 In 1883-1885 the Danes G. Holm and T. V. Garde 
carefully explored and mapped the coast from Cape Farewell 
to Angmagssalik, in 66 N. 7 F. Nansen and his companions 
also travelled along a part of this coast in i888. 8 A. E. Nordens- 
kiold, in the " Sophia," landed near Angmagssalik, in 65 36' N., 
in 1883.' Captain C. Ryder,in 1891-1892, explored and mapped 
the large Scoresby Sound, or, more correctly, Scoresby Fjord. 10 
Lieutenant G. Amdrup, in 1899, explored the coast from Ang- 
magssalik north to 67 22' N. 11 A part of this coast, about 
67 N., had also been seen by Nansen in 1882." In 1899 Professor 
A. G. Nathorst explored the land between Franz Josef Fjord 
and Scoresby Fjord, where the large King Oscar Fjord, connecting 
Davy's Sound with Franz Joseph Fjord, was discovered. 13 In 
1900 Lieutenant Amdrup explored the still unknown east coast 
from 69 10' N. south to 67 N. 14 

From the work of explorers in the north-west it had been 
possible to infer the approximate latitude of the northward 
termination of Greenland long before it was definitely known. 
Towards the close of the igth century several explorers gave 
attention to this question. Lieutenant (afterwards Admiral) 
L. A. Beaumont (1876), of the Nares Expedition, explored the 
coast north-east of Robeson Channel to 82 20' N. 15 In 1882 
Lieut. J. B. Lock wood and Sergeant (afterwards Captain) 
D. L. Brainard, of the U.S. expedition to Lady Franklin 
Bay, 16 explored the north-west coast beyond Beaumont's farthest 
to a promontory in 83 24' N. and 40 46' E. and they saw 
to the north-east Cape Washington, in about 83 38' N. and 
39 30' E., the most northerly point of land till then observed. 
In July 1892 R. E. Peary and E. Astrup, crossing by land from 
Inglefield Gulf, Smith Sound, discovered Independence Bay on 
the north-east coast in 81 37' N. and 34 5' W. 17 In May 1895 it 

4 Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale Fishery (1823). 

6 Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt (1873-1875). 

Reise til Ostkysten af Gronland (1832; trans, by G. Gordon 
Macdougall, 1837). 

7 Meddelelser om Gronland, parts ix. and x. (Copenhagen, 1888). 

8 The First Crossing of Greenland, vol. i. (London, 1890), H. Mohn 
and F. Nansen; " Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse von Dr F. Nansen 
Durchquerung von Gronland " (1888), Erganzungsheft No. 105 zu 
Petermanns Mitteilungen (Gotha, 1892). 

9 A. F. Nordenskiold, Den andra Dicksonska Expeditionen til 
Gronland (Stockholm, 1885). 

10 Meddelelser om Gronland, pts.xvii.-xix. (Copenhagen, 1895-1896). 

11 Geografisk Tidskrift, xv. 53-71 (Copenhagen, 1899). 
" Ibid. vii. 76-79 (Copenhagen, 1884). 

11 The Geographical Journal, xiv. 534 (1899); xvii. 48 (1901),; 
Tva Somrar t Norra Ishafvet (Stockholm, 1901). 

14 Meddelelser om Gronland, parts xxvi.-xxvii. 

16 Nares, Voyage to the Polar Sea (2 vols. London, 1877). See 
also Blue Book, journals, &c.,(Nares) Expedition, 1875-1876 (London, 
1877). . 

16 A. W. Greely, Report on the Proceedings of the United States 
Expedition to Lady Franklin Bay, Grinnell Land, vols. i. and ii. 
(Washington, 1885); Three Years of Arctic Service (2 vols. London, 
1886). 

17 R. E. Peary, Northward over the " Great Ice " (2 vols. New York, 
1898) ; E. Astrup, Blandl Nordpolen's Naboer (Christiania, 1895). 



GREENLAND 



543 



was revisited by Peary, who supposed this bay to be a sound com- 
municating with Victoria Inlet on the north-west coast. To the 
north Heilprin Land and Melville Land were seen stretching 
northwards, but the probability seemed to be that the coast soon 
trended north-west. In 1901 Peary rounded the north point, and 
penetrated as far north as 83 50' N. The scanty exploration of 



GREENLAND 

Scale. 1:15.000.000 

English Miles 




the great ice-cap, or inland ice, which may be asserted to cover the 
whole of the interior of Greenland, has been prosecuted chiefly 
from the west coast. In 1751 Lars Dalager, a Danish trader, 
took some steps in this direction from Frederikshaab. In 1870 
Nordenskiold and Berggren walked 35 m. inland from the head 
of Aulatsivik Fjord (near Disco Bay) to an elevation of 2200 ft. 
The Danish captain Jens Arnold Dietrich Jensen reached, in 
1878, the Jensen Nunataks (5400 ft. above the sea), about 45 m. 



from the western margin, in 62 50' N. 1 Nordenskiold penetrated 
in 1883 about 70 m. inland in 68 20' N., and two Lapps of his 
expedition went still farther on skis, to a point nearly under 45 
W. at an elevation of 6600 ft. Peary and Maigaard reached in 
1886 about 100 m. inland, a height of 7500 ft. in 69 30' N. 
Nansen with five companions in 1888 made the first complete 
crossing of the inland ice, working from the east 
coast to the west, about 64 25' N., and reached 
a height of 8922 ft. Peary and Astrup, as 
already indicated, crossed in 1892 the northern 
part of the inland ice between 78 and 82 N., 
reaching a height of about 8000 ft., and deter- 
mined the northern termination of the ice- 
covering. Peary made very nearly the same 
journey again in 1895. Captain T. V. Garde 
explored in 1893 the interior of the inland ice 
between 61 and 62 N. near its southern 
termination, and he reached a height of 7080 ft. 
about 60 m. from the margin. 2 

Coasts. The coasts of Greenland are for the 
most part deeply indented with fjords, being in- 
tensely glaciated. The coast-line of Melville Bay 
(the northern part of the west coast) is to some 
degree an exception, though the fjords may here 
be somewhat filled with glaciers, and, for another 
example, it may be noted that Peary observed 
a marked contrast on the north coast. Eastward 
as far as Cape Morris Jesup there are precipitous 
headlands and islands, as elsewhere, with deep 
water close inshore. East of the same cape there 
is an abrupt change; the coast is unbroken, the 
mountains recede inland, and there is shoal-water 
for a considerable distance from the coast. 
Numerous islands lie off the coasts where they 
are indented; but these are in no case large, 
excepting those off the north coast, and that of 
Disco off the west, which is crossed by the parallel 
of 70 N. This island, which is separated by 
Waigat Strait from the Nugsuak peninsula, is 
lofty, and has an area of 3005 sq. m. Steenstrup 
in 1898 discovered in it the warmest spring known 
in Greenland, having a temperature of 66 F. 

The unusual glaciation of the east coast is 
evidently owing to the north polar current carry- 
ing the ice masses from the north polar basin 
south-westward along the land, and giving it 
an entirely arctic climate down to Cape Farewell. 
In some parts the interior ice-covering extends 
down to the outer coast, while in other parts 
its margin is situated more inland, and the ice-bare 
coast-land is deeply intersected by fjords extend- 
ing far into the interior, where they are blocked 
by enormous glaciers or " ice-currents " from the 
interior ice-covering which discharge masses of 
icebergs into them. The east coast of Greenland 
is in this respect highly interesting. AH coasts 
in the world which are much intersected by deep 
fjords have, with very few exceptions, a western 
exposure, e.g. Norway, Scotland, British Columbia 
and Alaska, Patagonia and Chile, and even 
Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya, whose west 
coasts are far more indented than their east ones. 
Greenland forms the most prominent exception, 
its eastern coast being quite as much indented as 
its western. The reason is to be found in its geo- 
graphical position, a cold ice-covered polar current 
running south along the land, while not far out- 
side there is an open warmer sea, a circumstance 
which, while producing a cold climate, must also 
give rise to much precipitation, the land being 
thus exposed to the alternate erosion of a rough 
atmosphere and large glaciers. On the east 
coast of Baffin Land and Labrador there are 
similar conditions. The result is that the east 
coast of Greenland has the largest system of typical fjords known 
on the earth's surface. Scoresby Fjord has a length of about 
1 80 m. from the outer coast to the point where it is blocked by the 
glaciers, and with its numerous branches covers an enormous 
area. Franz Josef Fjord, with its branch King Oscar Fjord, com- 
municating with Davy's Sound, forms a system of fjords on a 
similar scale. These fjords are very deep; the greatest depth 

1 Meddelelser om Gronland, part i. (Copenhagen, 1879). 
1 Ibid, part xvi. (Copenhagen, 1896). 



544 



GREENLAND 



found by Ryder in Scoresby Sound was 300 fathoms, but there are 
certainly still greater depths; like the Norwegian fjords they have, 
however, probably all of them, a threshold or sill, with shallow 
water, near their mouths. A few soundings made outside this 
coast seem to indicate that the fjords continue as deep submarine 
valleys far out into the sea. On the west coast there are also 
many great fjords. One of the best known from earlier days is 
the great Godthaab Fjord (or Baals Revier) north of 64 N. Along 
the east coast there are many high mountains, exceeding 6000 and 
7000 ft. in height. One of the highest peaks hitherto measured is at 
Tiningnertok, on the Lindenov Fjord, in 60 35' N., which is 7340 ft. 
high. At the bottom of Mogens Heinesen Fjord, 62 30' N., the 
peaks are 6300 ft., and in the region of Umanak, 63 N., they even 
exceed 6600 ft. At Umivik, where Nansen began his journey 
across the inland ice, the highest peak projecting through the ice- 
covering was Gamel's Nunatak, 6440 ft., in 64 34' N. In the 
region of Angmagssalik, which is very mountainous, the mountains 
rise to 6500 ft., the most prominent peak being Ingolf's Fjeld, in 
66 20' N., about 6000 ft., which is seen from far out at sea, and forms 
an excellent landmark. This is probably the Blaaserk (i.e. Blue 
Sark or blue shirt) of the old .Norsemen, their first landmark on 
their way from Iceland to the Oster Bygd, the present Julianehaab 
district, on the south-west coast of Greenland. A little farther 
north the coast is much lower, rising only to heights of 2000 ft., 
and just north of 67 10' N. only to 500 ft. or less. 1 The highest 
mountains near the inner branches of Scoresby Fjord are about 
7000 ft. The Peterrnann Spitze, near the shore of Franz Josef 
Fjord, measured by Payer and found to be 11,000 ft., has hitherto 
been considered to be the highest mountain in Greenland, but 
according to Nathorst it ''is probably only two-thirds as high as 
Payer supposed," perhaps between 8000 and 9000 ft. 

Along the west coast of Greenland the mountains are generally 
not quite so high, but even here peaks of 5000 and 6000 ft. are not 
uncommon. As a whole the coasts are unusually mountainous, and 
Greenland forms in this respect an interesting exception, as there 
is no other known land of such a size so filled along its coasts on all 
sides with high mountains and deep fjords and valleys. 

The Inland Ice. The whole interior of Greenland is completely 
covered by the so-called inland ice, an enormous glacier forming a 
regular shield-shaped expanse of snow and glacier ice, and burying 
all valleys and mountains far below its surface. Its area is about 
715,400 sq. m., and it is by far the greatest glacier of the northern 
hemisphere. Only occasionally there emerge lofty rocks, isolated but 
not completely covered by the ice-cap ; such rocks are known as 
nunataks (an Eskimo word). The inland ice rises in the interior to 
a level of 9000, and in places perhaps 10,000 ft. or more, and descends 
gradually by extremely gentle slopes towards the coasts or the 
bottom of the fjords on all sides, discharging a great part of its 
yearly drainage or surplus of precipitation in the form of icebergs 
in the fjords, the so-called ice-fjords, which are numerous both on 
the west and on the east coast. These icebergs float away, and are 
gradually melted in the sea, the temperature of which is thus lowered 
by cold stored up in the interior of Greenland. The last remains of 
these icebergs are met with in the Atlantic south of Newfoundland. 
The surface of the inland ice forms in a transverse section from the 
west to the east coast an extremely regular curve, almost approach- 
ing an arc of a wide circle, which along Nansen's route has its highest 
ridge somewhat nearer the east than the west coast. The same also 
seems to be the case farther south. The curve shows, however, 
slight irregularities in the shape of undulations. The angle of the 
slope decreases gradually'from the margin of the inland ice, where 
it may be i or more, towards the interior, where it is o. In the 
interior the surface of the inland ice is composed of dry snow which 
never melts, and is constantly packed and worked smooth by the 
winds. It-extends as a completely even plain of snow, with long, 
almost imperceptible, undulations or waves, at a height of 7000 to 
10,000 ft., obliterating the features of the underlying land, the 
mountains and valleys of which are completely interred. Over the 
deepest valleys of the land in the interior this ice-cap must be at 
least 6000 or 7000 ft. thick or more. Approaching the coasts from 
the interior, the snow of the surface gradually changes its structure. 
At first it becomes more coarse-grained, like the Firn Schnee of the 
Alps, and is moist by melting during the summer. _ Nearer the coast, 
where the melting on the surface is more considerable, the wet 
snow freezes hard during the winter and is more or less transformed 
into ice, on the surface of which rivers and lakes are formed, the 
water of which, however, soon finds its way through crevasses and 
holes in the ice down to its under surface, and reaches the sea as a 
sub-glacial river. Near its margin the surface of the inland ice is 
broken up by numerous large crevasses, formed by the outward 
motion of the glacier covering the underlying land. The steep ice- 
walls at the margin of the inland ice show, especially where the 
motion of the ice is slow, a distinct striation, which indicates the 
strata of annual precipitation with the intervening thin seams of 
dust (Nordenskioid's kryokonite). This is partly dust blown on 

1 See C. Kruuse in Geografisk Tidskrift, xv. 64 (Copenhagen, 
1899). See also F. Nansen, " Die OstkiisteGronlands," Erganzungs- 
heft No. 105 zu Petermanns Mitteilun^en (Gotha, 1892), p. 55 and 
pi. iv., sketch No. 1 1. 



to the surface of the ice from the ice-bare coast-land and partly the 
dust of the atmosphere brought down by the falling snow and 
accumulated on the surface of the glacier's covering by the melting 
during the summer. In the rapidly moving glaciers of the ice- 
fjords this striation is not distinctly visible, being evidently 
obliterated by the strong motion of the ice masses. 

The ice-cap of Greenland must to some extent be considered as a 
viscous mass, which, by the vertical pressure in its interior, is pressed 
outwards and slowly flows towards the coasts, just as a mass of 
pitch placed on a table and left to itself will in the course of time 
flow outwards towards all sides. The motion of the outwards- 
creeping inland ice will naturally be more independent of the con- 
figurations of the underlying land in the interior, where its thickness 
is so enormous, than near the margin where it is thinner. Here the 
ice converges into the valleys and moves with increasing velocity 
in the form of glaciers into the fjords, where they break off as ice- 
bergs. The drainage of the interior of Greenland is thus partly 
given off in the solid form of icebergs, partly by the melting of the 
snow and ice on the surface of the ice-cap, especially near its western 
margin, and to some slight extent also by the melting produced on 
its under side by the interior heat of the earth. After Professor 
Amund Helland had, in July 1875, discovered the amazingly great 
velocity, up to 64! ft. in twenty-four hours, with which the glaciers 
of Greenland move into the sea, the margin of the inland ice and its 
glaciers was studied by several expeditions. K. J. V. Steenstrup 
during several years, Captain Hammer in 1879-1880, Captain Ryder 
in 1886-1887, Dr Drygalski in i89i-i893, 2 and several American 
expeditions in later years, all examined the question closely. The 
highest known velocities of glaciers were measured by Ryder in the 
Upernivik glacier (in 73 N.), where, between the I3th and I4th of 
August of 1886, he found a velocity of 125 ft. in twenty-four hours, 
and an average velocity during several days of 101 ft. (Danish).* 
It was, however, ascertained that there is a great difference between 
the velocities of the glaciers in winter and in summer. For instance, 
Ryder found that the Upernivik glacier had an average velocity 
of only 33 ft. in April 1887. There seem to be periodical oscillations 
in the extension of the glaciers and the inland ice similar to those 
that have been observed on the glaciers of the Alps and elsewhere. 
But these interesting phenomena have not hitherto been subject to 
systematic observation, and our knowledge of them is therefore 
uncertain. Numerous glacial marks, however, such as polished 
striated rocks, moraines, erratic blocks, &c., prove that the whole 
of Greenland, even the small islands and skerries outside the coast, 
has once been covered by the inland ice. 

Numerous raised beaches and terraces, containing shells of marine 
mollusca, &c., occur along the whole coast of Greenland, and indicate 
that the whole of this large island has been raised, or the sea has 
sunk, in post-glacial times, after the inland ice covered its now ice- 
bare outskirts. In the north along the shores of Smith Sound these 
traces of the gradual upheaval of the land, or sinking of the sea, are 
very marked ; but they are also very distinct in the south, although 
not found so high above sea-level, which seems to show that the 
upheaval has been greater in the north. In Uvkusigsat Fjord 
(72 20' N.) the highest terrace is 480 ft. above the sea.* On Manitsok 
(65 30' N.) the highest raised beach was 360 ft. above the sea. 6 
In the Isortok Fjord (67 ll' N.) the highest raised beach is 380 ft. 
above sea-level. 6 In the Ameralik Fjord (64 14' N.) the highest 
marine terrace is about 340 ft. above sea-level, and at Ilivertalik 
(63 14' N.), north of Fiskernaes, the highest terrace is about 325 ft. 
above the sea. At Kakarsuak, near the Bjornesund (62 50' N.), 
a terrace is found at 615 ft. above the sea, but it is doubtful whether 
this is of marine origin. 7 In the Julianehaab district, between 60 
and 61 N., the highest marine terraces are found at about 160 ft. 
above the sea. 8 The highest marine terrace observed in Scoresby 
Fjord, on the east coast, was 240 ft. above sea- level. 9 There is a 
common belief that during quite recent times the west and south- 
west coast, within the Danish possessions, has been sinking. Al- 
though there are many indications which may make this probable, 
none of them can be said to be quite decisive. 10 

[Geology. So far as made out, the structure of explored Greenland 
is as follows: 

i. Laurentian gneiss forms the greatest mass of the exposed 
rocks of the country bare of ice. They are found on both sides of 
Smith Sound, rising to heights of 2000 ft., and underlie the Miocene 
and Cretaceous rocks of Disco Island, Noursoak Peninsula and the 

* E. v. Drygalski, Gronland-Expedition der Gesellschaft fur Erd- 
kunde zu Berlin, 1891-1893 (2 vols., Berlin, 1897). 

1 Meddelelser om Grdnland, part viii. pp. 203-270 (Copenhagen, 
1889). 

4 Ibid., part iv. p. 230 (Copenhagen, 1883); see also part xiv. pp. 
317 et seq., 323. 

6 Ibid, part xiv. p. 323 (Copenhagen, 1898). 
'Ibid, part ii. pp. 181-188 (Copenhagen, 1881). 

7 Ibid, part i. pp. 99-101 (Copenhagen, 1879). 

8 Ibid, part ii. p. 39 (Copenhagen, 1881); part xvi. pp. 
150-154 (1896). 

9 Ibid., part xix. p. 175 (1896). 

10 Ibid, part i. p. ft; part ii. p. 40; part xiv. pp. 343-347; 
part iv. p. 237 ; part viii. p. 26. 



GREENLAND 



545 



nmi 
disc 

"i 



Oolites of Pendulum Island in East Greenland. Ancient schists 
occur on the east coast south of Angmagssalik, and basalts and 
schists are found in Scoresby Fjord. It is possible that some of 
these rocks are also of Huronian age, but it is doubtful whether the 
rocks so designated by the geologists of the " Alert " and " Dis- 
covery " expedition are really the rocks, so known in Canada, or 
are a continuous portion of the fundamental or oldest gneiss of the 
north-west of Scotland and the western isles. 

2. Silurian. Upper Silurian, having a strong relation to the 
Wenlock group of Britain, but with an American facies, and Lower 
Silurian, with a succession much the same as in British North 
America, are found on the shores of Smith Sound, and Nathorst has 

:overed them in King Oscar Fjord, but not as yet so far south 
the Danish possessions. 

3. Devonian rocks are believed to occur in Igaliko and Tunnu- 
diorbik Fjords, in S.W. Greenland, but as they are unfossiliferous 
sandstone, rapidly disintegrating, this cannot be known. It is, 
however, likely that this formation occurs in Greenland, for in 
Dana Bay, Captain Feilden found a species of Spirifera and Pro- 
ductus mesolobus or costatus, though it is possible that these fossils 
represent the " Ursa stage " (Heer) of the Lower Carboniferous. 
A few Devonian forms have also been recorded from the Parry 
Archipelago, and Nathorst has shown the existence of Old Red 
Sandstone facies of Devonian in Traill Island, Geographical Society 
Island, Ymer Island and Gauss Peninsula. 

4. Carboniferous. In erratic blocks of sandstone, found on the 
Disco shore of the Waigat have been detected a Sigillaria and a 
species of either Pecopteris^or Gleichenia, perhaps of this age; and 
probably much of the extreme northern coast of Ellesmere Land, 
and therefore, in all likelihood, the opposite Greenland shore, 
contains a clearly developed Carboniferous Limestone fauna, 
identical with that so widely distributed over the North American 
continent, and referable also to British and Spitsbergen species. 
Of the Coal Measures above these, if they occur, we know nothing 
at present. Capt. Feilden notes as suggestive that, though the 
explorers have not met with this formation on the northern shores 
of Greenland, yet it was observed that a continuation of the direction 
of the known strike of the limestones of Feilden peninsula, carried 
over the polar area, passes through the neighbourhood of Spitsbergen, 
where the formation occurs, and contains certain species identical 
with those of the Grinnell Land rocks of this horizon. The facies of 
the fossils is, according to Mr Etheridge, North American and 
Canadian, though many of the species are British. The corals are 
few in number, but the Molluscoida (Polyzoa) are more numerous 
in species and individuals. No Secondary rocks have been dis- 
covered in the extreme northern parts of West Greenland, but they 
are present on the east and west coasts in more southerly latitudes 
than Smith Sound. 

5. Jurassic. These do not occur on the west coast, but on the 
east coast the German expedition discovered marls and sandstones 
on Kuhn Island, resembling those of the Russian Jurassic, charac- 
terized by the presence of the genus Aucella, Olcostephanus Payeri, 
O. striolaris, Belemnites Panderianus, B. volgensis, B. absolutus, 
and a Cyprina near to C. syssolae. On the south coast of the same 
island are coarse-grained, brownish micaceous and light-coloured 
calcareous sandstone and marls, containing fossils, which render 
it probable that they are of the same age as the coal-bearing Jurassic 
rocks of Brora (Scotland) and the Middle Dogger of Yorkshire. 
There is also coal on Kuhn Island. 

The Danish expeditions of 18991900 have added considerably to 
our knowledge of the Jurassic rocks of East Greenland. Rhaetic- 
Lias plants have been described by Dr Hartz from Cape Stewart 
and Vardekloft. Dr Madsen has recognized fossils that correspond 
with those from the Inferior oolite, Cornbrash and Callovian of 
England. Upper Kimmeridge and Portlandian beds also occur. 

6. Cretaceous. Beds of this age, consisting of sandstones and 
coal, are found on the northern coast of Disco Island and the 
southern side of the Noursoak Peninsula, the beds in the former 
locality, " the Kome strata " of Nordenskiold, being the oldest. 
They reach 1000 ft. in thickness, occupying undulating hollows in 
the underlying gneiss, and dip towards the Noursoak Peninsula at 
20, when the overlying Atanakerdluk strata come in. Both these 
series contain numerous plant remains, evergreen oaks, magnolias, 
aralias, &c., and seams of lignite (coal), which is burnt; but in 
neither occur the marine beds of the United States. Still, the 
presence of dicotyledonous leaves, such as Magnolia alternans, in the 
Atanakerdluk strata, proves their close alliance with the Dakota 
series of the United States. The underlying Kome beds are not 
present in the American series. They are characterized by fine 
cycads (Zamites arcticus and Glossozamites Hoheneggeri), which also 
occur in the Urgonian strata of Wernsdorff. 

7. Miocene. This formation, one of the most widely spread in 
polar lands, though the most local in Greenland, is also the best 
known feature in its geology. It is limited to Disco Island, and 
perhaps to a small part of the Noursoak Peninsula, and the neigh- 
bouring country, and consists of numerous thin beds of sandstone, 
shale and coal the sideritic shale containing immense quantities 
of leaves, stems, fruit, &c., as well as some insects, and the coal 
pieces of retinite. The study of these plant and insect remains 
shows that forests containing a vegetation very similar to that of 

Xii. 1 8 



California and the southern United States, in some instances even 
the species of trees being all but identical, flourished in 70 N. 
during geological periods comparatively recent. These beds, as 
well as the Cretaceous series, from which they are as yet only im- 
perfectly distinguished, are associated with sheets of basalt, which 
penetrate them in great dikes, and in some places, owing to the 
wearing away of the softer sedimentary rocks, stand out in long 
walls running across the beds. These Miocene strata have not been 
found farther north on the Greenland shore than the region 
mentioned; but in Lady Franklin Bay, on the Grinnell Land side 
of Smith Sound, they again appear, so that the chances are they 
will be found on the opposite coast, though doubtless the great 
disintegration Greenland has undergone and is undergoing has 
destroyed many of the softer beds of fossiliferous rocks. On the 
east coast, more particularly in Hochstetter Foreland, the Miocene 
beds again appear, and we may add that there are traces of them 
even on the west coast, between Sonntag Bay and Foulke Fjord, at 
the entrance to Smith Sound. It thus appears that since early 
Tertiary times there has been a great change in the climate of 
Greenland. 

Nathorst has suggested that the wholeof Greenland is a "horst," 
in the subordinate folds of which, as well as in the deeper " graben," 
the younger rocks are preserved, often with a covering of Tertiary 
or later lava flows. 1 J. A. H.] 

Minerals. Native iron was found by Nordenskiold at Ovifak, 
on Disco Island, in 1870, and brought to Sweden(i87i)as meteorites. 
The heaviest nodule weighed over 20 tons. Similar native iron has 
later been found by K. J. V. Steenstrup in several places on the 
west coast enclosed as smaller or larger nodules in the basalt. This 
iron has very often beautiful Widmannstatten figures like those of 
iron meteorites, but it is obviously of telluric origin. 2 In 1895 
Peary found native iron at Cape York; since John Ross's voyage 
in 1818 it has been known to exist there, and from it the Eskimo got 
iron for their weapons. In 1897 Peary brought the largest nodule 
to New York; it was estimated to weigh nearly 100 tons. This 
iron is considered by several of the first authorities on the subject 
to be of meteoric origin, 3 but no evidence hitherto given seems to 
prove decisively that it cannot be telluric. That the nodules found 
were lying on gneissic rock, with no basaltic rocks in the neighbour- 
hood, does not prove that the iron may not originate from basalt, 
for the nodules may have been transported by the glaciers, like 
other erratic blocks, and will stand erosion much longer than the 
basalt, which may long ago have disappeared. This iron seems, 
however, in several respects to be unlike the celebrated large nodules 
of iron found by Nordenskiold at Ovifak, but appears to resemble 
much more closely the softer kind of iron nodules found by Steenstrup 
in the basalt; 4 it stands exposure to the air equally well, and has 
similar Widmannstatten figures very sharp, as is to be expected in 
such a large mass. It contains, however, more nickel and also 
phosphorus. A few other minerals may be noticed, and some have 
been worked to a small extent graphite is abundant, particularly 
near Upernivik; cryolite is found almost exclusively at Ivigtut; 
copper has been observed at several places, but only in nodules and 
laminae of limited extent ; and coal of poor quality is found in the 
districts about Disco Bay and Umanak Fjord. Steatite or soapstone 
has long been used by the natives for the manufacture of lamps and 
vessels. 

Climate. The climate is very uncertain, the weather changing 
suddenly from bright sunshine (when mosquitos often swarm) to 
dense fog or heavy falls of snow and icy winds. At Julianehaab 
in the extreme south-west the winter is not much colder than that 
of 'Norway and Sweden in the same locality; but its mean tempera- 
ture for the whole year probably approximates to that on the 
Norwegian coast 600 m. farther north. The climate of the interior 
has been found to be of a continental character, with large ranges 
of temperature, and with an almost permanent anti-cyclonic region 
over the interior of the inland ice, from which the prevailing winds 
radiate towards the coasts. On the 64th parallel the mean annual 
temperature at an elevation of 6560 ft. is supposed to be -13 F., 
or reduced to sea-level 5 F. The mean annual temperature in the 
interior farther north is supposed to be -10 F. reduced to sea-level. 
The mean temperature of the warmest month, July, in the interior 
should be, reduced to sea-level, on the 64th parallel 32 F., and 
that of the coldest month, January, about -22 F., while in North 
Greenland it is probably -40 reduced to sea-level. Here we may 
probably find the lowest temperatures of the northern hemisphere. 
The interior of Greenland contains both summer and winter a pole 
of cold, situated in the opposite longitude to that of Siberia, with 
which it is well able to compete in extreme severity. On Nansen's 
expedition temperatures of about -49 F. were experienced during 



1 See A. G. Nathprst, " Bidrag till 
with map Geologiska Foreningens 
No. 257, Bd. 23, Heft 4, 1901 ; O 
(7 vols., 1868-1883), and especially 
'numerous papers on the geology and 

8 Mead, om Gronl., part iv. pp. 115 

1 See Peary, Northward over the 
(New York, 1898). 

4 See loc. cit. pp. 127-128. 



nprdostra Gronlands geologi," 
i Stockholm Forhandlingar, 
Heer, Flora fossilis Arctif a 
Meddelelser om Gronland for 

palaeontology. 

-131 (Copenhagen, 1883). 

" Great Ice," li. 604 et seq. 



54-6 



GREENLAND 



the nights in the beginning of September, and the minimum during 
the winter may probably sink to 90 F. in the interior of the inland 
ice. These low temperatures are evidently caused by the radiation 
of heat from the snow-surface in the rarefied air in the interior. 
The daily range of temperature is- therefore very considerable, 
sometimes amounting to 40. Such a range is elsewhere found only 
in deserts, but the surface of the inland ice may be considered to be 
an elevated desert of snow. 1 The climate of the east coast is on the 
whole considerably more arctic than that of the west coast on 
corresponding latitudes; the land is much more completely snow- 
covered, and the snow-liae goes considerably lower. The probability 
also is that there is more precipitation, and that the mean tempera- 
tures are lower. 2 The well-known strangely warm and dry fohn- 
winds of Greenland occur both on the west and the east coast; 
they are more local than was formerly believed, and are formed by 
cyclonic winds passing either over mountains or down the outer 
slope of the inland ice. 8 Mirage and similar phenomena and the 
aurora are common. 

Fauna and Flora. It was long a common belief that the fauna 
and flora of Greenland were essentially European, a circumstance 
which would make it probable that Greenland has been separated 
by sea from America during a longer period of time than from 
Europe. The correctness of this hypothesis may, however, be 
doubted. The land mammals of Greenland are decidedly more 
American than European; the musk-ox, the banded lemming 
(Cuniculus torquatus), the white polar wolf, of which there seems to 
have been a new invasion recently round the northern part of the 
country to the east coast, the Eskimo and the dog probably also 
the reindeer have all come from America, while the other land 
mammals, the polar bear, the polar fox, the Arctic hare, the stoat 
(Mustela erminea), are perfectly circumpolar forms. The species of 
seals and whales are, if anything, more American than European, 
and so to some extent are the fishes. The bladder-nose seal 
(Cystophora cristata), for instance, may be said to be a Greenland- 
American species, while a Scandinavian species, such as the grey 
seal (Halichoerus grypus), appears to be very rare both in Greenland 
and America. Of the sixty-one species of birds breeding in Green- 
land, eight are European-Asiatic, four are American, and the rest 
circumpolar or North Atlantic and North Pacific in their distribu- 
tion. 4 About 310 species of vascular plants are found, of which 
about forty species are American, forty-four European-Asiatic, 
fifteen endemic, and the rest common both to America and Europe 
or Asia. We thus see that the American and the European-Asiatic 
elements of the flora are nearly equivalent; and if the flora of 
Arctic North America were better known, the number of plants 
common to America might be still more enlarged. 6 

In the south, a few goats, sheep, oxen and pigs have been intro- 
duced. The whaling industry was formerly prolific off the west 
coast but decayed when the right whale nearly disappeared. The 
white whale fishery of the Eskimo, however, continued, and sealing 
is important; walruses are also caught and sometimes narwhal. 
There are also important fisheries for cod, caplin, halibut, red fish 
(Sebastes) and nepisak (Cyclopterus lumpus) ; a shark (Somniosus 
microcephalus) is taken for the oil from its liver; and sea-trout are 
found in the streams and small lakes of the south. On land reindeer 
were formerly hunted, to their practical extinction in the south, 
but in the districts of Godthaab, Sukkertoppen and Holstensborg 
there are still many reindeer. The eider-duck, guillemot and other 
sea-birds are in some parts valuable for food in winter, and so is 
the ptarmigan. Eggs of sea-birds are collected and eider-down. 
Valuable fur is obtained from the white and blue fox, the skin of 
the eider-duck and the polar bear. 

At Tasiusak (73 22' N.), the most northern civilized settlement 
in the world, gardening has been attempted without success, but 
several plants do well in forcing frames. At Umanak (70 40' N.) 
is the most northern garden in the world. Broccoli and radishes 
grow well, turnips (but not every year), lettuce and chervil suc- 
ceed sometimes, but parsley cannot be reared. At Jacobshavn 



1 H. Mohn, " The Climate of the Interior of Greenland," The 
Scott. Geogr. Magazine, vol. ix. (Edinburgh, 1893), pp. 142-145, 199; 
H. Mohn and F. Nansen, " Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse," &c. 
Erganzungsheft No. 105 zu Petermanns Mitteilungen (1892), p. 51. 

8 On the climate of the east coast of Greenland see V. Willaume- 
Jantzen, Meddelelser om Gronland, part ix. (1889), pp. 285-310, 
part xvii. (1895), pp. 171-180. 

8 See A. Paulsen, Meteprolog. Zeitschrift (1889), p. 241 ; F. Nansen, 
The First Crossing of Greenland (London, 1890), vol. ii. pp. 496-497; 
H. Mohn and F. Nansen, " Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse," &c. 
Erganzungsheft No. 105 zu Petermanns Mitteilungen (1892), p. 51. 

4 H. Winge, " Gronlands Fugle," Meddelelser om Gronland, 
part xxi. pp. 62-63 (Copenhagen, 1899). 

6 See J. Lange, " Conspectus florae Groenlandicae," Meddelelser 
om Gronland, part iii. (Copenhagen, 1880 and 1887); E. Warming, 
' Om Gronlands Vegetation," Meddelelser om Gronland, part xii. 
(Copenhagen, 1888); and in Botanische Jahrbiicher, vol. x. (1888- 
1889). See also A. Blytt, Englers Jahrbiicher, ii. (1882), pp. 1-50; 
A. G. Nathorst, Otversigt af K. Vetenskap. Akad. Forhandl. (Stock- 
holm, 1884); " Kritische Bemerkungen iiber die Geschichte der 
Vegetation Gronlands," Botanische Jahrbiicher, vol. xiv. (1891). 



(69 12' N.), only some 15 m. from the inland ice, gardening succeeds 
very well; broccoli and lettuce grow willingly; the spinach pro- 
duces large leaves; chervil, pepper-grass, leeks, parsley and turnips 
grow very well; the radishes are sown and gathered twice during 
the summer (June to August). In the south, in the Julianehaab 
district, even flowering plants, such as aster, nemophilia and 
mignonette, are cultivated, and broccoli, spinach, sorrel, chervil, 
parsley, rhubarb, turnips, lettuce, radishes grow well. Potatoes 
give fair results when they are taken good care of, carrots grow to 
a thickness of ij in., while cabbage does poorly. Strawberries 
and cucumbers have been ripened in a forcing frame. In the 
" Kongespeil " (King's mirror) of the I3th century it is stated 
that the old Norsemen tried in vain to raise barley. 

The wild vegetation in the height of summer is, in favourable 
situations, profuse in individual plants, though scanty in species. 
The plants are of the usual arctic type, and identical with or allied 
to those found in Lapland or on the summits of the highest British 
hills. Forest there is none in all the country. In the north, where 
the lichen-covered or ice-shaven rocks do not protrude, the ground 
is covered with a carpet of mosses, creeping dwarf willows, crow- 
berries and similar plants, while the flowers most common are the 
andromeda, the yellow poppy, pedicularis, pyrola, &c. besides the 
flowering mosses; but in South Greenland there is something in 
the shape of bush, the dwarf birches even rising a few feet in very 
sheltered places, the willows may grow higher than a man, and the 
vegetation is less arctic and more abundant. 

Government and Trade. The trade of Greenland is a monopoly 
of the Danish crown, dating from 1774, and is administered in 
Copenhagen by a government board (Kongelige Gronlandske 
Handel) and in the country by various government officials 
In order to meet the double purposes of government and trade 
the west coast, up to nearly 74 N., is divided into two inspec- 
torates, the southern extending to 67 40' N., the northern com- 
prising the rest of the country; the respective seats of govern- 
ment being at Godthaab and Godhavn. These inspectorates 
are ruled by two superior officials or governors responsible to 
the director of the board in Copenhagen. Each of the inspec- 
torates is divided into districts, each district having, in addition 
to the chief settlement or coloni, several outlying posts and 
Eskimo hunting stations, each presided over by an udligger, 
who is responsible to the colonibeslyrer, or superintendent of the 
district. These trading settlements, which dot the coast for 
a distance of 1000 m., are about sixty in number. From the 
Eskimo hunting and fishing stations blubber is the chief article 
received, and is forwarded in casks to the coloni, where it is boiled 
into oil, and prepared for being despatched to Copenhagen by 
means of the government ships which arrive and leave between 
May and November. For the rest of the year navigation is 
stopped, though the winter months form the busy seal-killing 
season. The principle upon which the government acts is to 
give the natives low prices for their produce, but to sell them 
European articles of necessity at prime cost, and other stores, 
such as bread, at prices which will scarcely pay for the purchase 
and freight, while no merchandise is charged, on an average, 
more than 20% over the cost price in Denmark. In addition 
the Greenlanders are allowed to order goods from private dealers 
on paying freight for them at the rate of 2jd. per 10 Ib. or is. 6d. 
per cub. ft. The prices to be paid for European and native 
articles are fixed every year, the prices current in Danish and 
Eskimo being printed and distributed by the government. 
Out of the payment five-sixths are given to the sellers, and one- 
sixth devoted to the Greenlanders' public fund, spent in " public 
works," in charity, and on other unforeseen contingencies. 
The object of the monopoly is solely for the good of the Green- 
landers to prevent spirits being sold to them, and the vice, 
disease and misery which usually attend the collision between 
natives and civilization of the trader's type being introduced 
into the primitive arctic community. The inspectors, in addition 
to being trade superintendents, are magistrates, but serious 
crime is very rare. Though the officials are all-powerful, local 
councils or parsissael were organized in 1857 in every district. 
To these parish parliaments delegates are sent from every station. 
These parsissoks, elected at the rate of about one representative 
to 1 20 voters, wear a cap with a badge (a bear rampant), and aid 
the European members of the council in distributing the surplus 
profit apportioned to each district, and generally in advising as 
to the welfare of that part of Greenland under their partial 



GREENLAND 



547 



control. The municipal council has the disposal of 20% of the 
annual profits made on produce purchased within the confines 
of each district. It holds two sessions every year, and the 
discussions are entirely in the Eskimo language. In addition 
to their functions as guardians of the poor, the parish members 
have to investigate crimes and punish misdemeanours, settle 
litigations and divide inheritances. They can impose fines for 
small offences not worth sending before the inspector, and, in 
cases of high misdemeanour, have the power of inflicting corporal 
punishment. 

A Danish coloni in Greenland might seem to many not to be 
a cheerful place at best; though in the long summer days they 
would certainly find some of those on the southern fjords com- 
paratively pleasant. The fact is, however, that most people 
who ever lived some time in Greenland always long to go back. 
There are generally in a coloni three or four Danish houses, 
built of wood and pitched over, in addition to storehouses and 
a blubber-boiling establishment. The Danish residents may 
include, besides a coloni-bestyrer and his assistant, a missionair 
or clergyman, at a few places also a doctor, and perhaps a 
carpenter and a schoolmaster. In addition there are generally 
from twenty to several hundred Eskimo, who live in huts built 
of stone and turf, each entered by a short tunnel. Lately their 
houses in the colonis have also to some extent been built of 
imported wood. Following the west coast northward, the 
trading centres are these: in the south inspectorate, Juliane- 
haab, near which are remains of the early Norse settlements of 
Eric the Red and his companions (the Oster-Bygd) ; Frederiks- 
haab, in which district are the cryolite mines of Ivigtut; Godt- 
haab, the principal settlement of all, in the neighbourhood of 
which are also early Norse remains (the Vester-Bygd); Sukker- 
toppen, a most picturesque locality; and Holstenborg. In the 
north inspectorate the centres are: Egedesminde, on an islet 
at the mouth of Disco Bay; Christianshaab, one of the 
pleasantest settlements in the north, and Jacobshavn, on the 
inner shores of the same bay; Godhavn (or Lievely) on the 
south coast of Disco Island, formerly an important seat of 
the whaling industry; Ritenbenk, Umanak, and, most northerly 
of all, Upernivik. On the east coast there is but one coloni, 
Angmagssalik, in 65 30' N., only established in 1894. For 
ecclesiastical purposes Danish Greenland is reckoned in the 
province of the bishop of Zeeland. The Danish mission in 
Greenland has a yearly grant of 2000 from the trading revenue 
of the colony, besides a contribution of 880 from the state. 
The Moravian mission, which had worked in Greenland for a 
century and a half, retired from the country in 1900. The 
trade of Greenland has on the whole much decreased in modern 
times, and trading and missions cost the Danish state a com- 
paratively large sum (about 11,000 every year), although this 
is partly covered by the income from the royalty of the cryolite 
mines at Ivigtut. There is, however, a yearly deficiency of more 
than 6000. The decline in the value of the trade, which was 
formerly very profitable, has to a great extent been brought 
about by the fall in the price of seal-oil. It might be expected 
that there should be a decrease in the Greenland seal fisheries, 
caused by the European and American sealers catching larger 
quantities every year, especially along the coasts of Newfoundland 
and Labrador, and so actually diminishing the number of the 
animals in the Greenland seas. The statistics of South Greenland, 
however, do not seem to demonstrate any such decrease. The 
average number of seals killed annually is about 33,ooo. 1 The 

1 Owing to representations of the Swedish government in 1874 
as to the killing of seals at breeding time on the east coast of Green- 
land, and the consequent loss of young seals left to die of starvation 
the Seal Fisheries Act 1875 was passed in England to provide for 
the establishment of a close time for seal fishery in the seas in 
question. This act empowered the crown, by order in council, to 
put its provisions in force, when any foreign state, whose ship: 
or subjects were engaged in the seal fishery in the area mentionec 
in the schedule thereto, had made, or was about to make, similar pro- 
visions with respect to its ships and subjects. An order in counci 
under the act, declaring the season to begin on the 3rd of April in 
each year, was issued February 8, 1876. Rescinded February 15 
1876, it was re-enacted on November 28, 1876, and is still operative 



annual value of imports, consisting of manufactured goods, 
:oodstuffs, &c., may be taken somewhat to exceed 40,000. 
The chief articles of export (together with those that have 
apsed) have been already indicated; but they may be sum- 
marized as including seal-oil, seal, fox, bird and bear skins, 
ish products and eiderdown, with some quantity of worked 
skins. Walrus tusks and walrus hides, which in the days of the 
old Norse settlements were the chief articles of export, are now 
of little importance. 

Population. The area of the entire Danish colony is estimated 
at 45,000 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 11,893. The 
Europeans number about 300. The Eskimo population of 
Danish Greenland (west coast) seems to have decreased since 
the middle of the i8th century. Hans Egede estimated the 
population then at 30,000, but this is probably a large over- 
estimate. The decrease may chiefly have been due to infectious 
diseases, especially a very severe epidemic of smallpox. During 
the last half of the igih century there was on the whole a slight 
increase of the native population. The population fluctuates 
a good deal, owing, to some extent, to an immigration of natives 
from the east to the west coast. The population of the east 
coast seems on the whole to be decreasing in number, several 
hundreds chiefly living at Angmagssalik. In the north part of 
the east coast, in the region of Scoresby Fjord and Franz Josef 
Fjord, numerous ruins of Eskimo settlements are found, and in 
1823 Clavering met Eskimo there, but now they have either 
completely died out or have wandered south. A little tribe of 
Eskimo living in the region of Cape York near Smith Sound 
the so-called " Arctic Highlanders " or Smith Sound Eskimo 
number about 240. 

History. In the beginning of the loth century the Norwegian 
Gunnbjb'rn, son of ULf Kraka, is reported to have found some 
islands to the west of Iceland, and he may have seen, without 
landing upon it, the southern part of the east coast of Greenland. 
In 982 the Norwegian Eric the Red sailed from Iceland to find 
the land which Gunnbjorn had seen, and he spent three years 
on its south-western coasts exploring the country. On his return 
to Iceland in 985 he called the land Greenland in order to make 
people more willing to go there, and reported so favourably on 
its possibilities that he had no difficulty in obtaining followers. 
In 986 he started again from Iceland with 25 ships, but only 
14 of them reached Greenland, where a colony was founded on 
the south-west coast, in the present Julianehaab district. Eric 
built his house at Brattalid, near the inner' end of the fjord 
Tunugdliarfik, just north of the present Julianehaab. Other 
settlers followed and in a few years two colonies had been formed, 
one called Osterbygd in the present district of Julianehaab 
comprising later about 190 farms, and another called Vester- 
bygd farther north on the west coast in the present district 
of Godthaab, comprising later about 90 farms. Numerous ruins 
in the various fjords of these two districts indicate now where 
these colonies were. Wooden coffins, with skeletons wrapped 
in coarse hairy cloth, and both pagan and Christian tombstones 
with runic inscriptions have been found. On a voyage from 
Norway to Greenland Leif Ericsson (son of Eric the Red) dis- 
covered America in the year 1000, and a few years later Torfinn 
Karlsefne sailed with three ships and about 150 men, from Green- 
land to Nova Scotia to form a colony, but returned three years 
later (see VINLAND). 

When the Norsemen came to Greenland they found various 
remains indicating, as the old sagas say, that there had been 
people of a similar kind as those they met with in Vinla-nd, in 
America, whom they called Skraeling (the meaning of the word 
is uncertain, it means possibly weak people); but the sagas 
do not report that they actually met the natives then. But 
somewhat later they have probably met with the Eskimo 
farther north on the west coast in the neighbourhood of Disco 
Bay, where the Norsemen went to catch seals, walrus, &c. 
The Norse colonists penetrated on these fishing expeditions at 
least to 73 N., where a small runic stone from the I4th century 
has been found. On a voyage in 1267 they penetrated even still 
farther north into the Melville Bay. 



548 



GREENLAW GREENOCK 



Christianity was introduced by Leif Ericsson at the instance 
of Olaf Trygvasson, king of Norway, in 1000 and following years. 
In the beginning of the I2th century Greenland got its own 
bishop, who resided at Garolar, near the present Eskimo station 
Igoliko, on an isthmus between two fjords, Igaliksf jord (the old 
Einarsfjord) and Tunugdliarfik (the old Eriksfjord), inside the 
present colony Julianehaab. The Norse colonies had twelve 
churches, one monastery and one nunnery in the Osterbygd, 
and four churches in the Vesterbygd. Greenland, like Iceland, 
had a republican organization up to the years 1247 to 1261, 
when the Greenlanders were induced to swear allegiance to the 
king of Norway. Greenland belonged to the Norwegian crown 
till 1814, when, at the dissolution of the union between Denmark 
aud Norway, neither it nor Iceland and the Faeroes were men- 
tioned, and they, therefore, were kept by the Danish king and 
thus came to Denmark. The settlements were called respectively 
Osier Bygd (or eastern settlement) and V 'ester (western) Bygd, 
both being now known to be on the south and west coast (in the 
districts of Julianehaab and Godthaab respectively), though 
for long the view was persistently held that the first was on the 
east coast, and numerous expeditions have been sent in search 
of these " lost colonies " and their imaginary survivors. These 
settlements at the height of their prosperity are estimated to have 
had 10,000 inhabitants, which, however, is an over-estimate, the 
number having probably been nearer one-half or one-third of 
that number. The last bishop appointed to Greenland died in 
1540, but long before that date those appointed had never 
reached their sees; the last bishop who resided in Greenland 
died there in 1377. After the middle of the i4th century very 
little is heard of the settlements, and their communication with 
the motherland, Norway, evidently gradually ceased. This 
may have been due in great part to the fact that the shipping 
and trade of Greenland became a monopoly of the king of 
Norway, who kept only one ship sailing at long intervals (of 
years) to Greenland; at the same time the shipping and trade 
of Norway came more and more in the hands of the Hanseatic 
League, which took no interest in Greenland. The last ship that 
is known to have visited the Norse colony in Greenland returned 
to Norway in 1410. With no support from home the settlements 
seem to have decayed rapidly. It has been supposed that they 
were destroyed by attacks of the Eskimo, who about this period 
seem to have become more numerous and to have extended 
southwards along the coast from the north. This seems a less 
feasible explanation; it is more probable that the Norse settlers 
intermarried with the Eskimo and were gradually absorbed. 
About the end of the isth or the beginning of the i6th century 
it would appear that all Norse colonization had practically 
disappeared. When in 1585 John Davis visited it there was no 
sign of any people save the Eskimo, among whose traditions are a 
few directly relating to the old Norsemen, and several traces of 
Norse influence. 1 For more than two hundred years Greenland 
seems to have been neglected, almost forgotten. It was visited 
by whalers, chiefly Dutch, but nothing in the form of permanent 
European settlements was established until the year 1721, when 
the first missionary, the Norwegian clergyman Hans Egede, 
landed, and established a settlement near Godthaab. Amid 
many hardships and discouragements he persevered; and at 
the present day the native race is civilized and Christianized. 
Many of the colonists of the i8th century were convicts and 
other offenders; and in 1750 the trade became a monopoly in 
the hands of a private company. In 1733-1734 there was a 
dreadful epidemic of smallpox, which destroyed a great number 
of the people. In 1774 the trade ceased to be profitable as a 
private monopoly, and to prevent it being abandoned the 
government took it over. Juh'anehaab was founded in the 
following year. In 1807-1814, owing to the war, communication 
was cut off with Norway and Denmark; but subsequently the 
colony prospered in a languid fashion, 

Authorities. As to the discovery of Greenland by the Norsemen 
and its early history see Konrad Maurer's excellent paper, " Ge- 
schichte der Entdeckung Ostgronlands " in the report of Die zweite 

1 Cf. F. Nansen, Eskimo Life (London, 1893). 



deutsche Nordpol&rfahrt 1860-1870 (Leipzig, 1874), vol. i.; G. Storm, 
Studies on the " Vineland Voyages (Copenhagen, 1889); Extraits 
des Memoires de la Societe Royale des Antiquaires du Nord (1888); 
K. J. V. Steenstrup, " Om Osterbygden," Meddelelser om Gronland., 
part ix. (1882), pp. 1-51; Finnur J6nsson, "Gronlands gamle 
Topografi efter Kilderne " in Meddelelser om Gronland, part xx. 
(1899), pp. 265-329; Joseph Fischer, The Discoveries of the Norsemen 
in America, translated from German by B. H. Soulsby (London, 
1903). As to the general literature on Greenland, a number of the 
more important modern works have been noticed in footnotes. 
The often-quoted Meddelelser om Gronland is of especial value; it 
is published in parts (Copenhagen) since 1879, and is chiefly written 
in Danish, but each part has a summary in French. In part xiii. 
there is a most valuable list of literature about Greenland up to 
1880. See also Geographical Journal, passim. 

Amongst other important books on Greenland may be mentioned : 
Hans Egede, Description of Greenland (London, 1745); Crantz, 
History of Greenland (2 vols., London, 1820); Gronlands historiske 
Mindesmerker (3 vols., Copenhagen, 18381845); H. Rink, Danish 
Greenland (London, 1877); H. Rink, Tales of the Eskimo (London, 
1875); (see also same, " Eskimo Tribes " in Meddelelser om Gron- 
land, part xi.) ; Johnstrup, Giesecke's Mineralogiske Reise i Gronland 
(Copenhagen, 1878). (F. N.) 

GREENLAW (a " grassy hill "), a town of Berwickshire, Scot- 
land. Pop. (1901) 61 1. It is situated on the Blackadder, 62 j m. 
S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway company's branch 
line from Reston Junction to St Boswells. The town was built 
towards the end of the I7th century, to take the place of an older 
one, which stood about a mile to the S.E. It was the county town 
from 1696 to 1853, when for several years it shared this dignity 
with Duns, which, however, is now the sole capital. The chief , 
manufactures are woollens and agricultural implements. About 
3 m. to the S. the ruin of Hume Castle, founded in the I3th 
century, occupies a commanding site. Captured by the English 
in 1547, in spite of Lady Home's gallant defence, it was retaken 
two years afterwards, only to fall again in 1569. After its 
surrender to Cromwell in 1650 it gradually decayed. Towards 
the close of the i8th century the 3rd earl of Marchmont had the 
walls rebuilt out of the old stones, and the castle, though a mere 
shell of the original structure, is now a picturesque ruin. 

GREENLEAF, SIMON (1783-1853), American jurist, was 
born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, on the 5th of December 
1783. When a child he was taken by his father to Maine, where 
he studied law, and in 1806 began to practise at Standish. He 
soon removed to Gray, where he practised for twelve years, and 
in 1818 removed to Portland. He was reporter of the supreme 
court of Maine from 1820 to 1832, and published nine volumes of 
Reports of Cases in the Supreme Court of Maine (1822-1835). 
In 1833 he became Royall professor, and in 1846 succeeded 
Judge Joseph Story as Dane professor of law in Harvard Univer- 
sity; in 1848 he retired from his active duties, and became 
professor emeritus. After being for many years president of the 
Massachusetts Bible Society, he died at Cambridge, Mass., on 
the 6th of October 1853. Greenleaf 's principal work is a Treatise 
on the Law of Evidence (3 vols., 1842-1853). He also published 
A Full Collection of Cases Overruled, Denied, Doubled, or Limited 
in their Application, taken from American and English Reports 
(1821), and Examination oj the Testimony of the Four Evangelists 
by the Rules of Evidence administered in the Courts of Justice, 
with an account of the Trial of Jesus (1846; London, 1847). He 
revised for the American courts William Cruise's Digest of Laws 
respecting Real Property (3 vols., 1840-1850). 

GREEN MONKEY, a west African representative of the typical 
group of the guenon monkeys technically known as Cercopithecus 
callitrichus, taking its name from the olive-greenish hue of the fur 
of the back, which forms a marked contrast to the white whiskers 
and belly. 

GREENOCK, a municipal and police burgh and seaport of 
Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of 
Clyde, 23 m. W. by N. of Glasgow by the Caledonian and the 
Glasgow & South- Western railways, 21 m. by the river and 
firth. Pop. (1901) 68,142. The town has a water frontage of 
nearly 4 m. and rises gradually to the hills behind the town in 
which are situated, about 3 m. distant, Loch. Thorn and Loch 
Gryf e, from both of which is derived the water supply for domestic 
use, and for driving several mills and factories. The streets are 



GREENOCKITE GREENORE 



549 



laid out on the comparatively level tract behind the firth, the 
older thoroughfares and buildings lying in the centre. The west 
end contains numerous handsome villas and a fine esplanade, i Jm. 
long, running from Prince's Pier to Fort Matilda, which is supplied 
with submarine mines for the defence of the river. The capacious 
bay, formerly known as the Bay of St Lawrence from a religious 
house long since demolished, is protected by a sandbank that ends 
here, and is hence known as the Tail of the Bank. The fairway 
between this bank, which begins to the west of Dumbarton, and 
the southern shore constitutes the safest anchorage in the upper 
firth. There is a continuous line of electric tramways, connecting 
with Port Glasgow on the east and Gourock on the west, a total 
distance of 75 m. The annual rainfall amounts to 64 in. and 
Greenock thus has the reputation of being the wettest town in 
Scotland. 

Many of the public buildings are fine structures. The muni- 
cipal buildings, an ornate example of Italian Renaissance, with 
a tower 244 ft. high, were opened in 1887. The custom house on 
the old steamboat quay, in classic style with a Doric portico, 
dates from 1818. The county buildings (1867) have a tower and 
spire ii2 ft. high. The Watt Institution, founded in 1837 by a 
son of the famous engineer, James Watt, contains the public 
library (established in 1783), the Watt scientific library (pre- 
sented in 1816 by Watt himself), and the marble statue of James 
Watt by Sir Francis Chantrey. Adjoining it are the museum and 
lecture hall, the gift of James McLean, opened in 1876. Other 
buildings are the sheriff court house, and the Spence Library, 
founded by the widow of William Spence the mathematician. 
In addition to \ lumerous board schools there are the Greenock 
academy for secondary education, the technical college (1900), 
the school of art, and a school of navigation and engineering. 
The charitable institutions include the infirmary; the cholera 
hospital; the eye infirmary; the fever reception house; Sir 
Gabriel Wood's mariners' asylum, an Elizabethan building 
erected in 1851 for the accommodation of aged merchant sea- 
men; and the Smithson poorhouse and lunatic asylum, built 
beyond the southern boundary in 1879. Near Albert Harbour 
stands the old west now the north parish church (a Gothic 
edifice dating from 1591) containing some stained-glass windows 
by William Morris; in its kirkyard Burns's " Highland Mary " 
was buried (1786). The west parish church in Nicholson Street 
(1839) is in the Italian Renaissance style and has a campanile. 
The middle parish church (1759) in Cathcart Square is in the 
Classic style with a fine spire. Besides burial grounds near the 
infirmary and attached to a few of the older churches, a beauti- 
ful cemetery, 90 acres in extent, has been laid out in the south- 
western district. The parks and open spaces include Wellington 
Park, Well Park in the heart of the town (these were the gift of 
Sir Michael Shaw-Stewart), Whin Hill, Lyle Road a broad drive 
winding over the heights towards Gourock, constructed as a 
" relief work " in the severe winter of 1879-1880. 

Greenock is under the jurisdiction of a town council with 
provost and bailies. It is a parliamentary burgh, represented by 
one member. The corporation owns the supplies of water (the 
equipment of works and reservoirs is remarkably complete), gas, 
electric light and power, and the tramways (leased to a company). 
The staple industries are shipbuilding (established in 1760) and 
sugar refining (1765). Greenock-built vessels have always been 
esteemed, and many Cunard, P. & O. and Allan liners have been 
constructed in the yards. The town has been one of the chief 
centres of the sugar industry. Other important industries 
include the making of boilers, steam-engines, locomotives, 
anchors, chain-cables, sailcloth, ropes, paper, woollen and 
worsted goods, besides general engineering, an aluminium 
factory, a flax-spinning mill, distilleries and an oil-refinery. The 
seal and whale fisheries, once vigorously prosecuted, are extinct, 
but the fishing-fleets for the home waters and the Newfoundland 
grounds are considerable. Till 1772 the town leased the first 
harbour (finished in 1710) from Sir John Shaw, the superior, but 
acquired it in that and the following year, and a graving dock 
was opened in 1786. Since then additions and improvements 
have been periodically in progress, and there are now several 



tidal harbours among them Victoria harbour, Albert harbour, 
the west harbour, the east harbour, the northern tidal harbour, 
the western tidal harbour, the great harbour and James Watt 
dock (completed in 1886 at a cost of 650,000 with an area of 
2000 ft. by 400 ft. with a depth at low water of 32 ft.), Garvel 
graving dock and other dry docks. The quayage exceeds 100 
acres in area and the quay walls are over 3 m. in length. Both 
the Caledonian and the Glasgow & South-Western railways 
(in Prince's Pier the latter company possesses a landing-stage 
nearly 1400 ft. long) have access to the quays. From first to last 
the outlay on the harbour has exceeded 1,500,000. 

In the earlier part of the 1 7th century Greenock was a fishing 
village, consisting of one row of thatched cottages. A century 
later there were only six slated houses in the place. In 1635 it 
was erected by Charles I. into a burgh of barony under a charter 
granted to John Shaw, the government being administered by a 
baron-bailie, or magistrate, appointed by the superior. Its 
commercial prosperity received an enormous impetus from the 
Treaty of Union (1707), under which trade with America and the 
West Indies rapidly developed. The American War of Independ- 
ence suspended progress for a brief interval, but revival set in 
in 1783, and within the following seven years shipping trebled in 
amount. Meanwhile Sir John Shaw to whom and to whose 
descendants, the Shaw-Stewarts, the town has always been 
indebted by charter (dated 1741 and 1751) had empowered the 
householders to elect a council of nine members, which proved to 
be the most liberal constitution of any Scots burgh prior to the 
Reform Act of 1832, when Greenock was raised to the status of 
a parliamentary burgh with the right to return one member to 
parliament. Greenock was the birthplace of James Watt, 
William Spence (1777-1815) and Dr John Caird (1820-1898), 
principal of Glasgow University, who died in the town and was 
buried in Greenock cemetery. John Gait, the novelist, was 
educated in Greenock, where he also served some time in the 
custom house as a clerk. Rob Roy is said to have raided the 
town in 1715. 

GREENOCKITE, a rare mineral composed of cadmium 
sulphide, CdS, occurring as small, brilliant, honey-yellow crystals 
or as a canary-yellow powder. Crystals are hexagonal with 
hemimorphic development, being differently terminated at the 
two ends. The faces of the hexagonal prism and of the numerous 
hexagonal pyramids are deeply striated horizontally. The crys- 
tals are translucent to transparent, and have an adamantine 
to resinous lustre; hardness 3-35-; specific gravity 4-9. Crystals 
have been found only in Scotland, at one or two places in the 
neighbourhood of Glasgow, where they occur singly on prehnite 
in the amygdaloidal cavities of basaltic igneous rocks a rather 
unusual mode of occurrence for a metallic sulphide. The first, 
and largest crystal (about in. across) was found, about the 
year 1810, in the dolerite quarry at Bowling in Dumbartonshire, 
but this was thought to be blende. A larger number of crystals, 
but of smaller size, were found in 1840 during the cutting of the 
Bishopton tunnel on the Glasgow & Greenock railway; they 
were detected by Lord Greenock, afterwards the 2nd earl of 
Cathcart, after whom the mineral was named. A third locality 
is the Boyleston quarry near Barrhead. At all other localities 
Przibram in Bohemia, Laurion in Greece, Joplin in Missouri, &c. 
the mineral is represented only as a powder dusted over the 
surface of zinc minerals, especially blende and calamine, which 
contain a small amount of cadmium replacing zinc. 

Isomorphous with greenockite is the hexagonal zinc sulphide 
(ZnS) known as wurtzite. Both minerals have been prepared 
artificially, and are not uncommon as furnace products. Previous 
to the recent discovery in Sardinia of cadmium oxide as small 
octahedral crystals, greenockite was the only known mineral 
containing cadmium as an essential constituent. (L. J. S.). 

GREENORE, a seaport and watering-place of county Louth, 
Ireland, beautifully situated at the north of Carlingford Lough on 
its western shore. It was brought to importance by the action 
of the London & North- Western railway company of England, 
which owns the pier and railways joining the Great Northern 
system at Dundalk (12$ m.) and Newry (14 m.). A regular 



550 



GREENOUGH, G. B. GREEN RIBBON CLUB 



service of passenger steamers controlled by the company runs 
to Holyhead, Wales, 80 m. S.E. A steam ferry crosses the Lough 
to Greencastle, for Kilkeel, and the southern watering-places of 
county Down. The company also owns the hotel, and laid out 
the golf links. In the vicinity a good example of raised beach, 
some 10 ft. above present sea-level, is to be seen. 

GREENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS (1778-1855), English geo- 
logist, was born in London on the i8th of January 1778. He 
was educated at Eton, and afterwards (1795) entered Pem- 
broke College, Oxford, but never graduated. In 1798 he pro- 
ceeded to GSttingen to prosecute legal studies, but having 
attended the lectures of Blumenbach he was attracted to the 
study of natural history, and, coming into the possession of a 
fortune, he abandoned law and devoted his attention to science. 
He studied mineralogy at Freiburg under Werner, travelled in 
various parts of Europe and the British Isles, and worked at 
chemistry at the Royal Institution. A visit to Ireland aroused 
deep interest in political questions, and he was in 1807 elected 
member of parliament for the borough of Gatton, continuing to 
hold his seat until 1812. Meanwhile his interest in geology 
increased, he was elected F.R.S. in 1807, and he was the chief 
founder with others of the Geological Society of London in 1807. 
He was the first chairman of that Society, and in 1811, when it 
was more regularly constituted, he was the first president: and 
in this capacity he served on two subsequent occasions, and 
did much to promote the advancement of geology. In 1819 
he published A Critical Examination of the First Principles of 
Geology, a work which was useful mainly in refuting erroneous 
theories. In the same year was published his famous Geological 
Map of England and Wales, in six sheets; of which a second 
edition was issued in 1839. This map was to a large extent based 
on the original map of William Smith; but much new informa- 
tion was embodied. In 1843 he commenced to prepare a geo- 
logical map of India, which was published in 1854. He died at 
Naples on the 2nd of April 1855. 

GREENOUGH, HORATIO (1805-1852), American sculptor, 
son of a merchant, was born at Boston, on the 6th of September 
1805. At the age of sixteen he entered Harvard, but he devoted 
his principal attention to art, and in the autumn of 1825 he went 
to Rome, where he studied under Thorwaldsen. After a short 
visit in 1826 to Boston, where he executed busts of John Quincy 
Adams and other people of distinction, he returned to Italy and 
took up his residence at Florence. Here one of his first com- 
missions was from James Fenimore Cooper for a group of Chant- 
ing Cherubs; and he was chosen by the American government 
to execute the colossal statue of Washington for the national 
capital. It was unveiled in 1843, and was really a fine piece of 
work for its day; but in modern times it has been sharply 
criticized as unworthy and incongruous. Shortly afterwards 
he received a second government commission for a colossal 
group, the " Rescue," intended to represent the conflict between 
the Anglo-Saxon and Indian races. In 1851 he returned to 
Washington to superintend its erection, and in the autumn of 
1852 he was attacked by brain fever, of which he died in Somer- 
ville near Boston on the i8th of December. Among other works 
of Greenough may be mentioned a bust of Lafayette, the Medora 
and the Venus Victrix in the gallery of the Boston Athenaeum. 
Greenough was a man of wide culture, and wrote well both in 
prose and verse. 

See H. T. Tuckerman, Memoir of Horatio Greenough (New York, 
1853). 

GREENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTREET (1833-1901), American 
classical scholar, was born in Portland, Maine, on the 4th of May 
1833. He graduated at Harvard in 1856, studied one year at 
the Harvard Law School, was admitted to the Michigan bar, 
and practised in Marshall, Michigan, until 1865, when he was 
appointed tutor in Latin at Harvard. In 1873 he became 
assistant professor, and in 1883 professor of Latin, a post which 
he resigned hardly six weeks before his death at Cambridge, 
Massachusetts, on the nth of October 1901. Following the 
lead of Goodwin's Moods and Tenses (1860), he set himself to 
study Latin historical syntax, and in 1870 published Analysis 



of the Latin Subjunctive, a brief treatise, privately printed, of 
much originality and value, and in many ways coinciding with 
Berthold Delbriick's Gebrauch des Conjunclivs und Oplativs in 
Sanskrit und Griechischen (1871), which, however, quite over- 
shadowed the Analysis. In 1872 appeared A Latin Grammar 
for Schools and Colleges, founded on Comparative Grammar, 
by Joseph A. Allen and James B. Greenough, a work of great 
critical carefulness. His theory of cww-constructions is that 
adopted and developed by William Gardner Hale. In 1872-1880 
Greenough offered the first courses in Sanskrit and comparative 
philology given at Harvard. His fine abih'ties for advanced 
scholarship were used outside the classroom in editing the Allen 
and Greenough Latin Series of text-books, although he occa- 
sionally contributed to Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 
(founded in 1889 and endowed at his instance by his own class) 
papers on Latin syntax, prosody and etymology a subject 
on which he planned a long work on Roman archaeology and 
on Greek religion at the time of the New Comedy. He assisted 
largely in the founding of Radcliffe College. An able English 
scholar and an excellent etymologist, he collaborated with 
Professor George L. Kittredge on Words and their Ways in 
English Speech (1901), one of the best books on the subject in 
the language. He wrote clever light verse, including The Black- 
birds, a comedietta, first published in The Atlantic Monthly 
(vol. xxxix. 1877); The Rose and the Ring (1880), a pantomime 
adapted from Thackeray; TheQueen of Hearts (1885), a dramatic 
fantasia; and Old King Cole (1889), an operetta. 

See the sketch by George L. Kittredge in Harvard Studies in 
Classical Philology, vol. xiv. (1903), pp. 1-17 (also printed in Harvard 
Graduates' Magazine, vol. x., Dec. 1901, pp. 196-201). 

GREEN RIBBON CLUB, one of the earliest of the loosely 
combined associations which met from time to time in London 
taverns or coffee-houses for political purposes in the i7th century. 
It had its meeting-place at the King's Head tavern at Chancery 
Lane End, and was therefore known as the " King's Head Club." 
It seems to have been founded about the year 1675 as a resort 
for members of the political party hostile to the court, and as 
these associates were in the habit of wearing in their hats a bow, 
or " bob," of green ribbon, as a distinguishing badge useful 
for the purpose of mutual recognition in street brawls, the name 
of the club became changed, about 1679, to the Green Ribbon 
Club. The frequenters of the club were the extreme faction of the 
country party, the men who supported Titus Gates, and who 
were concerned in the Rye House Plot and Monmouth's rebellion. 
Roger North tells us that " they admitted all strangers that were 
confidingly introduced, for it was a main end of their institutions 
to make proselytes, especially of the raw estated youth newly 
come to town." According to Dryden (Absalom and Achitophel) 
drinking was the chief attraction, and the members talked and 
organized sedition over their cups. Thomas Dangerfield supplied 
the court with a list of forty-eight members of the Green Ribbon 
Club in 1679; and although Dangerfield's numerous perjuries 
make his unsupported evidence worthless, it receives confirma- 
tion as regards several names from a list given to James II. by 
Nathan Wade in 1885 (Harleian MSS. 6845), while a number 
of more eminent personages are mentioned in The Cabal, a satire 
published in 1680, as also frequenting the club. From these 
sources it would appear that the duke of Monmouth himself, 
and statesmen like Halifax, Shaftesbury, Buckingham, Maccles- 
field, Cavendish, Bedford, Grey of Warke, Herbert of Cherbury, 
were among those who fraternized at the King's Head Tavern 
with third-rate writers such as Scroop, Mulgrave and Shadwell, 
with remnants of the Cromwellian regime like Falconbridge, 
Henry Ireton and Claypole, with such profligates as Lord Howard 
of Escrik and Sir Henry Blount, and with scoundrels of the 
type of Dangerfield and Gates. An allusion to Dangerfield, 
notorious among his other crimes and treacheries for a seditious 
paper found in a meal-tub, is found in connexion with the club 
in The Loyal Subjects' Litany, one of the innumerable satires 
of the period, in which occur the lines: 

" From the dark-lanthorn Plot, and the Green Ribbon Club 
From brewing sedition in a sanctified Tub, 
Libera nos, Domine." 




GREENSAND 



I 



The club was the headquarters of the Whig opposition to the 
court, and its members were active promoters of conspiracy and 
sedition. The president was either Lord Shaftesbury or Sir 
Robert Peyton, M.P. for Middlesex, who afterwards turned 
informer. The Green Ribbon Club served both as a debating 
society and an intelligence department for the Whig faction. 
Questions under discussion in parliament were here threshed 
out by the members over their tobacco and ale; the latest news 
from Westminster or the city was retailed in the tavern, " for 
some or others were continually coming and going," says Roger 
North, " to import or export news and stories." Slander of the 
court or the Tories was invented in the club and sedulously 
spread over the town, and measures were there concerted for 
pushing on the Exclusion Bill, or for promoting the pretensions 
of the duke of Monmouth. The popular credulity as to Catholic 
outrages in the days of the Popish Plot was stimulated by the 
scandalmongers of the club, whose members went about in silk 
armour, supposed to be bullet proof, " in which any man dressed 
up was as safe as a house," says North, " for it was impossible 
to strike him for laughing "; while in their pockets, " for street 
and crowd- work," they carried the weapon of offence invented 
by Stephen College and known as the " Protestant Flail." 

The genius of Shaftesbury found in the Green Ribbon Club 
the means of constructing the first systematized political organiza- 
tion in England. North relates that " every post conveyed 
the news and tales legitimated there, as also the malign construc- 
tions of all the good actions of the government, especially to 
places where elections were depending, to shape men's characters 
into fit qualifications to be chosen or rejected." In the general 
election of January and February 1679 the Whig interest 
throughout the country was managed and controlled by a 
committee sitting at the club in Chancery Lane. The club's 
organizing activity was also notably effective in the agitation 
of the Petitioners in 1679. This celebrated movement was 
engineered from the Green Ribbon Club with all the skill and 
energy of a modern caucus. The petitions were prepared in 
London and sent down to every part of the country, where paid 
canvassers took them from house to house collecting signatures 
with an air of authority that made refusal difficult. The great 
" pope-burning " processions in 1680 and 1681, on the anniversary 
of Queen Elizabeth's accession, were also organized by the club. 
They ended by the lighting of a huge bon-fire in front of the club 
windows; and as they proved an effective means of inflaming 
the religious passions of the populace, it was at the Green Ribbon 
Club that the mobile vulgus first received the nickname of " the 
mob." The activity of the club was, however, short-lived. 
The failure to carry the Exclusion Bill, one of the favourite 
projects of the faction, was a blow to its influence, which declined 
rapidly after the flight of Shaftesbury, the confiscation of the 
city of London's charter, and the discovery of the Rye House 
Plot, in which many of its members were implicated. In 1685 
John Ayloffe, who was found to have been " a clubber at the 
King's Head Tavern and a green-ribon man," was executed 
in front of the premises on the spot where the " pope-burning " 
bon-fires had been kindled; and although the tavern was still 
in existence in the time of Queen Anne, the Green Ribbon Club 
which made it famous did not survive the accession of James II. 
The precise situation of the King's Head Tavern, described by 
North as " over against the Inner Temple Gate." was at the 
corner of Fleet Street and Chancery Lane, on the east side of the 
latter thoroughfare. 

See Sir George Sitwell, The First Whig (Scarborough, 1894), 
containing an illustration of the Green Ribbon Club and a pope- 
burning procession; Roger North, Examen (London, 1740); 
Anchitell Grey, Debates of the House of Commons, 1667-1684, vol. 
viii. (10 vols., London, 1769); Sir John Bramston, Autobiography 
(Camden Soc., London, 1845). (R. J. M.) 

GREENSAND, in geology, the name that has been applied to 
no fewer than three distinct members of the Cretaceous System, 
viz. the Upper Greensand (see GAULT), the Lower Greensand 
and the so-called Cambridge Greensand, a local phase of the base 
of the Chalk (q.v.). The term was introduced by the early 
English geologists for certain sandy rocks which frequently 



exhibited a greenish colour on account of the presence of minute 
grains of the green mineral glauconite. Until the fossils of these 
rocks came to be carefully studied there was much confusion 
between what is now known as the Upper Greensand (Selbornian) 
and the Lower Greensand. Here we shall confine our attention 
to the latter. 

The Lower Greensand was first examined in detail by W. H. 
Fitton (Q.J.G.S. iii., 1847), who, in 1845, na d proposed the name 
" Vectine " for the formation. The name was revived under the 
form " Vectian " in 1885 by A. J. Jukes-Browne, because, 
although sands and sandstones prevail, the green colour has 
often changed by oxidation of the iron to various shades of red 
and brown, and other lithological types, clays and limestones 
represent this horizon in certain areas. The Lower Greensand 
is typically developed in the Wealden district, in the Isle of 
Wight, in Dorsetshire about Swanage, and it appears again 
beneath the northern outcrop of the Chalk in Berkshire, Oxford- 
shire and Bedfordshire, and thence it is traceable through 
Norfolk and Lincolnshire into east Yorkshire. It rests conform- 
ably upon the Wealden formation in the south of England, but 
it is clearly separable from the beds beneath by the occurrence 
of marine fossils, and by the fact that there is a marked overlap 
of the Lower Greensand on the Weald in Wiltshire, and derived 
pebbles are found in the basal beds. The whole series is 800 ft. 
thick at Atherfield in the Isle of Wight, but it thins rapidly 
westward. It is usually clearly marked off from the overlying 
Gault. 

In the Wealden area the Lower Greensand has been sub- 
divided as follows, although the several members are not every- 
where recognizable: 

Isle of Wight. 

Folkestone Beds (70-100 ft.) . Carstone and Sand rock series. 
Sandgate Beds (75-100 ft.) . Ferruginous Sands (Shanklin sands). 
Hythe Beds (80-300 ft.) . . Ferruginous Sands (Walpen sands). 
Atherfield Clay (20-90 ft.). . Atherfield Clay. 

The Atherfield Clay is usually a sandy clay, fossiliferous. The 
basal portion, 5-6 ft., is known as the " Perna bed " from the 
abundance of Perna Mulleti; other fossils are Hoplites Deshayesii, 
Exogyra sinuata, Ancyloceras Malhesonianum. The Hythe beds 
are interstratified thin limestones and sandstones; the former 
are bluish-grey in colour, compact and hard, with a certain 
amount of quartz and glauconite. The limestone is known 
locally as " rag "; the Kentish Rag has been largely employed 
as a building stone and roadstone; it frequently contains layers 
of chert (known as Sevenoaks stone near that town). The sandy 
portions are very variable; the stone is often clayey and calcare- 
ous and rarely hard enough to make a good building stone; 
locally it is called " hassock " (or Calkstone). The two stones 
are well exposed in the Iguanodon Quarry near Maidstone (so 
called from the discovery of the bones of that reptile). South- 
west of Dorking sandstone and grit become more prevalent, and 
it is known there as " Bargate stone," much used around Godal- 
ming. Pulborough stone is another local sandstone of the Hythe 
beds. Fuller's earth occurs in parts of this formation in 
Surrey. The Sandgate beds, mainly dark, argillaceous sand and 
clay, are well developed in east Kent, and about Midhurst, 
Pulborough and Petworth. At Nutfield the celebrated fuller's 
earth deposits occur on this horizon; it is also found near 
Maidstone, at Bletchingley and Red Hill. The Folkestone beds 
are light-coloured, rather coarse sands, enclosing layers of siliceous 
limestone (Folkestone stone) and chert; a phosphatic bed is found 
near the top. These beds are well seen in the cliffs at Folkestone 
and near Reigate. At Ightham there is a fine, hard, white sand- 
stone along with a green, quartzitic variety (Ightham stone). In 
Sussex the limestone and chert are usually lacking, but a fer- 
ruginous grit, " carstone," occurs in lenticular masses and layers, 
which is used for road metal at Pulborough, Fittleworth, &c. 

The Lower Greensand usually forms picturesque, healthy 
country, as about Leith Hill, Hindhead, Midhurst, Petworth, at 
Woburn, or at Shanklin and Sandown in the Isle of Wight. 
Outside the southern area the Lower Greensand is represented by 
the Faringdon sponge-bearing beds in Berkshire, the Sandy and 



552 



GREENSBORO GREENVILLE 



Pot ton beds in Bedfordshire, the Shotover iron sands of Oxford- 
shire, the sands and fuller's earth of Woburn, the Leighton 
Buzzard sands, the brick clays of Snettisham, and perhaps the 
Sandringham sands of Norfolk, and the carstone of that county 
and Lincolnshire. The upper ironstone, limestone and clay of the 
Lincolnshire Tealby beds appear to belong to this horizon along 
with the upper part of the Speeton beds of Yorkshire. The sands 
of the Lower Greensand are largely employed for the manufacture 
of glass, for which purpose they are dug at Aylesford, Godstone, 
near Reigate, Hartshill, near Aylesbury and other places; the 
ferruginous sand is worked as an iron ore at Seend. 

This formation is continuous across the channel into France, 
where it is well developed in Boulonnais. According to the 
continental classification the Atherfield Clay is equivalent to the 
Urgonian or Barremian; the Sandgate and Hythe beds belong to 
the Aptian (q.v.); while the upper part of the Folkestone beds 
would fall within the lower Albian (q.v.). 

See the Memoirs of the Geological Survey, " Geology of the Weald " 
(1875)1 " Geology of the Isle of Wight " (2nd ed., 1889), " Geology 
of the Isle of Purbeck " (1898); and the Record of Excursions, 
Geologists' Association (London, 1891). (J. A. H.) 

GREENSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Guilford county, 
North Carolina, U.S.A., about 80 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. 
(1890) 3317, (1900) 10,035, of whom 4086 were negroes; 
(1910 census), 15,895. Greensboro is served by several lines 
of the Southern railway. It is situated in the Piedmont region 
of the state and has an excellent climate. The city is the seat of 
the State Normal and Industrial College (1892) for girls; of the 
Greensboro Female College (Methodist Episcopal, South; 
chartered in 1838 and opened in 1846), of which the Rev. Charles 
F. Deems was president in 1850-1854, and which, owing to the 
burning of its buildings, was suspended from 1863 to 1874; and of 
two institutions for negroes a State Agricultural and Mechanical 
College, andBennettCollege(MethodistEpiscopal, co-educational, 
1873). Another school for negroes, Immanuel Lutheran College 
(Evangelical Lutheran, co-educational), was opened at Concord, 
N.C., in 1903, was removed to Greensboro in 1905, and in 1907 
was established at Lutherville, E. of Greensboro. About 6 m. W. 
of Greensboro is Guilford College (co-educational; Friends), 
founded as " New Garden Boarding School " in 1837 and re- 
chartered under its present name in 1888. Greensboro has a 
Carnegie library, St Leo hospital and a large auditorium. It is 
the shipping-point for an agricultural, lumbering and trucking 
region, among whose products Indian corn, tobacco and cotton 
are especially important; is an important insurance centre; has 
a large wholesale trade; and has various manufactures, including 
cotton goods 1 (especially blue denim), tobacco and cigars, 
lumber, furniture, sash, doors and blinds, machinery, foundry 
products and terra-cotta. The value of the factory products 
increased from $925,411 in 1900 to $1,828,837 in 1905, or 97-6%. 
The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Greensboro 
was named in honour of General Nathanael Greene, who on the 
iSth of March 1781 fought with Cornwallis the battle of Guilford 
Court House, about 6 m. N.W. of the city, where there is now a 
Battle-Ground Park of 100 acres (including Lake Wilfong); this 
park contains a Revolutionary museum, and twenty-nine monu- 
ments, including a Colonial Column, an arch (1906) in memory 
of Brig.-General Francis Nash (1720-1777), of North Carolina, 
who died in October 17 77 of wounds received at Germantown, and 
Davidson Arch (1905), in honour of William Lee Davidson (1746- 
1781), a brigadier-general of North Carolina troops, who was killed 
at Catawba and in whose honour Davidson College, at Davidson, 
N.C., was named. Greensboro was founded and became the 
county-seat in 1808, was organized as a town in 1829, and was 
first chartered as a city in 1870. 

'One of the first cotton mills in the South and probably the 
first in this state was established at Greensboro in 1832. It closed 
about 20 years afterwards, and in 1889 new mills were built. Three 
very large mills were built in the decade after 1895, and three mill 
villages, Proximity, Revolution and White Oak, named from these 
three mills, lie immediately N. of the city ; in 1908 their population 
was estimated at 8000. The owners of these mills maintain schools 
for the children of operatives and carry on " welfare work " in these 
villages. 



GREENSBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Westmore- 
land county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 31 m. E.S.E. of Pittsburg. 
Pop. (1890) 4202; (1900) 6508 (484 foreign-born); (1910) 5420. 
It is served by two lines of the Pennsylvania railway. It is an 
important coal centre, and manufactures engines, iron and brass 
goods, flour, lumber and bricks. In addition to its public school 
system, it has several private schools, including St Mary's 
Academy and St Joseph's Academy, both Roman Catholic. About 
3 m. N.E. of what is now Greensburg stood the village of Hanna's 
Town, settled about 1770 and almost completely destroyed 
by the Indians on the I3th of July 1782; here what is said to 
have been the first court held west of the Alleghanies opened on 
the 6th of April 1773, and the county courts continued to be held 
here until 1787. Greensburg was settled in 1784-1785, imme- 
diately after the opening of the state road, not far from the trail 
followed by General John Forbes on his march to Fort Duquesne 
in 1758; it was made the county-seat in 1787, and was incor- 
porated in 1799. In 1905 the boroughs of Ludwick (pop. in 1900, 
901), East Greensburg (1050), and South-east Greensburg (620) 
were merged with Greensburg. 

See John N, Boucher's History of Westmoreland County, Pa. 
(3 vols., New York, 1906). 

GREENSHANK, one of the largest of the birds commonly 
known as sandpipers, the Totanus glottis of most ornithological 
writers. Some exercise of the imagination is however needed to 
see in the dingy olive-coloured legs of this species a justification 
of the English name by which it goes, and the application of that 
name, which seems to be due to Pennant, was probably by way 
of distinguishing it from two allied but perfectly distinct species 
of Totanus ( T. calidris and T. fuscus) having red legs and usually 
called redshanks. The greenshank is a native of the northern 
parts of the Old World, but in winter it wanders far to the south, 
and occurs regularly at the Cape of Good Hope, in India and 
thence throughout the Indo-Malay Archipelago to Australia. 
It has also been recorded from North America, but its appearance 
there must be considered accidental. Almost as bulky as a 
woodcock, it is of a much more slender build, and its long legs 
and neck give it a graceful appearance, which is enhanced by 
the activity of its actions. Disturbed from the moor or marsh, 
where it has its nest, it rises swiftly into the air, conspicuous 
by its white back and rump, and uttering shrill cries flies round 
the intruder. It will perch on the topmost bough of a tree, 
if a tree be near, to watch his proceedings, and the cock exhibits 
all the astounding gesticulations in which the males of so many 
other Limicolae indulge during the breeding-season with 
certain variations, however, that are peculiarly its own. It 
breeds in no small numbers in the Hebrides, and parts of the 
Scottish Highlands from Argyllshire to Sutherland, as well as 
in the more elevated or more northern districts of Norway, 
Sweden and Finland, and probably also thence to Kam- 
chatka. In North America it is represented by two species, 
Totanus semipalmatus and T. melanoleucus, there called willets, 
telltales or tattlers, which in general habits resemble the green- 
shank of the Old World. (A. N.) 

GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Washington 
county, Mississippi, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi 
river, about 75 m. N. of Vicksburg. Pop. (1890) 6658; (1900) 
7642 (4987 negroes); (1910) 9610. Greenville is served by the 
Southern and the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley railways, and by 
various passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Mississippi 
river. It is situated in the centre of the Yazoo Delta, a rich 
cotton-producing region, and its industries are almost exclusively 
connected with that staple. There are large warehouses, com- 
presses and gins, extensive cotton-seed oil works and sawmills. 
Old Greenville, about i m. S. of the present site, was the county 
seat of Jefferson county until 1825 (when Fayette succeeded it), 
and later became the county-seat of Washington county. Much 
of the old town caved into the river, and during the Civil War it 
was burned by the Federal forces soon after the capture of 
Memphis. The present site was then adopted. The town of 
Greenville was incorporated in 1870; in 1886 it was chartered 
as a city. 



GREENVILLE GREENWICH 



553 



GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Darke county, 
Ohio, U.S.A., on Greenville Creek, 36 m. N.W. of Dayton. 
Pop. (1900) 5501; (1910) 6237. It is served by the Pittsburg, 
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the Cincinnati Northern 
ailways, and by interurban electric railways. It is situated 
about 1050 ft. above sea-level and is the trade centre of a large 
and fertile agricultural district, producing cereals and tobacco. 
It manufactures lumber, foundry products, canned goods and 
creamery products and has grain elevators and tobacco ware- 
houses. In the city is a Carnegie library, and 3 m. distant there 
is a county Children's Home and Infirmary. The municipality 
owns and operates its water-works. Greenville occupies the site 
of an Indian village and of Fort Greenville (built by General 
Anthony Wayne in 1793 and burned in 1796). Here, on the 
3rd of August 1795, General Wayne, the year after his victory 
over the Indians at Fallen Timbers, concluded with them the 
treaty of Greenville, the Indians agreeing to a cessation of 
hostilities and ceding to the United States a considerable portion 
of Ohio and a number of small tracts in Indiana, Illinois and 
Michigan (including the sites of Sandusky, Toledo, Defiance, 
Fort Wayne, Detroit, Mackinac, Peoria and Chicago), and the 
United States agreeing to pay to the Indians $20,000 worth of 
goods immediately and an annuity of . goods, valued at $9500, 
for ever. The tribes concerned were the Wyandots, the Dela- 
wares, the Shawnees, the Ottawas, the Chippewas, the Pottawa- 
tomies, the Miamis, the Weeas, the Kickapoos, the Piankashas, 
the Kaskaskias and the Eel-river tribe. Tecumseh lived at 
Greenville from 1805 to 1809, and a second Indian treaty was 
negotiated there in July 1814 by General W. H. Harrison and 
Lewis Cass, by which the Wyandots, the Delawares, the Shawnees, 
the (Ohio) Senecas and the Miamis agreed to aid the United 
States in the war with Great Britain. The first permanent white 
settlement of Greenville was established in 1808 and the town 
was laid out in the same year. It was made the county-seat of 
the newly erected county in 1809, was incorporated as a town in 
1838 and chartered as a city in 1887. 

GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Greenville 
county, South Carolina, U.S.A., on the Reedy river, about 140 m. 
N.W. of Columbia, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 
8607; (1900) 11,860, of whom 5414 were negroes; (1910, cen- 
sus) 15,741. It is served by the Southern, the Greenville & 
Knoxville and the Charleston & Western Carolina railways. 
It lies 976 ft. above sea-level, near the foot of the Blue Ridge 
Mountains, its climate and scenery attracting summer visitors. 
It is in an extensive cotton-growing and cotton-manufacturing 
district. Greenville's chief interest is in cotton, but it has 
various other manufactures, including carriages, wagons, iron 
and fertilizers. The total value of the factory products of the 
city in 1905 was $1,676,774, an increase of 73-5% since 1900. 
The city is the seat of Furman University, Chicora College for 
girls (1893; Presbyterian), and Greenville Female College (1854; 
Baptist), which in 1907-1908 had 379 students, and which, 
besides the usual departments, has a conservatory of music, 
a school of art, a school of expression and physical culture and 
a kindergarten normal training school. Furman University 
(Baptist; opened in 1852) grew out of the " Furman Academy 
and Theological Institution," opened at Edgefield, S.C., in 1827, 
and named in honour of Richard Furman (1755-1825), a well- 
known Baptist clergyman of South Carolina, whose son, James 
C. Furman (1800-1891), was long president of the University. 
In 1907-1908 the university had a faculty of 15 and 250 students, 
of whom 101 were in the Furman Fitting School. Greenville 
was laid out in 1797, was originally known as Pleasantburg and 
was first chartered as a city in 1868. 

GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Hunt county, 
Texas, U.S.A., near the headwaters of the Sabine river, 48 m. 
N.E. of Dallas. Pop. (1900) 6860, of whom 114 were foreign- 
born and 1751 were negroes; (1910) 8850. It is served by the 
Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the St Louis South-Western and the 
Texas Midland railways. It is an important cotton market, 
has gins and compresses, a large cotton seed oil refinery, 
and other manufactories, and is a trade centre for a rich agri- 



cultural district. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting 
plant. It is the seat of Burleson College (Baptist), founded in 
1893, and i m. from the city limits, in the village of Peniel 
(pop. 1908, about 500), a community of " Holiness " people, are 
the Texas Holiness University (1898), a Holiness orphan asylum 
and a Holiness press. Greenville was settled in 1844, and was 
chartered as a city in 1875. In 1907 the Texas legislature 
granted to the city a new charter establishing a commission 
government similar to that of Galveston. 

GREENWICH, a township of Fairfield county, Connecticut, 
U.S.A., on Long Island Sound, in the extreme S.W. part of the 
state, about 28 m. N.E. of New York City. It contains a borough 
of the same name and the villages of Cos Cob, Riverside and 
Sound Beach, all served by the New York, New Haven & Hart- 
ford Railway; the township has steamboat and electric railway 
connexions with New York City. Pop. of the township (1900) 
12,172, of whom 3271 were foreign-born; (1910) 16,463; of 
the borough (1910) 3886. Greenwich is a summer resort, 
principally for New Yorkers. Among the residents have been 
Edwin Thomas Booth, John Henry Twachtman, the landscape 
painter, and Henry Osborne Havemeyer (1847-1907), founder 
of the American Sugar Company. There are several fine churches 
in the township; of one in Sound Beach the Rev. William H. H. 
Murray (1840-1904), called " Adirondack Murray," from his 
Camp Life in the Adirondack Mountains (1868), was once pastor. 
In the borough are a public library, Greenwich Academy (1827; 
co-educational), the Brunswick School for boys (1901), with 
which Betts Academy of Stamford was united in 1908, and a 
hospital. The principal manufactures are belting, woollens, 
tinners' hardware, iron and gasolene motors. Oysters are shipped 
from Greenwich. The first settlers came from the New Haven 
Colony in 1640; but the Dutch, on account of the explora- 
tion of Long Island Sound by Adrian Blok in 1614, laid 
claim to Greenwich, and as New Haven did nothing to assist 
the settlers, they consented to union with New Netherland in 
1642. Greenwich then became a Dutch manor. By a treaty 
of 1650, which fixed the boundary between New Netherland and 
the New Haven Colony, the Dutch relinquished their claim to 
Greenwich, but the inhabitants of the town refused to submit 
to the New Haven Colony until October 1656. Six years later 
Greenwich was one of the first towns of the New Haven Colony 
to submit to Connecticut. The township suffered severely 
during the War of Independence on account of the frequent 
quartering of American troops within its borders, the depreda- 
tions of bands of lawless men after the occupation of New York 
by the British in 1778 and its invasion by the British in 1779 
(February 25) and 1781 (December 5). There was also a strong 
loyalist sentiment. On the old post-road in Greenwich is the 
inn, built about 1729, at which Israel Putnam was surprised in 
February 1779 by a force under General Tryon; according to 
tradition he escaped by riding down a flight of steep stone steps. 
The inn was purchased in 1901 by the Daughters of the American 
Revolution, who restored it and made it a Putnam Memorial. 
The township government of Greenwich was instituted in the 
colonial period. The borough of Greenwich was incorporated in 
1858. 

See D.M. Mead, History of the Town of Greenwick(New York, 1857). 

GREENWICH, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of 
London, England, bounded N. by the river Thames, E. by 
Woolwich, S. by Lewisham and W. by Deptford. Pop. (1901) 
95,770. Area, 3851-7 acres. It has a river-frontage of 45 m., 
the Thames making two deep bends, enclosing the Isle of Dogs 
on the north and a similar peninsula on the Greenwich side. 
Greenwich is connected with Poplar on the north shore by the 
Greenwich tunnel (1902), for foot-passengers, to the Isle of Dogs 
(Cubitt Town), and by the Blackwall Tunnel (1897) for street 
traffic, crossing to a point between the East and West India 
Docks (see POPLAR). The main thoroughfares from W. to E. 
are Woolwich and Shooter's Hill Roads, the second representing 
the old high road through Kent, the Roman Watling Street. 
Greenwich is first noticed in the reign of Ethelred, when it was 
a station of the Danish fleet (1011-1014). 



554 



GREENWOOD, F. 



The most noteworthy buildings are the hospital and the 
observatory. Greenwich Hospital, as it is still called, became 
in 1873 a Royal Naval College. Upon it or its site centre nearly 
all the historical associations of the place. The noble buildings, 
contrasting strangely with the wharves adjacent and opposite 
to it, make a striking picture, standing on the low river-bank with 
a background formed by the wooded elevation of Greenwich 
Park. They occupy the site of an ancient royal palace called 
Greenwich House, which was a favourite royal residence as 
early as 1300, but was granted by Henry V. to Thomas Beaufort, 
duke of Exeter, from whom it passed to Humphrey, duke of 
Gloucester, who largely improved the property and named it 
Placentia. It did not revert to the crown till his death in 1447. 
It was the birthplace of Henry VIII., Queen Mary and Queen 
Elizabeth, and here Edward VI. died. The building was enlarged 
by Edward IV., by Henry VIII., who made it one of his chief 
residences, by James I. and by Charles I., who erected the 
" Queen's House " for Henrietta Maria. The tenure of land 
from the crown " as of the manor of East Greenwich " became at 
this time a recognized formula, and occurs in a succession of 
American colonial charters from those of Virginia in 1606, 1609 
and 161 2 to that of New Jersey in 1674. Along with other royal 
palaces Greenwich was at the Revolution appropriated by the 
Protector, but it reverted to the crown on the restoration of 
Charles II., by whom it was pulled down, and the west wing of 
the present hospital was erected as part of an extensive design 
which was not further carried out. In its unfinished state it 
was assigned by the patent of William and Mary to certain of 
the great officers of state, as commissioners for its conversion 
into a hospital for seamen; and it was opened as such in 1705. 
The building consists of four blocks. Behind a terrace 860 ft. 
in length, stretching along the river side, are the buildings 
erected in the time of Charles II. from Inigo Jones's designs, and 
in that of Queen Anne from designs by Sir Christopher Wren; 
and behind these buildings are on the west those of King William 
and on the east those of Queen Mary, both from Wren's designs. 
In the King William range is the painted hall. Here in 1806 the 
remains of Nelson lay in state before their burial in St Paul's 
Cathedral. Its walls and ceih'ng were painted by Sir James 
Thornhill with various emblematic devices, and it is hung with 
portraits of the most distinguished admirals and paintings of 
the chief naval battles of England. In the Queen Anne range is 
the Royal Naval Museum, containing models, relics of Nelson 
and of Franklin, and other objects. In the centre of the principal 
quadrangle of the hospital there is a statue of George II. by 
Rysbrack, sculptured out of a single block of marble taken from 
the French by Admiral Sir George Rooke. In the upper quad- 
rangle is a bust of Nelson by Chantrey, and there are various 
other memorials and relics. The oldest part of the building was 
in some measure rebuilt in 1811, and the present chapel was 
erected to replace one destroyed by fire in 1779. The endow- 
ments of the hospital were increased at various periods from 
bequests and forfeited estates. Formerly 2700 retired seamen 
were boarded within it, and 5000 or 6000 others, called out- 
pensioners, received stipends at various rates out of its funds; 
but in 1865 an act was passed empowering the Admiralty to 
grant liberal pensions in lieu of food and lodging to such of the 
inmates as were willing to quit the hospital, and in 1869 another 
act was passed making their leaving on these conditions com- 
pulsory. It was then devoted to the accommodation of the 
students of the Royal Naval College, the Infirmary being granted 
to the Seamen's Hospital Society. Behind the College is the 
Royal Hospital School, where 1000 boys, sons of petty officers 
and seamen, are boarded. 

To the south of the hospital is Greenwich Park (185 acres), 
lying high, and commanding extensive views over London, the 
Thames and the plain of Essex. It was enclosed by Humphrey, 
duke of Gloucester, and laid out by Charles II., and contains 
a fine avenue of Spanish chestnuts planted in his time. In it is 
situated the Royal Observatory, built in 1675 for the advance- 
ment of navigation and nautical astronomy. From it the exact 
time is conveyed each day at one o'clock by electric signal to 



the chief towns throughout the country; British and the majority 
of foreign geographers reckon longitude from its meridian. A 
standard clock and measures are seen at the entrance. A new 
building was completed in 1899, the magnetic pavilion lying 
some 400 yds. to the east, so placed to avoid the disturbance 
of instruments which would be occasioned by the iron used in 
the principal building. South of the park lies the open common 
of Blackheath, mainly within the borough of Lewisham, and in 
the east the borough includes the greater part of Woolwich 
Common. 

At Greenwich an annual banquet of cabinet ministers, known 
as the whitebait dinner, formerly took place. This ceremony 
arose out of a dinner held annually at Dagenham, on the Essex 
shore of the Thames, by the commissioners for engineering 
works carried out therein 1705-1720 a remarkable achievement 
for this period to save the lowlands from flooding. To one of 
these dinners Pitt was invited, and was subsequently accom- 
panied by some of his colleagues. Early in the i9th century the 
venue of the dinner, which had now become a ministerial function, 
was transferred to Greenwich, and though at first not always 
held here, was later celebrated regularly at the " Ship," an 
hotel of ancient foundation, closed in 1908. The banquet 
continued till 1868, was revived in 1874-1880, and was held for 
the last time in 1894. 

The parish church of Greenwkh, in Church Street, is dedicated 
to St Alphege, archbishop, wno was martyred here by the 
Danes in 1012. In the church Wolfe, who died at Quebec 
(1759), and Tallis, the musician, are buried. A modern stained- 
glass window commemorates Wolfe. 

The parliamentary borough of Greenwich returns one member. 
Two burgesses were returned in 1577, but it was not again repre- 
sented till the same privilege was conferred on it in 1832. 
The borough council consists of a mayor, five aldermen and 
thirty councillors. 

GREENWOOD, FREDERICK (1830-1909), English journalist 
and man of letters, was born in April 1830. He was one of three 
brothers the others being James and Charles who all gained 
reputation as journalists. Frederick started life in a printing 
house, but at an early age began to write in periodicals. In 
1853 he contributed a sketch of Napoleon III. to a volume 
called The Napoleon Dynasty (2nd ed., 1855). He also wrote 
several novels: The Loves of an Apothecary (1854), The Path 
of Roses (1859) and (with his brother James) Under a Cloud 
(1860). To the second number of the Cornhill Magazine he 
contributed " An Essay without End," and this led to an intro- 
duction to Thackeray. In 1862, when Thackeray resigned the 
editorship of the Cornhill, Greenwood became joint editor with 
G. H. Lewes. In 1864 he was appointed sole editor, a post 
which he held until 1868. While at the Cornhill he wrote an 
article in which he suggested, to some extent, how Thackeray 
might have intended to conclude his unfinished work Denis 
Duiial, and in its pages appeared Margaret Denzil's History, 
Greenwood's most ambitious work of fiction, published in 
volume form in 1864. At that time Greenwood had conceived 
the idea of an evening newspaper, which, while containing " all 
the news proper to an evening journal," should, for the most 
part, be made up " of original articles upon the many things 
which engage the thoughts, or employ the energies, or amuse 
the leisure of mankind." Public affairs, literature and art, 
" and all the influences which strengthen or dissipate society " 
were to be discussed by men whose independence and authority 
were equally unquestionable. Canning's Anti- Jacobin and the 
Saturday Review of 1864 were the joint models Greenwood had 
before him. The idea was taken up by Mr George Smith, and 
the Pall Matt Gazette (so named after Thackeray's imaginary 
paper in Pendennis) was launched in February 1865, with 
Greenwood as editor. Within a few years 'he had come to 
exercise a great influence on public affairs. His views somewhat 
rapidly ripened from what was described as philosophic Liberal- 
ism into Conservatism. No minister in Great Britain, Mr 
Gladstone declared, ever had a more able, a more zealous, a 
more effective supporter for his policy than Lord Beaconsfield 






GREENWOOD, J. GREGARINES 



had in Greenwood. It was on the suggestion of Greenwood 
that Beaconsfield purchased in 1875 the Suez Canal shares of the 
Khedive Ismail; the British government being ignorant, until 
informed by Greenwood, that the shares were for sale and likely 
to be bought by France. It was characteristic of Greenwood 
that he declined to publish the news of the purchase of the shares 
in the Pall Mall before the official announcement was made. 

Early in 1880 the Pall Mall changed owners, and the new 
proprietor required it to support Liberal policy. Greenwood 
at once resigned his editorship, but in May a new paper, the 
St James's Gazette, was started for him by Mr Henry Hucks 
Gibbs (afterwards Lord Aldenham), and Greenwood proceeded 
to carry on in it the tradition which he had established in the 
Pall Mall. At the St James's Greenwood remained for over 
eight years, continuing to exercise a marked influence upon 
political affairs, notably as a pungent critic of the Gladstone 
administration (1880-1885) an d an independent supporter of 
Lord Salisbury. His connexion with the paper ceased in August 
1888, owing to disagreements with the new proprietor, Mr E. 
Steinkopff, who had bought the St James's at Greenwood's 
own suggestion. In January 1891 Greenwood brought out a 
weekly review which he named the Anti-Jacobin. It failed, 
however, to gain public support, the last number appearing in 
January 1892. In 1893 he published The Lover's Lexicon and 
in 1894 Imagination in Dreamy He continued to express his 
views on political and social questions in contributions to 
newspapers and magazines, writing frequently in the Westminster 
Gazette, the Pall Mall, Blackwood, the Cornhitt, &c. Towards 
the end of his life his political views reverted in some respects 
to the Liberalism of his early days. 

In- the words of George Meredith " Greenwood was not only a 
great journalist, he had a statesman's head. The national 
interests were always urgent at his heart." He was remarkable 
for securing for his papers the services of the ablest writers of 
the day, and for the gift of recognizing merit in new writers, 
such, for instance, as Richard Jeffries and J. M. Barrie. His 
instinct for capacity in others was as sure as was his journalistic 
judgment. In 1905, on the occasion of his 75th birthday, a 
dinner was given in his honour by leading statesmen, journalists, 
and men of letters (with John Morley who had succeeded him 
as editor of the Pall Mall in the chair). In May 1907 he 
contributed to Blackwood an article on " The New Journalism," 
in which he drew a sharp contrast between the old and the new 
conditions under which the work of a newspaper writer is con- 
ducted. He died at Sydenham on the I4th of December 1909. 

See Honouring Frederick Greenwood, being a report of the speeches 
at the dinner on the Sth of April 1905 (London, privately printed, 
1905); " Birth and Infancy of the Pall Mall Gazette," an article 
contributed by Greenwood to the Pall Mall of the I4th of April 
1897; " The Blowing of the Trumpet " in the introduction to the 
St James's (May 31, 1880); obituary notices in the Athenaeum 
(Dec. 25, 1909) and The Times (Dec. 17, 1909). 

GREENWOOD, JOHN (d. 1593), English Puritan and 
Separatist (the date and place of his birth are unknown), entered 
as a sizar at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, on the i8th of 
March 1577-1578, and commenced B.A. 1581. Whether he was 
directly influenced by the teaching of Robert Browne (q.v.), 
a graduate of the same college, is uncertain; in any case he held 
strong Puritan opinions, which ultimately led him to Separatism 
of the most rigid type. In 1581 he was chaplain to Lord Rich, 
at Rochford, Essex. At some unspecified time he had been 
made deacon by John Aylmer, bishop of London, and priest 
by Thomas Cooper, bishop of Lincoln; but ere long he re- 
nounced this ordination as " wholly unlawful." Details of the 
next few years are lacking; but by 1586 he was the recognized 
leader of the London Separatists, of whom a considerable number 
had been imprisoned at various times since 1567. Greenwood 
was arrested early in October 1586, and the following May was 
committed to the Fleet prison for an indefinite time, in default 
of bail for conformity. During his imprisonment he wrote some 
controversial tracts in conjunction with his fellow-prisoner 
Henry Barrowe (<?.*.). He is understood to have been at liberty 
in the autumn of 1588; but this may have been merely " the 



555 

liberty of the prison." However, he was certainly at large in 
September 1592, when he was elected "teacher" of the 
Separatist church. Meanwhile he had written (1590) " An 
Answer to George Gifford's pretended Defence of Read Prayers." 
On the sth of December he was again arrested; and the following 
March was tried, together with Barrowe, and condemned to 
death on a charge of " devising and circulating seditious books." 
After two respites, one at the foot of the gallows, he was hanged 
on the 6th of April 1593. 

AUTHORITIES. H. M. Dexter, Congregationalism during the last 
three hundred years; The England and Holland of the Pilgrims; 
F. J. Powicke, Henry Barrowe and the Exiled Church of Amsterdam; 
B. Brook, Lives of the Puritans; C. H. Cooper, Atherrae Canta- 
brigienses, vol. ii. 

GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE (1809-1881), English essayist, 
the son of a merchant, was born at Manchester in 1809. He was 
educated at the university of Edinburgh and for a time managed 
a mill of his father's at Bury, and in 1832 began business on his 
own account. He entered with ardour into the struggle for 
free trade, and obtained in 1842 the prize offered by the Anti- 
Corn Law League for the best essay on " Agriculture and the 
Corn Laws." He was too much occupied with political, economi- 
cal and theological speculations to give undivided attention to 
his business, which he gave up in 1850 to devote himself to writing. 
His Creed of Christendom was published in 1831, and in 1832 he 
contributed no less than twelve articles to fourleading quarterlies. 
Disraeli praised him; Sir George Cornewall Lewis bestowed 
a Commissionership of Customs upon him in 1856; and in 1864 
he was made Comptroller of the Stationery Office. Besides 
contributions to periodicals he produced several volumes of 
essays on political and social philosophy. The general spirit 
of these is indicated by the titles of two of the best known, 
The Enigmas of Life (1872) and Rocks Ahead (1874). They 
represent a reaction from the high hopes of the author's youth, 
when wise legislation was assumed to be a remedy for every 
public ill. Greg was a man of deep moral earnestness of character 
and was interested in many philanthropic works. He died at 
Wimbledon on the isih of November 1881. His brother, 
ROBERT HYDE GREG (1795-1875), was an economist and 
antiquary of some distinction. Another brother, SAMUEL GREG 
(1804-1876), became well known in Lancashire by his philan- 
thropic efforts on behalf of the working-people. PERCY GREG 
(1836-1889), son of William Rathbone Greg, also wrote, like his 
father, on politics, but his views were violently reactionary. 
His History of the United States to the Reconstruction of the Union 
(1887) is a polemic rather than a history. 

GREGARINES (mod. Lat. Gregarina, from gregarius, collecting 
in a flock or herd, grex) a large and abundant order of Sporozoa 
Ectospora, in which a very high degree of morphological special- 
ization and cytological differentiation of the cell-body is frequently 
found. On the other hand, the life-cycle is, in general, fairly 
simple. Other principal characters which distinguish Gregarines 
from allied Sporozoan parasites are as follows: The fully- 
grown adult (trophozoite) is always " free " in some internal 
cavity, i.e. it is extracellular; in nearly all cases prior to sporula- 
tion two Gregarines (associates) become attached to one another, 
forming a couple (syzygy), and are surrounded by a common 
cyst; inside the cyst the body of each associate becomes 
segmented up into a number of sexual elements (gametes, 
primary sporoblasts), which then conjugate in pairs; the 
resulting copula (zygote, definitive sporoblast) becomes usually 
a spore by the secretion of spore-membranes (sporocyst), its 
protoplasm (sporoplasm) dividing up to form the germs (sporo- 
zoites). 

F. Redi (1684) is said to have been the first to observe a 
Gregarine parasite, but his claim to this honour is by no 
means certain. Much later (1787) CavoUni described 
and figured an indubitable Gregarine (probably the 
form now known as Aggregata conformis) from a Crustacean 
(Pachygrapsus), which, however, he regarded as a tapeworm. 
Leon Dufour, who in his researches on insect anatomy came 
across several species of these parasites, also considered them as 
allied to the worms and proposed the generic name of Gregarina. 



556 



GREGARINES 



The unicellular nature of Gregarines was first realized by A. von 
KSlliker, who from 1845-1848 added considerably to our know- 
ledge of the frequent occurrence and wide distribution of these 
organisms. Further progress was due to F. Stein who demon- 
strated about this 
time the relation 
of the "pseudo- 
navicellae" 
(spores) to the re- 
product ion of the 
parasites. 

Apart from the 
continually in- 
creasing number 
of known species, 
matters remained 
at about this 
stage for many 
years. It is, in 
fact, only since 
the closing years 
of the ipth 
century that the 
complete life- 
history has been 
fully worked out ; 
this has now been 
done in many 
cases, thanks to 
the researches of 
M. Siedlecki, L. 
Cuenot, L. Leger, 
O. Duboscq, A. 
Laveran, M. 
C a u 1 1 e r y, F. 
Mesnil and 
others, to whom 
also we owe most 

of our knowledge regarding the relations of the parasites to the 
cells of their host during their early development. 

Gregarines are essentially parasites of Invertebrates; they are 
not known to occur in any true Vertebrate although met with in 
Occur- Ascidians. By far the greatest number of hosts is 
rente; furnished by the Arthropods. Many members of the 
var ious groups of worms (especially the Annelids) 
also harbour the parasites, and certain very interesting 
forms are found in Echinoderms; in the other classes, they 
either occur only sporadically or else are absent. Infection 
is invariably of the accidental (casual) type, by way of the ali- 
mentary canal, the spores being usually swallowed by the host 
when feeding; a novel variation of this method has been 
described by Woodcock (31) in the case of a Gregarine parasitic 
in Cucumaria, where the spores are sucked up through the cloaca 
into the respiratory trees, by the inhalant current. 

The favourite habitat is either the intestine (fig. i) or its 
diverticula (e.g. the Malpighian tubules), or the body-cavity. 




From Wasielewsld's Sporozoenkunde, after Pfeiffer. 

FIG. I. a, Transverse Section of Intestine of 
Mealworm, infected with Gregarina (Clepsydrina) 
polymorpha ; l b. Part of a highly magnified. 




From Wasielewski, after Leger. 

FIG. 2. Cysts of a Coelomic Gregarine, in the body-cavity of a 
larva of Tipula. 

In the latter case, after infection has occurred, the liberated 
germ's at once traverse the intestinal epithelium. They may 
come to rest in the connective tissue of the sub-mucosa (remain- 

1 Figures I, 2, 6, 7, 10, II, 12 and 16 are redrawn from 
Wasielewski's Sporozoenkunde, by permission of the author and of 
the publisher, Gustav Fischer, Jena. 



ing, however, extracellular) , grow considerably in that situation, 
and ultimately fall into the body-cavity (e.g. Diplocystis); or 
they may pass straightway into the body-cavity and 
there come into relation with some organ or tissue (e.g. 
Monocystis of the earthworm, which is for a time intra- on host. 
cellular in the spermatoblasts (fig. 4, c). In the case 
of intestinal Gregarines, the behaviour of the young trophozoite 
with respect to the epithelial cells of its host varies greatly. 
The parasite may remain only attached to the host-cell, never 
becoming actually intracellular (e.g. Pterocepholus); more 
usually it penetrates partially into it, the extracellular portion 
of the Gregarine, however, giving rise subsequently to most of 
the adult (e.g. Gregarina) ; or lastly, in a few forms, the early 
development is entirely intracellular (e.g. Lankesteria, Stenophora). 
The effects on the host are confined to the parasitized cells. 
These generally undergo at first marked hypertrophy and altera- 
tion in character; this condition is succeeded by one of atrophy, 
when the substance of the cell becomes in one way or another 
practically absorbed by the 
growing parasite (cf. also 
COCCIDIA). Since, however, 
the Gregarines never over- 
run their hosts in the way 
that many other Sporozoa 
do (because of their lack, in 
general, of the power of endo- 
genous multiplication), the 
number of cells of any tissue 
attacked, even in the case of 
a strong infection, is only a 




From Lankester. 

FIG. 3. Porospora gigantea f, 
(E. van Ben.), from the intes- 
tine of the lobster, a, Nucleus. 



From Lankester, after various authors. 

FIG. 4. 

o-c,Trophozoites of Monocystis agilis. 
a and 6, Young individuals showing 
changes of body-form. 

c, Older individual, still enveloped 

in a coat of spermatozoa. 

d, e, Trophozoites of M. magna at- 

tached to seminal funnel of 
Lumbricus. 

Goblet-shaped epithelial cells, in 
which the extremity of the 
parasite is inserted. 



very small percentage of the whole. In short the hosts do not, 
as a rule, suffer any appreciable inconvenience from the presence 
of the parasites. 
The body of a Gregarine is always of a definite shape, usually oval 



GREGARINES 



557 




or elongated ; in one or two instances (e.g. Diplodina) it is spherical, 

!and, on the other hand, in Porospora (fig. 3) it is greatly 
drawn out and vermiform. In many adult Gregarines, 
the body is divided into two distinct but unequal regions 
or halves, the anterior part being known as the protomerite, the 
hinder, generally the larger, as the deutomerite. This feature is 
closely associated with another important morphological character, 
one which is observable, however, only during the earlier stages of 

growth and development, 
namely, the presence of 
a definite organ, the epi- 
merite, which serves for 
the attachment of the 
parasite to the host-cell 
(fig. 6). 

In those Gregannes 
(most intestinal forms) 
which become attached to 
an epithelial cell, the 
attachment occurs by 
means of a minute pro- 
jection or beak (rostrum) 
at the anterior end of the 
sporozoite, which pushes 
its way into the cell, 
followed by the first part 
of the growing germ. This 

After Siedlecki, from Lankester's Treatise on Zoology, portion of the body in- 
FIG. 5. Part of a section through the creases in size much 
apparatus of fixation of a Pterocephalus, quicker at first than the 
showing root-like processes extending rest (the extracellular 
from the Gregarine between the epithelial Pat), more or less fills up 
cells, g, Head of Gregarine; r, Root-like the host-cell, and forms 
processes; ep, Epithelial cells. the well-developed epi- 

merite or secondary 

attaching organella. The extracellular part of the Gregarine next 
grows rapidly, and a transverse septum is formed at a short 
distance away from (outside) the point where the body pene- 
trates into the cell (fig. 6); this marks off the large deutomerite 
posteriorly (distally). Leger thinks that this partition most likely 
owes its origin to trophic considerations, i.e. to the slightly different 
manner in which the two halves of the young parasite (the proximal, 
largely intracellular part, and the distal, extracellular one) may be 
supposed to obtain their nutriment. In the case of the one half , the 
host-cell supplies the nutriment, in that of the other, the intestinal 
liquid ; and the septum is, as it were, the expression of the conflicting 
limit between these two methods. Nevertheless, the present writer 
does not think that mechanical considerations should be altogether 
left out of account. The septum may also be, to some extent, an 
adaption for strengthening the body of the fixed parasite against 

lateral thrusts or strains, due to 
the impact of foreign bodies (food, 
&c.) in the intestine. 

At the point where the body 
becomes actually intracellular, it is 
constricted, and this constriction 
marks off the epimerite (internally) 
from the middle portion (between 
this point and the septum), which 
is the protomerite. Further 
growth is restricted, practically, 
to the extracellular regions, and the 
epimerite often comes to appear 
ultimately as a small appendage 
at the anterior end of the proto- 
merite. A Gregarine at this stage 
is known as a cephalont. Later 
on, the parasite breaks loose from 
the host-cell and becomes free in 
the lumen, the separation taking 
place at the constriction between 
the protomerite and the epimerite ; 
the latter is left behind in the 
remains of the host-cell, the former 
becomes the anterior part of the 
free trophozoite. 

In other Gregarines, however, those, namely, which pass inwards, 
ultimately becoming " coelomic," as well as those which become 
entirely intracellular, no epimerite is ever developed, and, further, 
the body remains single or unseptate. These forms, which include, 
for instance, Monocyslis (fig. 4), Lankesleria, Diplocystis, are dis- 
tinguished, as Acephalina or Aseptata (Haplocyta, Monocystida), ac- 
cording to which character is referred to, from the others, termed 
Cephalina or Septala (Polycystida). 

The two sets of terms are not, however, completely identical or 
interchangeable, for there are a few forms which possess an epimerite, 
but which lack the division into protomerite and deutomerite, and 
are hence known as Pseudomonocystida; this condition may be 
primitive (Doliocystis) or (possibly) secondary, the partition having 
in course of time disappeared. Again, Stenophora is a septate form 




From Wasidewski, after Le'ger. 

FIG. 6. Corycella armata, 
Leger. a, Cephalont; 6, Epi- 
merite in host-cell; c, Sporont. 



which has become, secondarily, completely intracellular during the 
young stages, and, doubtless correlated with this, shows no sign of 
an epimerite. 

With regard to the epimerites themselves, they are of all variety 
of form and shape and need not be described in detail (fig. 7). In 
one or two cases, however, another variety of attaching organella is 
met with. Thus in Pterocephalus, only the rostrum of the sporozoite 




e. 7. a 

From WasieJewski, after Le'ger. 

FIG. 7. Forms of Epimerites. 

1, Gregarina longa. 6, Cometoides crinitus. 

2, Sycia inopinata. 7, Geneiorhynchus monnieri. 

3, Pileocephalus heerii. 8, Echinomera hispida. 

4, Stylorhynchus longicollis. 9, Pterocephalus nobilis. 

5, Beloides firmus. 

penetrates into the host -cell, and no epimerite is formed. Instead, a 
number of fine root-like processes are developed from near the 
anterior end, which pass in between the host-cells (fig. 5) and thus 
anchor the parasite firmly. Similarly, in the curious Schizogregarinae, 
the anterior end of the (unseptate) body forms a number of stiff, 
irregular processes, which perform the same function (fig. 8). It is 
to be noted that these processes are non-motile, and not in any way 
comparable to pseudopodia, to which they were formerly likened. 

A very interesting and remarkable morphological peculiarity has 
been recently described by Leger (18) in the case of a new Gregarine, 
Taeniocystis. In this form the body is elongated and metamerically 
segmented, recalling that of a segmented worm, the adult trophozo- 
ites possessing numerous partitions or segments (each corresponding 
to the septum between the proto- and oeuto-merite in an ordinary 
Polycystid), which divide up the cytoplasm into roughly equal 
compartments. Leger thinks only the deutomerite becomes thus 
segmented, the protomerite remaining small and undivided. The 
nucleus remains single, so that there is no question as to the uni- 
cellular or individual nature of the entire animal. 

The general cytoplasm usually consists of distinct ectoplasm and 
endoplasm, and is limited by a membrane or cuticle (epicyte), 
secreted by the former. The cuticle varies considerably 
in thickness, being well developed in active, intestinal ' 
forms, but very thin and delicate in non-motile coelomic ' 
forms (e.g. Diplodina). In the former case it may show longi- 
tudinal striations. The cuticle also forms the hooks or spines 
of many erjimerites. The ectoplasm usually shows (fig. gA) a differ- 
entiation into two layers, 
an outer, firmer layer, clear 
and hyaline, the sarcocyte, 
and an inner layer, the 
myocyte, which is formed 
of a network of muscle- 
fibrillae (mainly longitu- 
dinal and transverse, fig. 
93). The sarcocyte alone 
constitutes the septum, 
traversing the endoplasm, 
in septate Gregarines. The 
myonemes are undoubtedly 
the agents responsible for 
the active " gregarinoid " 
movements (of flexion and 
contraction) to be observed After Le'ger and Hagemnaller, from LaDkesler's 
in many forms. The Treatise on Zoology. 

peculiar gliding movements p IG . g. Three Individuals (G) of 
were formerly thought to Ophryocystis schneideri, attached to 
be produced by the extru- wa ii O f Malpighian tubule of Blaps sp. 
sion of a gelatinous thread p, Syncytial protoplasm of the tubule; 
posteriorly, but Crawley (8) Ct Cilia lining the lumen, 
has recently ascribed them 

to a complicated succession of wave-like contractions of the 
myocyte layer. This view is supported by the fact that certain 
coelomic forms, like Diplodina and others, which either lack 
muscle-fibrils or else show no ectoplasmic differentiation at all, 
are non-motile. The endoplasm, or nutritive plasm, consists of a 
semi-fluid matrix in which are embedded vast numbers of grains 
and spherules of various kinds and of all sizes, representing an 
accumulation of food-material which is being stored up prior to 
reproduction. The largest and most abundant grains are of a sub- 
stance termed para-glycogen, a carbohydrate; in addition, flattened 




GREGARINES 



so. 



en. 



lenticular platelets, of an albuminoid character, and highly-refringent 

granules often occur. 

The nucleus is always jodged in the endoplasm, and, in the septate 

forms, in the deutomeritic half of the body. It is normally spherical 

and always limited by a distinct nuclear membrane, which itself often 

contains chromatin. The most char- 
acteristic feature of the nucleus is 
the deeply-staining, more or less 
vacuolated spherical karyosome 
(consisting of chromatin intimately 
bound up with a plastinoid basis) 
which is invariably present. In one 
or two instances (e.g. Diplocystis 
schneideri) the nucleus has more 
than one karyosome. All the chro- 
matin of the nucleus is not, how- 
ever, confined to the karyosome, 
some being in the form of grains 
in the nuclear sap; and in some 
cases at any rate (e.g. Diplodina, 
Lankesteria) there is a well-marked 



After Schewiakoff, from Lankester's 
Treatise on Zoology. 

FIG. 9A. Longitudinal 
section of a Gregarine in the 
region of the septum between 
protomerite and deutomerite. 
Pr, Protomerite. 
De, Deutomerite. 
s, Septum. 
en, Endoplasm. 
sc, Sarcocyte. 
c, Cuticle. 
i,/,Myocyte fibrils (cut 

across). 
g, Gelatinous layer. 





FIG. QB. Gregarina munieri, show- 
ing the network of myocyte fibrillae. 



nuclear reticulum which is impregnated with granules and dots of 
chromatin. 

A sexual multiplication (schizogony) is only known certainly to 

occur in a few cases, one being in a Monocystid form, a species of 

Gonospora, which is for a long time intracellular (Caullery 

r'. ' and'Mesnil [4]), the rest among the Schizogregarinae, so 

s ory ' named for this reason, in which schizogonous fission takes 

place regularly during the free, trophic condition. Usually, the body 

divides up, by a process of multiple fission (fig. 10), into a few (up to 

eight) daughter - indi- 
viduals; but in a new 
genus (Eleuthero- 
schizon), Brasil (3) finds 
that a great number 
of little merozoites are 
formed, and a large 
amount of vacuolated 
cytoplasm is left over 
unused. 

In the vast majority 
of Gregarines, however, 
the life-cycle is limited 
to gametogony and 
sporogony. Avery 
general, if not indeed 
universal, prelude to 
gametogony is the 
characteristic and im- 
portant feature of the 
order, known as associa- 
tion, the biological sig- 
nificance of which has 
only lately been fully 
brought out (see H. M. 
Woodcock J31]). In 
normal association, two 

T, individuals which are 

FIG. 10. Schizogony in Ophryocystis to be regarde d as of 
franctsci a, Rosette of small individuals, O p pos i te X( come into 
produced from a sch 1ZO nt which has just contac ( with each 
divided; b, A later stage, the daughter- other and remain thus 
individuals about to separate and assuming attached . The manner 
the characters of the adult. in which the parasites 

join varies in different 

forms; the association may be end-to-end (terminal), either by 
like or by unlike poles, or it may be side-to-side (lateral) 
(fig. 12). The couple (syzygy) thus formed may proceed forthwith 
to encystment and sporoblast-formation (Lankesteria, Monocystis), 
or may continue in the trophic phase for some time longer (Gregarina). 
In one or two instances (Zygocystis), association occurs as soon as the 




From Wasielewski, after A. Schneider. 



C 




J. 



trophozoites become adult. This leads on to the interesting pheno- 
menon of precocious association (neogamy), found in non-motile, 
coelomic Gregarines (e.g. Cystobia, Diplodina and Diplocystis), in 
which the parasitism is most advanced. Woodcock (loc. cit.) has de- 
scribed and compared the different methods adopted to ensure a 
permanent union, and the degree of neogamy attained, in these 
forms. Here it must suffice to say that, in the extreme condition 
(seen, for instance, in Diplodina minchinii) the union takes place very 
early in the life-history, between individuals which are little more than 
sporozoites, and is of a most intimate character, the actual cytoplasm 
of the two associates join- 
ing. In such cases, there 
is absolutely nothing to 
indicate the " double " 
nature of the growing tro- 
phozoite, but the presence 
of the two nuclei which 
remain quite distinct. 

There can be little doubt 
that, in the great majority, 
if not in all Gregarines, 
association is necessary 
for subsequent sporula- 
tion to take place; i.e. 
that the cytotactic attrac- 
tion imparts a develop- 
mental stimulus to both 
partners, which is requisite 
for the formation of prim- 
ary sporoblasts (gametes). 
This association is usually 
permanent; but in one or 
two cases (perhaps Gono- 
spora sp.) temporary as- 
sociation may suffice. 
While association has 
fundamentally a repro- From Wasielewski, after Lger. 
ductive (sexual) signifi- FIG. 1 1 .Eirmocystis spp. a, b, Associa- 
cance, in some cases, this tions of two and three Gregarines; c, 
function may be delayed Chain of five parasites; p, Primite; s, 
or, as it were, temporarily Satellites. 
suspended, the cytotactic 

attraction serving meanwhile a subsidiary purpose in trophic life. 
Thus, probably, are to be explained the curious multiple associations 
and long chains of Gregarines (fig. Il) sometimes met with (e.g. 
Eirmocystis, Clepsydrina). 

Encystment is nearly always double, i.e. of an associated couple. 
Solitary encystment has been described, but whether successful 
independent sporulation results, is uncertain; if it does, the encyst- 
ment in such cases is, in all probability, only after prior (temporary) 
association. In the case of free parasites, a well-developed cyst is 
secreted by the syzygy, which rotates and gradually becomes 
spherical. A thick, at first gelatinous, outer cyst-membrane 
(ectocyst) is laid down, and then a thin, but firm internal one (endo- 
cyst). The cyst once formed, further development is quite inde- 
pendent of the host, and, in fact, often proceeds outside it. In 
certain coelomic Gregarines, on the other hand, which remain in very 
close relation with the host's tissues, little 
or nothing of an encystment-process on 
the part of the parasites is recognizable, 
the cyst-wall being formed by an enclosing 
layer of the host (Diplodina). 

The nuclear changes and multiplication 
which precede sporoblast-formation vary 
greatly in different Gregarines and can 
only be outlined here. In the formation of 
both sets of sexual elements (gametes) there 
is always a comprehensive nuclear purifica- 
tion or maturation. This elimination of a 
part of the nuclear material (to be distin- 
guished as trophic or somatic, from the 
Functional or germinal portion, which forms 
the sexual nuclei) may occur at widely- 
different periods. In some cases (Lankes- 
term, Monocystis), a large part of the 
original (sporont-) nucleus of each associate 
is at once got rid of, and the resulting (segmentation-) nucleus, 
which is highly-specialized, represents the sexual part. In other 
cases, again, the entire sporont-nucleus proceeds to division, and 
the distinction between somatic and germinal portions does not 
become manifest until after nuclear multiplication has continued 
for some little time, when certain of the daughter-nuclei become 
altered in character, and ultimately degenerate, the remainder 
giving rise to the sporoblast-nuclei (Diplodina, Stylorhynchus) . 
Even after the actual sporoblasts (sex-cells) themselves are con- 
stituted, their nuclei may yet undergo a final maturation (e.g. 
Clepsydrina ovata); and in Monocystis, indeed, Brasil (2) finds 
that what is apparently a similar process is delayed until after 
conjugation and formation of the zygote (definitive sporoblast). 

Nuclear multiplication is usually indirect, the mitosis being, as a 



From Wasielewski, after 



FIG. 12. Associations 
o { Gonospora sparsa. 



GREGARINES 



559 



rule, more elaborate in the earlier than in the later divisions. The 
attraction-spheres are generally large and conspicuous, sometimes 
consisting of a well-developed centrosphere, with or without centro- 
somic granules, at other times of very large centrosomes with a few 
astral rays. In those cases where the karyosome is retained, and 
the sporont-nucleus divides up as a whole, however, the earliest 
nuclear divisions are direct ; the daughter-nuclei being formed either 
by a process of simple constriction (e.g. Diplodina), 'or by a kind of 
multiple fission or fragmentation (Gregarina and Selenidium spp.). 
Nevertheless, the later divisions, at any rate in Diplodina, are in- 
"irect. 

By the time nuclear multiplication is well advanced or completed, 
the bodies of the two parent-Gregarines (associates) have usually 
become very irregular in shape, and produced into numerous lobes 
and processes. While in some forms (e.g. Monocystis, Urospora, 
Stylorhynchus) the two individuals remain fairly separate and inde- 
pendent of each other, in others (Lankesteria) they become inter- 
twined and interlocked, often to a remarkable extent (Diplodina). 
The sexual nuclei next pass to the surface of the processes and 
segments, where they take up a position of uniform distribution. 
Around each, a small area of cytoplasm becomes segregated, the 
whole often projecting as a little bud or hillock from the general 
surface. These uninuclear protuberances are at length cut off as the 
sporoblasts or gametes. Frequently a large amount of the general 
protoplasm of each parent-individual is left over unused, constituting 
two cystal residua, which may subsequently fuse; in Diplodina, 
however, practically the whole cytoplasm is used up in the formation 
of the gametes. 

The sporoblasts themselves show all gradations from a condition 
of marked differentiation into male and female (anispgamy), to one 
of complete equality (isogamy). Anisogamy is most highly developed 
in Pterocephalus. Here, the male elements (microgametes) are 
minute, elongated and spindle-like in shape, with a minute rostrum 
anteriorly and a long flagellum posteriorly, and very active; the 
female elements (megagametes) are much larger, oblong to ovoid, 
and quite passive. In Stylorhynchus the difference between the 
conjugating gametes is not quite so pronounced (fig. 13), the male 
elements being of about the same bulk as the females, but pyriform 




After L^ger, from Lankester's Treatise on Zoology. 

FIG. 13. Development of the Gametes and Conjugation in 

Stylorhynchus longicollis. 

a, Undifferentiated gamete, /, g, Stages in conjugation and 
attached to body of parent- nuclear union of the two 

individual. elements. 

b-d, Stages in development of h, Zygote (copula). 

motile male gamete. i, Spore, still with single 

e, Mature female gamete. nucleus and undivided 

sporoplasm. 

instead of round, and possessing a distinct flagellum; a most inter- 
esting point about this parasite is that certain highly motile and 
spermatozoon-like male gametes are formed (fig. 13), which are, 
however, quite sterile and have acquired a subsidiary function. In 
other cases, again, the two kinds of element exhibit either very slight 
differences (Monocystis) or none (Urospora, Gonospora), in size and 
appearance, the chief distinction being in the nuclei, those of the male 
elements being smaller and chromatically denser than those of the 
females. 

Lastly, in Lankesteria, Gregarina, Clepsydrina, Diplocystis and 
Diplodina complete isogamy is found, there being no apparent 



difference whatever between the conjugating elements. Neverthe- 
less, these forms are also to be regarded as instances of binary 
sexuality and not merely of exogamy; for it is practically certain 
that this condition of isogamy is derived from one of typical aniso- 
gamy, through a stage such as is seen in Gonospora, &c. And, 
similarly, just as in all instances where the formation of differentiated 
gametes has been observed, the origin of the two conjugates is from 
different associates (parent-sporonts), and all the elements arising 
from the same parent are of the same sex, so it is doubtless the case 
here. 

The actual union is brought about or facilitated by the well-known 
phenomenon termed the danse des sporoblastes, which is due to various 




FIG. 14. Cyst of Monocystis agilis, the common Gregarine of the 
Earthworm, showing ripe spores and absence of any residual proto- 
plasm in the cyst. (From Lankester.) 

causes. In the case of highly-differentiated gametes (Pterocephalus), 
the actively motile microgametps rush about nere and there, and seek 
out the female elements. In Stylorhynchus, Ldger has shown that 
the function of the sterile male gametes is to bring about, by their 
vigorous movements, the m&tee sexuelle. In the forms where the 
gametes are isogamous or only slightly differentiated and (probably) 
not of themselves motile, other factors aid in producing the necessary 
commingling. Thus in Gregarina sp. from the mealworm, the 
unused somata or cystal residua become amoeboid and send out 
processes which drive the peripherally-situated gametes round in tha 
cyst; in some cases where the residual soma becomes liquefied 
( Urospora) the movements of the host are considered to be sufficient ; 
and lastly, in Diplodina, owing to the extent to which the inter- 
twining process is carried, if each gamete is not actually contiguous 
to a suitable fellpw-conjugant, a very slight movement or mutual 
attraction will bring two such, when liberated, into contact. 

An unusual modification of the process of sporoblast-formation 
and conjugation, which occurs in Ophryocystis, must be mentioned. 
Here encystment of two associates takes place as usual ; the sporont- 
nucleus of each, however, only divides twice, and one of the daughter- 
nuclei resulting from each division degenerates. Hence only one 
sporoblast-nucleus, representing a quarter of the original nuclear- 
material, persists in each half. Around this some of the cytoplasm 
condenses, the rest forming a residuum. The sporoblast or gamete 
thus formed is completely isogamous and normally conjugates with 
the like one from the other associate, when a single zygote results 
which becomes a spore containing eight sporozoites, in the ordinary 
manner. Sometimes, however, the septum between the two halves 
of the cyst does not break down, in which case parthenogenesis 
occurs, each sporoblast developing by itself into a small spore. 

The two conjugating elements unite completely, cytoplasm with 
cytoplasm and nucleus with nucleus, to form the definitive sporoblast 
or zygote. The protoplasm assumes a definite outline, generally that 
of an ovoid or barrel, and secretes a delicate membrane, the ectospore. 
This subsequently becomes thickened, and often produced into rims, 
spines or processes, giving rise to the characteristic appearance of the 
Gregarine spore. Internal to the ectocyst, another, thinner mem- 
brane, the endocyst, is also laid down. These two membranes form 
the spore-wall (sporocyst). Meanwhile the contents of the spore have 
been undergoing division. By successive divisions, usually mitotic, 
the zygote-nucleus gives rise to eight daughter-nuclei, each of which 
becomes the nucleus of a sporozoite. Next, the sporoplasm becomes 
split longitudinally, around each nucleus, and thus eight sickle- 
shaped (falciform) sporozoites are formed. There is usually a 



560 



GREGARINES 




certain amount of unused sporoplasm left over in the centre of the 
spore, constituting the sporal residuum. It is important to note that 
in all known Gregarines, with one exception, the number of sporo- 
zoites in the spore is eight; the exception is Selenidium, in many 
ways far from typical, where the number is half, viz. four. 

Hitherto a variation from the general mode of spore-formation 
has been considered to occur in certain Crustacean Gregarines, the 

Aggregatidae and the Poro- 
sporidae. The spores of 
these forms have been 
regarded as gymnospores 
(naked), lacking the en- 
veloping membranes 
(sporocyst) of the ordinary 
spores, and the sporo- 
zoites, consequently, as 
developed freely in the 
cyst. In the case of the 
first-named parasites, 
however, what was taken 
for sporogony has been 
proved to De really schizo- 
gony, and on other 
grounds these forms are, 

FIG. 15-Ripe Cyst of Gregarina blat- in - * he P rei * nt writer ' s 

emptied. (From Lan- 
kester.) a, Channels leading to the 
sporoducts; b, Mass of spores still left in 
the cyst; c, Endocyst; d, The everted 
sporoducts; e, Gelatinous ectocyst. 

sidered to belong to the 

Gregarine Porospora (as known in the trophic condition) have really 
no connexion with it, but represent the schizogonous generation of 
some other form, similar to Aggregata; in which case the true spores 
of Porospora have yet to be identified. 

In the intestine of a fresh host the cysts rupture and the spores are 
liberated. This is usually largely brought about by the swelling of 
the residual protoplasm. Sometimes (e.g. Gregarina) long tubular 
outgrowths, known as sporoducts (fig. 15), are developed from the 
residual protoplasm, for the passage of the spores to the exterior. 
The Gregarines are extremely numerous, and include several 
families, characterized, for the most part, by the form 
of the spores (fig. 16). The specialized Schizogregarinaestre 
usually separated off from the rest as a distinct sub-order. 

SUB-ORDER I. Schizogregarinae. 

Forms in which schizogonic reproduction is of general occurrence 
during the extra-cellular, trophic phase. Three genera, Ophryo- 
cystis, Schizocystis and Eleutheroschizon, different peculiarities of 
which have been referred to above. Mostly parasitic in the intestine 



). With regard to the 
sporidae, also, it is 



Classifica- 
tion. 




From Wasidewski, after Lger. 

FIG. 16. Spores of various Gregarines. 
o, Eirmocystis, Sphoerocystis, &c.. /, Stylorhynchidoe (type of). 

b, Echinomera, Pterocephalus, &c. g, Menosporidae. 

c, Gregarina, &c. h, Gonospora terebellae. 

d, Beloides. i, Ceratospora. 

e, Ancyrophora. k, Urospora synaptae. 

or Malpighian tubules of insects. (In this type of parasite, as ex- 
emplified by Ophryocystis, the body was formerly wrongly considered 
as amoeboid, and hence this genus was placed in a special order, the 
A moebosporidia. ) 

SUB-ORDER II. Eugregarinae. 

Schizogony very exceptional, only occurring during the intracellular 
phase, if at all. Gregarines fall naturally into two tribes, described 
as cephalont and septate, or as acephalont and aseptate (haplocytic), 
respectively. In strictness, however, as already mentioned, these 
two sets of terms do not agree absolutely, and whichever set is 
adopted, the other must be taken into account in estimating the 
proper position of certain parasites. Here the cephalont or acephal- 
ont condition is regarded as the more primary and fundamental. 
Tribe A. Cephalina (practically equivalent to Septata). 

Save exceptionally, the body possesses an epimerite, at any rate 
during the early stages of growth, and is typically septate. Mostly 
intestinal parasites of Arthropods. 



The chief families, with representative genera, are as follows: 
Porosporidae, with Porospora gigantea, at present thought to be 
gymnosporous; Gregannidae (C4epsydrintdae), with Gregarina, 
Clepsydrina, Eirmocystis, Hyalospora, Cmenidospora, Stenophora; 
Didymophyidae, with Didymophyes ; DactylophortdoK, with Dactylo- 
phorus, Pterocephalus, Echinomera, Rhopalonia; Actmocephalidae 
with Actinocephalus, Pyxinm, Coleorhynchus, Stephanophora, Legeria, 
Stictospora, Pileocephalus, Sciadophora ; Acanthosporidae with Acan- 
thospora, Corycella, Cometoides; Menosporidae with Menospora, 
Hoplorhynchus; Stylorhynchidae, with Stylorhynchus, Lophocephalus; 
Doliocystidae with Doliocystis ; and Taeniocystidae, with Taenio- 
cystis. The curious genus Selenidium is somewhat apart. 
Tribe B. Acephalina (practically equivalent to Aseptata, Haplocyta). 

The body never possesses an epimerite and is non-septate. Chiefly 
coelomic parasites of " worms," Holothurians and insects. 

The Aseptata have not been so completely arranged in families 
as the Septata. Leger has distinguished two well-marked ones, but 
the remaining genera still want classifying more in detail. Fam. 
Gonospotidae, with Gonospora, Diplodina; and Urosporidae, with 
Urosopora, Cystobia, Lithocystis, Ceratospora; the genera Monocystis, 
Diplocystis Lankesteria and Zygocystis probably constitute another; 
Pterospora and, again, Syncystts are distinct; lastly, certain forms, 
e.g. Zygosoma, Anchora (Anchorina), are incompletely known. 

There remains for mention the remarkable parasite, recently 
described by J. Nusbaum (24) under the appropriate name of 
Schaudinnella henleae, which inhabits the intestine of Henlea leptodera. 
Briefly enumerated, the principal features in the life-cycle are as 
follows. The young trophozoites (aseptate) are attached to the in- 
testinal cells, but practically entirely extracellular. Association is 
very primitive in character and indiscriminate; it takes place 
indifferently between individuals which will give rise to gametes of 
the same or opposite sex. Often it is only temporary ; at other times 
it is multiple, several adults becoming more or less enclosed in a 
gelatinous investment. Nevertheless, in no case does true encyst- 
ment occur, the sex-cells being developed practically free. The 
female gametes are large and egg-like; the males, minute and 
sickle-like, but with no flagellum and apparently non-motile. While 
many of the zygotes (" amphionts ") resulting from copulation pass 
out to the exterior, to infect a new host, others, possessing a more 
delicate investing-membrane, penetrate in between the intestinal 
cells, producing a further infection (auto-infection). Numerous 
sporozoites are formed in each zygote. It will be seen that Schau- 
dinnella is a practically unique form. While, on the one hand, it 
recalls the Gregarines in many ways, on the other hand it differs 
widely from them in several characteristic features, being primitive 
in some respects, but highly specialized in others, so that it cannot 
be properly included in the order. Schaudinnella rather represents 
a primitive Ectosooran parasite, which has proceeded upon a line 
of its own, intermediate between the Gregarines and Coccidia. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Among the important papers relating to Grega- 
rines are the following: 1. A. Berndt, " Beitrag zur Kenntnis 
der . . . Gregarinen," Arch. Protistenk. i, p. 375, 3 pis. (1902); 
2. L. Brasil, " Recherches sur la reproduction des Gregarines 
monocystid6es," Arch. zool. erp. (4) 3, p. 17, pi. 2 (1905), and op. cit. 
4, p. 69, 2 pis. (1905); 3. L. Brazil, "Eleutheroschizon duboscqi, 
parasite nouveau, &c.," op. cit. (N. et R.) (4), p. xvii., 5 figs. (1906); 
4. M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, " Sur une Gregarine . . . presentant 
. . . une phase de multiplication asporulee," C.R. Ac. Sci. 126, 
p. 262 (1898) ; 5. M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, " Le Parasitisme intra- 
cellulaire des Gregarines," op. cit. 132, p. 220 (1901) ; 6. M. Caullery 
and F. Mesnil, " Sur une mode particuliere de division nucleaire 
chez les Gregarines," Arch. anat. microsc. 3, p. 146, i pi. (1900); 7. 
M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, " Sur quelques parasites internes des 
Annelides," Misc. biol. (Trav. Stat. Wimereux), 9, p. 80, i pi. (1899); 
7a. J. Cecconi, " Sur I'Anchorina sagiltata, &c., Arch. Protistenk. 
6, p. 230, 2 pis. (1905); 8. H. Crawley, " Progressive Movement of 
Gregarines," P. Ac. Phttad. 54, p. 4, 2 pis. (1902), also op. cit. 57, 
p. 89 (1905) ; 9. H. Crawley, List of the Polycystid Gregarines of 
the U.S.," op. cit. 55, pp. 41, 632, 4 pis. (1903); 10. L. Cuenot, 
" Recherches sur Involution et la conjugaison des Gregarines," Arch, 
biol. 17, p. 581, 4 pis. (1901); 11. A. Laveran and F. Mesnil, " Sur 
quelques particularites de Involution d'une Gr6garine et la reaction 
de la cellule-h6te," C.R. Soc. Biol. 52, p. 554, 9 figs. (1900); 12. L. 
Leger, " Recherches sur les Gregarines," Tabl. zool. 3, p. i., 22 pis. 
(1892); 13. L. Leger, " Contribution a la connaissance des Sporo- 
zoaires, &c.," Bull. Sci. France, 30, p. 240, 3 pis. (1897) ; 14. L. Leger, 
" Sur un nouveau Sporozoaire (Schizocystis), &c.," C.R. Ac. Sci. 131, 
p. 722 (1900); 15. L. Leger, "La Reproduction sexuee chez les 
Ophryocystis," t. c. p. 761 (1900); 16. L. Leger, " Sur une nouvelle 
Gregarine (Aggregata coelomica,), &c.," op. cit. 132, p. 1343 (1901); 
17. L. L6ger, " La Reproduction sexuee chez les Stylorhynchus," 
Arch. Protistenk. 3, p. 304, 2 pis. (1904); 18. L. Leger, " Etude sur 
Taeniocystis mira (Leger), &c.," op. cit. 7, p. 307, 2 pis. (1906); 19. 
L. Leger and O. Duboscq, " La Reproduction sexuee chez Ptero- 
cephalus," Arch. wol. erp. (N. et R.) (4) i, p< 141, n figs. (1903); 
20. L. Leger and O. Duboscq, " Aggregata vagans, n. sp., &c.," /. c. 
p. 147, 6 figs. (1903) ; 21. L. Leger and O. Duboscq, " Les Gregarines 
et lepithelium intestinal, &c., Arch, parasitol. 6, p. 377, 4 pis. 
(1902) ; 22. L. Leger and O. Duboscq, Nouvelles Recherches sur 



GRfiGOIRE 



561 



les Grdgarines, &c.," Arch. Protistenk. 4, p. 335, 2 pis. (1904); 23. 
M. Liihe, " Bau und Entwickelung der Gregarinen," t. c. p. 88, 
several figs. (1904); 24. J. Nusbaum, " t)ber die . . . Fprtpflanzung 
einer . . . Gregarine, Schaudinnella henleae," Zeit. wiss. Zool. 75, 
p. 281, pi. 22 (1903); 25. F. Paehler, " Uber die Morphologie, 
Fortpflanzung . . . von Gregarina ovata," Arch. Protistenk. 4, 
p. 64, 2 pis. (1904) ; 26. S. Prowazek, " Zur Entwickelung der Grega- 
rinen," op. cit., I, p. 297, pi. 9 (1902); 27. A. Schneider (Various 
memoirs on Gregarines), Tabl. zool. i and 2 (1886-1892); 28. 
H. Schnitzler, " liber die Fortpftanzung von Clepsydrina ovata," 
Arch. Protistenk. 6, p. 309, 2 pis. (1905); 29. M. Siedlecki, " t)ber 
die geschlechtliche Vermehrung der Monocystis ascidiae, " Bull. Ac. 
Cracovie, p. 515, 2 pis. (1900); 30. M. Siedlecki, "Contribution a 
1'dtude des changements cellulaires provoqu6es par les Gr<5garines," 
Arch. anal, microsc. 4, p. 87, 9 figs. (1901); 31. H. M. Woodcock, 
" The Life-Cycle of Cystobia irregularis, &c.," Q.J.M. Set. 50, p. I. 
6 pis. (1906). (H. M. Wo.) 

GREGOIRE, HENRI (1750-1831), French revolutionist and 
constitutional bishop of Blois, was born at Veho near Luneville, 
on the 4th of December 1750, the son of a peasant. Educated 
at the Jesuit college at Nancy, he became cure of Embermenil 
and a teacher at the Jesuit school at Pont-a-Mousson. In 1783 
he was crowned by the academy of Nancy for his Eloge de la 
poesie, and in 1 788 by that of Metz for an Essai sur la regeneration 
physique et morale des Juifs. He was elected in 1789 by the 
clergy of the bailliage of Nancy to the states-general, where he 
soon became conspicuous in the group of clerical and lay deputies 
of Jansenist or Gallican sympathies who supported the Revolu- 
tion. He was among the first of the clergy to join the third 
estate, and contributed largely to the union of the three orders; 
he presided at the permanent sitting of sixty-two hours while 
the Bastille was being attacked by the people, and made a 
vehement speech against the enemies of the nation. He sub- 
sequently took a leading share in the abolition of the privileges 
of the nobles and the Church. Under the new civil constitution 
of the clergy, to which he was the first priest to take the oath 
(December 27, 1790), he was elected bishop by two departments. 
He selected that of Loire-et-Cher, taking the old title of bishop 
of Blois, and for ten years (1791-1801) ruled his diocese with 
exemplary zeal. An ardent republican, it was he who in the 
first session of the National Convention (September 21, 1792) 
proposed the motion for the abolition of the kingship, in a speech 
in which occurred the memorable phrase that " kings are in the 
moral order what monsters are in the natural." On the isth of 
November he delivered a speech in which he demanded that the 
king should be brought to trial, and immediately afterwards 
was elected president of the Convention, over which he presided 
in his episcopal dress. During the trial of Louis XVI., being 
absent with other three colleagues on a mission for the union of 
Savoy to France, he along with them wrote a letter urging the 
condemnation of the king, but omitting the words a mart; and 
he endeavoured to save the life of the king by proposing in the 
Convention that the penalty of death should be suspended. 

When on the 7th of November 1793 Gobel, bishop of Paris, 
was intimidated into resigning his episcopal office at the bar of 
the Convention, Gregoire, who was temporarily absent from the 
sitting, hearing what had happened, hurried to the hall, and in 
the face of a howling mob of deputies refused to abjure either his 
religion or his office. He was prepared to face the death which 
he expected; but his courage, a rare quality at that time, won 
the day, and the hubbub subsided in cries of " Let Gregoire 
have his way! " Throughout the Terror, in spite of attacks 
in the Convention, in the press, and on placards posted at the 
street corners, he appeared in the streets in his episcopal dress 
and daily read mass in his house. After Robespierre's fall he 
was the first to advocate the reopening of the churches (speech 
of December 21,1794). He also exerted himself to get measures 
put in execution for restraining the vandalistic fury against the 
monuments of art, extended his protection to artists and men 
of letters, and devoted much of his attention to the reorganiza- 
tion of the public libraries, the establishment of botanic gardens, 
and the improvement of technical education. He had taken 
during the Constituent Assembly a great interest in Negro 
emancipation, and it was on his motion that men of colour' in 
the French colonies were admitted to the same rights as whites. 



On the establishment of the new constitution, Gregoire was 
elected to the Council of 500, and after the i8th Brumaire he 
became a member of the Corps Legislatif, then of the Senate 
(1801). He took the lead in the national church councils of 
1797 and 1801; but he was strenuously opposed to Napoleon's 
policy of reconciliation with the Holy See, and after the signature 
of the concordat he resigned his bishopric (October 8, 1801). 
He was one of the minority of five in the Senate who voted 
against the proclamation of the empire, and he opposed the 
creation of the new nobility and the divorce of Napoleon from 
Josephine; but notwithstanding this he was subsequently 
created a count of the empire and officer of the Legion of Honour. 
During the later years of Napoleon's reign he travelled in England 
and Germany, but in 1814 he had returned to France and was 
one of the chief instigators of the action that was taken against 
the empire. 

To the clerical and ultra-royalist faction which was supreme 
in the Lower Chamber and in the circles of the court after the 
second Restoration, Gregoire, as a revolutionist and a schismatic 
bishop, was an object of double loathing. He was expelled from 
the Institute and forced into retirement. But even in this period 
of headlong reaction his influence was felt and feared. In 1814 
he had published a work, De la constitution franfaise de Van 1814, 
in which he commented on the Charter from a Liberal point of 
view, and this reached its fourth edition in 1819. In this latter 
year he was elected to the Lower Chamber by the department 
of Isere. By the powers of the Quadruple Alliance this event 
was regarded as of the most sinister omen, and the question was 
even raised of a fresh armed intervention in France under the 
terms of the secret treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. To prevent such 
a catastrophe Louis XVIII. decided on a modification of the 
franchise; the Dessolle ministry resigned; and the first act of 
Decazes, the new premier, was to carry a vote in the chamber 
annulling the election of Gregoire. From this time onward the 
ex-bishop lived in retirement, occupying himself in literary pur- 
suits and in correspondence with most of the eminent savants of 
Europe; but as he had been deprived of his pension as a senator 
he was compelled to sell his library to obtain means of support. 
He died on the 2oth of May 1831. 

To the last Grdgoire remained a devout Catholic, exactly 
fulfilling all his obligations as a Christian and a priest; but he 
refused to budge an inch from his revolutionary principles. 
During his last illness he confessed to his parish cure, a priest 
of Jansenist sympathies, and expressed his desire for the last 
sacraments of the Church. These the archbishop of Paris would 
only concede on condition that he would retract his oath to the 
civil constitution of the clergy, which he peremptorily refused 
to do. Thereupon, in defiance of the archbishop, the abb6 
Baradere gave him the viaticum, while the rite of extreme unction 
was administered by the abbe Guillon, an opponent of the civil 
constitution, without consulting the archbishop or the parish 
cure. The attitude of the archbishop roused great excitement 
in Paris, and the government had to take precautions to avoid 
a repetition of the riots which in the preceding February had 
led to the sacking of the church of St Germain 1'Auxerrois and 
the archiepiscopal palace. On the day after his death Gr6goire's 
funeral was celebrated at the church of the Abbaye-aux-Bois; 
the clergy of the church had absented themselves in obedience 
to the archbishop's orders, but mass was sung by the abbe 
Grieu assisted by two clergy, the catafalque being decorated 
with the episcopal insignia. After the hearse set out from the 
church the horses were unyoked, and it was dragged by students 
to the cemetery of Montparnasse, the cortege being followed by a 
sympathetic crowd of some 20,000 people. 

Whatever his merits as a writer or as a philanthropist, 
Gregoire's name lives in history mainly by reason of his whole- 
hearted effort to prove that Catholic Christianity is not irre- 
concilable with modern conceptions of political liberty. In this 
effort he was defeated, mainly because the Revolution, for lack 
of experience in the right use of liberty, changed into a military 
despotism which allied itself with the spiritual despotism of 
Rome; partly because, when the Revolution was overthrown, 



562 



GREGORAS GREGORY, ST 



the parties of reaction sought salvation in the " union of altar 
and throne." Possibly Gregoire's Gallicanism was fundamentally 
irreconcilable with the Catholic idea of authority. At least it 
made their traditional religion possible for those many French 
Catholics who clung passionately to the benefits the Revolution 
had brought them; and had it prevailed, it might have spared 
France and the world that fatal gulf between Liberalism and 
Catholicism which Pius IX.'s Syllabus of 1864 sought to make 
impassable. 

Besides several political pamphlets, Gregoire was the author of 
Histoire des sectes religieuses, depuis le commencement du siecle dernier 
jusqu'd. I'epoque acluelle (2 vols., 1810); Essai historique sur les 
libertes de I'eglise gallicane (1818) ; De I'influence du Ghristianisme sur 
la condition desfemmes (1821) ; Histoire des confesseurs des empereurs, 
des rois, et d'autres princes (1824) ; Histoire du mariage des pretres en 
France (1826). Gregoireana, ou resume general de la conduite, des 
actions, et des ecrits de M. le comte Henri Gregoire, preceded by a 
biographical notice by Cousin d'Ayalon, was published in 1821 ; and 
the Memoires . . . de Gregoire, with a biographical notice by H. 
Carnot, appeared in 1837 (2 vols.). See also A. Debidour, L'Abbe 
Gregoire (1881); A. Gazier, Etudes sur I'histoire religieuse de la 
Revolution Fran$aise (1883); L. Maggiolo, La Vie et les ceuvres de 
I'abbe Gregoire (Nancy, 1884), and numerous articles inia Revolution 
Frangaise; E. Meaume, Etude hist, et biog. sur les Lorrains reoolution- 
naires (Nancy, 1882); and A. Gazier, Etudes sur I'histoire religieuse 
de la Revolution Fran$aise (1887). 

GREGORAS, NICEPHORUS (c. 1295-1360), Byzantine 
historian, man of learning and religious controversialist, was 
born at Heraclea in Pontus. At an early age he settled at 
Constantinople, where his reputation for learning brought him 
under the notice of Andronicus II., by whom he was appointed 
Chartophylax (keeper of the archives). In 1326 Gregoras pro- 
posed (in a still extant treatise) certain reforms in the calendar, 
which the emperor refused to carry out for fear of disturbances; 
nearly two hundred years later they were introduced by Gregory 
XIII. on almost the same lines. When Andronicus was de- 
throned (1328) by his grandson Andronicus III., Gregoras 
shared his downfall and retired into private life. Attacked by 
Barlaam, the famous monk of Calabria, he was with difficulty 
persuaded to come forward and meet him in a war of words, in 
which Barlaam was worsted. This greatly enhanced his reputa- 
tion and brought him a large number of pupils. Gregoras 
remained loyal to the elder Andronicus to the last, but after 
his death he succeeded in gaining the favour of his grandson, by 
whom he was appointed to conduct the unsuccessful negotiations 
(for a union of the Greek and Latin churches) with the ambas- 
sadors of Pope John XXII. (1333). Gregoras subsequently took 
an important part in the Hesychast controversy, in which 
he violently opposed Gregorius Palamas, the chief supporter 
of the sect. After the doctrines of Palamas had been recognized 
at the synod of 1351, Gregoras, who refused to acquiesce, was 
practically imprisoned in a monastery for two years. Nothing 
is known of the end of his life. His chief work is his Roman 
History, in 37 books, of the years 1204 to 1359. It thus partly 
supplements and partly continues the work of George Pachy- 
meres. Gregoras shows considerable industry, but his style is 
pompous and affected. Far too much space is devoted to 
religious matters and dogmatic quarrels. This work and that 
of John Cantacuzene supplement and correct each other, and 
should be read together. The other writings of Gregoras, which 
(with a few exceptions) still remain unpublished, attest his great 
versatility. Amongst them may be mentioned a history of 
the dispute with Palamas; biographies of his uncle and early 
instructor John, metropolitan of Heraclea, and of the martyr 
Codratus of Antioch; funeral orations for Theodore Metochita, 
and the two emperors Andronicus; commentaries on the wan- 
derings of Odysseus and on Synesius's treatise on dreams; 
tracts on orthography and on words of doubtful meaning; a 
philosophical dialogue called Florentius or Concerning Wisdom; 
astronomical treatises on the date of Easter and the preparation 
of the astrolabe; and an extensive correspondence. 

Editions: in Bonn Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz., by L. Schopen 
and I. Bekker, with life and list of works by J. Boivin (1829-1855) ; 
J . P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, cxlviii., cxlix. ; see also C. Krumbacher, 
Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897). 



GREGOROVIUS, FERDINAND (1821-1891), German historian, 
was born at Neidenburg on the igth of January 1821, and 
studied at the university of Konigsberg. After spending some 
years in teaching he took up his residence in Italy in 1852, 
remaining in that country for over twenty years. He was made 
a citizen of Rome, and he died at Munich on the ist of May 1891. 
Gregorovius's interest in and acquaintance with Italy and 
Italian history is mainly responsible for his great book, Geschichte 
der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter (Stuttgart, 1850-1872, and other 
editions), a work of much erudition and interest, which has been 
translated into English by A. Hamilton (13 vols., 1894-1900), 
and also into Italian at the expense of the Romans (Venice, 
1874-1876). It deals with the history .of Rome from about 
A.D. 400 to the death of Pope Clement VII. in 1534, and in the 
words of its author it describes " how, from the time of Charles 
the Great to that of Charles V., the historic system of the papacy 
remained inseparable from that of the Empire." The other 
works of Gregorovius include: Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrian 
und seiner Zeit (Konigsberg, 1851), English translation by M. E. 
Robinson (1898); Corsica (Stuttgart, 1854), English translation 
by R. Martineau (1855); Lucrezia Borgia (Stuttgart, 1874), 
English translation by J. L. Garner (1904); Die Grabdenkmdler 
der Piipsle (Leipzig, 1881), English translation by R. W. Seton- 
Watson (1903); Wanderjahre in Italien (5 vols., Leipzig, 1888- 
1892); Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelalter (1889); Kleine 
Schriften zur Geschichte der Kultur (Leipzig, 1887-1892); and 
Urban VIII. im Widerspruch zu Spanien und dem Kaiser 
(Stuttgart, 1879). This last work was translated into Italian 
by the author himself (Rome, 1879). Gregorovius was also 
something of a poet; he wrote a drama, Der Tod des Tiberius 
(1851), and some Gedichte (Leipzig, 1891). 

His Romische Tagebucher were edited by F. Althaus (Stuttgart, 
1892), and were translated into English as the Roman Journals of 
F. Gregorovius, by A. Hamilton (1907). 

GREGORY, ST (c. 213-4;. 270), surnamed in later ecclesiastical 
tradition Thaumaturgus (the miracle -worker), was born of 
noble and wealthy pagan parents at Neocaesarea in Pontus, 
about A.D. 213. His original name was Theodoras. He took 
up the study of civil law, and, with his brother Athenodorus, 
was on his way to Berytus to complete his training when at 
Caesarea he met Origen, and became his pupil and then his 
convert (A.D. 233). In returning to Cappadocia some five years 
after his conversion, it had been his original intention to live 
a retired ascetic life (Eus. H.E. vi. 30), but, urged by Origen, 
and at last almost compelled by Phaedimus of Amasia, his 
metropolitan, neither of whom was willing to see so much 
learning, piety and masculine energy practically lost to the 
church, he, after many attempts to evade the dignity, 
was consecrated bishop of his native town (about 240). His 
episcopate, which lasted some thirty years, was characterized by 
great missionary zeal, and by so much success that, according 
to the (doubtless somewhat rhetorical) statement of Gregory 
of Nyssa, whereas at the outset of his labours there were only 
seventeen Christians in the city, there were at his death only 
seventeen persons in all who had not embraced Christianity. 
This result he achieved in spite of the Decian persecution (250- 
251), during which he had felt it to be his duty to absent himself 
from his diocese, and notwithstanding the demoralizing effects 
of an irruption of barbarians (Goths and Boranians) who laid 
waste the diocese in A.D. 253-254. Gregory, although he has 
not always escaped the charge of Sabellianism, now holds an 
undisputed place among the fathers of the church; and although 
the turn of his mind was practical rather than speculative, he 
is known to have taken an energetic part in most of the doctrinal 
controversies of his time. He was active at the first synod of 
Antioch (A.D. 264-265), which investigated and condemned the 
heresies of Paul of Samosata; and the rapid spread in Pontus of 
a Trinitarianism approaching the Nicenetypeisattributed in large 
measure to the weight of his influence. Gregory is believed to have 
died in the reign of Aurelian, about the year 270, though perhaps 
an earlier date is more probable. His festival (semiduplex) is ob- 
served by the Roman Catholic Church on the 1 7th of November. 



GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS 



563 



For the facts of his biography we have an outline of his early 
years in his eulogy on Origen, and incidental notices in the writings 
of Eusebius, of Basil of Caesarea and Jerome. Gregory of Nyssa's 
untrustworthy panegyric represents him as having wrought miracles 
of a very startling description; but nothing related by him comes 
near the astounding narratives given in the Martyrologies, or even in 
the Breviarium Romanum, in connexion with his name. 

The principal works of Gregory Thaumaturgus are the Panegyricus 
in Origenem (E$ 'Slpiytvriv iravriyvput/n XA-yoj), which he wrote when 
on the point of leaving the school of that great master (it contains 
a valuable minute description of Origen's mode of instruction), a 
Metaphrasis in Ecclesiasten, characterized by Jerome as " short but 
useful "; and an Epislola canonica, which treats of the discipline 
to be undergone by those Christians who under pressure of persecu- 
tion had relapsed into paganism, but desired to be restored to the 
privileges of the Church. It gives a good picture of the conditions ol 
the time, and shows Gregory to be a true shepherd (cf. art PENANCE). 
The "EK0e<7K iriorews (Expositio fidei), a short creed usually attri- 
buted to Gregory, and traditionally alleged to have been received by 
him immediately in vision from the apostle John himself, is probably 
authentic. A sort of Platonic dialogue of doubtful authenticity " on 
he impassivity and the passivity of God " in Syriac is in the British 
luseum. 

Editions: Gerhard Voss (Mainz, 1604), Fronto Ducaus (Paris, 
1622), Migne, Pair. Grace, x. 963. 

Translations: S. D. F. Salmond in Ante-Nicene Fathers, vi.; Lives, 
by Pallavicini (Rome, 1644); J. L. Boye (Jena, 1709); H. R. 
Reynolds (Diet. Chr. Biog. ii.); G. Kriiger, Early Chr. Lit. 
226; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk. vii. (where full bibliographies are 
given). 

GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (320-389), surnamed 
Theologus, one of the four great fathers of the Eastern Church, 

vas born about the year A.D. 329, at or near Nazianzus, 
Cappadocia. His father, also named Gregory, had lately be- 
come bishop of the diocese; his mother, Nonna, exercised a 
powerful influence over the religious convictions of both father 
and son. Gregory visited successively the two Caesareas, 

Alexandria and Athens, as a student of grammar, mathematics, 
rhetoric and philosophy; at Athens he had for fellow-students 
Basil (q.v.), who afterwards became bishop of Caesarea, and 
Julian, afterwards emperor. Shortly after his return to his 
father's house at Nazianzus (about the year 360) Gregory 
received baptism. He resolved to give himself to the service of 
religion; but for some time, and indeed more or less throughout 
his whole life, was in a state of hesitation as to the form which 
that service ought to take. Strongly inclined by nature and 
education to a contemplative life spent among books and in the 
society of congenial friends, he was continually urged by outward 
circumstances, as well as by an inward call, to active pastoral 
labour. The spirit of refined intellectual monasticism, which 
clung to him through life and never ceased to struggle for the 
ascendancy, was about this time strongly encouraged by his 
intercourse with Basil, who induced him to share the exalted 
pleasures of his retirement in Pontus. To this peiiod belongs 
the preparation of the 4>(.XoKaXia, a sort of chrestomathy com- 
piled by the two friends from the writings of Origen. But the 
events which were stirring the political and ecclesiastical life of 
Cappadocia, and indeed of the whole Roman world, made a career 
of learned leisure difficult if not impossible to a man of Gregory's 
position and temperament. The emperor Constantius, having 
by intrigue and intimidation succeeded in thrusting a semi- 
Arian formula upon the Western bishops assembled at Ariminum 
in Italy, had next attempted to follow the same course with the 
Eastern episcopate. The aged bishop of Nazianzus having 
yielded to the imperial threats, a great storm arose among the 
monks of the diocese, which was only quelled by the influence 
of the younger Gregory, who shortly afterwards (about 361) was 
ordained to the priesthood. After a vain attempt to evade his 
new duties and responsibilities by flight, he appears to have 
continued to act as a presbyter in his father's diocese without in- 
terruption for some considerable time; and it is probable that 
his two Invectives against Julian are to be assigned to this period. 
Subsequently (about 372), under a pressure which he somewhat 
resented, he allowed himself to be nominated by Basil as bishop 
of Sasima, a miserable little village some 32 m. from Tyana; 
but he seems hardly, if at all, to have assumed the duties of this 
diocese, for after another interval 6f " flight " we find him once 



more (about 372-373) at Nazianzus, assisting his aged father, 
on whose death (374) he retired to Seleucia in Isauria for a period 
of some years. Meanwhile a more important field for his activities 
was opening up. Towards 378-379 the small and depressed 
remnant of the orthodox party in Constantinople sent him 
an urgent summons to undertake the task of resuscitating their 
cause, so long persecuted and borne down by the Arians of the 
capital. With the accession of Theodosius to the imperial 
throne, the prospect of success to the Nicene doctrine had dawned, 
if only it could find some courageous and devoted champion. 
The fame of Gregory as a learned and eloquent disciple of Origen, 
and still more of Athanasius, pointed him out as such a defender; 
nor could he resist the appeal made to him, although he took the 
step reluctantly. Once arrived in Constantinople, he laboured 
so zealously and well that the orthodox party speedily gathered 
strength; and the small apartment in which they had been 
accustomed to meet was soon exchanged for a vast and celebrated 
church which received the significant name of Anastasia, the 
Church of the Resurrection. Among the hearers of Gregory 
were to be found, not only churchmen like Jerome and Evagrius, 
but also heretics and pagans; and it says much for the sound 
wisdom and practical tact of the preacher that he set himself 
less to build up and defend a doctrinal position than to urge 
his flock to the cultivation of the loving Christian spirit which 
cherishes higher aims than mere heresy hunting or endless dis- 
putation. Doctrinal, nevertheless, he was, as is abundantly 
shown by the famous five discourses on the Trinity, which earned 
for him the distinctive appellation of 6eo\6yos. These orations 
are the finest exposition of the Catholic doctrine of the Trinity 
as conceived by the orthodox teachers of the East, and they 
were directed especially against the Eunomians and Macedonians. 
"There is perhaps no single book in Greek patristic literature 
to which the student who desires to gain an exact and com- 
prehensive view of Greek theology can be more confidently 
referred." With the arrival of Theodosius in 380 came the 
visible triumph of the orthodox cause; the metropolitan see 
was then conferred upon Gregory, and after the assembling 
of the second ecumenical council in 381 he received consecration 
from Meletius. In consequence, however, of a spirit of discord 
and envy which had manifested itself in connexion with this 
promotion, he soon afterwards resigned his dignity and withdrew 
into comparative retirement. The rest of his days were spent 
partly at Nazianzus in ecclesiastical affairs, and partly on his 
neighbouring patrimonial estate at Arianzus, where he followed 
his favourite literary pursuits, especially poetical composition, 
until his death, which occurred in 389 or 390. His festival is 
celebrated in the Eastern Church on the 2 5th and 3Oth of January, 
in the Western on the 9th of May (duplex). 

His extant works consist of poems, epistles and orations. The 
poems, which include epigrams, elegies and an autobiographical 
sketch, have been frequently printed, the editio princeps being the 
Aldine (1504). Other editions are those of Tollius (1696) and 
Muratori (1709); a volume of Carmina selecta also has been edited 
by Dronke (1840). The tragedy entitled Xpiords ir&axuv usually 
included is certainly not genuine. Gregory's poetry did not absorb 
bis best energies; it was adopted in his later years as a recreation 
rather than as a serious pursuit; thus it is occasionally delicate, 
graphic, beautiful, but it is not sustained. Of the hymns none 
Save passed into ecclesiastical use. The letters are entitled 
to a higher place in literature. They are always easy and natural ; 
and there is nothing forced in the manner in which their acute, witty 
and profound sayings are introduced. Those to Basil introduce us 
to the story of a most romantic friendship, those to Cledonius have 
theological value for their bearing on the Apollinarjan controversy. 
As an orator he was so facile, vigorous and persuasive, that men 
:orgot his small stature and emaciated countenance. Forty-five 
orations are extant. Gregory was less an independent theologian 
than an interpreter. He was influenced by Athanasius in his Christ- 
ology, by Origen in his anthropology, for, though teaching original 
sin and deriving human mortality from the Fall, he insists on the 
ability of the human will to choose the good and to co-operate in the 
work of salvation with the will of God. Though possessed neither of 
Basil's gift of government nor of Gregory of Nyssa's power of specu- 
ative thought, he worthily takes a place in that triumvirate of 
~appadocians whom the Catholic Church gratefully recognizes as 
laving been, during the critical struggles in the latter half of the 
4th century, the best defenders of its faith. The Opera omnia were 



5 6 4 



GREGORY OF NYSSA GREGORY OF TOURS 



first published by Hervagius (Basel, 1550); the subsequent editions 
have been those of Billius (Paris, 1609, 1611; aucta ex interpreta- 
tione Morelli, 1630), of the Benedictines (begun in 1778, but 
interrupted by the French Revolution and not completed until 
1840, Caillau being the final editor) and of Migne. The Theological 
Orations (edited by A. J. Mason) were published separately at 
Cambridge in 1899. 

Scattered notices of the life of Gregory Nazianzen are to be found 
in the writings of Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret and Rufinus, as well 
as in his own letters and poems. The data derived from these sources 
do not always harmonize with the account of Suidas. The earlier 
modern authorities, such as Tillemont (Mem. Eccl. t. ix.) and 
Leclerc (Bib. Univ. t. xviii.), were used by Gibbon. See also C. 
Ullmann, Gregorius von Nazianz, der Theologe (1825; Eng. trans, by 
G. F. Coxe, M.A., 1857); A. Benoit, St Gregoire de Nazianze; sa vie, 
ses osuvres, el son epoque (1877); Montaut, Revue critique de quelques 
questions historiqnes se rapportanl a Si Gregoire de Nazianze (1879); 
F. W. Farrar, Lives of the Fathers, i. 491-582, and F. Loofs in 
Hauck-Herzog's Realencyk. fur prot. Theologie, vii. 138. 

GREGORY, ST, OF NTSSA (c. 33i-c. 396), one of the four 
great fathers of the Eastern Church, designated by one of the 
later ecumenical councils as " a father of fathers," was a younger 
brother of Basil (the Great), bishop of Caesarea, and was born 
(probably) at Neocaesarea about A.D. 331. For his education 
he was chiefly indebted to his elder brother. At a comparatively 
early age he entered the church, and held for some time the office 
of anagnost or reader; subsequently he manifested a desire to 
devote himself to the secular life as a rhetorician, an impulse 
which was checked by the earnest remonstrances of Gregory of 
Nazianzus. Finally, in 371 or 372 he was ordained by his brother 
Basil to the bishopric of Nyssa, a small town in Cappadocia. 
Here he is usually said (but on inadequate data) to have adopted 
the opinion then gaining ground in favour of the celibacy of the 
clergy, and to have separated from his wife Theosebia, who 
became a deaconess in the church. His strict orthodoxy on the 
subject of the Trinity and the Incarnation, together with his 
vigorous eloquence, combined to make him peculiarly obnoxious 
to the Arian faction, which was at that time in the ascendant 
through the protection of the emperor Valens; and in 375, 
the synod of Ancyra, convened by Demetrius the Arian governor 
of Pontus, condemned him for alleged irregularities in his 
election and in the administration of the finances of his diocese. 
In 376 he was deprived of his see, and Valens sent him into exile, 
whence he did not return till the publication of the edict of 
Gratian in 3 78. Shortly afterwards he took part in the proceedings 
of the synod which met at Antioch in Caria, principally in 
connexion with the Meletian schism. At the great ecumenical 
council held at Constantinople in 381, he was a conspicuous 
champion of the orthodox faith; according to Nicephorus, 
indeed, the additions made to the Nicene creed were entirely due 
to his suggestion, but this statement is of doubtful authority. 
That his eloquence was highly appreciated is shown by the facts 
that he pronounced the discourse at the consecration of Gregory 
of Nazianzus, and that he was chosen to deliver the funeral 
oration on the death of Meletius the first president of the council. 
In the following year, moreover (382), he was commissioned 
by the council to inspect and set in order the churches of Arabia, 
in connexion with which mission he also visited Jerusalem. 
The impressions he gathered from this journey may, in part at 
least, be gathered from his famous letter De euntibus Hiero- 
solyma, in which an opinion strongly unfavourable to pilgrimages 
is expressed. In 383 he was probably again in Constantinople; 
where in 385 he pronounced the funeral orations of the princess 
Pulcheria and afterwards of the empress Placilla. Once more 
we read of him in 394 as having been present in that metropolis 
at the synod held under the presidency of Nectarius to settle 
a controversy which had arisen among the bishops of Arabia; 
in the same year he assisted at the consecration of the new church 
of the apostles at Chalcedon, on which occasion there is reason to 
believe that his discourse commonly but wrongly known as that 
Eis T'ffv tavrov xuporoviav was delivered. The exact date of his 
death is unknown; some authorities refer it to 376, others to 400. 
His festival is observed by the Greek Church on the loth of 
January; in the Western martyrologies he is commemorated 
on the gth of March. 



Gregory of Nyssa was not so firm and able an administrator 
as his brother Basil, nor so magnificent an orator as Gregory of 
Nazianzus, but he excelled them both, alike as a speculative 
and constructive theologian, and in the wide extent of his 
acquirements. His teaching, though strictly trinitarian, shows 
considerable freedom and originality of thought; in many 
points his mental and spiritual affinities with Origen show 
themselves with advantage, as in his doctrine of d7ro/caTa<rra<n$ 
or final restoration. There are marked pantheistic tendencies, 
e.g. the inclusion of sin as a necessary part of the cosmical process, 
which make him akin to the pantheistic monophysites and to 
some modern thinkers. 

His style has been frequently praised by competent authorities for 
sweetness, richness and elegance. His numerous works may be 
classified under five heads: (i) Treatises in doctrinal and polemical 
theology. Of these the most important is that Against Eunomius 
in twelve books. Its doctrinal thesis (which is supported with 
great philosophic acumen and rhetorical power) is the divinity and 
consubstantiality of the Word; incidentally the character of 
Basil, which Eunomius had aspersed, is vindicated, and the heretic 
himself is held up to scorn and contempt. This is the work which, 
most probably in a shorter draft, was read by its author when 
at Constantinople before Gregory Nazianzen and Jerome in 381 
(Jerome, De vir. ill. 128). To the same class belong the treatise 
To Ablavius, against the tritheists; On Faith, against the Arians; 
On Common Notions, in explanation of the terms in current employ- 
ment with regard to the Trinity; Ten Syllogisms, against the 
Manichaeans; To Theophilus, against the Apollinarians ; an Antir- 
rhetic against the same; Against Fate, a disputation with a heathen 
philosopher; De anima et resurrectione, a dialogue with his dying 
sister Macrina ; and the Oratio catechetica magna, an argument for the 
incarnation as the best possible form of redemption, intended to 
convince educated pagans and Jews. (2) Practical treatises. To 
this category belong the tracts On Virginity and On Pilgrimages; as 
also the Canonical Epistle upon the rules of penance. (3) Expository 
and homiletical works, including the Hexaemeron, and several series 
of discourses On the Workmanship of Man, On the Inscriptions of the 
Psalms, On the Sixth Psalm, On the first three Chapters of Ecclesiastes, 
On Canticles, On the Lord's Prayer and On the Eight Beatitudes. 
(4) Biographical, consisting chiefly of funeral orations. (5) Letters. 

The only complete editions of the whole works are those by 
Fronton le Due (Fronto Ducaus, Paris, 1615; with additions, 1618 
and 1638) and by Migne. G. H. Forbes began an excellent critical 
edition, but only two parts of the first volume appeared (Burntisland, 
1855 and 1861) containing the Explicatio apologetica in hexaemeron 
and the De opificio hominis. Of the new edition projected by F. 
Oehler only the first volume, containing the Opera dogmatica, has 
appeared (1865). There have been numerous editions of several 
single treatises, as for example of the Oratio catechetica (J. G. 
Krabinger, Munich, 1838; J. H. Crawley, Cambridge, 1903), De 
precatione and De anima et resurrectione. 

See F. W. Farrar, Lives of the Fathers, ii. 56-83, the monograph by 

LRupp (Gregors, des Bischofs von Nyssa, Leben und Meinungen, 
ipzig, 1834), and compare P. Heyns (Disputatio historico-theologica 
de Greg. Nyss., 1835), C. W. Moller (Gregorii Nyss. doctrinam de 
hominis natura et illustravit et cum Origeniana comparavit, 1854) and 
J. N. Stigler, Die Psychologie des h. Gregors von Nyssa (Regensburg, 
1857), and many smaller monographs cited in Hauck-Herzog s 
Realencyk. fur prot. Theol. vii. 149. 

GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594), historian of the Franks, 
was born in the chief city of the Arverni (the modern Clermont- 
Ferrand) on the 30th of November 538. His real name was 
Georgius Florentius, Georgius being his grandfather's name and 
Florentius his father's. He was called Gregory after his maternal 
great-grandfather, the bishop of Langres. Gregory belonged to 
an illustrious senatorial family, many of whose members held 
high office in the church and bear honoured names in the history 
of Christianity. He was descended, it is said, from Vettius 
Epagathus, who was martyred at Lyons in 177 with St Pothinus; 
his paternal uncle, Callus, was bishop of Clermont; his maternal 
grand-uncle, Nicetius (St Nizier), occupied the see of Lyons; 
and he was a kinsman of Euphronius, bishop of Tours. 

Gregory lost his father early, and his mother Armentaria 
settled in the kingdom of Burgundy on an estate belonging to 
her near Cavaillon, where her son often visited her. Gregory was 
brought up at Clermont-Ferrand by his uncle Gallus and by his 
successor, Avitus, and there he received his education. Among 
prolane authors he read the first six books of the Aeneid and 
Sallust's history of the Catiline conspiracy, but his education 
was mainly religious. The principles of religion he learnt from 



GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR 



565 



the Bible, Sulpicius Severus and some lives of saints, but to 
patristic literature and the subtleties of theology he remained 
a stranger. In 563, at the age of twenty-five, he was ordained 
deacon. Falling seriously ill, he went to Tours to seek a cure at 
the tomb of St Martin. At Tours he lived with Euphronius, 
and so great was the young man's popularity that, on the death 
of Euphronius in 573, the people unanimously designated him 
bishop. 

At that time Tours belonged to Austrasia, and King Sigebert 
hastened to confirm Gregory's election. After the assassination 
of Sigebert (575), the province was ruled by Chilperic for nine 
years, during which period Gregory displayed the greatest energy 
in protecting his town and church from the Prankish king. He 
had to contend with Count Leudast, the governor of Tours; 
despite all the king's threats, he refused to give up Chilperic 's 
on Meroving, who had sought refuge from his father's wrath 
at the sanctuary of St Martin; and he defended Bishop Pre- 
textatus against Chilperic, by whom he had been condemned 
for celebrating the marriage of Merovech and Queen Brunhilda. 
In 580 Gregory was himself accused before a council at Berny of 
using abusive language against Queen Fredegond, but he cleared 
himself of the charge by an oath and was acquitted. On the 
death of Chilperic, Tours remained for two years (584-585) in 
the hands of Guntram, but when Guntram adopted his nephew 
Childebert, Sigebert 's son, it again became Austrasian. This 
change was welcome to Gregory, who often visited the court. 
In 586 he was at Coblenz, and on his return to Yvois (the 
modern Carignan) visited the stylite Wulfilaic; in 588 we hear 
of him at Metz and also at Chalon-sur-Sa6ne, whither he was sent 
to obtain from King Guntram the ratification of the pact of 
Andelot; in 593 he was at Orleans, where Childebert had just 
succeeded his uncle Guntram. In the intervals of these journeys 
he governed Tours with great firmness, repressing disorders 
and reducing the monks and nuns to obedience. He died on 
the 1 7th of November 594. 

Gregory left many writings, of which he himself gives an 
enumeration at the end of his Historia Francorum: " Decem 
libros Historiarum, septem Miraculorum, unum de Vita Patrum 
scrips! ; in Psalterii tractatu librum unum commentatus sum; 
de Cursibus etiam ecclesiasticis unum librum condidi." The 
ten books of history are discussed below. The seven books of 
miracles are divided into the De gloria martyrum, the De 
virtutibus sancti Jttliani, four books of Miracula sancti Martini, 
and the De gloria confessorum, the last dealing mainly with 
confessors who had dwelt in the cities of Tours and Clermont. 
The Vitae patrum consists of twenty biographies of bishops, 
abbots and hermits belonging to Gaul. The commentary on the 
Psalms is lost, the preface and the titles of the chapters alone 
being extant. The treatise De cursibus ecclesiasticis, discovered 
in 1853, is a liturgical manual for determining the hour of divers 
nocturnal offices by the position of the stars. Gregory also left 
a life of St Andrew, translated from the Greek, and a history of 
the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, translated from Syriac. 

His most important work, however, is the Historia Francorum, 
which is divided into three parts. The first four books, which 
were composed at one time, cover the period from the creation 
of the world to the death of Sigebert in 575. The first book, 
which is a mere compilation from the chronicles of St Jerome 
and Orosius, is of no value. The second book, from 397 to 
511, deals with the invasions of the Franks, and is based on 
the histories of Sulpicius Alexander and Renatus Profuturus 
Frigeridus, now lost; on the catalogues of the bishops of Cler- 
mont and Tours; on some lives of saints, e.g. Remigius and 
Maxentius, now lost; on the annals of Aries and Angers, now 
lost; and on legends, either collected by Gregory himself from 
oral tradition, or cantilenes or epics written in the Latin and 
Germanic languages. In the third and fourth books the earlier 
part is based on materials collected from men older than himself; 
of the later events he was himself an eye-witness. The fifth and 
sixth books, up to the death of Chilperic (584), deal with matters 
within his own experience. The first six books are often separate 
in the MSS., and it was these alone that were used by the 



chronicler Fredegarius in his abridgment of Gregory's history. 
To the first six books Gregory subsequently added chapters on 
the bishops Salonius and Sagittarius, and on his quarrels with 
Felix of Nantes. The authenticity of these chapters has been 
undeservedly attacked by Catholic writers. Books vii. to x., 
from 584 to 591, were written in the form of a diary; of each 
important event, as it occurred, he inserted an account in his 
book. The last six books are of great historical value. 

Gregory had an intimate knowledge of contemporary events. 
He was frequently at court, and he found Tours an excellent 
place for collecting information. The shrine of St Martin 
attracted the sick from all quarters, and the basilica of the saint 
was a favourite sanctuary for political refugees. Moreover, 
Tours was on the high road between the north and south of 
France, and was a convenient stage for travellers, the am- 
bassadors going to and from Spain frequently halting there. 
Gregory plied every one with questions, and in this way gathered 
a great mass of detailed information. He was, besides, at great 
pains to be an impartial writer, but was not always successful. 
His devotion to Austrasia made him very bitter against, and 
perhaps unjust to, the sovereigns of Neustria, Chilperic and 
Fredegond. As an orthodox Christian, he had no good word 
for the Arians. He excuses the crimes of kings who protected 
the church, such as Clovis, Clotaire I. and Guntram, but had 
no mercy for those who violated ecclesiastical privileges. This 
attitude, no doubt, explains his hatred for Chilperic. But if 
Gregory's historical judgments are suspect, he at least concealed 
nothing and invented nothing; and we can correct his judgments 
by his own narrative. His history is a curious compound of 
artlessness and shrewdness. He was ignorant of the rules of 
grammar, confused genders and cases, and wrote in the vernacular 
Latin of his time, apart from certain passages which are especi- 
ally elaborated and filled with poetical and elegant expressions. 
But in spite of his shortcomings he is an exceedingly attractive 
writer, and his mastery of the art of narrative has earned for him 
the name of the Herodotus of the barbarians. 

T. Ruinart brought out a complete edition of Gregory's works at 
Paris in 1699. The best modern complete edition is that of W. 
Arndt and B. Krusch in Mpn. Germ. hist, script, rer. Merov. (vol. i., 
1885). Of the many editions of the Historia Francorum may be 
mentioned those of Guadet and Taranne in the Soc. de I'hist. de 
France (4 vols., with French translation, 1836-1838), of Omont (the 
first six books; a reproduction of the Corvey MS/) and of G. Collon 
(the last four books; a reproduction of the Brussels MS. No. 9, 403). 
Gregory's hagiographic works were published by H. Bordier in the 
Soc. de I'hist. de France (4 vols., with French translation, 1857-1864). 
Cf. J. W. Lobell, Gregor von Tours und seine Zeit (2nd ed., Leipzig, 
1868); G. Monoid, " fitudes critiques sur les sources de 1'histoire 
meVovingienne " in the Bibl. de I'Ecole des Hautes Etudes (1872); 
G. Kurth, " Gr6goire de Tours et les etudes classiques au VI" siecle " 
in the Revue des questions historiques (xxiv. 586 seq., 1878); Max 
Bonnet, Le Latin de Gregoire de Tours (Paris, 1890). For details, see 
Ulysse Chevalier, Biobibliographie (2nd ed.). (C. PF.) 

GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR, the reputed founder of the 
Armenian Church. His legend is briefly as follows. His father 
Anak, head of the Parthian clan of Suren, was bribed about 
the time of his birth (c. 257) by the Sassanid king of Persia to 
assassinate the Armenian king, Chosroes, who was of the old 
Arsacid dynasty, and father of Tiridates or Trdat, first Christian 
king of Armenia. Anak was slain by his victim's soldiers; 
Gregory was rescued by his Christian nurse, carried to Caesarea 
in Cappadocia, and brought up a Christian. Grown to manhood 
he took service under Tiridates, now king of Armenia, in order 
by his own fidelity to atone for his father's treachery. Presently 
at a feast of Anahite Gregory refused to assist his sovereign in 
offering pagan sacrifice, and his parentage being now revealed, 
was thrown into a deep pit at Artashat, where he languished 
for fourteen years, during which persecution raged in Armenia. 

The scene of the legend now shifts to Rome, where Diocletian 
falls in love with a lovely nun named Ripsim; she, rather than 
gratify his passion, flees with her abbess Gaiana and several 
priests to Armenia. Diocletian asks her back of Tiridates, who 
meanwhile has fallen in love with her himself. He too is flouted, 
and in his rage tortures and slays her and her companions. 
The traditional date of this massacre is the sth of October, 



566 



GREGORY (POPES) 



A.D. 301. Providence, incensed at such cruelty, turns Tiridates 
into a wild boar, and afflicts his subjects with madness; but his 
sister, Chosrowidukht, has a revelation to bring Gregory back 
out of his pit. The king consents, the saint is acclaimed, the 
bodies of the thirty-seven martyrs solemnly interred, and the 
king, after fasting five, and listening to Gregory's homilies for 
sixty days, is healed. This all took place at Valarshapat, where 
Gregory, anxious to fix a site on which to build shrines for the 
relics of Ripsime and Gaiana, saw the Son of God come down in 
a sheen of light, the stars of heaven attending, and smite the 
earth with a golden hammer till the nether world resounded 
to his blows. Three chapels were built on the spot, and Gregory 
raised his cross there and elsewhere for the people to worship, 
just as St Nino was doing about the same time in Georgia. There 
followed a campaign against the idols whose temples and books 
were destroyed. The time had now come for Gregory, who was 
still a layman and father of two sons, to receive ordination; 
so he went to Caesarea, where Leontius ordained and consecrated 
him catholicos or vicar-general of Armenia. This was sometime 
about 290, when Leontius may have acceded, though we first 
hear of him as bishop in 314. 

Gregory's ordination at Caesarea is historical. The vision 
at Valarshapat was invented later by the Armenians when they 
broke with the Greeks, in order to give to their church the 
semblance, if not of apostolic, at least of divine origin. 

According to Agathangelus, Tiridates went to Rome with 
Gregory, Aristaces, son of Gregory, and Albianos, head of the 
other priestly family, to make a pact with Constantine, newly 
converted to the faith, and receive a palh'um from Silvester. 
The better sources make Sardica the scene of meeting and name 
Eusebius(bf Nicomedia) as the prelate who attended Constantine. 
There is no reason to doubt that some such visit was made about 
the year 315, when the death of Maximin Daza left Constantine 
supreme. Eusebius testifies (H.E. ix. 8) that the Armenians 
were ardent Christians, and ancient friends and allies of the 
Roman empire when Maximin attacked them about the year 
308. The conversion of Tiridates was probably a matter of 
policy. His kingdom was honeycombed with Christianity, and 
he wished to draw closer to the West, where he foresaw the 
victory of the new faith, in order to fortify his realm against 
the Sassanids of Persia. Following the same policy he sent 
Aristaces in 325 to the council of Nice. Gregory is related to 
have added a clause to the creed which Aristaces brought back ; 
he became a hermit on Mount Sebuh about the year 332, and 
died there. 

Is the Ripsime episode mere legend ? The story of the 
conversion of Georgia by St Nino in the same age is so full of 
local colour, and coheres so closely with the story of Ripsime 
and Gaiana, that it seems over-sceptical to explain the latter 
away as a mere doublet of the legend of Prisca and Valeria. 
The historians Faustus of Byzant and Lazar of Pharp in the 5th 
century already attest the reverence with which their memory 
was invested. We know from many sources the prominence 
assigned to women prophets in the Phrygian church. Nino's 
story reads like that of such a female missionary, and something 
similar must underlie the story of her Armenian companions. 

The history of Gregory by Agathangelus is a compilation of 
about 450, which was rendered into Greek 550. Professor Marr 
has lately published an Arabic text from a MS. in Sinai which 
seems to contain an older tradition. A letter of Bishop George 
of Arabia to Jeshu, a priest of the town Anab, dated 714 (edited 
by Dashian, Vienna, 1891), contains an independent tradition of 
Gregory, and styles him a Roman by birth. 

In spite of legendary accretions we can still discern the true 
outlines and significance of his life. He did not really illumine 
or convert great Armenia, for the people were in the main already 
converted by Syrian missionaries to the Adoptionist or Ebionite 
type of faith which was dominant in the far East, and was 
afterwards known as Nestorianism. Marcionites and Montanists 
had also worked in the field. Gregory persuaded Tiridates 
to destroy the last relics of the old paganism, and carried out 
in the religious sphere his sovereign's policy of detaching Great 



Armenia from the Sassanid realm and allying it with the Graeco- 
Roman empire and civilization. He set himself to Hellenize 
or Catholicize Armenian Christianity, and in furtherance of this 
aim set up a hierarchy officially dependent on the Cappadocian. 
He in effect turned his country into a province of the Greek see 
of Cappadocia. This hierarchical tie was soon snapped, but the 
Hellenizing influence continued to work, and bore its most 
abundant fruit in the 5th century. His career was thus analogous 
to that of St Patrick in Ireland. 

AUTHORITIES. S. Weber, Die Catholische Kirche in Armenien 
(Freiburg, 1903, with bibliography); Bollandii, Acta sanctorum sept. 
torn. 8; A. Carri&re, Les Huit Sanctuaires de I'Armenie (Paris, 1899) ; 
" Chrysostom " in Migne, P. Gr. torn. 63, col. 943 foil. ; C. Fortescue, 
The Armenian Church (London, 1872); H. Gelzer, Die Anfar.ge der 
armenischen Kirche (Leipzig, 1895) (Sachs. Gesells. der Wissensch.); 
and s.v. " Armenien " in Herzog-Hauck (Leipzig, 1897); v. Gut- 
schmid, Kleine Schriften (Leipzig, 1892); Himpel, Gregor der 
Rrleuchter, Kl. v. ; Issaverdenz, Hist, of Arm. Church (Venice, 
1875); de Lagarde, Agathangelos (Gottingen, 1888); Arshalc Ter 
Mikelian, Die arm. Kirche (Leipzig, 1892); Palmieri, " La Conver- 
sione ufficiale degli Iberi," Oriens Christ. (Rome, 1902) ; Ryssel, 
Ein Brief Gregors, ubersetzt, Studien und Kritiken, 56, Bd. (1883); 
Sarauelian, Bekehrung Armeniens (Vienna, 1844) ; Vetter, " Die arm. 
Vater," in Nischl's Lehrbuch der Patrol, iii. 215-262, (Mainz, 1881- 
1885); Malan, 5. Gregory the Illuminator (Rivingtons, 1868). 

(F. C. C.) 

GREGORY (Gregorius), the name of sixteen popes and one 
anti-pope. 

SAINT GREGORY, surnamed the Great (c. 540-604), the first 
pope of that name, and the last of the four doctors of the Latin 
Church, was born in Rome about the year 540. His father was 
Gordianus " the regionary," a wealthy man of senatorial rank, 
owner of large estates in Sicily and of a palace on the Caelian 
Hill in Rome; his mother was Silvia, who is commemorated as 
a saint on the 3rd of November. Of Gregory's early period we 
know few details, and almost all the dates are conjectural. He 
received the best education to be had at the time, and was noted 
for his proficiency in the arts of grammar, rhetoric and dialectic. 
Entering on a public career he held, about 573, the high office of 
prefect of the city of Rome; but about 574, feeling irresistibly 
attracted to the " religious " life, he resigned his post, founded 
six monasteries in Sicily and one in Rome, and in the last the 
famous monastery of St Andrew became himself a monk. 
This grateful seclusion, however, he was not permitted long to 
enjoy. About 578 he was ordained " seventh deacon " (or 
possibly archdeacon) of the Roman Church, and in the following 
spring Pope Pelagius II. appointed him " apocrisiarius," or 
resident ambassador, at the imperial court in Constantinople. 
Here he represented the interests of his church till about 586, 
when he returned to Rome and was made abbot of St Andrew's 
monastery. His rule, though popular, was characterized by 
great severity, as may be inferred from the story of the monk 
Justus, who was denied Christian burial because he had secreted 
a small sum of money. About this time Gregory completed and 
published his well-known exposition of the book of Job, com- 
menced in Constantinople: he also delivered lectures on the 
Heptateuch, the books of Kings, the Prophets, the book of 
Proverbs and the Song of Songs. To this period, moreover, 
Bede's incident of the English slave-boys (if indeed it be 'accepted 
as historical) ought to be assigned. Passing one day through 
the Forum, Gregory saw some handsome slaves offered for sale, 
and inquired their nation. " Angles," was the reply. " Good," 
said the abbot, " they have the faces of angels, and should be 
coheirs with the angels in heaven. From what province do they 
come ?" " From Deira." " Deira. Yea, verily, they shall be 
saved from God's ire (de ira) and called to the mercy of Christ. 
How is the king of that country named ?" " jElla." " Then 
must Allelulia be sung in ^Ella's land." Gregory determined 
personally to undertake the conversion of Britain, and with the 
pope's consent actually set out upon the mission, but on the 
third day of his journey he was overtaken by messengers recalling 
him to Rome. In the year 590 Pelagius II. died of the plague 
that was raging in the city; whereupon the clergy and people 
unanimously chose Gregory as his successor. The abbot did his 
best to avoid the dignity, petitioned the emperor Maurice not 



GREGORY (POPES) 



567 



to ratify his election, and even meditated going into hiding; 
but, " while he was preparing for flight and concealment, he was 
seized and carried off and dragged to the basilica of St Peter," 
and there consecrated bishop, on the 3rd of September 590. 

The fourteen years of Gregory's pontificate were marked 
by extraordinary vigour and activity. " He never rested," 
rites a biographer, 'he was always engaged in providing for 
he interests of his people, or in writing some composition 
worthy of the church, or in searching out the secrets of heaven 
by the grace of contemplation." His mode of life was simple 
nd ascetic in the extreme. Having banished all lay attendants 
om his palace, he surrounded himself with clerics and monks, 
vith whom he lived as though he were still in a monastery. To 
be spiritual needs of his people he ministered with pastoral 
1, frequently appointing "stations" and delivering sermons; 
or was he less solicitous in providing for their physical neces- 
sities. Deaconries (offices of alms) and guest-houses were 
liberally endowed, and free distributions of food were made to 
be poor in the convents and basilicas. The funds for these 
and similar purposes were supplied from the Patrimony of 
St Peter the papal estates in Italy, the adjacent islands, Gaul, 
Dalmatia and Africa. These extensive domains were usually 
administered by specially appointed agents, rectors and 
def ensors, who resided on the spot ; but the general superin- 
tendence devolved upon the pope. In this sphere Gregory 
manifested rare capacity. He was one of the best of the papal 
landlords. During his pontificate the estates increased in 
value, while at the same time the real grievances of the tenants 
were redressed and their general position was materially improved. 
Gregory's principal fault as a man of business was that he was 
inclined to be too lavish of his revenues. It is said that he even 
impoverished the treasury of the Roman Church by his unlimited 
charities. 

Within the strict bounds of his patriarchate, i.e. the churches 
of the suburbicarian provinces and the islands, it was Gregory's 
policy to watch with particular care ever the election and 
discipline of the bishops. With wise toleration he was willing 
to recognize local deviations from Roman usage (e.g. in the 
ritual of baptism and confirmation), yet he was resolute to 
withstand any unauthorized usurpation of rights and privileges. 
The following rules he took pains to enforce: that clerics 
in holy orders should not cohabit with their wives or permit any 
women, except those allowed by the canons, to live in their 
houses; that clerics accused on ecclesiastical or lesser criminal 
charges should be tried only in the ecclesiastical courts; that 
clerics in holy orders who had lapsed should " utterly forfeit 
their orders and never again approach the ministry of the altar "; 
that the revenues of each church should be divided by its bishop 
into four equal parts, to be assigned to the bishop, the clergy, 
the poor and the repair of the fabric of the church. 

In his relations with the churches which lay outside the strict 
limits of his patriarchate, in northern Italy, Spain, Gaul, Africa 
and Illyricum and also in the East, Gregory consistently used 
his influence to increase the prestige and authority of the Roman 
See. In his view Rome, as the see of the Prince of the Apostles, 
was by divine right " the head of all the churches." The decrees 
of councils would have no binding force " without the authority 
and consent of the apostolic see ": appeals might be made to 
Rome against the decisions even of the patriarch of Constanti- 
nople: all bishops, including the patriarchs, if guilty of heresy 
or uncanonical proceedings, were subject to correction by the 
pope. " If any fault is discovered in a bishop," Gregory wrote, 
" I know of no one who is not subject to the apostolic see." 
It is true that Gregory respected the rights of metropolitans and 
disapproved of unnecessary interference within the sphere of 
their jurisdiction canonically exercised; also that in his relations 
with certain churches (e.g. those in Africa) he found it expedient 
to abstain from any obtrusive assertion of Roman claims. But 
of his general principle-there can be no doubt. His sincere belief 
in the apostolic authority of the see of St Peter, his outspoken 
assertion of it, the consistency and firmness with which in 
practice he maintained it (e.g. in his controversies with the 



bishops of Ravenna concerning the use of the pallium, with 
Maximus the " usurping " bishop of Salona, and with the 
patriarchs of Constantinople in respect of the title " ecumenical 
bishops "), contributed greatly to build up the system of papal 
absolutism. -Moreover this consolidation of spiritual authority 
coincided with a remarkable development of the temporal 
power of the papacy. In Italy Gregory occupied an almost 
regal position. Taking advantage cf the opportunity which 
circumstances offered, he boldly stepped into the place which 
the emperors had left vacant and the Lombard kings had not the 
strength to seize. For the first time in history the pope appeared 
as a political power, a temporal prince. He appointed governors 
to cities, issued orders to generals, provided munitions of war, 
sent his ambassadors to negotiate with the Lombard king and 
actually dared to conclude a private peace. In this direction 
Gregory went farther than any of his predecessors: he laid 
the foundation of a political influence which endured for centuries. 
"Of the medieval papacy," says Milman, "the real father is 
Gregory the Great." 

The first monk to become pope, Gregory was naturally a 
strong supporter of monasticism. He laid himself out to diffuse 
the system, and also to carry out a reform of its abuses by en- 
forcing a strict observance of the Rule of St Benedict (of whom, 
it may be noted, he was the earliest biographer). Two slight 
innovations were introduced: the minimum age of an abbess 
was fixed at sixty, and the period of novitiate was prolonged 
from one year to two. Gregory sought to protect the. monks 
from episcopal oppression by issuing primlegia, or charters 
in restraint of abuses, in accordance with which the jurisdiction 
of the bishops over the monasteries was confined to spiritual 
matters, all illegal aggressions being strictly prohibited. The 
documents are interesting as marking the beginning of a revolu- 
tion which eventually emancipated the monks altogether from 
the control of their diocesans and brought them under the direct 
authority of the Holy See. Moreover Gregory strictly forbade 
monks to minister in parish churches, ordaining that any monk 
who was promoted to such ecclesiastical cure should lose all 
rights in his monastery and should no longer reside there. 
" The duties of each office separately are so weighty that no one 
can rightly discharge them. It is therefore very improper that 
one man should be considered fit to discharge the duties of 
both, and that by this means the ecclesiastical order should 
interfere with the monastic life, and the rule of the monastic 
life in turn interfere with the interests of the churches." 

Once more, Gregory is remembered as a great organizer of 
missionary enterprise for the conversion of heathens and heretics. 
Mose important was the two-fold mission to Britain of St 
Augustine in 596, of Mellitus, Paulinus and others in 601; but 
Gregory also made strenuous efforts to uproot paganism in Gaul, 
Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, Arianism in Spain, Donatism 
in Africa, Manichaeism in Sicily, the heresy of the Three Chapters 
in Istria and northern Italy. In respect of the methods of 
conversion which he advocated he was not less intolerant than 
his contemporaries. Towards the Jews, however, he acted with 
exceptional lenity, protecting them from persecution and 
securing them the enjoyment of their legal privileges. The 
so-called " simoniacal heresy," particularly prevalent in Gaul, 
Illyricum and the East, he repeatedly attacked; and against the 
Gallican abuse of promoting laymen to bishoprics he protested 
with vigour. 

The extent and character of Gregory's works in connexion 
with the liturgy and the music of the church is a subject of 
dispute. If we are to credit a 9th century biographer, Gregory 
abbreviated and otherwise simplified the Sacramentary of 
Gelasius, producing a revised edition with which his own name 
has become associated, and which represents the groundwork 
of the modern Roman Missal. But though it is certain that he 
introduced three changes in the liturgy itself (viz. the addition 
of some words in the prayer Hanc igilur, the recitation of the 
Pater Noster at the end of the Canon immediately before the 
fraction of the bread, and the chanting of the Allelulia after the 
Gradual at other times besides the season of Easter) and two 



568 



GREGORY (POPES) 



others in the ceremonial connected therewith (forbidding 
deacons to perform any musical portion of the service except 
the chanting of the gospel, and subdeacons to wear chasubles), 
neither the external nor the internal evidence appears to warrant 
belief that the Gregorian Sacramentary is his work. Ecclesias- 
tical tradition further ascribes to Gregory the compilation of an 
Antiphonary, the revision and rearrangement of the system of 
church music, and the foundation of the Roman schola cantorum. 
It is highly doubtful, however, whether he had anything to do 
either with the Antiphonary or with the invention or revival 
of the cantus planus; it is certain that he was not the founder 
of the Roman singing-school, though he may have interested 
himself in its endowment and extension. 

Finally, as Fourth Doctor of the Latin Church, Gregory 
claims the attention of theologians. He is the link between 
two epochs. The last of the great Latin Fathers and the first 
representative of medieval Catholicism- he brings the dogmatic 
theology of Tertullian, Ambrose and Augustine into relation 
with the Scholastic speculation of later ages. " He connects the 
Graeco-Roman with the Romano-Germanic type of Christianity." 
His teaching, indeed, is neither philosophical, systematic nor 
truly original. Its importance lies mainly in its simple, popular 
summarization of the doctrine of Augustine(whose works Gregory 
had studied with infinite care, but not always with insight), 
and in its detailed exposition of various religious conceptions 
which were current in the Western Church, but had not hitherto 
been defined with precision (e.g. the views on angelology and 
demonology, on purgatory, the Eucharistic Sacrifice, and the 
efficacy of relics). In his exposition of such ideas Gregory made 
a distinct advance upon the older theology and influenced 
profoundly the dogmatic development of the future. He im- 
parted a life and impulse to prevailing tendencies, helping on the 
construction of the system hereafter to be completed in Scholastic- 
ism. He gave to theology a tone and emphasis which could not 
be disregarded. From his time to that of Anselm no teacher 
of equal eminence arose in the Church. 

Gregory died on the izth of March 604, and was buried the 
same day in the portico of the basilica of St Peter, in front of 
the sacristy. Translations took place in the 9th, 15th and i7th 
centuries, and the remains now rest beneath the altar in the 
chapel of Clement VIII. In respect of his character, while most 
historians agree that he was a really great man, some deny that 
he was also a great saint. The worst blot on his fair fame is his 
adulatory congratulation of the murderous usurper Phocas; 
though his correspondence with the Prankish queen Brunhilda, 
and the series of letters to and concerning the renegade monk 
Venantius also present problems which his admirers find difficult 
of solution. But while it may be admitted that Gregory was 
inclined to be unduly subservient to the great, so that at times 
he was willing to shut his eyes to the vices and even the crimes of 
persons of rank ; yet it cannot fairly be denied that his character 
as a whole was singularly noble and unselfish. His life was 
entirely dominated by the religious motive. His sole desire was 
to promote the glory of God and of his church. At all times he 
strove honestly to live up to the light that was in him. " His 
goal," says Lau, " was always that which he acknowledged as the 
best." Physically, Gregory was of medium height and good 
figure. His head was large and bald, surrounded with a fringe 
of dark hair. His face was well-proportioned, with brown eyes, 
aquiline nose, thick and red lips, high-coloured cheeks, and 
prominent chin sparsely covered with a tawny beard. His hands, 
with tapering fingers, were remarkable for their beauty. 

Gregory's Works. The following are now universally admitted 
to be genuine: Epistolarum libri xiv., Moralium libri xxxv., 
Regulae pastoralis liber, Dialogorum libri iv. t Homiliarum in 
Ezechielem prophetam libri ii., Homiliarum in Evangelia libri ii. 
These are all printed in Migne's Patrologia Latina. The Epistolae, 
however, have been published separately by P. Ewald and L. M. 
Hartmann in the Monumenta Germaniae historica (Berlin, 1887- 
1899), and this splendid edition has superseded all others. The 
question of the chronological reconstruction of the Register is dealt 
with by Ewald in his celebrated article in the Neues Archiv der 
Gesellschaft fur altere deutsche Geschichtskunde, iii. pp. 433-625; and 
briefly by T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, v. 333-343. For 



information about these writings of Gregory, consult especially 
G. I. T. Lau, Gregor I. der Grosse, pt. ii. chap. i. Die Schrijten Gregors 
and F. Homes Dudden, Gregory the Great (see Index II. B.). In 
addition to the above-mentioned works there are printed under 
Gregory's name in Migne's Patrologia Latina, vol. Ixxix., the follow- 
ing : Super Cantico Canticorum expositio, In librum primum Regum 
variarum expositionum libri vi., In septem psalmos poenitenttales 
expositio and Concordia quorundam testimoniorum s. scripturae. 
But (with the possible exception of the first) none of these treatises 
are of Gregorian authorship. See the discussions in Migne, Lau 
and Dudden. 

AUTHORITIES. (a) The principal ancient authorities for the life 
and works of Gregory are given in their chronological order. They 
are : Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, x. I ; Liber pontificalis, 
" Vita Gregorii Magni "; Isidore of Seville, De vir. illustr. 40, and 
Ildefonsus of Toledo, De vir. illustr. i. ; an anonymous Vita Gregorii 
(of English authorship) belonging to the monastery of St Gall, 
discovered by Ewald and published by F. A. Gasquet, A Life of 
Pope St Gregory the Great (1904) ; Bede, Historia ecclesiastica, ii. c. i ; 
Paul the Deacon, Vita Gregorii Magni (770-780) ; John the Deacon, 
Vita Gregorii (872-882). (b) Recent Literature: J. Barmby, 
Gregory the Great (1892); T. Bonsmann, Gregor I. der Grosse, ein 
Lebensbild (1890); F. Homes Dudden, Gregory the Great: his place 
in History and Thought (2 vols., 1905); G. J. T. Lau, Gregor I. der 
Grosse nach seinem Leben und seiner Lehre geschildert (1845); C. 
Wolfsgruber, Gregor der Grosse (1897). See also F. Gregorovius, 
Rome in the Middle Ages (Eng. trans.) ii. 16-103; T. Hodgkin, 
Italy and her Invaders, v. cc. 7-10; H. K. Mann, The Lives of the 
Popes, i. 1-250; F. W. Kellett, Pope Gregory the Great and his Re- 
lations with Gaul; L. Pingaud, La Politique de Saint Gregoire le 
Grand; W. Wisbaum, Die wichtigsten Richtungen und Ziele der 
Tdtigkeit des Papstes Gregors des Grossen; W. Hohaus, Die Bedeu- 
tung Gregors des Grossen als liturgischer Schriftsteller ; E. G. P. Wyatt, 
St Gregory and the Gregorian Music ; and the bibliographies of Gregory 
in Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques du moyen age, and 
A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica medii aevi. (F. H. D.) 

GREGORY II., pope from 715 to 731, succeeded Constantine I., 
whom he accompanied from Constantinople in 7 10. Gregory did 
all in his power to promote the spread of Christianity in Germany, 
and gave special encouragement to the mission of St Boniface, 
whom he consecrated bishop in 722. He was a staunch adherent 
of the East Roman empire, which still exercised sovereignty over 
Rome, Ravenna and some other parts of Italy, and he impeded 
as far as possible the progress of the Lombards. About 726, 
however, he became involved in a conflict with the emperor 
Leo the Isaurian on account of the excessive taxation of the 
Italians, and, later, on the question of image worship, which 
had been proscribed by the government of Constantinople. Leo 
endeavoured to rid himself of the pope by violence, but Gregory, 
supported by the people of Rome and also by the Lombards, 
succeeded in eluding the emperor's attacks, and died peacefully 
on the nth of February 731. 

GREGORY III., pope from 731 to 741. He condemned the 
iconoclasts at a council convened at Rome in November 731, 
and, like his predecessor Gregory II., stimulated the missionary 
labours of St Boniface, on whom he conferred the pallium. 
Towards the Lombards he took up an imprudent attitude, in 
support of which he in vain invoked the aid of the Prankish 
prince Charles Martel. 

GREGORY IV., pope from 827 to 844, was chosen to succeed 
Valentinus in December 827, on which occasion he recognized 
the supremacy of the Prankish emperor in the most unequivocal 
manner. His name is chiefly associated with the quarrels 
between Lothair and Louis the Pious, in which he espoused 
the cause of the former, for whom, in the Campus Mendacii 
(Liigenfeld, field of lies), as it is usually called (833), he secured 
by his treachery a temporary advantage. The institution of the 
feast of All Saints is usually attributed to this pope. He died 
on the 25th of January 844, and was succeeded by Sergius II. 

GREGORY V. (Bruno), pope from 996 to 990, a great-grandson 
of the emperor Otto the Great, succeeded John XV. when only 
twenty-four years of age, and until the council of Pavia (997) 
had a rival in the person of the anti-pope John XVI., whom the 
people of Rome, in revolt against the will of the youthful emperor 
Otto III., had chosen after having expelled Gregory. The most 
memorable acts of his pontificate were those arising out of the 
contumacy of the French king, Robert, who was ultimately 
brought to submission by the rigorous infliction of a sentence 



GREGORY (POPES) 



569 



r 



of excommunication. Gregory died suddenly, and not without 
suspicion of foul play, on the 1 8th of February 999. His successor 
was Silvester II. 

GREGORY VI., pope from 1045 to 1046. As Johannes Gratianus 
he had earned a high reputation for learning and probity, and in 
1045 he bought the Roman pontificate from his godson Benedict 
IX. At a council held by the emperor Henry III. at Sutri in 
1046, he was accused of simony and deposed. He was banished 
into Germany, where he died in 1047. He was accompanied into 
exile by his young protege Hildebrand (afterwards pope as 
iregory VII.), and was succeeded by Clement II. (L. D.*) 
GREGORY VII., pope from 1073 to 1085. Hildebrand (the 
future pope) would seem to have been born in Tuscany perhaps 
Raovacum early in the third decade of the nth century. The 
son of a plain "citizen, Bunicus or Bonizo, he came to Rome at an 
early age for his education; an uncle of his being abbot of the 
convent of St Mary on the Aventine. His instructors appear 
to have included the archpriest Johannes Gratianus, who, by 
disbursing a considerable sum to Benedict IX., smoothed his 
way to the papal throne and actually ascended it as Gregory VI. 
But when the emperor Henry III., on his expedition to Rome 
(1046), terminated the scandalous impasse in which three popes 
laid claim to the chair of Peter by deposing all three, Gregory VI. 
was banished to Germany, and Hildebrand found himself 
obliged to accompany him. As he himself afterwards admitted, 
it was with extreme reluctance that he crossed the Alps. But 
his residence in Germany was of great educative value, and full 
of significance for his later official activity. In Cologne he was 
enabled to pursue his studies; he came into touch with the circles 
of Lorraine where interest in the elevation of the Church and her 
life was highest, and gained acquaintance with the political 
and ecclesiastical circumstances of that country which was 
destined to figure so largely in his career. Whether, on the 
death of Gregory VI. in the beginning of 1048, Hildebrand 
proceeded to Cluny is doubtful. His brief residence there, if it 
actually occurred, is to be regarded as no more than a visit; for 
he was never a monk of Cluny. His contemporaries indeed 
describe him as a monk; but his entry into the convent must be 
assigned to the period preceding or following his German travels 
and presumably took place in Rome. He returned to that city 
with Bishop Bruno of Toul, who was nominated pope under the 
title of Leo IX. (1048-1054). Under him Hildebrand found his 
first employment in the ecclesiastical service, becoming a sub- 
deacon arid steward in the Roman Church. He acted, moreover, 
as a legate in France, where he was occupied inter alia with the 
question of Berengarius of Tours, whose views on the Lord's 
Supper had excited opposition. On the death of Leo IX. he 
was commissioned by the Romans as their envoy to the German 
court, to conduct the negotiations with regard to his successor. 
The emperor pronounced in favour of Bishop Gebhard of Eich- 
stadt, who, in the course of his short reign as Victor II. (1055- 
1057), again employed Hildebrand as his legate to France. 
When Stephen IX. (Frederick of Lorraine) was raised to the 
papacy, without previous consultation with the German court, 
Hildebrand and Bishop Anselm of Lucca were despatched to 
Germany to secure a belated recognition, and he succeeded in 
gaining the consent of the empress Agnes. Stephen, however, 
died before his return, and, by the hasty elevation of Bishop 
Johannes of Velletri, the Roman aristocracy made a last attempt 
to recover their lost influence on the appointment to the papal 
throne a proceeding which was charged with peril to the Church 
as it implied a renewal of the disastrous patrician regime. That 
the crisis was surmounted was essentially the work of Hildebrand. 
To Benedict X., the aristocratic nominee, he opposed a rival 
pope in the person of Bishop Gerhard of Florence, with whom 
the victory rested. The reign of Nicholas II. (1059-1061) was 
distinguished by events which exercised a potent influence on 
the policy of the Curia during the next two decades the 
rapprochement with the Normans in the south of Italy, and the 
alliance with the democratic and, subsequently, anti-German 
movement of the Patarenes in the north. It was also under his 
pontificate(io59) that the law was enacted which transferred the 



papal election to the College of Cardinals, thus withdrawing it 
from the nobility and populace of Rome and thrusting the 
German influence on one side. It would be too much to maintain 
that these measures were due to Hildebrand alone, but it is 
obvious that he was already a dominant personality on the Curia, 
through he still held no more exalted office than that of arch- 
deacon, which was indeed only conferred on him in 1059. Again, 
when Nicholas II. died and a new schism broke out, the dis- 
comfiture of Honorius II. (Bishop Cadalus of Parma) and the 
success of his rival (Anselm of Lucca) must be ascribed princi- 
pally, if not entirely, to Hildebrand's opposition to the former. 
Under the sway of Alexander II. (1061-1073) this man loomed 
larger and larger in the eye of his contemporaries as the soul of 
the Curial policy. It must be confessed the general political 
conditions, especially in Germany, were at that period exception- 
ally favourable to the Curia, but to utilize them with the sagacity 
actually shown was nevertheless no slight achievement, and the 
position of Alexander at the end of his pontificate was a brilliant 
justification of the Hildebrandine statecraft. 

On the death of Alexander II. (April 21, 1073), Hildebrand 
became pope and took the style of Gregory VII. The mode of 
his election was bitterly assailed by his opponents. True, many 
of the charges preferred are obviously the emanations of scandal 
and personal dislike, liable to suspicion from the very fact that 
they were not raised to impugn his promotion till several years 
had elapsed (c. 1076); still it is plain from his own account of 
the circumstances of his elevation that it was conducted in 
extremely irregular fashion, and that the forms prescribed by the 
law of 1059 were not observed. But the sequel justified his 
election of which the worst that can be said is that there was 
no general suffrage. And this sequel again owed none of its 
success to chance, but was the fruit of his own exertions. In his 
character were united wide experience and great energy tested 
in difficult situations. It is proof of the popular faith in his 
qualifications that, although the circumstances of his election 
invited assault in 1073, no sort of attempt was then made to set 
up a rival pontiff. When, however, the opposition which took 
head against him had gone so far as to produce a pretender to the 
chair, his long and undisputed possession tended to prove the 
original legality of his papacy; and the appeal to irregularities 
at its beginning not only lost all cogency but assumed the 
appearance of a mere biased attack. On the 22nd of May he 
received sacerdotal ordination, and on the 3oth of June episcopal 
consecration; the empress Agnes and the duchess Beatrice of 
Tuscany being present at the ceremony, in addition to Bishop 
Gregory of Vercelli, the chancellor of the German king, to whom 
Gregory would thus seem to have communicated the result of 
the election. 

The focus of the ecclesiastico-political projects of Gregory VII. 
is to be found in his relationship with Germany. Since the death 
of Henry III. the strength of the monarchy in that country had 
been seriously impaired, and his son Henry IV. had to contend 
with great internal difficulties. This state of affairs was of 
material assistance to the pope. His advantage was still further 
accentuated by the fact that in 1073 Henry was but twenty-three 
years of age and by temperament inclined to precipitate action. 
Many sharp lessons were needful before he learned to bridle his 
impetuosity, and he lacked the support and advice of a dis- 
interested and experienced statesman. Such being the conditions, 
a conflict between Gregory VII. and Henry IV. could have only 
one issue the victory of the former. 

In the two following years Henry was compelled by the Saxon 
rebellion to come to amicable terms with the pope at any cost. 
Consequently in May 1074 he did penance at Nuremberg in 
presence of the legates to expiate his continued intimacy with 
the members of his council banned by Gregory, took an oath of 
obedience, and promised his support in the work of reforming 
the Church. This attitude, however, which at first won him the 
confidence of the pope, he abandoned so soon as he gained the 
upper hand of the Saxons: this he achieved by his victory at 
Hohenburg on the Unstrut (June 9, 1075). He now attempted 
to reassert his rights of suzerain in upper Italy without delay. 



570 

He sent Count Eberhard to Lombardy to combat the Patarenes; 
nominated the cleric Tedaldo to the archbishopric of Milan, 
thus settling a prolonged and contentious question; and finally 
endeavoured to establish relations with the Norman duke, 
Robert Guiscard. Gregory VII. answered with a rough letter, 
dated December 8, in which among other charges he re- 
proached the German king with breach of his word and with 
his further countenance of the excommunicated councillors; 
while at the same time he sent by word of mouth a brusque 
message intimating that the enormous crimes which would be 
laid to his account rendered him liable, not only to the ban of the 
church, but to the deprivation of his crown. Gregory ventured 
on these audacious measures at a time when he himself was 
confronted by a reckless opponent in the person of Cencius, who 
on Christmas-night did not scruple to surprise him in church 
and carry him off as a prisoner, though on the following day 
he was obliged to surrender his captive. The reprimands of 
the pope, couched as they were in such an unprecedented form, 
infuriated Henry and his court, and their answer was the hastily 
convened national council in Worms, which met on the 24th 
of January 1076. In the higher ranks of the German clergy 
Gregory had many enemies, and a Roman cardinal, Hugo 
Candidus, once on intimate terms with him but now at variance, 
had made a hurried expedition to Germany for the occasion and 
appeared at Worms with the rest. All the gross scandals with 
regard to the pontiff that this prelate could utter were greedily 
received by the assembly, which committed itself to the ill- 
considered and disastrous resolution that Gregory had forfeited 
his papal dignity. In a document full of accusations the bishops 
renounced their allegiance. In another King Henry pronounced 
him deposed, and the Romans were required to choose a new 
occupant for the vacant chair of St Peter. With the utmost 
haste two bishops were despatched to Italy in company with 
Count Eberhard under commission of the council, and they suc- 
ceeded in procuring a similar act of deposition from the Lombard 
bishops in the synod of Piacenza. The communication of these 
decisions to the pope was undertaken by the priest Roland of 
Parma, and he was fortunate enough to gain an opportunity 
for speech in the synod, which had barely assembled in the 
Lateran church, and there to deliver his message announcing 
the dethronement of the pontiff. For the moment the members 
were petrified with horror, but soon such a storm of indignation 
was aroused that it was only due to the moderation of Gregory 
himself that the envoy was not cut down on the spot. On the 
following day the pope pronounced the sentence of excommunica- 
tion against the German king with all formal solemnity, divested 
him of his royal dignity and absolved his subjects from the oaths 
they had sworn to him. This sentence purpofted to eject the 
king from the church and to strip him of his crown. Whether 
it would produce this effect, or whether it would remain an idle 
threat, depended not on the author of the verdict, but on the 
subjects of Henry before all, on the German princes. We 
know from contemporary evidence that the excommunication 
of the king made a profound impression both in Germany and 
Italy. Thirty years before, Henry III. had deposed three popes, 
and thereby rendered a great and acknowledged service to the 
church. When Henry IV. attempted to copy this summary 
procedure he came to grief, for he lacked the support of the 
people. In Germany there was a speedy and general revulsion 
of sentiment in favour of Gregory, and the particularism of the 
princes utilized the auspicious moment for prosecuting their 
anti-regal policy under the cloak of respect for the papal decision. 
When at Whitsuntide the king proposed to discuss the measures 
to be taken against Gregory in a council of his nobles at Mainz, 
only a few made their appearance; the Saxons snatched at the 
golden opportunity for renewing their insurrection and the 
anti-royalist party grew in strength from month to month. The 
situation now became extremely critical for Henry. As a result 
of the agitation, which was zealously fostered by the papal legate 
Bishop Altmann of Passau, the princes met in October at Tribur 
to elect a new German king, and Henry, who was stationed at 
Oppenheim on the left bank of the Rhine, was only saved from 



GREGORY (POPES) 



the loss of his sceptre by the failure of the assembled princes 
to agree on the question of his successor. Their dissension, 
however, merely induced them to postpone the verdict. Henry, 
they declared, must make reparation to the pope and pledge 
himself to obedience; and they settled that, if, on the anni- 
versary of his excommunication, he still lay under the ban, the 
throne should be considered vacant. At the same time they 
determined to invite Gregory to Augsburg, there to decide the 
conflict. These arrangements showed Henry the course to be 
pursued. It was imperative, under any circumstances and at 
any price, to secure his absolution from Gregory before the period 
named, otherwise he could scarcely foil his opponents in their 
intention to pursue their attack against himself and justify their 
measures by an appeal to his excommunication. At first he 
attempted to attain his ends by an embassy, but when Gregory 
rejected his overtures he took the celebrated step of going to 
Italy in person. The pope had already left Rome, and had 
intimated to the German princes that he would expect their 
escort for his journey on January 8 in Mantua. But this escort 
had not appeared when he received the news of the king's 
arrival. Henry, who travelled through Burgundy, had been 
greeted with wild enthusiasm by the Lombards, but resisted the 
temptation to employ force against Gregory. He chose instead 
the unexpected and unusual, but, as events proved, the safest 
course, and determined to compel the pope to grant him absolu- 
tion by doing penance before him at Canossa, where he had taken 
refuge. This occurrence was quickly embellished and inwoven 
by legend, and great uncertainty still prevails with regard to 
several important points. The reconciliation was only effected 
after prolonged negotiations and definite pledges on the part 
of the king, and it was with reluctance that Gregory at length 
gave way, for, if he conferred his absolution, the diet of princes 
in Augsburg, in which he might reasonably hope to act as 
arbitrator, would either be rendered purposeless, or, if it met at 
all, would wear an entirely different character. It was impossible, 
however, to deny the penitent re-entrance into the church, and 
the politician had in this case to be subordinated to the priest. 
Still the removal of the ban did not imply a genuine reconciliation, 
and no basis was gained for a settlement of the great questions 
at issue notably that of investiture. A new conflict was 
indeed inevitable from the very fact that Henry IV. naturally 
considered the sentence of deposition repealed with that of 
excommunication; while Gregory on the other hand, intent on 
reserving his freedom of action, gave no hint on the subject at 
Canossa. 

That the excommunication of Henry IV. was simply a pretext 
not a motive for the opposition of the rebellious German 
nobles is manifest. For not only did they persist in their policy 
after his absolution, but they took the more decided step of 
setting up a rival king in the person of Duke Rudolph of Swabia 
(Forchheim, March 1077). At the election the papal legates 
present observed the appearance of neutrality, and Gregory 
himself sought to maintain this attitude during the following 
years. His task was the easier in that the two parties were of 
fairly equal strength, each endeavouring to gain the upper hand 
by the accession of the pope to their side. But his hopes and 
labours, with the object of receiving an appeal to act as arbitrator 
in the dynastic strife, were fruitless, and the result of his non- 
committal policy was that he forfeited in large measure the 
confidence of both parties. Finally he decided for Rudolph of 
Swabia in consequence of his victory at Flarchheim (January 27, 
1080). Under pressure from the Saxons, and misinformed as 
to the significance of this battle, Gregory abandoned his waiting 
policy and again pronounced the excommunication and deposi- 
tion of King Henry (March 7, 1080), unloosing at the same time 
all oaths sworn to him in the past or the future. But the papal 
censure now proved a very different thing from the papal censure 
four years previously. In wide circles it was felt to be an in- 
justice, and men began to put the question so dangerous to the 
prestige of the pope whether an excommunication pronounced 
on frivolous grounds was entitled to respect. To make matters 
worse, Rudolph of Swabia died on the i6th of October of the 



GREGORY (POPES) 



.: 



same year. True, a new claimant Hermann of Luxemburg 
was put forward in August 1081, but his personality was ill 
adapted for a leader of the Gregorian party in Germany, and the 
power of Henry IV. was in the ascendant. The king, who had 
now been schooled by experience, took up the struggle thus 
forced upon him with great vigour. He refused to acknowledge 
the ban on the ground of illegality. A council had been sum- 
moned at Brixen, and on the 25th of June 1080 it pronounced 
Gregory deposed and nominated the archbishop Guibert of 
Ravenna as his successor a policy of anti-king, anti-pope. In 
1081 Henry opened the conflict against Gregory in Italy. The 
latter had now fallen on evil days, and he lived to see thirteen 
cardinals desert him, Rome surrendered by the Romans to the 
German king, Guibert of Ravenna enthroned as Clement III. 
(March 24, 1084), and Henry crowned emperor by his rival, 
while he himself was constrained to flee from Rome. 

rThe relations of Gregory to the remaining European states 
ere powerfully influenced by his German policy; for Germany, 
by engrossing the bulk of his powers, not infrequently compelled 
him to show to other rulers that moderation and forbearance 
which he withheld from the German king. The attitude of the 
Normans brought him a rude awakening. The great concessions 
made to them under Nicholas II. were not only powerless to 
stem their advance into central Italy but failed to secure even 
the expected protection for the papacy. When Gregory was 
hard pressed by Henry IV., Robert Guiscard left him to his fate, 
and only interfered when he himself was menaced with the 
German arms. Then, on the capture of Rome, he abandoned 
the city to the tender mercies of his warriors, and by the popular 
indignation evoked by his act brought about the banishment of 
Gregory. 

In the case of several countries, Gregory attempted to establish 
a claim of suzerainty on the part of the see of St Peter, and to 
secure the recognition of its self-asserted rights of possession. 
On the ground of " immemorial usage " Corsica and Sardinia 
were assumed to belong to the Roman Church. Spain and 
Hungary were also claimed as her property, and an attempt was 
made to induce the king of Denmark to hold his realm as a fief 
from the pope. Philip I. of France, by his simony and the 
violence of his proceedings against the church, provoked a 
threat of summary measures; and excommunication, deposition 
and the interdict, appeared to be imminent in 1074. Gregory, 
however, refrained from translating his menaces into actions, 
although the attitude of the king showed no change, for he 
wished to avoid a dispersion of his strength in the conflict soon 
to break out in Germany. In England, again, William the 
Conqueror derived no less benefit from this state of affairs. 
He felt himself so safe that he interfered autocratically with the 
management of the church, forbade the bishops to visit Rome, 
filled bishoprics and abbeys, and evinced little anxiety when the 
pope expatiated to him on the different principles which he 
entertained as to the relationship of church and state, or when 
he prohibited him from commerce or commanded him to 
acknowledge himself a vassal of the apostolic chair. Gregory 
had no power to compel the English king to an alteration in his 
ecclesiastical policy, so chose to ignore what he could not approve, 
and even considered it advisable to assure him of his particular 
affection. 

Gregory, in fact, established relations if no more with 
every land in Christendom; though these relations did not 
invariably realize the ecclesiastico-political hopes connected 
with them. His correspondence extended to Poland, Russia and 
Bohemia. He wrote in friendly terms to the Saracen king of 
Mauretania in north Africa, and attempted, though without 
success, to bring the Armenians into closer contact with Rome. 
The East, especially, claimed his interest. The ecclesiastical 
rupture between the bishops of Rome and Byzantium was a 
severe blow to him, and he laboured hard to restore the former 
amicable relationship. . At that period it was impossible to 
suspect that the schism implied a definite separation, for pro- 
longed schisms had existed in past centuries, but had always 
been surmounted in the end. Both sides, moreover, had an 



571 

interest in repairing the breach between the churches. Thus, 
immediately on his accession to the pontificate, Gregory sought 
to come into touch with the emperor Michael VII. and succeeded. 
When the news of the Saracenic outrages on the Christians in the 
East filtered to Rome, and the political embarrassments of the 
Byzantine emperor increased, he conceived the project of a 
great military expedition and exhorted the faithful to participa- 
tion in the task of recovering the sepulchre of the Lord (1074). 
Thus the idea of a crusade to the Holy Land already floated 
before Gregory's vision, and his intention was to place himself 
at the head. But the hour for such a gigantic enterprise was 
not yet come, and the impending struggle with Henry IV. turned 
his energies into another channel. 

In his treatment of ecclesiastical policy and ecclesiastical 
reform, Gregory did not stand alone, but on the contrary found 
powerful support. Since the middle of the nth century the 
tendency mainly represented by Cluny towards a stricter 
morality and a more earnest attitude to life, especially on the 
part of the clergy, had converted the papacy; and, from Leo IX. 
onward, the popes had taken the lead in the movement. Even 
before his election, Gregory had gained the confidence of these 
circles, and, when he assumed the guidance of the church, they 
laboured for him with extreme devotion. From his letters we see 
how he fostered his connexion with them and stimulated their 
zeal, how he strove to awake the consciousness that his cause 
was the cause of God and that to further it was to render service 
to God. By this means he created a personal party, uncon- 
ditionally attached to himself, and he had his confidants in every 
country. In Italy Bishop Anselm of Lucca, to take an example, 
belonged to their number. Again, the duchess Beatrice of 
Tuscany and her daughter the Margravine Matilda, who put her 
great wealth at his disposal, were of inestimable service. The 
empress Agnes also adhered to his cause. In upper Italy the 
Patarenes had worked for him in many ways, and all who stood 
for their objects stood for the pope. In Germany at the begin- 
ning of his reign the higher ranks of the clergy stood aloof from 
him and were confirmed in their-attitude by some of his regula- 
tions. But Bishop Altmann of Passau, who has already been 
mentioned, and Archbishop Gebhard of Salzburg, were among 
his most zealous followers. That the convent of Hirschau in 
Swabia was held by Gregory was a fact of much significance, 
for its monks spread over the land as itinerant agitators and 
accomplished much for him in southern Germany. In England 
Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury probably stood closest to 
him; in France his champion was Bishop Hugo of Die, who 
afterwards ascended the archiepiscopal chair of Lyons. 

The whole life-work of Gregory VII. was based on his convic- 
tion that the church has been founded by God and entrusted 
with the task of embracing all mankind in a single society in 
which His will is the only law; that, in her capacity as a divine 
institution, she outtops all human structures; and that the pope, 
qua head of the church, is the vice-regent of God on earth, so 
that disobedience to him implies disobedience to God or, in 
other words, a defection from Christianity. Elaborating an 
idea discoverable in St Augustine, he looked on the worldly 
state a purely human creation as an unhallowed edifice whose 
character is sufficiently manifest from the fact that it abolishes 
the equality of man, and that it is built up by violence and 
injustice. He developed these views in a famous series of letters 
to Bishop Hermann of Metz. But it is clear from the outset 
that we are only dealing with reflections of strictly theoretical 
importance; for any attempt to interpret them in terms of 
action would have bound the church to annihilate not merely 
a single definite state, but all states. Thus Gregory, as a 
politician desirous of achieving some result, was driven in 
practice to adopt a different standpoint. He acknowledged 
the existence of the state as a dispensation of Providence, 
described the coexistence of church and state as a divine ordin- 
ance, and emphasized the necessity of union between the saccr- 
dolium and the imperium. But at no period would he have 
dreamed of putting the two powers on an equality; the 
superiority of church to state was to him a fact which admitted 



572 

of no discussion and which he had never doubted. Again, this 
very superiority of the church implied in his eyes a superiority 
of the papacy, and he did not shrink from drawing the extreme 
conclusions from these premises. In other words, he claimed 
the right of excommunicating and deposing incapable monarchs, 
and of confirming the choice of their successors. This habit of 
thought needs to be appreciated in order to understand his 
efforts to bring individual states into feudal subjection to the 
chair of St Peter. It was no mere question of formality, but the 
first step to the realization of his ideal theocracy comprising each 
and every state. 

Since this papal conception of the state involved the exclusion 
of independence and autonomy, the history of the relationship 
between church and state is the history of one continued struggle. 
In the time of Gregory it was the question of appointment to 
spiritual offices the so-called investiture which brought the 
theoretical controversy to a head. The preparatory steps had 
already been taken by Leo IX., and the subsequent popes had 
advanced still further on the path he indicated; but it was 
reserved for Gregory and his enactments to provoke the outbreak 
of the great conflict which dominated the following decades. 
By the first law (1075) the right of investiture for churches was 
in general terms denied to the laity. ' In 1078 neglect of this 
prohibition was made punishable by excommunication, and, by 
a further decree of the same year, every investiture conferred 
by a layman was declared invalid and its acceptance pronounced 
liable to penalty. It was, moreover, enacted that every layman 
should restore, under pain of excommunication, all lands of the 
church, held by him as fiefs from princes or clerics; and that, 
henceforward, the assent of the pope, the archbishop", &c., was 
requisite for any investiture of ecclesiastical property. Finally 
in 1080 the forms regulating the canonical appointment to a 
bishopric were promulgated. In case of a vacancy the election 
was to be conducted by the people and clergy under the auspices 
of a bishop nominated by the pope or metropolitan; after 
which the consent of the pope or archbishop was to be procured; 
if any violation of these injunctions occurred, the election should 
be null and void and the right of choice pass to the pope or 
metropolitan.-; In so legislating, Gregory had two objects: in 
the first place, to withdraw the appointment to episcopal offices 
from the influence of the king; in the second, to replace that 
influence by his own. The intention was not to increase the power 
of the metropolitan: he simply desired that the nomination of 
bishops by the pope should be substituted for the prevalent 
nomination of bishops by the king. But in this course of action 
Gregory had a still more ambitious goal before his eyes. If 
he could once succeed in abolishing the lay investiture the king 
would, ipso facto, be deprived of his control over the great 
possessions assigned to the church by himself and his predecessors, 
and he could have no security that the duties and services 
attached to those possessions would continue to be discharged 
for the benefit of the Empire. The bishops in fact were to 
retain their position as princes of the Empire, with all the lands 
and rights of supremacy pertaining to them in that capacity, 
but the bond between them and the Empire was to be dissolved: 
they were to owe allegiance not to the king, but to the pope 
a non-German sovereign who, in consequence of the Italian 
policy of the German monarchy, found himself in perpetual 
opposition to Germany. Thus, by his ecclesiastical legislation, 
Gregory attempted to shake the very foundations on which the 
constitution of the German empire rested, while completely 
ignoring the historical development of that constitution (see 
INVESTITURE). 

That energy which Gregory threw into the expansion of the 
papal authority, and which brought him into collision with the 
secular powers, was manifested no less in the internal government 
of the church. He wished to see all important matters of dispute 
referred to Rome ; appeals were to be addressed to himself, and 
he arrogated the right of legislation. The fact that his laws were 
usually promulgated by Roman synods which he convened during 
Lent does not imply that these possessed an independent position; 
on the contrary, they were entirely dominated by his influence, 



GREGORY (POPES) 



and were no more than the instruments of his will. The central- 
ization of ecclesiastical government in Rome naturally involved 
a curtailment of the powers of the bishops and metropolitans. 
Since these in part refused to submit voluntarily and attempted 
to assert their traditional independence, the pontificate of 
Gregory is crowded with struggles against the higher ranks of 
the prelacy. Among the methods he employed to break their 
power of resistance, the despatch of legates proved peculiarly 
effective. The regulation, again, that the metropolitans should 
apply at Rome in person for the pallium pronounced essential 
to their qualifications for office served to school them in 
humility. 

This battle for the foundation of papal omnipotence within the 
church is connected with his championship of compulsory celibacy 
among the clergy and his attack on simony. Gregory VII. did 
not introduce the celibacy of the priesthood into the church, 
for even in antiquity it was enjoined by numerous laws. 
He was not even the first pope to renew the injunction in the 
nth century, for legislation on the question begins as early as 
in the reign of Leo IX. But he took up the struggle with greater 
energy and persistence than his predecessors. In 1074 he 
published an encyclical, requiring all to renounce their obedience 
to those bishops who showed indulgence to their clergy in the 
matter of celibacy. In the following year he commanded the 
laity to accept no official ministrations from married priests and 
to rise against all such. He further deprived these clerics of 
their revenues. Wherever these enactments were proclaimed 
they encountered tenacious opposition, and violent scenes were 
not infrequent, as the custom of marriage was widely diffused 
throughout the contemporary priesthood. Other decrees were 
issued by Gregory in subsequent years, but were now couched in 
milder terms, since it was no part of his interest to increase the 
numbers of the German faction. As to the objectionable nature 
of simony the transference or acquisition of a spiritual office 
for monetary considerations no doubt could exist in the mind 
of an earnest Christian, and no theoretical justification was 
ever attempted. The practice, however, had attained great 
dimensions both among the clergy and the laity, and the sharp 
campaign, which had been waged since the days of Leo IX., had 
done little to limit its scope. The reason was that in many 
cases it had assumed an extremely subtle form, and detection 
was difficult when the simony took the character of a tax or an 
honorarium. The fact, again, that lay investiture was described 
as simony, inevitably brought with it an element of confusion, 
and, in the case of a charge of simoniacal practices, enormously 
accentuates the difficulty of determining the actual state of 
affairs. The war against simony in its original form was un- 
doubtedly necessary, but it led to highly complicated and pro- 
blematic issues. Was the priest or bishop, whose ordination was 
due to simony, actually in the possession of the sacerdotal or 
episcopal power or not? If the answer was in the affirmative, 
it would seem possible to buy the Holy Ghost ; if in the negative, 
then obviously all the official acts of the respective priest or 
bishop which, according to the doctrine of the church, pre- 
supposed the possession of a spiritual quality were invalid. 
And, since the number of simoniacal bishops was at that period 
extremely large, incalculable consequences resulted. The diffi- 
culty of the problem accounts for the diversity of solutions 
propounded. The perplexity of the situation was aggravated 
by the fact that, if the stricter view was adopted, it followed that 
the sacrament of ordination must be pronounced invalid, even 
in the cases where it had been unconsciously sought at the hands 
of a simoniac, for the dispenser was in point of fact no bishop, 
although he exercised the episcopal functions and his trans- 
gressions were unknown, and consequently it was impossible for 
him to ordain others. In the time of Gregory the conflict was 
still swaying to and fro, and he himself in 1078 declared consecra- 
tion by a simoniac null and void. 

The pontificate of Gregory VII. came to a melancholy close, 
for he died an exile in Salerno; the Romans and a number of his 
most trusted coadjutors had renounced him, and the faithful 
band in Germany had shrunk to scant proportions. Too much 



GREGORY (POPES) 



the politician, too rough in his methods, too exclusively the 
representative of the Roman see and its interests, he had gained 
more enemies than friends. He was of course a master of state- 
craft; he had pursued political ends with consummate skill, 
causing them to masquerade as requirements of religion; but 
he forgot that incitement to civil war, the preaching of rebellion, 
and the release of subjects from their oaths, were methods which 
must infallibly lead to moral anarchy, and tend, with justice, to 
stifle the confidence once felt in him. The more he accustomed 
his contemporaries to the belief that any and every measure 
so long as it opened up some prospect of success was good in his 
sight, no matter how dangerous the fruits it might mature, the 
fainter grew their perception of the fact that he was not only a 
statesman but primarily the head of the Christian Church. That 
the frail bonds of piety and religious veneration for the chair of 
St Peter had given way in the struggle for power was obvious 
to all, when he himself lost that power and the star of hisopponent 
was in the ascendant. He had given the rein to his splendid 
gifts as a ruler, and in his capacity of pope he omitted to provide 
an equivalent counterpoise. We are told that he was once an 
impressive preacher, and he could write to his faithful countesses 
in terms which prove that he was not wanting in religious feeling; 
but in the whirlpool of secular politics this phase of his character 
was never sufficiently developed to allow the vice-gerent of 
Christ to be heard instead of the hierarch in his official acts. 

But to estimate the pontificate of Gregory by the disasters 
of its closing years would be to misconceive its significance for 
the history of the papacy entirely. On the contrary, his reign 
forms an important chapter in the history of the popedom as an 
institution; it contains the germs of far-reaching modifications 
of the church, and it gave new impulses to both theory and 
practice, the value of which may indeed be differently estimated, 
but of which the effects are indubitable. It was he who conceived 
and formulated the ideal of the papacy as a structure embracing 
all peoples and lands. He took the first step towards the codifica- 
tion of ecclesiastical law and the definite ratification of the claims 
of the apostolic chair as corner-stones in the church's foundation. 
He educated the clergy and the lay world in obedience to Rome ; 
and, finally, it was due to his efforts that the duty of the priest 
with regard to sexual abstinence was never afterwards a matter 
of doubt in the Catholic Christianity of the West. 

On the 25th of May 1085 he died, unbroken by the misfortunes 
of his last years, and unshaken in his self-certainty. Dilexi 
justitiam et odivi iniquitatem: propterea morior in exilio are said 
to have been his last words. In 1584 Gregory XIII. received him 
into the Martyrologium Romanum; in 1606 he was canonized 
by Paul V. The words dedicated to him in the Breviarium 
Romanum, for May 25, contain such an apotheosis of his ponti- 
ficate that in the i8th and ipth centuries they were prohibited 
by the governments of several countries with Roman Catholic 
populations. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. A comprehensive survey of the sources and 
literature for the history of Gregory VII. is given by C. Mirbt, s.y. 
" Gregor VII." in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, 3rd ed. vol. vii. 
pp. 96 sqq. The main source for the reign of Gregory consists of 
his letters and decrees, the greater part of which are collected in the 
Registrum (ed. P. Jaff6, Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum, ii., Berlin, 
1865). The letters preserved in addition to this official collection 
are also reprinted by Jaff6 under the title of Epistolae colleclae. 
The Dictatus Papae a list of twenty-seven short sentences on the 
rights of the pope, which is given in the Registrum, is not the work 
of Gregory VII., but should probably be ascribed to Cardinal Deus- 
dedit. Further: A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica medii aevi, i. 
(2nd ed., Berlin, 1896), pp. 541 sq., ii. 1351 ; P. Jaffe, Regesta ponti- 
ficum (2nd ed., 1865), tome i. pp. 594-649. Nr. 4771-5313. tome ii. 
p. 751. The most important letters and decrees of Gregory VII. 
are reprinted by C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums 
(2nd ed., Tubingen, 1901), Nr. 183 sqq., pp. loo sqq. The oldest 
life of Gregory is that by Paul von Bermried, reprinted, e.g. by 
Watterich, Vitae pontificum, i. 474-546. Among the historians the 
following are of especial importance: Berthold, Bernold, Lambert 
von Hersfeld, Bruno, Marianus Scotus, Leo of Ostia, Peter of Marte 
Cassino, Sigebert of Gembloux, Hugo of Flavigny, Arnulph and 
Landulf of Milan, Donizo their works being reprinted in the section 
" Scriptores " in the Monumenta Germaniae historica, vols. v., vi., 
vii., viii., xii. The struggles which broke out under Gregory VII. 



573 

and were partially continued in the subsequent decades gave rise to 
a pamphlet literature which is of extreme importance for their 
internal history. The extant materials vary greatly in extent, 
and display much diversity from the literary-historical point of view. 
Most of them are printed in the Monumenta Germaniae, under the 
title, Libelli de lite imperatorum et pontificum saeculis XI. et XII. 
conscripti, tome i. (Hanover, 1891), tome ii. (1892), tome iii. (1897). 
The scientific investigation of the Gregorian age has received enor- 
mous benefit from the critical editions of the sources in the Monu- 
menta Germaniae, so that the old literature is for the most part 
antiquated. This is true even of the great monograph on this pope 
A. F. Gfrorer, Papst Gregorius VII. und sein Zeitalter (7 vols., 
Schaffhausen, 1859-1861), which must be used with extreme caution. 
The present state of criticism is represented by the following works: 
G. Meyer von Knonau, Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichsunter Heinrich 
IV. und Heinrich V., vol. i. (Leipzig, 1890), ii. (1894), iii. (1900), iv. 
(1903) ; W. Martens, Gregor VII., sein Leben und Werken (2 vols., 
Leipzig, 1904) ; C. Mirbt, Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors VII. 
(Leipzig, 1894) ; A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte DeutscUands (3 vols., 
Leipzig, 1894). The special literature on individual events during 
the Gregorian pontificate is so extensive that no list can be given here. 
On Gregory's elevation to the chair, cf. C. Mirbt, Die Wahl Gregors 
VII. (Marburg, 1892). See also A. H. Mathew, D.D., Life and 
Times of Hildebrand, Pope Gregory VII. (1910). (C. M.) 

GREGORY VIII. (Mauritius Burdinus), antipope from 1118 
to 1121, was a native of southern France, who had crossed the 
Pyrenees while young and had later been made archbishop of 
Braga. Suspended by Paschal II. in 1 1 14 on account of a dispute 
with the Spanish primate and papal legate, the archbishop of 
Toledo, he went to Rome and regained favour to such an extent 
that he was employed by the pope on important legations. He 
opposed the extreme Hildebrandine policy, and, on the refusal 
of Gelasius II. to concede the emperor's claim to investiture, 
he was proclaimed pope at Rome by Henry V. on the 8th of 
March 1118. He was not universally recognized, however, and 
never fully enjoyed the papal office. He was excommunicated 
by Gelasius II. in April 1118, and by Calixtus II. at the synod 
of Reims (October 1119). He was driven from Rome by the 
latter in June 1121, and, having been surrendered by the citizens 
of Sutri, he was forced to accompany in ridiculous guise the 
triumphal procession of Calixtus through Rome. He was exiled 
to the convent of La Cava, where he died. 

The life of Gregory VIII. by Baluzius in Baluzii miscellanea, 
vol. i, ed. by J. D. Mansi (Lucca, 1761), is an excellent vindication of 
an antipope. The chief sources are in Monumenta Germaniae 
historica, Scriptores, vols. 5 and 20, and in J. M. Watterich, Pontif. 
Roman, vitae, vol. 2. See C. Mirbt, Die Publizistik im Zeitalter 
Gregors VII. (Leipzig, 189^); J. Langen, Geschichle der romischen 
Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); Jaff6, 
Regesta pontif. Roman., 2nd ed., (1885-1888); K. J. von Hefele, 
Concilieneeschichle, Bd. 5, 2nd ed. ; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the 
Middle Aees, vol. 4, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 
1900-1902); P. B. Gams, Kirchengeschichte von Spanien, vol. 3. 
(Regensburg, 1876). 

GREGORY VIII. (Alberto de Mora), pope from the 2ist of 
October to the I7th of December 1187, a native of Benevento 
and Praemonstratensian monk, successively abbot of St Martin 
at Laon, cardinal-deacon of San' Adriano al foro, cardinal-priest 
of San Lorenzo in Lucina, and chancellor of the Roman Church, 
was elected to succeed Urban III. Of amiable disposition, he 
hastened to make peace with Henry VI. and promised not to 
oppose the latter's claim to Sicily. He addressed general letters 
both to the bishops, reminding them of their duties to the 
Roman Church, especially of their required visits ad limina, 
and to the whole Christian people, urging a new crusade to 
recover Jerusalem. He died at Pisa while engaged in making 
peace between the Pisans and Genoese in order to secure the 
help of both cities in the crusade. His successor was Clement III. 

His letters are in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lat. vol. 202. Consult also 
J. M. Watterich, Pontif. Roman, vitae, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862), and 
Jaffe-Wattenbach, Regesta pontif. Roman. (1885-1888). See J. 
Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz 
III. (Bonn, 1893); P. Nadig, Gregors VIII. 5?tdgiges Pontifikat 
(Basel, 1890); P. Scheffer-Boichorst, Friedrichs I. letzter Streit mil 
der Kurie (Berlin, 1866) ; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, 
vol. 4, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896). 

GREGORY IX. (Ugolino Conti de Segni), pope from the ipth of 
March 1227, to the 22nd of August 1241, was a nobleman of 
Anagni and probably a nephew of Innocent III. He studied 



574 

at Paris and Bologna, and, having been successively archpriest 
of St Peter's, papal chaplain, cardinal-deacon of Sant' Eustachio, 
cardinal-bishop of Ostia, the first protector of the Franciscan 
order, and papal legate in Germany under Innocent III., and 
Honorius III., he succeeded the latter in the papacy. He had long 
been on friendly terms with the emperor Frederick II., but now 
excommunicated him (29th of September 1227) for continued 
neglect of his vows and refusal to undertake the crusade. When 
Frederick finally set out the following June without making 
submission to the pope, Gregory raised an insurrection against 
him in Germany, and forced him in 1 230 to beg for absolution. 
The Romans, however, soon began a very bitter war against the 
temporal power and exiled the pope (ist of June 1231). Hardly 
had this contest been brought to an end favourable to the papacy 
(May 1235) when Gregory came into fresh conflict with Frederick 
II. He again excommunicated the emperor and released his 
subjects from their allegiance (24th of March 1239). Frederick, 
on his side, invaded the Papal States and prevented the assem- 
bling of a general council convoked for Easter 1241. The work 
of Gregory, however, was by no means limited to his relations 
with emperor and Romans. He systematized the Inquisition 
and entrusted it to the Dominicans; his rules against heretics 
remained in force until the time of Sixtus V. He supported 
Henry III. against the English barons, and protested against 
the Pragmatic Sanction of Louis IX. of France. He sent 
monks to Constantinople to negotiate with the Greeks for church 
unity, but without result. He canonized Saints Elizabeth of 
Thuringia, Dominic, Anthony of Padua and Francis of Assisi. 
He permitted free study of the Aristotelian writings, and issued 
(1234), through his chaplain, Raymond of Pennaforte, an 
important new compilation of decretals which he prescribed in 
the bull Rex pacificus should be the standard text-book in canon 
law at the universities of Bologna and Paris. Gregory was 
famed for his learning and eloquence, his blameless life, and his 
great strength of character. He died on the 22nd of August 
1241, while Frederick II. was advancing against him, and was 
succeeded by Celestine IV. 

For the life of Gregory IX., consult his Letters.in Monumenta 
Germaniae historica, Epistolae saeculi XIII. e regestis pontif. Raman, 
selectae (Berlin, 1883) ; " Les Registres de Gr6goire IX," ed. L. 
Auvray in Bibliotheque des ecoles frangaises d'Athenes et de Rome 
(Paris, 1890-1905); A. Potthast, Regesta pontif. Roman. (Berlin, 
1875) and " Registri dei Cardinal! Ugolino d' Ostia et Ottaviano 
degli Ubaldini," ed. G. Levi in Fonti per la storia d' Italia (1890). 
See J. Felten, Papst Gregor IX. (Freiburg i. B., 1886); J. Marx, 
Die Vita Gregorii IX. quellenkritisch untersucht (1889); P. Balan, 
Storia di Gregorio IX e dei suoi tempi (3 vols., Modena, 1872-1873) ; 
F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 5, trans, by Mrs G. W. 
Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); H. H. Milman, Latin Christianity, 
vol. 5 (London, 1899); R. Honig, Rapporti tra Federico II e 
Gregorio IX rispetto alia spedizione in Palestina (1896) ; P. T. 
Masctti, I Pontefici Onorio HI, Gregorio IX ed Innocenzo IV a 
fronte dell' Imperatore Federico II nel secolo XIII (1884); T. 
Frantz, Der grosse Kampf zwischen Kaisertum u. Papsttum zur Zeit 
des Hohenstaufen Friedrich II. (Berlin, 1903); W. Norden, Das 
Papsttum u. Byzanz (Berlin, 1903). An exhaustive bibliography 
and an excellent article on Gregory by Carl Mirbt are to be found in 
Hauck's Realencyklopadie, 3rd edition. 

GREGORY X. (Tebaldo Visconti) ,'pope from the ist of September 
1271, to the loth of January 1276, was born at Piacenza in 1208, 
studied for the church, and became archdeacon of Liege. The 
eighteen cardinals who met to elect a successor to Clement IV. 
were divided into French and Italian factions, which wrangled 
over the election for nearly three years in the midst of great 
popular excitement, until finally, stirred by the eloquence of St 
Bonaventura, the Franciscan monk, they entrusted the choice 
to six electors, who hit on Visconti, at that time accompanying 
Edward of England on the crusade. He returned to Rome and 
was ordained priest on the igth of March 1272, and consecrated 
on the 27th. He at once summoned the fourteenth general 
council of the Catholic Church, which met at Lyons in 1274, 
with an attendance of some 1600 prelates, for the purpose of 
considering the eastern schism, the condition of the Holy Land, 
and the abuses in the church. The Greeks were persuaded, 
thanks to St Bonaventura, to consent to a union with Rome for 
the time being, and Rudolph of Habsburg renounced at the 



GREGORY (POPES) 



council all imperial rights in the States of the Church. The 
most celebrated among the many reform decrees issued by 
Gregory was the constitution determining for the first time the 
form of conclave at papal elections, which in large measure has 
remained ever since the law of the church. Gregory was on his 
way to Rome to crown Rudolph and send him out on a great 
crusade in company with the kings of England, France, Aragon 
and Sicily, when he died at Arezzo on the loth of January 1276. 
He was a nobleman, fond of peace and actuated by the conscious- 
ness of a great mission. He has been honoured as a saint by the 
inhabitants of Arezzo and Piacenza. His successor in the 
papacy was Innocent V. 

The registers of Gregory X. have been published by J. Guiraud 
in ths Bibliotheque des ecoles franf aises d'Athenes et de Rome (Paris, 
1892-1898). See K. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vol. 5, 2nd 
edition (1873-1890); H. Finke, Konzilienstudien z. Gesch. des 
Ijten Jahrhunderts (Munster, 1891); P. Piacenza, Compendia della 
storia del b. Gregorio X, papa (Piacenza, 1876); F. Gregorovius, 
Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 5, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton 
(London, 1900-1902) ; H. Otto, Die Beziehungen Rudolfs von 
Habsburgs zu Papst Gregor X. (Innsbruck, 1895); A Zisterer, 
Gregor X. u. Rudolf von Habsburg in ihren gegenseitigen Beziehungen 
(Freiburg i. B., 1891) ; F. Walter, Die Politik der Kurie unter Gregor 
X. (Berlin, 1894); A. Potthast, Regesta ponlif. Roman, vol. 2 
(Berlin, 1875) ; W. Norden, Das Papsttum und Byzanz (Berlin, 1903) ; 
J. Loserth, " Akten tibcr die Warn Gregors X." in Neues Archiv, 
xxi. (1895); | A. von Hirsch-Gereuth, "Die Kreuzzugspolitik 
Gregors X." in Studien z. Gesch. d. Kreuzzugsidee nach den Kreuzziigen 
(Munich, 1896). There isan excellent article byCarl Mirbt in Hauck's 
Realencyklopadie, 3rd edition. 

GREGORY XI. (Pierre Roger de Beaufort), pope from the 3oth 
of December 1370 to the 27th of March 1378, born in Limousin 
in 1330. created cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria Nuova by his 
uncle, Clement VI., was the successor of Urban V. His efforts 
to establish peace between France and England and to aid the 
Eastern Christians against the Turks were fruitless, but he 
prevented the Visconti of Milan from making further encroach- 
ments on the States of the Church. He introduced many 
reforms in the various monastic orders and took vigorous 
measures against the heresies of the time. His energy was 
stimulated by the stirring words of Catherine of Siena, to whom 
in particular the transference of the papal see back to Italy 
(i7th of January 1377) was almost entirely due. Whilst at 
Rome he issued several bulls to the archbishop of Canterbury, 
the king of England, and the university of Oxford, commanding 
an investigation of Wycliffe's doctrines. Gregory was meditating 
a return to Avignon when he died. He was the last of the French 
popes who for some seventy years had made Avignon their see, 
a man learned and full of zeal for the church, but irresolute and 
guilty of nepotism. The great schism, which was to endure fifty 
years, broke out soon after the election of his successor, Urban VI. 

See H. J. Tomaseth, " Die Register u. Secretare Urbans V. u. 
Gregors XI." in Mitleilungen des Instituts fiir osterreichische Ge- 
schichtsforschung (1898); Baluzius, Vitae pap. Avenion. vol. I (Paris, 
1693) ; L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. i, trans, by F. I. Antrobus 
(London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 6, 
trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902) ; J. P. Kirsch, 
Die Ruckkehr der Pdpste Urban V. u. Gregor XI. con Avignon nach 
Rom (Paderborn, 1898); J. B. Christophe, Histoire de la papaute 
pendant le XIV siecle, vol. 2 (Paris, 1853). There is a good article 
by J. N. Brischar in the Kirchenlexikon, 2nd edition. 

GREGORY XII. (Angela Coriaro, or Correr), pope from the 
30th of November 1406, to the 4th of July 1415, was born of a 
noble family at Venice about 1326. Successively bishop of 
Castello, Latin patriarch of Constantinople, cardinal-priest of 
San Marco, and papal secretary, he was elected to succeed 
Innocent VII., after an interregnum of twenty-four days, under 
the express condition that, should the antipope Benedict XIII. 
at Avignon renounce all claim to the papacy, he also would 
renounce his, so that the long schism might be terminated. 
As pope, he concluded a treaty with his rival at Marseilles, by 
which a general council was to be held at Savona in September, 
1408, but King Ladislaus of Naples, who opposed the plan from 
polky, seized Rome and brought the negotiations to nought. 
Gregory had promised not to create any more cardinals, and 
when he did so, in 1408, his former cardinals deserted him and, 
together with the Avignon cardinals, convoked the council of 



GREGORY (POPES) 



575 




Pisa, which, despite its irregularity, proclaimed in June 1409 
the deposition of both popes and the election of Alexander V. 
Gregory, still supported by Naples, Hungary, Bavaria, and by 
Rupert, king of the Romans, found protection with Ladislaus, 
and in a synod at Cividale del Friuli banned Benedict and 
Alexander as schismatical, perjured and scandalous. John 
XXIII., having succeeded to the claims of Alexander in 1410, 
concluded a treaty with Ladislaus, by. which Gregory was 
banished from Naples on the 3ist of October 1411. The pope 
then took refuge with Carlo Malatesta, lord of Rimini, through 
whom he presented his resignation to the council of Constance 
m the 4th of July 1415. A weak and easily-influenced old man, 
resignation was the noblest act of his pontificate. The 

it of his life was spent in peaceful obscurity as cardinal-bishop 

Porto and legate of the mark of Ancona. He died at Recanati 
m the i8th of October 1417. Some writers reckon Alexander V. 
and John XXIII. as popes rather than as antipopes, and accord- 
ingly count Gregory's pontificate from 1406 to 1409. Roman 
Catholic authorities, however, incline to the other reckoning. 

See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. i., trans, by F. I. Antrobus 
(London, 1899); M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. i 
(London, 1899); N. Valois, La France et le grand schisme d' accident 
(Paris, 1896-1902); Louis Gayet, Le Grand Schisme d'occident 
(Paris, 1898); J. von Haller, Papsttum u. Kirchenreform (Berlin, 
1903) I J- Loserth, Geschichte des spiiteren Mittclalters (1903) ; 
Theoderici de Nyem de schismate libri tres, ed. by G. Erler (Leipzig, 
1890). There is an excellent article by J. N. Brischar in the Kirchen- 
lexikon 2nd ed., vol. 5. (C. H. HA.) 

GREGORY XIII. (Ugo Buoncompagno), pope from 1572 to 1585, 
was born on the 7th of January 1502, in Bologna, where he 
received his education, and subsequently taught, until called 
to Rome (1539) by Paul III., who employed him in various 
offices. He bore a prominent part in the council of Trent, 1562- 
1563. In 1564 he was made cardinal by Pius IV., and, in the 
following year, sent to Spain as legate. On the I3th of May 
1572 he was chosen pope to succeed Pius V. His previous life 
had been rather worldly, and not wholly free from spot; but 
as pope he gave no occasion of offence. He submitted to the 
influence of the rigorists, and carried forward the war upon 
heresy, though not with the savage vehemence of his predecessor. 
However, he received the news of the massacre of St Bartholomew 
(23rd of August 1572) with joy, and publicly celebrated the 
event, having been led to believe, according to his apologists, 
that France had been miraculously delivered, and that the 
Huguenots had suffered justly as traitors. Having failed to rouse 
Spain and Venice against the Turks, Gregory attempted to form 
a general coalition against the Protestants. He subsidized 
Philip II. in his wars in the Netherlands; aided the Catholic 
League in France; incited attacks upon Elizabeth by way of 
Ireland. With the aid of the Jesuits, whose privileges he multi- 
plied, he conducted a vigorous propaganda. He established 
or endowed above a score of colleges, among them the Collegium 
Romanum (founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1550), and the 
Collegium Germanicum, in Rome. Among his noteworthy 
achievements are the reform of the calendar on the 24th of 
February 1582 (see CALENDAR); the improved edition of the 
Corpus juris canonici, 1582; the splendid Gregorian Chapel 
in St Peter's; the fountains of the Piazza Navona; the Quirinal 
Palace; and many other public works. To meet the expenses 
entailed by his liberality and extravagance, Gregory resorted 
to confiscation, on the pretext of defective titles or long-standing 
arrearages. The result was disastrous to the public peace: 
nobles armed in their defence; old feuds revived; the country 
became infested with bandits; not even in Rome could order be 
maintained. Amid these disturbances Gregory died, on the loth 
of April 1585, leaving to his successor, Sixtus V., the task of 
pacifying the state. 

See the contemporary lives by Cicarella, continuator of Platina, 
De vitis pontiff. Rom. ; Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum 
pontiff. Rom. (Rome, 16011602); and Ciappi, Comp. dell' attioni 
e santa vita di Gregorio XIII (Rome, 1591). See also Bompiano, 
Hist, pontificatus Gregorii XIII. (Rome, 1655); Ranke, Popes 
(Eng. trans., Austin), i. 428 seq. ; v. Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom, 
iii. 2, 566 seq. ; and for numerous references upon Gregory's relation 
to the massacre of St Bartholomew, Cambridge Mod. Hist. iii. 771 seq. 



GREGORY XIV. (NicoM Sfondrato), pope 1590-1391, was born 
in Cremona, on the nth of February 1535, studied in Perugia, 
and Padua, became bishop of his native place in 1560, and took 
part in the council of Trent, 1562-1563. Gregory XIII. made 
him a cardinal, 1583, but ill-health forbade his active participa- 
tion in affairs. His election to the papacy, to succeed Urban VII., 
on the 5th of December 1590, was due to Spanish influence. 
Gregory was upright and devout, but utterly ignorant of politics. 
During his short pontificate the States of the Church suffered 
dire calamities, famine, epidemic and a fresh outbreak of brigand- 
age. Gregory was completely subservient to Philip II.; he 
aided the league, excommunicated Henry of Navarre, and 
threatened his adherents with the ban; but the effect of his 
intervention was only to rally the moderate Catholics to the 
support of Henry, and to hasten his conversion. Gregory died 
on the 1 5th of October 1591, and was succeeded by Innocent IX. 

See Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. Rom. (Rome, 
1601-1602); Cicarella, continuator of Platina, De vitis pontiff. Rom. 
(both contemporary) ; Brosch, Gesch. des Kirchenstaates (1880), i. 300 ; 
Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), ii. 228 seq. 

GREGORY XV. (Alessandro Ludovisi) was born on the 9th of 
January 1554, in Bologna, where he also studied and taught. 
He was made archbishop of his native place and cardinal by 
Paul V., whom he succeeded as pope on the gth of February 1621. 
Despite his age and feebleness, Gregory displayed remarkable 
energy. He aided the emperor in the Thirty Years' War, and 
the king of Poland against the Turks. He endorsed the claims 
of Maximilian of Bavaria to the electoral dignity, and was 
rewarded with the gift of the Heidelberg library, which was 
carried off to Rome. Gregory founded the Congregation of the 
Propaganda, encouraged missions, fixed the order to be observed 
in conclaves, and canonized Ignatius Loyola, Francis Xavier, 
Philip Neri and Theresa de Jesus. He died on the 8th of July 
1623, and was succeeded by Urban VIII. 

See the contemporary life by Vitorelli, continuator of Ciaconius, 
Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. Rom. ; Ranke's excellent 
account, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), ii. 468 seq. ; v. Reumont, Gesch. 
der Stadt Rom, iii. 2, 609 seq. ; Brosch, Gesch. des Kirchenstaates 
(1880), i. 370 seq.; and theextended bibliography in Herzog-Hauck, 
Realencyklopddie, s.v, " Gregor XV." (T. F. C.) 

GREGORY XVI. (Bartolommeo Alberto Cappellari), pope from 
1831 to 1846, was born at Bellunoonthe i8th of September 1765, 
and at an early age entered the order of the Camaldoli, among 
whom he rapidly gained distinction for his theological and 
linguistic acquirements. His first appearance before a wider 
public was in 1799, when he published against the Italian 
Jansenists a controversial work entitled // Trionfo della Santa 
Sede, which, besides passing through several editions in Italy, 
has been translated into several European languages. In 1800 
he became a member of the Academy of the Catholic Religion, 
founded by Pius VII., to which he contributed a number of 
memoirs on theological and philosophical questions and in 1805 
was made abbot of San Gregorio on the Caelian Hill. When 
Pius VII. was carried off from Rome in 1809, Cappellari withdrew 
to Murano, near Venice, and in 1814, with some other members 
of his order, he removed to Padua; but soon after the restoration 
of the pope he was recalled to Rome, where he received successive 
appointments as vicar-general of the Camaldoli, councillor of the 
Inquisition, prefect of the Propaganda, and examiner of bishops. 
In March 1825 he was created cardinal by Leo XII., and shortly 
afterwards was entrusted with an important mission to adjust 
a concordat regarding the interests of the Catholics of Belgium 
and the Protestants of Holland. On the 2nd of February 1831 
He was, after sixty-four days' conclave, unexpectedly chosen to 
succeed Pius VIII. in the papal chair. The revolution of 1830 
had just inflicted a severe blow on the ecclesiastical party in 
France, and almost the first act of the new government there 
was to seize Ancona, thus throwing all Italy, and particularly 
the Papal States, into an excited condition which seemed to 
demand strongly repressive measures. In the course of the 
struggle which ensued it was more than once necessary to call 
in the Austrian bayonets. The reactionaries in power put 
off their promised reforms so persistently as to anger even 



576 



GREGORY 



Metternich ; nor did the replacement of Bernetti by Lambruschini 
in 1836 mend matters; for the new cardinal secretary of state 
objected even to railways and illuminating gas, and was liberal 
chiefly in his employment of spies and of prisons. The embar- 
rassed financial condition in which Gregory left the States of the 
Church makes it doubtful how far his lavish expenditure in 
architectural and engineering works, and his magnificent patron- 
ageof learning in the handsof Mai,Mezzofanti,Gaetano, Moroni 
and others, were for the real benefit of his subjects. The years 
of his pontificate were marked by the steady development and 
diffusion of those ultramontane ideas which were ultimately 
formulated, under the presidency of his successor Pius IX., by 
the council of the Vatican. He died on the ist of June 1846. 

See A. M. Bernasconi, Acta Gregorii Papae XVI. scilicet constitu- 
tiones, bullae, litterae apostolicae, epistolae, vols. 1-4 (Rome, 1901 ff.) ; 
Cardinal Wiseman, Recollections of the Last Four Popes (London, 
1858) ; Herzog-Hauck, Realencykloptidie, vol. vii. (Leipzig, 1899), 127 
ff. (gives literature) ; Frederik Nielsen, History of the Papacy in the 
igth Century, ii. (London, 1906). (W. W. R.*) 

GREGORY, 1 the name of a Scottish family, many members 
of which attained high eminence in various departments of science, 
fourteen having held professorships in mathematics or medicine. 
Of the most distinguished of their number a notice is given 
below. 

I. DAVID GREGORY (1627-1720), eldest son of the Rev. John 
Gregory of Drumoak, Aberdeenshire, who married Janet 
Anderson in 1621. He was for some time connected with a 
mercantile house in Holland, but on succeeding to the family 
estate of Kinardie returned to Scotland, and occupied most of his 
time in scientific pursuits, freely giving his poorer neighbours the 
benefit of his medical skill. He is said to have been the first 
possessor of a barometer in the north of Scotland; and on 
account of his success by means of it in predicting changes in 
the weather, he was accused of witchcraft before the presbytery 
of Aberdeen, but he succeeded in convincing that body of his 
innocence. 

II. JAMES GREGORY (1638-1675), Scottish mathematician, 
younger brother of the preceding, was educated at the grammar 
school of Aberdeen and at Marischal College of that city. At an 
early period he manifested a strong inclination and capacity for 
mathematics and kindred sciences; and in 1663 he published his 
famous treatise Optica promota, in which he made known his 
great invention, the Gregorian reflecting telescope. About 1665 
he went to the university of Padua, where he studied for some 
years, and in 1667 published Vera circuit et hyperbolae quadra- 
tura, in which he discussed infinite convergent series for the areas 
of the circle and hyperbola. In the following year he published 
also at Padua Geometriae pars universalis, in which he gave 
a series of rules for the rectification of curves and the mensuration 
of their solids of revolution. On his return to England in this 
year he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society; in 1669 he 
became professor of mathematics in the university of St Andrews; 
and in 1674 he was transferred to the chair of mathematics in 
Edinburgh. In October 1675, while showing the satellites of 
the planet Jupiter to some of his students through one of his 
telescopes, he was suddenly struck with blindness, and he died 
a few days afterwards. 

He was also the author of Exercitationes geometricae (1668), and, 
it is alleged, of a satirical tract entitled The Great and New Art of 
Weighing Vanity, intended to ridicule certain fallacies of a con- 
temporary writer on hydraulics, and published at Glasgow in 1672, 
professedly by " Patrick Mathers, archbeadle of the university of 
St Andrews." 

III. DAVID GREGORY (1661-1708), son of David Gregory 
(1627-1720), was born in Aberdeen and educated partly in his 
native city and partly in Edinburgh, where he became professor 
of mathematics in 1683. From 1691 till his death he was Savilian 
professor of astronomy at Oxford. His principal works are 
Exercitatio geometricadedimensionefigurarum (1684), Catoptricae 
et dioplricae sphaericae elemenla (1695), and Astronomiae 
physicae et geometricae elementa (1702) the last a work 
highly esteemed by Sir Isaac Newton, of whose system it is an 
illustration and a defence. A Treatise on Practical Geometry 

1 See A. G. Stewart, The Academic Gregories. 



which he left in manuscript was translated from the Latin 
and published in 1745. He was succeeded in the chair of mathe- 
matics in Edinburgh by his brother James; another brother, 
Charles, was in 1707 appointed professor of mathematics in the 
university of St Andrews; and his eldest son, David (1696- 
1767), became professor of modern history at Oxford, and canon 
and subsequently dean of Christ Church. 

IV. JOHN GREGORY (1724-1773), Scottish physician, grandson 
of James Gregory (1638-1675) and youngest son of Dr James 
Gregory (d. 1731), professor of medicine in King's College, 
Aberdeen, was born at Aberdeen on the 3rd of June 1724. He 
received his early education at the grammar school of Aberdeen 
and at King's College in that city, and in 1741 he attended the 
medical classes at Edinburgh university. In 1745 he went to 
Leiden to complete his medical studies, and during his stay 
there he received without solicitation the degree of doctor of 
medicine from King's College, Aberdeen. On his return from 
Holland he was elected professor of philosophy at King's College, 
but in 1749 he resigned his professorship on account of its duties 
interfering too much with his private practice. In 1754 he pro- 
ceeded to London, where he made the acquaintance of many 
persons of distinction, and the same year was chosen fellow of 
the Royal Society. On the death in November 1755 of his 
brother Dr James Gregory, who had succeeded his father as 
professor of medicine in King's College, Aberdeen, he was 
appointed to that office. In 1764 he removed to Edinburgh in 
the hope of obtaining a more extended field of practice as a 
physician, and in 1766 he was appointed professor of the practice 
of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, to whose eminence 
as a medical school he largely contributed. He died of gout on 
the loth of February 1773. 

He is the author of A Comparative View of the State and Faculties 
of Man with those of the Animal World (1765); Observations on the 
Duties, Offices and Qualifications of a Physician (1772); Elements 
of the Practice of Physic (1772); and A Father's Legacy to his 
Daughters (1774). His Whole Works, with a life by Mr Tytler (after- 
wards Lord Woodhouselee), were published at Edinburgh in 1788. 

V. JAMES GREGORY (1753-1821), Scottish physician, eldest 
son of the preceding, was born at Aberdeen in January 1753. 
He accompanied his father to Edinburgh in 1764, and after 
going through the usual course of literary studies at that uni- 
versity, he was for a short time a student at Christchurch, 
Oxford. It was there probably that he acquired that taste for 
classical learning which afterwards distinguished him. He 
studied medicine at Edinburgh, and, after graduating doctor of 
medicine in 1774, spent the greater part of the next two years 
in Holland, France and Italy. Shortly after his return to 
Scotland he was appointed in 1776 to the chair his father had 
formerly held, and in the following year he also entered on the 
duties of teacher of clinical medicine in the Royal Infirmary. 
On the illness of Dr William Cullen in 1790 he was appointed 
joint-professor of the practice of medicine, and he became the 
head of the Edinburgh Medical School on the death of Dr Cullen 
in the same year. He died on the 2nd of April 1821. As a medical 
practitioner Gregory was for the last ten years of his life at the 
head of the profession in Scotland. He was at one time president 
of the Edinburgh College of Physicians, but his indiscretion in 
publishing certain private proceedings of the college led to his 
suspension on the I3th of May 1809 from all rights and privileges 
which pertained to the fellowship. 

Besides his Conspectus medicinae theoreticae, published in 1788 as 
a text-book for his lectures on the institutes, Dr Gregory was the 
author of " A Theory of the Moods of Verbs," published in the 
Edin. Phil. Trans. (1787), and of Literary and Philosophical Essays, 
published in two volumes in 1792. 

VI. WILLIAM GREGORY (1803-1858), son of James Gregory 
( I 753~ 1 82i), was born on the 25th of December 1803. In 1837 
he became professor of chemistry at the Andersonian Institution, 
Glasgow, in 1839 at King's College, Aberdeen, and in 1844 at 
Edinburgh University. He died on the 24th of April 1858. 
Gregory was one of the first in England to advocate the theories 
of Justus von Liebig, and translated several of his works. He 
is also the author of Outlines of Chemistry (1845), and an Ele- 
mentary Treatise on Chemistry (1853). 



GREGORY, E. J. GREISEN 



VII. DUNCAN FARQUHARSON GREGORY (1813-1844), brother 
of the preceding, was born on the I3th of April 1813. After 
studying at the university of Edinburgh he in 1833 entered 
Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was for a time assistant 
professor of chemistry, but he devoted his attention chiefly 
to mathematics. He died on the 23rd of February 1844. 

The Cambridge Mathematical Journal was originated, and for some 
time edited, by him ; and he also published a Collection of Examples 
of Processes in the Differential and Integral Calculus (18,11). A 
Treatise on the Application of Analysis to Solid Geometry, which he 
left unfinished, was completed by W. Walton, and published posthum- 
ously in 1846. His Mathematical Writings, edited by W. Walton, 
with a biographical memoir by Robert Leslie Ellis, appeared in 1865. 

GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-1909), British painter, 
Drn at Southampton, began work at the age of fifteen in the 

gineer's drawing office of the Peninsular and Oriental Company. 

fterwards he studied at South Kensington, and about 1871 
entered on a successful career as an illustrator and as an admir- 
able painter in oil and water colour. He was elected associate of 
the Royal Academy in 1883, academician in 1898, and president 
of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours in 1898. 
His work is distinguished by remarkable technical qualities, 
by exceptional firmness and decision of draughtsmanship and 
by unusual certainty of handling. His " Marooned," a water 
colour, is in the National Gallery of British Art. Many of his 
pictures were shown at Burlington House at the winter exhibi- 
tion of 1909-1910 after his death in June 1909. 

GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774-1841), English 
mathematician, was born on the 29th of January 1774 at Yaxley 
in Huntingdonshire. Having been educated by Richard Weston, 
a Leicester botanist, he published in 1793 a treatise, Lessons 
Astronomical and Philosophical. Having settled at Cambridge 
in 1796, Gregory first acted as sub-editor on the Cambridge 
Intelligencer, and then opened a bookseller's shop. In 1802 he 
obtained an appointment as mathematical master at Woolwich 
through the influence of Charles Hutton, to whose notice he had 
been brought by a manuscript on the " Use of the Sliding 
Rule"; and when Hutton resigned in 1807 Gregory succeeded 
him in the professorship. Failing health obliged him to retire 
in 1838, and he died at Woolwich on the 2nd of February 1841. 

Gregory wrote Hints for the Use of Teachers of Elementary Mathe- 
matics (1840, new edition 1853), and Mathematics for Practical 
Men (1825), which was revised and enlarged by Henry Law in 1848, 
and again by J. R. Young in 1862. His Letters on the Evidences of 
Christianity (1815) have been several times reprinted, and an abridg- 
ment was published by the Religious Tract Society in 1853. He 
will probably be longest remembered for his Biography of Robert Hall, 
which first appeared in the collected edition of Hall's works, was 
published separately in 1833, and has since passed through several 
editions. The minor importance of his Memoir of John Mason Good 
(1828) is due to the narrower fame of the subject. Gregory was one 
of the founders of the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1802 he was 
appointed editor of the Gentlemen's Diary, and in 1818 editor of the 
Ladies' Diary and superintendent of the almanacs of the Stationers' 
Company. 

GREIFENBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province 
of Pomerania, on the Rega, 45 m. N.E. of Stettin on the railway 
to Kolberg. Pop. (1905) 7208. It has two Evangelical churches 
(among them that of St Mary, dating from i3th century), two 
ancient gateways, a powder tower and a gymnasium. The 
manufacture of machines, stoves and bricks are the principal 
industries. Greifenberg possessed municipal rights as early as 
1262, and in the I4th and I5th centuries had a considerable 
shipping trade, but it lost much of its prosperity during the 
Thirty Years' War. 

See Ricmann, Geschichte der Stadt Greifenberg (1862). 

GREIFENHAGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian 
province of Pomerania, on the Reglitz, 12 m. S.S.W. of Stettin 
by rail. Pop. (1905) 6473. Its prosperity depends chiefly on 
agriculture and it has a considerable trade in cattle. There are 
also felt manufactures and saw mills. Greifenhagen was built 
in 1230, and was raised to the rank of a town and fortified about 
1250. In the Thirty Years' War it was taken both by the 
imperialists and the Swedes, and in 1675 it was captured by the 
Brandenburgers, into whose possession it came finally in 1679. 
xn. 19 



577 

GREIFSWALD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province 
of Pomerania, on the navigable Ryk, 3 m. from its mouth on 
the Baltic at the little port of Wyk, and 20 m. S.E. from Stralsund 
by rail. Pop. (1875) 18,022, (1005) 23,750. It has wide and 
regular streets, flanked by numerous gabled houses, and is 
surrounded by pleasant promenades on the site of its old ram- 
parts. The three Gothic Protestant churches, the Marienkirche, 
the Nikolaikirche and the Jakobikirche, and the town-hall 
(Rathaus) are the principal edifices, and these with their lofty 
spires are very picturesque. There is a statue of the emperor 
Frederick III. and a war memorial in the town. The industries 
mainly consist in shipbuilding, fish-curing, and the manufacture 
of machinery (particularly for agriculture), and the commerce in 
the export of corn, wood and fish. There is a theatre, an 
orphanage and a municipal library. Greifswald is, however, 
best known to fame by reason of its university. This, founded 
in 1456, is well endowed and is largely frequented by students 
of medicine. Connected with it are a library of 150,000 volumes 
and 800 MSS., a chemical laboratory, a zoological museum, a 
gynaecological institute, an ophthalmological school, a botanical 
garden and at Eldena (a seaside resort on the Baltic) an agri- 
cultural school. In front of the university, which had 775 
students and about too teachers in 1904, stands a monument 
commemorating its four hundredth anniversary. 

Greifswald was founded about 1240 by traders from the 
Netherlands. In 1250 it received a town constitution and 
Liibeck rights from Duke Wratislaw of Pomerania. In 1270 it 
joined the Hanse towns, Stralsund, Rostock, Wismar and 
Liibeck, and took part in the wars which they carried on against 
the kings of Denmark and Norway. During the Thirty Years' 
War it was formed into a fortress by the imperialists, but they 
vacated it in 1631 to the Swedes, in whose possession it remained 
after the peace of Westphalia. In 1678 it was captured by the 
elector of Brandenburg, but was restored to the Swedes in the 
following year; in 1713 it was desolated by the Russians; in 
1715 it came into the possession of Denmark; and in 1721 it 
was again restored to Sweden, under whose protection it remained 
till 1815, when, along with the whole of Swedish Pomerania, 
it came into the possession of Prussia. 

See J. G. L. Kosegarten, Geschichte der Universitdt Greifswald 
(1856); C. Gesterding, Beitrag zur Geschichte der Stadt Greifswald 
(3 vols., 1827-1829); and I. Ziegler, Geschichte der Sladt Greifswald 
(Greifswald, 1897). 

GREISEN (in French, hyalomicte) , a modification of granite, 
consisting essentially of quartz and white mica, and distinguished 
from granite by the absence of felspar and biotite. In the hand 
specimen the rock has a silvery glittering appearance from the 
abundance of lamellar crystals of muscovite, but many greisens 
have much of the appearance of granite, except that they are 
paler in colour. The commonest accessory minerals are tourma- 
line, topaz, apatite, fluorspar and iron oxides; a little felspar 
more or less altered may also be present and a brown mica which 
is biotite or lithionite. The tourmaline in section is brown, 
green, blue or colourless, and often the same crystal shows many 
different tints. The white mica forms mostly large plates with 
imperfect crystalline outlines. The quartz is rich in fluid 
enclosures. Apatite and topaz are both colourless and of 
irregular form. Felspar if present may be orthoclase and 
oligoclase. 

Greisen occurs typically in belts or veins intersecting granite. 
At the centre of each vein there is usually a fissure which may 
be open or filled with quartz. The greisen bands are from i in. 
up to 2 ft. or more in thickness. At their outer edges they pass 
gradually into the granite, for they contain felspar crystals more 
or less completely altered into aggregates of white mica and 
quartz. The transition between the two rocks is perfectly 
gradual, a fact which shows that the greisen has been produced 
by alteration of the granite. Vapours or fluids rising through 
the fissure have been the agents which effected the transmutation. 
They must have contained fluorine, boron and probably also 
lithium, for topaz, mica and tourmaline, the new minerals of the 
granite, contain these elements. The change is a post-volcanic 



578 



GREIZ GRENADE 



or pneumatolytic one induced by the vapours set free by the 
granite magma when it cools. Probably the rock was at a 
relatively high temperature at the time. A similar type of 
alteration, the development of white mica, quartz and tourmaline, 
is found sometimes in sedimentary rocks around granite masses. 
Greisen is closely connected with schorl rock both in its minera- 
logical composition and in its mode of origin. The latter is a 
piieumatolytic product consisting of quartz and tourmaline; 
it often contains white mica and thus passes by all stages into 
greisen. Both of these rocks carry frequently small percentages 
of tin oxide (cassiterite) and may be worked as ores of tin. They 
are common in Cornwall, Saxony, Tasmania and other districts 
which are centres of tin-mining. Many other greisens occur 
in which no tin is found. The analyses show the composition 





SiO 2 . 


A1 2 3 . 


Fe 2 3 . 


FeO. 


CaO. 


MgO. 


K 2 O. 


Na 2 O. 


Fl. 


B 2 3 . 


Granite 
Greisen 


70-17 
69-42 


15-07 
15-65 


88 
1-25 


1-79 

3-30 


*J3 

63 


i-ii 

1-02 


5-73 
4-06 


2-69 
27 


15 
3-36 


tr. 
59 



of Cornish granite and greisen. They make it clear that there 
has been an introduction of fluorine and boron and a diminution 
in the alkalies during the transformation of the granitic rock 
into the greisen. (J. S. F.) 

GREIZ, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of 
Reuss-Greiz (Reuss the Elder), in a pleasant valley on the right 
bank of the White Elster, near the borders of Saxony, and 66 m. 
by rail S. from Leipzig. Pop. (1875) 12,637; (i9S) 23,114. 
It consists of two parts, the old town on the right bank and the 
new town on the left bank of the river; it is rapidly growing 
and is regularly laid out. The principal buildings are the 
palace of the prince of Reuss-Greiz, surrounded by a fine park, 
the old chateau on a rocky hill overlooking the town, the summer 
palace with a fine garden, the old town church dating from 1225 
and possessing a beautiful tower, the town hall, the govern- 
mental buildings and statues of the emperor William I. and 
of Bismarck. There are classical and modern schools and a 
school of textile industry. The industries are considerable, 
and include dyeing, tanning and the manufacture of woollen, 
cotton, shawls, coverlets and paper. Greiz (formerly Grewcz) is 
apparently a town of Slav origin. From the I2th century it 
was governed by adwcati (Vogte), but in 1236 it came into the 
possession of Gera, and in 1550 of the younger line of the house 
of Plauen. It was wholly destroyed by fire in 1494, and almost 
totally in 1802. 

See Wilke, Greiz und seine Umgebung (1875), and Jahresberichte 
des Vereins fur Greizer Geschichte (1894, seq.) 

GRENADA, the southernmost of the Windward Islands, 
British West Indies. It lies between 11 58' and 12 15' N. 
and between 61 35' and 61 50' W., being 140 m. S.W. of 
Barbados and 85 m. N. by W. of Trinidad. In shape oval, it is 
21 m. long, 12 m. broad at its maximum and has an area of 133 
sq. m. It owes much of its beauty to a well-wooded range of 
mountains traversing the island from N. to S. and throwing off 
from the centre spurs which form picturesque and fertile valleys. 
These mountains attain their highest elevation in MountCatharine 
(2750 ft.). In the S.E. and N.W. there are stretches of low or 
undulating ground, devoted to fruit growing and cattle raising. 
The island is of volcanic origin; the only signs of upheaval are 
raised limestone beaches in the extreme N. Red and grey 
sandstones, hornblende and argillaceous schist are found in the 
mountains, porphyry and basaltic rocks also occur; sulphur 
and fuller's earth are worked. In the centre, at the height of 
1740 ft. above the sea, is the chief natural curiosity of Grenada, 
the Grand Etang, a circular lake, 13 acres in extent, occupying 
the site of an ancient crater. Near it is a large sanatorium, 
much frequented as a health resort. In the north-east is a larger 
lake, Lake Antoine, also occupying a crater, but it lies almost at 
the sea level. The island is watered by several short rivers, mainly 
on the east and south; there are numerous fresh water springs, 
as well as hot chalybeate and sulphurous springs. The south- 
eastern coast is much indented with bays. The climate is good, 



the temperature equable and epidemic diseases are rare. In the 
low country the average yearly temperature is 82 F., but it is 
cooler in the heights. The rainfall is very heavy, amounting in 
some parts to as much as 200 in., a year. The rainy season lasts 
from May to December, but refreshing showers frequently occur 
during other parts of the year. The average annual rainfall 
at St Georges is 79-07 in., and at Grand Etang 164 in. The 
excellent climate and good sea-bathing have made Grenada the 
health resort of the neighbouring islands, especially of Trinidad. 
Good roads and byeways intersect it in every direction. The soil 
is extraordinarily fertile, the chief products being cocoa and 
spices, especially nutmegs. The exports, sent chiefly to Great. 
Britain, are cocoa, spices, wool, cotton, coffee, live stock, hides, 
turtles, turtle shell, kola nuts, vanilla and timber. Barbados 
is dependent on Grenada for the majority of 
its firewood. Sugar is still grown, and rum 
and molasses are made, but the consump- 
tion of these is confined to the island. 

Elementary education is chiefly in the 
hands of the various denominations, whose 
schools are assisted by government grants-in-aid. There are, 
however, a few secular schools conducted by the government, 
and government-aided secondary schools for girls and a 
grammar school for boys. The schools are controlled by a 
board of education, the members of which are nominated 
by the government, and small fees are charged in all schools. 
The governor of the Windward Islands resides in Grenada and 
is administrator of it. The Legislative Council consists of 14 
members; 7 including the governor are ex-officio members and 
the rest are nominated by the Crown. English is universally 
spoken, but the negroes use a French patois, which, however, 
is gradually dying out. Only 2 % of the inhabitants are white, 
the rest being negroes and mulattoes with a few East Indians. 
The capital, St George, in the south-west, is built upon a lava 
peninsula jutting into the sea and forming one side of its land- 
locked harbour. It is surrounded by an amphitheatre of hills, 
up the sides of which climb the red-brick houses of the town. 
At the extremity of the peninsula is Fort St George, with a 
saluting battery. The ridge connecting Fort St George with 
Hospital Hill is tunnelled to give access to the two parts of the 
town lying on either side. The population in 1901 was 5198. 
There are four other towns on the west coast Gouyave, or 
Charlotte Town, and 4 m. N. of it Victoria; on the north coast 
Sauteurs; and Grenville at the head of a wide bay on the east. 
They are all in frequent communication with the capital by 
steamer. The population of the entire colony in 1901 was 63,438. 
History. Grenada was discovered in 1498 by Columbus, 
who named it Conception. Neither the Spanish nor the British, 
to whom it was granted in 1627, settled on the island. The 
governor of Martinique, du Parquet, purchased it in 1650, 
and the French were well received by the Caribs, whom they 
afterwards extirpated with the greatest cruelty. In 1665 
Grenada passed into the hands of the French West India Com- 
pany, and was administered by it until its dissolution in 1674, 
when the island passed to the French Crown. Cocoa, coffee and 
cotton were introduced in 1714. During the wars between Great 
Britain and France, Grenada capitulated to the British forces in 
1762, and was formally ceded next year by the Treaty of Paris. 
The French, under Count d'Estaing, re-captured the island in 
1779, but it was restored to Great Britain by the Treaty of 
Versailles in 1 783 . A rebellion against the British rule, instigated 
and assisted by the French, occurred in 1795, but was quelled by 
Sir Ralph Abercromby in the following year. The emancipation 
of the slaves took place in 1837, and by 1877 it was found necessary 
to introduce East Indian labour. Grenada, with cocoa as its 
staple, has not experienced similar depression to that which 
overtook the sugar-growing islands of the West Indies. 
See Grenada Handbook (London, 1905). 

GRENADE (from the French word for a pomegranate, from a 
resemblance in shape to that fruit), a small spherical explosive 
vessel thrown by hand. Hand-grenades were used in war in 
the i6th century, but the word " grenade " was also from the 



GRENADIER GRENOBLE 



579 



first used to imply an explosive shell fired from a gun; this 
survives to the present day in the German Granate. These 
weapons were employed after about 1660, by special troops 
called " grenadiers " (q.v.), and in the wars of the I7th and i8th 
centuries they are continually met with. They became obsolete 
in the igth century, but were given a new lease of life in the 2oth, 
owing to their employment in the siege of Port Arthur in 1904, 
where hand-grenades of a modern type, and containing powerful 
modern explosives, proved very effective (see AMMUNITION, Shell). 
Hand-grenades filled with chemicals and made of glass are used 
as a method of fire-extinction, and similar vessels containing a 
liquid with a very strong smell are used to discover defects in a 
drain or sewer. 

GRENADIER, originally a soldier whose special duty it was 
to throw hand-grenades. The latterwerein use fora considerable 
time before any special organization was given to the troops 
who were to use them. In 1667 four men per company in the 
French Regiment du Roi were trained with grenades (siege of 
Lille), and in 1668-1670 grenadier companies were formed in 
this regiment and in about thirty others of the French line. 
Evelyn, in his Diary, tells us that on the zpth of June 1678 he 
saw at Hounslow " a new sort of soldiers called granadiers, who 
were dexterous in flinging hand-granades." As in the case of 
the fusiliers, the French practice was therefore quickly copied 
in England. Eventually each English battalion had a grenadier 
company (see for illustrations Archaeological Journal, xxiii. 222, 
and xlvii. 321-324). Besides their grenades and the firelock, 
grenadiers carried axes which, with the grenades, were employed 
in the assault of fortresses, as we are told in the celebrated song, 
" The British Grenadiers." 

The grenadier companies were formed always of the most 
powerful men in the regiment and, when the grenade ceased 
to be used, they maintained their existence as the " crack " 
companies of their battalions, taking the right of the line on 
parade and wearing the distinctive grenadier headdress. This 
system was almost universal, and the typical infantry regiment 
of the 1 8th and early ipth century had a grenadier and a light 
company besides its " line " companies. In the British and other 
armies these elite companies were frequently taken from their 
regiments and combined in grenadier andlight infantry battalions 
for special service, and Napoleon carried this practice still further 
in the French army by organizing brigades and divisions of 
grenadiers (and correspondingly of voltigeurs). Indeed the 
companies thus detached from the line practically never returned 
to it, and this was attended with serious evils, for the battalion 
at the outbreak of war lost perhaps a quarter of its best men, 
the average men only remaining with the line. This specialorgan- 
ization of grenadiers and light companies lasted in the British 
army until about 1838. In the Prussian service the grenadiers 
became permanent and independent battalions about 1740, and 
the gradual adoption of the four-company battalion by Prussia 
and other nations tended still further to place the grenadiers by 
themselves and apart from the line. Thus at the present day 
in Germany, Russia and other countries, the title of "grenadiers" 
is borne by line regiments, indistinguishable, except for details 
of uniform and often the esprit de corps inherited from the old 
elite companies, from the rest. In the British service the only 
grenadiers remaining are the Grenadier Guards, originally the 
ist regiment of Foot Guards, which was formed in 1660 on the 
nucleus of a regiment of English royalists which followed the 
fortunes of Charles II. in exile. In Russia a whole army corps 
(headquarters Moscow) , inclusive of its artillery units, bears the 
title. 

The special headdress of the grenadier was a pointed cap, with 
peak and flaps, of embroidered cloth, or a loose fur cap of similar 
shape; both these were light field service caps. The fur cap 
has in the course of time developed into the tall " bearskin " 
worn by British guards and various corps of other armies; the 
embroidered field cap survives, transformed, however, into a 
heavy brass headdress, in the uniform of the ist Prussian Foot 
Guards, the ist Prussian Guard Grenadiers and the Russian 
Paul (Pavlovsky) Grenadier Guards. 



GRENADINES, a chain of islets in the Windward Islands, 
West Indies. They stretch for 60 m. between St Vincent and 
Grenada, following a N.E. to S.W. direction, and consist of some 
600 islets and rocks. Some are a few square miles in extent, 
others are merely rocky cones projecting from the deep. For 
purposes of administration they are divided between St Vincent 
and Grenada. Bequia, the chief island in the St Vincent group, 
is long and narrow, with an area 6 sq. m. Owing to a lack of 
water it is only slightly cultivated, but game is plentiful. 
Admiralty Bay, on the W. side, is a safe and commodious 
harbour. Carriacou, belonging to Grenada, is the largest of the 
group, being 7 m. long, 2 m. wide and 13 sq. m. in extent. A ridge 
of hills, rising to an altitude of 700 ft., traverses the centre from 
N.E. to S.W.; here admirable building stone is found. There 
are two good harbours on the west coast, Hillsborough Bay on 
which stands Hillsborough, the chief town, and Tyrell Bay, 
farther south. The island is thickly populated, the negro 
peasantry occupying small lots and working on the metayer 
system. Excellent oysters are found along the coast, and cotton 
and cattle are the chief exports. Pop. of the group, mostly on 
Carriacou (1901) 6497. 

GRENOBLE, the ancient capital of the Dauphine in S.E. 
France, and now the chief town of the Isere department, 75 m. 
by rail from Lyons, 385 m. from Chambery and 855 m. from 
Gap. Pop. (1906), town, 58,641; commune, 73,022. It is one 
of the most beautifully situated, and also one of the most strongly 
fortified, cities in Europe. Built at a height of 702 ft. on both 
banks of the river Isere just above its junction with the Drac, 
the town occupies a considerable plain at the south-western end 
of the fertile Graisivaudan valley. To the north rise the moun- 
tains of the Grande Chartreuse, to the east the range of Belle- 
donne, and to the south those of Taillefer and the Moucherotte, 
the higher summits of these ranges being partly covered with 
snow. From the Jardin de Ville and the quays of the banks of 
the Isere the summit of Mont Blanc itself is visible. The greater 
part of the town rises on the left bank of the Isere, which is 
bordered by broad quays. The older portion has the tortuous 
and narrow streets usual in towns that have been confined within 
fortifications, but in modern times these hindrances have been 
demolished. The newer portion of the town has wide thorough- 
fares and buildings of the modern French type, solid but not 
picturesque. The original town (of but small extent) was built 
on the right bank of the Isere at the southern foot of the Mont 
Rachais, now covered by a succession of fortresses that rise 
picturesquely on the slope of that hill to a very considerable 
height (885 ft. above the town). 

Grenoble is the seat of a bishopric which was founded in the 
4th century, and now comprises the department of the Isere 
formerly a suffragan of Vienne it now forms part of the ecclesi- 
astical province of Lyons. The most remarkable building in the 
town is the Palais de Justice, erected (late i$th century to i6th 
century) on the site of the old palace of the Parlement of the 
Dauphine. Opposite is the most noteworthy church of the city, 
that of St Andre (i3th century), formerly the chapel of the 
dauphins of the Viennois: in it is the I7th century monument 
of Bayard (1476-1524), the chevalier sans peur et sans reproche, 
which was removed hither in 1822; but it is uncertain whose 
bones are therein. The cathedral church of Notre Dame is a 
heavy building, dating in part from the nth century. The 
church of St Laurent, on the right bank of the Isere, is ths oldest 
in the city (nth century) and has a remarkable crypt, dating 
from Merovingian times. The town hall is a mainly modern 
building, constructed on the site of the palace of the dauphins, 
while the prefecture is entirely modern. The town library 
contains a considerable collection of paintings, mainly of the 
modern French school, but is more remarkable for its very rich 
collection of MSS. (7000) and printed books (250,000 vols.) 
which in great part belonged till 1793 to the monastery of the 
Grande Chartreuse. The natural history museum houses rich 
collections of various kinds, which contain (inter alia) numerous 
geological specimens from the neighbouring districts of the 
Dauphine and Savoy. The university, revived in modern times 



5 8 



GRENVILLE, SIR B. GRENVILLE, G. 



after a long abeyance, occupies a modern building, as does also 
the hospital, though founded as far back as the isth century. 
There are numerous societies in the town, including the Academic 
Delphinale (founded in 1772), and many charitable institutions. 

The staple industry of Grenoble is the manufacture of kid 
gloves, most of the so-called gants Jouvin being made here they 
are named after the reviver of the art, X. Jouvin (1800-1844). 
There are about 80 glove factories, which employ 18,500 persons 
(of whom 15,000 are women), the annual output being about 
800,000 dozen pairs of gloves. Among other articles produced 
at Grenoble are artificial cements, liqueurs, straw hats and 
carved furniture. 

Grenoble occupies the site of Cularo, a village of the Allobroges, 
which only became of importance when fortified by Diocletian 
and Maximian at the end of the 3rd century. Its present name 
is a corruption of Gratianopolis, a title assumed probably in 
honour of Gratian (4th century), who raised it to the rank of a 
cimtas. After passing under the power of the Burgundians 
(c. 440) and the Franks (532) it became part of the kingdom 
of Provence (879-1032). On the break-up of that kingdom a 
long struggle for supremacy ensued between the bishops of 
the city and the counts of Albon, the latter finally winning the 
day in the I2th century, and taking the title of Dauphins of the 
Viennois in the I3th century. In 1349 Grenoble was ceded with 
the rest of the Dauphine to France, but retained various municipal 
privileges which had been granted by the dauphins to the town, 
originally by a charter of 1242. In 1562 it was sacked by the 
Protestants under the baron des Adrets, but in 1572 the firmness 
of its governor, Bertrand de Gordes, saved it from a repetition 
of the Massacre of St Bartholomew. In 1590 Lesdiguieres 
(1543-1626) took the town in the name of Henry IV., then still 
a Protestant, and during his long governorship (which lasted 
to his death) did much for it by the construction of fortifications, 
quays, &c. In 1788 the attempt of the king to weaken the power 
of the parlement of Grenoble (which, though strictly a judicial 
authority, had preserved traditions of independence, since the 
suspension of the states-general of the Dauphine in 1628) roused 
the people to arms, and the " day of the tiles " (7th of June 1788) 
is memorable for the defeat of the royal forces. In 1 790, on the 
formation of the department of the Isere, Grenoble became its 
capital. Grenoble was the first important town to open its gates 
to Napoleon on his return from Elba (7th of March 1815), but 
a few months later (July) it was obliged to surrender to the 
Austrian army. Owing to its situation Grenoble was formerly 
much subject to floods, particularly in the case of the wild Drac. 
One of the worst took place in 1219, while that of 1778 was known 
as the deluge de la Saint Crepin. Among the celebrities who 
have been born at Grenoble are Vaucanson (1709-1782), Mably 
(1709-1785), Condillac (1715-1780), Beyle, best known as 
Stendhal, his nom de guerre (1783-1842), Barnave (1761-1793) 
and Casimir Perier (1777-1832). 

See A. Prudhomme, Histoire de Grenoble (1888); X. Roux, La 
Corporation des gantiers de Grenoble (1887); H. Duhamel, Grenoble 
consider^ comme centre d'excursions (1902); J. Marion, Cartulaires 
de I'eglise cathedrals de Grenoble (Paris, 1869). (W. A. B. C.) 

GRENVILLE, SIR BEVIL (1596-1643), Royalist soldier in the 
English Civil War (see GREAT REBELLION), was educated at 
Exeter College, Oxford. As member of Parliament, first for 
Cornwall, then for Launceston, Grenville supported Sir John 
Eliot and the opposition, and his intimacy with Eliot was lifelong. 
In 1639, however, he appears as a royalist going to the Scottish 
War in the train of Charles I. The reasons of this change of 
front are unknown, but Grenville's honour was above suspicion, 
and he must have entirely convinced himself that he was doing 
right. At any rate he was a very valuable recruit to the royalist 
cause, being " the most generally loved man in Cornwall." At 
the outbreak of the Civil War he and others of the gentry not 
only proclaimed the king's Commission of Array at Launceston 
assizes, but also persuaded the grand jury of the county to 
declare their opponents guilty of riot and unlawful assembly, 
whereupon the Posse comitalus was called out to expel them. 
Under the command of Sir Ralph Hopton, Sir Bevil took a 



distinguished part in the action of Bradock Down, and at 
Stratton (16 May 1643), where the parliamentary earl of Stamford 
was completely routed by the Cornishmen, led one of the storming 
parties which captured Chudleigh's lines (Clarendon, vii. 89). A 
month later, the endeavour of Hopton to unite with Maurice and 
Hertford from Oxford brought on the battle of Lansdown, near 
Bath. Here Grenville was killed at the head of the Cornish 
infantry as it reached the top of the hill. His death was a blow 
from which the king's cause in the West never recovered, for 
he alone knew how to handle the Cornishmen. Hopton they 
revered and respected, but Grenville they loved as peculiarly their 
own commander, and after his death there is little more heard 
of the reckless valour which had won Stratton and Lansdown. 
Grenville is the type of all that was best in English royalism. 
He was neither rapacious, drunken nor dissolute, but his loyalty 
was unselfish, his life pure and his skill no less than his bravery 
unquestionable. A iflonument to him has been erected on the 
field of Lansdown. 

See Lloyd, Memoirs of Excellent Personages (1668) ; S. R. Gardiner, 
History of the English Civil War (vol. i. passim) . 

GRENVILLE, GEORGE (1712-1770), English statesman, 
second son of Richard Grenville and Hester Temple, afterwards 
Countess Temple, was born on the i4th of October 1712. He 
was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, and was 
called to the bar in 1735. He entered parliament in 1741 as 
member for Buckingham, and continued to represent that 
borough till his death. In parliament he was a member of 
the " Boy Patriot " party which opposed Sir Robert Walpole. 
In December 1744 he became a lord of the admiralty in the 
Pelham administration. He allied himself with* his brother 
Richard and with William Pitt in forcing their feeble chief to give 
them promotion by rebelling against his authority and obstructing 
business. In June 1747 he became a lord of the treasury, and 
in 1754 treasurer of the navy and privy councillor. As treasurer 
of the navy in 1758 he introduced and carried a bill which 
established a less unfair system of paying the wages of the 
seamen than had existed before. He remained in office in 1761, 
when his brother Lord Temple and his brother-in-law Pitt 
resigned upon the question of the war with Spain, and in the 
administration of Lord Bute he was entrusted with the leadership 
of the House of Commons. In May 1762 he was appointed 
secretary of state, and in October first lord of the admiralty; 
and in April 1763 he became first lord of the treasury and 
chancellor of the exchequer. The most prominent measures 
of his administration were the prosecution of Wilkes and the 
passing of the American Stamp Act, which led to the first 
symptoms of alienation between America and the mother 
country. During the latter period of his term of office he was 
on a very unsatisfactory footing with the young king George III., 
who gradually came to feel a kind of horror of the interminable 
persistency of his conversation, and whom he endeavoured to 
make use of as the mere puppet of the ministry. The king made 
various attempts to induce Pitt to come to his rescue by forming 
a ministry, but without success, and at last had recourse to the 
marquis of Rockingham, on whose agreeing to accept office 
Grenville was dismissed July 1765. He never again held office, 
and died on the i3th of November 1770. 

The nickname of " gentle shepherd " was given him because 
he bored the House by asking over and over again, during the 
debate on the Cider Bill of 1763, that somebody should tell him 
" where " to lay the new tax if it was not to be put on cider. 
Pitt whistled the air of the popular tune " Gentle Shepherd, tell 
me where," and the House laughed. Though few excelled him 
in a knowledge of the forms of the House or in mastery of 
administrative details, his tact in dealing with men and with 
affairs was so defective that there is perhaps no one who has 
been at the head of an English administration to whom a lower 
place can be assigned as a statesman. 

In 1 749 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Wynd- 
ham, by whom he had a large family. His son, the second Earl 
Temple, was created marquess, and his grandson duke, of 
Buckingham. Another son was William, afterwards Lord 



GRENVILLE, SIR R. GRENVILLE, LORD 



581 



irenville. Another, Thomas Grenville (1755-1846), who was, 
with one interval, a member of parliament from 1780 to 1818, 
and for a few months during 1806 and 1807 president of the 
board of control and first lord of the admiralty, is perhaps more 
famous as a book-collector than as a statesman; he bequeathed 
his large and valuable library to the British Museum. 

The Grenville Papers, being the Correspondence of Richard Grenville, 
Earl Temple, K.G., and the Right Hon. George Grenville, their Friends 
and Contemporaries, were published at London in 1852, and afford 
the chief authority for his life. But see also H. Walpole's Memoirs 
of the Reign of George II. (London, 1845); Lord Stanhope's History 
of England (London, 1858) ; Lecky's History of England (1885) ; and 
E. D. Adams, The Influence of Grenville on Pitt's Foreign Policy 
(Washington, 1904). 

GRENVILLE (or GREYNVILE), SIR RICHARD (c. 1541-1591), 
British naval commander, was born of an old Cornish family 
about 1541. His grandfather, Sir Richard, had been marshal of 
Calais in the time of Henry VIII., and his father commanded 
and was lost in the " Mary Rose " in 1545. At an early age 
Grenville is supposed to have served in Hungary under the 
emperor Maximilian against the Turks. In the years 1571 and 
1584 he sat in parliament for Cornwall, and in 1583 and 1584 
he was commissioner for the works at Dover harbour. He appears 
to have been a man of much pride and ambition. Of his bravery 
there can be no doubt. In 1585 he commanded the fleet of seven 
vessels by which the colonists sent out by his cousin, Sir Walter 
Raleigh, were carried to Roanoke Island in the present North 
Carolina. Grenville himself soon returned with the fleet to 
England, capturing a Spanish vessel on his way, but in 1586 he 
carried provisions to Roanoke, and finding the colony deserted, 
left a few men to maintain possession. He then held an im- 
portant post in charge of the defences of the western counties of 
England. When a squadron was despatched in 1 59 1 , under Lord 
Thomas Howard, to intercept the homeward-bound treasure-fleet 
of Spain, Grenville was appointed as second in command on board 
the " Revenge," a ship of 500 tons which had been commanded 
by Drake against the Armada in 1588. At the end of August 
Howard with 16 ships lay at anchor to the north of Flores in the 
Azores. On the last day of the month he received news from a 
pinnace, sent by the earl of Cumberland, who was then off the 
Portugal coast, that a Spanish fleet of 53 vessels was then 
bearing up to the Azores to meet the treasure-ships. Not being in 
a position to fight a fleet more than three times the size of his 
own, Howard gave orders to weigh anchor and stand out to 
sea. But, either from some misunderstanding of the order, or 
from some idea of Grenville's that the Spanish vessels rapidly 
approaching were the ships for which they had been waiting, 
the " Revenge " was delayed and cut off from her consorts by 
the Spaniards. Grenville resolved to try to break through the 
middle of the Spanish line. His ship was becalmed under the lee 
of a huge galleon, and after a hand-to-hand fight lasting through 
fifteen hours against fifteen Spanish ships and a force of five 
thousand men, the " Revenge " with her hundred and fifty men 
was captured. Grenville himself wascarried on board the Spanish 
flag-ship " San Pablo," and died a few days later. The incident 
is commemorated in Tennyson's ballad of " The Revenge." 

The spelling of Sir Richard's name has led to much controversy. 
Four different families, each of which claim to be descended from 
him, spell it Granville, Grenville, Grcnfell and Greenfield. The 
spelling usually accepted is Grenville, but his own signature, 
in a bold clear handwriting, among the Tanner MSS. in the 
Bodleian library at Oxford, is Greynvile. 

GRENVILLE (or GRANVILLE), SIR RICHARD (1600-1658), 
English royalist, was the third son of Sir Bernard Grenville 
(1550-1636), and a grandson of the famous seaman, Sir Richard 
Grenville. Having served in France, Germany and the Nether- 
lands, Grenville gained the favour of the duke of Buckingham, 
took part in the expeditions to Cadiz, to the island of Rhe and 
to La Rochelle, was knighted, and in 1628 was chosen member 
of parliament for Fowey. Having married Mary Fitz (1596- 
1671), widow of Sir Charles Howard (d. 1622) and a lady of fortune, 
Grenville was made a baronet in 1630; his violent temper, 
however, made the marriage an unhappy one, and he was ruined 



and imprisoned as the result of two lawsuits, one with his wife, 
and the other with her kinsman, the earl of Suffolk. In 1633 he 
escaped from prison and went to Germany, returning to England 
six years later to join the army which Charles I. was collecting 
to march against the Scots. Early in 1641, just after the out- 
break of the Irish rebellion, Sir Richard led some troops to Ireland, 
where he won some fame and became governor of Trim; then 
returning to England in 1643 he was arrested at Liverpool 
by an officer of the parliament, but was soon released and sent 
to join the parliamentary army. Having, however, secured men 
and money, he hurried to Charles I. at Oxford and was despatched 
to take part in the siege of Plymouth, quickly becoming the leader 
of the forces engaged in this enterprise. Compelled to raise 
the siege he retired into Cornwall, where he helped to resist the 
advancing Parliamentarians; but he quickly showed signs of 
insubordination, and, whilst sharing in the siege of Taunton, 
he was wounded and obliged to resign his command. About 
this time loud complaints were brought against Grenville. He 
had behaved, it was said, in a very arbitrary fashion; he had 
hanged some men and imprisoned others; he had extorted 
money and had used the contributions towards the cost of the 
war for his own ends. Many of these charges were undoubtedly 
true, but upon his recovery the councillors of the prince of Wales 
gave him a position under Lord Goring, whom, however, he 
refused to obey. Equally recalcitrant was his attitude towards 
Goring's successor, Sir Ralph Hop ton, and in January 1646 he was 
arrested. But he was soon released; he went to France and Italy, 
and after visiting England in disguise passed some time in 
Holland. He was excepted by parliament from pardon in 1648, 
and after the king's execution he was with Charles II. in France 
and elsewhere until some unfounded accusation which he brought 
against Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, led to his 
removal from court. He died in 1658, and was buried at Ghent. 
In 1644, when Grenville deserted the parliamentary party, a 
proclamation was put out against him; in this there were at- 
tached to his name several offensive epithets, among them being 
skellum, a word probably derived from the German Schelm, 
a scoundrel. Hence he is often called " skellum Grenville." 

Grenville wrote an account of affairs in the west of England, which 
was printed in T. Carte's Original Letters (1739). To this partisan 
account Clarendon drew up an answer, the bulk of which he after- 
wards incorporated in his History. In 1654 Grenville wrote his Single 
defence against all aspersions of all malignant persons. This is 
printed in the Works of George Granville, Lord Lansdowne (London, 
1736), where Lansdowne's Vindication of his kinsman, Sir Richard, 
against Clarendon's charges is also found. See also Clarendon, 
History of the Rebellion, edited by W. D. Macray (Oxford, 1888) ; 
and R. Granville, The King's General in the West (1908). 

GRENVILLE, WILLIAM WYNDHAM GRENVILLE, BARON 

(1759-1834), English statesman, youngest son of George Gren- 
ville, was born on the 25th of October 1759. He was educated 
at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, gaining the chancellor's 
prize for Latin verse in 1779. In February 1782 Grenville was 
returned to parliament as member for the borough of Bucking- 
ham, and in the following September he became secretary to the 
lord lieutenant of Ireland, who at this time was his brother, 
Earl Temple, afterwards marquess of Buckingham. He left 
office in June 1783, but in the following December he became 
paymaster-general of the forces under his cousin, William Pitt, 
and in 1786 vice-president of the committee of trade. In 1787 
he was sent on an important mission to the Hague and Versailles 
with reference to the affairs of Holland. In January 1789 he 
was chosen speaker of the House of Commons, but he vacated the 
chair in the same year on being appointed secretary of state for 
the home department; about the same time he resigned his other 
offices, but he became president of the board of control, and in 
November 1790 was created a peer as Baron Grenville. In the 
House of Lords he was very active in directing the business of the 
government, and in 1791 he was transferred to the foreign office, 
retaining his post at the board of control until 1793. He was 
doubtless regarded by Pitt as the man best fitted to carry out 
his policy with reference to France, but in the succeeding years 
he and his chief were frequently at variance on important 



582 



GRESHAM, SIR T. 



questions of foreign policy. In spite of his multifarious duties 
at the foreign office Grenville continued to take a lively interest 
in domestic matters, which he showed by introducing various 
bills into the House of Lords. In February 1801 he resigned 
office with Pitt because George III. would not consent to the 
introduction of any measure of Roman Catholic relief, and in 
opposition he gradually separated himself from his former leader. 
When Pitt returned to power in 1804 Grenville refused to join 
the ministry unless his political ally, Fox, was also admitted 
thereto; this was impossible and he remained out of office until 
February 1806, when just after Pitt's death he became the 
nominal head of a coalition government. This ministry was very 
unfortunate in its conduct of foreign affairs, but it deserves to 
be remembered with honour on account of the act passed in 1807 
for the abolition of the slave trade. Its influence, however, 
was weakened by the death of Fox, and in consequence of a 
minute drawn up by Grenville and some of his colleagues the 
king demanded from his ministers an assurance that in future 
they would not urge upon him any measures for the relief of 
Roman Catholics. They refused to give this assurance and in 
March 1807 they resigned. Grenville's attitude in this matter 
was somewhat aggressive; his colleagues were not unanimous 
in supporting him, and Sheridan, one of them, said " he had 
known many men knock their heads against a wall, but he had 
never before heard of any man who collected the bricks and built 
the very wall with an intention to knock out his own brains 
against it." 

Lord Grenville never held office again, although he was 
requested to do so on several occasions. He continued, however, 
to take part in public life, being one of the chief supporters of 
Roman Catholic emancipation, and during the remaining years of 
his active political career, which ended in 1823, he generally voted 
with the Whigs, although in 1815 he separated himself from his 
colleague, Charles Grey, and supported the warlike policy of 
Lord Liverpool. In 1819, when the marquess of Lansdowne 
brought forward his motion for an inquiry into the causes of the 
distress and discontent in the manufacturing districts, Grenville 
delivered an alarmist speech advocating repressive measures. 
His concluding years were spent at Dropmore, Buckinghamshire, 
where he died on the I2th of January 1834. His wife, whom he 
married in 1792, was Anne (1772-1864), daughter of Thomas Pitt, 
ist Baron Camelford, but he had no issue and his title became 
extinct. In 1809 he was elected chancellor of Oxford university. 

Though Grenville's talents were not of the highest order his 
straightforwardness and industry, together with his knowledge 
of politics and the moderation of his opinions, secured for him 
considerable political influence. He may be enrolled among the 
band of English statesmen who have distinguished themselves 
in literature. He edited Lord Chatham's letters to his nephew, 
Thomas Pitt, afterwards Lord Camelford (London, 1804, and 
other editions); he wrote a small volume, NugaeMetricae(i&24), 
being translations into Latin from English, Greek and Italian, and 
an Essay on the Supposed Advantages of a Sinking Fund (1828). 

The Dropmore MSS. contain much of Grenville's correspondence, 
and on this the Historical Manuscripts Commission has published a 
report. 

GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS (1519-1579), London merchant, 
the founder of the Royal Exchange and of Gresham College, 
London, was descended from an old Norfolk family; he was the 
only son of Sir Richard Gresham, a leading London merchant, 
who for some time held the office of lord mayor, and for his 
services as agent of Henry VIII. in negotiating loans with foreign 
merchants received the honour of knighthood . Though his father 
intended him to follow his own profession, he nevertheless sent 
him for some time to Caius College, Cambridge, but there is no 
information as to the duration of his residence. It is uncertain 
also whether it was before or after this that he was apprenticed 
to his uncle Sir John Gresham, who was also a merchant, but 
we have his own testimony that he served an apprenticeship of 
eight years. In 1 543, at the age of twenty-four, he was admitted 
a member of the Mercers' Company, and in the same year he 
went to the Low Countries, where, either on his own account or 



on that of his father or uncle, he both carried on business as a 
merchant and acted in various matters as an agent for Henry 
VIII. In 1544 he married the widow of William Read, a London 
merchant, but he still continued to reside principally in the Low 
Countries, having his headquarters at Antwerp. When in 1551 
the mismanagement of Sir William Dansell, " king's merchant " 
in the Low Countries, had brought the English government into 
great financial embarrassment, Gresham was called in to give 
his advice, and chosen to carry out his own proposals. Their 
leading feature was the adoption of various methods highly 
ingenious, but quite arbitrary and unfair for raising the value 
of the pound sterling on the " bourse " of Antwerp, and it was 
so successful that in a few years nearly all King Edward's debts 
were discharged. The advice of Gresham was likewise sought 
by the government in all their money difficulties, and he was 
also frequently employed in various diplomatic missions. He 
had no stated salary, but in reward of his services received from 
Edward various grants of lands, the annual value of which at that 
time was ultimately about 400 a year. On the accession of 
Mary he 'was for a short time in disfavour, and was displaced 
in his post by Alderman William Dauntsey. But Dauntsey's 
financial operations were not very successful and Gresham was 
soon reinstated; and as he professed his zealous desire to serve 
the queen, and manifested great adroitness both in negotiating 
loans and in smuggling money, arms and foreign goods, not only 
were his services retained throughout her reign, but besides his 
salary of twenty shillings per diem he received grants of church 
lands to the yearly value of 200. Under Queen Elizabeth, 
besides continuing in his post as financial agent of the crown, 
he acted temporarily as ambassador at the court of the duchess of 
Parma, being knighted in 1559 previous to his departure. By 
the outbreak of the war in the Low Countries he was compelled 
to leave^Antwerp on the igth of March 1567; but, though he 
spent the remainder of his life in London, he continued his 
business as merchant and financial agent of the government 
in much the same way as formerly. Elizabeth also found him 
useful in a great variety of other ways, among which was that 
of acting as jailer, to Lady Mary Grey, who, as a punishment for 
marrying Thomas Keys the sergeant porter, remained a prisoner 
in his house from June 1 569 to the end of 1 572. In 1 565 Gresham 
made a proposal to the court of aldermen of London to build 
at his own expense a bourse or exchange, on condition that they 
purchased for this purpose a piece of suitable ground. In this 
proposal he seems to have had an eye to his own interest as well 
as to the general good of the merchants, for by a yearly rental 
of 700 obtained for the shops in the upper part of the building 
he received a sufficient return for his trouble and expense. 
Gresham died suddenly, apparently of apoplexy, on the zist 
of November 1579. His only son predeceased him, and his 
illegitimate daughter Anne he married to Sir Nathaniel Bacon, 
brother of the great Lord Bacon. With the exception of a 
number of small sums bequeathed to the support of various 
charities, the bulk of his property, consisting of estates in various 
parts of England of the annual value of more than 2300, was 
bequeathed to his widow and her heirs with the stipulation that 
after her decease his residence in Bishopsgate Street, as well as 
the rents arising from the Royal Exchange, should be vested 
in the hands of the corporation of London and the Mercers' 
Company, for the purpose of instituting a college in which seven 
professors should read lectures one each day of the week- on 
astronomy, geometry, physic, law, divinity, rhetoric and music. 
The lectures were begun in 1597, and were delivered intheoriginal 
building until 1768, when, on the ground that the trustees were 
losers by the gift, it was made over to the crown for a yearly rent 
of 500, and converted into an excise office. From that time 
a room in the Royal Exchange was used for the lectures until in 
1843 the present building was erected at a cost of 7000. 

A notice of Gresham is contained in Fuller's Worthies and Ward's 
Gresham Professors; but the fullest account of him, as well as of the 
history of the Exchange and Gresham College is that by J. M. Burgon 
in his Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham (2 vols., 1839). See 
also a Brief Memoir of Sir Thomas Gresham (1833) ; and The Life oj 
Sir Thomas Gresham, Founder of the Royal Exchange (1845). 



GRESHAM, W. Q. GRETRY 



583 



GRESHAM, WALTER QUINTON (1832-1895), American 
statesman and jurist, was born near Lanesville, Harrison county, 
Indiana, on the i7th of March 1832. He spent two years in an 
academy at Corydon, Indiana, and one year at the Indiana State 
University at Bloomington, then studied law, and in 1854 was 
admitted to the bar. He was active as a campaign speaker for 
the Republican ticket in 1856, and in 1860 was elected to the 
State House of Representatives as a Republican in a strong 
Democratic district. In the House, as chairman of the committee 
on military affairs, he did much to prepare the Indiana troops 
for service in the Federal army; in 1861 he became colonel 
of the 53rd Indiana Volunteer Infantry, and subsequently took 
part in Grant's Tennessee campaign of 1862, and in the operations 
against Corinth and Vicksburg, where he commanded a brigade. 
In August 1863 he was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers, 
and was placed in command of the Federal forces at Natchez. 
In 1864 he commanded a division of the I7th Army Corps 
in Sherman's Atlanta campaign, and before Atlanta, on the 
20th of July, he received a wound which forced him to retire 
from active service, and left him lame for life. In 1865 he was 
brevetted major-general of volunteers. After the war he practised 
law at New Albany, Indiana, and in 1869 was appointed by 
President Grant United States District Judge for Indiana. 
In April 1883 he succeeded Timothy O. Howe (1816-1883) as 
postmaster-general in President Arthur's cabinet, taking an 
active part in the suppression of the Louisiana Lottery, and in 
September 1884 succeeded Charles J. Folger as secretary of the 
treasury. In the following month he resigned to accept an 
appointment as United States Judge for the Seventh Judicial 
Circuit. Gresham was a candidate for the Republican presi- 
dential nomination in 1884 and 1888, in the latter year leading 
for some time in the balloting. Gradually, however, he grew 
out of sympathy with the Republican leaders and policy, and in 
1892 advocated the election of the Democratic candidate, Grover 
Cleveland, for the presidency. From the yth of March 1893 
until his death at Washington on the 28th of May 1895, he was 
secretary of state in President Cleveland's cabinet. 

GRESHAM'S LAW, in economics, the name suggested in 1857 
by H. D. Macleod for the principle of currency which may be 
briefly summarized " bad money drives out good." Macleod 
gave it this name, which has been universally adopted, under the 
impression that the principle was first explained by Sir Thomas 
Gresham in 1558. In reality it had been well set forth by earlier 
economic writers, notably Oresme and Copernicus. Macleod 
states the law in these terms: the worst form of currency in 
circulation regulates the value of the whole currency and drives 
all other forms of currency out of circulation. Gresham's law 
applies where there is under-weight or debased coin in circulation 
with full- weight coin of the same metal; where there are two 
metals in circulation, and one is undervalued as compared with 
the other, and where inconvertible paper money is put into 
circulation side by side with a metallic currency. See further 
BIMETALLISM; MONEY. 

GRESSET, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS (1709-1777), French 
poet and dramatist, was born at Amiens on the zgth of August 
1709. His poem Vert Vert is his main title to fame. He spent, 
however, the last twenty-five years of his life in regretting the 
frivolity which enabled him to produce this most charming of 
poems. He was brought up by the Jesuits of Amiens. He was 
accepted as a novice at the age of sixteen, and sent to pursue his 
studies at the College Louis le Grand in Paris. After completing 
his course he was appointed, being then under twenty years of 
age, to a post as assistant master in a college at Rouen. He pub- 
lished Vert Vert at Rouen in 1734. It is a story, in itself exceed- 
ingly humorous, showing how a parrot, the delight of a convent, 
whose talk was all of prayers and pious ejaculations, was 
conveyed to another convent as a visitor to please the nuns. On 
the way he falls among bad companions, forgets his convent 
language, and shocks the sisters on arrival by profane swearing. 
He is sent back in disgrace, punished by solitude and plain 
bread, presently repents, reforms and is killed by kindness. The 
story, however, is nothing. The treatment of the subject, the 



atmosphere which surrounds it, the delicacy in which the little 
prattling ways of the nuns, their jealousies, their tiny trifles, are 
presented, takes the reader entirely by surprise. The poem stands 
absolutely unrivalled, even among French contes en vers. 

Cresset found himself famous. He left Rouen, went up to 
Paris, where he found refuge in the same garret which had 
sheltered him when a boy at the College Louis le Grand, and 
there wrote his second poem, La Chartreuse. It was followed 
by the Carime impromptu, the Lutrin vivanl and Les Ombres. 
Then trouble came upon him; complaints were made to the 
fathers of the alleged licentiousness of his verses, the real cause 
of complaint being- the ridicule which Vert Vert seemed to throw 
upon the whole race of nuns and the anti-clerical tendency of 
the other poems. An example, it was urged, must be made; 
Cresset was expelled the order. Men of robust mind would have 
been glad to get rid of such a yoke. Cresset, who had never been 
taught to stand alone, went forth weeping. He went to Paris 
in 1740 and there produced douard HI, a tragedy (1740) 
and Sidnei (i 745), a comedy. These were followed by Le Mechant 
which still keeps the stage, and is qualified by Brunetiere 
as the best verse comedy gi the French i8th century theatre, 
not excepting even the Mttromanie of Alexis Piron. Cresset 
was admitted to the Academy in 1748. And then, still young, 
he retired to Amiens, where his relapse from the discipline of the 
church became the subject of the deepest remorse. He died 
at Amiens on the i6th of June 1777. 

The best edition of his poems is A. A. Rdnouard's (181 1). See Jules 
Wogue, J. B. L. Cresset (1894). 

GRETNA GREEN, or GRAITNEY GREEN, a village in the south- 
east of Dumfriesshire, Scotland, about 8 m. E. of Annan, 9 m. 
N.N.W. of Carlisle, and J m. from the river Sark, here the 
dividing-line between England and Scotland, with a station on 
the Glasgow & South-Western railway. The Caledonian and 
North British railways have a station at Gretna on the English 
side of the Border. As the nearest village on the Scottish side, 
Gretna Green was notorious as the resort of eloping couples, 
who had failed to obtain the consent of parents or guardians to 
their union. Up till 1754, when Lord^Hardwicke's act abolishing 
clandestine marriages came into force, the ceremony had com- 
monly been performed in the Fleet prison in London. After 
that date runaway couples were compelled to seek the hospitality 
of a country where it sufficed for them to declare their wish 
to marry in the presence of witnesses. At Gretna Green the 
ceremony was usually performed by the blacksmith, but the toll- 
keeper, ferryman or in fact any person might officiate, and the 
toll-house, the inn, or, after 1826, Gretna Hall was the scene of 
many such weddings, the fees varying from half a guinea to a 
sum as large as impudence could extort or extravagance bestow. 
As many as two hundred couples were married at the toll-house 
in a year. The romantic traffic was practically, though not 
necessarily, put an end to in 1856, when the law required one of 
the contracting parties to reside in Scotland three weeks previous 
to the event. 

GR&TRY, ANDR6 ERNEST MODESTE (1741-1813), French 
composer, was born at Liege on the 8th of February 1741, his 
father being a poor musician. He was a choir boy at the church 
of St Denis. In 1753 he became a pupil of Leclerc and later of 
Renekin and Moreau. But of greater importance was the 
practical tuition he received by attending the performance of 
an Italian opera company. Here he heard the operas of Galuppi, 
Pergolesi and other masters; and the desire of completing his 
own studies in Italy was the immediate result. To find the 
necessary means he composed in 1759 a mass which he dedicated 
to the canons of the Liege cathedral, and it was at the cost of 
Canon Hurley that he went to Italy in the March of -1759. In 
Rome he went to the College de Li6ge. Here Gretry resided for 
five years, studiously employed in completing his musical 
education under Casali. His proficiency in harmony and counter- 
point was, however, according to his own confession, at all times 
very moderate. His first great success was achieved by La 
Vendemmiatrice, an Italian intermezzo or operetta, composed for 
the Aliberti theatre in Rome and received with universal 



5 8 4 



GREUZE, J. B. 



applause. It is said that the study of the score of one of Mon- 
signy's operas, lent to him by a secretary of the French embassy 
in Rome, decided Gretry to devote himself to French comic 
opera. On New Year's day 1767 he accordingly left Rome, 
and after a short stay at Geneva (where he made the acquaintance 
of Voltaire, and produced another operetta) went to Paris. 
There for two years he had to contend with the difficulties 
incident to poverty and obscurity. He was, however, not without 
friends, and by the intercession of Count Creutz, the Swedish 
ambassador, Gretry obtained a libretto from Marmontel, which 
he set to music in less than six weeks, and which, on its perform- 
ance in August 1768, met with unparalleled success. The name 
of the opera was Le Huron. Two others, Lucile and Le Tableau 
parlant, soon followed, and thenceforth Gretry's position as the 
leading composer of comic opera was safely established. Alto- 
gether he composed some fifty operas. His masterpieces are 
Zemire et Azor and Richard Cceur de Lion, the first produced in 
1771, the second in 1784. The latter in an indirect way became 
connected with a great historic event. In it occurs the celebrated 
romance, O Richard, 6 man roi, I'unvoers t'abandonne, which was 
sung at the banquet " fatal as that of Thyestes," remarks 
Carlyle given by the bodyguard to the officers of the Versailles 
garrison on October 3, 1789. The Marseillaise not long after- 
wards became the reply of the people to the expression of loyalty 
borrowed from Gretry's opera. The composer himself was not 
uninfluenced by the great events he witnessed, and the titles of 
some of his operas, such as La Rosiere republicaine and La Fete 
de la raison, sufficiently indicate the epoch to which they belong; 
but they are mere pieces de circonstance, and the republican 
enthusiasm displayed is not genuine. Little more successful 
was Gretry in his dealings with classical subjects. His genuine 
power lay in the delineation of character and in the expression 
of tender and typically French sentiment. The structure of his 
concerted pieces on the other hand is frequently flimsy, and his 
instrumentation so feeble that the orchestral parts of some of his 
works had to be rewritten by other composers, in order to make 
them acceptable to modern audiences. During the revolution 
Gretry lost much of his property, but the successive governments 
of France vied in favouring the composer, regardless of political 
differences. From the old court he received distinctions and 
rewards of all kinds; the republic made him an inspector of the 
conservatoire; Napoleon granted him the cross of the legion of 
honour and a pension. Gretry died on the 24th of September 
1813, at the Hermitage in Montmorency, formerly the house 
of Rousseau. Fifteen years after his death Gretry's heart was 
transferred to his birthplace, permission having been obtained 
after a tedious lawsuit. In 1842 a colossal bronze statue of the 
composer was set up at Liege. 

See Michael Brenet, Vie de Gretry (Paris, 1884) ; Joach. le Breton, 
Notice historiyue sur la vie et les outrages de Gretry (Paris, 1814); 
A. Gre'try (his nephew), Gretry en famille (Paris, 1814); Felix van 
Hulst, Gretry (Li6ge, 1842); L. D. S. Notice biographique sur Gretry 
(Bruxelles, 1869). 

GREUZE, JEAN BAPTISTE (1725-1805), French painter, was 
born at Tournus, in Burgundy, on the 2ist of August 1725, and 
is generally said to have formed his own talent; this is, however, 
true only in the most limited sense, for at an early age his in- 
clinations, though thwarted by his father, were encouraged by a 
Lyonnese artist named Grandon, or Grondom, who enjoyed 
during his lifetime considerable reputation as a portrait-painter. 
Grandon not only persuaded the father of Greuze to give way 
to his son's wishes, and permit the lad to accompany him as his 
pupil to Lyons, but, when at a later date he himself left Lyons 
for Paris where his son-in-law Gretry the celebrated composer 
enjoyed the height of favour Grandon carried young Greuze with 
him. Settled in Paris, Greuze worked from the living model in 
the school of the Royal Academy, but did not attract the attention 
of his teachers; and when he produced his first picture, " Le Pere 
de famille expliquant la Bible a ses enfants," considerable doubt 
was felt and shown as to his share in its production. By other 
and more remarkable works of the same class Greuze soon 
established his claims beyond contest, and won for himself the 



notice and support of the well-known connoisseur La Live de 
Jully, the brother-in-law of Madame d'fipinay. In 1755 Greuze 
exhibited his " Aveugle trompe," upon which, presented by 
Pigalle the sculptor, he was immediately agree by the Academy. 
Towards the close of the same year he left France for Italy, in 
company with the Abbe Louis Gougenot, who had deserted from 
the magistrature although he had obtained the post of " con- 
seillier au Chatelet " in order to take the " petit collet." 
Gougenot had some acquaintance with the arts, and was highly 
valued by the Academicians, who, during his journey with 
Greuze, elected him an honorary member of their body on 
account of his studies in mythology and allegory; his acquire- 
ments in these respects are said to have been largely utilized by 
them, but to Greuze they were of doubtful advantage, and he 
lost rather than gained by this visit to Italy in Gougenot 's 
company. He had undertaken it probably in order to silence 
those who taxed him with ignorance of " great models of style," 
but the Italian subjects which formed the entirety of his contri- 
butions to the Salon of 1757 showed that he had been put on a 
false track, and he speedily returned to the source of his first 
inspiration. In 1759, 1761 (" L'Accordee de village " Louvre), 
and. 1763 Greuze exhibited with ever-increasing success; in 1765 
he reached the zenith of his powers and reputation. In that year 
he was represented with no less than thirteen works, amongst 
which may be cited " La Jeune Fille qui pleure son oiseau mort," 
" La Bonne Mere," " Le Mauvais fils puni " (Louvre) and " La 
Malediction paternelle " (Louvre) . The Academy took occasion to 
press Greuze for his diploma picture, the execution of which had 
been long delayed, and forbade him to exhibit on their walls 
until he had complied with their regulations. " J'ai vu la lettre," 
says Diderot, " qui est un modele d'honnetete et d'estime; 
j'ai vu la reponse de Greuze, qui est un modele de vanite 
et d'impertinence: il fallait appuyer cela d'un chef-d'oeuvre, 
et c'est ce que Greuze n'a pas fait." Greuze wished to be 
received as a historical painter, and produced a work which he 
intended to vindicate his right to despise his qualifications as a 
peintre de genre. This unfortunate canvas " Severe et Caracalla ' ' 
(Louvre) was exhibited in 1769 side by side with Greuze's 
portrait of Jeaurat (Louvre) and his admirable " Petite Fille au 
chien noir." The Academicians received their new member with 
all due honours, but at the close of the ceremonies the Director 
addressed Greuze in these words " Monsieur, 1'Academie vous 
a refu, mais c'est comme peintre de genre; elle a eu egard a vos 
anciennes productions, qui sont excellentes, et elle a ferme les 
yeux sur celle-ci, qui n'est digne ni d'elle ni de vous." Greuze, 
greatly incensed, quarrelled with his confreres, and ceased to 
exhibit until, in 1804, the Revolution had thrown open the doors 
of the Academy to all the world. In the following year, on the 
4th of March 1805, he died in the Louvre in great poverty. He 
had been in receipt of considerable wealth, which he had dissi- 
pated by extravagance and bad management, so that during 
his closing years he was forced even to solicit commissions which 
his enfeebled powers no longer enabled him to carry out with 
success. The brilliant reputation which Greuze acquired seems 
to have been due, not to his acquirements as a painter for 
his practice is evidently that current in his own day but to the 
character of the subjects which he treated. That return to 
nature which inspired Rousseau's attacks upon an artificial 
civilization demanded expression in art. Diderot, in Le Fils 
naturel et le pere de famille, tried to turn the vein of domestic 
drama to account on the stage; that which he tried and failed 
to do Greuze, in painting, achieved with extraordinary success, 
although his works, like the plays of Diderot, were affected by 
that very artificiality against which they protested. The touch 
of melodramatic exaggeration, however, which runs through 
them finds an apology in the firm and brilliant play of line, in the 
freshness and vigour of the flesh tints, in the enticing softness of 
expression (often obtained by almost an abuse of meplats), by the 
alluring air of health and youth, by the sensuous attractions, in 
short, with which Greuze invests his lessons of bourgeois morality. 
As Diderot said of " La Bonne Mere," " ca preche la population;" 
and a certain piquancy of contrast is the result which never 



GREVILLE GREW 



585 



fails to obtain admirers. " La Jeune Fille a 1'agneau " fetched, 
indeed, at the Pourtales sale in 1865, no less than 1,000,200 francs. 
One of Greuze's pupils, Madame Le Doux, imitated with success 
the manner of her master; his daughter and granddaughter, 
Madame de Valory, also inherited some traditions of his talent. 
Madame de Valory published in 1813 a comedie-vaudeville, 
Greuze, ou I'accordee de village, to which she prefixed a notice 
of her grandfather's life and works, and the Salons of Diderot also 
contain, besides many other particulars, the story at full length 
of Greuze's quarrel with the Academy. Four of the most 
distinguished engravers of that date, Massard pere, Flipart, 
Gaillard and Levasseur, were specially entrusted by Greuze 
with the reproduction of his subjects, but there are also excellent 
prints by other engravers, notably by Cars and Le Bas. 

See also Normand, J. B. Greuze (1892). (E. F. S. D.) 

GREVILLE, CHARLES CAVENDISH FULKE (1794-1865), 
English diarist, a great-grandson by his father of the 5th earl of 
Warwick, and son of Lady Charlotte Bentinck, daughter of the 
duke of Portland, formerly a leader of the Whig party, and 
first minister of the crown, was born on the 2nd of April 1794. 
Much of his childhood was spent at his grandfather's house 
at Bulstrode. He was one of the pages of George III., and was 
educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford; but he left the 
university early, having been appointed private secretary to 
Earl Bathurst before he was twenty. The interest of the duke 
of Portland had secured for him the secretaryship of the island 
of Jamaica, which was a sinecure office, the duties being per- 
formed by a deputy, and the reversion of the clerkship of the 
council. Greville entered upon the discharge of the duties of 
clerk of the council in ordinary in 1821, and continued to perform 
them for nearly forty years. He therefore served under three 
successive sovereigns, George IV., William IV. and Victoria, 
and although no political or confidential functions are attached 
to that office, it is one which brings a man into habitual inter- 
course with the chiefs of all the parties in the state. Well-born, 
well-bred, handsome and accomplished, Greville led the easy 
life of a man of fashion, taking an occasional part in the transac- 
tions of his day and much consulted in the affairs of private life. 
Until 1855 when he sold his stud he was an active member of 
the turf, and he trained successively with Lord George Bentinck, 
and with the duke of Portland. But the celebrity which now 
attaches to his name is entirely due to the posthumous publication 
of a portion of a Journal or Diary which it was his practice to 
keep during the greater part of his life. These papers were 
given by him to his friend Mr Henry Reeve a short time before 
his death (which took place on the i8th of January 1865), with 
an injunction that they should be published, as far as was 
feasible, at not too remote a period after the writer's death. The 
journals of the reigns of George IV. and William IV. (extending 
from 1820 to 1837) were accordingly so published in obedience 
to his directions about ten years after that event. Few publica- 
tions have been received with greater interest by the public; 
five large editions were sold in little more than a year, and the 
demand in America was as great as in England. These journals 
were regarded as a faithful record of the impressions made on 
the mind of a competent observer, at the time, by the events he 
witnessed and the persons with whom he associated. Greville 
did not stoop to collect or record private scandal. His object 
appears to have been to leave behind him some of the materials 
of history, by which the men and actions of his own time would 
be judged. He records not so much public events as the private 
causes which led to them; and perhaps no English memoir- 
writer has left behind him a more valuable contribution to the 
history of the igth century. Greville published anonymously, in 
1845, a volume on the Past and Present Policy of England to 
Ireland, in which he advocated the payment of the Roman 
Catholic clergy ; and he was also the author of several pamphlets 
on the events of his day. 

His brother, HENRY GREVILLE (1801-1872), attach6 to the 
British embassy in Paris from 1834 to 1844, also kept a diary, 
of which part was published by Viscountess Enfield, Leaves from 
the Diary of Henry Greville (London, 1883-1884). 



See the preface and notes to the Greville Memoirs by Henry Reeve. 
The memoirs appeared in three seta one from 1817 to 1837 (London, 
1875, 3 vols.), and two for the period from 1837 to 1860, three volumes 
in 1885 and two in 1887. Whenthefirst series appeared in 1875 some 
passages caused extreme offence. The copies issued were as far as 
possible recalled and passages suppressed. 

GREVIN, JACQUES (c. 1539-1570), French dramatist, was born 
at Clermont about 1539. He studied medicine at the university 
of Paris. He became a disciple of Ronsard, and was one of the 
band of dramatists who sought to introduce the classical drama 
in France. As Sainte-Beuve points out, the comedies of Grevin 
show considerable affinity with the farces and soties that preceded 
them. His first play, La Mauberline, was lost, and formed the 
basis of a new comedy, La Trlsoriere, first performed at the 
college of Beauvais in 1558, though it had been originally com- 
posed at the desire of Henry II. to celebrate the marriage of 
Claude, duchess of Lorraine. In 1560 followed the tragedy of 
Jides Cesar, imitated from the Latin of Muret, and a comedy, 
Les bahis, the most important but also the most indecent of 
his works. Grevin was also the author of some medical works 
and of miscellaneous poems, which were praised by Ronsard 
until the friends were separated by religious differences. GreVin 
became in 1561 physician and counsellor to Margaret of Savoy, 
and died at her court in Turin in 1570. 

The Thtdtre of Jacques GreVin was printed in 1562, and in the 
Ancien Theatre franc.ais, vol. iv. (1855-1856). See L. Pinvert, 
Jacques Grevin (1899). 

GREVY, FRANCOIS PAUL JULES (1813-1891), President 
of the French Republic, was born at Mont-sous- Vaudrey in the 
Jura, on the isth of August 1813. He became an advocate in 
1837, and, having steadily maintained republican principles 
under the Orleans monarchy, was elected by his native depart- 
ment to the Constituent Assembly of 1848. Foreseeing that 
Louis Bonaparte would be elected president by the people, he 
proposed to vest the chief authority in a president of the Council 
elected and removable by the Assembly, or in other words, to 
suppress the Presidency of the Republic. After the coup d'etat 
this proposition gained Grevy a reputation for sagacity, and upon 
his return to public life in 1868 he took a prominent place in 
the republican party. After the fall of the Empire he was 
chosen president of the Assembly on the i6th of February 1871, 
and occupied this position till the 2nd of April 1876, when he 
resigned on account of the opposition of the Right, which 
blamed him for having called one of its members to order in the 
session of the previous day. On the 8th of March 1876 he was 
elected president of the Chamber of Deputies, a post which he 
filled with such efficiency that upon the resignation of Marshal 
MacMahon he seemed to step naturally into the Presidency of 
the Republic (3oth January 1879), and was elected without 
opposition by the republican parties (see FRANCE: History). 
Quiet, shrewd, attentive to the public interest and his own, 
but without any particular distinction, he would have left an 
unblemished reputation if he had not unfortunately accepted 
a second term (i8th December 1885). Shortly afterwards the 
traffic of his son-in-law (Daniel Wilson) in the decorations of the 
Legion of Honour came to light. Gr6vy was not accused of 
personal participation in these scandals, but he was somewhat 
obstinate in refusing to realize that he was responsible indirectly 
for the use which his relative had made of the Elysee, and it had 
to be unpleasantly impressed upon him that his resignation was 
inevitable (2nd December 1887). He died at Mont-sous- Vaudrey 
on the gth of September 1891. He owed both his success and 
his failure to the completeness with which he represented the 
particular type of the thrifty, generally sensible and patriotic, 
but narrow-minded and frequently egoistic bourgeois. 

See his Discours politiques et judiciaires, rapports et messages 
. . . accompagnesde notices histortques et precedes d'une introduction 
par L. Delabrousse (2 vols., 1888). 

GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712), English vegetable anatomist 
and physiologist, was the only son of Obadiah Grew (1607-1688), 
Nonconformist divine and vicar of St Michael's, Coventry, and 
was born in Warwickshire in 1641. He graduated at Cambridge 
in 1661, and ten years later took the degree of M.D. at Leiden, 



586 



GREY, 2ND EARL 



his thesis being Disputatio medico-physica . . . de liquore nervoso. 
He began observations on the anatomy of plants in 1664, and in 
1670 his essay, The Anatomy of Vegetables begun, was communi- 
cated to the Royal Society by Bishop Wilkins, on whose recom- 
mendation he was in the following year elected a fellow. In 
1672, when the essay was published, he settled in London, and 
soon acquired an extensive practice as a physician. In 1673 
he published his Idea of a Phytological History, which consisted 
of papers he had communicated to the Royal Society in the 
preceding year, and in 1677 he succeeded Henry Oldenburg as 
secretary of the society. He edited the Philosophical Transac- 
tions in 1678-1679, and in 1681 he published " by request " a 
descriptive catalogue of the rarities preserved at Gresham 
College, with which were printed some papers he had read to 
the Royal Society on the Comparative Anatomy of Stomachs and 
Guts. In 1682 appeared his great work on the Anatomy of 
Plants, which also was largely a collection of previous publications. 
It was divided into four books, Anatomy of Vegetables begun, 
Anatomy of Roots, Anatomy of Trunks and Anatomy of Leaves, 
Flowers, Fruits and Seeds, and was illustrated with eighty-two 
plates, while appended to it were seven papers mostly of a 
chemical character. Among his other publications were Sea- 
water made Fresh (1684), the Nature and Use of the Sail contained 
in Epsom and such other Waters (1697), which was a rendering 
of his Traclalus de salis . . . usu (1695), and Cosmologia sacra 
(1701). He died suddenly on the 25th of March 1 712. Linnaeus 
named a genus of trees Grewia (nat. ord. Tiliaceae) in his 
honour. 

GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845), English 
statesman, was the eldest surviving son of General Sir Charles 
Grey, afterwards ist Earl Grey. He was born at his father's 
residence, Fallodon, near Alnwick, on the i3th of March 1764. 
General Grey (1729-1807), who was a younger son of the house 
of Grey of Howick, one of the most considerable territorial 
families in Northumberland, had already begun a career of active 
service which, like the political career of his son, covered nearly 
half a century. Before the latter was born, General Grey had 
served on the staff of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick in the Seven 
Years' War and had been wounded at Minden. While the son 
was making verses at Eton, the father was serving against the 
revolted colonists in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and while 
the young member for Northumberland was denouncing Pitt's 
war against the Convention, the veteran soldier was destroying 
the remnant of the French colonial empire by the capture of 
Martinique and Guadeloupe. When Napoleon threatened an 
invasion, General Grey took the command of the southern dis- 
trict, and at the peace of Amiens he was rewarded with a peerage, 
as Baron Grey of Alnwick, being created in 1806 Earl Grey and 
Viscount Howick. His elder brother, Sir Henry Grey of Howick, 
the head of the family, had supported the government in parlia- 
ment. But the political career of young Grey, who was heir- 
presumptive to the family estates, took a different complexion. 

Young Grey expected to reoccupy the seat which had been 
his uncle's; and his early years were spent in preparation for 
a parliamentary career. He was sent to Eton, and proceeded 
thence to Cambridge. William Pitt, a youth five years older, 
was then in residence as a master of arts, studiously paying court 
to the Whigs of the university; and at the general election of 
1780 he came forward as a candidate for the academical seat. 
His name stood last on the poll, but he was brought in elsewhere, 
and his first speech proved him a man of the first mark. The 
unparalleled successes which followed portended grave changes. 
Pitt's elevation to the premiership, his brilliant and hard-fought 
battle in the house, and his complete rout of the Whig party at 
the general election of 1784, when he came in for Cambridge 
at the head of the poll, threatened the great territorial interest 
with nothing less than extinction. It was to this interest that 
Grey belonged; and hence, when at length returned for North- 
umberland in 1 786, he at once came forward as a vigorous assailant 
of the government of Pitt. He was hailed by the opposition, 
and associated with Fox, Burke and Sheridan as a manager in the 
Hastings impeachment. During the nineteen years which 



remained of the career of Fox, he followed the great Whig 
statesman with absolute fidelity, and succeeded him as leader 
of the party. The shortcomings of Fox's statesmanship were 
inherited by Grey. Both were equally devoid of political 
originality, shunned the severer labours of the politician, and 
instinctively feared any deviation from the traditions of their 
party. Such men cannot save a party in its decadence, and the 
history of Fox and Grey has been aptly termed the history of 
the decline and fall of Whiggism. 

The stunning blow of 1784 was the first incident in this history. 
Its full significance was not at once perceived. An opposition, 
however weak in the beginning, generally has a tendency to 
revive, and Grey's early successes in the house helped to revive 
the Foxites. The European situation became favourable to this 
revival. The struggle in France for popular rights, culminating 
in the great Revolution, was watched by Fox with interested 
sympathy. He affected to regard the domination of Pitt as the 
domination of the crown, and as leading logically to absolutism, 
and saw in that popular sympathy for the French Revolution 
which naturally arose in England an instrument which might 
be employed to overthrow this domination. 

But Pitt gathered the fruits of the windfall. The spread of 
" Jacobinism," or " French principles," became the pretext 
on which the stronger half of the opposition went over to the 
government. Burke led the movement in the Commons, the duke 
of Portland and Lord Fitzwilliam in the Lords, and with this 
second incident in the Whig decline began the difficulties of 
Grey's career. The domination of the premier had already 
stirred the keenest resentment in the younger and more ambitious 
members of the Whig party. Freed from the restraint of the 
steadier politicians under Burke and Portland, the residuum 
under Fox fell into a series of grave mistakes. Of this residuum 
Grey became the moving spirit, for though Fox did not check 
their activity, he disclaimed the responsibility of their policy. 
Fox had refused to condemn " French principles," and denounced 
the war with France; but he would take no part in exciting 
agitation in England. It was otherwise with the restless spirits 
among whom Grey was found. Enraged by the attitude of Pitt, 
which was grounded on the support of the constituencies as they 
then stood, the residuum plotted an ill-timed agitation for 
parliamentary reform. 

The demand for parliamentary reform was as yet in a rudi- 
mentary stage. Forty years later it had become the demand of 
an unenfranchised nation, disabused by a sudden spread of 
political and economical knowledge. It was as yet but the 
occasional instrument of the scheming politician. Chatham 
had employed the cry in this sense. The Middlesex agitators 
had done the same; even the premier of the time, after his 
accession to power, had sought to strengthen his hands in the 
same way. But Pitt's hands were now strengthened abundantly; 
whereas the opposition had nothing to lose and much to gain by 
such a measure. The cry for reform thus became their natural 
expedient. Powerless to carry reform in the House, they sought 
to overawe parliament by external agitation, and formed the 
Society of the Friends of the People, destined to unite the forces 
of all the " patriotic " societies which already existed in the 
country, and to pour their violence irresistibly on a terrified 
parliament. Grey and his friends were enrolled in this portentous 
association, and presented in parliament its menacing petitions. 
Such petitions, which were in fact violent impeachments of 
parliament itself, proceeding from voluntary associations having 
no corporate existence, had been hitherto unknown in the English 
parliament. They had been well known in the French assembly. 
They had heralded and furthered the victory of the Jacobins, 
the dissolution of the constitution, the calling of the Convention 
and the fall of the monarchy. 

The Society of the Friends of the People was originally an 
after-dinner folly, extemporized at the house of a man who after- 
wards gained an earldom by denouncing it as seditious. Fox 
discountenanced it, though he did not directly condemn it; but 
Grey was overborne by the fierce Jacobinism of Lauderdale, and 
avowed himself the parliamentary mouthpiece of this dangerous 



GREY, 2ND EARL 



587 



agitation. But Pitt, strong in his position, cut the ground 
from under Grey's feet by suppressing the agitation with a strong 
hand. The suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, the Gagging 
Acts and the state prosecutions form a painful historical episode. 
But the discredit belongs as much to Grey and Lauderdale as to 
Pitt. Grey always spoke regretfully of his share in the movement. 
" One word from Fox, " he said, " would have kept me out of 
all the mess of the Friends of the People. But he never spoke it." 

It was Grey who moved the impeachment of Pitt, and he next 
promoted the equally foolish " Secession." Since the parliament 
did not properly represent the nation, and refused to reform itself 
or to impeach the minister, nothing remained but to disown it; 
and the opposition announced their intention of " seceding," 
or systematically absenting themselves from their places in 
parliament. This futile movement was originated by Grey, 
Lauderdale and the duke of Bedford. It obtained a somewhat 
wider support. It suited the languor of some dispirited 
politicians like Fox, and the avarice of some lawyers in large 
practice like Erskine ; but sensible politicians at once condemned 
it. It directly ignored parliamentary government, and amounted 
to nothing but a pettish threat of revolution. " Secession," 
said Lord Lansdowne, with characteristic shrewdness, " either 
means rebellion, or it is nonsense." Pitt easily dashed this feeble 
weapon from the hands of his opponents. He roused jealousy 
in the absent by praising the parts and the patriotism of the rest, 
and thus gradually brought them back. Grey himself reappeared 
to protest against the union with Ireland. 

When Pitt died in 1806 nothing could prevent the reunited 
opposition from coming into power, and thus the Broad-bottom 
ministry was formed under Fox. On his death Grenville became 
premier, and Grey, now Lord Howick, foreign secretary, and 
leader of the House of Commons. Disunion, always the bane of 
English Liberalism, lurked in the coalition, and the Foxites 
and Grenvillites were Only ostensibly at one. Grey opposed the 
war policy of Grenville; and this policy was not more successful 
than it had been in the hands of Pitt. And the change from the 
leadership of Fox to that of Grenville was only too perceptible. 
Both in court and country Grenville affected the role of Pitt, and 
assumed a stiff and peremptory attitude which ill became him. 
An ill-advised dissolution weakened their majority; they lost 
ground by the " delicate investigation " into the conduct of the 
princess of Wales; Lord Henry Petty's budget was too specious 
to command confidence; and the king, fully aware of their 
weak situation, resolved to get rid of them. When they proposed 
to concede a portion of the Catholic claims, George refused 
and demanded of them an undertaking never to propose such 
a measure again. This was refused, and the Grenville-Grey 
cabinet retired in March 1807. In the same year Grey's father 
died, and Grey went to the Upper House. Opposition united 
Grey and Grenville for a time, but the parties finally split on 
the old war question. When Napoleon returned from Elba 
in 1815, and once more seized the government of France, the 
same question arose which had arisen in 1792, Was England to go 
to war for the restoration of the Bourbons? Grenville followed 
the traditions of Pitt, and supported the ministry in at once 
renewing hostilities. Grey followed those of Fox, and maintained 
the right of France to choose her own governors, and the im- 
possibility of checking the reaction in the emperor's favour. 
The victory of Waterloo put an end to the dispute, but the 
disruption became permanent. The termination of the war, and 
the cessation of all action in common, reduced the power of the 
opposition to nothing. Grenville retired from public life, and his 
adherents reinforced the ministry. Little remained for the Whigs 
to do. But the persecution of the queen afforded an opportunity 
of showing that the ministry were not omnipotent; and the part 
taken on that occasion by Grey won him at once the increased 
respect of the nation and the undying aversion of George IV. 
It sealed the exclusion of himself and his few friends from office 
during the king's life; and when in 1827 Grey came forth to 
denounce the ministry of Canning, he declared that he stood 
alone in the political world. His words were soon justified, for 
when Lord Goderich resigned, the remnant which had hitherto 



supported Grey, hastened to support the ministry of the duke of 
Wellington. 

We now reach the principal episode in Grey's career. In 1827 
he seemed to stand forth the solitary and powerless relic of an 
extinct party. In 1832 we find that party restored to its old 
numbers and activity, supreme in parliament, popular in the 
nation, and Lord Grey at its head. The duke of Wellington's 
foolish declaration against parliamentary reform, made in a 
season of great popular excitement, suddenly deprived him of 
the confidence of the country, and a coalition of the Whigs and 
Canningites became inevitable. The Whigs had in 1827 sup- 
ported the Canningites; the latter now supported the Whigs, 
of whom Grey remained the traditional head. George IV. was 
dead, and no obstacle existed to Grey's elevation. Grey was 
sent for by William IV. in November 1830, and formed a coalition 
cabinet, pledged to carry on the work in which the duke of 
Wellington had faltered. But Grey himself was the mere instru- 
ment of the times. An old-fashioned Whig, he had little personal 
sympathy with the popular cause, though he had sometimes 
indicated a certain measure of reform as necessary. When he 
took office, he guessed neither the extent to which the Reform 
Act would go, nor the means by which it would be carried. That 
he procured for the country a measure of constitutional reform 
for which he had agitated in his youth was little more than a 
coincidence. In his youth he had put himself at the head of a 
frantic agitation against parliament, because he there found 
himself powerless. In his old age the case was reversed. 
Suddenly raised to a position of authority in the country, he 
boldly stood between parliament, as then constituted, and the 
formidable agitation which now threatened it and by a forced 
reform saved it from revolution. In his youth he had assailed 
Pitt's administration because Pitt's administration threatened 
with extinction the political monopoly of that landed interest 
to which he belonged. In his old age, on the contrary, unable 
to check the progress of the wave, he swam with it, and headed 
the movement which compelled that landed interest to surrender 
its monopoly. 

The second reading of the first Reform Bill was carried in the 
Commons by a majority of one. This was equivalent to a defeat, 
and further failures precipitated a dissolution. The confidence 
which the bold action of the ministry had won was soon plainly 
proved, for the second reading was carried in the new parliament 
by a majority of 136. When the bill had at length passed the 
Commons after months of debate, it was Grey's task to introduce 
it to the Lords. It was rejected by a majority of 41. The safety 
of the country now depended on the prudence and courage of 
the ministry. The resignation of Grey and his colleagues was 
dreaded even by the opposition, and they remained in office 
with the intention of introducing a third Reform Bill in the next 
session. The last months of 183 1 were the beginning of a political 
crisis such as England had not seen since 1688. The two extreme 
parties, the Ultra-Radicals and the Ultra-Tories, were ready for 
civil war. Between them stood the ministry and the majority of 
intelligent peace-loving Englishmen; and their course of action 
was soon decided. The bill must be passed, and there were but 
two ways of passing it. One was to declare the consent of the 
House of Lords unnecessary to the measure, the other to create, 
if necessary, new peers in sufficient number to outvote the 
opposition. These two expedients did not in reality differ. To 
swamp the house in the way proposed would have been to destroy 
it. The question whether the ministry should demand the king's 
consent to such a creation, if necessary, was debated in the 
cabinet in September. Brougham proposed it, and gradually a 
majority of the cabinet were won over. Grey had at first refused 
to employ even the threat of so unconstitutional a device as a 
means to the proposed end. But his continued refusal would 
have broken up the ministry, and the breaking up of the ministry 
must now have been the signal for revolution. The second 
reading in the Commons was passed in December by a majority 
of 162, and on New- Year's day 1832 the majority of the cabinet 
resolved on demanding power to carry it in the Lords by a 
creation of peers. Grey carried the resolution to the king. 



5 88 



GREY, SIR E. GREY, SIR G. 



Some time still remained before the bill could be committed and 
read a third time. It was not until the gth of April that Grey 
moved the second reading in the Lords. A sufficient number of 
the opposition temporized; and the second reading was allowed 
to pass by a majority of nine. Their intention was to mutilate 
the bill in committee. The Ultra-Tories, headed by the duke of 
Wellington, had entered a protest against the second reading, 
but they were now politically powerless. The struggle had 
become a struggle on the one hand for the whole bill, to be 
carried by a creation of peers, and on the other for some mutilated 
measure. Grey's instinct divined that the crisis was approaching. 
Either the king must consent to swamp the House, or the ministry 
must cease to stand in the breach between the peers and the 
country. The king, a weak and inexperienced politician, had 
in the meantime been wrought upon by the temporizing leaders 
in the Lords. He was induced to believe that if the Commons 
should reject the mutilated bill when it was returned to them, 
and the ministry should consequently retire, the mutilated bill 
might be reintroduced and passed by a Tory ministry. He was 
deaf to all representations of the state of public opinion; and to 
the surprise of the ministry, and the terror and indignation of 
every man of sense in the country, he rejected their proposal 
and accepted their resignation, May 9, 1832. The duke of 
Wellington undertook the hopeless task of constructing a 
ministry which should pass a restricted or sham Reform Bill. 
The only man who could have made the success of such a ministry 
even probable was Peel, and Peel's conscience and good sense 
forbade the attempt. He refused, and after a week of the pro- 
foundest agitation throughout the country, the king, beaten 
and mortified, was forced to send for Grey and Brougham. On 
being told that his consent to the creation of peers was the only 
condition on which they could undertake the government, 
he angrily and reluctantly yielded. The chancellor, with cool 
forethought, demanded this consent in writing. Grey thought 
such a demand harsh and unnecessary. " I wonder," he said 
to Brougham, when the interview was over, " you could have had 
the heart to press it." But Brougham was inexorable, and the 
king signed the following paper: " The king grants permission 
to Earl Grey, and to his chancellor, Lord Brougham, to create 
such a number of peers as will be sufficient to ensure the passing 
of the Reform Bill, first calling up peers' eldest sons. WILLIAM 
R., Windsor, May 17, 1832." 

Grey had now won the game. There was no danger that he 
would have to resort to the expedient which he was authorized 
to employ. The introduction of sixty new peers would have 
destroyed the opposition, but it would have been equivalent 
to the abolition of the House. The king's consent made known, 
a sufficient number of peers were sure to withdraw to enable the 
bill to pass, and thus the dignity of both king and peerage would 
be saved. The duke of Wellington headed this movement on 
the part of the opposition; and the third reading of the bill was 
carried in the Lords by a majority of 84. 

It is well known that in after years both Grey and Brougham 
disclaimed any intention of executing their threat. If this were 
so, they must have merely pretended to brave a danger which 
they secretly feared to face, and intended to avoid; and the 
credit of rescuing the country would belong to the duke of 
Wellington and the peers who seceded with him. To argue such 
cowardice in them from statements made when the crisis was 
long past, and when they were naturally willing to palliate the 
rough policy which they were forced to adopt, would be to set up 
a needless and unjustifiable paradox. Nothing else in the career 
of either Grey or Brougham leads us to suppose them capable 
of the moral baseness of yielding up the helm of state, in an hour 
of darkness and peril, to reckless and unskilled hands. Such 
would have been the result if they had lacked the determination 
to carry out their programme to the end. The influence of every 
statesman in the country would then have been extinguished, 
and the United Kingdom would have been absolutely in the 
hands of O'Connell and Orator Hunt. 

Grey took but little part in directing the legislation of the 
reformed parliament. Never anxious for power, he had executed 



.he arduous task of 1831-1832 rather as a matter of duty than of 
nclination, and wished for an opportunity of retiring. Such an 
opportunity very shortly presented itself. The Irish policy of 
the ministry had not conciliated the Irish people, and O'Connell 
denounced them with the greatest bitterness. On the renewal 
of the customary Coercion Bill, the ministry was divided on the 
question whether to continue to the lord-lieutenant the power 
of suppressing public meetings. Littleton, the Irish secretary, 
was for abolishing it; and with the view of conciliating O'Connell, 
ie informed him that the ministry intended to abandon it. But 
;he result proved him to have been mistaken, and O'Connell, 
with some reason supposing himself to have been duped, called 
on Littleton to resign his secretaryship. It had also transpired 
in the discussion that Lord Althorp, the leader of the House of 
Commons, was privately opposed to retaining those clauses 
which it was his duty to push through the house. Lord Althorp 
therefore resigned, and Grey, who had lately passed his seventieth 
year, took the opportunity of resigning also. It was his opinion, 
it appeared, which had overborne the cabinet in favour of the 
public meeting clauses; and his voluntary withdrawal enabled 
Lord Althorp to return to his post and to proceed with the bill 
in its milder form. Grey was succeeded by Lord Melbourne; 
but no other change was made in the cabinet. Grey took no 
further part in politics. During most of his remaining years he 
continued to live in retirement at Howick, where he died on the 
iyth of July 1845, in his eighty-second year. By his wife Mary 
Elizabeth, only daughter of the first Lord Ponsonby, whom he 
married on the i8th of November 1794, he became the father of 
ten sons and five daughters. Grey's eldest son Henry (q.v.) be- 
came the 3rd earl, and among his other sons were General Charles 
Grey (1804-1870) and Admiral Frederick Grey (1805-1878). 

In public life, Grey could always be upon occasion bold, 
strenuous and self-sacrificing; but he was little disposed for the 
active work of the politician. He was not one of those who took 
the statesman's duty " as a pleasure he was to enjoy." A certain 
stiffness and reserve ever seemed in the popular eye to hedge him 
in; nor was his oratory of the kind which stirs enthusiasm and 
delight. A tall, stately figure, fine voice and calm aristocratic 
bearing reminded the listener of Pitt rather than of Fox, and his 
speeches were constructed on the Attic rather than the Asiatic 
model. Though simple and straightforward, they never lacked 
either point or dignity; and they were admirably adapted to the 
audience to which they were addressed. The scrupulous up- 
rightness of Grey's political and private character completed the 
ascendancy which he gained; and no politician could be named 
who, without being a statesman of the highest class, has left a 
name more enviably placed in English history. (E. J. P.) 

GREY, SIR EDWARD, 3rd Bart. (1862- ), English 
statesman, was educated at Winchester and at Balliol College, 
Oxford, and succeeded his grandfather, the 2nd baronet, at the 
age of twenty. He entered the House of Commons as Liberal 
member for Berwick-on-Tweed in 1885, but he was best known 
as a country gentleman with a taste for sport, and as amateur 
champion tennis-player. His interest in politics was rather 
languid, but he was a disciple of Lord Rosebery, and in the 
1892-1895 Liberal ministry he was under-secretary for foreign 
affairs. In this position he earned a reputation as a politician 
of thorough straightforwardness and grit, and as one who would 
maintain British interests independently of party; and he shared 
with Mr Asquith the reputation of being the ablest of the 
Imperialists who followed Lord Rosebery. Though outside 
foreign affairs he played but a small part in the period of Liberal 
opposition between 1895 and 1905, he retained public confidence 
as one who was indispensable to a Liberal administration. 
When Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet was formed 
in December 1905 he became foreign minister, and he retained 
this office when in April 1908 Mr Asquith became prime 
minister. 

GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812-1898), British colonial governor 
and statesman, only son of Lieutenant-Colonel Grey of the 
3oth Foot, was born in Lisbon on the i4th of April 1812, eight 
days after the death of his father at the storming of Badajoz. 



GREY, SIR G. 



589 



He passed through Sandhurst with credit, and received his com- 
mission in 1829. His lieutenancy was dated 1833, and his 
captaincy 1839, in which year he sold out and left the army. 
In the early 'thirties he was quartered in Ireland, where the 
wretchedness of the poorer classes left a deep impression on his 
mind. In 1836 the Royal Geographical Society accepted his 
offer to explore the north-west region of West Australia, and 
accordingly he landed at Hanover Bay at the end of 1837. 
The surrounding country he found broken and difficult, and his 
hardships were aggravated by the tropical heat and his ignorance 
of the continent. In a skirmish with the natives, in which he 
was speared near the hip, he showed great courage, and put the 
assailants to flight, shooting the chief, who had wounded him. 
After a brave endeavour to continue his journey his wound 
forced him to retreat to the coast, whence he sailed to Mauritius 
to recruit. Next year he again essayed exploration, this time 
on the coast to the north and south of Shark's Bay. He had 
three whale-boats and an ample supply of provisions, but by a 
series of disasters his stores were spoilt by storms, his boats 
wrecked in the surf, and the party had to tramp on foot from 
Gantheaume Bay to Perth, where Grey, in the end, walked in 
alone, so changed by suffering that friends did not know him. 
In 1839 he was appointed governor-resident at Albany, and 
during his stay there married Harriett, daughter of Admiral 
Spencer, and also prepared for publication an account, in two 
volumes, of his expeditions. In 1840 he returned to England, to 
be immediately appointed by Lord John Russell to succeed 
Colonel Gawler as governor of South Australia. Reaching the 
colony in May 1841, he found it in the depths of a depression 
caused by mismanagement and insane land speculation. By 
rigorously reducing public expenditure, and forcing the settlers 
to quit the town and betake themselves to tilling their lands, 
and with the opportune help of valuable copper discoveries, 
Grey was able to aid the infant colony to emerge from the slough. 
So striking were his energy and determination that when, in 
1845, the little settlements in New Zealand were found to be 
involved in a native war, and on the verge of ruin, he was sent 
to save them. The Maori chiefs in open rebellion were defeated, 
and made their submission. Another powerful leader suspected 
of fomenting discontent was arrested, and friendly chieftains 
were subsidized and honoured. Bands of the natives were 
employed in making government roads, and were paid good 
wages. The governor gained the veneration of the Maori tribes, 
in whose welfare he took a close personal interest, and of whose 
legends and myths he made a valuable and scholarly collection, 
published in New Zealand in 1855 and reprinted thirty years 
afterwards. With peace prosperity came to New Zealand, and 
the colonial office desired to give the growing settlements full 
self-government. Grey, arguing that this would renew war 
with the Maori, returned the constitution to Downing Street. 
But though the colonial office sustained him, he became involved 
in harassing disputes with the colonists, who organized an active 
agitation for autonomy. In the end a second constitution, 
partly framed by Grey himself, was granted them, and Grey, 
after eight years of despotic but successful rule, was transferred 
to Cape Colony. He had been knighted for his services, and had 
undoubtedly shown strength, dexterity and humanity in dealing 
with the whites and natives. In South Africa his success con- 
tinued. He thwarted a formidable Kaffir rebellion in the Eastern 
Provinces, and pushed on the work of settlement by bringing out 
men from the German Legion and providing them with homes. 
He gained the respect of the British, the confidence of the Boers, 
the admiration and the trust of the natives. The Dutch of the 
Free State and the Basuto chose him as arbitrator of their 
quarrels. When the news of the Indian Mutiny reached Cape 
Town he strained every nerve to help Lord Canning, despatching 
men, horses, stores and 60,000 in specie to Bombay. He per- 
suaded a detachment, then on its way round the Cape as a rein- 
forcement for Lord Elgin in China, to divert its voyage to Calcutta. 
Finally, in 1859, Grey almost reached what would have been the 
culminating point of his career by federating South Africa. 
Persuaded by him, the Orange Free State passed resolutions in 



favour of this great step, and their action was welcomed by Cape 
Town. But the colonial office disapproved of the change, and 
when Grey attempted to persevere with it Sir Edward Bulwer 
Lytton recalled him. A change of ministry during his voyage to 
England displaced Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton. But though the 
duke of Newcastle reinstated Grey, it was with instructions to 
let federation drop. In 1861 the colonial office sent him, for the 
fourth time in succession, to take up a post of exceptional diffi- 
culty by again entrusting him with the governorship of New 
Zealand, where an inglorious native war in Taranaki had just 
been succeeded by an armed truce. Grey did his best to make 
terms with the rebels and to re-establish friendship with the 
Maori king and the land league of tribes formed to stop further 
sales of land to the whites. But the Maori had got guns and 
powder, and were suspicious and truculent. In vain Grey, 
supported by Bishop Selwyn and by Fox and the peace party 
among the settlers, strove to avert war. It came in 1863, and 
spread from province to province. Ten thousand regulars and 
as many colonial riflemen were employed to put it down. The 
imperial troops were badly handled, and Grey, losing patience, 
became involved in bitter disputes with their commanders. 
As an example to the former he himself attacked and captured 
Weraroa, the strongest of the Maori stockades, with a handful 
of militia, a feat which delighted the colonists, but made him as 
much disliked at the war office as he now was at Downing Street. 
Moreover, Grey had no longer real control over the islands. 
New Zealand had become a self-governing colony, and though 
he vindicated the colonists generally when libellous imputations 
of cruelty and land-grabbing were freely made against them in 
London, he crossed swords with his ministers when the latter 
confiscated three million acres of tribal land belonging to the 
insurgent Maori. Yet through all these troubles progress was 
made; many successes were gained in 1866, chiefly by the 
colonial militia, and a condition of something like tranquillity 
had been reached in 1867, when he received a curt intimation 
from the duke of Buckingham that he was about to be superseded. 
The colonists, who believed he was sacrificed for upholding their 
interests and good name, bade farewell to him in 1868 in an out- 
burst of gratitude and sympathy; but his career as a colonial 
governor was at an end. Returning to England, he tried to enter 
public life, delivered many able speeches advocating what later 
came to be termed Imperialism, and stood for Newark. Dis- 
couraged, however, by the official Liberals, he withdrew and 
turned again to New Zealand. In 1872 he was given a pension 
of 1000 a year, and settled down on the island of Kawau, not 
far from Auckland, which he bought, and where he passed his 
leisure in planting, gardening and collecting books. In 1875, 
on the invitation of the Auckland settlers, he became super- 
intendent of their province, and entered the New Zealand House 
of Representatives to resist the abolition of the provincial 
councils of the colony, a change then being urged on by Sir Julius 
Vogel in alliance with the Centralist Party. In this he failed, 
but his eloquence and courage drew round him a strong Radical 
following, and gave him the premiership in 1877. Manhood 
suffrage, triennial parliaments, a land-tax, the purchase of large 
estates and the popular election of the governor, were leading 
points of his policy. All these reforms, except the last, he lived 
to see carried; none of them were passed by him. A commercial 
depression in 1879 shook his popularity, and on the fall of his 
ministry in 1879 he was deposed, and for the next fifteen years 
remained a solitary and pathetic figure in the New Zealand 
parliament, respectfully treated, courteously listened to, but never 
again invited to lead. In 1891 he came before Australia as one of 
the New Zealand delegates to the federal convention at Sydney, 
and characteristically made his mark by standing out almost 
alone for " one man one vote " as the federal franchise. This 
point he carried, and the Australians thronged to hear him, so 
that his visits to Victoria and South Australia were personal 
triumphs. When, too, in 1894, he quitted New Zealand for 
London, some reparation was at last made him by the imperial 
government; he was called to the privy council, and graciously 
received by Queen Victoria on his visit to Windsor. Thereafter 



590 



GREY, SRD EARL GREY, LADY JANE 



he lived in London, and died on the 2oth of September 1898. He 
was given a public funeral at St Paul's. Grey was all his life 
a collector of books and manuscripts. After leaving Cape 
Colony, he gave his library to Cape Town in 1862 ; his subsequent 
collection, which numbered 12,000 volumes, he presented to the 
citizens of Auckland in 1887. In gratitude the people of Cape 
Town erected a statue of him opposite their library building. 

Lives of Sir George Grey have been written by W. L. and L. Rees 
(1892), Professor G. C. Henderson (1907) and J. Collier (1909). 

(W. P. R.) 

GREY, HENRY GREY, 3 RD EARL (1802-1894), English 
statesman, was born on the 28th of December 1802, the son of 
the 2nd Earl Grey, prime minister at the time of the Reform 
Bill of 1832. He entered parliament in 1826, under the title of 
Viscount Howick, as member for Winchilsea, which constituency 
he left in 1831 for Northumberland. On the accession of the 
Whigs to power in 1830 he was made under-secretary for the 
colonies, and laid the foundation of his intimate acquaintance 
with colonial questions. He belonged at the time to the more 
advanced party of colonial reformers, sharing the views of 
Edward Gibbon Wakefield on questions of land and emigration, 
and resigned in 1834 from dissatisfaction that slave emancipation 
was made gradual instead of immediate. In 1835 he entered 
Lord Melbourne's cabinet as secretary at war, and effected 
some valuable administrative reforms, especially by suppressing 
malpractices detrimental to the troops in India. After the partial 
reconstruction of the ministry in 1839 he again resigned, dis- 
approving of the more advanced views of some of his colleagues. 
These repeated resignations gave him a reputation for crotcheti- 
ness, which he did not decrease by his disposition to embarrass his 
old colleagues by his action on free trade questions in the session 
of 1841. During the exile of the Liberals from power he went 
still farther on the path of free trade, and anticipated Lord 
John Russell's declaration against the corn laws. When, on 
Sir Robert Peel's resignation in December 1845, Lord John 
Russell was called upon to form a ministry, Howick, who had 
become Earl Grey by the death of his father in the preceding 
July, refused to enter the new cabinet if Lord Palmerston were 
foreign secretary (see J. R. Thursfield in vol. i. and Hon. F. H. 
Baring in vol. xxiii. of the English Historical Review). He was 
greatly censured for perverseness, and particularly when in the 
following July he accepted Lord Palmerston as a colleague 
without remonstrance. His conduct, nevertheless, afforded Lord 
John Russell an escape from an embarrassing situation. Be- 
coming colonial secretary in 1846, he found himself everywhere 
confronted with arduous problems, which in the main he en- 
countered with success. His administration formed an epoch. 
He was the first minister to proclaim that the colonies were to 
be governed for their own benefit and not for the mother- 
country's; the first systematically to accord them self-govern- 
ment so far as then seemed possible; the first to introduce free 
trade into their relations with Great Britain and Ireland. The 
concession by which colonies were allowed to tax imports from 
the mother-country ad libitum was not his; he protested against 
it, but was overruled. In the West Indies he suppressed, if he 
could not overcome, discontent; in Ceylon he put down rebellion; 
in New Zealand he suspended the constitution he had himself 
accorded, and yielded everything into the masterful hands of 
Sir George Grey. The least successful part of his administration 
was his treatment of the convict question at the Cape of Good 
Hope, which seemed an exception to his rule that the colonies 
were to be governed for their own benefit and in accordance with 
their own wishes, and subjected him to a humiliating defeat. 
After his retirement he wrote a history and defence of his colonial 
policy in the form of letters to Lord John Russell, a dry but 
instructive book (Colonial Policy of Lord John Russell's Admini- 
stration, 1853). He resigned with his colleagues in 1852. No 
room was found for him in the Coalition Cabinet of 1853, and 
although during the Crimean struggle public opinion pointed 
to him as the fittest man as minister for war, he never again 
held office. During the remainder of his long life he exercised 
a vigilant criticism on public affairs. In 1858 he wrote a work 



(republished in 1864) on parliamentary reform; in 1888 he wrote 
another on the state of Ireland; and in 1892 one on the United 
States tariff. In his latter years he was a frequent contributor 
of weighty letters to The Times on land, tithes, currency and 
other public questions. His principal parliamentary appearances 
were when he moved for a committee on Irish affairs in 1866, 
and when in 1878 he passionately opposed the policy of the 
Beaconsfield cabinet in India. He nevertheless supported Lord 
Beaconsfield at the dissolution, regarding Mr Gladstone's acces- 
sion to power with much greater alarm. He was a determined 
opponent of Mr Gladstone's Home Rule policy. He died on the 
9th of October 1894. None ever doubted his capacity or his 
conscientiousness, but he was generally deemed impracticable 
and disagreeable. Prince Albert, however, who expressed 
himself as ready to subscribe to all Grey's principles, and 
applauded him for having principles, told Stockmarthat, although 
dogmatic, he was amenable to argument; and Sir Henry 
Taylor credits him with " more freedom from littlenesses of 
feeling than I have met before in any public man." His chief 
defect was perceived and expressed by his original tutor and 
subsequent adversary in colonial affairs, Edward Gibbon Wake- 
field, who wrote, " With more than a common talent for under- 
standing principles, he has no originality of thought, which 
compels him to take all his ideas from somebody; and no power 
of working out theory in practice, which compels him to be 
always in somebody's hands as respects decision and action." 

The earl had no sons, and he was followed as 4th earl by his 
nephew Albert Henry George (b. 1851), who in 1904 became 
governor-general of Canada. 

GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1 554), a lady remarkable no 
less for her accomplishments than for her misfortunes, was the 
great-granddaughter of Henry VII. of England. Her descent 
from that king was traced through a line of females. His 
second daughter Mary, after being left a widow by Louis XII. 
of France, married Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, who was 
a favourite with her brother King Henry VIII. Of this marriage 
came two daughters, the elder of whom, Lady Frances Brandon, 
was married to Henry Grey, marquess of Dorset; and their 
issue, again, consisted of daughters only. Lady Jane, the 
subject of this article, was the eldest of three whom the marquess, 
had by Lady Frances. Thus it will appear that even if the crown 
of England had ever fallen into the female line of descent from 
Henry VII., she could not have put in a rightful claim unless the 
issue of his elder daughter, Margaret, had become extinct. 
But Margaret had married James IV. of Scotland; and, though 
her descendant, James VI., was ultimately called to the English 
throne, Henry VIII. had placed her family after that of his second 
sister in the succession; so that, failing the lawful issue of Henry 
himself, Lady Jane would, according to this arrangement, 
have succeeded. It was to these circumstances that she owed 
her exceptional position in history, and became the victim of an 
ambition which was not her own. 

She was born at her father's seat named Bradgate in Leicester- 
shire about the year 1537. Her parents, though severe disciplin- 
arians, bestowed more than ordinary care upon her education, 
and she herself was so teachable and delighted so much in study 
that she became the marvel of the age for her acquirements. 
She not only excelled in needlework and in music, both vocal 
and instrumental, but while still very young she had thoroughly 
mastered Latin, Greek, French and Italian. She was able to 
speak and write both Greek and Latin with an accuracy that 
satisfied even such critics as Ascham and her tutor Dr Aylmer, 
afterwards bishop of London. She also acquired some knowledge 
of at least three Oriental tongues, Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic. 
In Ascham's Schoolmaster is given a touching account of the 
devotion with which she pursued her studies and the harshness 
she experienced from her parents. The love of learning was her 
solace; in reading Demosthenes and Plato she found a refuge 
from domestic unhappiness. When about ten years old she 
was placed for a time in the household of Thomas, Lord Seymour, 
who, having obtained her wardship, induced her parents to let 
her stay with him, even after the death of his wife, Queen 



GREY DE WILTON 



59 1 



Catherine Parr, by promising to marry her to his nephew, King 
Edward VI. Lord Seymour, however, was attainted of high 
treason and beheaded in 1549, and his brother, the duke of 
Somerset, made some overtures to the marquess of Dorset to 
marry her to his son the earl of Hertford. These projects, 
however, came to nothing. The duke of Somerset in his turn 
fell a victim to the ambition of Dudley, duke of Northumberland, 
and was beheaded three years after his brother. Meanwhile, 
the dukedom of Suffolk having become extinct by the deaths 
of Charles Brandon and his two sons, the title was conferred 
upon the marquess of Dorset, Lady Jane's father. Northumber- 
land, who was now all-powerful, fearing a great reverse of fortune 
in case of the king's death, as his health began visibly to decline, 
endeavoured to strengthen himself by marriages between his 
family and those of other powerful noblemen, especially of the 
new-made duke of Suffolk. His three eldest sons being already 
married, the fourth, who was named Lord Guilford Dudley, 
was accordingly wedded to Lady Jane Grey about the end of 
May 1553. The match received the full approval of the king, 
who furnished the wedding apparel of the parties by royal 
warrant. But Edward's state of health warned Northumberland 
that he must lose no time in putting the rest of his project into 
execution. He persuaded the king that if the crown should 
descend to his sister Mary the work of the Reformation would 
be undone and the liberties of the kingdom would be in danger. 
Besides, both Mary and her sister Elizabeth had been declared 
illegitimate by separate acts of parliament, and the objections 
to Mary queen of Scots did not require to be pointed out. 
Edward was easily persuaded to break through his father's will 
and make a new settlement of the crown by deed. The document 
was witnessed by the signatures of all the council and of all but 
one of the judges; but those of the latter body were obtained 
only with difficulty by threats and intimidation. 

Edward VI. died on the 6th July 1553, and it was announced 
to Lady Jane that she was queen. She was then but sixteen 
years of age. The news came upon her as a most unwelcome 
surprise, and for some time she resisted all persuasions to accept 
the fatal dignity; but at length she yielded to the entreaties 
of her father, her father-in-law and her husband. The better 
to mature their plans the cabal had kept the king's death secret 
for some days, but they proclaimed Queen Jane in the city on 
the iqth. The people received the announcement with manifest 
coldness, and a vintner's boy was even so bold as to raise a cry 
for Queen Mary, for which he next day had his ears nailed to the 
pillory and afterwards cut off. Mary, however, had received 
early intimation of her brother's death, and, retiring from 
Hunsdon into Norfolk, gathered round her the nobility and 
commons of those parts. Northumberland was despatched 
thither with an army to oppose her; but after reaching New- 
market he complained that the council had not sent him forces 
in sufficient numbers and his followers began to desert. News 
also came that the earl of Oxford had declared for Queen Mary; 
and as most of the council themselves were only seeking an 
opportunity to wash their hands of rebellion, they procured a 
meeting at Baynard's Castle, revoked their former acts as done 
under coercion, and caused the lord mayor to proclaim Queen 
Mary, which he did amid the shouts of the citizens. The duke ol 
Suffolk was obliged to tell his daughter that she must lay aside 
her royal dignity and become a private person once more. She 
replied that she relinquished most willingly a crown that she 
had only accepted out of obedience to him and her mother 
and her nine days' reign was over. 

The leading actors in the conspiracy were now called to 
answer for their deeds. Northumberland was brought up 
to London a prisoner, tried and sent to the block, along with 
some of his partisans. The duke of Suffolk and Lady Jane were 
also committed to the Tower; but the former, by the influence 
of his duchess, procured a pardon. Lady Jane and her husband 
Lord Guilford Dudley were also tried, and received sentence 
of death for treason. This, however, was not immediately 
carried 'out; on the contrary, the queen seems to have wishec 
to spare their lives and mitigated the rigour of their confinement 



Jnfortunately, owing to the general dislike of the queen's 

marriage with Philip of Spain, Sir Thomas Wyat soon after 

aised a rebellion in which the duke of Suffolk and his brothers 

ook part, and on its suppression the queen was persuaded that 

t was unsafe to spare the lives of Lady Jane and her husband 

any longer. On hearing that they were to die, Lady Jane 

declined a parting interview with her husband lest it should 

ncrease their pain, and prepared to meet her fate with Christian 

'ortitude. She and her husband were executed on the same day, 

on the 1 2th of February 1554, her husband on Tower Hill, and 

lerself within the Tower an hour afterwards, amidst universal 

sympathy and compassion. 

See Ascham's Schoolmaster; Burnet's History of the Reformation; 
Howard's Lady Jane Grey; Nicolas's Literary Remains of Lady Jane 
Grey ; Tytler's England under Edward VI. and Mary ; The Chronicles 
of Queen Jane, ed. J. G. Nichols; The Accession of Queen Mary 
.Guaras's narrative), ed. R. Garnett (1892); Foxe's Acts and 
Monuments. 

GREY DE WILTON and GREY DE RUTHYN. The first Baron 
rey de Wilton was Reginald de Grey, who was summoned to 
parliament as a baron in 1295 and who died in 1308. Reginald's 
son John, the 2nd baron (1268-1323), was one of the lords 
ordainers in 1310 and was a prominent figure in English politics 
during the reign of Edward II. The later barons Grey de Wilton 
were descended from John's eldest son Henry (d. 1342), while a 
younger son Roger (d. 1353) was the ancestor of the barons 
Grey de Ruthyn. 

WILLIAM, 13x11 LORD GREY DE WILTON (d. 1562), who sue-; 
ceeded to the title on the death of his brother Richard, about 
1520, won great fame as a soldier by his conduct in France 
during the concluding years of Henry VIII. 's reign, and was one 
of the leaders of the victorious English army at the battle of 
Pinkie in 1547. He was then employed on the Scottish marches 
and in Scotland, and in 1549 he rendered good service in sup- 
pressing the rebellion in Oxfordshire and in the west of England; 
in 1551 he was imprisoned as a friend of the fallen protector, 
the duke of Somerset, and he was concerned in the attempt made 
by John Dudley, duke of Northumberland, to place Lady Jane 
Grey on the English throne in 1553. However, he was pardoned 
by Queen Mary and was entrusted with the defence of Guines. 
Although indifferently supported he defended the town with 
great gallantry, but in January 1558 he was forced to surrender 
and for some time he remained a prisoner in France. Under 
Elizabeth, Grey was again employed on the Scottish border, 
and he was responsible for the pertinacious but unavailing 
attempt to capture Leith in May 1560. He died at Cheshunt 
in Hertfordshire on the I4th/25th of December 1562. 

He was described by William Cecil as " a noble, valiant, painful 
and careful gentleman," and his son and successor, Arthur, wrote 
A Commentary of the Services and Charges of William, Lord Grey of 
Wilton, K.G. This has been edited by Sir P. de M. Grey Egerton 
for the Camden Society (1847). 

Grey's elder son ARTHUR, I4TH LORD GREY DE WILTON (1536- 
1 593)> was during early life with his father in France and in 
Scotland; he fought at the battle of St Quentin and helped to 
defend Guines and to assault Leith. In July 1580 he was 
appointed lord deputy of Ireland, and after an initial defeat in 
Wicklow was successful in reducing many of the rebels to a 
temporary submission. Perhaps the most noteworthy event 
during his tenure of this office was the massacre of 600 Italians 
and Spaniards at Smerwick in November 1580, an action for 
which he was responsible. Having incurred a heavy burden of 
debt Grey frequently implored the queen to recall him, and in 
August 1582 he was allowed to return to England (see E. 
Spenser, View of the Slate of Ireland, edited by H. Morley, 1890, 
and R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors, vol. iii., 1890). While 
in Ireland Grey was served as secretary by Edmund Spenser, 
and in book v. of the Faerie Queene the poet represents his 
patron as a knight of very noble qualities named Artegall. As 
one of the commissioners who tried Mary queen of Scots, Grey 
defended the action of Elizabeth's secretary, William Davison, 
with regard to this matter, and he took part in the preparations 
for the defence of England against the Spaniards in 1588. His 



592 



GREYMOUTH GRIBEAUVAL 



account of the defence of Guines was used by Holinshed in his 
Chronicles. 

When he died on the i4th of October 1593 he was succeeded 
as i$th baron by his son THOMAS (d. 1614), who while serving in 
Ireland incurred the enmity of Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, 
and of Henry Wriothesley, earl of Southampton; and after 
fighting against Spain in the Netherlands he was a member of 
the court which sentenced these two noblemen to death in 1601. 
On the accession of James I. he was arrested for his share in the 
" Bye " plot, an attempt made by William Watson and others 
to seize the king. He was tried and sentenced to death, but the 
sentence was not carried out and he remained in prison until his 
death on the gth of July 1614. He displayed both ability and 
courage at his trial, remarking after sentence had been passed, 
" the house of Wilton hath spent many lives in their prince's 
service and Grey cannot beg his." Like his father Grey was a 
strong Puritan. He left no children and his barony became 
extinct. 

In 1784 Sir Thomas Egerton, Bart., a descendant in the female 
line of the I4th baron, was created Baron Grey de Wilton. He died 
without sons in September 1814, when his barony became extinct; 
but the titles of Viscount Grey de Wilton and earl of Wilton, which 
had been conferred upon him in 1801, passed to Thomas Grosvenor 
(1799-1882), the second son of his daughter Eleanor (d. 1846), and 
her husband Robert Grosvenor, 1st marquess of Westminster. 
Thomas took the name of Egerton and his descendants still hold the 
titles. 

ROGER GREY, IST BARON GREY DE RUTHYN, who was sum- 
moned to parliament as a baron in 1324, saw much service as a 
soldier before his death on the 6th of March 1353. The second 
baron was his son Reginald, whose son REGINALD (c. 1362-1440) 
succeeded to the title on his father's death in July 1388. In 
1410 after a long dispute the younger Reginald won the right to 
bear the arms of the Hastings family. He enjoyed the favour 
both of Richard II. and Henry IV., and his chief military exploits 
were against the Welsh, who took him prisoner in 1402 and only 
released him upon payment of a heavy ransom. Grey was a 
member of the council which governed England during the 
absence of Henry V. in France in 1415; he fought in the French 
wars in 1420 and 1421 and died on the 3oth of September 1440. 
His eldest son, Sir John Grey, K.G. (d. 1439), who predeceased 
his father, fought at Agincourt and was deputy of Ireland in 1427. 
He was the father of EDMUND GREY (d. 1489), who succeeded 
his grandfather as Lord Greyde Ruthynin 1440 and was created 
earl of Kent in 1465. 

One of Reginald Grey's younger sons, Edward (1415-1457), 
succeeded his maternal grandfather as Baron Ferrers of Groby in 
1445. He was the ancestor of the earls of Stamford and also of the 
Greys, marquesses of Dorset and dukes of Suffolk. 

The barony of Grey de Ruthyn was merged in the earldom of 
Kent until the death of Henry, the 8th earl, in November 1639. 
It then devolved upon Kent's nephew Charles Longueville (1612 
1643), through whose daughter Susan (d. 1676) it came to the family 
of Yelverton, who were earls of Sussex from 1717 to 1799. The next 
holder was Henry Edward Gould (1780-1810), a grandson of Henry 
Yelverton, earl of Sussex; and through Gould's daughter Barbara, 
marchionrss of Hastings (d. 1858), it passed to the last marquess of 
Hastingb.jon whose death in 1868 the barony fell into abeyance, this 
being terminated in 1885 in favour of Hastings's sister Bertha 
(d. 1887), the wife of Augustus Wykeham Clifton. Their son, 
Rawdon George Grey Clifton (b. 1858), succeeded his mother as 24th 
holder of the barony. 

GREYMOUTH, a seaport of New Zealand, the principal port 
on the west coast of South Island, in Grey county. Pop. (1906) 
4569. It stands on the small estuary of the Grey or Mawhera 
river, has a good harbour, and railway communication with 
Hokitika, Reefton, &c., while the construction of a line to connect 
with Christchurch and Nelson was begun in 1887. The district 
is both auriferous and coal-bearing. Gold-dredging is a rich 
industry, and the coal-mines have attendant industries in coke, 
bricks and fire-clay. The timber trade is also well developed. 
The neighbouring scenery is picturesque, especially among the 
hills surrounding Lake Brunner (15 m. S.E.). 

GREYTOWN (SAN JUAN DEL NORTE), the principal seaport on 
the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua, in the extreme south-eastern 
corner of the republic, and at the mouth of the northern channel 
of the San Juan river delta. Pop. (1905) about 2500. The town 



occupies the seaward side of a narrow peninsula, formed by the 
windings of the river. Most of its houses are raised on piles 
z or 3 ft. above the ground. The neighbourhood is unhealthy 
and unsuited for agriculture, so that almost all food-stuffs must 
be imported, and the cost of living is high. Greytown has 
suffered severely from the accumulation of sand in its once fine 
harbour. Between 1832 and 1848 Point Arenas, the seaward 
end of the peninsula, was enlarged by a sandbank more than 
i m. long; between 1850 and 1875 the depth of water over the 
bar decreased from about 25 ft. to 5 ft., and the entrance channel, 
which had been nearly jm. wide, was almost closed. Subsequent 
attempts to improve the harbour by dredging and building 
jetties have only had partial success; but Greytown remains 
the headquarters of Nicaraguan commerce with Europe and 
eastern America. The village called America, i m. N., was 
built as the eastern terminus of a proposed interoceanic canal. 

The harbour of San Juan, discovered by Columbus, was 
brought into further notice by Captain Diego Machuca, who in 
1529 sailed down the river from Lake Nicaragua. The date of 
the first Spanish settlement on the spot is not known, but in the 
1 7th century there were fortifications at the mouth of the river. 
In 1796 San Juan was made a port of entry by royal charter, 
and new defences were erected in 1821. In virtue of the pro- 
tectorate claimed by Great Britain over the Mosquito Coast 
(q.ii.), the Mosquito Indians, aided by a British force, seized the 
town in 1848 and occupied it until 1860, when Great Britain 
ceded its protectorate to Nicaragua by the treaty of Managua. 
This treaty secured religious liberty and trial by jury for all 
civil and criminal charges in Greytown; its seventh article 
declared the port free, but was never enforced. 

GREYWACKE, or GRAUWACKE (a German word signifying 
a grey earthy rock), the designation, formerly more generally 
used by English geologists than at the present day, for impure, 
highly composite, gritty rocks belonging to the Palaeozoic 
systems. They correspond to the sandstones, grits and fine 
conglomerates of the later periods. Greywackes are mostly 
grey, brown, yellow or black, dull-coloured, sandy rocks which 
may occur in thick or thin beds along with slates, limestones, &c., 
and are abundant in Wales, the south of Scotland and the Lake 
district of England. They contain a very great variety of 
minerals, of which the principal are quartz, orthoclase and 
plagioclase, calcite, iron oxides and graphitic carbonaceous 
matters, together with (in the coarser kinds) fragments of such 
rocks as felsite, chert, slate, gneiss, various schists, quartzite. 
Among other minerals found in them are biotite and chlorite, 
tourmaline, epidote, apatite, garnet, hornblende and augite, 
sphene, pyrites. The cementing material may be siliceous or 
argillaceous, and is sometimes calcareous. As a rule greywackes 
are not fossiliferous, but organic remains may be common in 
the finer beds associated with them. Their component particles 
are usually not much rounded by attrition, and the rocks have 
often been considerably indurated by pressure and mineral 
changes, such as the introduction of interstitial silica. In some 
districts the greywackes are cleaved, but they show phenomena 
of this kind much less perfectly than the slates. Although the 
group is so diverse that it is difficult to characterize minera- 
logically, it has a well-established place in petrographical 
classifications, because these peculiar composite arenaceous 
deposits are very frequent among Silurian and Cambrian rocks, 
and rarely occur in Secondary or Tertiary systems. Their 
essential features are their gritty character and their complex 
composition. By increasing metamorphism greywackes fre- 
quently pass into mica-schists, chloritic schists and sedimentary 
gneisses. (J. S. F.) 

GRIBEAUVAL, JEAN BAPTISTE DE (1715-1789), French 
artillery general, was the son of a magistrate of Amiens and was 
born there on the isth of September 1715. He entered the 
French royal artillery in 1732 as a volunteer, and became an 
officer in 1735. For nearly twenty years regimental duty and 
scientific work occupied him, and in 1752 he became captain of a 
company of miners. A few years later he was employed in a 
military mission in Prussia. In 1757, being then a lieutenant- 



GRIBOYEDOV GRIEG 



593 



colonel, he was lent to the Austrian army on the outbreak of the 
Seven Years' War, and served as a general officer of artillery. 
The siege of Glatz and the defence of Schweidnitz were his 
principal exploits. The empress Maria Theresa rewarded him 
for his work with the rank of lieutenant field-marshal and the 
cross of the Maria Theresa order. On his return to France he 
was made marechal de camp, in 1764 inspector of artillery, and 
in 1765 lieutenant-general and commander of the order of St 
Louis. For some years after this he was in disfavour at court, 
and he became first inspector of artillery only in 1776, in which 
year also he received the grand cross of the St Louis order. He' 
was now able to carry out the reforms in the artillery arm which 
are his chief title to fame. See ARTILLERY; and for full details 
Gribeauval's own Table des constructions des principaux attirails 
de /' artillerie . . .deM.de Gribeauval, and the reglement for the 
French artillery issued in 1776. He died in 1789. 

See Puysfigur in Journal de Paris, supplement of the 8th of July 
1789; Chevalier de Passac, Precis sur M. de Gnbeauval (Paris, 1816) ; 
Veyrines, Gribeauval (Paris, 1889), and Hennebert, Gribeauval, 
lieutenant-general des armees du roy (Paris, 1896). 

GRIBOYEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGUEEVICH (1795-1829), 
Russian dramatic author, was born in 1795 at Moscow, where 
he studied at the university from iSioto 1812. He then obtained 
a commission in a hussar regiment, but resigned it in 1816. 
Next year he entered the civil service, and in 1818 was appointed 
secretary of the Russian legation in Persia, whence he was 
transferred to Georgia. He had commenced writing early, and 
had produced on the stage at St Petersburg in 1816 a comedy 
in verse, translated from the French, called The Young Spouses, 
which was followed by other pieces of the same kind. But 
neither these nor the essays and verses which he wrote would 
have been long remembered but for the immense success gained 
by his comedy in verse, Gore ot uma, or " Misfortune from 
Intelligence " (Eng. trans, by N. Benardaky, 1857). A satire 
upon Russian society, or, as a high official styled it, "A pasquin- 
ade on Moscow," its plot is slight, its merits consisting in its 
accurate representation of certain social and official types 
such as Famousoff, the lover of old abuses, the hater of reforms; 
his secretary, Molchanin, servile fawner upon all in office; the 
aristocratic young liberal and Anglomaniac, Repetiloff; con- 
trasted with whom is the hero of the piece, Tchatsky, the ironical 
satirist, just returned from the west of Europe, who exposes and 
ridicules the weaknesses of the rest, his words echoing that outcry 
of the young generation of 1820 which reached its climax in the 
military insurrection of 1825, and was then sternly silenced by 
Nicholas. Griboyedov spent the summer of 1823 in Russia, 
completed his play and took it to St Petersburg. There it was 
rejected by the censorship. Many copies were made and privately 
circulated, but Griboyedov never saw it published. The first 
edition was printed in 1833, four years after his death. Only 
once did he see it on the stage, when it was acted by the officers 
of the garrison at Erivan. Soured by disappointment he returned 
to Georgia, made himself useful by his linguistic knowledge to 
his relative Count Paskievitch-Erivansky during a campaign 
against Persia, and was sent to St Petersburg with the treaty 
of 1828. Brilliantly received there, he thought of devoting 
himself to literature, and commenced a romantic drama, A 
Georgian Night. But he was suddenly sent to Persia as minister- 
plenipotentiary. Soon after his arrival at Teheran a tumult 
arose, caused by the anger of the populace against some Georgian 
and Armenian captives Russian subjects who had taken 
refuge in the Russian embassy. It was stormed, Griboyedov was 
killed (February n, 1829), and his body was for three days so 
ill-treated by the mob that it was at last recognized only by an 
old scar on the hand, due to a wound received in a duel. It was 
taken to Tiflis, and buried in the monastery of St David. There 
a momument was erected to his memory by his widow, to whom 
he had been but a few months married. 

GRIEG, EDVARD HAGERUP (1843-1907), Norwegian musical 
composer, was born on the isth of June 1843 in Bergen, where 
his father, Alexander Greig (sic), was English consul. The Greig 
family were of Scottish origin, but the composer's grandfather, 



a supporter of the Pretender, left his home at Aberdeen after 
Charles Edward's defeat at Culloden, and went to Bergen, where 
he carried on business. The composer's mother, Gesine Hagerup, 
belonged to a pure Norwegian peasant family; and it is from 
the mother rather than from the father that Edvard Grieg 
derived his musical talent. She had been educated as a pianist 
and began to give her son lessons on the pianoforte when he was 
six years of age. His first composition, " Variations on a German 
melody," was written at the age of nine. A summer holiday in 
Norway with his father in 1858 seems to have exercised a powerful 
influence on the child's musical imagination, which was easily 
kindled at the sight of mountain and fjord. In the autumn of 
the same year, at the recommendation of Ole Bull, young Grieg 
entered the Leipzig Conservatorium, where he passed, like all 
his contemporaries, under the influence of the Mendelssohn and 
Schumann school of romantics. But the curriculum of academic 
study was too narrow for him. He dreamed half his time away 
and overworked during the other half. In 1862 he completed 
his Leipzig studies, and appeared as pianist and composer 
before his fellow-citizens of Bergen. In 1863 he studied in 
Copenhagen for a short time with Gade and Emil Hartmann, 
both composers representing a sentimental strain of Scandinavian 
temperament, from which Grieg emancipated himself in favour 
of the harder inspiration of Richard Nordraak. " The scales 
fell from my eyes," says Grieg of his acquaintance with Nordraak. 
" For the first time I learned through him to know the northern 
folk tunes and my own nature. We made a pact -to combat the 
effeminate Gade-Mendelssohn mixture of Scandinavism, and 
boldly entered upon the new path along which the northern 
school at present pursues its course." Grieg now made a kind of 
crusade in favour of national music. In the winter of 1864- 
1865 he founded the Copenhagen concert-society Euterpe, 
which was intended to produce the works of young Norwegian 
composers. During the winters of 1865-1866 and 1860-1870 
Grieg was in Rome. In the autumn of 1866 he settled in 
Christiania, where from 1867 till 1880 he conducted a musical 
union. From 1880 to 1882 he directed the concerts of the 
Harmonic Society in Bergen. In 1872 the Royal Musical 
Academy of Sweden made Grieg a member; in 1874 the 
Norwegian Storthing granted him an annual stipend of 1600 
kronen. He had already been decorated with the Olaf order in 
1873. In 1888 he played his pianoforte concerto and conducted 
his " two melodies for strings " at a Philharmonic concert in 
London, and visited England again in 1891, 1894 and 1896, 
receiving the degree of Mus.D. from the university of Cambridge 
in 1894. He died at Bergen on the 4th of September 1007. 

As a composer Grieg's distinguishing quality is lyrical. 
Whether his orchestral works or his songs or his best pianoforte 
works are submitted to examination, it is almost always the note 
of song that tells. Sometimes, as in the music to Ibsen's Peer 
Gynt, or in the suite for stringed orchestra, Aus Holbergs Zeit, 
this characteristic is combined with a strong power for raising 
pictures in the listener's mind, and the romantic " programme " 
tendency in Grieg's music becomes clearer the farther writers 
like Richard Strauss carry this movement. Grieg's songs may 
be said to be generally the more spontaneous the more closely 
they conform to the simple model of the Volkslied; yet the 
much sung " Ich liebe dich " is a song of a different kind, which 
has hardly ever been surpassed for the perfection with which it 
depicts a strong momentary emotion, and it is difficult to ascribe 
greater merits to songs of Grieg even so characteristic as " Sol- 
vejg's Lied " and " Ein Schwan." The pianoforte concerto is 
brilliant and spontaneous; it has been performed by most 
pianists of the first rank, but its essential qualities and the pure 
nationality of its themes have been brought out to their perfec- 
tion by one player only the Norwegian pianist Knudsen. The 
first and second of Grieg's violin sonatas are agreeable, so free 
and artless is the flow of their melody. In his numerous piano 
pieces and in those of his songs which are devoid of a definitely 
national inspiration the impression made is less permanent. 
Bulow called Grieg the " Chopin of the North." The phrase 
is an exaggeration rather than an expression of the truth, for 



594 



GRIESBACH GRIFFENFELDT 



the range of the appeal in Chopin is far wider, nor has the national 
movement inaugurated by Grieg shown promise of great develop- 
ment. He is rather to be regarded as the pioneer of a musical 
mission which has been perfectly carried out by himself alone. 
See La Mara, Edvard Grieg (Leipzig.iSgS). 

GRIESBACH, JOHANN JAKOB (1745-1812), German biblical 
critic, was born at Butzbach, a small town of Hesse-Darmstadt, 
where his father, Konrad Kaspar (1705-1777), was pastor, on 
the 4th of January 1745. He was educated at Frankfort-on-the- 
Main, and at the universities of Tubingen, Leipzig and Halle, 
where he became one of J. S. Sender's most ardent disciples. 
It was Semler who induced him to turn his attention to the 
textual* criticism of the New Testament. At the close of his 
undergraduate career he undertook a literary tour through 
Germany, Holland, France and England. On his return to 
Halle, he acted for some time as Privatdozent, but in 1773 was 
appointed to a professorial chair; in 1775 he was translated to 
Jena, where the rest of his life was spent (though he received calls 
to other universities). He died on the 24th of March 1812. 
Griesbach's fame rests upon his work in New Testament criticism, 
in which he inaugurated a new epoch. 

His critical edition of the New Testament first appeared at Halle, 
in three volumes, in 1774-1775. The first volume contained the first 
three Gospels, synoptically arranged; the second, the Epistles and 
the book of Revelation. All the historical books Wre reprinted 
in one volume in 1777, the synoptical arrangement of the Gospels 
having been abandoned as inconvenient. Of the second edition, 
considerably enlarged and improved, the first volume appeared in 
1796 and the second in 1806 (Halle and London). Of a third edition, 
edited by David Schulz, only the first volume, containing the four 
Gospels, appeared (1827). 

For the construction of his critical text Griesbach took as his basis 
the Elzevir edition. Where he differed from it he placed the Elzevir 
reading on the inner margin along with other readings he thought 
worthy of special consideration (these last, however, being printed 
in smaller type). To all the readings on this margin he attached 
special marks indicating the precise degree of probability in his 
opinion attaching to each. In weighing these probabilities he pro- 
ceeded upon a particular theory which in its leading features he had 
derived from J. A. Bengel and J. S. Semler, dividing all the MSS. 
into three main groups -the Alexandrian, the Western and the 
Byzantine (see BIBLE: 'New Testament, "Textual Criticism"). 
A reading supported by only one recension he considered as having 
only one witness in its favour; those readings which were supported 
by all the three recensions, or even by two of them, especially if 
these two were the Alexandrian and the Western, he unhesitatingly 
accepted as genuine. Only when each of the three recensions gives 
a different reading does he proceed to discuss the question on other 
grounds. See his Symbolae criticae ad supplendas et corrigendas 
variarum N.T, lectionum cottectiones (Halle, 1785, 1793), and his 
Commentarius criticus in textum Graecum N.T., which extends to 
the end of Mark, and discusses the more important various readings 
with great care and thoroughness (Jena, 1794 ff.). Among the other 
works of Griesbach (which are comparatively unimportant) may be 
mentioned his university thesis De codicibus guatuor evangelislarum 
Origenianis (Halle, 1771) and a work upon systematic theology 
(Anleitung zur Kenntniss der popularen Dogmatik, Jena, 1779). 
His Opuscula, consisting chiefly of university "Programs" and 
addresses, were edited by Gabler (2 vols., Jena, 1824). 

See the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, and the 
Allgemeine deutsche Biographic. 

GRIESBACH, a watering-place in the grand duchy of Baden, 
in the valley of the Rench, 1550 ft. above the sea, 6 m. W. from 
Freudenstadt in Wurttemberg. It is celebrated for its saline 
chalybeate waters (twelve springs), which are specific in cases 
of anaemia, feminine disorders and diseases of the nervous 
system, and were used in the i6th century. The annual number 
of visitors is nearly 2000. Pop. (1900) 800. From 1665 to 1805 
Griesbach was part of the bishopric of Strassburg. 

See Haberer, Die Renchbdder Petersthal und Cries, 
1866). 

GRIFFE (French for "claw"), an architectural term for the 
spur, an ornament carved at the angle of the square base of 
columns. 

GRIFFENFELDT, PEDER, COUNT (Peder Schumacher) (1635- 
1699), Danish statesman, was born at Copenhagen on the 24th 
of August 1635, of a wealthy trading family connected with the 
leading civic, clerical and learned circles in the Danish capital. 
His tutor, Jens Vorde, who prepared him in his eleventh year 
for the university, praises his extraordinary gifts, his mastery 



' Griesbach (Wurzburg, 



of the classical languages and his almost disquieting diligence. 
The brilliant way in which he sustained his preliminary examina- 
tion won him the friendship of the examiner, Bishop Jasper 
Brokman, at whose palace he first met Frederick III. The king 
was struck with the lad's bright grey eyes and pleasant humorous 
face; and Brokman, proud of his pupil, made him translate a 
chapter from a Hebrew Bible first into Latin and then into 
Danish, for the entertainment of the scholarly monarch. In 1654 
young Schumacher went abroad for eight years, to complete 
his education. From Germany he proceeded to the Netherlands, 
staying at Leiden, Utrecht and Amsterdam, and passing in 1657 
to Queen's College, Oxford, where he lived three years. The 
epoch-making events which occurred in England, while he was 
at Oxford profoundly interested him, and coinciding with the 
Revolution in Denmark, which threw open a career to the middle 
classes, convinced him that his proper sphere was politics. In 
the autumn of 1660 Schumacher visited Paris, shortly after 
Mazarin's death, when the young Louis XIV. first seized the 
reins of power. Schumacher seems to have been profoundly 
impressed by the administrative superiority of a strong central- 
ised monarchy in the hands of an energetic monarch who knew 
his own mind; and, in politics, as in manners, France ever 
afterwards was his model. The last year of his travels was 
spent in Spain, where he obtained a thorough knowledge of the 
Castilian language and literature. His travels, however, if they 
enriched his mind, relaxed his character, and he brought home 
easy morals as well as exquisite manners. 

On his return to Copenhagen, in 1662, Schumacher found the 
monarchy established on the ruins of the aristocracy, and eager 
to buy the services of every man of the middle classes who had 
superior talents to offer. Determined to make his way in this 
" new Promised Land," the young adventurer contrived to 
secure the protection of Kristoffer Gabel, the king's confidant, 
and in 1663 was appointed the royal librarian. A romantic 
friendship with the king's bastard, Count Ulric Frederick 
Gyldenlove, consolidated his position. In 1665 Schumacher 
obtained his first political post as the king's secretary, and the 
same year composed the memorable Kongelov (see DENMARK, 
History). He was now a personage at court, where he won all 
hearts by his amiability and gaiety; and in political matters 
also his influence was beginning to be felt. 

On the death of Frederick III. (February pth, 1670) 
Schumacher was the most trusted of all the royal counsellors. 
He alone was aware of the existence of the new throne of walrus 
ivory embellished with three silver life-size lions, and of the new 
regalia, both of which treasures he had, by the king's command, 
concealed in a vault beneath the royal castle. Frederick III. 
had also confided to him a sealed packet containing the Kongelov, 
which was to be delivered to his successor alone. Schumacher 
had been recommended to his son by Frederick III. on his death- 
bed. " Make him a great man, but do it slowly !" said Frederick, 
who thoroughly understood the characters of his son and of his 
minister. Christian V. was, moreover, deeply impressed by the 
confidence which his father had ever shown to Schumacher. 
When, on the 9th of February 1670, Schumacher delivered 
the Kongelov to Christian V., the king bade all those about him 
withdraw, and after being closeted a good hour with Schumacher, 
appointed him his " Obergeheimesekreter." His promotion 
was now almost disquietingly rapid. In May 1670 he received 
the titles of excellency and privy councillor; in July of the same 
year he was ennobled under the name of Griffenfeldt, deriving 
his title from the gold griffin with outspread wings which sur- 
mounted his escutcheon; in November 1673 he was created a 
count, a knight of the Elephant and, finally, imperial chancellor. 
In the course of the next few months he gathered into his hands 
every branch of the government: he had reached the apogee 
of his short-lived greatness. 

But if his offices were manifold, so also were his talents. 
Seldom has any man united so many and such various gifts in 
his own person and carried them so easily a playful wit, a 
vivid imagination, oratorical and literary eloquence and, above 
all, a profound knowledge of human nature both male and female, 



GRIFFIN 



595 



of every class and rank, from the king to the meanest citizen. 
He had captivated the accomplished Frederick III. by his 
literary graces and ingenious speculations; he won the obtuse 
and ignorant Christian V. by saving him trouble, by acting and 
thinking for him, and at the same time making him believe 
that he was thinking and acting for himself. Moreover, his 
commanding qualities were coupled with an organizing talent 
which made itself felt in every department of the state, and 
with a marvellous adaptability which made him an ideal 
diplomatist. 

On the 25th of May 1671 the dignities of count and baron 
were introduced into Denmark " to give lustre to the court "; 
a few months later the order of the Danebrog was instituted as a 
fresh means of winning adherents by marks of favour. Griffen- 
feldt was the originator of these new institutions. To him 
monarchy was the ideal form of government. But he had also 
a political object. The aristocracy of birth, despite its reverses, 
still remained the elite of society; and Griffenfeldt, the son of 
a burgess as well as the protagonist of monarchy, was its most 
determined enemy. The new baronies and countships, owing 
their existence entirely to the crown, introduced a strong solvent 
into aristocratic circles. Griffenfeldt saw that, in future, the 
first at court would be the first everywhere. Much was also done 
to promote trade and industry, notably by the revival of the 
Kammer Kollegium, or board of trade, and the abolition of some 
of the most harmful monopolies. Both the higher and the 
provincial administrations were thoroughly reformed with the 
view of making them more centralized and efficient; and the 
positions and duties of the various magistrates, who now also 
received fixed salaries, were for the first time exactly defined. 
But what Griffenfeldt could create, Griffenfeldt could dispense 
with, and it was not long before he began to encroach upon the 
jurisdiction of the new departments of state by private con- 
ferences with their chiefs. Nevertheless it is indisputable that, 
under the single direction of this master-mind, the Danish state 
was now able, for a time, to utilize all its resources as it had 
never done before. 

In the last three years of his administration, Griffenfeldt gave 
himself entirely to the conduct of the foreign policy of Denmark. 
It is difficult to form a clear idea of this, first, because his influence 
was perpetually traversed by opposite tendencies; in the second 
place, because the force of circumstances compelled him, 
again and again, to shift his standpoint; and finally because 
personal considerations largely intermingled with his foreign 
policy, and made it more elusive and ambiguous than it need have 
been. Briefly, Griffenfeldt aimed at restoring Denmark to the 
rank of a great power. He proposed to accomplish this by 
carefully nursing her resources, and in the meantime securing 
and enriching her by alliances, which would bring in large sub- 
sidies while imposing a minimum of obligations. Such a con- 
ditional and tentative policy, on the part of a second-rate power, 
in a period of universal tension and turmoil, was most difficult; 
but Griffenfeldt did not regard it as impossible. The first 
postulate of such a policy was peace, especially peace with 
Denmark's most dangerous neighbour, Sweden. The second 
postulate was a sound financial basis, which he expected the 
wealth of France to supply in the shape of subsidies to be spent 
on armaments. Above all things Denmark was to beware of 
making enemies of France and Sweden at the same time. An 
alliance, on fairly equal terms, between the three powers, would, 
in these circumstances, be the consummation of Griffenfeldt's 
" system "; an alliance with France to the exclusion of Sweden 
would be the next best policy; but an alliance between France 
and Sweden, without the admission of Denmark, was to be 
avoided at all hazards. Had Griffenfeldt's policy succeeded, 
Denmark might have recovered her ancient possessions to the 
south and east comparatively cheaply. But again and again he 
was overruled. Despite his open protests and subterraneous 
counter-mining, war was actually declared against Sweden in 
1675, and his subsequent policy seemed soobscure and hazardous 
to those who did not possess the clue to the perhaps purposely 
tangled skein, that the numerous enemies whom his arrogance 



and superciliousness had raised up against him, resolved to 
destroy him. 

On the nth of March 1676, wffile on his way to the royal 
apartments, Griffenfeldt was arrested in the king's name and 
conducted to the citadel, a prisoner of state. A minute scrutiny 
of his papers, lasting nearly six weeks, revealed nothing treason- 
able; but it provided the enemies of the fallen statesman with 
a deadly weapon against him in the shape of an entry in his 
private diary, in which he had imprudently noted that on one 
occasion Christian V. in a conversation with a foreign ambassador 
had " spoken like a child." On the 3rd of May Griffenfeldt was. 
tried not by the usual tribunal, in such cases the Hojesleret, or 
supreme court, but by an extraordinary tribunal of 10 dignitaries, 
none of whom was particularly well disposed towards the accused. 
Griffenfeldt, who was charged with simony ,bribery,oath-breaking, 
malversation and lese-majeste, conducted his own defence under 
every imaginable difficulty. For forty-six days before his 
trial he had been closely confined in a dungeon without lights, 
books or writing materials. Every legal assistance was illegally 
denied him. Nevertheless he proved more than a match for the 
forensic ability arrayed against him, and his first plea in defence 
is in a high degree dignified and manly. Finally, he was con- 
demned to degradation and decapitation; though one of the ten 
judges not only refused to sign the sentence, but remonstrated 
in private with the king against its injustice. And indeed its 
injustice was flagrant. The primary offence of the ex-chancellor 
was the taking of bribes, which no twisting of the law could 
convert into a capital offence, while the charge of treason had not 
been substantiated. Griffenfeldt was pardoned on the scaffold, 
at the very moment when the axe was about to descend. On 
hearing that the sentence was commuted to life-long imprison- 
ment, he declared that the pardon was harder than the punish- 
ment, and vainly petitioned for leave to serve his king for the rest 
of his life as a common soldier. For the next two and twenty 
years Denmark's greatest statesman lingered out his life in a 
lonely state-prison, first in the fortress of Copenhagen, and 
finally at Munkholm on Trondhjem fiord. He died at Trondh jem 
on the lath of March 1699. Griffenfeldt married Kitty Nansen, 
the granddaughter of the great Burgomaster Hans Nansen, 
who brought him half a million rix-dollars. She died in 1672, 
after bearing him a daughter. 

See Danmark's Riges Histoire, vol. v. (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); 
Jorgcnson, Peter Schumacher-Griffenfeldt (Copenhagen, 1893-1894); 
O. Vaupell, Rigskqnsler Grev Griffenfeldt (Copenhagen, 1880-1882); 
Bain, Scandinavia, cap. x. (Cambridge, 1905). (R. N. B.) 

GRIFFIN [O'GRIOBTA, O'GREEVA], GERALD (1803-1840), 
Irish novelist and dramatic writer, was born at Limerick of good 
family, on the 1 2th of December 1803. His parents emigrated in 
1820 to America, but he was left with an elder brother, who was 
a medical practitioner at Adare. As early as his eighteenth 
year he undertook for a short time the editorship of a newspaper 
in Limerick. Having written a tragedy, Aguire, which was highly 
praised by his friends, he set out in 1823 for London with the 
purpose of " revolutionizing the dramatic taste of the time by 
writing for the stage." In spite of the recommendations of 
John Banim, he had a hard struggle with poverty. It was only 
by degrees that his literary work obtained any favour. The 
Noyades, an opera entirely in recitative, was produced at the 
English Opera House in 1826; and the success of Holland Tide 
Tales (1827) led to Tales of the Munster Festivals (3 vols., 1827), 
which were still more popular. In 1829 appeared his fine novel, 
The Collegians, afterwards successfully adapted for the stage 
by Dion Boucicault under the title of The Colleen Eawn. He 
followed up this success with The Invasion (1832), Tales of my 
Neighbourhood (1835), The Duke of Monmoulh (1836), and 
Tails Qualis, or Tales of the Jury-room (1842). He also wrote a 
number of lyrics touched with his native melancholy. But he 
became doubtful as to the moral influence of his writings, and 
ultimately he came to the conclusion that his true sphere of duty 
was to be found within the Church. He was admitted into a 
society of the Christian Brothers at Dublin, in September 1838, 
under the name of Brother Joseph, and in the following summer 



59 6 



GRIFFIN GRILLPARZER 



he removed to Cork, where he died of typhus fever on the 1 2th 
of June 1840. Before adopting the monastic habit he burned 
all his manuscripts; but Gisippus, a tragedy which he had 
composed before he was twenty, accidentally escaped destruction, 
and in 1842 was put on the Drury Lane stage by Macready with 
great success. 

The collected works of Gerald Griffin were published in 1842- 
1843 in eight volumes, with a Life by his brother William Griffin, 
M.D.; an edition of his Poetical and Dramatic Works (Dublin, 1895) 
by C. G. Duffy ; and a selection of his lyrics, with a notice by George 
Sigerson, is included in the Treasury of Irish Poetry, edited by 
Stopford A. Brooke and T. W. Rolleston (London, 1900). 

GRIFFIN, a city and the county-seat of Spalding county, 
Georgia, U.S.A., 43 m. S. of Atlanta, and about 970 ft. above 
the sea. Pop. (1890) 453' (iQo) 6857 (3258 negroes); (1910) 
7478. It is served by the Southern and the Central of Georgia 
railways, and is the southern terminus of the Griffin & Chat- 
tanooga Division of the latter. The city is situated in a rich 
agricultural region, and just outside the corporate limits is an 
agricultural experiment station, established by the state but 
maintained by the Federal government. Griffin has a large 
trade in cotton and fruit. The principal industry is the manu- 
facture of cotton and cotton-seed oil. Buggies, wagons, chairs 
and harness are among the other manufactures. The munici- 
pality owns and operates the water and electric-lighting systems. 
Griffin was founded in 1840 and was chartered as a city in 1846. 

GRIFFIN, GRIFFON or GRYPHON (from Fr. griffon, Lat. 
gryphus, Gr. 7pi>^), in the natural history of the ancients, the 
name of an imaginary rapacious creature of the eagle species, 
represented with four legs, wings and a beak, the fore part 
resembling an eagle and the hinder a lion. In addition, some 
writers describe the tail as a serpent. This animal, which was 
supposed to watch over gold mines and hidden treasures, and to 
be the enemy of the horse, was consecrated to the Sun; and the 
ancient painters represented the chariot of the Sun as drawn 
by griffins. According to Spanheim, those of Jupiter and 
Nemesis were similarly provided. The griffin of Scripture is 
probably the osprey, and the name is now given to a species of 
vulture. The griffin was said to inhabit Asiatic Scythia, where 
gold and precious stones were abundant; and when strangers 
approached to gather these the creatures leapt upon them and 
tore them in pieces, thus chastising human avarice and greed. 
The one-eyed Arimaspi waged constant war with them, according 
to Herodotus (iii. 16). Sir John de Mandeville, in his Travels, 
described a griffin as eight times larger than a lion. 

The griffin is frequently seen as a charge in heraldry (see 
HERALDRY, fig. 163); and in architectural decoration is usually 
represented as a four-footed beast with wings and the head of a 
leopard or tiger with horns, or with the head and beak of an 
eagle; in the latter case, but very rarely, with two legs. To 
what extent it owes its origin to Persian sculpture is not known, 
the capitals at Persepolis have sometimes leopard or lion heads 
with horns, and four-footed beasts with the beaks of eagles are 
represented in bas-reliefs. In the temple of Apollo Branchidae 
near Miletus in Asia Minor, the winged griffin of the capitals has 
leopards' heads with horns. In the capitals of the so-called 
lesser propylaea at Eleusis conventional eagles with two feet 
support the angles of the abacus. The greater number of those 
in Rome have eagles' beaks, as in the frieze of the temple 
of Antoninus and Faustina, and their tails develop into 
conventional foliage. A similar device was found in the Forum 
of Trajan. The best decorative employment of the griffin is 
found in the vertical supports of tables, of which there are 
two or three examples in Pompeii and others in the Vatican 
and the museums in Rome. In some of these cases the head 
is that of a lion at one end of the support and an eagle at the 
other end, and there is only one strongly developed paw; the 
wings circling round at the top form conspicuous features on 
the sides of these supports, the surfaces below being filled with 
conventional Greek foliage. 

GRIFFITH, SIR RICHARD JOHN (1784-1878), Irish geologist, 
was born in Dublin on the 20th of September 1 784. He obtained 
in 1799 a commission in the Royal Irish Artillery, but a year 



later, when the corps was incorporated with that of England, 
he retired, and devoted his attention to civil engineering and 
mining. He studied chemistry, mineralogy and mining for two 
years in London under William Nicholson (editor of the Journal 
of Nat, Phil.), and afterwards examined the mining districts 
in various parts of England, Wales and Scotland. While in 
Cornwall he discovered ores of nickel and cobalt in material that 
had been rejected as worthless. He completed his studies under 
Robert Jameson and others at Edinburgh, was elected a Fellow 
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1807, a member of the 
newly established Geological Society of London in 1808, and in 
the same year he returned to Ireland. In 1809 he was appointed 
by the commissioners to inquire into the nature and extent of 
the bogs in Ireland, and the means of improving them. In 1812 
he was elected professor of geology and mining engineer to the 
Royal Dublin Society. During subsequent years he made many 
surveys and issued many reports on mineral districts in Ireland, 
and these formed the foundation of his first geological map of the 
country (1815). In 1822 .Griffith became engineer of public 
works in Cork, Kerry and Limerick, and was occupied until 1830 
in repairing old roads and in laying out many miles of new roads. 
Meanwhile in 1825 he was appointed to carry out the perambula- 
tion or boundary survey of Ireland, the object of which was to 
ascertain and mark the boundaries of every county, barony, 
parish and townland in preparation for the ordnance survey. 
This work was finished in 1844. He was also called upon to assist 
in preparing a bill for the general valuation of Ireland; the act 
was passed in 1826, and he was appointed commissioner of 
valuation, in which capacity he continued to act until 1868. 
On " Griffith's valuation " the various local and public assess- 
ments were made. His extensive investigations furnished him 
with ample material for improving his geological map, and the 
second edition was published in 1835. A third edition on a 
larger scale (i in. to 4 m.) was issued under the Board of Ordnance 
in 1839, and it was further revised in 1855. For this great work 
and his other services to science he was awarded the Wollaston 
medal by the Geological Society in 1854. In 1850 he was made 
chairman of the Irish Board of Works, and in 1858 he was created 
a baronet. He died in Dublin on the 22nd of September 1878. 

Among his many geological works the following may be mentioned : 
Outline of the Geology of Ireland (1838); Notice respecting the Fossils 
of the Mountain Limestone of Ireland, as compared with those of Great 
Britain, and also with the Devonian System (1842) ; A Synopsis of the 
Characters of the Carboniferous Limestone Fossils of Ireland (1844) 
(with F. McCoy) ; A Synopsis of the Silurian Fossils of Ireland (l 846) 
(with F. McCoy). See memoirs in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. xxxv. 
39; and Geol. Mag., 1878, p. 524, with bibliography. 

GRILLE, a French term for an enclosure in either iron or 
bronze; there is no equivalent in English, " grating " applying 
more to a horizontal frame of bars over a sunk area, and " grate " 
to the iron bars of an open fireplace. The finest examples of 
the grille are those known as the rejas, which in Spanish churches 
form the enclosures of the chapels, such as the reja in the Capilla 
Real at Granada in wrought iron partly gilt (1522). Similar 
grilles are employed to protect the ground-floor windows of 
mansions not only in Spain but in Italy and Germany. In 
England the most beautiful example is that in front of Queen 
Eleanor's tomb in Westminster Abbey, in wrought iron. The 
finest grilles in Italy are the enclosures of the tombs of the 
Delia Scalas at Verona (end of I3th century), in Germany the 
grille of the cenotaph of Maximilian at Innsbruck (early i6th 
century) and in France those which enclose the Place Stanislaus, 
the Place de la Carriere and the churches of Nancy, which were 
wrought by Jean Lamour in the middle of the i8th century. 
Generally, however, throughout Germany the wrought iron 
grilles are fine examples of forging, and they are employed for 
the enclosures of the numerous fountains, in the tympana of 
gateways, and for the protection of windows. At Danzig in the 
Marienkirche are some fine examples in brass. 

GRILLPARZER, FRANZ (1791-1872), the greatest dramatic 
poet of Austria, was born in Vienna, on the isth of January 
1791. His father, severe, pedantic, a staunch upholder of the 
liberal traditions of the reign of Joseph II., was an advocate 



GRILLPARZER 



597 



of some standing; his mother, a nervous, finely-strung woman, 
belonged to the well-known musical family of Sonnleithner. 
After a desultory education, Grillparzcr entered in 1807 the 
university of Vienna as a student of jurisprudence; but two 
years later his father died, leaving the family in straitened 
circumstances, and Franz, the eldest son, was obliged to turn 
to private tutoring. In 1813 he received an appointment in the 
court library, but as this was unpaid, he accepted after some 
months a clerkship that offered more solid prospects, in the 
Lower Austrian revenue administration. Through the influence 
of Graf Stadion, the minister of finance, he was in 1818 appointed 
poet to the Hofburgtheater, and promoted to the Hofkammer 
(exchequer); in 1832 he became director of the archives of that 
department, and in 1856 retired from the civil service with the 
title of Hofrat. Grillparzer had little capacity for an official 
career and regarded his office merely as a means of independence. 

In 1817 the first representation of his tragedy Die Ahnfrau 
made him famous, but before this he had written a long tragedy 
in iambics, Blanca von Castilien (1807-1809), which was obviously 
modelled on Schiller's Don Carlos; and even more promising 
were the dramatic fragments Sparlacus and Alfred der Grosse 
(1809). Die Ahnfrau is a gruesome " fate-tragedy " in the 
trochaic measure of the Spanish drama, already made popular 
by Adolf Milliner in his Schuld; but Grillparzer's work is a play 
of real poetic beauties, and reveals an instinct for dramatic 
as opposed to merely theatrical effect, which distinguishes it 
from other " fate-dramas " of the day. Unfortunately its 
success led to the poet's being classed for the best part of his 
life with playwrights like Mtillner and Houwald. Die Ahnfrau 
was followed by Sappho (1818), a drama of a very different type; 
in the classic spirit of Goethe's Tasso, Grillparzer unrolled the 
tragedy of poetic genius, the renunciation of earthly happiness 
imposed upon the poet by his higher mission. In 1821 appeared 
Das goldene Vliess, a trilogy which had been interrupted in 1819 
by the death of the poet's mother in a fit of depression she had 
taken her own life and a subsequent visit to Italy. Opening 
with a powerful dramatic prelude in one act, Der Gastfreund, 
Grillparzer depicts in Die Argonaulen Jason's adventures in his 
quest for the Fleece; while Medea, a tragedy of noble classic 
proportions, contains the culminating events of the story which 
had been so often dramatized before. The theme is similar 
to that of Sappho, but the scale on which it is represented is 
larger; it is again the tragedy of the heart's desire, the conflict 
of the simple happy life with that sinister power be it genius, 
or ambition which upsets the equilibrium of life. The end is 
bitter disillusionment, the only consolation renunciation. 
Medea, her revenge stilled, her children dead, bears the fatal 
Fleece back to Delphi, while Jason is left to realize the nothing- 
ness of human striving and earthly happiness. 

For his historical tragedy Konig Ottokars Cluck und Ende 
(1823, but owing to difficulties with the censor, not performed 
until 1825), Grillparzer chose one of the most picturesque 
events in Austrian domestic history, the conflict of Ottokar 
of Bohemia with Rudolph von Habsburg. With an almost 
modern realism he reproduced the motley world of the old 
chronicler, at the same time not losing sight of the needs of the 
theatre; the fall of Ottokar is but another text from which the 
poet preached the futility of endeavour and the vanity of 
worldly greatness. A second historical tragedy, Ein treuer 
Diener seines Herrn (1826, performed 1828), attempts to embody 
a more heroic gospel; but the subject the superhuman self- 
effacement of Bankbanus before Duke Otto of Meran proved 
too uncompromising an illustration of Kant's categorical impera- 
tive of duty to be palatable in the theatre. With these historical 
tragedies began the darkest ten years in the poet's life. They 
brought him into conflict with the Austrian censor a conflict 
which grated on Grillparzer's sensitive soul, and was aggravated 
by his own position as a servant of the state; in 1826 he paid a 
visit to Goethe in Weimar, and was able to compare the en- 
lightened conditions which prevailed in the little Saxon duchy 
with the intellectual thraldom of Vienna. To these troubles 
were added more serious personal worries. In the winter of 



1820-1821 he had met for the first time Katharina Frohlich 
(1801-1879), an d the acquaintance rapidly ripened into love 
on both sides; but whether owing to a presentiment of mutual 
incompatibility, or merely owing to Grillparzer's conviction that 
life had no happiness in store for him, he shrank from marriage. 
Whatever the cause may have been, the poet was plunged into 
an abyss of misery and despair to which his diary bears heart- 
rending witness; his sufferings found poetic expression in the 
fine cycle of poems bearing the significant title Trislia ex Ponto 

(1835)- 

Yet to these years we owe the completion of two of Grillparzer's 
greatest dramas, Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen (1831) and Der 
Traum, ein Leben (1834). In the former tragedy, a dramatization 
of the story of Hero and Leander, he returned to the Hellenic 
world of Sappho, and produced what is perhaps the finest of all 
German love-tragedies. His mastery of dramatic technique 
is here combined with a ripeness of poetic expression and with 
an insight into motive which suggests the modern psychological 
drama of Hebbel and Ibsen; the old Greek love-story of Musaeus 
is, moreover, endowed with something of that ineffable poetic 
grace which the poet had borrowed from the great Spanish 
poets, Lope de Vega and Calderon. Der Traum, ein Leben, 
Grillparzer's technical masterpiece, is in form perhaps even more 
Spanish; it is also more of what Goethe called a " confession." 
The aspirations of Rustan, an ambitious young peasant, are 
shadowed forth in the hero's dream, which takes up nearly three 
acts of the play; ultimately Rustan awakens from his nightmare 
to realize the truth of Grillparzer's own pessimistic doctrine 
that all earthly ambitions and aspirations are vanity; the only 
true happiness is contentment with one's lot, " des Innern stiller 
Frieden und die schuldbefreite Brust." Der Traum, ein Leben 
was the first of Grillparzer's dramas which did not end tragically, 
and in 1838 he produced his only comedy, Weh' dem, der lugt. 
But Weh' dem, der liigt, in spite of its humour of situation, its 
sparkling dialogue and the originality of its idea namely, that 
the hero gains his end by invariably telling the truth, where his 
enemies as invariably expect him to be lying was too strange 
to meet with approval in its day. Its failure was a blow to the 
poet, who turned his back for ever on the German theatre. In 
1836 Grillparzer paid a visit to Paris and London, in 1843 to 
Athens and Constantinople. Then came the Revolution which 
struck off the intellectual fetters under which Grillparzer and 
his contemporaries had groaned in Austria, but the liberation 
came too late for him. Honours were heaped upon him; he 
was made a member of the Academy of Sciences; Heinrich 
Laube, as director of the Burgtheater, reinstated his plays on 
the repertory; he was in 1861 elected to the Austrian Herrenhaus; 
his eightieth birthday was a national festival, and when he died 
in Vienna, on the 2ist of January 1872, the mourning of the 
Austrian people was universal. With the exception of a beautiful 
fragment, Esther (1861), Grillparzer published no more dramatic 
poetry after the fiasco of Weh' dem, der lugt, but at his death three 
completed tragedies were found among his papers. Of these, 
Die Jiidin von Toledo, an admirable adaptation from the Spanish, 
has won a permanent place in the German classical repertory; 
Ein Bruderzvrist im Hause Habsburg is a powerful historical 
tragedy and Libussa is perhaps the ripest, as it is certainly the 
deepest, of all Grillparzer's dramas; the latter two plays prove 
how much was lost by the poet's divorce from the theatre. 

Although Grillparzer was essentially a dramatist, his lyric 
poetry is in the intensity of its personal note hardly inferior 
to Lenau's; and the bitterness of his later years found vent in 
biting and stinging epigrams that spared few of his greater con- 
temporaries. As a prose writer, he has left one powerful short 
story, Der arme Spielmann (1848), and a volume of critical 
studies on the Spanish drama, which shows how completely 
he had succeeded in identifying himself with the Spanish point 
of view. 

Grillparzer's brooding, unbalanced temperament, his lack of 
will-power, his pessimistic renunciation and the bitterness which 
his self-imposed martyrdom produced in him, made him peculiarly 
adapted to express the mood of Austria in the epoch of intellectual 



GRIMALD GRIMKE 



thraldom that lay between the Napoleonic wars and the Revolu- 
tion of 1848; his poetry reflects exactly the spirit of his people 
under the Metternich regime, and there is a deep truth behind 
the description of Der Traum, ein Leben as the Austrian Faust. 
His fame was in accordance with the general tenor of his life; 
even in Austria a true understanding for his genius was late in 
coming, and not until the centenary of 1891 did the German- 
speaking world realize that it possessed in him a dramatic poet 
of the first rank; in other words, that Grillparzer was no mere 
" Epigone " of the classic period, but a poet who, by a rare 
assimilation of the strength of the Greeks, the imaginative 
depth of German classicism and the delicacy and grace of the 
Spaniards, had opened up new paths for the higher dramatic 
poetry of Europe. 

Grillparzer's Samtliche Werke are edited by A. Sauer, in 20 vols., 
5th edition (Stuttgart, 1892-1894); also, since the expiry of the 
copyright in 1901, innumerable cheap reprints. Briefe und Tage- 
bucher, edited by C. Glossy and A. Sauer (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1903). 
Jahrbuch der Grillparzer-Gesellschaft, edited by K. Glossy (the publica- 
tion of the Grillparzer Society) (Vienna, 1891 ff.). See also H. 
Laube, Franz Grillparzers Lebensgeschichte (Stuttgart, 1884); 
J. Volkelt, Franz Grillparzer als Dichter des Tragischen (Nordlingen, 
1888); E. Reich, Franz Grillparzers Dramen (Dresden, 1894); 
A. Ehrhard, Franz Grillparzer (Paris, 1900) (German translation by 
M. Necker, Munich, 1902); H. Sittenberger, Grillparzer, sein Leben 
und Wirken (Berlin, 1904); Gustav Pollak, F. Grillparzer and the 
Austrian Drama (New York, 1907). Of Grillparzer's works, transla- 
tions have appeared in English of Sappho (1820, by J. Bramsen; 
1846, by E. B. Lee; 1855, by L. C. Gumming; 1876, by E. Froth- 
ingham); and of Medea (1879, by F. W. Thurstan and J. A. Witt- 
mann). Byron's warm admiration of Sappho (Letters and Journals, 
v. 171) is well known, while Carlyle's criticism, in his essay on 
German Playwrights (1829), is interesting as expressing the generally 
accepted estimate of Grillparzer in the first half of the igth century. 
See the bibliography in K. Goedeke's Grundriss zur Geschichte der 
deutschen Dichtung, 2nd ed., vol. viii. (1905). (J. G. R.) 

GRIMALD (or GRIMOALD), NICHOLAS (1519-1562), English 
poet, was born in Huntingdonshire, the son probably of Giovanni 
Baptista Grimaldi, who had been a clerk in the service of Empson 
and Dudley in the reign of Henry VII. He was educated at 
Christ's College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in 
1540. He then removed to Oxford, becoming a probationer- 
fellow of Merton College in 1541. In 1547 he was lecturing on 
rhetoric at Christ Church, and shortly afterwards became 
chaplain to Bishop Ridley, who, when he was in prison, desired 
Grimald to translate Laurentius Valla's book against the alleged 
Donation of Constanline, and the De gestis Basiliensis Concilii 
of Aeneas Sylvius (Pius II.). His connexion with Ridley brought 
him under suspicion, and he was imprisoned in the Marshalsea. 
It is said that he escaped the penalties of heresy by recanting 
his errors, and was despised accordingly by his Protestant con- 
temporaries. Grimald contributed to the original edition 
(June 1557) of Songes and Sonettes (commonly known as Tottel's 
Miscellany), forty poems, only ten of which are retained in the 
second edition published in the next month. He translated 
(1553) Cicero's De qfficiis as Marcus Tullius Ciceroes thre bakes 
of duties (2nd ed., 1556); a Latin paraphrase of Virgil's Georgics 
(printed 1 591 ) is attributed to him, but most of the works assigned 
to him by Bale are lost. Two Latin tragedies are extant; 
Archiprophela sive Johannes Baptista, printed at Cologne in 1548, 
probably performed at Oxford the year before, and Christus re- 
divivus (Cologne, 1 543) , edited by Prof. J. M. Hart (for the Modern 
Language Association of America, 1886, separately issued 1899). 
It cannot be determined whether Grimald was familiar with 
Buchanan's Baplistes (1543), or with J. Schoeppe's Johannes 
decollatus vel Ectrachelistes (1546). Grimald provides a purely 
romantic motive for the catastrophe in the passionate attach- 
ment of Herodias to Herod, and constantly resorts to lyrical 
methods. As a poet Grimald is memorable as the earliest 
follower of Surrey in the production of blank verse. He writes 
sometimes simply enough, as in the lines on his own childhood 
addressed to his mother, but in general his style is more artificial, 
and his metaphors more studied than is the case with the other 
contributors to the Miscellany. His classical reading shows itself 
in the comparative terseness and smartness of his verses. His 
epitaph was written by Barnabe Googe in May 1562. 



See C. H. Herford, Studies in the Literary Relations of England and' 
Germany (pp. 113-119, 1886). A Catalogue of printed books . . . by 
writers bearing the name of Grimaldi (ed. A. B. Grimaldi), printed 
1883; and Arber's reprint of Tottel's Miscellany. 

GRIMALDI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO (1606-1680), Italian 
architect and painter, named H Bolognese from the place of his 
birth, was a relative of the Caracci family, under whom it is 
presumed he studied first. He was afterwards a pupil of Albani. 
He went to Rome, and was appointed architect to Pope Paul V., 
and was also patronized by succeeding popes. Towards 1648 
he was invited to France by Cardinal Mazarin, and for about 
two years was employed in buildings for that minister and for 
Louis XIV., and in fresco-painting in the Louvre. His colour 
was strong, somewhat excessive in the use of green; his touch 
light. He painted history, portraits and landscapes the last 
with predilection, especially in his advanced years and executed 
engravings and etchings from his own landscapes and from 
those of Titian and the Caracci. Returning to Rome, he was 
made president of the Academy of St Luke; and in that city he 
died on the 28th of November 1680, in high repute not only 
for his artistic skill but for his upright and charitable deeds. 
His son Alessandro assisted him both in painting and in engraving. 
Paintings by Grimaldi are preserved in the Quirinal and Vatican 
palaces, and in the church of S. Martino a'Monti; there is also 
a series of his landscapes in the Colonna Gallery. 

GRIMALDI, JOSEPH (1779-1837), the most celebrated of 
English clowns, was born in London on the i8th of December 
1779, the son of an Italian actor. When less than two years 
old he was brought upon the stage at Drury Lane; at the age 
of three he began to appear at Sadler's Wells; and he did not 
finally retire until 1828. As the clown of pantomime he was 
considered without an equal, his greatest success being in 
Mother Goose, at Covent Garden (1806 and often revived). 
Grimaldi died on the 3ist of May 1837. 

His Memoirs in two volumes (1838) were edited by Charles 
Dickens. 

GRIMKE, SARAH MOORE (1792-1873) and ANGELINA 

EMILY (1805-1879), American reformers, born in Charleston, 
South Carolina Sarah on the 6th of November 1792, and 
Angelina on the 2oth of February 1805 were daughters of 
John Fachereau Grimke (1752-1819), an artillery officer in the 
Continental army, a jurist of some distinction, a man of wealth 
and culture and a slave-holder. 

Their older brother, THOMAS SMITH GRIMKE (1786-1834), 
was born in Charleston; graduated at Yale in 1807; was a 
successful lawyer, and in 1826-1830 was a member of the state 
Senate, in which he, almost alone of the prominent lawyers of 
the state, opposed nullification; he strongly advocated spelling- 
reform, temperance and absolute non-resistance, and published 
Addresses on Science, Education and Literature (1831). His early 
intellectual influence on Sarah was strong. 

In her thirteenth year Sarah was godmother to her sister 
Angelina. Sarah in 1821 revisited Philadelphia, whither she 
had accompanied her father on his last illness, and there, having 
been already dissatisfied with the Episcopal Church and with 
the Presbyterian, she became a Quaker; so, too, did Angelina, 
who joined her in 1829. Both sisters (Angelina first) soon grew 
into a belief in immediate abolition, strongly censured by many 
Quakers, who were even more shocked by a sympathetic letter 
dated " 8th Month, 3oth, 1835 " written by Angelina to W. L. 
Garrison, followed in 1836 by her Appeal to the Christian Women 
of the South, and at the end of that year, by an Epistle to the 
Clergy of the Southern States, written by Sarah, who now 
thoroughly agreed with her younger sister. In the same year, 
at the invitation of Elizur Wright (1804-1885), corresponding 
secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, Angelina, 
accompanied by Sarah, began giving talks on slavery, first in 
private and then in public, so that in 1837, when they set to 
work in Massachusetts, they had to secure the use of large halls. 
Their speaking from public platforms resulted in a letter issued 
by some members of the General Association of Congregational 
Ministers of Massachusetts, calling on the clergy to close their 



GRIMM, BARON VON 



599 



churches to women exhorters; Garrison denounced the attack 
on the Grimke sisters and Whittier ridiculed it in his poem 
" The Pastoral Letter." Angelina pointedly answered Miss 
Beecher on the Slave Question (1837) in letters in the Liberator. 
Sarah, who had never forgotten that her studies had been 
curtailed because she was a girl, contributed to the Boston 
Spectator papers on " The Province of Woman " and published 
Letters on the Condition of Women and the Equality of the Sexes 
(1838) the real beginning of the " woman's rights " movement 
in America, and at the time a cause of anxiety to Whittier and 
others, who urged upon the sisters the prior importance of the 
anti-slavery cause. In 1838 Angelina married Theodore Dwight 
Weld (1803-1895), a reformer and abolition orator and pam- 
phleteer, who had taken part in the famous Lane Seminary 
debates in 1834, had left the Seminary for the lecture platform 
when the anti-slavery society was broken up by the Lane trustees, 
but had lost his voice in 1836 and had become editor of the 
publications of the American Anti-Slavery Society. 1 They 
lived, with Sarah, at Fort Lee, New Jersey, in 1838-1840, then 
on a farm at Belleville, New Jersey, and then conducted a school 
for black and white alike at Eagleswood, near Perth Amboy, 
New Jersey, from 1854 to 1864. Removing to Hyde Park, 
Massachusetts, the three were employed in Dr Lewis's school. 
There Sarah died on the 23rd of December 1873, and Angelina 
on the 26th of October 1879. Both sisters indulged in various 
" fads " Graham's diet, bloomer-wearing, absolute non-resist- 
ance. Angelina did no public speaking after her marriage, 
save at Pennsylvania Hall (Philadelphia), destroyed by a mob 
immediately after her address there; but besides her domestic 
and school duties she was full of tender charity. Sarah at the 
age of 62 was still eager to study law or medicine, or to do some- 
thing to aid her sex; at 75 she translated and abridged Lamar- 
tine's life of Joan of Arc. 

See Catherine H. Birney, The Grimke Sisters (Boston, 1885). 

GRIMM, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR, BARON VON (1723-1807), 
French author, the son of a German pastor, was born at Ratisbon 
on the 26th of December 1723. He studied at the University 
of Leipzig, where he came under the influence of Gottsched and 
of J. A. Ernesti, to whom he was largely indebted for his critical 
appreciation of classical literature. When nineteen he produced 
a tragedy, Banise, which met with some success. After two years 
of study he returned to Ratisbon, where he was attached to the 
household of Count Schonbefg. In 1 748 he accompanied August 
Heinrich, Count Friesen, to Paris as secretary, and he is said 
by Rousseau to have acted for some time as reader to Frederick, 
the young hereditary prince of Saxe-Gotha. His acquaintance 
with Rousseau, through a mutual sympathy in regard to musical 
matters, soon ripened into intimate friendship, and led to a close 
association with the encyclopaedists. He rapidly obtained a 
thorough knowledge of the French language, and acquired so 
perfectly the tone and sentiments of the society in which he 
moved that all marks of his foreign origin and training seemed 
effaced. A witty pamphlet entitled Le Petit Prophete de Boeh- 
mischbroda (1753), written by him in defence of Italian as against 
French opera, established his literary reputation. It is possible 
that the origin of the pamphlet is partly to be accounted for by 
his vehement passion 2 for Mile Fel, the prima donna of the 
Italian company. In 1753 Grimm, following the example of the 
abbe Raynal, began a literary correspondence with various 
German sovereigns. Raynal's letters, Nouvelles litteraires, ceased 
early in 1755- With the aid of friends, especially of Diderot 
and Mme d'Epinay, during his temporary absences from France, 
Grimm himself carried on the correspondence, which consisted 
of two letters a month, until 1773, and eventually counted among 
his subscribers Catherine II. of Russia, Stanislas Poniatowski, 
king of Poland, and many princes of the smaller German States. 

1 Weld was the author of several anti-slavery books which had 
considerable influence at the time. Among them are The Bible 
against Slavery (1837), American Slavery as It Is (1839), a collection 
of extracts from Southern papers, and Slavery and the Internal Slave 
Trade in the U.S. (1841). 

1 Rousseau's account of this affair (Confessions, 2nd part, 8th 
book) must be received with caution. 



It was probably in 1754 that Grimm was introduced by Rousseau 
to Madame d'Epinay, with whom he soon formed a liaison 
which led to an irreconcilable rupture between him and Rousseau. 
Rousseau was induced by his resentment to give in his Confessions 
a wholly mendacious portrait of Grimm's character. In 1755, 
after the death of Count Friesen, who was a nephew of Marshal 
Saxe and an officer in the French army, Grimm became secretaire 
des commandements to the duke of Orleans, and in this capacity 
he accompanied Marshal d'Estreespn the campaign of Westphalia 
in 1756-57. He was named envoy of the town of Frankfort 
at the court of France in 1759, but was deprived of his office for 
criticizing the comte de Broglie in a despatch intercepted by 
Louis XV. He was made a baron of the Holy Roman Empire 
in 1775. His introduction to Catherine II. of Russia took place 
at St Petersburg in 1773, when he was in the suite of Wilhelmine 
of Hesse-Darmstadt on the occasion of her marriage to the 
czarevitch Paul. He became minister of Saxe-Gotha at the 
court of France in 1776, but in 1777 he again left Paris on a visit 
to St Petersburg, where he remained for nearly a year in daily 
intercourse with Catherine. He acted as Paris agent for the 
empress in the purchase of works of art, and executed many 
confidential commissions for her. In 1783 and the following 
years he lost his two most intimate friends, Mme d'Epinay and 
Diderot. In 1792 he emigrated, and in the next year settled 
in Gotha, where his poverty was relieved by Catherine, who in 
1796 appointed him minister of Russia at Hamburg. On the 
death of the empress Catherine he took refuge with Mme 
d'Epinay's granddaughter, Emilie de Belsunce, comtesse de 
Bueil. Grimm had always interested himself in her, and had 
procured her dowry from the empress Catherine. She now 
received him with the utmost kindness. He died at Gotha on 
the igth of December 1807. 

The correspondence of Grimm was strictly confidential, and 
was not divulged during his lifetime. It embraces nearly the 
whole period from 1750 to 1790, but the later volumes, 1773 to 
1790, were chiefly the work of his secretary, Jakob Heinrich 
Meister. At first he contented himself with enumerating the 
chief current views in literature and art and indicating very 
slightly the contents of the principal new books, but gradually 
his criticisms became more extended and trenchant, and he 
touched on nearly every subject political, literary, artistic, 
socl and religious which interested the Parisian society of 
the time. His notices of contemporaries are somewhat severe, 
and he exhibits the foibles and selfishness of the society in which 
he moved: but he was unbiassed in his literary judgments, and 
time has only served to confirm his criticisms. In style and 
manner of expression he is thoroughly French. He is generally 
somewhat cold in his appreciation, but his literary taste is delicate 
and subtle; and it was the opinion of Sainte-Beuve that the 
quality of his thought in his best moments will compare not 
unfavourably even with that of Voltaire. His religious and 
philosophical opinions were entirely negative. 

Grimm' ' s' Correspondance litteraire, philosophique et critique . . ., 
depuis 1753 jusqu'en 1760, was edited, with many excisions, by 
J. B. A. Suard and published at Paris in 1812, in 6 vols. 8vo; 
deuxieme partie, de 1771 a 1782, in i8i2*in 5 vols. 8vo; and troisieme 
partie, pendant une partie des annees 1775 et 1776, et pendant les annees 
1782 a 1790 inclusivement, in 1813 in 5 vols. 8vo. A supplementary 
volume appeared in 1814; the whole correspondence was collected 
and published by M. Jules Taschereau, with the assistance of A. 
Chaude', in a Nouvelle Edition, revue et mise dans un meilleur ordre, avec 
des notes et des eclaircissements, et oA se trouvent retablies pour la 
premiere fois les phrases supprimees par la censure imperiale (Paris, 
1829, 15 vols. 8vo); and the Correspondance inedite, et recueil de 
lettres, poesies, morceaux, et fragments retranches par la censure 
imperiale en 1812 et 1813 was published in 1829. The standard 
edition is that of M. Tourneux (16 vols., 1877-1882). Grimm's 
Memoire historique sur I'ori^ine et les suites de man attachement pour 
rimperatrice Catherine II jusqu' au decks de sa majeste imperiale, 
and Catherine's correspondence with Grimm (1774-1796) were pub- 
lished by J. Grot in 1880, in the Collection of the Russian Imperial 
Historical Society. She' treats him very familiarly, and calls him 
H6raclite, Georges Dandin, &c. At the time of the Revolution she 
begged him to destroy her letters, but he refused, and after his death 
they were returned to St Petersburg. Grimm's side of the corre- 
spondence, however, is only partially preserved. He signs himself 



6oo 



GRIMM, J. L. C. 



" Pleureur." Some of Grimm's letters, besides the official corre- 
spondence, are included in the edition of M. Tourneux; others are 
contained in the Erinnerungen einer Urgrossmutter of K. von Bechtols- 
heim, edited (Berlin, 1902) by Count C. Oberndorff. See also Mme 
d'Epinay's Mimoires; Rousseau's Confessions; the notices con- 
tained in the editions quoted; E. Scherer, Mekhior Grimm (1887); 
Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. vii. For further works bearing 
on the subject, see K. A. Georges, Friedrich Mekhior Grimm (Hanover 
and Leipzig, 1904). 

GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG CARL (1785-1863), German 
philologist and mythologist, was born on the 4th of January 
1785 at Hanau, in Hesse-Cassel. His father, who was a lawyer, 
died while he was a child, and the mother was left with very 
small means; but her sister, who was lady of the chamber to 
the landgravine of Hesse, helped to support and educate her 
numerous family. Jacob, with his younger brother Wilhelm 
(born on the 24th of February 1786), was sent in 1798 to the 
public school at Cassel. In 1802 he proceeded to the university 
of Marburg, where he studied law, a profession for which he had 
been destined by his father. His brother joined him at Marburg 
a year later, having just recovered from a long and severe illness, 
and likewise began the study of law. Up to this time Jacob 
Grimm had been actuated only by a general thirst for knowledge 
and his energies had not found any aim beyond the practical one 
of making himself a position in life. The first definite impulse 
came from the lectures of Savigny, the celebrated investigator 
of Roman law, who, as Grimm himself says (in the preface to 
the Deutsche Grammalik), first taught him to realize what it 
meant to study any science. Savigny's lectures also awakened 
in him that love for historical and antiquarian investigation 
which forms the basis of all his work. Then followed personal 
acquaintance, and it was in Savigny's well-provided library that 
Grimm first turned over the leaves of Bodmer's edition of the 
Old German minnesingers and other early texts, and felt an eager 
desire to penetrate further into the obscurities and half-revealed 
mysteries of their language. In the beginning of 1805 he re- 
ceived an invitation from Savigny, who had removed to Paris, 
to help him in his literary work. Grimm passed a very happy 
time in Paris, strengthening his taste for the literatures of the 
middle ages by his studies in the Paris libraries. Towards the 
close of the year he returned to Cassel, where his mother and 
Wilhelm had settled, the latter having finished his studies. 
The next year he obtained a situation in the war office with 
the very small salary of 100 thalers. One of his grievances was 
that he had to exchange his stylish Paris suit for a stiff uniform 
and pigtail. But he had full leisure for the prosecution of his 
studies. In 1808, soon after the death of his mother, he was 
appointed superintendent of the private library of Jerome 
Buonaparte, king of Westphalia, into which Hesse-Cassel had 
been incorporated by Napoleon. Jerome appointed him an 
auditor to the state council, while he retained his other post. 
His salary was increased in a short interval from 2000 to 4000 
francs, and his official duties were hardly more than nominal. 
After the expulsion of Jerome and the reinstalment of an elector, 
Grimm was appointed in 1813 secretary of legation, to accompany 
the Hessian minister to the headquarters of the allied army. 
In 1814 he was sent to Paris to demand restitution of the books 
carried off by the French, and in 1814-1815 he attended the 
congress of Vienna as secretary of legation. On his return he 
was again sent to Paris on the same errand as before. Meanwhile 
Wilhelm had received an appointment in the Cassel library, and 
in 1816 Jacob was made second librarian under Volkel. On the 
death of Volkel in 1828 the brothers expected to be advanced 
to the first and second librarianships respectively, and were 
much dissatisfied when the first place was given to Rommel, 
keeper of the archives. So they removed next year to Gottingen, 
where Jacob received the appointment of professor and librarian, 
Wilhelm that of under-librarian. Jacob Grimm lectured on 
legal antiquities, historical grammar, literary history, and 
diplomatics, explained Old German poems, and commented on 
the Germania of Tacitus. At this period he is described as small 
and lively in figure, with a harsh voice, speaking a broad Hessian 
dialect. His powerful memory enabled him to dispense with the 



manuscript which most German professors rely on, and he spoke 
extempore, referring only occasionally to a few names and dates 
written on a slip of paper. He himself regretted that he had begun 
the work of teaching so late in life; and as a lecturer he was not 
successful: he had no idea of digesting his facts and suiting 
them to the comprehension of his hearers; and even the brilliant, 
terse and eloquent passages which abound in his writings lost much 
of their effect when jerked out in the midst of a long array of dry 
facts. In 1837, being one of the seven professors who signed a 
protest against the king of Hanover's abrogation of the con- 
stitution established some years before, he was dismissed from his 
professorship, and banished from the kingdom of Hanover. 
He returned to Cassel together with his brother, who had also 
signed the protest, and remained there till, in 1840, they accepted 
an invitation from the king of Prussia to remove to Berlin, 
where they both received professorships, and were elected 
members of the Academy of Sciences. Not being under any 
obligation to lecture, Jacob seldom did so, but together with his 
brother worked at the great dictionary. During their stay at 
Cassel Jacob regularly attended the meetings of the academy, 
where he read papers on the most varied subjects. The best 
known of these are those on Lachmann, Schiller, and his brother 
Wilhelm (who died in 1850), on old age, and on the origin of 
language. He also described his impressions of Italian and 
Scandinavian travel, interspersing his more general observations 
with linguistic details, as is the case in all his works. 

Grimm died in 1863, working up to the last. He was never ill, 
and worked on all day, without haste and without pause. He was 
not at all impatient of interruption, but seemed rather to be 
refreshed by it, returning to his work without effort. He wrote 
for the press with great rapidity, and hardly ever made correc- 
tions. He never revised what he had written, remarking with 
a certain wonder of his brother, " Wilhelm reads his manuscripts 
over again before sending them to press ! " His temperament 
was uniformly cheerful, and he was easily amused. Outside his 
own special work he had a marked taste for botany. The 
spirit which animated his work is best described by himself at the 
end of his autobiography. " Nearly all my labours have been 
devoted, either directly or indirectly, to the investigation of our 
earlier language, poetry and laws. These studies may have 
appeared to many, and may still appear, useless; to me they 
have always seemed a noble and earnest task, definitely and 
inseparably connected with our common fatherland, and cal- 
culated to foster the love of it. My principle has always been in 
these investigations to under-value nothing, but to utilize the 
small for the illustration of the great, the popular tradition for 
the elucidation of the written monuments." 

The purely scientific side of Grimm's character developed 
slowly. He seems to have felt the want of definite principles of 
etymology without being able to discover them, and indeed even 
in the first edition of his grammar (1819) he seems to be often 
groping in the dark. As early as 1815 we find A. W. Schlegel 
reviewing the Altdeutsche Walder (a periodical published by the 
two brothers) very severely, condemning the lawless etymological 
combinations it contained, and insisting on the necessity of strict 
philological method and a fundamental investigation of the laws 
of language, especially in the correspondence of sounds. This 
criticism is said to have had a considerable influence on the direc- 
tion of Grimm's studies. 

The first work he published, Uber den altdeutschen Meister- 
gesang (1811), was of a purely literary character. Yet even in 
this essay Grimm showed that Minnesang and Meistersang 
were really one form of poetry, of which they merely represented 
different stages of development, and also announced his important 
discovery of the invariable division of the Lied into three strophic 
parts. 

His text-editions were mostly prepared in common with 
his brother. In 1812 they published the two ancient fragments 
of the Hildebrandslied and the Weissenbrunner Gebel, Jacob 
having discovered what till then had never been suspected the 
alliteration in these poems. However, Jacob had little taste for 
text-editing, and, as he himself confessed, the evolving of a 



GRIMM, J. L. C. 



601 



critical text gave him little pleasure. He therefore left this 
department to others, especially Lachmann, who soon turned 
his brilliant critical genius, trained in the severe school of classical 
philology, to Old and Middle High German poetry and metre. 
Both brothers were attracted from the beginning by all national 
poetry, whether in the form of epics, ballads or popular tales. 
They published in 1816-1818 an analysis and critical sifting of 
the oldest epic traditions of the Germanic races under the title of 
Deutsche Sagen. At the same time they collected all the popular 
tales they could find, partly from the mouths of the people, 
partly from manuscripts and books, and published in 1812-1815 
the first edition of those Kinder-und Hausmdrchen which have 
carried the name of the brothers Grimm into every household 
of the civilized world, and founded the science of folk-lore. The 
closely allied subject of the satirical beast epic of the middle ages 
also had a great charm for Jacob Grimm, and he published an 
edition of the Reinhart Fuchs in 1834. His first contribution to 
mythology was the first volume of an edition of the Eddaic songs, 
undertaken conjointly with his brother, published in 1815, which, 
however, was not followed by any more. The first edition of his 
Deutsche Mylhologie appeared in 1835. This great work covers 
the whole range of the subject, tracing the mythology and 
superstitions of the old Teutons back to the very dawn of direct 
evidence, and following their decay and loss down to the popular 
traditions, tales and expressions in which they still linger. 

Although by the introduction of the Code Napoleon into 
Westphalia Grimm's legal studies were made practically barren, 
he never lost his interest in the scientific study of law and 
national institutions, as the truest exponents of the life and 
character of a people. By the publication (in 1828) of his 
RechtsaUerthiimer he laid the foundations of that historical study 
of the old Teutonic laws and constitutions which was continued 
with brilliant success by Georg L. Maurer and others. In this 
work Grimm showed the importance of a linguistic study of the 
old laws, and the light that can be thrown on many a dark 
passage in them by a comparison of the corresponding words and 
expressions in the other old cognate dialects. He also knew 
how and this is perhaps the most original and valuable part of 
his work to trace the spirit of the laws in countless allusions 
and sayings which occur in the old poems and sagas, or even 
survive in modern colloquialisms. 

Of all his more general works the boldest and most far-reaching 
is his Geschichle der deutschen Sprache, where at the same time 
the linguistic element is most distinctly brought forward. The 
subject of the work is, indeed, nothing less than the history which 
lies hidden in the words of the German language the oldest 
national history of the Teutonic tribes determined by means of 
language. For this purpose he laboriously collects the scattered 
words and allusions to be found in classical writers, and endeavours 
to determine the relations in which the German language stood 
to those of the Getae, Thracians, Scythians, and many other 
nations whose languages are known only by doubtfully identified, 
often extremely corrupted remains preserved by Greek and 
Latin authors. Grimm's results have been greatly modified 
by the wider range of comparison and improved methods of 
investigation which now characterize linguistic science, and 
many of the questions raised by him will probably for ever 
remain obscure; but his book will always be one of the most 
fruitful and suggestive that have ever been written. 

Grimm's famous Deutsche Grammatik was the outcome of his 
purely philological work. The labours of past generations 
from the humanists onwards had collected an enormous 
mass of materials in the shape of text-editions, dictionaries 
and grammars, although most of it was uncritical and often 
untrustworthy. Something had even been done in the way 
of co'mparison and the determination of general laws, and the 
conception of a comparative Teutonic grammar had been clearly 
grasped by the illustrious Englishman George Hickes, at the 
beginning of the i8th century, and partly carried out by him 
in his Thesaurus. Ten Kate in Holland had afterwards made 
valuable contributions to the history and comparison of the 
Teutonic languages. Even Grimm himself did not at first intend 



to include all the languages in his grammar; but he soon found 
that Old High German postulated Gothic, that the later stages 
of German could not be understood without the help of the Low 
German dialects, including English, and that the rich literature 
of Scandinavia could as little be ignored. The first edition of the 
first part of the Grammar, which appeared in 1819, and is now 
extremely rare, treated of the inflections of all these languages, 
together with a general introduction, in which he vindicated the 
importance of an historical study of the German language against 
the a priori, quasi-philosophical methods then in vogue. 

In 1822 this volume appeared in a second edition really a 
new work, for, as Grimm himself says in the preface, it cost him 
little reflection to mow down the first crop to the ground. The 
wide distance between the two stages of Grimm's development 
in these two editions is significantly shown by the fact that while 
the first edition gives only the inflections, in the second volume 
phonology takes up no fewer than 600 pages, more than half of the 
whole volume. Grimm had, at last, awakened to the full 
conviction that all sound philology must be based on rigorous 
adhesion to the laws of sound-change, and he never afterwards 
swerved from this principle, which gave to all his investigations, 
even in their boldest flights, that iron-bound consistency, and 
that force of conviction which distinguish science from dilettante- 
ism; up to Grimm's time philology was nothing but a more or 
less laborious and conscientious dilettanteism, with occasional 
flashes of scientific inspiration; he made it into a science. His 
advance must be attributed mainly to the influence of his 
contemporary R. Rask. Rask was born two years later than 
Grimm, but his remarkable precocity gave him somewhat the 
start. Even in Grimm's first editions his Icelandic paradigms are 
based entirely on Rask's grammar, and in his second edition he 
relied almost entirely on Rask for Old English. His debt to 
Rask can only be estimated at its true value by comparing his 
treatment of Old English in the two editions; the difference 
is very great. Thus in the first edition he declines dceg, dceges, 
plural dagas, not having observed the law of vowel-change 
pointed out by Rask. There can be little doubt that the appear- 
ance of Rask's Old English grammar was a main inducement 
for him to recast his work from the beginning. To Rask also 
belongs the merit of having first distinctly formulated the Jaws 
of sound-correspondence in the different languages, especially 
in the vowels, those more fleeting elements of speech which had 
hitherto been ignored by etymologists. 

This leads to a question which has been the subject of much 
controversy, Who discovered what is known as Grimm's law? 
This law of the correspondence of consonants in the older Indo- 
germanic, Low and High German languages respectively was 
first fully stated by Grimm in the second edition of the first 
part of his grammar. The correspondence of single consonants 
had been more or less clearly recognized by several of his pre- 
decessors; but the one who came nearest to the discovery of the 
complete law was the Swede J. Ihre, who established a consider- 
able number of " literarum permutationes," such as b for /, 
with the examples b(era=ferre, befwer= fiber. Rask, in his essay 
on the origin of the Icelandic language, gives the same com- 
parisons, with a few additions and corrections, and even the very 
same examples in most cases. As Grimm in the preface to his 
first edition expressly mentions this essay of Rask, there is every 
probability that it gave the first impulse to his own investigations. 
But there is a wide difference between the isolated permutations 
of his predecessors and the comprehensive generalizations under 
which he himself ranged them. The extension of the law to 
High German is also entirely his own. The only fact that 
can be adduced in support of the assertion that Grimm wished 
to deprive Rask of his claims to priority is that he does not 
expressly mention Rask's results in his second edition. But 
this is part of the plan of his work, viz. to refrain from all 
controversy or reference to the works of others. In his first 
edition he expressly calls attention to Rask's essay, and praises 
it most ungrudgingly. Rask himself refers as little to Ihre, 
merely alluding in a general way to Ihre's permutations, although 
his own debt to Ihre is infinitely greater than that of Grimm to 



GRIMM, W. C. GRIMMA 



602 

Rask or any one else. It is true that a certain bitterness of 
feeling afterwards sprang up between Grimm and Rask, but this 
was the fault of the latter, who, impatient of contradiction and 
irritable in controversy, refused to acknowledge the value of 
Grimm's views when they involved modification of his own. 
The importance of Grimm's generalization in the history of 
philology cannot be overestimated, and even the mystic com- 
pleteness and symmetry of its formulation, although it has proved 
a hindrance to the correct explanation of the causes of the 
changes, was well calculated to strike the popular mind, and 
give it a vivid idea of the paramount importance of law, and the 
necessity of disregarding mere superficial resemblance. The 
most lawless etymologist bows down to the authority of Grimm's 
law, even if he honours it almost as much in the breach as in the 
observance. 

The grammar was continued in three volumes, treating 
principally of derivation, composition and syntax, which last 
was left unfinished. Grimm then began a third edition, of which 
only one part, comprising the vowels, appeared in 1840, his 
time being afterwards taken up mainly by the dictionary.. The 
grammar stands alone in the annals of science for comprehensive- 
ness, method and fullness of detail. Every law, every letter, 
every syllable of inflection in the different languages is illustrated 
by an almost exhaustive mass of -material. It has served as a 
model for all succeeding investigators. Diez's grammar of the 
Romance languages is founded entirely on its methods, which 
have also exerted a profound influence on the wider study of the 
Indo-Germanic languages in general. 

In the great German dictionary Grimm undertook a task for 
which he was hardly suited. His exclusively historical tendencies 
made it impossible for him to do justice to the individuality of a 
living language; and the disconnected statement of the facts 
of language in an ordinary alphabetical dictionary fatally 
mars its scientific character. It was also undertaken on so large 
a scale as to make it impossible for him and his brother to com- 
plete it themselves. The dictionary, as far as it was worked out 
by Grimm himself, may be described as a collection of discon- 
nected antiquarian essays of high value. 

Grimm's scientific character is notable for its combination 
of breadth and unity. He was as far removed from the narrow- 
ness of the specialist who has no ideas, no sympathies beyond 
some one author, period or corner of science, as from the shallow 
dabbler who feverishly attempts to master the details of half-a- 
dozen discordant pursuits. Even within his own special studies 
there is the same wise concentration; no Mezzofanti-like parrot 
display of useless polyglottism. The very foundations of his 
nature were harmonious; his patriotism and love of historical 
investigation received their fullest satisfaction in the study of the 
language, traditions, mythology, laws and literature of his own 
countrymen and their nearest kindred. But from this centre 
his investigations were pursued in every direction as far as his 
unerring instinct of healthy limitation would allow. He was 
equally fortunate in the harmony that subsisted between his 
intellectual and moral nature. He made cheerfully the heavy 
sacrifices that science demands from its disciples, without feeling 
any of that envy and bitterness which often torment weaker 
natures; and although he lived apart from his fellow men, he 
was full of human sympathies, and no man has ever exercised 
a profounder influence on the destinies of mankind. His was 
the very ideal of the noblest type of German character. 

The following is a complete list of his separately published works, 
those which he published in common with his brother being marked 
with a star. For a list of his essays in periodicals, &c., see vol. v. of 
his Kleinere Schriften , from which the present list is taken. H is life is 
best studied in his own " Selbstbiographie," in vol. i. of the Kleinere 
Schriften. There is also a brief memoir by K. Godeke in Goltinger 
Professoren (Gotha (Perthes), 1872): Uber den altdeutschen Meister- 
gesang (Gottingen, 1811); *Kinder- und Hausmarchen (Berlin, 
1812-1815) (many editions); *Das Lied von Hildebrand und das 
Weissenbrunner Gebet (Cassel, 1812); Altdeutsche Walder (Cassel, 
Frankfort, 1813-1816, 3 vols.); *Der arme Heinrich von Hartmann 
von der Aue (Berlin, 1815); Irmenstrasse und Irmensdule (Vienna, 
1815); *Die Lieder der alien Edda (Berlin, 1815), Silva de romances 
viejos (Vienna, 1815); *Deutsche Sagen (Berlin, 1816-1818, 2nd ed., 



Berlin, 1865-1866); Deutsche Grammatik (Gottingen, 1819, 2nd ed., 
Gottingen, 1822-1840) (reprinted 1870 by W. Scherer, Berlin); Wuk 
Stephanovitsch' s kleine serbische Grammatik, verdeutscht mil einer 
Vorrede (Leipzig and Berlin, 1824); Zur Recension der deutschen 
Grammatik (Cassel, 1826); "Irische Elfenmdrchen, aus dem Englischen 
(Leipzig, 1826); Deutsche Rechtsaltertumer (Gottingen, 1828, 2nd 
ed 1854) ; Hymnorum veleris ecdesiae XX VI. inter pretatio theodisca 
(Gottingen, 1830); Reinhart Fuchs (Berlin, 1834); Deutsche 
Mythologie (Gottingen, 1835, 3rd ed., 1854, 2 vols.) ; Taciti Germania 
edidit (Gottingen, 1835); Uber meine Entlassung (Basel, 1838); 
(together with Schmeller) Lateinische Gcdichle des X. und XI. 
Jahrhunderts (Gottingen, 1838); Sendschreiben an Karl Lachmann 
fiber Reinhart Fuchs (Berlin, 1840); Weistumer, Th. i. (Gottingen, 
1840) (continued, partly by others, in 5 parts, 1840-1869); Andreas 
und Elene (Cassel, 1840); Frau Aventure (Berlin, 1842); Geschtchte 
der deutschen Sprache (Leipzig, 1848, 3rd ed., 1868, 2 vols.) i; Das 
Wort des Besitzes (Berlin, 1850); *Deutsches Worterbuch, Bd. i. 
(Leipzig 1854); Rede auf Wilhelm Grimm und Rede uber das Alter 
(Berlin, 1868, 3rd ed., 1865); Kleinere Schriften (Berlin, 1864-1870, 
5 vols.). (H- Sw.) 

GRIMM, WILHELM CARL (1786-1859). For the chief events 
in the life of Wilhelm Grimm see article on Jacob Grimm above. 
As Jacob himself said in his celebrated address to the Berlin 
Academy on the death of his brother, the whole of their lives 
were passed together. In their schooldays they had one bed 
and one table in common, as students they had two beds and 
two tables in the same room, and they always lived under one 
roof, and had their books and property in common. Nor did 
Wilhelm's marriage in any way disturb their harmony. As 
Cleasby said ("Life of Cleasby," prefixed to his Icelandic 
Dictionary, p. Ixix.), " they both live in the same house, and in 
such harmony and community that one might almost imagine 
the children were common property." Wilhelm's character 
was a complete contrast to that of his brother. As a boy he was 
strong and healthy, but as he grew up he was attacked by a long 
and severe illness, which left him weak all his life. His was a less 
comprehensive and energetic mind than that of his brother, and 
he had less of the spirit of investigation, preferring to confine 
himself to some limited and definitely bounded field of work; 
he utilized everything that bore directly on his own studies, and 
ignored the rest. These studies were almost always of a literary 
nature. It is characteristic of his more aesthetic nature that he 
took great delight in music, for which his brother had but a 
moderate liking, and had a remarkable gift of story-telling. 
Cleasby, in the account of his visit to the brothers, quoted above, 
tells that " Wilhelm read a sort of farce written in the Frankfort 
dialect, depicting the ' malheurs ' of a rich Frankfort tradesman 
on a holiday jaunt on Sunday. It was very droll, and he read 
it admirably." Cleasby describes him as " an uncommonly 
animated, jovial fellow." He was, accordingly, much sought in 
society, which he frequented much more than his brother. 

His first work was a spirited translation of the Danish Kampeviser, 
Altdanische Heldenlieder , published in 1811-1813, which made hi 
name at first more widely known than that of his brother. Ihe 
most important of his text editions are Ruolandslied (Gottingen, 
1838); Konrad von Wiirzburg's Goldene Schmiede (Berlin, 1840); 
Grave Ruodolf (Gottingen, 1844, 2nd ed.); A this und Prophthas 
(Berlin, 1846); Altdeutsche Gesprdche (Berlin, 1851); Freidank 
(Gottingen, 1860, 2nd ed.). Of his other works the most important is 
Deutsche Heldensage (Berlin, 1868, 2nd ed.). His Deutsche Runen 
(Gottingen, 1821) has now only an historical interest. (H. bw.) 

GRIMMA, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the left bank 
of the Mulde, 19 m. S.E. of Leipzig on the railway Dobeln- 
Dresden. Pop. (1905) 11,182. It has a Roman Catholic and 
three Evangelical churches, and among other principal buildings 
are the Schloss built in the i2th century, and long a residence of 
the margraves of Meissen and the electors of Saxony; the town- 
hall, dating from 1442, and the famous school Furstenschule 
(Illustre Moldanum), erected by the elector Maurice on the site 
of the former Augustinian monastery in 1550, having provision 
for 104 free scholars and a library numbering 10,000 volumes. 
There are also a modern school, a teachers' seminary, a com- 
mercial school and a school of brewing. Among the industries of 
the town are ironfounding, machine building and dyeworks, 
while paper and gloves are manufactured there. Gardening 
and agriculture generally are also important branches of industry. 
In the immediate neighbourhood are the ruins of the Cistercian 



GRIMMELSHAUSEN GRIMSTON 



603 



nunnery from which Catherine von Bora fled in 1523, and the 
village of Db'ben, with an old castle. Grimma is of Serbian 
origin, and is first mentioned in 1203. It passed then into 
possession of Saxony and has remained since part of that 
country. 

See Lorenz, Die Stadt Grimma, historisch besckrieben (Leipzig, 1871) ; 
Rossler, Geschichte der koniglich sdchsischen Fiirsten- und Landes- 
schule Grimma (Leipzig, 1891); L. Schmidt, Urkundenbuch der 
Stadl Grimma (Leipzig, 1895); and Fraustadt, Grimmenser Stamm- 
buch (Grimma, 1900). 

GRIMMELSHAUSEN, HANS JAKOB CHRISTOFFEL VON 

(c. 1625-1676), German author, was born at Gelnhausen in or 
about 1625. At the age of ten he was kidnapped by Hessian 
soldiery, and in their midst tasted the adventures of military 
life in the Thirty Years' War. At its close, Grimmelshausen 
entered the service of Franz Egon von Furstenberg, bishop 
of Strassburg and in 1665 was made Schultheiss (magistrate) 
at Renchen in Baden. On obtaining this appointment, he 
devoted himself to literary pursuits, and in 1669 published 
Der abenteuerliche Simplicissimus, Teutsch, d.li. die Beschreibung 
des Lebens eines seltsamen Vaganlen, genannt Melchior Sternfels 
von Fuchsheim, the greatest German novel of the I7th century. 
For this work he took as his model the picaresque romances of 
Spain, already to some extent known in Germany. Simplicissi- 
mus is in great measure its author's autobiography; he begins 
with the childhood of his hero, and describes the latter's adven- 
tures amid the stirring scenes of the Thirty Years' War. The 
realistic detail with which these pictures are presented makes the 
book one of the most valuable documents of its time. In the 
later parts Grimmelshausen, however, over-indulges in allegory, 
and finally loses himself in a Robinson Crusoe story. Among 
his other works the most important are the so-called Simplicia- 
nische Schriflen: Die Erzbetriigerin und Landstortzerin Courasche 
(c. 1669); Der seltsame Springinsfeld (1670) and Das wunderbar- 
liche Vogelnest (1672). His satires, such as Der teutsche Michel 
(1670), and " gallant " novels, like Dietxala und, Amelinde 
(1670) are of inferior interest. He died at Renchen on the 
1 7th of August 1676, where a monument was erected to him in 
1879. 

Editions of Simplicissimus and the Simplicianische Schriften have 
been published by A. von Keller (1854), H. Kurz (1863-1864), 
J. Tittmann (1877) and F. Bobertag (1882). A reprint of the first 
edition of the novel was edited by R. Kogel for the series of Neudrucke 
des 16. u.nd 17. Jahrhunderts (1880). See the introductions to these 
editions; also F. Antoine, Etude sur le Simplicissimus de Grimmels- 
hausen (1882) and E. Schmidt in his Charakteristiken, vol. i. (1886). 

GRIMOARD, PHILIPPE HENRI, COMTE DE (1753-1815), 
French soldier and military writer, entered the royal army at 
the age of sixteen, and in 1775 published his Essai thforique et 
practique sur les batailles. Shortly afterwards Louis XVI. 
placed him in his own military cabinet and employed him 
especially in connexion with schemes of army reform. By the 
year of the Revolution he had become one of Louis's most 
valued counsellors, in political as well as military matters, and 
was marked out, though only a colonel, as the next Minister of 
War. In 1791 Grimoard was entrusted with the preparation 
of the scheme of defence for France, which proved two years 
later of great assistance to the Committee of Public Safety. 
The events of 1792 put an end to his military career, and the 
remainder of his life was spent in writing military books. 

The following works by him, besides his first essay, have retained 
some importance : Histoire des dernikres campagnes de Turenne 
(Paris, 1780), Lettres et memoires de Turenne (Pans, 1780), Troupes 
legeres et leur emploi (Paris, 1782), Conquetes de Gustave-Adolphe 
(Stockholm and Neufchatel, 1782-1791); Memoires de Gustave 
Adolphe (Paris, 1790), Correspondence of Marshal Richelieu (Paris, 
1789), St Germain (1789), and Bernis (1790), Vie et regne de Frederic 
le Grand (London, 1788), Lettres et memoires du marechal de Saxe 
(Paris, 1794), L' Expedition de Minorque en 1756 (Paris, 1798), 
Recherches sur la force de I'armee franc,aise depuis Henri IV jusqu'en 
1805 (Paris, 1806), M6moires du marechal de Tesse (Paris, 1806), 
Lettres de Bolingbroke (Paris, 1808), Traite sur le service d'etat-major 
(Paris, 1809), and (with Seryan) Tableau hislorique de la guerre de 
la Revolution 1792-1794 (Paris, 1808). 

GRIMSBY, or GREAT GRIMSBY, a municipal, county and 
parliamentary borough of Lincolnshire, England; an important 



seaport near the mouth of the Humber on the south shore. 
Pop. (1901) 63,138. It is 155 m. N. by E. from London by the 
Great Northern railway, and is also served by the Great Central 
railway. The church of St James, situated in the older part of the 
town, is a cruciform Early English building, retaining, in spite 
of injudicious restoration, many beautiful details. The cnief 
buildings are that containing the town hall and the grammar 
school (a foundation of 1547), the exchange, a theatre, and the 
customs house and dock offices. A sailors' and fishermen's 
Harbour of Refuge, free library, constitutional club and technical 
school are maintained. The duke of York public gardens were 
opened in 1894. Adjacent to Grimsby on the east is the coastal 
watering-place of Cleethorpes. 

The dock railway station lies a mile from the town station. 
In 1849 the Great Central (then the Manchester, Sheffield 
and Lincolnshire) railway initiated a scheme of reclamation 
and dock-construction. This was completed in 1854, and sub- 
sequent extensions were made. There are two large fish-docks, 
and, for general traffic, the Royal dock, communicating with the 
Humber through a tidal basin, the small Union dock, and the 
extensive Alexandra dock, together with graving docks, timber 
yards, a patent slip, &c. These docks have an area of about 
104 acres, but were found insufficient for the growing traffic of 
the port, and in 1906 the construction of a large new dock, of 
about 40 acres' area and 30 to 35 ft. depth, was undertaken by 
the Great Central Company at Immingham, 5 m. above Grimsby 
on the Humber. The principal imports are butter, woollens, 
timber, cereals, eggs, glass, cottons, preserved meat, wool, 
sugar and bacon. The exports consist chiefly of woollen yarn, 
woollens, cotton goods, cotton yarn, machinery, &c. and coal. 
It is as a fishing port, however, that Grimsby is chiefly famous. 
Two of the docks are for the accommodation of the fishing fleet, 
which, consisting principally of steam trawlers, numbers up- 
wards of 500 vessels. Regular passenger steamers run from 
Grimsby to Dutch and south Swedish ports, and to Esbjerg 
(Denmark), chiefly those of the Wilson line and the Great Central 
railway. The chief industries of Grimsby are shipbuilding, 
brewing, tanning, manufactures of ship tackle, ropes, ice for 
preserving fish, turnery, flour, linseed cake, artificial manure; 
and there are saw mills, bone and corn mills, and creosote works. 
The municipal borough is under a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 
councillors. Area, 2852 acres. 

Grimsby (Grimesbi) is supposed to have been the landing-place 
of the Danes on their first invasion of Britain towards the close 
of the 8th century. It was a borough by prescription as early 
as 1 201, in which year King John granted the burgesses a charter 
of liberties according to the custom of the burgesses of North- 
ampton. Henry III. in 1227 granted to " the mayor and good 
men " of Grimsby, that they should hold the town for a yearly 
rent of 111, and confirmed the same in 1271. These charters 
were confirmed by later sovereigns. A governing charter, 
under the title of mayor and burgesses, was given by James II. 
in 1688, and under this the appointment of officers and other of 
the corporation, arrangements are to a great extent regulated. 
In 1 201 King John granted the burgesses an annual fair for 
fifteen days, beginning on the 25th of May. Two annual fairs 
are now held, namely on the first Monday in April and the second 
Monday in October. No early grant of a market can be found, 
but in 1792 the market-day was Wednesday. In 1888 it had 
ceased to exist. Grimsby returned two members to the parlia- 
ment of 1298, but in 1833 the number was reduced to one. 

In the time of Edward III. Grimsby was an important seaport, 
but the haven became obstructed by sand and mud deposited 
by the Humber, and so the access of large vessels was prevented. 
At the beginning of the igth century a subscription was raised 
by the proprietors of larid in the neighbourhood for improving 
the harbour, and an act was obtained by which they were 
incorporated under the title " The Grimsby Haven Co." The 
fishing trade had become so important by 1800 that it was 
necessary to construct a new dock. 

GRIMSTON, SIR HARBOTTLE (1603-1685), English politician, 
second son of Sir Harbottle Grimston, Bart. (d. 1648), was born 



604 



GRIMTHORPE, BARON GRINDAL 



at Bradfield Hall, near Manningtree, on the 27th of January 
1603. Educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, he became 
a barrister of Lincoln's Inn, then recorder of Harwich and 
recorder of Colchester. As member for Colchester, Grimston 
sat in the Short Parliament of 1640, and he represented the same 
borough during the Long Parliament, speedily becoming a 
leading member of the popular party. He attacked Archbishop 
Laud with great vigour; was a member of the important 
committees of the parliament, including the one appointed 
in consequence of the attempted seizure of the five members; 
and became deputy-lieutenant of Essex after the passing of the 
militia ordinance in January 1642. He disliked taking up arms 
against the king, but remained nominally an adherent of the 
parliamentary party during the Civil War. In the words of 
Clarendon, he " continued rather than concurred with them." 
Grimston does not appear to have taken the Solemn League 
and Covenant, but after the conclusion of the first period of the 
war he again became more active. He was president of the 
committee which investigated the escape of the king . from 
Hampton Court in 1647, and was one of those who negotiated 
with Charles at Newport in 1648, when, according to Burnet, 
he fell upon his knees and urged the king to come to terms. 
From this time Grimston's sympathies appear to have been with 
the Royalists. Turned out of the House of Commons when the 
assembly was " purged " by colonel Pride, he was imprisoned; 
but was released after promising to do nothing detrimental to 
the parliament or the army, and spent the next few years in 
retirement. Before this time, his elder brother having already 
died, he had succeeded his father as 2nd baronet. In 1656 
Sir Harbottle was returned to Cromwell's second parliament 
as member for Essex; but he was not allowed to take his seat; 
and with 97 others who were similarly treated he issued a 
remonstrance to the public. He was among the secluded members 
who re-entered the Lcng Parliament in February 1660, was then 
a member of the council of state, and was chosen Speaker of 
the House of Commons in the Convention Parliament of 1660. 
As Speaker he visited Charles II. at Breda, and addressed him 
in very flattering terms on his return to London; but he refused 
to accede to the king's demand that he should dismiss Burnet 
from his position as chaplain to the Master of the Rolls, and in 
parliament he strongly denounced any relaxation of the laws 
against papists. Grimston did not retain the office of Speaker 
after the dissolution of the Convention Parliament, but he was 
a member of the commission which tried the regicides, and in 
November 1660 he was appointed Master of the Rolls. Report 
says he paid Clarendon 8000 for the office, while Burnet declares 
he obtained it " without any application of his own." He died 
on the 2nd of January 1685. His friend and chaplain, Burnet, 
speaks very highly of his piety and impartiality, while not 
omitting the undoubted fact that he was " much sharpened 
against popery." He translated the law reports of his father-in- 
law, the judge, Sir George Croke (1560-1642), which were written 
in Norman-French, and five editions of this work have appeared. 
Seven of his parliamentary speeches were published, and he 
also wrote Strena Christiana (London, 1644, and other editions). 
Grimston's first wife, Croke's daughter Mary, bore him six sons 
and two daughters; and by his second wife, Anne, daughter 
and heiress of Sir Nathaniel Bacon, K.B., a grandson of Sir 
Nicholas Bacon, he had one daughter. 

Of his sons cne only, Samuel (1643-1700), survived his father, 
and when he died in October 1700 the baronetcy became extinct. 
Sir Harbottle 's eldest daughter, Mary, married Sir Capel Luckyn, 
Bart., and their grandson, William Luckyn, succeeded to the 
estates of his great-uncle, Sir Samuel Grimston, and took the 
name of Grimston in 1700. This William Luckyn Grimston 
( 1683-1 7 56) was created Baron Dunboyne and Viscount Grimston 
in the peerage of Ireland in 1719. He was succeeded as 2nd 
viscount by his son Janvs (171 i-i 773), whose son James Bucknall 
(1747-1808) was made an English peer as baron Verulam of 
Gorhambury in 1 790. Then in 1 8 1 5 his son James Walter (1775- 
1845), 2nd baron Verulam, was created earl of Verulam, and the 
present peer is his direct descendant. Sir Harbottle Grimston 



bought Sir Nicholas Bacon's estate at Gorhambury, which is 
still the residence of his descendants. 

See G. Burnet, History of My Own Time, edited by O. Airy (Oxford, 
1900). 

GRIMTHORPE, EDMUND BECKETT, IST BARON (1816-1905), 
son of Sir Edmund Beckett Denison, was born on the i2th of 
May 1816. He was educated at Doncaster and Eton, whence he 
proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, and graduated thirtieth 
wrangler in 1838. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn 
in 1841. Upon succeeding to the baronetcy in 1874 he dropped 
the name of Denison, which his father had assumed in 1816. 
From 1877 to 1900 he was chancellor and vicar-general of York, 
and he was raised to the peerage in 1886. He was made a Q.C. 
in 1854, and was for many years a leader of the Parliamentary 
Bar. He devoted himself to the study of astronomy, horology 
and architecture, more especially Gothic ecclesiastical architec- 
ture. As early as 1850 he had become a recognized authority 
on clocks, watches and bells, and in particular on the construction 
of turret clocks, for he had designed Dent's Great Exhibition 
clock, and his Rudimentary Treatise had gone through many 
editions. In 1851 he was called upon, in conjunction with the 
astronomer royal (Mr, afterwards Sir, G. B. Airy) and Mr Dent, 
to design a suitable clock for the new Houses of Parliament. 
The present tower clock, popularly known as " Big Ben," was 
constructed after Lord Grimthorpe's designs. In a number 
of burning questions during his time Lord Grimthorpe took 
a prominent part. It is, however, in connexion with the restora- 
tion of St Albans Abbey that he is most widely known. The 
St Albans Abbey Reparation Committee, which had been in 
existence since 1871, and for which Sir Gilbert Scott had carried 
out some admirable repairs, obtained a faculty from the Diocesan 
Court in 1877 to repair and restore the church and fit it for 
cathedral and parochial services. Very soon, however, the 
committee found itself unable ta raise the necessary funds, 
and it was at this juncture that a new faculty was granted to 
Lord Grimthorpe (then Sir Edmund Beckett) to " restore, repair 
and refit " the abbey at his own expense. Lord Grimthorpe 
made it an express stipulation that the work should be done 
according to his own designs and under his own supervision. 
His public spirit in undertaking the task was undeniable, but 
his treatment of the roof, thf new west front, and the windows 
inserted in the terminations of the transepts, excited a storm of 
adverse criticism, and was the subject of vigorous protests from 
the professional world of architecture. He died on the 2gth 
of April 1905, being succeeded as 2nd baron by his nephew, 
E. W. Beckett (b. 1856), who had sat in parliament as conserva- 
tive member for the Whitby division of Yorkshire from 1885. 

GRINDAL, EDMUND (c. 1510-1583), successively bishop of 
London, archbishop of York and archbishop of Canterbury, 
born about 1519, was son of William Grindal, a farmer of Hensing- 
ham, in the.parish of St Bees, Cumberland. He was educated at 
Magdalene and Christ's Colleges and then at Pembroke Hall, 
Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. and was elected fellow in 
1538. He proceeded M.A. in 1541, was ordained deacon in 1544 
and was proctor and Lady Margaret preacher in 1548-1549. 
Probably through the influence of Ridley, who had been master 
of Pembroke Hall, Grindal was selected as one of the Protestant 
disputants during the visitation of 1549. He had a considerable 
talent for this work and was often employed on similar occasions. 
When Ridley became bishop of London, he made Grindal one 
of his chaplains and gave him the precentorship of St Paul's. 
He was soon promoted to be one of Edward VI. 's chaplains 
and prebendary of Westminster, and in October 1552 was one 
of the sis divines to whom the Forty-two articles were submitted 
for examination before being sanctioned by the Privy Council. 
According to Knox, Grindal distinguished himself from most of 
the court preachers in 1553 by denouncing the worldliness of 
the courtiers and foretelling the evils to follow on the king's 
death. 

That event frustrated Grindal's proposed elevation to the 
episcopal bench and he did not consider himself bound to await 
the evils which he had foretold. He abandoned his preferments 



GRINDELWALD GRINGOIRE 



605 



on Mary's accession and made his way to Strassburg. Thence, 
like so many of the Marian exiles, he proceeded to Frankfurt, 
where he endeavoured to compose the disputes between the 
" Coxians " (see Cox, RICHARD), who regarded the 1552 Prayer 
Book as the perfection of reform, and the Knoxians, who wanted 
further simplification. He returned to England in January 1 559, 
was appointed one of the committee to revise the liturgy, and 
one of the Protestant representatives at the Westminster con- 
ference. In July he was also elected Master of Pembroke Hall 
in succession to the recusant Dr Thomas Young (1514-1580) 
and Bishop of London in succession to Bonner. 

Grindal himself was, however, inclined to be recalcitrant from 
different motives. He had qualms about vestments and other 
traces of " popery " as well as about the Erastianism of Eliza- 
beth's ecclesiastical government. His Protestantism was robust 
enough; he did not mind recommending that a priest " might 
be put to some torment " (Hatfield MSS. i. 269) ; and in October 
1562 he wrote to Cecil begging to know " if that second Julian, 
the king of Navarre, is killed; as he intended to preach at St 
Paul's Cross, and might take occasion to mention God's judge- 
ments on him " (Domestic Cal., 1547-1580, p. 209). But he was 
loth to execute judgments upon English Puritans, and modern 
high churchmen complain of his infirmity of purpose, his oppor- 
tunism and his failure to give Parker adequate assistance in 
rebuilding the shattered fabric of the English Church. Grindal 
lacked that firm faith in the supreme importance of uniformity 
and autocracy which enabled Whitgift to persecute with a clear 
conscience nonconformists whose theology was indistinguishable 
from his own. Perhaps he was as wise as his critics; at any 
rate the rigour which he repudiated hardly brought peace or 
strength to the Church when practised by his successors, and 
London, which was always a difficult see, involved Bishop Sandys 
in similar tronbles when Grindal had gone to York. As it was, 
although Parker said that Grindal " was not resolute and severe 
enough for the government of London," his attempts to enforce 
the use of the surplice evoked angry protests, especially in 1565, 
when considerable numbers of the nonconformists were sus- 
pended; and Grindal of his own motion denounced Cartwright 
to the Council in 1570. Other anxieties were brought upon him 
by the burning of his cathedral in 1561, for although Grindal 
himself is said to have contributed 1200 towards its rebuilding, 
the laity of his diocese were niggardly with their subscriptions 
and even his clergy were not liberal. 

In 1570 Grindal was translated to the archbishopric of York, 
where Puritans were few and coercion would be required mainly 
for Roman Catholics. His first letter from Cawood to Cecil 
told that he had not been well received, that the gentry were not 
" well-affected to godly religion and among the common people 
many superstitious practices remained." It is admitted by his 
Anglican critics that he did the work of enforcing uniformity 
against the Roman Catholics with good-will and considerable 
tact. He must have given general satisfaction, for even before 
Parker's death two persons so different as Burghley and Dean 
Nowell independently recommended Grindal's appointment as 
his successor, and Spenser speaks warmly of him in the Shepherd's 
Calendar as the " gentle shepherd Algrind." Burghley wished 
to conciliate the moderate Puritans and advised Grindal to 
mitigate the severity which had characterized Parker's treatment 
of the nonconformists. Grindal indeed attempted a reform of 
the ecclesiastical courts, but his metropolitical activity was cut 
short by a conflict with the arbitrary temper of the queen. 
Elizabeth required Grindal to suppress the " prophesyings " 
or meetings for discussion which had come into vogue among the 
Puritan clergy, and she even wanted him to discourage preaching; 
she would have no doctrine that was not inspired by her authority . 
Grindal remonstrated, claiming some voice for the Church, and 
in June 1577 was suspended from his jurisdictional, though not 
his spiritual, functions for disobedience. He stood firm, and 
in January 1578 Secretary Wilson informed Burghley that the 
queen wished to have the archbishop deprived. She was dis- 
suaded from this extreme course, but Grindal's sequestration 
was continued in spite of a petition from Convocation in 1581 



for his reinstatement. Elizabeth then suggested that he should 
resign; this he declined to do, and after making an apology to the 
queen he was reinstated towards the end of 1582. But his 
infirmities were increasing, and while making preparations for 
his resignation, he died on the 6th of July 1583 and was buried in 
Croydon parish church. He left considerable benefactions to 
Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, Queen's College, Oxford, and 
Christ's College, Cambridge; he also endowed a free school at 
St Bees, and left money for the poor of St Bees, Canterbury, 
Lambeth and Croydon. 

Strype's Life of Grindal is the principal authority ; see also Diet. 
Nat. Biogr. and, besides the authorities there cited, Cough's General 
Index to Parker Soc. Publ.; Acts of. the Privy Council; Cal. of 
Hatfield MSS.; Dixon's Hist, of the Church of England; Frere's 
volume in Stephens' and Hunt's series; Cambridge Mod. Hist. 
vol. iii. ; Gee's Elizabethan Clergy; Birt's Elizabethan Religious 
Settlement; and Pierce's Introduction to the Marprelate Tracts (1909). 

(A. F. P.) 

GRINDELWALD, a valley in the Bernese Oberland, and one 
of the chief resorts of tourists in Switzerland. It is shut in on 
the south by the precipices of the Wetterhorn, Mettenberg 
and Eiger, between which two famous glaciers flow down. On 
the north it is sheltered by the Faulhorn range, while on the 
east the Great Scheidegg Pass leads over to Meiringen; and on 
the south-west the Little Scheidegg or Wengern Alp (railway 
1 1 5 m. across) divides it from Lauterbrunnen. The main village 
is connected with Interlaken by a rack railway (13 m.). The 
valley is very green, and possesses excellent pastures, as well as 
fruit trees, though little corn is grown. It is watered by the 
Black Liitschine, a tributary of the Aar. The height of the 
parish church above the sea-level is 3468 ft. The population 
in igoowas 3346, practically all Protestant and German-speaking, 
and living in 558 houses. The glacier guides are among the best 
in the Alps. The valley was originally inhabited by the serfs 
of various great lords in summer for the sake of pasturage. A 
chapel in a cave was superseded about 1 146 by a wooden church, 
replaced about 1180 by a stone church, which was pulled down 
in 1793 to erect the present building. Gradually the Austin 
canons of Interlaken bought out all the other owners in the 
valley, but when that house was suppressed in 1528 by the town 
of Bern the inhabitants gained their freedom. The houses near 
the hotel Adler bear the name of Gydisdorf, but there is no 
village of Grindelwald properly speaking, though that name is 
usually given to the assemblage of hotels and shops between 
Gydisdorf and the railway station. Grindelwald is now very 
much frequented by visitors in winter. 

See W. A. B. Cpolidge, Walks and Excursions in the Valley of 
Grindelwald (also in French and German) (Grindelwald, 1900) ; 
Emmanuel Friedli, Barndiitsch als Spiegel bernischen Volkslums, 
vol. ii. (Grindelwald, Bern, 1908); E. F. von Mulinen, Beitrdge zur 
Heimatkunde des Kantons Bern, deutschen Teils, vol. i. (Bern, 1879), 
pp. 24-26; G. Strasser, Der Gletschermann (Grindelwald, 1888-1890). 
Scattered notices may be found in the edition (London, 1899) of the 
" General Introduction " (entitled " Hints and Notes for Travellers 
in the Alps ") to John Ball's Alpine Guide. (W. A. B. C.) 

GRINGOIRE (or GRINGORE), PIERRE (c. 1480-1 539), French 
poet and dramatist, was born about the year 1480, probably at 
Caen. In his first work, Le Chasteau de labour (1499), a didactic 
poem in praise of diligence, he narrates the troubles following 
on marriage. A young couple are visited by Care, Need, Dis- 
comfort, &c.; and other personages common to medieval alle- 
gories take part in the action. In November 1501 Gringoire 
was in Paris directing the production of a mystery play in honour 
of the archduke Philip of Austria, and in subsequent years 
he received many similar commissions. The fraternity of the 
Enfans sans Souci advanced him to the dignity of Mere Sotte 
and afterwards to the highest honour of the gild, that of 
Prince des Sots. For twenty years Gringoire seems to have been 
at the head of this illustrious confr6rie. As Prince des Sols he 
exercised an extraordinary influence. At no time was the stage, 
rude and coarse as it was, more popular as a true exponent of 
the popular mind. Gringoire's success lay in the fact that he 
followed, but did not attempt to lead; on his stage the people 
saw exhibited their passions, their judgments of the moment, 
their jealousies, their hatreds and their ambitions. Brotherhoods 



6o6 



GRINNELL GRIQU ALAND 



of the kind existed all over France. In Paris there were the 
Enfans sans Souci, the Basochiens, the Confrerie de la Passion 
and the Souverain Empire de Galilee; at Dijon there were the 
Mere Folle and her family; in Flanders the Societt des Arbale triers 
played comedies; at Rouen the Cornards or Canards yielded 
to none in vigour and fearlessness of satire. On Shrove Tuesday 
1512 Gringoire, who was the accredited defender of the policy 
of Louis XII., and had already written many political poems, 
represented the Jeu du Prince des Sots el Mere Sotte. It was at 
the moment when the French dispute with Julius II. was at its 
height. Mere Sotte was disguised as the Church, and disputed 
the question of the temporal power with the prince. The political 
meaning was even more thinly veiled in the second part of the 
entertainment, a morality named L'Homme obstine, the principal 
personage representing the pope. The performance concluded 
with a farce. Gringoire adopted for his device on the frontis- 
piece of this trilogy, Tout par Raison, Raison par Tout, Par tout 
Raison. He has been called the Aristophane des Holies. In one 
respect at least he resembles Aristophanes. He is serious in his 
merriment; there is purpose behind his extravagances. The 
Church was further attacked in a poem printed about 1510, 
La Chasse du cerf des cerfs (serf des serfs, i.e. servus serwrum), 
under which title that of the pope is thinly veiled. About 1514 
he wrote his mystery of the Vie de Monseigneur Saint-Louis 
par personnages in nine books for the confrerie of the masons and 
carpenters. He became in 1518 herald at the court of Lorraine, 
with the title of Vaudemont, and married Catherine Roger, 
a lady of gentle birth. During the last twenty years of a long 
life he became orthodox, and dedicated a Blason des heretiques 
to the duke of Lorraine. There is no record of the payment 
of his salary as a herald after Christmas 1538, so that he died 
probably in 1539. 

His works were edited by C. d'H&ricault and A. de Montaiglon 
for the Bibliothkque elzevirienne in 1858. This edition was incom- 
plete, and was supplemented by a second volume in 1877 by Mon- 
taiglon and M. James de Rothschild. These volumes include the 
works already mentioned, except Le Chasteau de labour, and in 
addition, Les Folles Entreprises (1505), a collection of didactic and 
satirical poems, chiefly ballades and rondeaux, one section of which 
is devoted to the exposition of the tyranny of the nobles, and another 
to the vices of the clergy; L'Entreprise de Venise (p. 1509), a poem 
in seven-lined stanzas, giving a list of the Venetian fortresses which 
belonged, according to Gringoire, to other powers; L'Espoir de paix 
(ist ed. not dated; another, 1510), a verse treatise on the deeds of 
" certain popes of Rome," dedicated to Louis XII.; and La Coque- 
luche (1510), a verse description of an epidemic, apparently influenza. 
For details of his other satires, Les A bus du monde (1509), Complainte 
de trap tard marik, Les Fantasies du monde qui regne; of his religious 
verse, Chants royaux (on the Passion, 1527), Heures de Notre Dame 
(!5 2 5); and a collection of tales in prose and verse, taken from 
the Gesta Romanorum, entitled Les Fantasies de Mere Sotte (1516), 
seeG. Brunet, Manuel du libraire (s.v. Gringore). Most of Gringoire's 
works conclude with an acrostic giving the name of the author. 
The Chasteau de labour was translated into English by Alexander 
Barclay and printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1506. Barclay's 
translation was edited (1905) with his original for the Roxburghe 
Clubby Mr A. W. Pollard, who provided an account of Gringoire, and 
a bibliography of the book. See also, for the Jeu du Prince des Sots, 
Petit de Julleville, La Comedie et les mceurs en France au moyen age, 
pp. 151-168 (Paris, 1886); for Saint Louis, the same author's 
Les Mystires, i. 331 et seq., ii. 583-597 (1880), with further biblio- 
graphical references; and E. Picot, Gringore et les comtdiens 
italiens (1877). The real Gringoire cannot be said to have many 
points of resemblance with the poet described in Victor Hugo's 
Notre-Dame de Paris, nor is there more foundation in fact for the one- 
act prose comedy of Th6odore de Banville. 

GRINNELL, a city in Poweshiek county, Iowa, U.S.A., 55 m. 
E. by N. of Des Moines. Pop. (1900) 3860, of whom 274 were 
foreign-born; (1905) 4634; (1910) 5036. Grinnell is served by 
the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and the Iowa Central rail- 
ways. It is the seat of Iowa College (co-educational), founded 
in 1847 by the Iowa Band (Congregationalists and graduates 
of New England colleges and Andover Theological Seminary, 
who had devoted themselves to home missionary educational 
work in Iowa, and who came to Jowa in 1843), and by a few 
earlier pioneers from New England. The college opened in 1848 
at Davenport, and in 1859 removed to Grinnell, where there was 
a school called Grinnell University, which it absorbed. Closely 



affiliated with the college are the Grinnell Academy and the 
Grinnell School of Music. In 1907-1908 the College had 463 
students, the Academy had 129 students, and the School of 
Music had 141 students. Among the manufactures are carriages 
and gloves. The city was named in honour of one of its founders, 
Josiah Bushnell Grinnell (1821-1891), a Congregational clergy- 
man, friend of and sympathizer with John Brown, and from 
1863 to 1867 a member of the National House of Representatives. 
Grinnell was settled in 1854, was incorporated as a town in 1865, 
and in 1882 was chartered as a city of the second class. In 1882 
it suffered severely from a cyclone. 

GRIQUALAND EAST and GRIQUALAND WEST, territorial 
divisions of the Cape Province of the Union of South Africa. 
Griqualand East, which lies south of Basutoland and west of 
Natal, is so named from the settlement there in 1862 of Griquas 
under Adam Kok. It forms part of the Transkeian Territories 
of the Cape, and is described under KAFFRARIA. Griqualand 
West, formerly Griqualand simply, also named after its Griqua 
inhabitants, is part of the great tableland of South Africa. 
It is bounded S. by the Orange river, W. and N. by Bechuanaland, 
E. by the Transvaal and Orange Free State Province, and has 
an area of 15,197 sq. m. It has a general elevation of 3000 to 
4000 ft. above the sea, low ranges of rocky hills, the Kaap, 
Asbestos, Vansittart and Langeberg mountains, traversing its 
western portion in a general N.E.-S.W. direction. The only 
perennial rivers are in the eastern district, through which the 
Vaal flows from a point a little above Fourteen Streams to its 
junction with the Orange (160 m.). In this part of its course the 
Vaal receives the Harts river from the north and the Riet from 
the east. The Riet, 4 m. within the Griqualand frontier, is 
joined by the Modder. The banks of the rivers are shaded by 
willows; elsewhere the only tree is the mimosa. The greater 
part of the country is barren, merging N.W. into absolute 
desert. The soil is, however, wherever irrigated, extremely 
fertile. The day climate is hot and dry, but the nights are fre- 
quently cold. Rain rarely falls, though thunderstorms of great 
severity occasionally sweep over the land, and sandstorms are 
prevalent in the summer. A portion of the country is adapted 
for sheep-farming and the growing of crops, horse-breeding is 
carried on at Kimberley, and asbestos is worked in the south- 
western districts, but the' wealth of Griqualand West lies in its 
diamonds, which are found along the banks of the Vaal and in the 
district between that river and the Riet. From the first dis- 
covery of diamonds in 1867 up to the end of 1905 the total 
yield of diamonds was estimated at 13! tons, worth 95,000,000. 

The chief town is Kimberley (q.v.), the centre of the diamond 
mining industry. It is situated on the railway from Cape Town 
to the Zambezi, which crosses the country near its eastern 
border. Three miles south of Kimberley is Beaconsfield (q.v.). 
On the banks, of the Vaal are Barkly West (q.v.), Windsorton 
(pop. 800) and Warrenton (pop. 1500); at all these places are 
river diggings, diamonds being found along the river from 
Fourteen Streams to the Harts confluence. Warrenton is 44 m. 
N. by rail from Kimberley. Douglas (pop. 300), on the south 
bank of the Vaal, 12 m. above its confluence with the Orange, 
is the centre of an agricultural district, a canal 95 m. long serving 
to irrigate a considerable area. Thirty-five miles N.W. of 
Douglas is Griquatown (pop. 401), the headquarters of the 
first Griqua settlers. Campbell (pop. 250) is 30 m. E. of Griqua- 
town, and Postmasburg 42 m. N. by W. A census taken in 1877 
showed the population of Griqualand West to be 45,277, of whom 
12,347 were whites. At the census of 1891 the population was 
83,215, of whom 29,602 were whites, and in 1904 the population 
was 108,498, of whom 32,570 were whites. 

History. Before the settlement in it of Griqua clans the 
district was thinly inhabited by Bushmen and Hottentots. 
At the end of the i8th century a horde known as Bastaards, 
descendants of Dutch farmers and Hottentot women, led a 
nomadic life on the plains south of the Orange river. In 1803 
a missionary named Anderson induced a number of the Bastaards 
with their chief Barend Barends to settle north of the river, and 
a mission station was formed at a place where there was a strong 



GRISAILLE GRISELDA 



607 



flowing fountain, which has now disappeared, which gave the 
name of KJaarwater to what is now known as Griquatown or 
Griquastad. Klaarwater became a retreat for other Bastaards, 
Hottentot refugees, Kaffirs and Bechuanas. From Little 
Namaqualand came a few half-breeds and others under the 
leadership of Adam Kok, son of Cornelius Kok and grandson 
of Adam Kok (c. 1710-1795), a man of mixed white and Hottentot 
blood who is regarded as the founder of the modern Griquas. 
The settlement prospered, and in 1813, at the instance of the 
Rev. John Campbell, who had been sent by the London Mission- 
ary Society to inspect the country, the tribesmen abandoned 
the name of Bastaards in favour of that of Griquas, 1 some 
of them professing descent from a Hottentot tribe, originally 
settled near Saldanha Bay, called by the early Dutch settlers 
at the Cape Chariguriqua or Grigriqua. Under the guidance 
of missionaries the Griquas made some progress in civilization, 
and many professed Christianity. Adam Kok and Barends 
having moved eastward in 1820, those who remained behind 
elected as their head man a teacher in the mission school named 
Andries Waterboer, who successfully administered the settle- 
ment, and by defeating the Makololo raiders greatly increased 
the prestige of the tribe. Meanwhile Adam Kok and his com- 
panions had occupied part of the country between the Modder 
and Orange rivers. In 1825 Kok settled at the mission station 
of Philippolis (founded two years previously), and in a short time 
had exterminated the Bushmen inhabiting that region. He 
died about 1835, and after a period of civil strife was succeeded 
by his younger son, Adam Kok III. This chief in November 
1843 signed a treaty placing himself under British protection. 
Many Dutch farmers were settled on the land he claimed. In 
1845 he received British military aid in a contest with the white 
settlers, and in 1848 helped the British under Sir Harry Smith 
against the Boers (see ORANGE FREE STATE: History). Eventu- 
ally finding himself straitened by the Boers of the newly estab- 
lished Orange Free State, he removed in 1861-1863 with his 
people, some 3000 in number, to the region (then depopulated 
by Kaffir wars) now known as Griqualand East. His sovereign 
rights to all territory north of the Orange he sold to the Free 
State for 4000. He founded Kokstad (q. n.) and died in 1876. 
Waterboer, the principal Griqua chief, had entered into treaty 
relations with the British government as early as 1834, and he 
received a subsidy of 150 a year. He proved a stanch ally of 
the British, and kept the peace on the Cape frontier to the day 
of his death in 1852. He was succeeded by his son Nicholas 
Waterboer, under whom the condition of the Griquas declined 
a decline induced by the indolence of the people and intensified 
by the drying up of the water supplies, cattle plague and brandy 
drinking. During this period white settlers acquired farms in 
the country, and the loss of their independence by the Griquas 
became inevitable. The discovery of diamonds along the banks 
of the Vaal in 1867 entirely altered the fortunes of the country, 
and by the end of 1869 the rush to the alluvial diggings had begun. 
At the diggers' camps the Griquas exercised no authority, but 
over part of the district the South African Republic and the 
Orange Free State claimed sovereignty. At Klip Drift (now 
Barkly West) the diggers formed a regular government and 
elected Theodore Paiker as their president. Most of the diggers 
being British subjects, the high commissioner of South Africa 
interfered, and a Cape official was appointed magistrate at 
Klip Drift, President Parker resigning office in February 1871. 
At this time the " dry diggings," of which Kimberley is the 
centre, had been discovered, 2 and over the miners there the 
Orange Free State asserted jurisdiction. The land was, however, 
claimed by Nicholas Waterboer, who, on the advice of his agent, 
David Arnot, petitioned the British to take over his country. 
This Great Britain consented to do, and on the 27th of October 
1871 proclamations were issued by the high commissioner 

1 The Griquas, as a distinct tribe, numbered at the Cape census of 
1904 but 6289. They have largely intermarried with Kaffir and 
Bechuana tribes. 

2 The order of discovery of the chief mines was: Dutoitspan, 
Sept. 1870; Bultfontein, Nov. 1870; De Beers, May 1871; Coles- 
berg Kop (Kimberley), July 1871. 



receiving Waterboer and his Griquas as British subjects and 
defining the limits of his territory. In addition to the Kimberley 
district this territory included that part of the diamondiferous 
area which had been claimed by the Transvaal, but which had 
been declared, as the result of the arbitration of R. W. Keate, 
lieutenant-governor of Natal, part of Waterboer's land. On the 
4th of November a small party of Cape Mounted Police took 
possession of the dry diggings and hoisted the British flag. 
Shortly afterwards the representative of the Orange Free State 
withdrew. The Free State was greatly incensed by the action 
of the British government, but the dispute as to the sovereignty 
was settled in 1876 by the payment of 90,000 by the British 
to the Free State as compensation for any injury inflicted on the 
state. 

The diggers, who under the nominal rule of the Transvaal and 
Free State had enjoyed practical independence, found the 
new government did little for their benefit, and a period of dis- 
order ensued, which was not put an end to by the appointment 
in January 1873 of Mr (afterwards Sir) Richard Southey 3 as 
sole administrator, in place of the three commissioners who 
had previously exercised authority. In the July following the 
territory was made a crown colony and Southey's title changed 
to that of lieutenant-governor. The government remained 
unpopular, the diggers complaining of its unrepresentative 
character, the heavy taxation exacted, and the inadequate 
protection of property. They formed a society for mutual 
protection, and the discontent was so great that an armed force 
was sent (early in 1875) from the Cape to overawe the agitators. 
At the same time measures were taken to render the government 
more popular. The settlement of the dispute with the Free 
State paved the way for the annexation of Griqualand to the Cape 
Colony on the i5th of October 1880. 

See KIMBERLEY, CAPE COLONY, TRANSVAAL and ORANGE FREE 
STATE. For the early history of the country and an account of life 
at the diggings, 1871-1875, consult G. M'Call Theal's Compendium 
of the History and Geography of South Africa (London, 1878), chapters 
xl. and xli.; Gardner F. Williams, The Diamond Mines of South 
Africa (New York and London, 1902) ; and the works bearing on the 
subject quoted in that book. See also Theal's History of South 
Africa . . . 1834-1854 (London, 1893); J. Campbell, Travels in 
South Africa (London, 1815), Travels . . . A Second Journey . . . 
(2 vols., London, 1822) ; the Blue Books C. 459 of 1871 and C. 508 of 
1872 (the last-named containing the Keate award, &c.) ; the Griqua- 
land West report in Papers relating to Her Majesty's Colonial 
Possessions, part ii. (1875), and the Life of Sir Richard Southey, 
K.C.M.G., by A. Wilmot (London, 1904). For the Griqua people 
consult G. W. Stow, The Native Races of South Africa, chapters xvii.- 
xx. (London, 1905). 

GRISAILLE, a French term, derived from gris, grey, for 
painting in monochrome in various shades of grey, particularly 
used in decoration to represent objects in relief. The frescoes 
of the roof of the Sistine chapel have portions of the design in 
grisaille. At Hampton Court the lower part of the decoration 
of the great staircase by Verrio is in grisaille. The term is also 
applied to monochrome painting in enamels, and also to stained 
glass; a fine example of grisaille glass is in the window known 
as the Five Sisters, at the end of the north transept in York 
cathedral. 

GRISELDA, a heroine of romance. She is said to have been 
the wife of Walter, marquis of Saluces or Saluzzo, in the nth 
century, and her misfortunes were considered to belong to 
history when they were handled by Boccaccio and Petrarch, 
although the probability is that Boccaccio borrowed his narrative 
from a Provencal fabliau. He included it in the recitations 
of the tenth day (Decamerone) , and must have written it about 
1330. Petrarch related it in a Latin letter in 1373, and his 
translation formed the basis of much of the later literature. 
The letter was printed by Ulrich Zel about 1470, and often 
subsequently. It. was translated into French as La Patience de 



8 Sir Richard Southey (1809-1901) was the son of one of the 
emigrants from the west of England to Cape Colony (1820). He 
organized and commanded a corps of Guides in the Kaffir war of 
1834-35, and was with Sir Harry Smithat Boomplaats (1848). From 
1864 to 1872 he was colonial secretary at the Cape. He gave up his 
appointment in Griqualand West in 1875, and lived thereafter in 
retirement. In 1891 he was created a K.C.M.G. 



6o8 



GRISI ORISONS 



Griselidis and printed at Brhan-Loudeac in 1484, and its 
popularity is shown by the number of early editions quoted by 
Brunei (Manuel du libraire, s.v. Petrarca). The story was 
dramatized in 1395, and a Mystere de Griselidis, marquise de 
Saluses par personnaiges was printed by Jehan Bonfons (no date). 
Chaucer followed Petrarch's version in the Canterbury Tales. 
Ralph Radcliffe, who flourished under Henry VIII., is said to 
have written a play on the subject, and the story was dramatized 
by Thomas Dekker, Henry Chettle and W. Haughton in 1603. 

An example of the many ballads of Griselda is given in T. Deloney's 
Garland of Good Will (1685), and the 17th-century chap-book, The 
History of Patient Grisel (1619), was edited by H. B. Wheatley (1885) 
for the Villon Society with a bibliographical and literary introduction. 

GRISI, GIULIA (1811-1869), Italian opera-singer, daughter 
of one of Napoleon's Italian officers, was born in Milan. She 
came of a family of musical gifts, her maternal aunt Josephina 
Grassini (1773-1850) being a favourite opera-singer both on the 
continent and in London; her mother had also been a singer, 
and her elder sister Giudetta and her cousin Carlotta were both 
exceedingly talented. Giulia was trained to a musical career, 
and made her stage debut in 1828. Rossini and Bellini both 
took an interest in her, and at Milan she was the first Adalgisa 
in Bellini's Norma, in which Pasta took the title-part. Grisi 
appeared in Paris in 1832, as Semiramide in Rossini's opera, 
and had a great success; and in 1834 she appeared in London. 
Her voice was a brilliant dramatic soprano, and her established 
position as a prima donna continued for thirty years. She 
was a particularly fine actress, and in London opera her associa- 
tion with such singers as Lablache, Rubini, Tamburini and Mario 
was long remembered as the palmy days of Italian opera. In 
1854 she toured with Mario in America. She had married Count 
de Melcy in 1836, but this ended in a divorce; and in 1856 she 
married Mario (q.i> .). She died in Berlin on the apth of November 
1869. 

GRISON (Galiclis vitlala), a carnivorous mammal, of the 
family Mustelidae, common in Central and South America and 
Mexico. It is about the size of a marten, and has the upper 
surface of a bluish-grey tint, and the under surface is dark 
brown. The grison lives on small mammals and birds, and in 
settled districts is destructive to poultry. Allamand's grison 
(G. allamandi) , with the same range, is somewhat larger. Another 
member of the genus is the tayra or taira (G. barbara), about as 
large as an otter, with a range from Mexico to Argentina. This 
species hunts in companies (see CARNIVORA). 

GRISONS (Ger. Graubiinden), the most easterly of the Swiss 
cantons and also the largest in extent, though relatively the 
most sparsely populated. Its total area is 2753-2 sq. m., of 
which 1634-4 sq. m. are classed as " productive " (forests 
covering 503-1 sq. m. and vineyards 1-3 sq. m.), but it has also 
138-6 sq. m. of glaciers, ranking in this respect next after the 
Valais and before Bern. The whole canton is mountainous, the 
principal glacier groups being those of the Todi, N. (11,887 ft.), 
of Medels, S.W. (Piz Medel, 10,509 ft.), of the Rheinwald or the 
Adula Alps, S.W. (Rheinwaldhorn, 11,149 ft.), with the chief 
source of the Rhine, of the Bernina, S.E. (Piz Bernina, 13,304 ft.), 
the most extensive, of the Albula, E. (Piz Kesch, 11,228 ft.), 
and of the Silvretta, N.E. (Piz Linard, 11,201 ft.). The principal 
valleys are those of the upper Rhine and of the upper Inn (or 
Engadine, q.v.). The three main sources of the Rhine are in 
the canton. The valley of the Vorder Rhine is called the Biindner 
Oberland, that of the Mittel Rhine the Val Medels, and that of 
the Hinter Rhine (the principal), in different parts of its course, 
the Rheinwald, the Schams valley and the Domleschg valley, 
while the upper valley of the Julia is named the Oberhalbstein. 
The chief affluents of the Rhine in the canton are the Glenner 
(flowing through the Lugnetz valley), the Avers Rhine, the 
Albula (swollen by the Julia and the Landwasser), the Plessur 
(Schanfigg valley) and the Landquart (coming from the Prat- 
tigau). The Rhine and the Inn flow respectively into the North 
and the Black Seas. Of other streams that of Val Mesocco joins 
the Ticino and so the Po, while the Maira or Mera (Val Bregaglia) 
and the Poschiavino join the Adda, and the Rambach (Munster 



valley) the Adige, all four thus ultimately reaching the Adriatic 
Sea. The inner valleys are the highest in Central Europe, and 
among the loftiest villages are Juf, 6998 ft. (the highest per- 
manently inhabited village in the Alps), at the head of the Avers 
glen, and St Moritz, 6037 ft., in the Upper Engadine. The 
lower courses of the various streams are rent by remarkable 
gorges, such as the Via Mala, the Rofna, the Schyn, and those 
in the Avers, Medels and Lugnetz glens, as well as -that of the 
Ziige in the Landwasser glen. Below Coire, near Malans, good 
wine is produced, while in the Val Mesocco, &c., maize and chest- 
nuts flourish. But the forests and the mountain pasturages are 
the chief source of wealth. The lower pastures maintain a fine 
breed of cows, while the upper are let out in summer to Berga- 
masque shepherds. There are many mineral springs, such as 
those of St Moritz, Schuls, Alvaneu, Fideris, Le Prese and San 
Bernardino. The climate and vegetation, save on the southern 
slope of the Alps, are alpine and severe. But yearly vast numbers 
of strangers visit different spots in the canton, especially Davos 
(q.v.), Arosa and the Engadine. As yet there are comparatively 
few railways. There is one from Maienfeld (continued north 
to Constance and north-west to Zurich) to Coire (n m.), which 
sends off a branch line from Landquart, E., past Klosters to 
Davos (31 m.). From Coire the line bears west to Reichenau 
(6 m.), whence one branch runs S.S.E. beneath the Albula Pass 
to St Moritz (50 m.), and another S.W. up the Hinter Rhine 
valley to Ilanz (205 m.). There are, however, a number of fine 
carriage roads across the passes leading to or towards Italy. 
Besides those leading to the Engadine may be noted the roads 
from Ilanz past Disentis over the Oberalp Pass (6719 ft.) to 
Andermatt, from Disentis over the Lukmanier Pass (6289 ft.) to 
Biasca, on the St Gotthard railway, from Reichenau past 
Thusis and Spliigen over the San Bernardino Pass (6769 ft.) to 
Beliinzona on the same railway line, and from Spliigen over the 
Spliigen Pass(6946 ft.)to Chiavenna. The Septimer Pass(7582 ft.) 
from the Julier route to the Maloja route has now only a mule 
path, but was probably known in Roman times (as was possibly 
the Splugen), and was much frequented in the middle ages. 

The population of the canton in 1900 was 104,520. Of this 
number 55,155 (mainly near Coire and Davos, in the Prattigau 
and in the Schanfigg valley) were Protestants, while 49,142 
(mainly in the Biindner Oberland, the Vail Mesocco and the 
Oberhalbstein) were Romanists, while there were also 114 Jews 
(8 1 of whom lived in Davos). In point of language 48,762 
(mainly near Coire and Davos, in the Prattigau and in the 
Schanfigg valley) were German-speaking, while 17,539 (mostly 
in the Val Mesocco, the Val Bregaglia and the valley of Poschiavo, 
but including a number of Italian labourers engaged on the 
construction of the Albula railway) were Italian-speaking. 
But the characteristic tongue of the Grisons is a survival of an 
ancient Romance language (the lingua ruslica of the Roman 
Empire), which has lagged behind its sisters. It has a scanty 
printed literature, but is still widely spoken, so that, of the 
38,651 persons in the Swiss Confederation who speak it, no fewer 
than 36,472 are in the Grisons. It is distinguished into two 
dialects: the Romonsch (sometimes wrongly called Romansch), 
which prevails in the Biindner Oberland and in the Hinter Rhine 
valley (Schams and Domleschg), and the Ladin (closely related 
to the tongue spoken in parts of the South Tyrol), that survives 
in the Engadine and in the neighbouring valleys of Bergiin, 
Oberhalbstein and Munster. (See F. Rausch's Geschichte der 
Literalur des rhaeto-romanischen Volkes, Frankfort, 1870, 
and Mr Coolidge's bibliography of this language, given on 
pp. 22-23 f Lorria and Martel's Le Massif de la Bernina, Zurich, 
1894.) Yet in the midst of this Romance-speaking population 
are islets (mostly, if not entirely, due to immigration in the 
I3th century from the German-speaking Upper Valais) of 
German-speaking inhabitants, so in the Vals and Safien glens, 
and at Obersaxen (all in the Biindner Oberland), in the Rhein- 
wald (the highest part of the Hinter Rhine valley), and in the 
Avers glen (middle reach of the Hinter Rhine valley), as well as 
in and around Davos itself. 

There is not much industrial activity in the Grisons. A 



ORISONS 



609 



considerable portion of the population is engaged in attending 
to the wants of the foreign visitors, but there is a considerable 
trade with Italy, particularly in the wines of the Valtellina, 
while many young men seek their fortunes abroad (returning 
home after having accumulated a small stock of money) as 
confectioners, pastry-cooks and coffee-house keepers. A certain 
number of lead and silver mines were formerly worked, but are 
now abandoned. The capital of the canton is Coire (q.v.). 

The canton is divided into 14 administrative districts, and 
includes 224 communes. It sends 2 members (elected by a 
popular vote) to the Federal SlUnderath, and 5 members (also 
elected by a popular vote) to the Federal Nalionalralk. The 
existing cantonal constitution was accepted by the people in 1892, 
and came into force on ist January 1894. The legislature 
(Grossralh no numbers fixed by the constitution) is elected 
for 2 years by a popular vote, as are the 5 members of the 
executive (Kleinrath) for 3 years. The " obligatory referendum " 
obtains in the case of all laws and important matters of expendi- 
ture, while 3000 citizens can demand (" facultative referendum") 
a popular vote as to resolutions and ordinances made by the 
legislature. Three thousand citizens also have the right of 
" initiative " as to legislative projects, but 5000 signatures are 
required for a proposed revision of the cantonal constitution. 
In the revenue and expenditure of the canton the taxes are never 
' counted. This causes an apparent deficit which is carried to 
the capital account, and is met by the land tax (art. 19 of the 
constitution), so that there is never a real deficit, as the amount 
of the land tax varies annually according to the amount that 
must be provided. In the pre-1799 constitution of the three 
Raetian Leagues the system of the " referendum " was in 
working as early as the i6th century, not merely as between 
the three Leagues themselves, but as between the bailiwicks 
(Hockgerichte), the sovereign units within each League, and 
sometimes (as in the Upper Engadine) between the villages 
composing each bailiwick. 

The greater part (excluding the three valleys where the 
inhabitants speak Italian) of the modern canton of the Orisons 
formed the southern part of the province of Raetia (probably the 
aboriginal inhabitants, the Raeti, were Celts rather than, as 
was formerly believed, Etruscans), set up by the Romans after 
their conquest of the region in 15 B.C. The Romanized inhabi- 
tants were to a certain extent (The Romonsch or Ladin tongue 
is a survival of the Roman dominion) Teutonized under the 
Ostrogoths (A.D. 493-537) and under the Franks (from 537 
onwards). Governors called Praesides are mentioned in the 
7th and 8th centuries, while members of the same family occupied 
the episcopal see of Coire (founded 4th-5th centuries). About 
806 Charles the Great made this region into a county, but in 
831 the bishop procured for his dominions exemption (" im- 
munity ") from the jurisdiction of the counts, while before 847 
his see was transferred from the Italian province of Milan to the 
German province of Mainz (Mayence) and was thus cut off from 
Italy to be joined to Germany. In 916 the region was united 
with the duchy of Alamannia, but the bishop still retained 
practical independence, and his wide-spread dominions placed 
him even above the abbots of Disentis and Pfafers, who likewise 
enjoyed " immunity." In the loth century the bishop obtained 
fresh privileges from the emperors (besides the Val Bregaglia in 
960), and so became the chief of the many feudal nobles who 
struggled for power in the region. He became a prince of the 
empire in 1170 and later allied himself with the rising power 
(in the region) of the Habsburgers. This led in 1367 to the 
foundation of the League of God's House or the Gotteshausbund 
(composed of the city and chapter of Coire, and of the bishop's 
subjects, especially in the Engadine, Val Bregaglia, Domleschg 
and Oberhalbstein) in order to stem his rising power, the bishop 
entering it in 1392. In 1395 the abbot of Disentis, the men of 
the Lugnetz valley, and the great feudal lords of Razuns and 
Sax (in 1399 the counts of Werdenberg came in) formed another 
League, called the Ober Bund (as comprising the highlands in 
the Vorder Rhine valley) and also wrongly the " Grey League ' 
(as the word interpreted " grey " is simply a misreading of 



graven or counts, though the false view has given rise to the name 
of Orisons or Graubiinden for the whole canton), their alliance 
being strengthened in 1424 when, too, the free men of the 
Rheinwald and Schams came in, and in 1480 the Val Mesocco 
also. Finally, in 1436, the third Raetian League was founded, 
that of the Zehngerichtenbund or League of the Ten Jurisdictions, 
by the former subjects of the count of Toggenburg, whose 
dynasty then became extinct; they include the inhabitants of 
the Prattigau, Davos, Maienfeld, the Schanfigg valley, Chur- 
walden, and the lordship of Belfort (i.e. the region round Alvaneu) , 
and formed ten bailiwicks, whence the name of the League. In 
1450 the Zehngerichtenbund concluded an alliance with the 
Gotteshausbund and in 1471 with the Ober Bund; but of the 
so-called perpetual alliance at Vazerol, near Tiefenkastels, 
there exists no authentic evidence in the oldest chronicles, though 
diets were held there. By a succession of purchases (1477-1496) 
nearly all the possessions of the extinct dynasty of the counts of 
Toggenburg in the Prattigau had come to the junior or Tyrolese 
line of the Habsburgers. On its extinction (1496) in turn they 
passed to the elder line, the head of which, Maximilian, was 
already emperor-elect and desired to maintain the rights of his 
family there and in the Lower Engadine. Hence in 1497 the 
Ober Bund and in 1498 the Gotteshausbund became allies of the 
Swiss Confederation. War broke out in 1499, but was ended by 
the great Swiss victory (22nd May 1499) at the battle of the 
Calven gorge (above Mais) which, added to another Swiss victory 
at Dornach (near Basel), compelled the emperor to recognize 
the practical independence of the Swiss and their allies of the 
Empire. The religious Reformation brought disunion into the 
three Leagues, as the Ober Bund clung in the main to the old 
faith, and for this reason their connexion with the Swiss Con- 
federation was much weakened. In 1526, by the Articles of 
Ilanz, the last remaining traces of the temporal jurisdiction 
of the bishop of Coire was abolished. In 1486 Poschiavo had at 
last been secured from Milan, and Maienfeld with Malans was 
bought in 1509, while in 1549 the Val Mesocco (included in the 
Ober Bund since 1480) purchased its freedom of its lords, the 
Trivulzio family of Milan. In 1512 the three Leagues conquered 
from Milan the rich and fertile Valtellina, with Bormioand 
Chiavenna, and held these districts as subject lands till in 1797 
they were annexed to the Cisalpine Republic. The struggle 
for lucrative offices in these lands further sharpened the long 
rivalry between the families of Planta (Engadine) and Salis 
(Val Bregaglia), while in the I7th century this rivalry was 
complicated by political enmities, as the Plantas favoured the 
Spanish side and the Salis that of France during the long struggle 
(1620-1639) f r the Valtellina (see JENATSCH and VALTELLINA). 
Troubles arose (1622) also in the Prattigau through the attempts 
of the Habsburgers to force the inhabitants to give up Pro- 
testantism. Finally, after the emperor hud formally recognized, 
by the treaty of Westphalia (1648), the independence of the 
Swiss Confederation, the rights of the Habsburgers in the 
Prattigau and the Lower Engadine were bought up (1649 an d 
1652). But the Austrian enclaves of Tarasp (Lower Engadine) 
and of Razuns (near Reichenau) were only annexed to the Orisons 
in 1809 and 1815 respectively, in each case France holding the 
lordship for a short time after its cession by Austria. In 1748 
(finally in 1762) the three Leagues secured the upper portion 
of the valley of Munster. In 1799 the French invaded the 
canton, which became the scene of a fierce conflict (1790-1800) 
between them and the united Russian and Austrian army, in the 
course of which the French burnt (May 1799) the ancient convent 
of Disentis with all its literary treasures. In April 1799 the 
provisional government agreed to the incorporation of the three 
Leagues in the Helvetic Republic, though it was not till June 
1801 that the canton of Raetia became formally part of the 
Helvetic Republic. In 1803, by Napoleon's Act of Mediation, 
it entered, under the name of Canton of the Grisons or Grau- 
biinden, the reconstituted Swiss Confederation, of which it 
then first became a full member. 

AUTHORITIES. A. Andrea, Das Bergell (Frauenfeld, 1901); 
Bundnergeschichte in n Vortriigen, by various writers (Coire, 1902); 



XII. 



30 



6io 



GRISWOLD GROCYN 



Codex diplomatics Raetiae (5 vols., Coire, 1848-1886); W. Coxe, 
Travels in Switzerland, vol. ii. of the 1789 London edition ; E. Dunant, 
La Reunion des Orisons A la Suisse (1798-171)9) (Basel, 1899); 
G. Fient, Das Prdttigau (2nd ed., Davos, 1897); P. Foffa, Das 
bundnerische Miinsterthal (Coire, 1864); F. Fossati, Codice diplo- 
matico della Rezia (originally published in the Periodico of the 
Societa slorica a Comense at Como; separate reprint, Como, 1901); 
R. A. Ganzoni, Beitrdge zur Kenntnis d. bundnerischen Referendums 
(Zurich, 1890); Mrs Henry Freshfield, A Summer Tour in the 
Orisons (London, 1862); C. and F. Jecklin, Der Anteil Graubundens 
am Schwabenkrieg (1499) (Davos, 1899); C. von Moor, Geschichte 
von Curraetien (2 vols., Coire, 1870-1874), and Wegweiser (Coire, 
1873); E. Lechner, Das Thai Bergell (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1874); 
G. Leonhardi, Das Poschiarinothal (Leipzig, 1859); A. Lorria and 
E. A. Martel, Le Massif de la Bernina (Upper Engadine and Val 
Bregaglia) (Zurich, 1894) ; P. C. von Planta, Das alte Raetien (Berlin, 
1872); Die curraetischen Herrschaften in d. Feudalzeit (Bern, 1881); 
Geschichte von Graubunden (Bern, 1892); and Chronik d. Familie von 
Planta (Zurich, 1892); W. Planner, Die Entstehung d. Freistaates 
der 3 Biinde (Davos, 1895), R. von Reding-Biberegg, Der Zug 
Suworoffs durch die Schweiz in 1799 (Stans, 1895); N. Salis-Soglio, 
Die Familie von Salts (Lindau, 1891); G. Theobald, Das Bundner 
Oberland (Coire, 1861), and Naturbilder aus den rhdtischen Alpen 
(3rd ed., Coire, 1893); N. Valaer, Johannes von Planta (d. 1572) 
(Ziirich, 1888); R. Wagner and L. R. von Salis, Rechtsquellen d. 
Cant. Graubunden (Basel, 1877-1892); F. Jecklin, Materialen zur 
Standes- und Landesgeschichte Gem. Hi. Biinde (Graubunden), 
14641803 (pt. i., Rcgesten, was published at Basel in 1907). See also 
COIRE, ENGADINE, JENATSCH and VALTELLINA. (W. A. B. C.) 

GRISWOLD, RUFUS WILMOT (1815-1857), American editor 
and compiler, was born in Benson, Vermont, on the isth of 
February 1815. He travelled extensively, worked in newspaper 
offices, was a Baptist clergyman for a time, and finally became 
a journalist in New York City, where he was successively a 
member of the staffs of The Brother Jonathan, The New World 
(1839-1840) and The New Yorker (1840). From 1841 to 1843 
he edited Graham's Magazine (Philadelphia), and added to 
its list of contributors many leading American writers. From 
1850 to 1852 he edited the International Magazine (New York), 
which in 1852 was merged into Harper's Magazine. He died in 
New York City on the 27th of August 1857. He is best known 
as the compiler and editor of various anthologies (with brief 
biographies and critiques), such as Poets and Poetry of America 
(1842), his most popular and valuable book; Prose Writers of 
America (1846); Female Poets of America (1848); and Sacred 
Poets of England and America (1849). Of his own writings his 
RepublicanCourt: or American Society in the Days of Washington 
(1854) is the only one of permanent value. He edited the first 
American edition of Milton's prose works (1845), and, as literary 
executor, edited, with James R. Lowell and N. P. Willis, the 
works ( 1 8 50) of Edgar Allan Poe. Gris wold 's great contemporary 
reputation as a critic has not stood the test of time; but he 
rendered a valuable service in making Americans better ac- 
quainted with the poetry and prose of their own countrymen. 

See Passages from the Correspondence and. Other Papers of Rufus 
W. Griswold (Cambridge, Mass., 1898), edited by his son William 
McCrillis Griswold (1853-1899). 

GRIVET, a monkey, Cercopithecus sabaeus, of the guenon 
group, nearly allied to the green monkey. It is common through- 
out equatorial Africa. The chin, whiskers and a broad band 
across the forehead, as well as the under-parts, are white, and 
the head and back olive-green. These monkeys are very 
commonly seen in menageries. 

GROAT (adapted from the Dutch groot, great, thick; cf. 
Ger. Groschen; the Med. Lat. grossus gives Ital. grosso, 
Fr. gros, as names for the coin), a name applied as early as the 
i3th century on the continent of Europe to any large or thick 
coin. The groat was almost universally a silver coin, but its 
value varied considerably, as well at different times as in different 
countries. The English groat was first coined in 1351, of a value 
somewhat higher than a penny. The continuous debasement 
of both the penny and the groat left the latter finally worth four 
pennies. The issue of the groat was discontinued after 1662, 
but a coin worth fourpence was again struck in 1836. Although 
frequently referred to as a groat, it had no other official designa- 
tion than a " fourpenny piece." Its issue was again discontinued 
in 1856. The groat was imitated in Scotland by a coin struck 



by David II. in 1358. In Ireland it was first struck by Edward 
IV. in 1460. 

GROCER, literally one who sells by the gross, a wholesale 
dealer; the word is derived through the O. Fr. form, grossia, 
From the Med. Lat. grossarius, defined by du Cange, 
Glossarium, s.v. Grossares, as solidae mercis propola. The name, 
as a general one for dealers by wholesale, " engrossers " as 
opposed to " regrators," the retail dealers, is found with the 
commodity attached; thus in the Munimenta Gildhallae (" Rolls " 
series) ii. 1.304 (quoted in the New English Dictionary) is found 
an allusion to grossours de vin, cf. groser of fysshe, Surtees Misc. 
(1888) 63, for the customs of Malton (quoted ib.). The specific 
application of the word to one who deals either by wholesale 
or retail in tea, coffee, cocoa, dried fruits, spices, sugar and all 
kinds of articles of use or consumption in a household is connected 
with the history of the Grocers' Company of London, one of the 
twelve " great " livery companies. In 1345 the pepperers and 
the spicers amalgamated and were known as the Fraternity 
of St Anthony. The name " grocers " first appears in 1373 in 
the records of the company. In 1386 the association was 
granted a right of search over all " spicers " in London, and in 
1394 they obtained the right to inspect or " garble " spices and 
other " subtil wares." Their first charter was obtained in 1428; 
letters patent in 1447 granted an extension of the right of search 
over the whole county, but removed the " liberties " of the 
city of London. They sold all kinds of drugs, medicines, oint- 
ments, plasters, and medicated and other waters. For the 
separation of the apothecaries from the grocers in 1617 see 
APOTHECARY. (See further LIVERY COMPANIES.) 

See The Grocery Trade, by J. Aubrey Rees (1910). 

GROCYN, WILLIAM (14467-1519), English scholar, was born 
at Colerne, Wiltshire, about 1446. Intended by his parents 
for the church, he was sent to Winchester College, and in 1465 
was elected to a scholarship at New College, Oxford. In 1467 
he became a fellow, and had among his pupils William Warham, 
afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. In 1479 he accepted the 
rectory of Newton Longville, in Buckinghamshire, but continued 
to reside at Oxford. As reader in divinity in Magdalen College 
in 1481, he held a disputation with John Taylor, professor of 
divinity, in presence of King Richard III., and the king acknow- 
ledged his skill as a debater by the present of a buck and five 
marks. In 1485 he became prebendary of Lincoln cathedral. 
About 1488 Grocyn left England for Italy, and before his return 
in 1491 he had visited Florence, Rome and Padua, and studied 
Greek and Latin under Demetrius Chalchondyles and Politian. 
As lecturer in Exeter College he found an opportunity of in- 
doctrinating his countrymen in the new Greek learning. 

Erasmus says in one of his letters that Grocyn taught Greek 
at Oxford before his visit to Italy. The Warden of New College, 
Thomas Chaundler, invited Cornelius Vitelli, then on a visit to 
Oxford, to act as praelector. This was about 1475, and as 
Vitelli was certainly familiar with Greek literature, Grocyn 
may have learnt Greek from him. He seems to have lived in 
Oxford until 1499, but when his friend Colet became dean of 
St Paul's in 1504 he was settled in London. He was chosen by 
his friend to deliver lectures in St Paul's; and in this connexion 
he gave a singular proof of his honesty. He had at first denounced 
all who impugned the authenticity of the Hierarchia ecclesiastica 
ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite, but, being led to modify 
his views by further investigation, he openly declared that he 
had been completely mistaken. He also counted Linacre, 
William Lily, William Latimer and More among his friends, 
and Erasmus writing in 1514 says that he was supported by 
Grocyn in London, and calls him " the friend and preceptor of 
us all." He held several preferments, but his generosity to his 
friends involved him in continual difficulties, and though in 
1 506 he was appointed on Archbishop Warham 's recommenda- 
tion master or warden of All Hallows College at Maidstone 
in Kent, he was still obliged to borrow from his friends, and 
even to pledge his plate as a security. He died in 1519, and was 
buried in the collegiate church at Maidstone. Linacre acted 
as his executor, and expended the money he received in gifts 



GRODNO GROLMANN 



611 



to the poor and the purchase of books for poor scholars. With 
the exception of a few lines of Latin verse on a lady who snow- 
balled him, and a letter to Aldus Manutiusattheheadof Linacre's 
translation of Proclus's Sphaera (Venice, 1499), Grocyn has 
left no literary proof of his scholarship or abilities. His proposal 
to execute a translation of Aristotle in company with Linacre 
and Latimer was never carried out. Wood assigns some Latin 
works to Grocyn, but on insufficient authority. By Erasmus 
he has been described as " vir severissimae castissimae vitae, 
ecclesiasticarum constitutionum observantissimus pene usque 
ad superstitionem, scholasticae theologiae ad unguem doctus 
ac natura etiam acerrimi judicii, demum in omni disciplinarum 
genere exacte versatus " (Declarationes ad censuras facultalis 
theologiae Parisianae, 1522). 

An account of Grocyn by Professor Burrows appeared in the 
Oxford Historical Society's Collectanea (1890). 

GRODNO, one of the Lithuanian governments of western 
Russia, lying between 51 40' and 52 N. and between 22 12' and 
26 E., and bounded N. by the government of Vilna, E. by Minsk, 
S. by Volhynia, and W. by the Polish governments of Lomza 
and Siedlce. Area, 14,926 sq. m. Except for some hills (not 
exceeding 925 ft.) in the N., it is a uniform plain, and is drained 
chiefly by the Bug, Niemen, Narev and Bobr, all navigable. 
There are also several canals, the most important being the 
Augustowo and Oginsky. Granites and gneisses crop out along 
the Bug, Cretaceous, and especially Tertiary, deposits elsewhere. 
The soil is mostly sandy, and in the district of Grodno and along 
the rivers is often drift-sand. Forests, principally of Coniferae, 
cover more than one-fourth of the area. Amongst them are some 
of vast extent, e.g. those of Grodno (410 sq. m.) and Byelovitsa 
(Bialowice) (376 sq. m.), embracing wide areas of marshy ground. 
In the last mentioned forest the wild ox survives, having been 
jealously preserved since 1803. Peat bogs, sometimes as much 
as 4 to 7 ft. thick, cover extensive districts. The climate is wet and 
cold; the annual mean temperature being 44-5 F., the January 
mean 22-5 and the July mean 64-5. The rainfall amounts to 
215' in.; hail is frequent. Agriculture is the predominant 
industry. The peasants own 425 % of the land, that is, about 
4,000,000 acres, and of these over 2j million acres are arable. 
The crops principally grown are potatoes, rye, oats, wheat, flax, 
hemp and some tobacco. Horses, cattle and sheep are bred in 
fairly large numbers. There is, however, a certain amount of 
manufacturing industry, especially in woollens, distilling and 
tobacco. In woollens this government ranks second (after 
Moscow) in the empire, thecentre of the industry being Byelostok. 
Other factories produce silk, shoddy and leather. The govern- 
ment is crossed by the main lines of railway from Warsaw to 
St Petersburg and from Warsaw to Moscow. The population 
numbered 1,008,521 in 1870 and 1,616,630 in 1897; of these 
last 789,801 were women and 255,946 were urban. In 1906 
it was estimated at 1,826,600. White Russians predominate 
(54 %), then follow Jews (17-4 %), Poles (10 %), Lithuanians 
and Germans. The government is divided into nine districts, 
the chief towns, with their populations in 1897, being Grodno 
(q.v.), Brest-Litovsk (pop. 42,812 in 1901), Byelsk (7461), 
Byelostok or Bialystok (65,781 in 1901), Kobrin (10,365), 
Pruzhany (7634), Slonim (15,893), Sokolsk (7595) and Volkovysk 
(10,584). In 1795 Grodno, which had been Polish for ages, was 
annexed by Russia. 

GRODNO, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the 
same name in 53 40' N. and 23 50' E., on the right bank of the 
Niemen, 160 m. by rail N.E. of Warsaw and 98 m. S.W. of Vilna 
on the main line to St Petersburg. Pop. (1901) 41,736, nearly 
two-thirds Jews. It is an episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek 
church and the headquarters of the II. Army Corps. It has two 
old castles, now converted to other uses, and two churches 
(i6th and I7th centuries). Tobacco factories and distilleries 
are important; machinery, soap, candles, vehicles and firearms 
are also made. Built in the I2th century, Grodno was almost 
entirely destroyed by the Mongols (1241) and Teutonic knights 
(1284 and 1391). Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, made it his 
capital, and died there in 1 586. The Polish Estates frequently 



met at Grodno after 1673, and there in 1793 they signed the 
second partition of Poland. It was at Grodno that Stanislaus 
Poniatowski resigned the Polish crown in 1795. 

GROEN VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME (1801-1876), 
Dutch politician and historian, was born at Voorburg, near 
the Hague, on the 2ist of August 1801. He studied at Leiden 
university, and graduated in 1823 both as doctor of literature 
and LL.D. From 1829 to 1833 he acted as secretary to King 
William I. of Holland, afterwards took a prominent part in 
Dutch home politics, and gradually became the leader of the 
so-called anti-revolutionary party, both in the Second Chamber, 
of which he was for many years a member, and outside. In Groen 
the doctrines of Guizot and Stahl found an eloquent exponent. 
They permeate his controversial and political writings and 
historical studies, of which his Handbook of Dutch History (in 
Dutch) and Maurice et Barnevell (in French, 1875, a criticism 
of Motley's Life of Van Olden- Barnevelt) are the principal. 
Groen was violently opposed to Thorbeckej whose principles 
he denounced as ungodly and revolutionary. Although he lived 
to see these principles triumph, he never ceased to oppose them 
until his death, which occurred at the Hague on the igth of May 
1876. He is best known as the editor of the Archives et corre- 
spondance de la maison d'Orange (12 vols., 1835-1845), a great 
work of patient erudition, which procured for him the title of 
the " Dutch Gachard." J. L. Motley acknowledges his indebted- 
ness to Groen's Archives in the preface to his Rise of the Dutch 
Republic, at a time when the American historian had not yet 
made the acquaintance of King William's archivist, and also 
bore emphatic testimony to Groen's worth as a writer of history 
in the correspondence published after his death. At the first 
reception, in 1858, of Motley at the royal palace at the Hague, 
the king presented him with a copy of Groen's Archives as a token 
of appreciation and admiration of the work done by the " worthy 
vindicator of William I., prince of Orange." This copy, bearing 
the king's autograph inscription, afterwards came into the posses- 
sion of Sir William Vernon Harcourt, Motley's son-in-law. 

GROIN, (i) An obsolete word for the grunting of swine, 
from Lat. grunnire, and so applied to the snout of a pig; it 
is probably the origin of the word, more commonly spelled 
" groyne," for a small timber framework or wall of masonry used 
on sea coasts as a breakwater to prevent the encroachment of 
sand and shingle. (2) (Of uncertain origin; from an older form 
grynde or grinde; the derivation from " grain," an obsolete word 
meaning " fork, "cannot, accordingto the New English Dictionary, 
be accepted), in anatomy the folds or grooves formed between 
the lower part of the abdomen and the thighs, covering the 
inguinal glands, and so applied in architecture to the angle 
or " arris " formed by the intersection of two vaults crossing one 
another, occasionally called by workmen " groin point." If the 
vaults are both of the same radius and height, their intersections 
lie in a vertical plane, in other cases they form winding curves 
for which it is difficult to provide centering. In early medieval 
vaulting this was sometimes arranged by a slight alteration in the 
geometrical curve of the vault, but the problem was not satis- 
factorily solved until the introduction of the rib which hence- 
forth ruled the vaulting surface of the web or cell (see VAULT). 
The name " Welsh groin " or " underpitch " is generally given 
to the vaulting surface or web where the main longitudinal 
vault is higher than the cross or transverse vaults; as the trans- 
verse rib (of much greater radius than that of the wall rib), 
projected diagonally in front of the latter, the filling-in or web 
has to be carried back from the transverse to the wall rib. 
The term " groin centering " is used where, in groining without 
ribs, the whole surface is supported by centering during the erec- 
tion of the vaulting. In ribbed work the stone ribs only are 
supported by timber ribs during the progress of the work, any 
light stuff being used while filling in the spandrils. (See VAULT.) 

GROLMANN, KARL WILHELM GEORG VON (1777-1843), 
Prussian soldier, was born in Berlin on the 3oth of July 1777. 
He entered an infantry regiment when scarcely thirteen, became 
an ensign in 1795, second lieutenant 1797, first lieutenant 1804 
and staff-captain in 1805. As a subaltern he had become one of 



6l2 



GROMATICI GRONINGEN 



Scharnhorst's intimates, and he was distinguished for his 
energetic and fearless character before the war of 1806, in which 
he served throughout, from Jena to the peace of Tilsit, as a 
staff officer, and won the rank of major for distinguished service 
in action. After the peace, and the downfall of Prussia, he was 
one of the most active of Scharnhorst's assistants in the work 
of reorganization (1809), joined the Tugendbund and endeavoured 
to take part in Schill's abortive expedition, after which he 
entered the Austrian service as a major on the general staff. 
Thereafter he journeyed to Cadiz to assist the Spaniards against 
Napoleon, and he led a corps of volunteers in the defence of that 
port against Marshal Victor in 1810. He was present at the 
battle of Albuera, at Saguntum, and at Valencia, becoming a 
prisoner of war at the surrender of the last-named place. Soon, 
however, he escaped to Switzerland, whence early in 1813 he 
returned to Prussia as a major on the general staff. He served suc- 
cessively under Colonel von Dolffs and General von Kleist, and as 
commissioner at the headquarters of the Russian general Barclay 
de Tolly. He took part with Kleist in the victory of Kulm, and 
recovered from a severe wound received at that action in time 
to be present at the battle of Leipzig. He played a conspicuous 
part in the campaign of 1814 in France, after which he was made 
a major-general. In this rank he was appointed quartermaster- 
general to Field Marshal Prince Bliicher, and, after his chief and 
Gneisenau, Grolmann had the greatest share in directing the 
Prussian operations of 1815. In the decision, on the i8th of 
June 1815, to press forward to Wellington's assistance (see 
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN), Grolmann actively concurred, and as 
the troops approached the battle-field, he is said to have over- 
come the momentary hesitation of the commander-in-chief and 
the chief of staff by himself giving the order to advance. After 
the peace of 1815, Grolmann occupied important positions in 
the ministry of war and the general staff. His last public 
services were rendered in Poland as commander-in-chief, and 
practically as civil administrator of the province of Posen. He 
was promoted general of infantry in 1837 and died on the ist of 
June 1843, at Posen. His two sons became generals in the 
Prussian army. The Prussian i8th infantry regiment bears his 
name. 

General von Grolmann supervised and provided much of the 
material for von Damitz's Gesch. des Feldzugs 1815 (Berlin, 
1837-1838), and Gesch. des Feldzugs 1814 in Frankreich (Berlin, 
1842-1843). 

See v. Conrady, Leben und Wirken des Generals Karl von Grolmann 
(Berlin, 1894-1896). 

GROMATICI (from groma or gruma, a surveyor's pole), or 
Agrimensores, the name for land-surveyors amongst the Romans. 
The art of surveying was probably at first in the hands of the 
augurs, by whom it was exercised in all cases where the demarca- 
tion of a templum (any consecrated space) was necessary. Thus, 
the boundaries of Rome itself, of colonies and camps, were all 
marked out in accordance with the rules of augural procedure. 
The first professional surveyor mentioned is L. Decidius Saxa, 
who was employed by Antony in the measurement of camps 
(Cicero, Philippics, xi. 12, xiv. 10). During the empire their 
number and reputation increased. The distribution of land 
amongst the veterans, the increase in the number of military 
colonies, the settlement of Italian peasants in the provinces, 
the general survey of the empire under Augustus, the separation 
of private and state domains, led to the establishment of a 
recognized professional corporation of surveyors. During later 
times they were in receipt of large salaries, and in some cases 
were even honoured with the title clarissimus. Their duties 
were not merely geometrical or mathematical, but required legal 
knowledge for consultations or the settlement of disputes. This 
led to the institution of special schools for the training of sur- 
veyors and a special literature, which lasted from the ist to 
the 6th century A.D. The earliest of the gromatic writers was 
Frontinus (<?..), whose De agrorum qualitale, dealing with the 
legal aspect of the art, was the subject of a commentary by 
Aggenus Urbicus, a Christian schoolmaster. Under Trajan 
a certain Balbus, who had accompanied the emperor on his 



Dacian campaign, wrote a still extant manual of geometry for 
land surveyors (Exposilio et ratio omnium j or mar urn or men- 
surarum, probably after a Greek original by Hero), dedicated 
to a certain Celsus who had invented an improvement in a 
gromatic instrument (perhaps the dioptra, resembling the 
modern theodolite) ; for the treatises of Hyginus see that name. 
Somewhat later than Trajan was Siculus Flaccus (De con- 
dicionibus agrorum, extant), while the most curious treatise on 
the subject, written in barbarous Latin and entitled Casat 
litlerarum (long a school textbook) is the work of a certain 
Innocentius (4th-sth century). It is doubtful whether Boetius 
is the author of the treatises attributed to him. The Gromatici 
veteres also contains extracts from official registers (probably 
belonging to the 5th century) of colonial and other land surveys, 
lists and descriptions of boundary stones, and extracts from the 
Theodosian Codex. According to Mommsen, the collection had 
its origin during the sth century in the office of a vicarius (dio- 
cesan governor) of Rome, who had a number of surveyors under 
him. The surveyors were known by various names: decem- 
pedator (with reference to the instrument used) ; finilor, metator 
or mensor castrorum in republican times; togati Augustorum 
as imperial civil officials; professor, auctor as professional 
instructors. 

The best edition of the Gromatici is by C. Lachmann and others 
(1848) with supplementary volume, Die Schriftert der romischen 
Felamesser (1852); see also B. G. Niebuhr, Roman History, ii., 
appendix (Eng. trans.), who first revived interest in the subject; M. 
Cantor, Die romischen Agrimensoren (Leipzig, 1875); P. de Tissot, 
La Condition des Agrimensores dans I'ancienne Rome (1879); G. 
Rossi, Groma e squadro (Turin, 1877); articles by F. Huftsch in 
Ersch and Gruber's Allgem. Encyklopadie, and by G. Humbert in 
Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites; Teuffel-Schwabe, 
Hist, of Roman Literature, 58. 

GRONINGEN, the most northerly province of Holland, 
bounded S. by Drente, W. by Friesland and the Lauwers Zee, 
N. and N.E. by the North Sea and the mouth of the Ems with 
the Dollart, and on the S.E. by the Prussian province of Hanover. 
It includes the islands of Boschplaat and Rottumeroog, belonging 
to the group of Frisian islands (q.v.). Area, 887 sq. m.; pop. 
(1900) 299,602. Groningen is connected with the Drente plateau 
by the sandy tongue of the Hondsrug which extends almost up to 
the capital. West, north and north-east of this the province is 
flat and consists of sea-clay or sand and clay mixed, except 
where patches of low and high fen occur on the Frisian borders. 
Low fen predominates to the east of the capital, between the 
Zuidlardermeer and the Schildmeer or lakes. The south-eastern 
portion of the province consists of high fen resting on diluvial 
sand. A large part of this has been reclaimed and the sandy soil 
laid bare, but on the Drente and Prussian borders areas of fen 
still remain. The so-called Boertanger Morass on the Prussian 
border was long considered as the natural protection of the 
eastern frontier, and with the view of preserving its impassable 
condition neither agriculture nor cattle-rearing might be practised 
here until 1824, and it was only in 1868 that the building of 
houses was sanctioned and the work of reclamation begun. The 
gradual extension of the seaward boundaries of the province 
owing to the process of littoral deposits may be easily traced, a 
triple line of sea-dikes in places marking the successive stages 
in this advance. The rivers of Groningen descending from the 
Drente plateau meet at the capital, whence they are continued 
by the Reitdiep to the Lauwers Zee (being discharged through 
a lock), and by the Ems canal (1876) to Delfzyl. The south- 
eastern corner of the province is traversed by the Westerwolde 
Aa, which discharges into the Dollart. The railway system 
belongs to the northern section of the State railways, and affords 
communication with Germany via Winschoten. Steam-tram- 
ways also serve many parts of the province. Agriculture is the 
main industry. The proportion of landowners is a very large one, 
and the prosperous condition of the Groningen farmer is attested 
by the style of his home, his dress and his gig. As a result, 
however, partly of the usual want of work on the grass- 
lands in certain seasons, there has been a considerable emigration 
to America. The ancient custom called the beklem-recht, or 



GRONINGEN 



613 



lease-right, doubtless accounts for the extended ownership of the 
land. By this law a tenant-farmer is able to bequeath his 
farm, that is to say, he holds his lease in perpetuity. 

The chief agricultural products are barley, oats, wheat, and 
in the north-east flax is also grown, and exported to South 
Holland and Belgium. On the higher clay grounds cattle-rearing 
and horse-breeding are also practised, together with butter and 
cheese making. The cultivation of potatoes on the sandgrounds 
in the south and the fen colonies along the Stads-Canal invite 
general comparison with the industries of Drente (q.ii.). Hooge- 
zand and Sappemeer, Veendam and Wildervank, New and Old 
Pekela, New and Old Stads-Canal are instances of villages which 
have extended until they overlap one another and are similar 
in this respect to the industrial villages of the Zaan Streek in 
North Holland. The coast fisheries are considerable. Groningen 
(q.v.) is the chief and only large town of the province. Delfzyl, 
which was formerly an important fortress for the protection of 
the ancient sluices on the little river Delf (hence its name), has 
greatly benefited by the construction of the Ems (Eems) ship- 
canal connecting it with Groningen, and has a good harbour 
with a considerable import trade in wood. Appingedam and 
Winschoten are very old towns, having important cattle and 
horse markets. The pretty wood at Winschoten was laid out 
by the Society for Public Welfare (Tot Nut van het Algemeen) 
in 1826. 

GRONINGEN, a town of Holland, capital of the province of 
the same name, at the confluence of the two canalized rivers 
the Drentsche Aa and the Hunse (which are continued to the 
Lauwers Zee as the Reit Diep), 16 m. N. of Assen and 33 m. E. 
of Leeuwarden by rail. Pop. (190x3) 67,563. Groningen is the 
centre from which several important canals radiate. Besides 
the Reit Diep, there are the Ems Canal and ths Damster Diep, 
connecting it with Delfzyl and the Dollart, the Kolonel's Diep 
with Leeuwarden, the Nord Willem's Canal with Assen and the 
south and the Stads-Canal south-east with the Ems. Hence 
steamers ply in all directions, and there is a regular service to 
Emden and the island of Borkum via Delfzyl, and via the 
Lauwers Zee to the island of Schiermonnikoog. Groningen is 
the most important town in the north of Holland, with its fine 
shops and houses and wide clean streets, while brick houses of 
the i6th and lyth centuries help it to retain a certain old-world 
air. The ancient part of the town is still surrounded by the 
former moat, and in the centre lies a group of open places, of 
which the Groote Markt is one of the largest market-squares 
in Holland. Pleasant gardens and promenades extend on the 
north side of the town, together with a botanical garden. The 
chief church is the Martini-kerk, with a high tower (432 ft.) 
dating from 1477, and an organ constructed by the famous 
scholar and musician Rudolph Agricolo, who was born near 
Groningen in 1443. The Aa church dates from 1465, but was 
founded in 1253. The Roman Catholic Broederkerk (rebuilt 
at the end of the igth century) contains some remarkable 
pictures of the Passion by L. Hendricx (1865). There is also a 
Jewish synagogue. The large town hall (in classical style), 
one of the finest public buildings, was built at the beginning of the 
igth century and enlarged in 1873. The provincial government 
offices also occupy a fine building which received a splendid 
front in 1871. Other noteworthy buildings are the provincial 
museum of antiquities, containing interesting Germanic anti- 
quities, as well as medieval and modern collections of porcelain, 
pictures, &c.; the courts of justice (transformed in the middle 
of the 1 8th century); the old Ommelanderhuis, formerly devoted 
to the administration of the surrounding district, built in 1509 
and restored in 1899; the weigh-house (1874); the civil and 
military prison; the arsenal; the military hospital; and the 
concert hall. 

The university of Groningen, founded in 1614, received its 
present fine buildings in classical style in 1850. Among its 
auxiliary establishments are a good natural history museum, 
an observatory, a laboratory, and a library which contains a 
copy of Erasmus' New Testament with marginal annotations 
by Luther. Other educational institutions are the deaf and 



dumb institution founded by Henri Daniel Guyot (d. 1828) in 
1790, a gymnasium, and schools of navigation, art and music. 
There are learned societies for the study of law (1761) and 
natural science (1830); an academy of fine arts (1830); an 
archaeological society; and a central bureau for collecting 
information concerning the province. 

As capital of the province, and on account of the advan- 
tages of its natural position, Groningen maintains a very con- 
siderable trade, chiefly in oil-seed, grain, wood, turf and cattle, 
with Great Britain, Germany, Scandinavia and Russia. The 
chief industries are flax-spinning, rope-making, sugar refining, 
book printing, wool combing and dyeing, and it also manufactures 
beer, tobacco and cigars, cotton and woollen stuffs, furniture, 
organs and pianos; besides which there are saw, oil and grain 
mills, machine works, and numerous goldsmiths and silversmiths. 

History. The town of Groningen belonged originally to the 
pagns, or gouw, of Triantha (Drente), the countship of which 
was bestowed by the emperor Henry II. on the bishop and 
chapter of Utrecht in 1024. In 1040 Henry III. gave the church 
of Utrecht the royal domain of Groningen, and in the deed of 
gift the " villa Cruoninga " is mentioned. Upon this charter 
the bishops of Utrecht based their claim to the overlordship of 
the town, a claim which the citizens hotly disputed. At the 
time of the donation, indeed, the town can hardly be said to 
have existed, but the royal " villa " rapidly developed into a 
community which strove to assert the rights of a free imperial 
city. At first the bishops were too strong for the townsmen; 
the defences built in mo were pulled down by the bishop's 
order two years later; and during the i2th and i3th centuries 
the see of Utrecht, in spite of frequent revolts, succeeded in 
maintaining its authority. Down to the 1 5th century an episcopal 
prefect, or burgrave, had his seat in the city, his authority 
extending over the neighbouring districts known as the Gorecht. 
In 1143 Heribert of Bierum, bishop of Utrecht, converted the 
office into an hereditary fief in favour of his brother Liffert, 
on the extinction of whose male line it was partitioned between 
the families of Koevorden (or Coevorden) and van den Hove. 
Gradually, however, the burghers, aided by the neighbouring 
Frisians, succeeded in freeing themselves from the episcopal 
yoke. The city was again walled in 1255; before 1284 it had 
become a member of the Hanseatic league; and by the end of 
the 1 4th century it was practically a powerful independent 
republic, which exercised an effective control over the Frisian 
Ommelande between the Ems and the Lauwers Zee. At the 
close of the I4th century the heirs of the Koevorden and van den 
Hove families sold their rights, first to the town, and then to the 
bishop. A struggle followed, in which the city was temporarily 
worsted; but in 1440 Bishop Dirk II. finally sold to the city 
the rights of the see of Utrecht over the Gorecht. 

The medieval constitution of Groningen, unlike that of 
Utrecht, was aristocratic. Merchant gild there was none; 
and the craft gilds were without direct influence on the city 
government, which held them in subjection. Membership 
of the governing council, which selected from its own body the 
four rationales or burgomasters, was confined to men of approved 
" wisdom," and wisdom was measured in terms of money. This 
Raad of wealthy burghers gradually monopolized all power. 
The bishop's bailiff (schouf), with his nominated assessors 
(scabini), continued to exercise jurisdiction, but members of the 
Raad sat on the bench with him, and an appeal lay from his 
court to the Raad itself. The council was, in fact, supreme 
in the city, and not in the city only. In 1439 it decreed that no 
one might trade in all the district between the Ems and the 
Lauwers Zee except burghers, and those who had purchased the 
burwal (right of residence in the city) and the freedom of the 
gilds. Maximilian I. assigned Groningen to Albert of Saxony, 
hereditary podestat of Friesland, but the citizens preferred 
to accept the protection of the bishop of Utrecht; and when 
Albert's son George attempted in 1505 to seize the town, they 
recognized the lordship of Edzart of East Frisia. On George's 
renewal of hostilities they transferred their allegiance to Duke 
Charles of Gelderland, in 1515. In 1536 the city passed into the 



614 



GRONLUND GROOT 



hands of Charles V., and in the great wars of the i6th century 
suffered all the miseries of siege and military occupation. From 
1581 onwards, Groningen still held by the Spaniards, was con- 
stantly at war with the " Ommelanden " which had declared 
against the king of Spain. This feud continued, in spite of the 
capture of the city in 1594 by Maurice of Nassau, and of a decree 
of the States in 1597 which was intended to set them at rest. 
In 1672 the town was besieged by the bishop of Miinster, but 
it was successfully defended, and in 1698 its fortifications were 
improved under Coehoorn's direction. The French Republicans 
planted their tree of liberty in the Great Market on the I4th of 
February 1795, and they continued in authority till the i6th 
of November 1814. The fortifications of the city were doomed 
to destruction by the law of the i8th of April 1874. 

See C. Hegel, Stddte und Gilden (Leipzig, 1891); Stokvis, Manuel 
d'histoire, iii. 496 (Leiden, 1890-1893); also s.y. in Chevalier, 
Repertoire des sources hist, du moyen age (Topo-bibliographie). 

GRONLUND, LAURENCE (1846-1899), American socialist, 
was born in Copenhagen, Denmark, on the I3th of July 1846. 
He graduated from the university of Copenhagen in 1865, began 
the study of law, removed to the United States in 1867, taught 
German in Milwaukee, was admitted to the bar in 1869, and 
practised in Chicago. He became a writer and lecturer on 
socialism and was closely connected with the work of the Socialist 
Labor party from 1874 to 1884, then devoted himself almost ex- 
clusively to lecturing until his appointment to a post in the 
bureau of labour statistics. He again returned to the lecture 
field, and was an editorial writer for the New York and Chicago 
American from 1898 until his death in New York City on the 
15th of October 1899. His principal works are: The Coming 
Revolution (1880) ; The Co-operative Commonwealth in its Outlines, 
An Exposition of Modern Socialism (1884); Qa Ira, or Danton 
in the French Revolution (1888), a rehabilitation of Danton; 
Our Destiny, The Influence of Socialism on Morals and Religion 
(1890); and The New Economy (1898). 

GRONOVIUS (the latinized form of GRONOV), JOHANN 
FRIEDRICH (1611-1671), German classical scholar and critic, 
was born at Hamburg on the 8th of September 1611. Having 
studied at several universities, he travelled in England, France 
and Italy. In 1643 he was appointed professor of rhetoric and 
history at Deventer, and in 1658 to the Greek chair at Leiden, 
where he died on the 28th of December 1671. (See also FABRETTI, 
RAPHAEL.) Besides editing, with notes, Statius, Plautus, Livy, 
Tacitus, Aulus Gellius and Seneca's tragedies, Gronovius was 
the author, amongst numerous other works, of Commentarius 
de sestertiis (1643) and of an edition of Hugo Grotius' De jure 
belli et pads (1660). His Observationes contain a number of 
brilliant emendations. His son, JAKOB GRONOVIUS (1645-1716), 
is chiefly known as the editor of the Thesaurus antiquitatum 
Graecarum (1697-1702, in 13 volumes). 

See J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. ii. (1908) ; F. A. Eckstein in 
Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyklopddie. 

GROOM, in modern usage a male servant attached to the 
stables, whose duties are to attend to the cleaning, feeding, 
currying and care generally of horses. The earliest meaning 
of the word appears to be that of a boy, and in i6th and i7th 
century literature it frequently occurs, in pastorals, for a shepherd 
lover. Later it is used for any male attendant, and thus survives 
in the name for several officials in the royal household, such as the 
grooms-in-waiting, and the grooms of the great chamber. The 
groom-porter, whose office was abolished by George III., saw 
to the preparation of the sovereign's apartment, and, during the 
i6th and i?th centuries, provided cards and dice for playing, and 
was the authority to whom were submitted all questions of 
gaming within the court. The origin of the word is obscure. The 
O. Fr. gromet, shop boy, is taken by French etymologists to 
be derived from the English. From the application of this 
word to a wine-taster in a wine merchant's shop, is derived 
gourmet, an epicure. According to the New English Dictionary, 
though there are no instances of groom in other Teutonic 
languages, the word may be ultimately connected with the 
root of " to grow." In " bridegroom," a newly married man, 



" grom " in the i6th century took the place of ah older gome, 
a common old Teutonic word meaning " man," and connected 
with the Latin homo. The Old English word was brydguma, 
Later bridegome. The word survives in the German Brautigam. 
GROOT, GERHARD (1340-1384), otherwise Gerrit or Geert 
Groet, in Latin Gerardus Magnus, a preacher and founder of 
the society of Brothers of Common Life (<?..), was born in 1340 
at Deventer in the diocese of Utrecht, where his father held a 
good civic position. He went to the university of Paris when 
only fifteen. Here he studied scholastic philosophy and theology 
under a pupil of Occam's, from whom he imbibed the nominalist 
conception of philosophy; in addition he studied canon law, 
medicine, astronomy and even magic, and apparently some 
Hebrew. After a brilliant course he graduated in 1358, and 
possibly became master in 1363. He pursued his studies still 
further in Cologne, and perhaps in Prague. In 1366 he visited 
the papal court at Avignon. About this time he was appointed 
to a canonry in Utrecht and to another in Aix-la-Chapelle, and 
the life of the brilliant young scholar was rapidly becoming 
luxurious, secular and selfish, when a great spiritual change 
passed over him which resulted in a final renunciation of every 
worldly enjoyment. This conversion, which took place in 1374, 
appears to have been due partly to the effects of a dangerous 
illness and partly to the influence of Henry de Calcar, the learned 
and pious prior of the Carthusian monastery at Munnikhuizen 
near Arnhem, who had remonstrated with him on the vanity 
of his life. About 1376 Gerhard retired to this monastery and 
there spent three years in meditation, prayer and study, without, 
however, becoming a Carthusian. In 1379, having received 
ordination as a deacon, he became missionary preacher through- 
out the diocese of Utrecht. The success which followed his 
labours not only in the town of Utrecht, but also in Zwolle, 
Deventer, Kampen, Amsterdam, Haarlem, Gouda, Leiden, 
Delft, Ziitphen and elsewhere, was immense; according to_ 
Thomas a Kempis the people left their business and their meals 
to hear his sermons, so that the churches could not hold the 
crowds that flocked together wherever he came. The bishop 
of Utrecht supported him warmly, and got him to preach against 
concubinage in the presence of the clergy assembled in synod. 
The impartiality of his censures, which he directed not only 
against the prevailing sins of the laity, but also against heresy, 
simony, avarice, and impurity among the secular and regular 
clergy, provoked the hostility of the clergy, and accusations of 
heterodoxy were brought against him. It was in vain that 
Groot emitted a Publica Protestalio, in which he declared that 
Jesus Christ was the great subject of his discourses, that in all 
of them he believed himself to be in jharmony with Catholic 
doctrine, and that he willingly subjected them to the candid 
judgment of the Roman Church. The bishop was induced to 
issue an edict which prohibited from preaching all who were not 
in priest's orders, and an appeal to Urban VI. was without effect. 
There is a difficulty as to the date of this prohibition; either it 
was only a few months before Groot's death, or else it must have 
been removed by the bishop, for Groot seems to have preached 
in public in the last year of his life. At some period (perhaps 
1381, perhaps earlier) he paid a visit of some days' duration 
to the famous mystic Johann Ruysbroeck, prior of the 
Augustinian canons at Groenendael near Brussels; at this visit 
was formed Groot's attraction for the rule and life of the August- 
inian canons which was destined to bear such notable fruit. 
At the close of his life he was asked by some of the clerics who 
attached themselves to him to form them into a religious order, 
and Groot resolved that they should be canons regular of St 
Augustine. No time was lost in the effort to carry out the project, 
but Groot died before a foundation could be made. In 1387, 
however, a site was secured at Windesheim, some 20 m. north of 
Deventer, and here was established the monastery that became 
the cradle of the Windesheim congregation of canons regular, 
embracing in course of time nearly one hundred houses, and 
leading the way in the series of reforms undertaken during the 
1 5th century by all the religious orders in Germany. The 
initiation of this movement was the great achievement of Groot's 



GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL GROSART 



615 



life; he lived to preside over the birth and first days of his 
other creation, the society of Brothers of Common Life. He 
died of the plague at Deventer in 1384, at the age of 44. 

The chief authority for Groot's life is Thomas a Kempis, Vita 
Gerardi Magni (translated into English by J. P. Arthur, The Founders 
of the New Devotion, 1905); also the Chronicon Windeshemense 
of Johann Busch (ed. K. Grube, 1886). An account, based on these 
sources, will be found in S. Kettlewell, Thomas a Kempis and the 
Brothers of Common Life (1882), i. c. 5; and a shorter account in 
F. R. Cruise, Thomas a Kempis, 1887, pt. ii. An excellent sketch, 
with an account of Groot's writings, is given by L. Schulze in Herzog- 
Hauck, Realencyklopadie (ed. 3); he insists on the fact that Groot's 
theological and ecclesiastical ideas were those commonly current in 
his day, and that the attempts to make him " a reformer before the 
Reformation " are unhistorical. (E. C. B.) 

GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL, a large and brilliantly 
coloured Bornean squirrel, Rhithrosciurus macrotis, representing 
a genus by itself distinguished from all other members of the 
family Sciuridae by having numerous longitudinal grooves on 
the front surface of the incisor teeth; the molars being of a 
simpler type than in other members of the family. The tail is 
large and fox-like, and the ears are tufted and the flanks marked 
by black and white bands. 

GROS, ANTOINE JEAN, BARON (1771-1835), French painter, 
was born at Paris in 1771. His father, who was a miniature 
painter, began to teach him to draw at the age of six, and showed 
himself from the first an exacting master. Towards the close 
of 1785 Gros, by his own choice, entered the studio of David, 
which he frequented assiduously, continuing at the same time 
to follow the classes of the College Mazarin. The death of his 
father, whose circumstances had been embarrassed by the Revolu- 
tion, threw Gros, in 1791, upon his own resources. He now 
devoted himself wholly to his profession, and competed in 1792 
for the grand prix, but unsuccessfully. About this time, how- 
ever, on the recommendation of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, he 
was employed on the execution of portraits of the members of 
the Convention, and when disturbed by the development of 
the Revolution Gros in 1793 left France for Italy, he supported 
himself at Genoa by the same means, producing a great quantity 
of miniatures and fixes. He visited Florence, but returning to 
Genoa made the acquaintance of Josephine, and followed her to 
Milan, where he was well received by her husband. On November 
15, 1796, Gros was present with the army near Arcola when 
Bonaparte planted the tricolor on the bridge. Gros seized on 
this incident, and showed by his treatment of it that he had found 
his vocation. Bonaparte at once gave him the post of " in- 
specteur aux revues," which enabled him to follow the army, 
and in 1797 nominated him on the commission charged to select 
the spoils which should enrich the Louvre. In 1799, having 
escaped from the besieged city of Genoa, Gros made his way to 
Paris, and in the beginning of 1801 took up his quarters in the 
Capucins. His " esquisse " (Musee de Nantes) of the " Battle of 
Nazareth " gained the prize offered in 1802 by the consuls, but 
was not carried out, owing it is said to the jealousy of Junot felt 
by Napoleon; but he indemnified Gros by commissioning him 
to paint his own visit to the pest-house of Jaffa. " Les Pestiferes 
de Jaffa " (Louvre) was followed by the " Battle of Aboukir " 
1806 (Versailles), and. the " Battle of Eylau," 1808 (Louvre). 
These three subjects the popular leader facing the pestilence 
unmoved, challenging the splendid instant of victory, heart-sick 
with the bitter cost of a hard-won field gave to Gros his chief 
title to fame. As long as the military element remained bound 
up with French national life, Gros received from it a fresh and 
energetic inspiration which carried him to the very heart of the 
events which he depicted; but as the army and its general 
separated from the people, Gros, called on to illustrate episodes 
representative only of the fulfilment of personal ambition, ceased 
to find the nourishment necessary to his genius, and the defect 
of his artistic position became evident. Trained in the sect of 
the Classicists, he was shackled by their rules, even when by his 
naturalistic treatment of types, and appeal to picturesque effect 
in colour and tone he seemed to run counter to them. In 1810 
his " Madrid " and " Napoleon at the Pyramids "(Versailles) show 
that his star had deserted him. His " Francis I." and " Charles 



V.," 1812 (Louvre), had considerable success; but the decoration 
of the dome of St Genevieve (begun in 1811 and completed in 
1824) is the only work of Gros's later years which shows his 
early force and vigour, as well as his skill. The " Departure of 
Louis XVIII." (Versailles), the " Embarkation of Madame 
d'Angouleme " (Bordeaux), the plafond of the Egyptian room in 
the Louvre, and finally his " Hercules and Diomedes," exhibited 
in 1835, testify only that Gros's efforts in accordance with the 
frequent counsels of his old master David to stem the rising tide 
of Romanticism, served but to damage his once brilliant reputa- 
tion. Exasperated by criticism and the consciousness of failure, 
Gros sought refuge in the grosser pleasures of life. On the 2 5th of 
June 1835 he was found drowned on the shores of the Seine near 
Sevres. From a paper which he had placed in his hat it became 
known that " las de la vie, et trahi par les dernieres facultes qui 
la lui rendaient supportable, il avail resolu de s'en defaire." 
The number of Gros's pupils was very great, and was considerably 
augmented when, in 1815, David quitted Paris and made over 
his own classes to him. Gros was decorated and named baron 
of the empire by Napoleon, after the Salon of 1808, at which 
he had exhibited the " Battle of Eylau." Under the Restora- 
tion he became a member of the Institute, professor at the 
Ecole des Beaux Arts v and was named chevalier of the order 
of St Michel. 

M. Delecluze gives a brief notice of his life in Louis David et son 
temps, and Julius Meyer's Geschichte der modernen franzosischen 
Malerei contains an excellent criticism on his works. 

. GROSART, ALEXANDER BALLOCH (1827-1899), Scottish 
divine and literary editor, the son of a building contractor, was 
born at Stirling on the iSth of June 1827. He was educated 
at Edinburgh University, and in 1856 became a Presbyterian 
minister at Kinross. In 1865 he went to Liverpool, and three 
years later to Blackburn. He resigned from the ministry in 
1892, and died at Dublin on the i6th of March 1899. Dr Grosart 
is chiefly remembered for his exertions in reprinting much rare 
Elizabethan literature, a work which he undertook in the first 
instance from his strong interest in Puritan theology. Among 
the first writers whose works he edited were the Puritan divines, 
Richard Sibbes, Thomas Brooks and Herbert Palmer. Editions 
of Michael Bruce's Poems (1865) and Richard Gilpin's Demono- 
logia sacra (1867) followed. In 1868 he brought out a biblio- 
graphy of the writings of Richard Baxter, and from that year 
until 1876 he was occupied in reproducing for private subscribers 
the " Fuller Worthies Library," a series of thirty-nine volumes 
which included the works of Thomas Fuller, Sir John Davies, 
Fulke Greville, Henry Vaughan, Andrew Marvell, George Herbert, 
Richard Crashaw, John Donne and Sir Philip Sidney. The last 
four volumes of the series were devoted to the works of many 
little known and otherwise inaccessible authors. His Occasional 
Issues of Unique and Very Rare Books (1875-1881) is of the 
utmost interest to the book-lover. It included among other 
things the Annalia Dubrensia of Robert Dover. In 1876 still 
another series, known as the " Chertsey Worthies Library," was 
begun. It included editions of the works of Nicholas Breton, 
Francis Quarles, Dr Joseph Beaumont, Abraham Cowley, 
Henry More and John Davies of Hereford. Grosart was untiring 
in his enthusiasm and energy for this kind of work. The two 
last-named series were being produced simultaneously until 1881, 
and no sooner had they been completed than Grosart began 
the " Huth Library," so called from the bibliophile Henry Huth, 
who possessed the originals of many of the reprints. It included 
the works of Robert Greene, Thomas Nash, Gabriel Harvey, 
and the prose tracts of Thomas Dekker. He also edited the 
complete works of Edmund Spenser and Samuel Daniel. From 
the Townley Hall collection he reprinted several MSS. and 
edited Sir John Eliot's works, Sir Richard Boyle's Lismore 
Papers, and various publications for the Chetham Society, the 
Camden Society and the Roxburghe Club. Dr Grosart's faults 
of style and occasional inaccuracy do not seriously detract from 
the immense value of his work. He was unwearied in searching 
for rare books, and he brought to light much interesting literature, 
formerly almost inaccessible. 



6i6 



GROSBEAK GROSS 



GROSBEAK (Fr. Grosbec), a name very indefinitely applied 
to many birds belonging to the families Fringillidae and Ploceidae 
of modern ornithologists, and perhaps to some members of the 
Emberizidae and Tanagridae, but always to birds distinguished 
by the great size of their bill. Taken alone it is commonly a 
synonym of hawfinch (<?..), but a prefix is usually added to 
indicate the species, as pine-grosbeak, cardinal-grosbeak and 
the like. By early writers the word was generally given as an 
equivalent of the Linnaean Loxia, but that genus has been 
found to include many forms not now placed in the same family. 

The Pine-grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator) inhabits the conifer- 
zone of both the Old and the New Worlds, seeking, in Europe 
and probably elsewhere, a lower latitude as winter approaches 
often journeying in large flocks; stragglers have occasionally 
reached the British Islands (Yarrell, Br, Birds, ed. 4, ii. 177- 
179). In structure and some of its habits much resembling 
a bullfinch, but much exceeding that bird in size, it has the 
plumage of a crossbill and appears to undergo the same changes 
as do the members of the restricted genus Loxia the young 
being of a dull greenish-grey streaked with brownish-black, 
the adult hens tinged with golden-green, and the cocks glowing 
with crimson-red on nearly all the body-feathers, this last 
colour being replaced after moulting in confinement by bright 
yellow. Nests of this species were found in 1821 by Johana 
Wilhelm Zetterstedt near Juckasjarwi in Swedish Lapland, 
but little was known concerning its nidification until 1855, when 
John Wolley, after two years' ineffectual search, succeeded in 
obtaining near the Finnish village Muonioniska, on the Swedish 
frontier, well-authenticated specimens with the eggs, both of 
which are like exaggerated bullfinches'. The food of this species 
seems to consist of the seeds and buds of many sorts of trees, 
though the staple may very possibly be those of some kind of 
pine. 

Allied to the pine-grosbeak are a number of species of smaller 
size, but its equals in beauty of plumage. 1 They have been 
referred to several genera, such as Carpodacus, Propasser, 
Bycanetes, Uragus and others; but possibly Carpodacus is 
sufficient to contain all. Most of them are natives of the Old 
World, and chiefly of its eastern division, but several inhabit 
the western portion of North America, and one, C. gilkagineus 
(of which there seem to be at least two local races) , is an especial 
native of the deserts, or their borders, of Arabia and North 
Africa, extending even to some of the Canary Islands a singular 
modification in the habitat of a form which one would be apt to 
associate exclusively with forest trees, and especially conifers. 

The cardinal grosbeak, or Virginian nightingale, Cardinalis 
virginianus, claims notice here, though doubts may be entertained 
as to the family to which it really belongs. It is no less remarkable 
for its bright carmine attire, and an elongated crest of the same 
colour, than for its fine song. Its ready adaptation to confine- 
ment has made it a popular cage-bird on both sides of the 
Atlantic. The hen is not so good a songster as the cock bird. 
Her plumage, with exception of the wings and tail, which are 
of a dull red, is light-olive above and brownish-yellow beneath. 
This species inhabits the eastern parts of the United States 
southward of 40 N. lat., and also occurs in the Bermudas. 
It is represented in the south-west of North America by other 
forms that by some writers are deemed species, and in the northern 
parts of South America by the C. phoeniceus, which would 
really seem entitled to distinction. Another kindred bird 
placed from its short and broad bill in a different genus, and 
known as Pyrrhuloxia sinuata or the Texan cardinal, is found on 
the southern borders of the United States and in Mexico; while 
among North American " grosbeaks " must also be named the 
birds belonging to the genera Guiraca and Hedymeles the 
former especially exemplified by the beautiful blue G. caerulea, 
and the latter by the brilliant rose-breasted H. ludovicianus, 
which last extends its range into Canada. 

1 Many of them are described and illustrated in the Monographic 
des loxiens of Prince C. L. Bonaparte and Professor Schlegel (1850), 
though it excludes many birds which an English writer would call 
" grosbeaks." 



The species of the Old World which, though commonly called 
" grosbeaks," certainly belong to the family Ploceidae, are 
treated under WEAVER-BIRD. (A. N.) 

GROSE, FRANCIS (c. 1730-1791), English antiquary, was 
born at Greenford in Middlesex, about the year 1730. His 
father was a wealthy Swiss jeweller, settled at Richmond, Surrey. 
Grose early showed an interest in heraldry and antiquities, and 
his father procured him a position in the Heralds' College. In 
1763, being then Richmond Herald, he sold his tabard, and 
shortly afterwards became adjutant and paymaster of the 
Hampshire militia, where, as he himself humorously observed, 
the only account-books he kept were his right and left pockets, 
into the one of which he received, and from the other of which 
he paid. This carelessness exposed him to serious financial 
difficulties; and after a vain attempt to repair them byiaccepting 
a captaincy in the Surrey militia, the fortune left him by his 
father being squandered, he began to turn to account his excellent 
education and his powers as a draughtsman. In 1757 he had 
been elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. In 1773 he 
began to publish his Antiquities of England and Wales, a work 
which brought him money as well as fame. This, with its 
supplementary parts relating to the Channel Islands, was not 
completed till 1787. In 1789 he set out on an antiquarian tour 
through Scotland, and in the course of this journey met Burns, 
who composed in his honour the famous song beginning " Ken 
ye aught o' Captain Grose," and in that other poem, still more 
famous, " Hear, land o' cakes, and brither Scots," warned all 
Scotsmen of this " chield amang them taking notes." In 1790 
he began to publish the results of what Burns called " his 
peregrinations through Scotland;" but he had not finished 
the work when he bethought himself of going over to Ireland 
and doing for that country what he had already done for Great 
Britain. About a month after his arrival, while in Dublin, 
he died in an apoplectic fit at the dinner-table of a friend, on the 
1 2th of June 1791. 

Grose was a sort of antiquarian Falstaff at least he possessed 
in a striking degree the knight's physical peculiarities; but 
he was a man of true honour and charity, a valuable friend, 
" overlooking little faults and seeking out greater virtues," 
and an inimitable boon companion. His humour, his varied 
knowledge and his good nature were all eminently calculated 
to make him a favourite in society. As Burns says of him 

" But wad ye see him in his glee, 
For meikle glee and fun has he, 
Then set him down, and twa or three 

Gude fellows wi" him; 
And port, O portl shine thou a wee, 

And THEN ye'll see him! " 

Grose's works include The Antiquities of England and Wales 
(6 vols., 1773-1787) ; Advice to the Officers of the British Army (1782), 
a satire in the manner of Swift's Directions to Servants; A Guide 
to Health, Beauty, Riches and Honour (1783), a collection of advertise- 
ments of the period, with characteristic satiric preface;/! Classical 
Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue (1785); A Treatise on Ancient 
Armour and Weapons (1785-1789) ; Darrell's History of Dover (1786) ; 
Military Antiquities (2 vols., 1786-1788); A Provincial Glossary 
(1787); Rules for Drawing Caricatures (1788); The Antiquities 
of Scotland (2 vols., 1789-1791) ; Antiquities of Ireland (2 vols., 1791), 
edited and partly written by Ledwich. The Grumbler, sixteen 
humerous essays, appeared in 1791 after his death; and in 1793 
The Olio, a collection of essays, jests and small pieces of poetry, 
highly characteristic of Grose, though certainly not all by him, 
was put together from his papers by his publisher, who was also his 
executor. 

A capital full-length portrait of Grose by N. Dance is in the first 
volume of the Antiquities of England and Wales, and another is among 
Kay's Portraits. A versified sketch of him appeared in the Gentleman's 
Magazine, Ixi. 660. See Gentleman's Magazine, Ixi. 498, 582 ; Noble's 
Hist, of the College of Arms, p. 434; Notes and Queries, 1st ser., ix. 
350; 3rd ser., i. 64, x. 280-281; 5th ser., xii. 148; 6th ser., ii. 47, 
257, 291 ; Hone, Every-day Book, 1/655. 

GROSS, properly thick, bulky, the meaning of the Late Lat. 
grossus. The Latin word has usually been taken as cognate 
with crassus, thick, but this is now doubted. It also appears 
not to be connected with the Ger. gross, a Teutonic word repre- 
sented in English by " great." Apart from its direct meaning, 



GROSSE GROSSETESTE 



617 



and such figurative senses as coarse, vulgar or flagrant, the chief 
uses are whole, entire, without deduction, as opposed to " net," 
or as applied to that which is sold in bulk as opposed to " retail " 
(cf. " grocer " and " engrossing "). As a unit of tale, "gross" 
equals 12 dozen, 144, sometimes known as "small gross," in 
contrast with "great gross," i.e. 12 gross, 144 dozen. As a 
technical expression in English common law, "in gross" is 
applied to an incorporeal hereditament attached to the person 
of an owner, in contradistinction to one which is appendant 
or appurtenant, that is, attached to the ownership of land (see 
COMMONS). 

GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR (1828-1902), German poet, 
the son of a military chaplain, was born at Erfurt on the 2$th of 
April 1828. He received his early education at the gymnasium 
in Magdeburg, and on leaving school and showing disinclination 
for the ministry, entered an architect's office. But his mind was 
bent upon literature, and in 1849 he entered the university 
of Halle, where, although inscribed as a student of law, he devoted 
himself almost exclusively to letters. His first poetical essay 
was with the tragedy Cola di Rienzi (1851), followed in the same 
year by a comedy, Eine Nachlpartie Shakespeares, which was 
at once produced on the stage. The success of these first two 
pieces encouraged him to follow literature as a profession, 
and proceeding in 1852 to Munich, he joined the circle of young 
poets of whom Paul Heyse (q.v.) and Hermann Lingg (1820- 
1905) were the chief. For six years (1855-1861) he was dramatic 
critic of the Neue Munchener Zeitung, and was then for a while 
on the staff of the Leipziger Illustrierte Zeitung, but in 1862 he 
returned to Munich as editor of the Bayrische Zeitung, a post he 
retained until the paper ceased to exist in 1867. In 1869 Grosse 
was appointed secretary of the Schiller-Stiftung, and lived for 
the next few years alternately in Weimar, Dresden and Munich, 
until, in 1890, he took up his permanent residence in Weimar. 
He was made grand-ducal Hofrat and had the title of " professor." 
He died at Torbole on the Lago di Garda on the gth of May 1902. 

Grosse was a most prolific writer of novels, dramas and poems. 
As a lyric poet, especially in Gedichle (1857) and Aus bewegten 
Tagen, a volume of poems (1869), he showed himself more to 
advantage than in his novels, of which latter, however, Untreu 
aus Mitleid (2 vols., 1868); Vox populi, vox dei (1869); Maria 
Mancini (1871); Neue Erzahlungen (1875); Sophie Monnier 
(1876), and Ein Frauenlos (1888) are remarkable for a certain 
elegance of style. His tragedies, Die Ynglinger (1858); Tiberius 
(1876); Johann von Schwaben; and the comedy Die sleinerne 
Braui, had considerable success on the stage. 

Grosse's Gesammelte dramatische Werke appeared in 7 vols. in 
Leipzig (1870), while his Erzdhlende Dichtungen were published at 
Berlin (6 vols., 1871-1873). An edition of his selected works by 
A. Bartels is in preparation. See also his autobiography, Literarische 
Ursachen und Wirkungen (1896); R. Prutz, Die Literatur der 
Gegenwart (1859); J. Eth6, J. Grosse als epischer Dichter (1872). 

GROSSENHAIN, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, 20 m. N. 
from Dresden, on the main line of railway (via Elsterwerda) 
to Berlin and at the junction of lines to Priestewitz and Frankfort- 
on-Oder. Pop. (1905) 12,015. It has an Evangelical church, 
a modern and a commercial school, a library and an extensive 
public park. The industries are very important, and embrace 
manufactures of woollen and cotton stuffs, buckskin, leather, 
glass and machinery. Grossenhain was originally a Sorb settle- 
ment. It was for a time occupied by the Bohemians, by whom 
it was strongly fortified. It afterwards came into the possession 
of the margraves of Meissen, from whom it was taken in 1312 
by the margraves of Brandenburg. It suffered considerably in 
all the great German wars, and in 1744 was nearly destroyed 
by fire. On the i6th of May 1813, a battle took place here 
between the French and the Russians. 

See G. W. Schuberth, Chronik der Stadt Grossenhain (Grossenhain, 
1887-1892). 

GROSSETESTE, ROBERT (c. 1175-1253), English statesman, 
theologian and bishop of Lincoln, was born of humble parents 
at Stradbrook in Suffolk. He received his education at Oxford 
where he became proficient in law, medicine and the natural 
sciences. Giraldus Cambrensis, whose acquaintance he had 



made, introduced him, before 1199, to William de Vere, bishop 
of Hereford. Grosseteste aspired to a post in the bishop's house- 
hold, but being deprived by death of this patron betook himself 
to the study of theology. It is possible that he visited Paris 
for this purpose, but he finally settled in Oxford as a teacher. 
His first preferment of importance was the chancellorship of 
the university. He gained considerable distinction as a lecturer, 
and was the first rector of the school which the Franciscans 
established in Oxford about 1224. Grosseteste's learning is 
highly praised by Roger Bacon, who was a severe critic. Accord- 
ing to Bacon, Grosseteste knew little Greek or Hebrew and paid 
slight attention to the works of Aristotle, but was pre-eminent 
among his contemporaries for his knowledge of the natural 
sciences. Between 1214 and 1231 Grosseteste held in succession 
the archdeaconries of Chester, Northampton and Leicester. 
In 1232, after a severe illness, he resigned all his benefices and 
preferments except one prebend which he held at Lincoln. 
His intention was to spend the rest of his life in contemplative 
piety. But he retained the office of chancellor, and in 1235 
accepted the bishopric of Lincoln. He undertook without delay 
the reformation of morals and clerical discipline throughout 
his vast diocese. This scheme brought him into conflict with 
more than one privileged corporation, but in particular with his 
own chapter, who vigorously disputed his claim to exercise the 
right of visitation over their community. The dispute raged 
hotly from 1239 to 1245. It was conducted on both sides with 
unseemly violence, and those who most approved of Grosseteste's 
main purpose thought it needful to warn him against the mistake 
of over-zeal. But in 1245, by a personal visit to the papal court 
at Lyons, he secured a favourable verdict. In ecclesiastical 
politics the bishop belonged to the school of Becket. His zeal 
for reform led him to advance, on behalf of the courts-Christian, 
pretensions which it was impossible that the secular power should 
admit. He twice incurred a well-merited rebuke from Henry ill. 
upon this subject; although it was left for Edward I. to settle 
the question of principle in favour of the state. The devotion of 
Grosseteste to the hierarchical theories of his age is attested by 
his correspondence with his chapter and the king. Against the 
former he upheld the prerogative of the bishops; against the 
latter he asserted that it was impossible for a bishop to disregard 
the commands of the Holy See. Where the liberties of the 
national church came into conflict with the pretensions of Rome 
he stood by his own countrymen. Thus in 1238 he demanded 
that the king should release certain Oxford scholars who had 
assaulted the legate Otho. But at least up to the year 1247 he 
submitted patiently to papal encroachments, contenting himself 
with the protection (by a special papal privilege) of his own 
diocese from alien clerks. Of royal exactions he was more 
impatient; and after the retirement of Archbishop Saint 
Edmund (q.v.) constituted himself the spokesman of the clerical 
estate in the Great Council. In 1244 he sat on a committee 
which was empanelled to consider a demand for a subsidy. 
The committee rejected the demand, and Grosseteste foiled an 
attempt on the king's part to separate the clergy from the 
baronage. " It is written," the bishop said, " that united we 
stand and divided we fall." 

It was, however, soon made clear that the king and pope 
were in alliance to crush the independence of the English clergy; 
and from 1250 onwards Grosseteste openly criticized the new 
financial expedients to which Innocent IV. had been driven by 
his desperate conflict with the Empire. In the course of a visit 
which he made to Innocent in this year, the bishop laid before 
the pope and cardinals a written memorial in which he ascribed 
all the evils of the Church to the malignant influence of the Curia. 
It produced no effect, although the cardinals felt that Grosseteste 
was too influential to be punished for his audacity. Much 
discouraged by his failure the bishop thought of resigning. In 
the end, however, he decided to continue the unequal struggle. 
In 1251 he protested against a papal mandate enjoining the 
English clergy to pay Henry III. one-tenth of their revenues for 
a crusade; and called attention to the fact that, under the 
system of provisions, a sum of 70,000 marks was annually drawn 



6i8 



GROSSETO GROSSI, T. 



from England by the alien nominees of Rome. In 1253, upon 
being commanded to provide in his own diocese for a papal 
nephew, he wrote a letter of expostulation and refusal, not to 
the pope himself but to the commissioner, Master Innocent, 
through whom he received the mandate. The text of the 
remonstrance, as given in the Burton Annals and in Matthew 
Paris, has possibly been altered by a forger who had less respect 
than Grosseteste for the papacy. The language is more violent 
than that which the bishop elsewhere employs. But the general 
argument, that the papacy may command obedience only so far 
as its commands are consonant with the teaching of Christ and 
the apostles, is only what should be expected from an ecclesi- 
astical reformer of Grosseteste's time. There is much more 
reason for suspecting the letter addressed " to the nobles of 
England, the citizens of London, and the community of the 
whole realm," in which Grosseteste is represented as denouncing 
in unmeasured terms papal finance in all its branches. But even 
in this case allowance must be made for the difference between 
modern and medieval standards of decorum. 

Grosseteste numbered among his most intimate friends the 
Franciscan teacher, Adam Marsh (q.v.). Through Adam he 
came into close relations with Simon de Montfort. From the 
Franciscan's letters it appears that the earl had studied a political 
tract by Grosseteste on the difference between a monarchy and 
a tyranny; and that he embraced with enthusiasm the bishop's 
projects of ecclesiastical reform. Their alliance began as early 
as 1239, when Grosseteste exerted himself to bring about a 
reconciliation between the king and the earl. But there is no 
reason to suppose that the political ideas of Montfort had matured 
before the death of Grosseteste; nor did Grosseteste busy him- 
self overmuch with secular politics, except in so far as they 
touched the interest of the Church. Grosseteste realized that 
the misrule of Henry III. and his unprincipled compact with the 
papacy largely accounted for the degeneracy of the English 
hierarchy and the laxity of ecclesiastical discipline. But he can 
hardly be termed a constitutionalist. 

Grosseteste died on the gth of October 1253. He must then 
have been between seventy and eighty years of age. He was 
already an elderly man, with a firmly established reputation, 
when he became a bishop. As an ecclesiastical statesman he 
showed the same fiery zeal and versatility of which he had given 
proof in his academical career; but the general tendency of 
modern writers has been to exaggerate his political and ecclesi- 
astical services, and to neglect his performances as a scientist and 
scholar. The opinion of his own age, as expressed by Matthew 
Paris and Roger Bacon, was very different. His contemporaries, 
while admitting the excellence of his intentions as a statesman, 
lay stress upon his defects of temper and discretion. But they 
see in him the pioneer of a literary and scientific movement; 
not merely a great ecclesiastic who patronized learning in his 
leisure hours, but the first mathematician and physicist of his 
age. It is certainly true that he anticipated, in these fields of 
thought, some of the most striking ideas to which Roger Bacon 
subsequently gave a wider currency. 

See the Epistolae Roberti Grosseteste (Rolls Series, 1861) edited with 
a valuable introduction by H. R. Luard. Grosseteste's famous 
memorial to the pope is printed in the appendix to E. Brown's 
Fasciculus rerum expetendarum et fugiendarum (1690). A tract 
De phisicis, lineis, angulis etfiguris was printed at Nuremberg in 
1503. A French poem, Le Chattel d 'amour, sometimes attributed 
to him, has been printed by the Caxton Society. Two curious tracts, 
the " De moribus pueri ad mensam " (printed by Wynkyn de Worde) 
and the " Statuta familiae Roberti Grosseteste " (printed by J. S. 
Brewer in Monumenta Francisca.no., \. 582), may be from his pen; 
but the editor of the latter work ascribes it to Adam de Marsh. 
There is less doubt respecting the Reules Seynt Robert, a tract giving 
advice for the management of the household of the countess of 
Lincoln. For Grosseteste's life and work see Roger Bacon's Opus 
maius (ed. J. H. Bridges, 1897, 2 vols.) and Opera quaedam inedita 
(ed. J. S. Brewer, Rolls Series, 1859); M. Paris's Chronica majora 
(ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 1872-1883, 5 vols.); and the Lives 
by S. Pegge (1793) and F. S. Stevenson (1899). (H. W. C. D.) 

GROSSETO, a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, capital of 
the province of Grosseto, 90 m. S.S.E. of Pisa by rail. Pop. 
(1901) 5856 (town), 8843 (commune). It is 38 ft. above sea-level, 



and is almost circular in shape; it is surrounded by fortifications, 
constructed by Francis I. (1574-1587) and Ferdinand I. (1587- 
1609), which form a hexagonal enceinte with projecting bastions, 
with two gates only. The small cathedral, begun in 1294, is 
built of red and white marble alternating, in the Italian Gothic 
style; it was restored in 1855, The citadel was built in 1311 by 
the Sienese. Grosseto is on the main line from Pisa to Rome, 
and is also the starting-point (Montepescali, 8 m. to the N., is the 
exact point of divergence) of a branch line to Asciano and 
Siena. 

The town dates from the middle ages. In 1138 the episcopal 
see was transferred thither from Rusellae. In 1230 it, with the 
rest of the Maremma, of which it is the capital, came under the 
dominion of Siena. By the peace of 1559, however, it passed 
to Cosimo I. of Tuscany. In 1 745 the malaria had grown to such 
an extent, owing to the neglect of the drainage works, that 
Grosseto had only 648 inhabitants, though in 1224 it had 3000 
men who bore arms. Leopold I. renewed drainage operations, 
and by 1836 the population had risen to 2392. The malaria is 
not yet entirely conquered, however, and the official headquarters 
of the province are in summer transferred to Scansano (1837 ft.), 
20 m. to the S.E. by road. 

GROSSI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO (7-1699), one of the 
greatest Italian singers of the age of bel canto, better known as 
Siface, was born at Pescia in Tuscany about the middle of the 
1 7th century. He entered the papal chapel in 1675, and later 
sang at Venice. He derived his nickname of Siface from his 
impersonation of that character in an opera of Cavalli. It has 
generally been said that he appeared as Siface in Alessandro 
Scarlatti's Mitridate, but the confusion is due to his having sung 
the part of Mitridate in Scarlatti's Pompeo at Naples in 1683. 
In 1687 he was sent to London by the duke of Modena, to become 
a member of the chapel of James II. He probably did much 
for the introduction of Italian music into England, but soon 
left the country on account of the climate. Among Purcell's 
harpsichord music is an air entitled " Sefauchi's Farewell." 
He was murdered in 1699 on the road between Bologna and 
Ferrara, probably by the agents of a nobleman with whose wife 
he had a liaison. 

See Corrado Ricci's Vita Barocca (Milan, 1904). 

GROSSI, TOMMASO (1791-1853), Lombard poet and novelist, 
was born at Bellano,on the Lake of Como,on the 2oth of January 
1791. He took his degree in law at Pavia in 1810, and proceeded 
thence to Milan to exercise his profession; but the Austrian 
government, suspecting his loyalty, interfered with his prospects, 
and in consequence Grossi was a simple notary all his life. That 
the suspicion was well grounded he soon showed by writing in the 
Milanese dialect the battle poem La Prineide, in which he 
described with vivid colours the tragical death of Prina, chief 
treasurer during the empire, whom the people of Milan, instigated 
by Austrian agitators, had torn to pieces and dragged through 
the streets of the town (1814). The poem, being anonymous, 
was first attributed to the celebrated Porta, but Grossi of 
his own accord acknowledged himself the author. In 1816 he 
published other two poems, written likewise in Milanese The 
Golden Rain (La Pioggia d' oro) and The Fugitive (La Fuggitiva). 
These compositions secured him the friendship of Porta and 
Manzoni, and the three poets came to form a sort of romantic 
literary triumvirate. Grossi took advantage of the popularity 
of his Milanese poems to try Italian verse, into which he sought 
to introduce the moving realism which had given such satisfaction 
in his earliest compositions; and in this he was entirely successful 
with his poem Ildegonda (1814). He next wrote an epic poem, 
entitled The Lombards in the First Crusade, a work of which 
Manzoni makes honourable mention in / Promessi Sposi. This 
composition, which was published by subscription (1826), at- 
tained a success unequalled by that of any other Italian poem 
within the century. The example of Manzoni induced Grossi 
to write an historical novel entitled Marco Visconti (1834) 
a work which contains passages of fine description and deep 
pathos. A little later Grossi published a tale in verse, Ulrica and 
Lida, but with this publication his poetical activity ceased. 



GROSSMITH GROTE 



619 



After his marriage in 1838 he continued to employ himself as 
a notary in Milan till his death on the loth of December 1853. 

His Life by Cantu appeared at Milan in 1854. 

GROSSMITH, GEORGE (1847- ), English comedian, was 
born on the pth of December 1847, the son of a law reporter and 
entertainer of the same name. After some years of journalistic 
work he started about 1870 as a public entertainer, with songs 
and recitations; but in 1877 he began a long connexion with the 
Gilbert and Sullivan operas at the Savoy Theatre, London, in 
The Sorcerer. For twelve years he had the leading part, his 
capacity for " patter-songs," and his humorous acting, dancing 
and singing marking his creations of the chief characters in the 
Gilbert and Sullivan operas as the expression of a highly original 
individuality. In 1889 he left the Savoy, and again set up as an 
entertainer, visiting all the cities of Great Britain and the United 
States, but retiring in 1901. Among other books he wrote The 
Reminiscences of a Society Clown (1888); and, with his brother 
Weedon, The Diary of a Nobody (1894). His humorous songs 
and sketches numbered over six hundred. His younger brother, 
Weedon Grossmith, who was educated as a painter and exhibited 
at the Academy, also took to the stage, his first notable success 
being in the Pantomime Rehearsal; in 1894 he went into manage- 
ment on his own account, and had much success as a comedian. 
George Grossmith's two sons, Laurence Grossmith and George 
Grossmith, jun., were both actors, the latter becoming a well- 
known figure in the musical comedies at the Gaiety Theatre, 
London. 

GROS VENIRES (Fr. for "Great Bellies "), or ATSINA, a 
tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. The 
name is said to have reference to the greediness of the people, 
but more probably originated from their prominent tattooing. 
They are settled at Fort Belknap agency, Montana. The name 
has also been given to other tribes, e.g. the Hidatsa or Minitari, 
now at Fort Berthold, North Dakota. 

GROTE, GEORGE (1794-1871), English historian of Greece, 
was born on the i7th of November 1794, at Clay Hill near 
Beckenham in Kent. His grandfather, Andreas, originally a 
Bremen merchant, was one of the founders (ist of January 1766) 
of the banking-house of Grote, Prescott & Company in Thread- 
needle Street, London (the name of Grote did not disappear 
from the firm till 1879). His father, also George, married (1793) 
Selina, daughter of Henry Peckwell (1747-1787), minister of the 
countess of Huntingdon's chapel in Westminster (descended 
from a Huguenot family, the de Blossets, who had left Touraine 
on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes), and had one daughter 
and ten sons, of whom the historian was the eldest. Educated 
at first by his mother, George Grote was sent to the Sevenoaks 
grammar school (1800-1804) and afterwards to Charterhouse 
(1804-1810), where he studied under Dr Raine in company 
with Connop Thirlwall, George and Horace Waddington and 
Henry Havelock. In spite of Grote's school successes, his 
father refused to send him to the university and put him in the 
bank in 1810. He spent all his spare time in the study of classics, 
history, metaphysics and political economy, and in learning 
German, French and Italian. Driven by his mother's Puritanism 
and his father's contempt for academic learning to outside 
society, he became intimate with Charles Hay Cameron, who 
strengthened him in his love of philosophy, and George W. 
Norman, through whom he met his wife, Miss Harriet Lewin 
(see below). After various difficulties the marriage took place 
on the 5th of March 1820, and was in all respects a happy union. 

In the meanwhile Grote had finally decided his philosophic 
and political attitude. In 1817 he came undar the influence 
of David Ricardo, and through him of James Mill and Jeremy 
Bentham. He settled in 1820 in a house attached to the bank 
in Threadneedle Street, where his only child died a week after 
its birth. During Mrs Grote's slow convalescence at Hampstead, 
he wrote his first published work, the Statement of the Question 
of Parliamentary Reform (1821), in reply to Sir James 
Mackintosh's article in the Edinburgh Review, advocating 
popular representation, vote by ballot and short parliaments. 
In 1822 he published in the Morning Chronicle (April) a letter 



against Canning's attack on Lord John Russell, and edited, or 
rather re-wrote, some discursive papers of Bentham, which he 
published under the title Analysis of the Influence of Natural 
Religion on the Temporal Happiness of Mankind by Philip 
Beauchamp (1822). The book was published in the name of 
Richard Carlile, then in gaol at Dorchester. Though not a 
member of J. S. Mill's Utilitarian Society (1822-1823), he took 
a great interest in a society for reading and discussion, which 
met (from 1823) in a room at the bank before business hours 
twice a week. From the Posthumous Papers (pp. 22, 24) it is 
clear that Mrs Grote was wrong in asserting that she first in 
1823 (autumn) suggested the History of Greece; the book was 
already in preparation in 1822, though what was then written 
was subsequently reconstructed. In 1826 Grote published in 
the Westminster Review (April) a criticism of Mitford's History 
of Greece, which shows that his ideas were already in order. 
From 1826 to 1830 he was hard at work with J. S. Mill and 
Henry Brougham in the organization of the new " university " 
in Gower Street. He was a member of the council which organ- 
ized the faculties and the curriculum; but in 1830, owing to a 
difference with Mill as to an appointment to one of the philo- 
sophical chairs, he resigned his position. 

In 1830 he went abroad, and, attracted by the political crisis, 
spent some months in Paris in the society of the Liberal leaders. 
Recalled by his father's death (6th of July), he not only became 
manager of the bank, but took a leading position among the city 
Radicals. In 1831 he published his important Essentials of 
Parliamentary Reform (an elaboration of his previous Statement), 
and, after refusing to stand as parliamentary candidate for the 
city in 1831, changed his mind and was elected head of the poll, 
with three other Liberals, in December 1832. After serving in 
three parliaments, he resigned in 1841, by which time his party 
(" the philosophic Radicals ") had dwindled away. During these 
years of active public life, his interest in Greek history and 
philosophy had increased, and after a trip to Italy in 1842, he 
severed his connexion with the bank and devoted himself to 
literature. In 1 846 the first two volumes of the History appeared, 
and the remaining ten between 1847 and the spring of 1856. 
In 1845 with Molesworth and Raikes Currie he gave monetary 
assistance to Auguste Comte (<?..), then in financial difficulties. 
The formation of the Sonderbund (2oth of July 1847) led him to 
visit Switzerland and study for himself a condition of things 
in some sense analogous to that of the ancient Greek states. 
This visit resulted in the publication in the Spectator of seven 
weekly letters, collected in book form at the end of 1847 (see a 
letter to de Tocqueville in Mrs Grote's reprint of the Seven 
Letters, 1876). 

In 1856 Grote began to prepare his works on Plato and 
Aristotle. Plato and the Other Companions of Sokrates (3 vols.) 
appeared in 1865, but the work on Aristotle he was not destined 
to complete. He had finished the Organon and was about to 
deal with the metaphysical and physical treatises when he died 
on the i8th of June 1871, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
He was a man of strong character and self-control, unfailing 
courtesy and unswerving devotion to what he considered the 
best interests of the nation. To colleagues and subordinates 
alike, he was considerate and tolerant; he was unassuming, 
trustworthy in the smallest detail, accurate and comprehensive 
in thought, energetic and conscientious in action. Yet, hidden 
under his calm exterior there was a burning enthusiasm and a 
depth of passion of which only his intimate friends were aware. 

His work may best be considered under the following heads: 

i. Grote's Services to Education. He took, as already stated, 
an important part in the foundation and organization of the 
original university of London, which began its public work in 
Gower Street on the 28th of October 1828, and in 1836, on the 
incorporation of the university of London proper, became known 
as University College. In 1849 he was re-elected to the council, 
in 1860 he became treasurer, and on the death of Brougham 
(1868) president. He took a keen interest in all the work of the 
college, presented to it the Marmor Homericum, -and finally 
bequeathed the reversion of 6000 for the endowment of a chair 



620 



GROTEFEND 



of philosophy of mind and logic. The emoluments of this sum 
were, however, to be held over and added to the principal if at 
any time the holder of the chair should be " a minister of the 
Church of England or of any other religious persuasion." In 
1850 the senate of the university was reconstituted, and Grote 
was one of seven eminent men who were added to it. Eventually 
he became the strongest advocate for open examinations, for the 
claims not only of philosophy and classics but also of natural 
science, and, as vice-chancellor in 1862, for the admission of 
women to examinations. This latter reform was carried in 1868. 
He succeeded his friend Henry Hallam as a trustee of the British 
Museum in 1859, and took part in the reorganization of the 
departments of antiquities and natural science. 

The honours which he received in recognition of these services 
were as follows: D.C.L. of Oxford (1853); LL.D. Cambridge 
(1861); F.R.S. (1857); honorary professor of ancient history 
in the Royal Academy (1859). By the French Academy of 
Moral and Political Sciences he was made correspondent (1857) 
and foreign associate (the first Englishman since Macaulay) 
(1864). In 1869 he refused Gladstone's offer of a peerage. 

2. Political Career. In politics Grote belonged to the " philo- 
sophic Radicals " of the school of J. S. Mill and Bentham, whose 
chief principles were representative government, vote by ballot, 
the abolition of a state church, frequent elections. He adhered 
to these principles throughout, and refused to countenance any 
reforms which were incompatible with them. By this uncom- 
promising attitude, he gradually lost all his supporters save a 
few men of like rigidity. As a speaker, he was clear, logical 
and impressive, and on select committees his common sense 
was most valuable. For his speeches see A. Bain in the Minor 
Works; see also BALLOT. 

3. The History of Greece. It is on this work that Crete's 
reputation mainly rests. Though half a century has passed 
since its production, it is still in some sense the text-book. 
It consists of two parts, the " Legendary " and the " Historical " 
Greece. The former, owing to the development of comparative 
mythology, is now of little authority, and portions of part ii. 
are obsolete owing partly to the immense accumulations of epi- 
graphic and archaeological research, partly to the subsequent 
discovery of the Aristotelian Constitution of Athens, and partly 
also to the more careful weighing of evidence which Grote himself 
misinterpreted. The interest of the work is twofold. In the 
first place it contains a wonderful mass of information carefully 
collected from all sources, arranged on a simple plan, and ex- 
pressed in direct forcible language. It is in this respect one of 
the few great comprehensive histories in our possession, great in 
scope, conception and accomplishment. But more than this it is 
interesting as among the first works in which Greek history 
became a separate study, based on real evidence and governed 
by the criteria of modern historical science. Further Grote, 
a practical man, a rationalist and an enthusiast for democracy, 
was the first to consider Greek political development with a 
sympathetic interest (see GREECE: History, Ancient, section 
" Authorities "), in opposition to the Tory attitude of John 
Gillies and Mitford, who had written under the influence of horror 
at the French Revolution. On the whole his work was done with 
impartiality, and more recent study has only confirmed his 
general conclusions. Much has been made of his defective 
accounts of the tyrants and the Macedonian empire, and his 
opinion that Greek history ceased to be interesting or instructive 
after Chaeronea. It is true that he confined his interest to the 
fortunes of the city state and neglected the wider diffusion of the 
Greek culture, but this is after all merely a criticism of the title 
of the book. The value of the History consists to-day primarily 
in its examination of the Athenian democracy, its growth and 
decline, an examination which is still the most inspiring, and in 
general the most instructive, in any language. In the descrip- 
tion of battles and military operations generally Grote was handi- 
capped by the lack of personal knowledge of the country. In this 
respect he is inferior to men like Ernst Curtius and G. B. Grundy. 

4. In Philosophy Grote was a follower of the Mills and 
Bentham. J. S. Mill paid a tribute to him in the preface to the 



third edition of his Examination of Sir Wm. Hamilton's Philosophy, 
and there is no doubt that the empirical school owed a great deal 
to his sound, accurate thinking, untrammelled by any reverence 
for authority, technique and convention. In dealing with Plato 
he was handicapped by this very common sense, which prevented 
him from appreciating the theory of ideas in its widest relations. 
His Plato is important in that it emphasizes the generally 
neglected passages of Plato in which he seems to indulge in mere 
Socratic dialectic rather than to seek knowledge; it is, therefore, 
to be read as a corrective to the ordinary criticism of Plato. 
The more congenial study of Aristotle, though incomplete, is 
more valuable in the positive sense, and has not received the 
attention it deserves. Perhaps Grote's most distinctive contribu- 
tion to the study of Greek philosophy is his chapter in the 
History of Greece on the Sophists, of whom he took a view some- 
what more favourable than has been accepted before or since. 

His wife, HARRIET LEWIN (1792-1878), was the daughter of 
Thomas Lewin, a retired Indian civilian, settled in Southampton. 
After her marriage with Grote in 1820 she devoted herself to the 
subjects in which he was interested and was a prominent figure in 
the literary, political and philosophical circle in which he lived. 
She carefully read the proofs of his work and relieved him of 
anxiety in connexion with his property. Among her writings are: 
Memoir of Ary Schefer (1860); Collected Papers (1862); and 
her biography of her husband (1873). Another publication, 
The Philosophical Radicals of 1832 (privately circulated in 1866), 
is interesting for the light it throws on the Reform movement of 
1832 to 1842, especially on Molesworth. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The History of Greece passed through five editions 
the fifth (10 vols., 1888) being final. An edition covering the period 
from Solon to 403, with new notes and excursuses, was published by 
J. M. Mitchell and M. O. B. Caspari in 1907. The Plato was finally 
edited by Alexander Bain in 4 vols. See Mrs Grote's Personal 
Life of George Grote, and article in Diet. Nat. Biog. by G. Croom 
Robertson. (J. M. M.) 

GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH (1775-1853), German 
epigraphist, was born at Miinden in Hanover on the gth of June 
1775. He was educated partly in his native town, partly at 
Ilfeld, where he remained till 1 795, when he entered the university 
of Gottingen, and there became the friend of Heyne, Tychsen 
and Heeren. Heyne's recommendation procured for him an 
assistant mastership in the Gottingen gymnasium in 1797. 
While there he published his work De pasigraphia sive scriptura 
universali (1799), which led to his appointment in 1803 as 
prorector of the gymnasium of Frankfort-on-Main, and shortly 
afterwards as conrector. Grotefend was best known during his 
lifetime as a Latin and Italian philologist, though the attention 
he paid to his own language is shown by his Anfangsgriinde der 
deutschen Poesie, published in 1815, and his foundation of a 
society for investigating the German tongue in 1817. In 1821 
he became director of the gymnasium at Hanover, a post which 
he retained till his retirement in 1849. In 1823-1824 appeared 
his revised edition of Wenck's Latin grammar, in two volumes, 
followed by a smaller grammar for the use of schools in 1826; 
in 1835-1838 a systematic attempt to explain the fragmentary 
remains of the Umbrian dialect, entitled Rudimenta linguae 
Umbricae ex inscriptionibus antiquis enodata (in eight parts) ; and 
in 1839 a work of similar character upon Oscan (Rudimenta 
linguae Oscae). In the same year he published an important 
memoir on the coins of Bactria, under the name of Die Munzen der 
griechischen, parthischen, und indoskylhischen Konige von Bactrien 
und den Landern am Indus. He soon, however, returned to his 
favourite subject, and brought out a work in five parts, Zur 
Geographic und Geschichte wnAltitalien (1840-1842). Previously, 
in 1836, he had written a preface to Wagenf eld's translation of the 
spurious Sanchoniathon of Philo Byblius, which was alleged to 
have been discovered in the preceding year in the Portuguese 
convent of Santa Maria de Merinhao. But it was in the East 
rather than in the West that Grotefend did his greatest work. 
The cuneiform inscriptions of Persia had for some time been 
attracting attention in Europe; exact copies of them had been 
published by the elder Niebuhr, who lost his eyesight over the 
work; and Grotefend's friend, Tychsen of Rostock, believed 



GROTESQUE GROTIUS 



621 



that he had ascertained the characters in the column, now known 
to be Persian, to be alphabetic. At this point Grotefend took 
the matter up. His first discovery was communicated to the 
Royal Society of Gottingen in 1800, and reviewed by Tychsen 
two years afterwards. In 1815 he gave an account of it in 
Heeren's great work on ancient history, and in 1837 published 
his Neue Beitrage zur Erliiulerung der persepolilanischen Keil- 
schrift. Three years later appeared his Neue Beitrage zur 
Erliiulerung der babylonischen Keilschrifl. His discovery may 
be summed up as follows: (i) that the Persian inscriptions 
contain three different forms of cuneiform writing, so that the 
decipherment of the one would give the key to the decipherment 
of the others; (2) that the characters of the Persian column are 
alphabetic and not syllabic; (3) that they must be read from 
left to right; (4) that the alphabet consists of forty letters, 
including signs for long and short vowels; and (5) that the 
Persepolitan inscriptions are written in Zend (which, however, 
is not the case), and must be ascribed to the age of the Achae- 
menian princes. The process whereby Grotefend arrived at 
these conclusions is a prominent illustration of persevering 
genius (see CUNEIFORM). A solid basis had thus been laid for 
the interpretation of the Persian inscriptions, and all that 
remained was to work out the results of Grotefend's brilliant 
discovery, a task ably performed by Burnouf, Lassen and 
Rawlinson. Grotefend died on the i5th of December 1853. 

GROTESQUE, strictly a form of decorative art, in painting 
or sculpture, consisting of fantastic shapes of human beings, 
animals and the like, joined together by wreaths of flowers, 
garlands or arabesques. The word is also applied to any whim- 
sical design or decorative style, if characterized by unnatural 
distortion, and, generally, to anything ludicrous or extravagantly 
fanciful. " Grotesque " comes through the French from the 
Ital. grottesco, an adjective formed from grolta, which has been 
corrupted in English to " grotto." The commonly accepted 
explanation of the special use of the term " grotesque " is that 
this particular form of decorative art was most frequently found 
in the excavated ancient Roman and Greek dwellings found in 
Italy, to which was applied the name grotte. The derivation of 
grolta is through popular Lat. crupta or grupla (cf. " crypt "), 
from Gr. KPVKTIJ, a vault, Kpinrrtiv, to hide. Such a term would 
be applicable both to the buried dwellings of ancient Italy, and 
to a cavern, artificial or natural, the ordinary sense of the word. 
An interesting parallel with this origin of the word is found in 
that of " antic," now meaning a freak, a jest, absurd fancy, &c. 
This word is the same as " antique," and was, like " grotesque," 
first applied to the fanciful decorations of ancient art. 

GROTH, KLAUS (1810-1899), Low German poet, was born 
at Heide in Schleswig-Holstein, on the 24th of April 1819. After 
studying at the seminary in Tondern (1838-1841), he became a 
teacher at the girls' school in his native village, but in 1847 went 
to Kiel to qualify for a higher educational post. Ill-health 
interrupted his studies and it was not until 1853 that he was able 
to resume them at Kiel. In 1856 he took the degree of doctor 
of philosophy at Bonn, and in 1858 settled as privatdocent in 
German literature and languages at Kiel, where, in 1866, he was 
made professor, and where he lived until his death on the ist 
of June 1899. In his Low German (Plattdeulsch) lyric and epic 
poems, which reflect the influence of Johann Peter Hebel (<?..), 
Groth gives poetic expression to the country life of his northern 
home; and though his descriptions may not always reflect the 
peculiar characteristics of the peasantry of Holstein as faithfully 
as those of F. Reuter (q.v.), yet Groth is a lyric poet of genuine 
inspiration. His chief works are Quickborn, Volksleben in 
plattdeutschen Gedichten Ditmarscher Mundart (1852; 25th ed. 
1900; and in High German translations, notably by M. J. 
Berchem, Krefeld, 1896); and two volumes of stories, Vertelln 
(1855-1859, 3rd ed. 1881); also Voer de Goern (1858) and Ut 
min Jungsparadies (1875). 

Groth 's Gesammelte Werke appeared in 4 vols. (1893). His Lebens- 
crinnerungen were edited by E. Wolff in 1891; see also K. Eggers, 
K. Groth und die plattdeutsche Dichtung (1885); and biographies by 
A. Bartels (1899) and H. Siercks (1899) 



GROTH, PAUL HEINRICH VON (1843- ), German 
mineralogist, was born at Magdeburg on the 23rd of June 1843. 
He was educated at Freiberg, Dresden and Berlin, and took 
the degree of Ph.D. in 1868. After holding from 1872 the chair 
of mineralogy at Strasburg, he was in 1883 appointed professor 
of mineralogy and curator of minerals in the state museum 
at Munich. He carried on extensive researches on crystals and 
minerals, and also on rocks; and published Tabellarische 
Vbersicht der einfachen Mineralien (1874-1898), and Physi- 
kalische Krystallographie (1876-1895, ed. 4, 1005). He edited for 
some years the Zeitschriftfur Krystallographie und Mineralogie. 

GROTIUS, HUGO (1583-1645), in his native country Huig van 
Groot, but known to the rest of Europe by the latinized form 
of the name, Dutch publicist and statesman, was born at Delft 
on Easter day, the loth of April 1583. The Groots were a branch 
of a family of distinction, which had been noble in France, but 
had removed to the Low Countries more than a century before. 
Their French name was de Cornets, and this cadet branch had 
taken the name of Groot on the marriage of Hugo's great-grand- 
father with a Dutch heiress. The father of Hugo was a lawyer 
in considerable practice, who had four times served the office 
of burgomaster of Leiden, and was one of the three curators 
of the university of that place. 

In the annals of precocious genius there is no greater prodigy 
on record than Hugo Grotius, who was able to make good Latin 
verses at nine, was ripe for the university at twelve, and at 
fifteen edited the encyclopaedic work of Martianus Capella. 
At Leiden he was much noticed by J. J. Scaliger, whose habit 
it was to engage his young friends in the editing of some classical 
text. At fifteen Grotius accompanied Count Justin of Nassau, 
and the grand pensionary J. van Olden Barneveldt on their 
special embassy to the court of France. After a year spent in 
acquiring the language and making acquaintance with the 
leading men of France, Grotius returned home. He took the 
degree of doctor of law at Leiden, and entered on practice as an 
advocate. 

Notwithstanding his successes in his profession, his inclination 
was to literature. In 1600 he edited the remains of Aratus, 
with the versions of Cicero, Germanicus and Avienus. Of the 
Germanicus Scaliger says " A better text than that which 
Grotius has given, it is impossible to give "; but it is probable 
that Scaliger had himself been the reviser. Grotius vied with 
the Latinists of his day in the composition of Latin verses. 
Some lines on the siege of Ostend spread his fame beyond the 
circle of the learned. He wrote three dramas in Latin: 
Christus paliens; Sophomphaneas, on the story of Joseph and 
his brethren; and Adamus exul, a production still remembered 
as having given hints to Milton. The Sophomphaneas was 
translated into Dutch by Vondel,. and into English by Francis 
Goldsmith (1652); the Christus paliens into English by George 
Sandys (1640). 

In 1603 the United Provinces, desiring to transmit to posterity 
some account of their struggle with Spain, determined to appoint 
a historiographer. The choice of the states fell upon Grotius, 
though he was but twenty years of age, and had not offered 
himself for the post. There was some talk at this time in Paris 
of calling Grotius to be librarian of the royal library. But it was 
a ruse of the Jesuit party, who wished to persuade the public 
that the opposition to the appointment of Isaac Casaubon did 
not proceed from theological motives, since they were ready 
to appoint a Protestant in the person of Grotius. 

His next preferment was that of advocate-general of the 
fisc for the provinces of Holland and Zeeland. This was followed 
by his marriage, in 1608, to Marie Reigersberg, a lady of family 
in Zeeland, a woman of great capacity and noble disposition. 

Grotius had already passed from occupation with the classics 
to studies more immediately connected with his profession. 
In the winter of 1604 he composed (but did not publish) a treatise 
entitled De jure praedae. The MS. remained unknown till 1868, 
when it was brought to light, and printed at the Hague under the 
auspices of Professor Fruin. It shows that the principles and the 
plan of the celebrated De jure belli, which was not composed 



622 



GROTIUS 



till i625,more than twenty years after,had already been conceived 
by a youth of twenty-one. It has always been a question 
what it was that determined Grotius, when an exile in Paris in 
1625, to that particular subject, and various explanations have 
been offered; among others a casual suggestion of Peiresc in a 
letter of early date. The discovery of the MS. of the De jure 
praedae discloses the whole history of Grotius's ideas, and shows 
that from youth upwards he had steadily read and meditated 
in one direction, that, namely, of which the famous Dejure belli 
was the mature product. In the Dejure praedae of 1604 there is 
much more than the germ of the later treatise De jure belli. 
Its main principles, and the whole system of thought implied 
in the later, are anticipated in the earlier work. The arrangement 
even is the same. The chief difference between the two treatises 
is one which twenty years' experience in affairs could not but 
bring the substitution of more cautious and guarded language, 
less dogmatic affirmation, more allowance for exceptions and 
deviations. The Jus pads was an addition introduced first 
in the later work, an insertion which is the cause of not a little 
of the confused arrangement which has been found fault with 
in the De jure belli. 

The De jure praedae further demonstrates that Grotius was 
originally determined to this subject, not by any speculative 
intellectual interest, but by a special occasion presented by his 
professional engagements. He was retained by the Dutch 
East India Company as their advocate. One of their captains, 
Heemskirk, had captured a rich Portuguese galleon in the Straits 
of Malacca. The right of a private company to make prizes 
was hotly contested in Holland, and denied by the stricter 
religionists, especially the Mennonites, who considered all war 
unlawful. Grotius undertook to prove that Heemskirk's prize 
had been lawfully captured. In doing this he was led to in- 
vestigate the grounds of the lawfulness of war in general. Such 
was the casual origin of a book which long enjoyed such celebrity 
that it used to be said, with some exaggeration indeed, that it 
had founded a new science. 

A short treatise which was printed in 1609, Grotius says 
without his permission, under the title of Mare liberum, is 
nothing more than a chapter the i2th of the Dejure praedae. 
It was necessary to Grotius's defence of Heemskirk that he 
should show that the Portuguese pretence that Eastern waters 
were their private property was untenable. Grotius maintains 
that the ocean is free to all nations. The occasional character 
of this piece explains the fact that at the time of its appearance 
it made no sensation. It was not till many years afterwards 
that the jealousies between England and Holland gave import- 
ance to the novel doctrine broached in the tract by Grotius, 
a doctrine which Selden set himself to refute in his Mare clausum 
(1632). 

Equally due to the circumstances of the time was his small 
contribution to constitutional history entitled De antiquitate 
reipublicae Batavae (1610). In this he vindicates, on grounds 
of right, prescriptive and natural, the revolt of the United 
Provinces against the sovereignty of Spain. 

Grotius, when he was only thirty, was made pensionary of the 
city of Rotterdam. In 1613 he formed one of a deputation 
to England, in an attempt to adjust those differences which 
gave rise afterwards to a naval struggle disastrous to Holland. 
He was received by James with every mark of distinction. 
He also cultivated the acquaintance of the Anglican ecclesiastics 
John Overall and L. Andrewes, and was much in the society 
of the celebrated scholar Isaac Casaubon, with whom he had 
been in correspondence by letter for many years. Though the 
mediating views in the great religious conflict between Catholic 
and Protestant, by which Grotius was afterwards known, had 
been arrived at by him by independent reflection, yet it could 
not but be that he would be confirmed in them by finding in 
England a developed school of thought of the same character 
already in existence. How highly Casaubon esteemed Grotius 
appears from a letter of his to Daniel Heinsius, dated London, 
I3th of April 1613. " I cannot say how happy I esteem myself 
in having seen so much of one so truly great as Grotius. A 



wonderful man! This I knew him to be before I had seen him; 
but the rare excellence of that divine genius no one can sufficiently 
feel who does not see his face, and hear him speak. Probity 
is stamped on his features; his conversation savours of true 
piety and profound learning. It is not only upon me that he 
has made this impression; all the pious and learned to whom 
he has been here introduced have felt the same towards him; 
the king especially so!" 

After Grotius's return from England the exasperation of 
theological parties in Holland rose to such a pitch that it became 
clear that an appeal to force would be made. Grotius sought 
to find some mean term in which the two hostile parties of 
Remonstrants and Anti-remonstrants, or as they were subse- 
quently called Arminians and Gomarists (see REMONSTRANTS), 
might agree. A form of edict drawn by Grotius was published 
by the states, recommending mutual toleration, and forbidding 
ministers in the pulpit from handling the disputed dogmas. 
To the orthodox Calvinists the word toleration was insupportable. 
They had the populace on their side. This fact determined the 
stadtholder, Maurice of Nassau, to support the orthodox party 
a party to which he inclined the more readily that Olden 
Barneveldt, the grand pensionary, the man whose uprightness 
and abilities he most dreaded, sided with the Remonstrants. 

In 1618 Prince Maurice set out on a sort of pacific campaign, 
disbanding the civic guards in the various cities of Guelders, 
Holland and Zeeland, and occupying the places with troops 
on whom he could rely. The states of Holland sent a commission, 
of which Grotius was chairman, to Utrecht, with the view of 
strengthening the hands of their friends, the Remonstrant 
party, in that city. Feeble plans were formed, but not carried 
into effect, for shutting the gates upon the stadtholder, who 
entered the city with troops on the night of the 26th of July 
1618. There were conferences in which Grotius met Prince 
Maurice, and taught him that Olden Barneveldt was not the only 
man of capacity in the ranks of the Remonstrants whom he had 
to fear. On the early morning of the 3ist of July the prince's 
coup d'etat against the liberties of Utrecht and of Holland was 
carried out; the civic guard was disarmed Grotius and his 
colleagues saving themselves by a precipitate flight. But it 
was only a reprieve. The grand pensionary, Olden Barneveldt, 
the leader of the Remonstrant party, Grotius and Hoogerbeets 
were arrested, brought to trial, and condemned Olden 
Barneveldt to death, and Grotius to imprisonment for life and 
confiscation of his property. In June 1619 he was immured 
in the fortress of Louvestein near Gorcum. His confinement 
was rigorous, but after a time his wife obtained permission to 
share his captivity, on the condition that if she came out, she 
should not be suffered to return. 

Grotius had now before him, at thirty-six, no prospect but 
that of a lifelong captivity. He did not abandon himself to 
despair, but sought refuge in returning to the classical pursuits 
of his youth. Several of his translations (int6 Latin) from the 
Greek tragedians and other writers, made at this time, have 
been printed. " The Muses," he writes to Voss, " were now his 
consolation, and appeared more amiable than ever." 

The ingenuity of Madame Grotius at length devised a mode of 
escape. It had grown into a custom to send the books which 
he had done with in a chest along with his linen to be washed at 
Gorcum. After a time the warders began to let the chest pass 
without opening it. Madame Grotius, perceiving this, prevailed 
on her husband to allow himself to be shut up in it at the usual 
time. The two soldiers who carried the chest out complained 
that it was so heavy " there must be an Arminian in it." " There 
are indeed," said Madame Grotius, " Arminian books in it." 
The chest was carried to the house of a friend, where Grotius was 
released. He was then dressed like a mason with hod and trowel, 
and so conveyed over the frontier. His first place of refuge was 
Antwerp, from which he proceeded to Paris, where he arrived 
in April 1621. In October he was joined by his wife. There 
he was presented to the king, Louis XIII., and a pension of 3000 
livres conferred upon him. French pensions were easiry granted, 
all the more so as they were never paid. Grotius was now 



GROTIUS 



623 



reduced to great straits. He looked about for any opening 
through which he might earn a living. There was talk of some- 
thing in Denmark; or he would settle in Spires, and practise 
in the court there. Some little relief he got through the interven- 
tion of Etienne d'Aligre, the chancellor, who procured a royal 
mandate which enabled Grotius to draw, not all, but a large 
part of his pension. In 1623 the president Henri de MSme lent 
him his chateau of Balagni near Senlis (dep. Oise), and there 
Grotius passed the spring and summer of that year. De Thou 
gave him facilities to borrow books from the superb library 
formed by his father. 

In these circumstances the Dejure belli et pads was composed. 
That a work of such immense reading, consisting in great part of 
quotation, should have been written in little more than a year 
was a source of astonishment to his biographers. The achieve- 
ment would have been impossible, but for the fact that Grotius 
had with him the first draft of the work made in 1604. He had 
also got his brother William, when reading his classics, to mark 
down all the passages which touched upon law, public or private. 
In March 1625 the printing of the De jure belli, which had 
taken four months, was completed, and the edition despatched to 
the fair at Frankfort. His own honorarium as author consisted 
of 200 copies, of which, however, he had to give away many to 
friends, to the king, the principal courtiers, the papal nuncio, &c. 
What remained he sold for his own profit at the price of a crown 
each, but the sale did not recoup him his outlay. But though 
his book brought him no profit it brought him reputation, so 
widely spread, and of such long endurance, as no other legal 
treatise has ever enjoyed. 

Grotius hoped that his fame would soften the hostility of his 
foes, and that his country would recall him to her service. Theo- 
logical rancour, however, prevailed over all other sentiments, 
and, after fruitless attempts to re-establish himself in Holland, 
Grotius accepted service under Sweden, in the capacity of 
ambassador to France. He was not very successful in negotiating 
the treaty on behalf of the Protestant interest in Germany, 
Richelieu having a special dislike to him. He never enjoyed the 
confidence of the court to which he was accredited, and frittered 
away his influence in disputes about precedence. In 1645 he 
demanded and obtained his recall. He was honourably received 
at Stockholm, but neither the climate nor the tone of the court 
suited him, and he asked permission to leave. He was driven 
by a storm on the coast near Dantzig. He got as far as Rostock, 
where he found himself very ill. Stockman, a Scottish physician 
who was sent for, thought it was only weakness, and that rest 
would restore the patient. But Grotius sank rapidly, and died 
on the 2gth of August 1645. 

Grotius combined a wide circle of general knowledge with a 
profound study of one branch of law. History, theology, 
jurisprudence, politics, classics, poetry, all these fields he 
cultivated. His commentaries on the Scriptures were the first 
application on an extensive scale of the principle affirmed by 
Scaliger, that, namely, of interpretation by the rules of grammar 
without dogmatic assumptions. Grotius's philological skill, 
however, was not sufficient to enable him to work up to this ideal. 

As in many other points Grotius inevitably recalls Erasmus, 
so he does in his attitude towards the great schism. Grotius 
was, however, animated by an ardent desire for peace and con- 
cord. He thought that a basis for reconciliation of Protestant 
and Catholic might be found in a common piety, combined with 
reticence upon discrepancies of doctrinal statement. His De 
veritctte religionis Christianae (1627), a presentment of the 
evidences, is so written as to form a code of common Christianity, 
irrespective of sect. The little treatise became widely popular, 
gaining rather than losing popularity in the i8th century. It 
became the classical manual of apologetics in Protestant colleges, 
and was translated for missionary purposes into Arabic (by 
Pococke, 1660), Persian, Chinese, &c. His Via et itotum ad 
pacem ecclesiasticam (1642) was a detailed proposal of a scheme 
of accommodation. Like all men of moderate and mediating 
views, he was charged by both sides with vacillation. An 
Amsterdam minister, James Laureflt, published his Grotius 



papizans (1642), and it was continually being announced from 
Paris that Grotius had " gone over." Hallam, who has collected 
all the passages from Grotius's letters in which the prejudices 
and narrow tenets of the Reformed clergy are condemned, thought 
he had a " bias towards popery " (Lit. of Europe, ii. 312). The 
true interpretation of Grotius's mind appears to be an indifference 
to dogmatic propositions, produced by a profound sentiment of 
piety. He approached parties as a statesman approaches them, 
as facts which have to be dealt with, and governed, not sup- 
pressed in the interests of some one of their number. 

His editions and translations of the classics were either juvenile 
exercises prescribed by Scaliger, or " lusus poetici," the amuse- 
ment of vacant hours. Grotius read the classics as a humanist, 
for the sake of their contents, not as a professional scholar. 

His Annals of the Low Countries was begun as an official duty 
while he held the appointment of historiographer, and was being 
continued and retouched by him to the last. It was not published 
till 1657, by his sons Peler and Cornelius. 

Grotius was a great jurist, and his Dejure belli et pads (Paris, 
1625), though not the first attempt in modern times to ascertain 
the principles of jurisprudence, went far more fundamentally 
into the discussion than any one had done before him. The 
title of the work was so far misleading that the jus belli was a 
very small part of his comprehensive scheme. In his treatment 
of this narrower question he had the works of Alberico Gentili 
and Ayala before him, and has acknowledged his obligations to 
them. But it is in the larger questions to which he opened the 
way that the merit of Grotius consists. His was the first attempt 
to obtain a principle of right, and a basis for society and govern- 
ment, outside the church or the Bible. The distinction between 
religion on the one hand and law and morality on the other is not 
indeed clearly conceived by Grotius, but he wrestles with it in 
such a way as to make it easy for those who followed him to seize 
it. The law of nature is unalterable; God Himself cannot alter 
it any more than He can alter a mathematical axiom. This law 
has its source in the nature of man as a social being; it would 
be valid even were there no God, or if God did not interfere in 
the government of the world. These positions, though Grotius's 
religious temper did not allow him to rely unreservedly upon 
them, yet, even in the partial application they find in his book, 
entitle him to the honour of being held the founder of the modern 
science of the law of nature and nations. The De jure exerted 
little influence on the practice of belligerents, yet its publication 
was an epoch in the science. De Quincey has said that the book 
is equally divided between " empty truisms and time-serving 
Dutch falsehoods." For a saner judgment and a brief abstract 
of the contents of the Dejure, consult J. K. Bluntschli, Geschichte 
des allgemeinen Staatsrechts (Munich, 1864). A fuller analysis, 
and some notice of the predecessors of Grotius, will be found in 
Hely, Etude sur le droit de la guerre de Grotius (Paris, 1875). 
The writer, however, had never heard of the De jure praedae, 
published in 1868. Hallam, Lit. of Europe, ii. p. 543, has an 
abstract done with his usual conscientious pains. Dugald 
Stewart (Collected Works, i. 370) has dwelt upon the confusion 
and defects of Grotius's theory. Sir James Mackintosh (Miscell. 
Works, p. 1 66) has defended Grotius, affirming that his work 
" is perhaps the most complete that the world has yet owed, at 
so early a stage in the progress of any science, to the genius and 
learning of one man." 

The chief writings of Grotius have been named. For a complete 
bibliography of his works, see Lehmann, Hugonis Grotii manes 
vindicati (Delft, 1727), which also contains a full biography. Of 
this Latin life De Burigny published a r^chauffee in French (2 vols., 
8vo, Paris, 1752). Other lives are: Van Brandt, Historie van het 
Leven H. de Croat (2 vols., 8vo, Dordrecht, 1727); Von Luden, 
Hugo Grotius nach seinen Schicksalen und Schriften dargestellt (8vo, 
Berlin, 1806); Life of Hugo Grotius, by Charles Butler of Lincoln's 
Inn (8vo, London, 1826). The work of the Abbe 1 Hely contains a 
life of Grotius. See also Hugo Grotius, by L. Neumann (Berlin, 1884) ; 
Opinions of Grotius, by D. P. de Bruyn (London, 1894). 

Grotiusjp theological works were collected in 3 vols. fol. at Amster- 
dam (16441646; reprinted London, 1660; Amsterdam, 1679; 
and again Amsterdam, 1698). His letters were printed first in a 
selection, Epistolae ad Gattos (i2mo, Leiden, 1648), abounding, 
though an Elzevir, in errors of the press. They were collected in H. 



624 



GROTTAFERRAT A GROUND-ICE 



Grotii epistolae quotquot reperiri potuerunt (fol., Amsterdam, 1687). 
A few may be found scattered in other collections of Epistolae. 
Supplements to the large collection of 1687 were published at 
Haarlem, 1806; Leiden, 1809; and Haarlem, 1829. The De jure 
belli was translated into English by Whewell (3 vols., 8vo, Cambridge, 
1853); into French by Barbeyrac (2 vols. 410, Amsterdam, 1724); 
into German in Kirchmann's Philosophische Bibliothek (3 vols. I2mo, 
Leipzig, 1879). (M. P.) 

GROTTAFERRATA, a village of Italy, in the province of Rome, 
from which it is 13 m. S.E. by electric tramway, and 2jm. S. 
of Frascati, 1080 ft. above sea-level, in the AJban Hills. Pop. 
(1901) 2645. It is noticeable for the Greek monastery of Basilians 
founded by S. Nilus in 1002 under the Emperor Otho III., and 
which occupies the site of a large Roman villa, possibly that of 
Cicero. It was fortified at the end of the i sth century by Cardinal 
Giuliano della Rovere (afterwards Pope Julius II.), whose arms 
may be seen about it. The massive towers added by him give 
it a picturesque appearance. The church belongs to the i2th 
century, and the original portal, with a mosaic over it, is still 
preserved; the interior was restored in 1574 and in 1754, but 
there are some remains of frescoes of the i3th century. The 
chapel of S. Nilus contains frescoes by Domenico Zampieri 
(Domenichino) of 1610, illustrating the life of the saint, which 
are among his most important works. The abbot's palace has 
a fine Renaissance portico, and contains an interesting museum 
of local antiquities. The library contains valuable MSS., among 
them one from the hand of S. Nilus (965) ; and a palaeographical 
school, for the copying of MSS. in the ancient style, is maintained. 
An omophorion of the. nth or i2th century, with scenes from the 
Gospel in needlework, and a chalice of the isth century with 
enamels, given by Cardinal Bessarion, the predecessor of Giuliano 
della Rovere as commendatory of the abbey, are among its 
treasures. An important exhibition of Italo-Byzantine art was 
held here in 1905-1906. 

See A. Rocchi, La Badia di Groltaferrata (Rome, 1884); A. 
Munoz, L'Art byzantin d ['exposition de Grottaferrata (Rome, 1905); 
T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iv. (1907). (T. As.) 

GROUCHY, EMMANUEL, MARQUIS DE (1766-1847), marshal 
of France, was born in Paris on the 23rd of October 1766. He 
entered the French artillery in 1779, transferred to the cavalry 
in 1782, and to the Gardes du corps in 1786. In spite of his 
aristocratic birth and his connexions with the court, he was a 
convinced supporter of the principles of the Revolution, and had 
in consequence to leave the Guards. About the time of the 
outbreak of war in 1792 he became colonel of a cavalry regiment, 
and soon afterwards, as a marechal de camp, he was sent to serve 
on the south-eastern frontier. In 1793 he distinguished himself 
in La Vendee, and was promoted general of division. Grouchy 
was shortly afterwards deprived of his rank as being of noble 
birth, but in 1795 he was again placed on the active list. He 
served on the staff of the Army of Ireland (1796-1797), and took 
a conspicuous part in the Irish expedition. In 1798 he 
administered the civil and military government of Piedmont at 
the time of the abdication of the king of Sardinia, and in 1799 he 
distinguished himself greatly as a divisional commander in the 
campaign against the Austrians and Russians. In covering 
the retreat of the French after the defeat of Novi, Grouchy re- 
ceived fourteen wounds and was taken prisoner. On his release 
he returned to France. In spite of his having protested against the 
coup d'etat of the i8th of Brumaire he was at once re-employed by 
the First Consul, and distinguished himself again at Hohenlinden. 
It was not long before he accepted the new regime in France, 
and from 1801 onwards he was employed by Napoleon in military 
and political positions of importance. He served in Austria in 
1805, in Prussia in 1806, Poland in 1807, Spain in 1808, and com- 
manded the cavalry of the Army of Italy in 1809 in the Viceroy 
Eugene's advance to Vienna. In 1812 he was made commander 
of one of the four cavalry corps of the Grand Army, and during 
the retreat from Moscow Napoleon appointed him to command 
the escort squadron, . which was composed entirely ,of picked 
officers. His almost continuous service with the cavalry led 
Napoleon to decline in 1813 to place Grouchy at the head of an 
army corps, and Grouchy thereupon retired to France. In 



1814, however, he hastened to take part in the defensive campaign 
in France, and he was severely wounded at Craonne. At the 
Restoration he was deprived of the post of colonel-general of 
chasseurs a cheval and retired. He joined Napoleon on his 
return from Elba, and was made marshal and peer of France. 
In the campaign of Waterloo he commanded the reserve cavalry 
of the army, and after Ligny he was appointed to command 
the right wing to pursue the Prussians. The march on Wavre, 
its influence on the result of the campaign, and the controversy 
to which Grouchy's conduct on the day of Waterloo has given 
rise, are dealt with briefly in the article WATERLOO CAMPAIGN, 
and at length in nearly every work on the campaign of 1815. 
Here it is only necessary to say that on the i7th Grouchy was 
unable to close with the Prussians, and on the i8th, though 
urged to march towards the sound of the guns of Waterloo, 
he permitted himself, from whatever cause, to be held up by a 
Prussian rearguard while the Prussians and English united 
to crush Napoleon. On the igth Grouchy won a smart victory 
over the Prussians at Wavre, but it was then too late. So far 
as resistance was possible after the great disaster, Grouchy 
made it. He gathered up the wrecks of Napoleon's army and 
retired, swiftly and unbroken, to Paris, where, after interposing 
his reorganized forces between the enemy and the capital, he 
resigned his command into the hands of Marshal Davout. The 
rest of his life was spent in defending himself. An attempt to 
have him condemned to death by a court-martial failed, but 
he was exiled and lived in America till amnestied in 1821. On 
his return to France he was reinstated as general, but not as 
marshal nor as peer of France. For many years thereafter 
he was equally an object of aversion to the court party, as a 
member of their own caste who had followed the Revolution 
and Napoleon, and to his comrades of the Grand Army as the 
supposed betrayer of Napoleon. In 1830 Louis Philippe gave 
him back the marshal's baton and restored him to the Chamber 
of Peers. He died at St-Etienne on the 2gth of May 1847. 

See Marquis de Grouchy, Memoires du marechal Marquis de 
Grouchy (Paris, 1873-1874); General Marquis de Grouchy, Le 
General Grouchy en Irlande (Paris, 1866), and Le Marechal Grouchy 
du 16 au 18 juin, 1815 (Paris, 1864) ; Appel & I'histoire sur les faites 
de Vaile droite de I'armee franc.aise (Paris, n.d.); Severe Justice sur 
les fails . . . du 28 juin au 3 juillet, 1815 (Paris, 1866); and the 
literature of the Waterloo campaign. Marshal Grouchy himself 
wrote the following: Observations sur la relation de la campagne de 
1815 par le general de Gpurgaud (Philadelphia and Paris, 1818); 
Refutation de quelques. articles des memoires de M. le Due de Rovigo 
(Paris, 1829); Fragments historiques relatifs d la campagne et d la 
bataille de Waterloo (Paris, 1829-1830, in reply to Barthelemy and 
Mery, and to Marshal Gerard) ; Reclamation du marshal de Grouchy 
(Paris, 1834) ; Plainte centre le general Baron Berthezene (Berthezene, 
formerly a divisional commander under Gerard, stated in reply to 
this defence that he had no intention of accusing Grouchy of ill faith). 

GROUND-ICE, 1 ice formed at the bottom of streams while 
the temperature of the water is above freezing-point. Every- 
thing points to radiation as the prime cause of the formation of 
ground-ice. It is formed only under a clear sky, never in cloudy 
weather; it is most readily formed on dark rocks, and never 
under any covering such as a bridge, and rarely under surface- 
ice. Professor Howard T. Barnes of McGill University concludes 
that the radiation from a river bed in cold and clear nights goes 
through the water in long rays that penetrate much more easily 
from below upwards than the sun's heat rays from above down- 
wards, which are mostly absorbed by the first few feet of water. 
On a cold clear night, therefore, the radiation from the bottom 
is excessive, and loosely-grown spongy masses of anchor-ice 
form on the bottom, which on the following bright sunny day 
receive just sufficient heat from the sun to detach the mass of 

1 The O. Eng. word grnrf,ground,is common to Teutonic languages, 
cf. Du. grand, Ger. Grund, but has no cognates outside Teutonic. 
The suggestion that the origin is to be found in " grind," to crush 
small, reduce to powder, is plausible, but the primary meaning 
seems to be the lowest part or bottom of anything rather than grit, 
sand or gravel. The main branches in sense appear to be, first, 
bottom, as of the sea or a river, cf. the use, in the plural, for dregs; 
second, base or foundation, actual, as of the first or main surface of a 
painting, fabric, &c., or figurative, as of a principle or reason; third 
the surface of the earth, or a particular part of that surface. 



GROUND NUT GROUND RENT 



625 



ice, which rises to the surface with considerable force. It is prob- 
able that owing to surface tension a thin film of stationary water 
rests upon the boulders and sand over which a stream flows, 
and that this, becoming frozen owing to radiation, forms the 
foundation for the anchor-ice and produces a surface upon which 
the descending frazil-ice (see below) can lodge. The theory 
of radiation from the boulders is supported by the fact that as 
the ice is formed upon them in response to a sudden fall in the 
air temperature, it is only released under the influence of a strong 
rise of temperature during the morning. It may not rise for 
several days, but the advent of bright sunlight is followed by 
the appearance on the surface of masses of ground-ice. This 
ice has a spongy texture and frequently carries gravel with it 
when it rises. It is said that the bottom of Lake Erie is strewn 
with gravel that has been floated down in this way. This 
" anchor-ice," as it was called by Canadian trappers, frequently 
forms dams across narrow portions of the river where the 
floating masses are caught. Dr H. Landor pointed out that the 
Mackenzie and Mississippi rivers, which rise in the same region 
and flow in opposite directions, carry ground-ice from their 
head-waters for a considerable distance down stream, and 
suggested that here and in Siberia many forms of vegetable and 
animal life may be distributed from a centre by this agency, 
since the material carried by the floating ice would contain the 
seeds and eggs or larvae of many forms. 

Besides ground-ice and anchor-ice this formation is called 
also bottom-ice, ground-gru and lappered ice, the two last names 
being Scottish. In France it is called glace du fond, in Germany 
Grundeis, and in French Canada moutonne from the appearance 
of sheep at rest, since the ice formed at the bottom grows in 
woolly, spongy masses upon boulders or other projections. 

" Frazil-ice " is a Canadian term from the French for " forge- 
cinders." It is surface ice formed in spicules and carried down- 
wards in water agitated by winds or rapids. The frazil-ice may 
render swiftly moving water turbid with ice crystals, it may be 
swirled downwards and accumulated upon the ground ice, or 
it may be swept under the sheet of surface-ice, coating the under 
surface of the sheet to a thickness as great as 80 ft. of loose 
spicular ice. 

See W. G. Thompson, in Nature, i. 555 (1870); H. Landor, in 
Geological Magazine, decade II., vol. iii., p. 459 (1876); H. T. 
Barnes, Ice Formation with special Reference to Anchor-ice and Frazil 
(1906). 

GROUND NUT (Earth Nut, Pistache de Terre, Monkey Nut, 
Pea Nut, Manilla Nut), in botany, the fruit or pod of Arachis 
hypogaea (nat. ord. Leguminosae). The plant is an annual of 
diffuse habit, with hairy stem, and two-paired, abruptly pinnate 
leaflets. The pods or legumes are stalked, oblong, cylindrical, 
about i in. in length, the thin reticulated shell containing one or 
two irregularly ovoid seeds. After the flower withers, the stalk 
of the ovary has the peculiarity of elongating and bending down, 
forcing the young pod underground, and thus the seeds become 
matured at some distance below the surface. Hence the specific 
and vernacular names of the plant. Originally a native of 
South America, it is extensively cultivated in all tropical and 
subtropical countries. The plant affects a light sandy soil, and 
is very prolific, yielding in some instances 30 to 38 bushels of nuts 
per acre. The pods when ripe are dug up and dried. The seeds 
when fresh are largely eaten in tropical countries, and in taste 
are almost equal to almonds; when roasted they are used as a 
substitute for chocolate. In America they are consumed in 
large quantities as the "pea-nut"; but are not much appreciated 
in England except by the poorer children, who know them as 
" monkey-nuts." By expression the seeds yield a large quantity 
of oil, which is used by natives for lamps, as a fish or curry oil 
and for medicinal purposes. The leaves form an excellent food 
for cattle, being very like clover. 

Large quantities of seeds are imported to Europe, chiefly to 
Marseilles, London and Hamburg, for the sake of their contained 
oil. The seeds yield from 42 to 50% of oil by cold expression, 
but a larger quantity is obtained by heat, although of an inferior 
quality. The seeds being soft facilitate mechanical expression, 



and where bisulphide of carbon or other solvent is used, a very 
pure oil is obtained. 

The expressed oil is limpid, of a light yellowish or straw colour, 
having a faint smell and bland taste; it forms an excellent 
substitute for olive oil, although in a slight degree more prone 
to rancidity than the latter. Its specific gravity is 0-916 to 
0-918; it becomes turbid at 3 C., concretes at +3 to - 4 C., 
and hardens at +7 C. It is a non-drying oil. Ground nut oil 
consists of (i) oleic acid (Ci8H M O 2 ); (2) hypogaeic acid 
(CieHsoOz), by some supposed to be identical with a fatty acid 
found in whale oil; (3) palmitic acid (Cie^Oj); and (4) 
arachic acid (CzoH^O^). The oil is used in the adulteration of 
gingelly oil. 

GROUND-PEARL, the glassy secretion forming the pupacase 
of coccid insects of the genus Margarodes, belonging to the 
homopterous division of the Hemiptera. 

GROUND RENT. In Roman law, ground rent (solarium) 
was an annual rent payable by the lessee of a superficies or 
perpetual lease of building land. In English law, it appears that 
the term was at one time popularly used for the houses and lands 
out of which ground rents issue as well as for the rents themselves 
(cf. Maundy v. Maundy, 2 Strange, 1020); and Lord Eldon 
observed in 1815 that the context in which the term occurred 
may materially vary its meaning (Stewart v. Alliston, i Mer. 26). 
But at the present time the accepted meaning of ground rent is 
the rent at which land is let for the purpose of improvement by 
building, z.e.arent charged in respect of the land only and not in 
respect of the buildings to be placed thereon. It thus conveys 
the idea of something lower than a rack rent (see RENT); and 
accordingly if a vendor described property as property for which 
he paid a " ground rent," without any further explanation of the 
term, a purchaser would not be obliged to accept the property 
if it turned out to be held at a rack rent. But while a rack rent 
is generally higher in amount than a ground rent, the latter is 
usually better secured, as it carries with it the reversionary 
interest in buildings and improvements put on the ground after 
the date at which the ground rent was fixed, and accordingly 
ground rents have been regarded as a good investment. Trustees 
empowered to invest money on the security of freehold or 
copyhold hereditaments, may invest upon freehold ground rents 
reserved out of house property. In estimating the amount that 
may be so invested, account may be taken of the value of the 
houses, as, if the ground rents are not paid, the landlord can 
re-enter. Again, where a settlement authorizes trustees to 
purchase lands or hereditaments in fee-simple or possession, a 
purchase of freehold ground rents has been held to be proper. 
A devise of " ground rent " carries not only the rent but the 
reversion. Where a tenant is compelled, in order to protect 
himself in the enjoyment of the land in respect of which his rent 
is payable, to pay ground rent to a superior landlord (who is 
of course in a position to distrain on him for it), he is considered 
as having been authorized by his immediate landlord to apply 
his rent, due or accruing due, in this manner, and the payment 
of the ground rent will be held to be payment of the rent itself 
or part of it. A lodger should make any payment of this char- 
acter under the Law of Distress Amendment Act 1908 (s. 3; 
and see RENT). Ground rents are apportionable (see APPOR- 
TIONMENT). 

In Scots law, the term " ground rent " is not employed, but its 
place is taken, for practical purposes, by the " ground-annual, " 
which bears a double meaning, (i.) At the time of the Reformation 
in Scotland, the lands of the Church were parcelled out by the crown 
into various lordships the grantees being called Lords of Erection. 
In the 1 7th century these Lor.dsof Erection resigned their superiorities 
to the crown, with the exception of the feu-duties, which were to be 
retained till a price agreed upon for their redemption had been paid. 
This reserved power of redemption was, however, resigned by the 
crown on the eve of the Union and the feu-duties became payable in 
perpetuity to the Lords of Erection as a "ground-annual." (ii.) 
Speculators in building ground usually grant sub-feus to builders at 
a high feu-duty. But where sub-feus are prohibited as they might 
be, prior to the Conveyancing (Scotland) Act 1874 and there is 
much demand for building ground, the feuars frequently stipulate for 
an annual rent from the builders rather than for a price payable at 
once. This annual rent is called a " ground-annual. Interest is not 



6 2 6 



GROUNDSEL GROUPS, THEORY OF 



due on arrears of ground-annuals. Like other real burdens, ground- 
annuals may now be freely assigned and conveyed (Conveyancing 
(Scotland) Act 1874, s. 30). 

The term " ground rent " in the English sense does not seem 
to be generally used in the United States, but is applied in 
Pennsylvania to a kind of tenure, created by a grant in fee simple, 
the grantor reserving to himself and his heirs a certain rent, 
which is the interest of the money value of the land. These 
" ground rents " are real estate, and, in cases of intestacy, go to 
the heir. They are rent services and not rent charges the 
statute Quia Emptores never having been in force in Pennsylvania, 
and are subject to all the incidents of such rents (see RENT). 
The grantee of such a " ground rent " may mortgage, sell, or 
otherwise dispose of the grant as he pleases; and while the rent 
is paid the land cannot be sold or the value of the improvements 
lost. 

A ground rent being a freehold estate, created by deed and 
perpetual in duration, no presumption could, at common law, 
arise from lapse of time, that it had been released. But now, 
by statute (Act of 27th of April 1855, s. 7), a presumption of 
release or extinguishment is created where no payment, claim 
or demand has been made for the rent, nor any declaration or 
acknowledgment of its existence made or given by the owner 
of the premises subject to it, for the period of 21 years. Ground 
rents were formerly irredeemable after a certain time. But the 
creation of irredeemable ground rents is now forbidden (Pennsyl- 
vania Act 7 Assembly, 22nd of April 1850). 

For English Law see Foa, Landlord and Tenant (3rd ed., London, 
1901); Scots Law, Bell's Principles (loth ed., Edinburgh, 1899); 
American Law, Bouvier, Law Diet. (Boston and London, 1897). 

(A. W. R.) 

GROUNDSEL (Ger. Kreuzkraut; Fr. sene(on), Senecio vul- 
garis, an annual, glabrous, or more or less woolly plant of the 
natural order Compositae, having a branched succulent stem 
6 to 15 in. in height, pinnatifid irregularly and coarsely-toothed 
leaves, and small cylindrical heads of yellow tubular florets 
enveloped in an involucre of numerous narrow bracts; the 
ribbed fruit bears a soft, feathery, hoary tuft of hairs (pappus). 
The plant is indigenous to Europe, whence it has been introduced 
into all temperate climates. It is a troublesome weed, flowering 
throughout the year, and propagating itself rapidly by means 
of its light feathery fruits; it has its use, however, as a food 
for cage-birds. Senecio Jacobaea, ragwort, is a showy plant with 
heads of bright yellow flowers, common in pastures and by 
roadsides. The genus Senecio is a very large one, widely distri- 
buted in temperate and cold climates. The British species are 
all herbs, but the genus also includes shrubs and even arborescent 
forms, which are characteristic features of the vegetation of 
the higher levels on the mountains of tropical Africa. Many 
species of the genus are handsome florists' plants. The groundsel 
tree, Baccharis halimifolia, a native of the North American 
sea-coast from Massachusetts southward, is a Composite shrub, 
attaining 6 to 12 ft. in height, and having angular branches, 
obovate or oblong-cuneate, somewhat scurfy leaves, and flowers 
larger than but similar to those of common groundsel. The 
long white pappus of the female plant renders it a conspicuous 
object in autumn. The groundsel tree has been cultivated in 
British gardens since 1683. 

The Old English word, represented by " groundsel," appears in 
two forms, grundeswylige and gundaswelgias; of the first form the 
accepted derivation is from grand, ground, and swelgau, to swallow; 
a weed of such rapid growth would not inaptly be styled a " ground- 
swallower." If the form without the r be genuine, the word might 
mean " pus-absorber " (O.E. gund, filth, matter), with reference to its 
use in poultices for abscesses and the like. 

GROUND-SQUIRREL, one of the names for a group of (chiefly) 
North American striped terrestrial squirrel-like rodents, more 
generally known as chipmunks. They are closely allied to 
squirrels, from which they are distinguished by the possession 
of cheek-pouches for the storage of food. The sides, or the sides 
and back, are marked with light stripes bordered by dark bands; 
the ears are small, and without tufts; and the tail is relatively 
short. With the exception of one Siberian species (Tamias 
asiaticus), ground-squirrels are confined to North America, 



where they are represented by a large number of species and 
races, all referable to the genus Tamias. In North America 
ground-squirrels are migratory, and may be abundant in a 
district one year, and absent the next. They feed on nuts, 
beechmast, corn and roots, and also on grubs. With the assist- 
ance of their cheek-pouches they accumulate large supplies 
of food for the winter, during which season they lie dormant 
in holes. Although generally keeping to the ground, when 
hunted they take to trees, which they climb in search of food. 
One of the longest known American species is T. striatus. 

GROUPS, 1 THEORY OF. The conception of an operation 
to be carried out on some object or set of objects underlies all 
mathematical science. Thus in elementary arithmetic there are 
the fundamental operations of the addition and the multiplication 
of integers; in algebra a linear transformation is an operation 
which may be carried out on any set of variables; while in 
geometry a translation, a rotation, or a projective transformation 
are operations which may be carried out on any figure. 

In speaking of an operation, an object or a set of objects to 
which it may be applied is postulated; and the operation may, 
and generally will, have no meaning except in regard to such a 
set of objects. If two operations, which can be performed on 
the same set of objects, are such that, when carried out in 
succession on any possible object, the result, whichever operation 
is performed first, is to produce no change in the object, then 
each of the operations is spoken of as a definite operation, and 
each of them is called the inverse of the other. Thus the opera- 
tions which consist in replacing x by nx and by x/n respectively, 
in any rational function of x, .are definite inverse operations, 
if n is any assigned number except zero. On the contrary, the 
operation of replacing x by an assigned number in any rational 
function of x is not, in the present sense, although it leads to a 
unique result, a definite operation; there is in fact no unique 
inverse operation corresponding to it. It is to be noticed that 
the question whether an operation is a definite operation or no 
may depend on the range of the objects on which it operates. 
For example, the operations of squaring and extracting the 
square root are definite inverse operations if the objects are 
restricted to be real positive numbers, but not otherwise. 

If O, O', O", ... is the totality of the objects on which a definite 
operation S and its inverse S' may be carried out, and if the result of 
carrying out S on O is represented by O.S, then O.S.S'.O.S'.S., and 
O are the same object whatever object of the set O may be. This 
will be represented by the equations SS' = S'S = I. Now O.S.S' has 
a meaning only if O.S is an object on which S' may be performed. 
Hence whatever object of the set O may be, both O.S and O.S' 
belong to the set. Similarly O.S.S, O.S. S.S, . . .are objects of the 
set. These will be represented by O.S 2 , O.S 3 , . . . Suppose now 
that T is another definite operation with the same set of objects as 
S, and that T' is its inverse operation. Then O.S.T is a definite 
operation of the set, and therefore the result of carrying out S and 
then T on the set of objects is some operation U with a unique result. 
Represent by U' the result of carrying out T' and then S'. Then 
O. UU' = O.S.T.T'.S' = O.SS' = O, and O. U'U = O.T'.S'.S.T 
= O.TT = O, whatever object O may be. Hence UU' = U'U = i; 
and U, U' are definite inverse operations. 

If S, U, V are definite operations, and if S' is the inverse of S, then 

SU = SV 

implies S'SU = S'SV, 

or U=V. 

Similarly US = VS 

implies U = V. 

Let S, T, U, . . .be a set of definite operations, capable of being 
carried out on a common object or set of objects, and let ,, _ .,. 
the set contain ofairroup 

(i.) the operation ST, S and T being any two operations 
of the set; 

(ii.) the inverse operation of S, S being any operation of the set; 
the set of operations is then called a group. 

The number of operations in a group may be either finite or in- 
finite. When it is finite, the number is called the order of the group, 



1 The word " group," which appears first in English in the sense 
of an assemblage of figures in an artistic design, picture, &c., is 
adapted from the Fr. groupe, which is to be referred to the Teutonic 
word meaning " knot," " mass," " bunch," represented in English 
by " crop " (q.v.). The technical mathematical sense is not older 
than 1870. 



GROUPS, THEORY OF 



627 



and the group is spoken of as a group of finite order. If the number 
of operations is infinite, there are three possible cases. When the 
group is represented by a set of geometrical operations, for the speci- 
fication of an individual operation a number of measurements will 
be necessary. In more analytical language, each operation will be 
specified by the values of a set of parameters. If no one of these 
parameters is capable of continuous variation, the group is called a 
discontinuous group. If all the parameters are capable of continuous 
variation, the group is called a continuous group. If some of the 
parameters are capable of continuous variation and some are not, the 
group is called a mixed group. 

If S' is the inverse operation of S, a group which contains S must 
contain SS', which produces no change on any possible object. 
This is called the identical operation, and will always be represented 
by I. Since S P S = S' H ^ when p and q are positive integers, and 
S p S' = S' > ~ 1 while no meaning at present has been attached to S' 
when q is negative, S' may be consistently represented by S" 1 . The 
set of operations . . ., S" 2 , S" 1 , I, S, S 2 , . . . obviously constitute a 
group. Such a group is called a cyclical group. 

It will be convenient, before giving some illustrations of the 
general group idea, to add a number of further definitions and ex- 
planations which apply to all groups alike. If from among 
"" ps the set of operations S, T, U, . . . which constitute a group 
"'"?f,* G, a smaller set S', T', U', . . . can be chosen which them- 
omorpb-' se ' ves constitute a group H, the group H is called a sub- 
group of G. Thus, in particular, if S is an operation of G, 
ism, etc* , , i j i_ c- > c\ c c? 

the cyclical group constituted by ... ,S^, S l , I, S, S 2 , . . . 

is a subgroup of G, except in the special case when it coincides with 
G itself. 

If S and T are any two operations of G, the two operations S and 
T~'ST are called conjugate operations, and T~'ST is spoken of as the 
result of transforming S by T. It is to be noted that since ST = 
T" 1 . TS. T, ST and TS are always conjugate operations in any group 
containing both S and T. If T transforms S into itself, that is, if 
S = T-'ST or TS = ST, S and T are called permutable operations. A 
group whose operations are all permutable with each other is called 
an Abelian group. If S is transformed into itself by every operation 
of G, or, in other words, if it is permutable with every operation of G, 
it is called a self-conjugate operation of G. 

The conception of operations being conjugate to each other is 
extended to subgroups. If S', T', U', . . . are the operations of a 
subgroup H, and if R is any operation of G, then the operations 
R-'S'R, R-'T'R, R-'U'R, . . . belong to G, and constitute a sub- 
group of G. For if S'T' = U', then R- 1 S'R.R-'T'R = R- I S'T'R = 
Rr'U'R. This subgroup may be identical with H. In particular, 
it is necessarily the same as H if R belongs to H. If it is not identical 
with H, it is said to be conjugate to H; and it is in any case repre- 
sented by the symbol R-'HR. If H = R-'HR, the operation R is 
said to be permutable with the subgroup H. (It is to be noticed that 
this does not imply that R is permutable with each operation of H.) 

If H = R~'HR, when for R is taken in turn each of the operations 
of G, then H is called a self-conjugate subgroup of G. 

A group is spoken of as simple when it has no self-conjugate 
subgroup other than that constituted by the identical operation 
alone. A group which has a self-conjugate subgroup is called 
composite. 

Let G be a group constituted of the operations S, T, U, . . ., and g 
a second group constituted of s, t, u, . . ., and suppose that to each 
operation of G there corresponds a single operation of g in such a 
way that if ST = U, then st = u, where s, t, u are the operations 
corresponding to S, T, U respectively. The groups are then said to 
be isomorphic, and the correspondence between their operations is 
spoken of as an isomorphism between the groups. It is clear that 
there may be two distinct cases of such isomorphism. To a single 
operation of g there may correspond either a single operation of G 
or more than one. In the first case the isomorphism is spoken of as 
simple, in the second as multiple. 

Two simply isomorphic groups considered abstractly that is to 
say, in regard only to the way in which their operations combine 
among themselves, and apart from any concrete representation of 
the operations are clearly indistinguishable. 

If G is multiply isomorphic with g, let A, B, C, . . . be the opera- 
tions of G which correspond to the identical operation of g. Then to 
the operations A~* and AB of G there corresponds the identical 
operation of g; so that A, B, C, . . constitute a subgroup H of G. 
Moreover, if R ft any operation of G, the identical operation of g 
corresponds to every operation of R~'HR, and therefore H is a self- 
conjugate subgroup of G. Since S corresponds to s, and every opera- 
tion of H to the identical operation of g, therefore every operation of 
the set SA, SB, SC, . . ., which is represented by SH, corresponds to s. 
Also these are the only operations that correspond to s. The opera- 
tions of G may therefore be divided into sets, no two of which contain 
a common operation, such that the correspondence between the 
operations of G and g connects each of the sets H, SH, TH, UH, . . . 
with the single operations i , .v, /,,.. written below them. The sets 
into which the operations of G are thus divided combine among 
themselves by exactly the same laws as the operations of g. For if 
st = u, then SH.TH = UH, in the sense that any operation of the set 
SH followed by any operation of the set TH gives an operation of the 
set UH. 



The group g, abstractly considered, is therefore completely defined 
by the division of the operations of G into sets in respect of the self- 
conjugate subgroup H. From this point of view it is spoken of as the 
factor-group of G in respect of H, and is represented by the symbol 
G/H. Any composite group in a similar way defines abstractly a 
factor-group in respect of each of its self-conjugate subgroups. 

It follows from the definition of a group that it must always be 
possible to choose from its operations a set such that every operation 
of the group can be obtained by combining the operations of the set 
and their inverses. If the set is such that no one of the operations 
belonging to it can be represented in terms of the others, it is called a 
set of independent generating operations. Such a set of generating 
operations may be either finite or infinite in number. If A, B, . . ., E 
are the generating operations of a group, the group generated by 
them is represented by the symbol (A, B, . . ., E|. An obvious 
extension of this symbol is used such that (A, H) represents the group 
generated by combining an operation A with every operation of a 
group H ; (Hi, Hjj represents the group obtained by combining in all 
possible ways the operations of the groups HI and H 2 ; and so on. 
The independent generating operations of a group may be subject to 
certain relations connecting them, but these must be such that it is 
impossible by combining them to obtain a relation .expressing one 
operation in terms of the others. For instance, AB = BA is a relation 
conditioning the group |A, B| ; it does not, however, enable A to be 
expressed in terms of B, so that A and B are independent generating 
operations. 

Let O, O', O", ... be a set of objects which are interchanged among 
themselves by the operations of a group G, so that if S is any opera- 
tion of the group, and O any one of the objects, then O.S _ 
is an object occurring in the set. If it is possible to find an fj^ a 
operation S of the group such that O. S is any assigned one *1 y . tta 
of the set of objests, the group is called transitive in respect \j v ^f. 
of this set of objects. When this is not possible the group 
is called intransitive in respect of the set. If it is possible to find S so 
that any arbitrarily chosen n objects of the set, Oi, O2, . . ., O are 
changed by S into O'i, O'j, . . ., O' n respectively, the latter being also 
arbitrarily chosen, the group is said to be n-ply transitive. 

If O, O', O", ... is a set of objects in respect of which a group G is 
transitive, it may be possible to divide the set into a number of 
subsets, no two of which contain a common object, such that every 
operation of the group either interchanges the objects of a subset 
among themselves, or changes them all into the objects of some other 
subset. When this is the case the group is called imprimitive in 
respect of the set ; otherwise the group is called primitive. A group 
which is doubly-transitive, in respect of a set of objects, obviously 
cannot be imprimitive. 

The foregoing general definitions and explanations will now be 
illustrated by a consideration of certain particular groups. To begin 
with, as the operations involved are of the most familiar . 
nature, thegroupof rational arithmetic maybe considered. a * ; r "^ 
The fundamental operations of elementary arithmetic the group 
consist in the addition and subtraction of integers, and idea 
multiplication and division by integers, division by zero 
alone omitted. Multiplication by zero is not a definite operation, 
and it must therefore be omitted in dealing with those operations of 
elementary arithmetic which form a group. The operation that 
results from carrying out additions, subtractions, multiplications and 
divisions, of and by integers a finite number of times, is represented 
by the relation x' ax+b, where a and 6 are rational numbers of which 
o is not zero, x is the object of the operation, and *' is the result. 
The totality of operations of this form obviously constitutes a group. 

If S and T represent respectively the operations x'=ax+b and 
x' = cx+d, then T~'ST represents x' = ax+d-ad+bc. When a and b 
are given rational numbers, c and d may be chosen in an infinite 
number of ways as rational numbers, so that d-ad+bc shall be any 
assigned rational number. Hence the operations given by x' = ax+b, 
where a is an assigned rational number and b is any rational number, 
are all conjugate; and no two such operations for which the a's are 
different can be conjugate. If a is unity and b zero, S is the identical 
operation which is necessarily self-conjugate. If a is unity and b 
different from zero, the operation x' x-\-b is an addition. The 
totality of additions forms, therefore, a single conjugate set of opera- 
tions. Moreover, the totality of additions with the identical opera- 
tion, i.e. the totality of operations of the form x' = x+b, where b may 
be any rational number or zero, obviously constitutes a group. The 
operations of this group are interchanged among themselves when 
transformed by any operation of the original group. It is therefore 
a self-conjugate subgroup of the original group. 

The totality of multiplications, with the identical operation, i.e. all 
operations of the form x' =ax, where a is any rational number other 
than zero, again obviously constitutes a group. This, however, is not 
a self-conjugate subgroup of the original group. In fact, if the 
operations x'=ax are all transformed by x cx+d, they give rise 
to the set x' = ax+d(i-a). When d is a given rational number, the 
set constitutes a subgroup which is conjugate to the group of multi- 
plications. It is to be noticed that the operations of this latter sub- 
group may be written in the form x' d = a(x d). 

The totality of rational numbers, including zero, forms a set of 
objects which are interchanged among themselves by all operations 
of the group. 



628 



GROUPS, THEORY OF 



If *i and Xt are any pair of distinct rational numbers, and y, and yi 
any other pair, there is just one operation of the group which changes 
X! and Xt into y\ and yt respectively. For the equations y, =axi+b, 
yi=axt+b determine a and b uniquely. The group is therefore 
doubly transitive in respect of the set of rational numbers. If H is 
the subgroup that leaves unchanged a given rational number xi, 
and S an operation changing *i into Xt, then every operation of 
S-'HS leaves xi unchanged. The subgroups, each of which leaves a 
single rational number unchanged, therefore form a single conjugate 
set. The group of multiplications leaves zero unchanged ; and,' as 
has been seen, this is conjugate with the subgroup formed of all 
operations x'-d a(x-d), where d is a given rational number. 
This subgroup leaves d unchanged. 

The group of multiplications is clearly generated by the operations 
x' = px, where for p negative unity and each prime is taken in turn. 
Every addition is obtained on transforming x'=x+l by the different 
operations of the group of multiplications. Hence x' = x+i, and 
x = px, (p = -i, 3, 5, 7, . . .), form a set of independent generating 
operations of the group. It is a discontinuous group. 

As a second example the group of motions in three-dimensional 
space will be considered. The totality of motions, i.e. of space 
displacements which leave the distance of every pair of points 
unaltered, obviously constitutes a set of operations which satis- 
fies the group definition. From the elements of kinematics it is 
known that every motion is either (i.) a translation which leaves no 
point unaltered, but changes each of a set of parallel lines into 
itself; or (ii.) a rotation which leaves every point of one line unaltered 
and changes every other point and line; or (iii.) a twist which leaves 
no point and only one line (its axis) unaltered, and may be regarded 
as a translation along, combined with a rotation round, the axis. 
Let S be any motion consisting of a translation / along and a rotation 
a round a line AB, and let T be any other motion. There is some line 
CD into which T changes AB; and therefore T-'ST leaves CD un- 
changed. Moreover, T~'ST clearly effects the same translation along 
and rotation round CD that S effects for AB. Two motions, there- 
fore, are conjugate if and only if the amplitudes of their translation 
and rotation components are respectively equal. In particular, all 
translations of equal amplitude are conjugate, as also are all rotations 
of equal amplitude. Any two translations are permutable with each 
other, and give when combined another translation. The totality 
of translations constitutes, therefore, a subgroup of the general group 
of motions; and this subgroup is a self-conjugate subgroup, since a 
translation is always conjugate to a translation. 

All the points of space constitute a set of objects which are inter- 
changed among themselves by all operations of the group of motions. 
So also do all the lines of space and all the planes. In respect of each 
of these sets the group is simply transitive. In fact, there is an 
infinite number of motions which change a point A to A', but no 
motion can change A and B to A' and B' respectively unless the 
distance AB is equal to the distance A'B'. 

The totality of motions which leave a point A unchanged forms a 
subgroup. It is clearly constituted of all possible rotations about all 
possible axes through A, and is known as the group of rotations about 
a point. Every motion can be represented as a rotation about some 
axis through A followed by a translation. Hence if G is the group of 
motions and H the group of translations, G/H is simply isomorphic 
with the group of rotations about a point. 

The totality of the motions which bring a given solid to congruence 
with itself again constitutes a subgroup of the group of motions. 
This will in general be the trivial subgroup formed of the identical 
operation above, but may in the case of a symmetrical body be more 
extensive. For a sphere or a right circular cylinder the subgroups 
are those that leave the centre and the axis respectively unaltered. 
For a solid bounded by.plane faces the subgroup is clearly one 
of finite order. In particular, to each of the regular solids there 
corresponds such a group. That for the tetrahedron has 12 for its 
order, for the cube (or octahedron) 24, and for the icosahedron (or 
dodecahedron) 60. 

The determination of a particular operation of thegroupof motions 
involves six distinct measurements; namely, four to give the axis 
of the twist, one for the magnitude of the translation along the axis, 
and one for the magnitude of the rotation about it. Each of the six 
quantities involved may have any value whatever, and the group of 
motions is therefore a continuous group. On the other hand, a sub- 
group of the group of motions which leaves a line or a plane unaltered 
is a mixed group. 

We shall now discuss (i.) continuous groups, (ii.) discontinuous 
groups whose order is not finite, and (iii.) groups of finite order. 
For proofs of the statements, and the general theorems, the 
reader is referred to the bibliography. 

Continuous Groups. 

The determination of a particular operation of a given con- 
tinuous group depends on assigning special values to each one 
of a set of parameters which are capable of continuous variation. 
The first distinction regards the number of these parameters. 



If this number is finite, the group is called a finite continuous 
group; if infinite, it is called an infinite continuous group. 
In the latter case arbitrary functions must appear in theequations- 
defining the operations of the group when these are reduced to 
an analytical form. The theory of infinite continuous groups 
is not yet so completely developed as that of finite continuous 
groups. The latter theory will mainly occupy us here. 

Sophus Lie, to whom the foundation and a great part of the 
development of the theory of continuous groups are due, un- 
doubtedly approached the subject from a geometrical standpoint. 
His conception of an operation is to regard it as a geometrical 
transformation, by means of which each point of (^-dimensional) 
space is changed into some other definite point. 

The representation of such a transformation in analytical form 
involves a system of equations, 

*'.=/.(*i, xt, . . ., x,), (s = i, 2 ..... n), 

expressing x\, x't, . . ., x' n , the co-ordinates of the transformed point 
in terms of Xi, x t , . . ., x n , the co-ordinates of the original point. 
In these equations the functions/, are analytical functions of their 
arguments. Within a properly limited region they must be one- 
valued, and the equations must admit a unique solution with respect 
to *i, Xt, . . ., x n , since the operation would not otherwise be a 
definite one. 

From this point of view the operations of a continuous group, 
which depends on a set of r parameters, will be defined analytically 
by a system of equations of the form 

*' =/(*i. Xt, -t *! i. <**>> r), (* = I. 2, . . .,), (i.) 
where a\, at, . ., OT represent the parameters. If this operation be 
represented by A, and that in which 61, bt, . ., br are the parameters 
by B, then the operation AB is represented by the elimination 
(assumed to be possible) of x\, x't, . . ., *' between the equations(i.) 
and the equations 

*".=/.(*'.. x't ..... *'.; bi, 62 ..... W, (* = i. 2 ..... ). 

Since AB belongs to the group, the result of the elimination must be 
*" =/.(*i, Xt ..... x n ; ci, c ...... c r ), 

where Ci, Cj, . . ., c, represent another definite set of values of the 
parameters. Moreover, since A" 1 belongs to the group, the result 
of solving equations (i.) with respect to Xi, Xt, . . ., Xnmust be 
*.=/.(*'i, x', ..... *';<*i, dt ..... dr), (s = i,2 ..... n). 

Conversely, if equations (i.) are such that these two conditions are 
satisfied, they do in fact define a finite continuous group. 

It will be assumed that the r parameters which enter in equations 
(i.) are independent, i.e. that it is impossible to choose 
r' (<r) quantities in terms of which 01, 02, . . ., a, can Infinites/- 
be expressed. Where this is the case the group will mal opera- 
be spoken of as a "group of order r." Lie uses the Oonofa 
term " r-gliedrige Gruppe." It is to be noticed that the continuous 
word order is used in quite a different sense from that group. 
given to it in connexion with groups of finite order. 

In regard to equations (i.), which define the general operation of 
the group, it is to be noticed that, since the group contains the 
identical operation, these equations must for some definite set of 
values of the parameters reduce to x\=Xi, ^x' t =xi, . . .,*' = *. 
This set of values may, without loss of generality, be assumed to be 
simultaneous zero values. For if ii, it, . . ., i, be the values of the 
parameters which give the identical operation, and if we write 

a.=.+o, (s = l,2,...,r), 

then zero values of the new parametersoi, at, ..., a, give the identical 
operation. 

To infinitesimal values of the parameters, thus chosen, will corre- 
spond operations which cause an infinitesimal change in each of the 
variables. These are called infinitesimal operations. The most 
general infinitesimal operation of the group is that given by the 
system 

*'.-*. = *. = | : X+|>+ . . - +|V, (*-i, 2, ...,), 

where, in 3/,/3oi, zero values of the parameters are to be taken. Since 
01, 2 , . . . , Or are independent, the ratios of &a,, aj, . . . , So, are 
arbitrary. Hence the most general infinitesimal operation of the 
group may be written in the form 



where e\, et, . . . , e, are arbitrary constants, and St is an infinitesimal. 
If F(*i, Xt, . . , Xn) is any function of the variables, and if an 
infinitesimal operation of the group be carried out on the variables in 
F, the resulting increment of F will be 



If the differential operator 






GROUPS, THEORY OF 



629 



be represented by X it ( = i, 2 r), then the increment of F is 

given by 



When the equations (i.) denning the general operation of the group 
are given, the coefficients df,/d a,; which enter in these differential 
operators are functions of the variables which can be directly calcu- 
lated. 

The differential operator *eiX,+e 2 X 2 + ... +e r X r may then be 
regarded as denning the most general infinitesimal operation of the 
group. In fact, if it be for a moment represented by X, then 
(i +a/X)F is the result of carrying out the infinitesimal operation on 
F ; and by putting *i, x, . . . , x,, in turn for F, the actual infinitesimal 
operation is reproduced. By a very convenient, though perhaps 
hardly justifiable, phraseology this differential operator is itself 
spoken of as the general infinitesimal operation of the group. The 
sense in which this phraseology is to be understood will be made 
clear by the foregoing explanations. 

We suppose now that the constants i, e 2 , . . . ,e, have assigned 
values. Then the result of repeating the particular infinitesimal 
operation eiXi+e 2 X 2 + . . . +erX r or X an infinite number of times 
is some finite operation of the group. The effect of this finite opera- 
tion on F may be directly calculated. In fact, if St is the infinitesimal 
already introduced, then 

dF d?F 



Hence 



_, 
F '. 



f d?F, 
3^5+ 



It must, of course, be understood that in this analytical representa- 
tion of the effect of the finite operation on F it is implied that t is 
taken sufficiently small to ensure the convergence of the (in general) 
infinite series. 

When Xi, xt,.. . are written in turn for F, the system of equations 

*'. = (i+X+ X.X+. . . )x,, (s = i,2, . . . ,n) (ii.) 

represent the finite operation completely. If t is here regarded as a 
parameter, this set of operations must in themselves constitute a 
group, since they arise by the repetition of a single infinitesimal 
operation. That this is really the case results immediately from 
noticing that the result of eliminating F' between 

. P 



and 



F 



The group thus generated by the repetition of an infinitesimal 
operation is called a cyclical group; so that a continuous group 
contains a cyclical subgroup corresponding to each of its infinitesimal 
operations. 

The system of equations (ii.) represents an operation of the group 
whatever the constants e\, z, . . . , e, may be. Hence if eit, erf, . . . , e,t 
be replaced by 01,02,. . . , OT the equations (ii.) represent a set of 
operations, depending on r parameters and belonging to the group. 
They must therefore be a form of the general equations for any 
operation of the group, and are equivalent to the equations (i.). 
The determination of the finite equations of a cyclical group, when 
the infinitesimal operation which generates it is given, will always 
depend on the integration of a set of simultaneous ordinary differential 
equations. As a very simple example we may consider the case in 
which the infinitesimal operation is given by X=x*d/dx, so that there 
is only a single variable. The relation between v' and t is given by 
dx'/dt=x' 2 , with the condition that *' = * when / = o. This gives at 
once x' = x/(l-tx), which might also be obtained by the direct use of 
(ii.). 

When the finite equations (i.) of a continuous group of order r are 

known, it has now been seen that the differential operator which 

defines the most general infinitesimal operation of the 

'oas g rO up can De directly constructed, and that it contains' r 

between arbitrary constants. This is equivalent to saying that 

nifi i t ' ie 8 r ? u P contains r linearly independent infinitesimal 

aitesimai O p erat ; ons; anc i t h a t the most general infinitesimal 

operation is obtained by combining these linearly with 

' constant coefficients. Moreover, when any r independent 

inuous infinitesimal operations of the group are known, it has 

been seen how the general finite operation of the group 

may be calculated. This obviously suggests that it must be possible 

to define the group by means of its infinitesimal operations alone; 

and it is cjear that such a definition would lend itself more readily to 

some applications (for instance, to the theory of differential equations) 

than the definition by means of the finite equations. 

On the other hand, r arbitrarily given linear differential operators 
will not, in general, give rise to a finite continuous group of order r; 
and the question arises as to what conditions such a set of operators 



must satisfy in order that they may, in fact, be the independent 
infinitesimal operations of such a group. 

If X, Y are two linear differential operators, XY - YX is also a 
linear differential operator. It is called the " combinant " of X and 
Y (Lie uses the expression Klammerausdruck) and is denoted by 
(XY). If X, Y, Z are any three linear differential operators the 
identity (known a's Jacobi's) 

(X(YZ)) + (Y(ZX))-t-(Z(XY)) =o 

holds between them. Now it may be shown that any continuous 
group of which X, Y are infinitesimal operations contains also (XY) 
among its infinitesimal operations. Hence if r linearly independent 
operations Xi,X 2 , . . . , X, give rise to a finite continuous group of 
order r, the combinant of each pair must be expressible linearly in 
terms of the r operations themselves : that is, there must be a system 
of relations 



where the c's are constants. Moreover, from Jacobi's identity and the 
identity (XY)+(YX)=o it follows that the c's are subject to the 
relations 

Cijl+Cji t =0, ] 

and 2(CjkJi,,+cn,c i . t +Ci i ,Ck.,)=o > (">) 

| 
for all values of i, j, k and /. 

The fundamental theorem of the theory of finite continuous groups 
is now that these conditions, which are necessary in order 
that X,, X 2 , . . . , X, may generate, as infinitesimal ** 
operations, a continuous group of order r, are also '?"_: 
sufficient. distinct 

For the proof of this fundamental theorem see Lie's ype t s . 
works (cf. Lie-Engel, i. chap. 9; in. chap. 25). 

If two continuous groups of order r are such that, for 
each, a set of linearly independent infinitesimal operations 
Xi, X 2 , . . . , X r and YI, Y 2 , . . . , Y r can be chosen, so 
that in the relations 

(X.-X,-) = Sc iy .X,, (YiY,) =So-.-,-.Y., 

the constants dj, and dif, are the same for all values of i,j and s, the 
two groups are simply isomorphic, X, and Y. being corresponding 
infinitesimal operations. 

Two continuous groups of order r, whose infinitesimal operations 
obey the same system of equations (iii.), may be of very different 
form; for instance, the number of variables for the one may be 
different from that for the other. They are, however, said to be of 
the same type, in the sense that the laws according to which their 
operations combine are the same for both. 

The problenvof determining all distinct types of groups of order r 
is then contained in the purely algebraical problem of finding all the 
systems of r 3 quantities dj, which satisfy the relations 

Cijt+C iit =0, 

titftil) =O, 

I 

for all values of i, i, k and /. To two distinct solutions of the alge- 
braical problem, however, two distinct types of group will not 
necessarily correspond. In fact, Xi, X 2 , . . , X, may be replaced by 
any r independent linear functions of themselves, and the c's will 
then be transformed by a linear substitution containing r* inde- 
pendent parameters. This, however, does not alter the type of group 
considered. 

For a single parameter there is, of course, only one type of group, 
which has been called cyclical. 

For a group of order two there is a single relation 
(X,X,)=oX, + 0X,. 

If o and are not both zero, let a be finite. The relation may then 
be written (aX!+/3X 2 , a-'X 2 ) = aX,+0X 2 . Hence if aX,+/SX, = X'i, 
and a-'X 2 = X' 2) then (X'iX' 2 ) =X'i. There are, therefore, just two 
types of group of order two, the one given by the relation last written, 
and the other by (XiX 2 ) =o. 

Lie has determined all distinct types of continuous groups of 
orders three or four; and all types of non-integrable groups (a term 
which will be explained immediately) of orders five and six (cf. Lie- 
Engel, iii. 7I3-744)- 

A problem of fundamental importance in connexion with any given 
continuous group is the determination of the self-conjugate 
subgroups which it contains. If X is an infinitesimal * 
operation of a group, and Y any other, the general form '"*"'' 
of the infinitesimal operations which are conjugate to X is JJ 

X+(XY)+^((XY)Y) + . . . *"""" 

Any subgroup which contains all the operations conjugate to X must 
therefore contain all infinitesimal operations (XY), ((XY)Y) ..... 
where for Y each infinitesimal operation of the group is taken in turn. 
Hence if X'i, X'j, . . . , X', are i linearly independent operations of 
the group which generate a self-conjugate subgroup of order s, then 
for every infinitesimal operation Y of the group relations of the form 

(X'iY) = zV.X'., (*-i, 2. . .,*) 



630 



GROUPS, THEORY OF 



must be satisfied. Conversely, if such a set of relations is satisfied, 
X'ii X'2, . . . , X'. generate a subgroup of order s, which contains 
every operation conjugate to each of the infinitesimal generating 
operations, and is therefore a self-conjugate subgroup. 

A specially important self-conjugate subgroup is that generated 
by the combinants of the r infinitesimal generating, operations. That 
these generate a self-conjugate subgroup follows from the relations 
(iii.). In fact, 

((XiX,-)X t )=Sci,-.(X.X t ). 
i 

Of the Jr(r-i) combinants not more than r can be linearly inde- 
pendent. When exactly r of them are linearly independent, the self- 
conjugate group generated by them coincides with the original group. 
If the number that are linearly independent is less than r, the self- 
conjugate subgroup generated by them is actually a subgroup; i.e. 
its order is less than that of the original group. This subgroup is 
known as the derived group, and Lie has called a group perfect when 
it coincides with its derived group. A simple group, since it contains 
no self-conjugate subgroup distinct from itself, is necessarily a per- 
fect group. 

If G is a given continuous group, GI the derived group of G, Gi 
that of Gi, and so on, the series of groups G, GI, G2, . . will terminate 
either with the identical operation or with a perfect group; for the 
order of GUJ is less than that of G unless G, is a perfect group. 
When the series terminates with the identical operation, G is said 
to be an integrable group; in the contrary case G is called non- 
integrable. 

If G is an integrable group of order r, the infinitesimal opera- 
tions Xi, X 2 X r which generate the group may be chosen so 

that Xi, X2, . . ., Xrti ( r i<r) generate the first derived group, 
Xi, X 2 , . . ., Xrt, (r 2 <fi) the second derived group, and so on. 
When they are so chosen the constants dj, are clearly such that if 
r p <ii=r p+ i, r q <j^r q+ i, p^q, then dj, vanishes unless s^r p+i . 

In particular the generating operations may be chosen so that dj, 
vanishes unless i is equal to or less than the smaller of the two 
numbers i, j; and conversely, if the c's satisfy these relations, the 
group is integrable. 

A simple group, as already defined, is one which has no self- 
conjugate subgroup. It is a remarkable fact that the determination 
of all distinct types of simple continuous groups has been 
made, for in the case of discontinuous groups and groups 
groups. Q f g n j te order this is far from being the case. Lie has 
demonstrated the existence of four great classes of simple groups: 

(i.) The groups simply isomorphic with the general projective 
group in space of n dimensions. Such a group is defined analytically 
as the totality of the transformations of the form 

.+a., *+<! +! 



* 1 | i , 

where the a's are parameters. The order of this group is clearly 
n(n+2). 

(ii.) The groups simply isomorphic with the totality of the pro- 
jective transformations which transform a non-special linear complex 
in space of 2n I dimensions with itself. The order of this group is 



(iii.) and (iv.) The groups simply isomorphic with the totality of 
the projective transformations which change a quadric of non- 
vanishing discriminant into itself. These fall into two distinct 
classes of types according as n is even or odd. In either case the 
order is $n(n + i). The case n=3 forms an exception in which the 
corresponding group is not simple. It is also to be noticed that a 
cyclical group is a simple group, since it has no continuous self- 
conjugate subgroup distinct from itself. 

W. K. J. Killing and E. J. Cartan have separately proved that 
outside these four great classes there exist only five distinct types of 
simple groups, whose orders are 14, j>2, 78, 133 and 248; thus 
completing the enumeration of all possible types. 

To prevent any misapprehension as to the bearing of these very 
general results, it is well to point out explicitly that there are no 
limitations on the parameters of a continuous group as it has been 
defined above. They are to be regarded as taking in general complex 
values. If in the finite equations of a continuous group the imaginary 
symbol does not explicitly occur, the finite equations will usually 
define a group (in the general sense of the original definition) when 
both parameters and variables are limited to real values. Such a 
group is, in a certain sense, a continuous group; and such groups 
have been considered shortly by Lie (cf. Lie-Engel, iii. 360-392), 
who calls them real continuous groups. To these real continuous 
groups the above statement as to the totality of simple groups does 
not apply; and indeed, in all probability, the number of types of 
real simple continuous groups admits of no such complete enumera- 
tion. The effect of limitation to real transformations may be illus- 
trated by considering the groups of projective transformations which 
change 

and 



respectively into themselves. Since one of these quadrics is changed 
into the other by the imaginary transformation 

'x'=x, y'=y, z'=zV( i), 



the general continuous groups which transform the two quadrics 
respectively into themselves are simply isomorphic. This is not, 
however, the case for the real continuous groups. In fact, the second 
quadric has two real sets of generators; and therefore the real group 
which transforms it into itself has two self -conjugate subgroups, 
either of which leaves unchanged each of one set of generators. The 
first quadric having imaginary generators, no such self-conjugate 
subgroups can exist for the real groilp which transforms it into 
itself; and this real group is in fact simple. 

Among the groups isomorphic with a given continuous group there 
is one of special importance which is known as the adjunct 
group. This is a homogeneous linear group in a number of 
variables equal to theorderof the group.whose infinitesimal 
operations are defined by the relations group. 



where dj, are the often-used constants, which give the combinants of 
the infinitesimal operations in terms of the infinitesimal operations 
themselves. 

That the r infinitesimal operations thus defined actually generate a 
group isomorphic with the given group is verified by forming their 
combinants. It is thus found that (X p X 8 )=2c P8 ,X,. The X's, 

s 

however, are not necessarily linearly independent. In fact, the 
sufficient condition that 2a,X, should be identically zero is that 

ZdjCij, should vanish for all values of * and s. Hence if the equations 



2o,Ci/. = o for all values of * and s, have r' linearly independent 

solutions, only rr' of the X's are linearly independent, and the 

isomorphism of the two groups is multiple. If Yi, Yj Y r are 

the infinitesimal operations of the given group, the equations 

express the condition that the operations of the cyclical group 
generated by 2o,Y,- should be permutable with every operation of 

the group; in other words, that they should be self-conjugate 
operations. In the case supposed, therefore, the given group 
contains a subgroup of order r' each of whose operations is self- 
conjugate. The adjunct group of a given group will therefore be 
simply isomorphic with the group, unless the latter contains self- 
conjugate operations; and when this is the case the order of the 
adjunct will be less than that of the given group by the order of the 
subgroup formed of the self-conjugate operations. 

We have been thus far mainly concerned with the abstract theory of 
continuous groups, in which no distinction is made be- 
tween two simply isomorphic groups. We proceed to ^ ^""fi,. 
discuss the classification and theory of groups when "" 
their form is regarded as essential ; and this is a return 
to a more geometrical point of view. 

It is natural to begin with the projective groups, ^/men's/boa/ 
which are the simplest in form and at the same time are space 
of supreme importance in geometry. The general pro- ' 
jective group of the straight line is the group of order three 
given by 

,_oxb 
x ~cx+d' 
where the parameters are the ratios of a, b, c, d. Since 

X 3 X 2 X X i X% 2 X Xl 

x' 3 x'i'x'x'2~X3 Xi'XX 2 

is an operation of the above form, the group is triply transitive. 
Every subgroup of order two leaves one point unchanged, and all 
such subgroups are conjugate. A cyclical subgroup leaves either two 
distinct points or two coincident points unchanged. A subgroup 
which either leaves two points unchanged or interchanges them is 
an example of a " mixed ' group. 

The analysis of the general projective group must obviously 
increase very rapidly in complexity, as the dimensions of the space 
to which it applies increase. This analysis has been completely 
carried out for the projective group of the plane, with the result of 
showing that there are thirty distinct types of subgroup. Excluding 
the general group itself, every one of these leaves either a point, a 
line, or a conic section unaltered. For space of three dimensions Lie 
has also carried out a similar investigation, but the results are ex- 
tremely complicated. One general result of great importance at 
which Lie arrives in this connexion is that every projective group in 
space of three dimensions, other than the general group, leaves 
either a point, a curve, a surface or a linear complex unaltered. 

Returning now to the case of a single variable, it can be shown that 
any finite continuous group in -one variable is either cyclical or of 
order two or three, and that by a suitable transformation any such 
group may be changed into a projective group. 

The genesis of an infinite as distinguished from a finite continuous 
group may be well illustrated by considering it in the case of a single 
variable. The infinitesimal operations of the projective group in 
d d d Tf , f . i_. i A i- .- d 



one variable are 



, x 2 



^.. 



If these combined with 



be 



GROUPS, THEORY OF 



631 



taken as infinitesimal operations from which to generate a continuous 
group among the infinitesimal operations of the group, there must 

occur the combinant of x*^ and x 3 -^.. This is * 4 ^. The combinant 

of this and * 2 -r- is 2x 6 -j- and so on. Hence x r -r-, where r is any 
ax ax ux 

positive integer, is an infinitesimal operation of the group. The 
general infinitesimal operation of the group is therefore /(*);, where 

f(x) is an arbitrary integral function of x. 

In the classification of the groups, projective or non-projective 
of two or more variables, the distinction between primitive and 
imprimitive groups immediately presents itself. For groups of the 
plane the following question arises. Is there or is there not a singly- 
infinite family of curves f(x, y) = C, where C is an arbitrary constant 
such that every operation of the group interchanges the curves of the 
family among themselves? In accordance with the previously given 
definition of imprimitivity, the group is called imprimitive or 
primitive according as such a set exists or not. In space of three 
dimensions there are two possibilities ; namely, there may either be 
a singly infinite system of surfaces F (x, y,z)=C, which are inter- 
changed among themselves by the operations of the group; or 
there may be a doubly-infinite system of curves G(x, y, z)=a, 
H(x, y, z) = b, which are so interchanged. 

In regard to primitive groups Lie has shown that any primitive 
group of the plane can, by a suitably chosen transformation, be 
transformed into one of three definite types of projective groups; 
and that any primitive group of space of three dimensions can be 
transformed into one of eight definite types, which, however, cannot 
all be represented as projective groups in three dimensions. 

The results which have been arrived at for imprimitive groups in 
two and three variables do not admit of any such simple statement. 

We shall now explain the conception of contact-transformations 
and groups of contact-transformations. This concep- 
Coatact tion, like that of continuous groups, owes its origin to 
transfer- jj g 

matioas. From a purely analytical point of view a contact- 
transformation may be defined as a point-transformation in 2n+i 
variables, z, Xi, X 2 , . . ., x n , pi, fa, . . ., p n which leaves unaltered 
the equation dzpidxipzdxi . . . p n dx n = o. Such a definition 
as this, however, gives no direct clue to the geometrical properties 
of the transformation, nor does it explain the name given. 

In dealing with contact-transformations we shall restrict ourselves 
to space of two or of three dimensions; and it will be necessary to 
begin with some purely geometrical considerations. An infinitesimal 
surface-element in space of three dimensions is completely specified, 
apart from its size, by its position and orientation. If x, y, z are the 
co-ordinates of some one point of the element, and if p, q, -l give 
the ratios of the direction-cosines of its normal, x, y, z, p, q are five 
quantities which completely specify the element. There are, 
therefore, oo 6 surface elements in three-dimensional space. The 
surface-elements of a surface form a system of oo 2 elements, for there 
are co 2 points on the surface, and at each a definite surface-element. 
The surface-elements of a curve form, again, a system of oo 2 elements, 
for there are oo 1 points on the curve, and at each oo 1 surface-elements 
containing the tangent to the curve at the point. Similarly the 
surface-elements which contain a given point clearly form a system 
of oo 2 elements. Now each of these systems of oo 2 surface-elements has 
the property that if (x, y, z, p, g) and (x-\-dx, y+dy, z+dz, p+dp, 
q+dq) are consecutive elements from any one of them, then 
dz pdxqdy = o. In fact, for a system of the first kind dx, dy, dz 
are proportional to the direction-cosines of a tangent line at a point of 
the surface, and p, q, I are proportional to the direction-cosines of 
the normal. For a system of the second kind dx, dy, dz are pro- 
portional to the direction-cosines of a tangent to the curve, and 
p, q, -I give the direction-cosines of the normal to a plane touching 
the curve; and for a system of the third kind dx, dy, dz are zero. 
Now the most general way in which a system of oo 2 surface-elements 
can be given is by three independent equations between x, y, z, p 
and q. If these equations do not contain p, q, they determine one 
or more (a finite number in any case) points in space, and the system 
of surface-elements consists of the elements containing these points; 
i.e. it consists of one or more systems of the third kind. 

If the equations are such that two distinct equations independent 
of p and q can be derived from them, the points of the system ol 
surface-elements lie on a curve. For such a system the equation 
dz-pdx-qdy = o will hold for each two consecutive elements only 
when the plane of each element touches the curve at its own point. 

If the equations are such that only one equation independent ol 
p and q can be derived from them, the points of the system of surface- 
elements lie on a surface. Again, for such a system the equation 
dz-pdx-qdy = o will hold for each two consecutive elements only 
when each element touches the surface at its own point. Hence 
when all possible systems of oo 2 surface-elements in space are 
considered, the equation dz-pdx-qdy = o is characteristic of the 
three special types in which the elements belong, in the sense ex- 
plained above, to a point or a curve or a surface. 

Let us consider now the geometrical bearing of any transformation 
x'=fi(x, y, z, p, q) g.'=ft(x, y, a, p, q),o( the five variables. It 



will interchange the surface-elements of space among themselves, 
and will change any system of oo 2 elements into another system of 
oo 2 elements. A special system, i.e. a system which belongs to a 
joint, curve or surface, will not, however, in general be changed into 
another special system. The necessary and sufficient condition that 
a special system should always be changed into a special system is 
that the equation dz'-p'dx'-q'dy' = o should be a consequence of 
the eguation dz-pdx-qdy-o; or, in other words, that this latter 
equation should be invariant for the transformation. 

When this condition is satisfied the transformation is such as to 
change the surface-elements of a surface in general into surface- 
elements of a surface, though in particular cases they may become 
the surface-elements of a curve or point ; and similar statements 
may be made with respect to a curve or point. .The transformation 
is therefore a veritable geometrical transformation in space of three 
dimensions. Moreover, two special systems of surface-elements 
which have an element in common are transformed into two new 
special systems with an element in common. Hence two curves or 
surfaces which touch each other are transformed into two new curves 
or surfaces which touch each other. It is this property which leads 
to the transformations in question being called contact-transforma- 
tions. It will be noticed that an ordinary point-transformation is 
always a contact-transformation, but that a contact-transformation 
(in space of n dimensions) is not in general a point-transformation 
(in space of n dimensions), though it may always be regarded as a 
point-transformation in space of 2n+l dimensions. In the analogous 
theory for space of two dimensions a line-element, defined by (x, y, p), 
where I : p gives the direction-cosines of the line, takes the place of 
the surface-element ; and a transformation of x, y and p which leaves 
the equation dy-pdx = o unchanged transforms the oo 1 line-elements, 
which belong to a curve, into oo 1 line-elements which again belong 
to a curve ; while two curves which touch are transformed into two 
other curves which touch. 

One of the simplest instances of a contact-transformation that can 
be given is the transformation by reciprocal polars. By this trans- 
formation a point P and a plane p passing through it are changed into 
a plane p' and a point P' upon it ; i.e. the surface-element defined by 
P, p is changed into a definite surface-element defined by P', p'. 
The totality of surface-elements which belong to a (non-developable) 
surface is known from geometrical considerations to be changed into 
the totality which belongs to another (non-developable) surface. 
On the other hand, the totality of the surface-elements which belong 
to a curve is changed into another set which belong to a developable. 
The analytical formulae for this transformation, when the reciproca- 
tion is effected with respect to the paraboloid 3c 2 +y 2 -2z = o, are 
x' = p, y' = q, z' = px+qyz, p'=x, q' = y. That this is, in fact, a 
contact-transformation is verified directly by noticing that 
dz'p'dx'q'dy'= d(zpxqy)xdpydq = (dzpdxqdy). 
A second simple example is that in which every surface-element is 
displaced, without change of orientation, normal to itself through a 
constant distance t. The analytical equations in this case are easily 
found in the form 



pt 



y'=y+: 



qt 



P =2. 2 =2- 

That this is a contact-transformation is seen geometrically by noticing 
that it changes a surface into a parallel surface. Every point is 
changed by it into a sphere of radius t, and when / is regarded as a 
parameter the equations define a cyclical group of contact-trans- 
formations. 

The formal theory.of continuous groups of contact-transformations, 
is, of course, in no way distinct from the formal theory of continuous 
groups in general. On what may be called the geometrical side, the 
theory of groups of contact-transformations has been developed with 
very considerable detail in the second volume of Lie-Engel. 

To the manifold applications of the theory of continuous groups 
in various branches of pure and applied mathematics 
it is impossible here to refer in any detail. It must APP' lca ~ 
suffice to indicate a few of them very briefly. In some 
of the older theories a new point of view is obtained which 
presents the results in a fresh light, and suggests the 
natural generalization. As an example, the theory of 
the invariants of a binary form may be considered. 

If in the form /=ao"+noi3c"~ 1 y+ . . . +a n y", the variables be 
subjected to a homogeneous substitution 

and if the coefficients in the new form be represented by accenting the 
old coefficients, then 

o'l = Ooa'-^+Oi { ( i] 



_. 



and this is a homogeneous linear substitution performed on the 
coefficients. The totality of the substitutions, (i.), for which oi 
/3y = i, constitutes a continuous group of order 3, which is generated 

by the two infinitesimal transformations yjj anc ^ x dy- Hence with 



632 



GROUPS, THEORY OF 



the same limitations on a, 0, y, d the totality of the substitutions 
(ii.) forms a simply isomorphic continuous group of order 3, which is 
generated by the two infinitesimal transformations 

3' . 3.3, 3 



and 



The invariants of the binary form, i.e. those functions of the co- 
efficients which are unaltered by all homogeneous substitutions on 
x, y of determinant unity, are therefore identical with the functions 
of the coefficients which are invariant for the continuous group 
generated by the two infinitesimal operations last written. In other 
words, they are given by the common solutions of the differential 
equations 



Both this result and the method by which it is arrived at are well 
known, but the point of view by which we pass from the transforma- 
tion group of the variables to the isomorphic transformation group 
of the coefficients, and regard the invariants as invariants rather of 
the group than of the forms, is a new and a fruitful one. 

The general theory of curvature of curves and surfaces may in a 
similar way be regarded as a theory of their invariants for the group 
of motions. That something more than a mere change of phraseology 
is here implied will be evident in dealing with minimum curves, i.e. 
with curves such that at every point of them dx*+dy*-\-dz 1 = o. 
For such curves the ordinary theory of curvature has no meaning, 
but they nevertheless have invariant properties in regard to the 
group of motions. 

The curvature and torsion of a curve, which are invariant for all 
transformations by the group of motions, are special instances of 

7\ "f\ 

what are known as differential invariants. If J-+ipr- is the 



general infinitesimal transformation of a group of point-transforma- 
tions in the plane, and if y\, y 2 , . . . represent the successive differential 
coefficients of y, the infinitesimal transformation may be written in 
the extended form 



where rjiSt, rit&t, . . . are the increments of yi, y 2 , . . . By including 
a sufficient number of these variables the group must be intransitive 
in them, and must therefore have one or more invariants. Such 
invariants are known as differential invariants of the original group, 
being necessarily functions of the differential coefficients of the 
original variables. For groups of the plane it may be shown that not 
more than two of these differential invariants are independent, all 
others being formed from these by algebraical processes and differ- 
entiation. For groups of point-transformations in more than two 
variables there will be more than one set of differential invariants. 
For instance, with three variables, one may be regarded as inde- 
pendent and the other two as functions of it, or two as inde- 
pendent and the remaining one as a function. Corresponding to 
these two points of view, the differential invariants for a curve or 
for a surface will arise. 

If a differential invariant of a continuous group of the plane be 
equated to zero, the resulting]differential equation remains unaltered 
when the variables undergo any transformation-of the group. Con- 
versely, if an ordinary, differential equation /(x, y, yi, y 2 , . . . )=o 
admits the transformations of a continuous group, i.e. if the equation 
is unaltered when * and y undergo any transformation of the group, 
then.f(3;, y, y\, yj, . . . ) or some multiple of it must be a differential 
invariant of the group. Hence it must be possible to find two inde- 
pendent differential invariants o, /3 of the group, such that when 
these are taken as variables the differential equation takes the form 

F(a, /S,j^' g^2, . . . ) =o. This equation in o, will be of lower order 



than the original equation, and in general simpler to deal with. 
Supposing it solved in the form /3 = <(o), where for a, their values 
in terms of x, y, yi, y 2 ,_. . . are written, this new equation, containing 
arbitrary constants, is necessarily again of lower order than the 
original equation. The integration of the original equation is thus 
divided into two steps. This will show how, in the case of an ordinary 
differential equation, the fact that the equation admits a continuous 
group of transformations maybe taken advantage of for its integra- 
tion. 

The most important of the applications of continuous groups are 
to the theory of systems of differential equations, both ordinary and 
partial; in fact, Lie states that it was with a view to systematizing 
and advancing the general theory of differential equations that he 
was led to the development of the theory of continuous groups. It 
is quite impossible here to give any account of all that Lie and his 
followers have done in this direction. An entirely new mode of 
regarding the problem of the integration of a differential equation 



has been opened up, and in the classification that arises from it all 
those apparently isolated types of equations which in the older sense 
are said to be integrable take their proper place. It may, for instance, 
be mentioned that the question as to whether Monge s method will 
apply to the integration of a partial differential equation of the 
second order is shown to depend on whether or not a contact-trans- 
formation can be found which will reduce the equation to either 

g-j = o or >r-T- =O. It is in this direction that further advance in the 

theory of partial differential equations must be looked for. Lastly, 
it may be remarked that one of the most thorough discussions of the 
axioms of geometry hitherto undertaken is founded entirely upon the 
theory of continuous groups. 

Discontinuous Groups. 

We go on now to the consideration of discontinuous groups. 
Although groups of finite order are necessarily contained under 
this general head, it is convenient for many reasons to deal with 
them separately, and it will therefore be assumed in the present 
section that the number of operations in the group is not finite. 
Many large classes of discontinuous groups have formed the 
subject of detailed investigation, but a general formal theory 
of discontinuous groups can hardly be said to exist as yet. It 
will thus be obvious that in considering discontinuous groups 
it is necessary to proceed on different lines from those followed 
with continuous groups, and in fact to deal with the subject 
almost entirely by way of example. 

The consideration of a discontinuous group as arising from a set 
of independent generating operations suggests a purely abstract point 
of view in which any two simply isomorphic groups are 
indistinguishable. The number of generating operations f " . 
may be either finite or infinite, but the former case alone tiaas 
will be here considered. Suppose then that Si, 82 ..... Sn 
is a set of independent operations from which a group G is generated. 
The general operation of the group will be represented by the symbol 
SSj . . . S d , or S, where a, b ..... d are chosen from I, 2 ..... n, 
and a, /?,..., are any positive or negative integers. It may be 
assumed that no two successive suffixes in S are the same, for if b = a, 
then SSj may be replaced by S + ^. If there are no relations con- 
necting the generating operations and the identical operation, every 
distinct symbol S represents a distinct operation of the group. For if 

c' 



= i;andunlessa = ai, 6 = 61, ... ,a = ai,/S=/Si, ..., this is a relation 
connecting the generating operations. 

Suppose now that Ti, T 2 , . . . are operations of G, and that H is 
that self-conjugate subgroup of G which is generated by Ti, Tj, . . . 
and the operations conjugate to them. Then, of the operations that 
can be formed from Si, S 2 , . . ., S n , the set 2H, and no others, reduce 
to the same operation S when the conditions TI = I, Tj = I, . . . are 
satisfied by the generating operations. Hence the group which is 
generated by the given operations, when subjected to the conditions 
just written, is simply isomorphic with the factor-group G/H. 
Moreover, this is obviously true even when the conditions are such 
that the generating operations are no longer independent. Hence 
any discontinuous group may be defined abstractly, that is, in regard 
to the laws of combination of its operations apart from their actual 
form, by a set of generating operations and a system of relations 
connecting them. Conversely, when such a set of operations and 
system of relations are given arbitrarily they define in abstract 
form a single discontinuous group. It may, of course, happen that 
the group so defined is a group of finite order, or that it reduces to 
the identical operation only; but in regard to the general statement 
these will be particular and exceptional cases. 

An operation of a discontinuous group must necessarily be specified 
analytically by a system of equations of the form 

x',=f,(xi,x ...... x a ;a l ,a 1 ..... a,), (s = i,2, . . ., n), 

and the different operations of the group will be given by 
different sets of values of the parameters a\, at, . . . , a,. Properly 
No one of these parameters is susceptible of continuous "<"" 
variations, but at least one must be capable of taking a properly 
number of values which is not finite, if the group is not one Jj 
of finite order. Among the sets of values of the parameters """ 
there must be one which gives the identical transformation. n>up 
No other transformation makes each of the differences x\-x\, 
x'i-X2, . . ., x'n-Xn vanish. Let d be an arbitrary assigned positive 
quantity. Then if a transformation of the group can be found such 
that the modulus of each of these differences is less than d when the 
variables have arbitrary values within an assigned range of variation, 
however small d may be chosen, the group is said to be improperly 
discontinuous. In the contrary case the group is called properly 
discontinuous. The range within which the variables are allowed to 
vary may clearly affect the question whether a given group is 
properly or improperly discontinuous. For instance, the group 



GROUPS, THEORY OF 



633 



defined by the equation x' =>ax+b, where a and b are any rational 
numbers, is improperly discontinuous; and the group denned by 
x' = x+a, where a is an integer, is properly discontinuous, whatever 
the range of the variable. On the other hand, the group, to be later 

ax+b 



considered, defined by the equation x' ' 



where a, b, c, d are 



integers satisfying the relation ad-bc = l, is properly discontinuous 
when x may take any complex value, and improperly discontinuous 
when the range of x is limited to real values. 

Among the discontinuous groups that occur in analysis, a large 
number may be regarded as arising by imposing limitations on the 
range of variation of the parameters of continuous groups. If 

*'=/(*!. Xi, . . ., *; a,, 02, . . ., a,), (s = i,2 ), 

are the finite equations of a continuous group, and if C with para- 
meters Ci, c t , . . . , c, is the operation which results from carrying out 
A and B with corresponding parameters in succession, then the c's 
are determined uniquely by the a's and the b's. If the c's are rational 
functions of the a's and 6's, and if the a's and b's are arbitrary 
rational numbers of a given corpus (see NUMBER), the c's will be 
rational numbers of the same corpus. If the c's are rational integral 
functions of the a's and 6's, and the latter are arbitrarily chosen 
integers of a corpus, then the c's are integers of the same corpus. 
Hence in the first case the above equations, when the a's are limited 
to be rational numbers of a given corpus, will define a discontinuous 
group; and in the second case they will define such a group when 
the a's are further limited to be integers of the corpus. 
Linear A most important class of discontinuous groups are those 
dlscon- that arise in this way from the general linear continuous 
tlnuous group in a given set of variables. For n variables the 
groups. finite equations of this continuous group are 

x',=a,LXi+a a xi+ . . . +a tn x n , (f = i, 2 n), 

where the determinant of the a's must not be zero. In this case the 
c's are clearly integral lineo-linear functions of the a's and b's. 
Moreover, the determinant of the c's is the product of the determinant 
of the a's and the determinant of the 6s. Hence equations (ii.), 
where the parameters are restricted to be integers of a given corpus, 
define a discontinuous group; and if the determinant of the co- 
efficients is limited to the value unity, they define a discontinuous 
group which is a (self-conjugate) subgroup of the previous one. 

The simplest case which thus presents itself is that in which there 
are two variables while the coefficients are rational integers. This is 
the group defined by the equations 

x' = ax+by, ) 

y'=cx+dy, \ 

where a, b, c, d are integers such that ad-bc = i. To every operation 
of this group there corresponds an operation of the set defined by 

. oz+6 

z = \*' 

cz+a 

in such a way that to the product of two operations of the group 
there corresponds the product of the two analogous operations of 
the set. The operations of the set (iv.), where ad-bc = i, therefore 
constitute a group which is isomorphic with the previous group. 
The isomorphism is multiple, since to a single operation of the second 
set there correspond the two operations of the first for which a, 6, c, d 
and -a, -6, -c, -d are parameters. These two groups, which are 
of fundamental importance in the theory of quadratic forms and in 
the theory of modular functions, have been the object of very many 
investigations. 

Another large class of discontinuous groups, which have far- 
reaching applications in analysis, are those which arise in the first 
instance from purely geometrical considerations. By the 
combination and repetition of a finite number of geo- 
metrical operations such as displacements, projective 
transformations, inversions, &c., a discontinuous group of 
such operations will arise. Such a group, as regards the 
points of the plane (or of space), will in general be im- 
properly discontinuous; but when the generating opera- 
tions are suitably chosen, the group may be properly 
discontinuous. In the latter case the group may be 
represented in a graphical form by the division of the plane (or space) 
into regions such that no point of one region can be transformed into 
another point of the same region by any operation of the group, 
while any given region can be transformed into any other by a 
suitable transformation. Thus, let ABC be a triangle bounded by 
three circular arcs BC, CA, AB ; and consider the figure produced 
from ABC by inversions in the three circles of which BC, CA, AB are 
part. By inversion at BC, ABC becomes an equiangular triangle 
A'BC. An inversion in AB changes ABC and A'BC into equiangular 
triangles ABC' and A'BC'. Successive inversions at AB and BC 
then will change ABC into a series of equiangular triangles with B 
for a common vertex. ,,These will not overlap and will just fill in the 
space round B if the angle ABC is a submultiple of two right angles. 
If then the angles of ABC are submultiples of two right angles (or 
zero), the triangles formed by any number of inversions will never 
overlap, and to each operation consisting of a definite series of 
inversions at BC, CA and AB will correspond a distinct triangle into 
which ABC is changed by the operation. The network of triangles so 



Discon- 
tinuous 
groups 
arising 
from geo- 
metrical 
opera- 
tions. 



formed gives a graphical representation of the group that arises from 
the three inversions in BC, CA, AB. The triangles may be divided 
into two sets, those, namely, like A'BC', which are derived from ABC 
by an even number of inversions, and those like A'BC or ABC' pro- 
duced by an odd number. Each set are interchanged among them- 
selves by any even number of inversions. Hence the operations 
consisting of an even number of inversions form a group by them- 
selves. For this group the quadrilateral formed by ABC andA'BC con- 
stitutes a region, which is changed by every operation of the group into 
a distinct region (formed of two adjacent triangles), and these regions 
clearly do not overlap. Their distribution presents in a graphical 
form the group that arises by pairs of inversions at BC, CA, AB ; and 
this group is generated by the operation which consists of successive 
inversions at AB, BC and that which consists of successive inversions 
at BC, CA. The group defined thus geometrically may be presented 
in many analytical forms. If x, y and *', y' are the rectangular co- 
ordinates of two points which are inverse to each other with respect 
to a given circle, x' and y' are rational functions of x and y, and con- 
versely. Thus the group may be presented in a form in which each 
operation gives a birational transformation of two variables. If 
x+iy = z, x'+iy' = z', and if x', y' is the point to which x, y is trans- 
formed by any even number of inversions, then z' and z are connected 

by a linear relation z' = "^ ~\_ ^ where o, 0, y, I are constants (in 

general complex) depending on the circles at which the inversions are 
taken. Hence the group may be presented in the form of a group 
of linear transformations of a single variable generated by the two 



linear transformations 



n ' z +P' 



Z> _ 



a 2 z+ft 



wn j ch correspon j 



to pairs of inversions at AB, BC and BC, CA respectively. In 
particular, if the sides of the triangle are taken to be x = o, x*-\-y*- 
i =o, x i +y 1 +2x = o, the generating operations are found to be 
z' = z+i, z'= -e~ l ; and the group is that consisting of all trans- 

formations of the form z '~^^< where od-bc = l, a, 6, c, d being 

integers. This is the group already mentioned which underlies the 
theory of the elliptic modular functions; a modular function being 
a function of z which is invariant for some subgroup of finite index of 
the group in question. 

The triangle ABC from which the above geometrical construction 
started may be replaced by a polygon whose sides are circles. If 
each angle is a submultiple of two right angles or zero, the construc- 
tion is still effective to give a set of non-overlapping regions, which 
represent graphically the group which arises from pairs of inversions 
in the sides of the polygon. In their analytical form, as groups of 
linear transformations of a single variable, the groups are those on 
which the theory of automorphic functions depends. A similar 
construction in space, the polygons bounded by circular arcs being 
replaced by polyhedra bounded by spherical faces, has been used by 
F. Klein and Fricke to give a geometrical representation for groups 
which are improperly discontinuous when represented as groups of 
the plane. 

The special classes of discontinuousgroups that have been dealt with 
in the previous paragraphs arise directly from geometrical 
considerations. As a final example we shall refer briefly Group of 
to a class of groups whose origin is essentially analytical. * linear 
Let dlHeren- 

tlalequa- 



be a linear differential equation, the coefficients in which are 
rational functions of x, and let y\, y a , . . ., y n be a linearly inde- 
pendent set of integrals of the equation. In the neighbourhood of a 
finite value xe i of *, which is not a singularity of any of the coefficients 
in the equation, these integrals are ordinary power-series in x-x<>. 
If the analytical continuations of y\, y z , . . ., y n be formed for any 
closed path starting from and returning to * , the final values arrived 
at when x is again reached will be another set of linearly independent 
integrals. When the closed path contains no singular point of the 
coefficients of the differential equation, the new set of integrals is 
identical with the original set. If, however, the closed path encloses 
one or more singular points, this will not in general be the case. 
Let y'i, y'a, . . ., / be the new integrals arrived at. Since in the 
neighbourhood of x, every integral can be represented linearly in 
terms of y\, yi ..... y n , there must be a system of equations 



where the a's are constants, expressing the new integrals in terms of 
the original ones. To each closed path described by x there therefore 
corresponds a definite linear substitution performed on the y's. 
Further, if Si and S are the substitutions that correspond to two 
closed paths LI and LI, then to any closed path which can be con- 
tinuously deformed, without crossing a singular point, into L l 
followed by L, _there corresponds the substitution SiS. Let Li, 
Lj, . . .,L, be arbitrarily chosen closed paths starting from and return- 
ing to the same point, and each of them enclosing a single one ofthe 



634 



GROUPS, THEORY OF 



(r) finite singular points of the equation. Every closed path in the 
plane can be formed by combinations of these r paths taken either 
in the positive or in the negative direction. Also a closed path which 
does not cut itself, and encloses all the r singular points within it, is 
equivalent to a path enclosing the point at infinity and no finite 
singular point. If Si, Si, Si, ... ( S r are the linear substitutions that 
correspond to these r paths, then the substitution corresponding to 
every possible path can be obtained by combination and repetition 
of these r substitutions, and they therefore generate a discontinuous 
group each of whose operations corresponds to a definite closed path. 
The group thus arrived at is called the group of the equation. For 
a given equation it is unique in type. In fact, the only effect of 
starting from another set of independent integrals is to transform 
every operation of the group by an arbitrary substitution, while 
choosing a different set of paths is equivalent to taking a new set of 
generating operations. The great importance of the group of the 
equation in connexion with the nature of its integrals cannot here 
be dealt with, but it may be pointed out that if all the integrals of 
the equation are algebraic functions, the group must be a group of 
finite order, since the set of quantities y\, y ..... , y n can then only 
take a finite number of distinct values. 

Groups of Finite Order. 

We shall now pass on to groups of finite order. It is clear 
that here we must have to do with many properties which have 
no direct analogues in the theory of continuous groups or in 
that of discontinuous groups in general; those properties, 
namely, which depend on the fact that the number of distinct 
operations in the group is finite. 

Let Si, 82, Ss, . . . , SN denote the operations of a group Gof finite 
order N, Si being the identical operation. The tableau 

Si, $2, Sa, ... SN, 



, , , 

s, S2Ss, 0303 



SiS N , 



S N S N , 



when in it each compound symbol S P S, is replaced by the single 
symbol S r that is equivalent to it, is called the multiplication table 
of the group. It indicates directly the result of multiplying together 
in an assigned sequence any number of operations of the group. 
In each line (and in each column) of the tableau every operation of 
the group occurs just once. If the letters in the tableau are regarded 
as mere symbols, the operation of replacing each symbol in the first 
line by the symbol which stands under it in the pth line is a permuta- 
tion performed on the set of N symbols. Thus to the N lines of the 
tableau there corresponds a set of N permutations performed on the 
N symbols, which includes the identical permutation that leaves each 
unchanged. Moreover, if S P S 9 = S r , then the result of carrying out in 
succession the permutations which correspond to the *th and gth 
lines gives the permutation which corresponds to the rth line. 
Hence the set of permutations constitutes a group which is simply 
isomorphic with the given group. 

Every group of finite order N can therefore be represented in 
concrete form as a transitive group of permutations on N symbols. 

The order of any subgroup or operation of G is necessarily finite. 
If Ti( = Si), T 2 , . . ., T n are the operations of a subgroup H of G, 
and if 2 is any operation of G which is not contained in H, 
Properties the set o f operations ZTi, ST 2 , . . . , 2T n , or 2H, are all 
di s ti nc t f rO m each other and from the operations of H. 
. If the sets H and 2H do not exhaust the operations of G, 
"" and if 2' is an operation not belonging to them, then the 
order. operat ; ons o f t h e set 2'H are distinct from each other and 
from those of H and ZH. This process may be continued till the 
operations of G are exhausted. The order n of H must therefore be a 
factor of the order N of G. The ratio N/ is called the index of the 
subgroup H. By taking for H the cyclical subgroup generated by 
any operation S of G, it follows that the order of S must be a factor of 
the order of G. 

Every operation S is permutable with its own powers. Hence 
there must be some subgroup H of G of greatest possible order, such 
that every operation of .H is permutable with S. Every operation of 
H transforms S into itself, and every operation of the set H2 trans- 
forms S into the same operation. Hence, when S is transformed by 
every operation of G, just N/ distinct operations arise if n is the 
order of H. These operations, and no others, are conjugate to S 
within G; they are said to form a set of conjugate operations. 
The number of operations in every conjugate set is therefore a factor 
of the order of G. In the same way it may be shown that the number 
of subgroups which are conjugate to a given subgroup is a factor of 
the order of G. An operation which is permutable with every opera- 
tion of the group is called a self-conjugate operation. The totality 
of the self-conjugate operations of a group forms a self-conjugate 
Abelian subgroup, each of whose operations is permutable with every 
operation of the group. 

An Abelian group contains subgroups whose orders are any given 
factors of the order of the group. In fact, since every subgroup H 



th 

order. 



of an Abelian group G and the corresponding factor groups G/H are 
Abelian, this result follows immediately by an induction from the 
case in which the order contains n prime factors to that in which it 
contains n + 1. For a group which is not Abelian no general 
law can be stated as to the existence or non-existence of a 
subgroup whose order is an arbitrarily assigned factor theorem. 
of the order of the group. In this connexion the most important 
general result, which is independent of any supposition as to the 
order of the group, is known as Sylow's theorem, which states that if 
is the highest power of a prime p which divides the order of a 
group G, then G contains a single conjugate set of subgroups of 
order p", the number in the set being of the form I +kp. Sylow's 
theorem may be extended to show that if p*' is a factor of the order 
of a group, the number of subgroups of order p*' is of the form I +kp. 
If, however, p a ' is not the highest power of * which divides the order, 
these groups do not in general form a single conjugate set. 

The importance of Sylow's theorem in discussing the structure of 
a group of given order need hardly be insisted on. Thus, as a very 
simple instance, a group whose order is the product pip 2 of two 
primes (pi <p?) must have a self-conjugate subgroup of order pi, since 
the order of the group contains no factor, other than unity, of the 
form i+kpi. The same again is true for a group of order pi'pi, 
unless pi = 2, and 2 = 3. 

There is one otner numerical property of a group connected with 
its order which is quite general. If N is the order of G, and n a 
factor of N, the number of operations of G, whose orders are equal to 
or are factors of n, is a multiple of n. 

As already defined, a composite group is a group which contains 
one or more self-conjugate subgroups, whose orders are greater than 
unity. If H is a self-conjugate subgroup of G, the factor- 
group G/H may be either simple or composite. In the Com P s 
former case G can contain no self-conjugate subgroup K, " a ' series 
which itself contains H ; for if it did K/H would be a self- fa sroup. 
conjugate subgroup of G/H. When G/H is simple, H is said to be a 
maximum self-conjugate subgroup of G. Suppose now that G 
being a given composite group, G, Gi, G 2 , . . ., Gn, I is a series of 
subgroups of G, such that each is a maximum self-conjugate sub- 
group of the preceding; the last term of the series consisting of the 
identical operation only. Such a series is called a composition-series 
of G. In general it is not unique, since a group may have two or 
more maximum self-conjugate subgroups. A composition-series of 
a group, however it may be chosen, has the property that the number 
of terms of which it consists is alwavs the same, while the factor- 
groups G/Gi, Gi/G2, . . . , Gn differ only in the sequence in which 
they occur. It should be noticed that though a group defines uniquely 
the set of factor-groups that occur in its composition-series, the set 
of factor-groups do not conversely in general define a single type of 
group. When the orders of all the factor-groups are primes the group 
is said to be soluble. 

' If the series of subgroups G, H, K, . . ., L, I is chosen so that each 
is the greatest self-conjugate subgroup of G contained in the previous 
one, the series is called a chief composition-series of G. All such 
series derived from a given group may be shown to consist of the same 
number of terms, and to give rise to the same set of factor-groups, 
except as regards sequence. The factor-groups of such a series will 
not, however, necessarily be simple groups. From any chief com- 
position-series a composition-series may be formed by interpolating 
between any two terms H and K of the series for which H/K is not 
a simple group, a number of terms hi, fe, . ., h,', and it may be 
shown that the factor-groups H/hi, hi/hi, . . ., hr/K. are all simply 
isomorphic with each other. 

A group may be represented as isomorphic with itself by trans- 
forming all its operations by any one of them. In fact, if S p S a = Sr, 
then S~ 1 S p S.S~ 1 S g S = S~ 1 S r S. An isomorphism of the 
group with itself, established in this way, is called an ^^~ f 
inner isomorphism. It may be regarded as an operation p lsm * 
carried out on the symbols of the operations, being indeed jjT /? * 
a permutation performed on these symbols. The totality 
of these operations clearly constitutes a group isomorphic with the 
given group, and this group is called the group of inner isomorphisms. 
A group is simply or multiply isomorphic with its group of inner 
isomorphisms according as it does not or does contain self-conjugate 
operations other than identity. It may be possible to establish a 
correspondence between the operations of a group other than those 
given by the inner isomorphisms, such that if S' is the operation 
corresponding to S, then S'pS' 4 = S'r is a consequence of S P S 9 = S,. 
The substitution on the symbols of the operationspf a group resulting 
from such a correspondence is called an outer isomorphism. The 
totality of the isomorphisms of both kinds constitutes the group of 
isomorphisms of the given group, and within this the group of inner 
isomorphisms is a self-conjugate subgroup. Every set of conjugate 
operations of a group is necessarily transformed into itself by an 
inner isomorphism, but two or more sets may be interchanged by an 
outer isomorphism. 

A subgroup of a group G, which is transformed into itself by every 
isomorphism of G, is called a characteristic subgroup. A series of 
groups G, Gi, Gz, . . ., I, such that each is a maximum characteristic 
subgroup of G contained in the preceding, may be shown to have the 
same invariant properties as the subgroups of a composition series. 
A group which has no characteristic subgroup must be either a simple 



GROUPS, THEORY OF 



group or the direct product of a number of simply isomorphic 
simple groups. 

It has been seen that every group of finite order can be represented 
as a group of permutations performed on a set of symbols whose 
number is equal to the order of the group. In general such 
rmuta- a re p resentat j on j s possible with a smaller number of 
symbols. Let H be a subgroup of G, and let the operations 
* roups - of G be divided, in respect of H, into the sets H, S^H, 
SjH, . . . , S m H. If S is any operation of G, the sets SH, SSjH, 
SS 3 H, . . . , SS m H differ from the previous sets only in the sequence 
in which they occur. In fact, if SS P belong to the set S a H, then since 
H is a group, the set SS P H is identical with the set S,H. Hence, to 
each operation S of the group will correspond a permutation per- 
formed on the symbols of the m sets, and to the product of two 
operations corresponds the product of the two analogous permuta- 
tions. The set of permutations, therefore, forms a group isomorphic 
with the given group. Moreover, the isomorphism is simple unless 
for one or more operations, other than identity, the sets all remain 
unaltered. This can only be the case for S, when every operation 
conjugate to S belongs to H. In this case H would contain a self- 
conjugate subgroup, and the isomorphism is multiple. 

The fact that every group of finite order can be represented, 
generally in several ways, as a group of permutations, gives special 
importance to such groups. The number of symbols involved in such 
a representation is called the degree of the group. In accordance with 
the general definitions already given, a permutation-group is called 
transitive or intransitive according as it does or does not contain 
permutations changing any one of the symbols into any other. It is 
called imprimitive or primitive according as the symbols can or 
cannot be arranged in sets, such that every permutation of the group 
changes the symbols of any one set either among themselves or into 
the symbols of another set. When a group is imprimitive the 
number of symbols in each set must clearly be the same. 

The total number of permutations that can be performed on n 
symbols is n !, and these necessarily constitute a group. It is known 
as the symmetric group of degree re, the only rational functions of the 
symbols which are unaltered by all possible permutations being the 
symmetric functions. When any permutation is carried out on the 
product of the n(ni)/2, differences of the n symbols, it must either 
remain unaltered or its sign must be changed. Those permutations 
which leave the product unaltered constitute a group of order n 1/2, 
which is called the alternating group of degree re ; it is a self-conjugate 
subgroup of the symmetric group. Except when re = 4 the alternat- 
ing group is a simple group. A group of degree n, which is not con- 
tained in the alternating group, must necessarily have a self-conjugate 
subgroup of index 2, consisting of those of its permutations which 
belong to the alternating group. 

Among the various concrete forms in which a group of finite order 
can be presented the most important is that of a group of linear 
substitutions. Such groups have already been referred 
to in connexion with discontinuous groups. Here the 
number of distinct substitutions is necessarily finite; and 
to each operation S of a group G of finite order there will 
correspond a linear substitution s, viz. 



linear 
substitu- 
tions. 






-i, 2, 



on a set of m variables, such that if ST = U, then st = u. The linear 
substitutions s, t, u, . . . then constitute a group g with which G is 
isomorphic ; and whether the isomorphism is simple or multiple g is 
said to give a " representation " of G as a group of linear substitu- 
tions. If all the substitutions of g are transformed by the same 
substitution on the m variables, the (in general) new group of linear 
substitutions so constituted is said to be " equivalent " with g as a 
representation of G; and two representations are called " non- 
equivalent," or " distinct," when one is not capable of being trans- 
formed into the other. 

A group of linear substitutions on m variables is said to be " re- 
ducible " when it is possible to choose m' (<m) linear functions of 
the variables which are transformed among themselves by every 
substitution of the group. When this cannot be done the group is 
called " irreducible." It can be shown that a group of linear substi- 
tutions, of finite order, is always either irreducible, or such that the 
variables, when suitably chosen, may be divided into sets, each set 
being irreducibly transformed among themselves. This being so, it 
is clear that when the irreducible representations of a group of finite 
order are known, all representations may be built up. 

It has been seen at the beginning of this section that every group 
of finite order N can be presented as a group of permutations (i.e. 
linear substitutions in a limited sense) on N symbols. This group is 
obviously reducible; in fact, the sum of the symbols remain un- 
altered by every substitution of the group. The fundamental 
theorem in connexion with the representations, as an irreducible 
group of linear substitutions, of a group of finite order N is the 
following. 

If r is the number of different sets of conjugate operations in the 
group, then, when the group of N permutations is completely 
reduced, 

(i.) just r distinct irreducible representations occur: 



(ii.) each of these occurs a number of times equal to the number 
of symbols on which it operates : 

(iii.) these irreducible representations exhaust all the distinct 
irreducible representations of the group. 

Among these representations what is called the " identical " 
representation necessarily occurs, i.e. that in which each operation 
of the group corresponds to leaving a single symbol unchanged. If 
these representations are denoted by TI, r 2( . . . , T r , then any re- 
presentation of the group as a group of linear substitutions, or in 
particular as a group of permutations, may be uniquely represented 
by a symbol ScuTi, in the sense that the representation when com- 
pletely reduced will contain the representation I\ just o; times for 
each suffix i. 

A representation of a group of finite order as an irreducible group 
of linear substitutions may be presented in an infinite Q mu n 
number of equivalent forms. If cbaractcr- 

x'i = 2snXj(i, j = i , 2 m), istics. 

is the linear substitution which, in a given irreducible repre- 
sentation of a group of finite order G, corresponds to the operation 
S, the determinant 

$11 X S a ... Sim 



5ml 



,-x 



is invariant for all equivalent representations, when written as a 
polynomial in X. Moreover, it has the same value for S and S', if 
these are two conjugate operations in G. Of the various invariants 
that thus arise the most important is in +$22+ . . . +s mm , which is 
called the " characteristic " of S. If S is an operation of order p, its 
characteristic is the sum of m pth roots of unity ; and in particular, if 
S is the identical operation its characteristic is m. If r is the number 
of sets of conjugate operations in G, there is, for each representation 

of G as an irreducible group, a set of r characteristics: Xi, X X r , 

one corresponding to each conjugate set ; so that for the r irreducible 
representations just r such sets of characteristics arise. These are 

distinct, in the sense thatif *i, *2 *r are the characteristics for 

a distinct representation from the above, then Xi and *i are not 
equal for all values of the suffix i. It may be the case that the r 
characteristics for a given representation are all real. If this is so 
the representation is said to be self-inverse. In the contrary case 
there is always another representation, called the " inverse " repre- 
sentation, for which each characteristic is the conjugate imaginary 
of the corresponding one in the original representation. The 
characteristics are subject to certain remarkable relations. If h p 
denotes the number of operations in the plh conjugate set, while 
Xj, and A", are the characteristics of the pth conjugate set in I\ and 
T,, then 



according to r, and r, are not or are inverse representations, n being 
the order of G. 

Again 

according as the pth and gth conjugate sets are not or are inverse; 
the gth set being called the inverse of the pth if it consists of the 
inverses of the operations constituting the pth. 

Another form in which every group of finite order can be repre- 
sented is that known as a linear homogeneous group. -If 
in the equations 

*', = 0,1*1 +artx,+ . . . +a rm x m , (r = i, 2, . . . , m), 
which define a linear homogeneous substitution, the co- !!*' 
efficients are integers, and if the equations are replaced " 

by congruences to a finite modulus re, the system of congruences 
will give a definite operation, provided that the determinant of 
the coefficients is relatively prime to re. The product of two such 
operations is another operation of the same kind; and the total 
number of distinct operations is finite, since there is only a 
limited number of choices for the coefficients. The totality of these 
operations, therefore, constitutes a group of finite order; and such a 
group is known as a linear homogeneous group. If re is a prime the 
order of the group is 

(n m -i) (n m -n) . . . (n m -n m ~ l ). 

The totality of the operations of the linear homogeneous group for 
which the determinant of the coefficients is congruent to unity forms 
a subgroup. Other subgroups arise by considering those operations 
which leave a function of the variables unchanged (mod. n). All 
such subgroups are known as linear homogeneous groups. 

When the ratios only of the variables are considered, there arises a 
linear fractional group, with which the corresponding linear homo- 
geneous group is isomorphic. Thus, if p is a prime the totality of the 
congruences 

(mod. 



GROUSE 



constitutes a group of order *(^-l). This class of groups for various 
values of p is almost the only one which has been as yet exhaustively 
analysed. For all values of p except 3 it contains a simple self- 
conjugate subgroup of index 2. 

A great extension of the theory of linear homogeneous groups has 
been made in recent years by considering systems of congruences of 
the form 

x' r =a rl * 1 +a rt X 2 + . . . +O m Xm, (r=I, 2, . . . , m), 

in which the coefficients a,, are integral functions with real integral 
coefficients of a root of an irreducible congruence to a prime modulus. 
Such a system of congruences is obviously limited in numbers and 
defines a group which contains as a subgroup the group defined by 
the same congruences with ordinary integral coefficients. 

The chief application of the theory of groups of finite order is to 

the theory of algebraic equations. The analogy of equations of the 

_ second, third and fourth degrees would give rise to the 

Applies- expectation that a root of an equation of any finite degree 

"*' could be expressed in terms of the coefficients by a finite 

number of the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, 
division, and the extraction of roots; in other words, that the 
equation could be solved by radicals. This, however, as proved by 
Abel and Galois, is not the case: an equation of a higher degree than 
the fourth in general defines an algebraic irrationality which cannot 
be expressed by means of radicals, and the cases in which such an 
equation can be solved by radicals must be regarded as exceptional. 
The theory of groups gives the means of determining whether an 
equation comes under this exceptional . case, and of solving the 
equation when it does. When it does not, the theory proyides the 
means of reducing the problem presented by the equation to a 
normal form. From this point of view the theory of equations of the 
fifth degree has been exhaustively treated, and the problems pre- 
sented by certain equations of the sixth and seventh degrees have 
actually been reduced to normal form. 

Galois (see EQUATION) showed that, corresponding to every ir- 
reducible equation of the nth degree, there exists a transitive sub- 
stitution-group of degree n, such that every function of the roots, 
the numerical value of which is unaltered by all the substitutions of 
the group can be expressed rationally in terms of the coefficients, 
while conversely every function of the roots which is expressible 
rationally in terms of the coefficients is unaltered by the substitutions 
of the group. This group is called the group of the equation. In 
general, if the equation is given arbitrarily, the group will be the 
symmetric group. The necessary and sufficient condition that the 
equation may be soluble by radicals is that its group should be a 
soluble group. When the coefficients in an equation are rational 
integers, the determination of its group may be made by a finite 
number of processes each of which involves only rational arithmetical 
operations. These processes consist in forming resolvents of the 
equation corresponding to each distinct type of subgroup of the 
symmetric group whose degree is that of the equation. Each of the 
resolvents so formed is then examined to find whether it has rational 
roots. The group corresponding to any resolvent which has a rational 
root contains the group of the equation ; and the least of the groups 
so found is the group of the equation. Thus, for an equation of the 
fifth degree the various transitive subgroups of the symmetric group 
of degree five have to be considered. These are (i.) the alternating 
group; (ii.) a soluble group of order 20; (iii.) a group of order 10, 
self-conjugate in the preceding; (iv.) a cyclical group of order 5, 
self -conjugate in both the preceding. If X , *i, X 2 , Xj, x t are the roots 
of the equation, the corresponding resolvents may be taken to be 
those which have for roots (i.) the square root of the discriminant ; 
(ii.) the function (x,xi+XiX ? +x,Xa+x i x t +x t x i )(x x 2 +x 2 x t +X4Xi + 
XiXt+x&t,) ; (iii.) the function XtXi+XiXi+XiXs+XsXi+XAXo; and 
(iv.) the function xjxi+xfxz+xfxt+xfxt+xfx,,. Since the groups 
for which (iii.) and (iv.) are invariant are contained in that for 
which (ii.) is invariant, and since these are the only soluble groups 
of the set, the equation will be soluble by radicals only when the 
function (ii.) can be expressed rationally in terms of the coefficients. 



is known, then clearly xoxi -f-xiXz -f XiXs+xsXt+XfXo can be deter- 
mined by the solution of a quadratic equation. Moreover, the 
sum and product (xo-Nxi+<; 2 X2+***s+ 4 *4)* and (xo+e 4 #i+ 3 *2+ 
c'xt+oct) 6 can be expressed rationally in terms of XoXi+XiXs+XaUCa-t- 
XiX t +XtX<,, t, and the symmetric functions; being a fifth root of 
unity. Hence (x +exi+e'x2+e>x+t i x t ) 6 can be determined by the 
solution of a quadratic equation. The roots of the original equation 
are then finally determined by the extraction of a fifth root. The 
problem of reducing an equation of the fifth degree, when not 
soluble by radicals, to a normal form, forms the subject of Klein's 
Vorlesuneen uber das Ikosaeder. Another application of groups of 
finite order is to the theory of linear differential equations whose 
integrals are algebraic functions. It has been already seen, in the 
discussion of discontinuous groups in general, that the groups of such 
equations must be groups of finite order. To every group of finite 
order which can be represented as an irreducible group of linear 
substitutions on n variables will correspond a class of irreducible 
linear differential equations of the nth order whose integrals are 
algebraic. The complete determination of the class of linear differ- 



ential equations of the second order with all their integrals algebraic, 
whose group has the greatest possible order, viz. 120, has been 
carried out by Klein. 

AUTHORITIES. Continuous groups : Lie and Engel, Theorie der 
Transformalionsgruppen (Leipzig, vol. i., 1888; vol. ii., 1890; vol. 
iii., 1893); Lie and Scheffers, Vorlesungen uber gewohnliche Diffe- 
rentialgleichungen mil bekannten infinitesimalen Transformationen^ 
Leipzig, 1891); Idem, Vorlesungen uber continuierliche Gruppen 
Leipzig, 1893); Idem, Geometrie der Beruhrungstransformationen 
Leipzig, 1896); Klein and Schilling, Hohere Geometrie, vol. ii. 
lithographed) (Gottingen, 1893, for both continuous and discontinu- 
ous groups). Campbell, Introductory Treatise on Lie's Theory of 
Finite Continuous Transformation Groups (Oxford, 1903). Dis- 
continuous groups: Klein and Fricke, Vorlesungen uber die Theorie 
der elliptischen Modulfunktionen (vol. i., Leipzig, 1890) (for a full 
discussion of the modular group); Idem, Vorlesungen uber die 
Theorie der automorphen Funktionen (vol. i., Leipzig, 1897; vol. ii. 
pt. i., 1901) (for the general theory of discontinuous groups); 
Schoenflies, Krystattsysteme und Krystallstruktur (Leipzig, 1891) (for 
discontinuous groups of motions); Groups of finite order: Galois, 
(Euvres mathematiques (Paris, 1897, reprint); Jordan, Traite des 
substitutions et des equations algebriques (Paris, 1870); Netto, 
Substitutionentheorie und ihre Anwendung auf die Algebra (Leipzig, 
1882; Eng. trans, by Cole, Ann Arbor, U.S.A., 1892); Klein, 
Vorlesungen uber das Ikosaeder (Leipzig, 1884; Eng. trans, by 
Morrice, London, 1888) ; H. Vogt, Lemons sur la resolution algebrique 
des equations (Paris, 1895) ; Weber, Lehrbuch der Algebra (Braunsch- 
weig, vol. i., 1895; vol. ii., 1896; a second edition appeared in 
1898) ; Burnside, Theory of Groups ef Finite Order (Cambridge, 1897) ; 
Bianchi, Teoria dei gruppi di sostituzioni e delle equazioni algebriche 
(Pisa, 1899) ; Dickson, Linear Groups with an Exposition of the Galois 
Field Theory (Leipzig, 1901); De S6guier, Elements de la theorie des 
groupes abstraits (Paris, 1904). A summary with many references 
will be found in the Encyklopddie der mathematischen Wissenschaften 
(Leipzig, vol. i., 1898, 1899). (W. Bu.) 

GROUSE, a word of uncertain origin, 1 now used generally by 
ornithologists to include all the " rough-footed " Gallinaceous 
birds, but in common speech applied almost exclusively, when 
used alone, to the Telrao scolicus of Linnaeus, the Lagopus 
scoticus of modern systematists more particularly called in 
English the red grouse, but till the end of the i8th century 
almost invariably spoken of as the Moor-fowl or Moor-game. 
The effect which this species is supposed to have had on the 
British legislature, and therefore on history, is well known, for 
it was the common belief that parliament always rose when the 
season for grouse-shooting began (August I2th) ; while according 
to the Orkneyinga Saga (ed. Jonaeus, p. 356; ed. Anderson, 
p. 168) events of some importance in the annals of North Britain 
followed from its pursuit in Caithness in the year 1157. 

The red grouse is found on moors from Monmouthshire and 
Derbyshire northward to the Orkneys, as well as in most of the 
Hebrides. It inhabits similar situations throughout Wales and 
Ireland, but it does not naturally occur beyond the limits of 
the British Islands, 2 and is the only species among birds peculiar 
to them. The word " species " may in this case be used advisedly 
(since the red grouse invariably " breeds true," it admits of an 
easy diagnosis, and it has a definite geographical range); but 
scarcely any zoologist can doubt of its common origin with the 
willow-grouse, Lagopus albus (L. subalpinus or L. saliceli of some 
authors), that inhabits a subarctic zone from Norway across the 

1 It seems first to occur (O. Salusbury Brereton, Archaeologia, 
iii. 157) as " grows '' in an ordinance for the regulation of the royal 
household dated "apud Eltham, mens. Jan. 22 Hen. VIII.," i.e. 
1531, and considering the locality must refer to black game. It is 
found in an Act of Parliament I Jac. I. cap. 27, 2, i.e. 1603, and, 
as reprinted in the Statutes at Large, stands as now commonly spelt, 
but by many writers or printers the final e was omitted in the 1 7th 
and i8th centuries. In 1611 Cotgrave had " Poule griesche. A 
Moore-henne; the henne of the Grice [in ed. 1673 " Griece "] or 
Mooregame " (Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues, 
s.v. Poule). The most likely derivation seems to be from the old 
French word griesche, greoche or griais (meaning speckled, and 
cognate with griseus, grisly or grey), which was applied to some kind 
of partridge, or according to Brunette Latini (Tres. p. 211) to a 
quail, " porce que ele fu premiers trov6e en Grece."_ The Oxford 
Dictionary repudiates the possibility of " grouse " being a spurious 
singular of an alleged plural " grice," and, with regard to the possi- 
bility of " grows ' being a plural of " grow," refers to Giraldus 
Cambrensis (c. 1210), Topogr. Hib. opera ^(Rolls) v. 47: " gallinae 
campestres, quas vulgariter grutas vocant." 

2 It was successfully, though with much trouble, introduced by 
Mr Oscar Dickson on a tract of land near Gottenburg in Sweden 
(Svenska Jagarforbundets Nya Tidskrift, 1868, p. 64 et alibi). 



GROUSE 



63? 



continents of Europe and Asia, as well as North America from 
the Aleutian Islands to Newfoundland. The red grouse indeed 
is rarely or never found away from the heather on which chiefly 
it subsists; while the willow-grouse in many parts of the Old 
World seems to prefer the shrubby growth of berry-bearing 
plants (Vaccinium and others) that, often thickly interspersed 
with willows and birches, clothes the higher levels or the lower 
mountain-slopes, and it flourishes in the New World where 
heather scarcely exists, and a "heath" in its strict sense is 
unknown. It is true that the willow-grouse always becomes 
white in winter, which the red grouse never does; but in summer 
there is a considerable resemblance between the two species, 
the cock willow-grouse having his head, neck and breast of nearly 
the same rich chestnut-brown as his British representative, and, 
though his back be lighter in colour, as is also the whole plumage 
of his mate, than is found in the red grouse, in other respects the 
two species are precisely alike. No distinction can be discovered 




\\ 



Red Grouse. 



in their voice, their eggs, their build, nor in their anatomical 
details, so far as these have been investigated and compared. 1 
Moreover, the red grouse, restricted as is its range, varies in 
colour not inconsiderably according to locality. 

Though the red grouse does not, after the manner of other 
members of the genus Lagopus, become white in winter, Scotland 
possesses a species of the genus which does. This is the ptar- 
migan, L. mutus or L. alpinus, which differs far more in structure, 
station and habits from the red grouse than that does from the 
willow-grouse, and in Scotland is far less abundant, haunting 

1 A very interesting subject for discussion would be whether 
Lagopus scoticus or L. albus has varied most from the common stock 
of both. Looking to the fact that the former is the only species of 
the genus which does not assume white clothing in winter, an 
evolutionist might at first deem the variation greatest in its case; 
but then it must be borne in mind that the species of Lagopus 
which turn white differ in that respect from all other groups of the 
family Tctraonidae. Furthermore every species of Lagopus (even 
L. leucurus, the whitest of all) has its first set of remiges coloured 
brown. These are dropped when the bird is about half-grown, and 
in all the species but L. scoticus white remiges are then produced. 
If therefore the successive phases assumed by any animal in the 
course of its progress to maturity indicate the phases through which 
the species has passed, there may have been a time when all the 
species of Lagopus wore a brown livery even when adult, and the 
white dress donned in winter has been imposed upon the wearers 
by causes that can be easily suggested. The white plumage of the 
birds of this group protects them from danger during the snows of 
a protracted winter. But the red grouse, instead of perpetuating 
directly the more ancient properties of an original Lagopus that 
underwent no great seasonal change of plumage, may derive its 
ancestry from the widely-ranging willow-grouse, which in an epoch 
comparatively recent (in the geological sense) may have stocked 
Britain, and left descendants that, under conditions in which the 
assumption of a white garb would be almost fatal to the preservation 
of the species, have reverted (though doubtless with some modifica- 
tions) to a comparative immuiabiTity essentially the same as that 
of the primal Lagopus. 



only the highest and most barren mountains. It is said to have 
formerly inhabited both Wales and England, but there is no 
evidence of its appearance in Ireland. On the continent of 
Europe it is found most numerously in Norway, but at an 
elevation far above the growth of trees, and it occurs on the 
Pyrenees and on the Alps. It also inhabits northern Russia. 




Ptarmigan. 

In North America, Greenland and Iceland it is represented by a 
very nearly allied form so much so indeed that it is only at 
certain seasons that the slight difference between them can be 
detected. This form is the L. rupestris of authors, and it would 
appear to be found also in Siberia (Ibis, 1879, p. 148). Spitz- 
bergen is inhabited by a large form which has received recogni- 




Blackcock. 

tion as L. hemileucurus, and the northern end of the chain of 
the Rocky Mountains is tenanted by a very distinct species, the 
smallest and perhaps the most beautiful of the genus, L. leucurus, 
which has all the feathers of the tail white. 

The bird, however, to which the name of grouse in all strictness 
belongs is probably the Tetrao tetrix of Linnaeus the blackcock 
and greyhen, as the sexes are respectively called. It is distri- 
buted over most of the heath-country of England, except in 
East Anglia, where attempts to introduce it have been only 
partially successful. It also occurs in North Wales and very 



6 3 8 



GROVE, SIR G. GRUB 



generally throughout Scotland, though not in Orkney, Shetland 
or the Outer Hebrides, nor in Ireland. On the continent of 
Europe it has a very wide range, and it extends into Siberia. 
In Georgia its place is taken by a distinct species, on which a 
Polish naturalist (Proc. Zool. Society, 1875, p. 267) has conferred 
the name 9f T. mlokosiewiczi. Both these birds have much in 
common with their larger congener the capercally and its eastern 
representative. 

The species of the genus Bonasa, of which the European 
B. syhestris is the type, does not inhabit the British Islands. 
It is perhaps the most delicate game-bird that comes to table. 
It is the gelinotte of the French, the Haselhuhn of Germans, 
and Hjerpe of Scandinavians. Like its transatlantic congener 

B. umbellus, the ruffed grouse or birch-partridge (of which there 
are two other local forms, B. umbelloides and B. sabinii), it is 
purely a forest-bird. The same may be said of the species of 
Canace, of which two forms are found in America, C. canadensis , 
the spruce-partridge, and C. franklini, and also of the Siberian 

C. falcipennis. Nearly allied to these birds is the group known 
as Dendragapus, containing three large and fine forms D. obscurus, 
D.fuliginosus,a.nd D. richardsoni all peculiar to North America. 
Then there are Centrocercus urophasianus, the sage-cock of the 
plains of Columbia and California, and Pedioecetes, the sharp- 
tailed grouse, with its two forms, P. phasianellus and P. colum- 
bianus, while finally Cupidonia, the prairie-hen, also with two 
local forms, C. cupido and C. pallidicincta, is a bird that in the 
United States of America possesses considerable economic value, 
enormous numbers being consumed there, and also exported 
to Europe. 

The various sorts of grouse are nearly all figured in Elliot's Mono- 
graph of the Tetraoninae, and an excellent account of the American 
species is given in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway's North American 
Birds (iii. 414-465). See also SHOOTING. (A. N.) 

GROVE, SIR GEORGE (1820-1900), English writer on music, 
was born at Clapham on the I3th of August 1820. He was 
articled to a civil engineer, and worked for two years in a factory 
near Glasgow. In 1841 and 1845 he was employed in the West 
Indies, erecting lighthouses in Jamaica and Bermuda. In 1849 
he became secretary to the Society of Arts, and in 1852 to the 
Crystal Palace. In this capacity his natural love of music and 
enthusiasm for the art found a splendid opening, and he threw 
all the weight of his influence into the task of promoting the best 
music of all schools in connexion with the weekly and daily 
concerts at Sydenham, which had a long and honourable career 
under the direction -of Mr (afterwards Sir) August Manns. 
Without Sir George Grove that eminent conductor would hardly 
have succeeded in doing what he did to encourage young com- 
posers and to educate the British public in music. Grove's 
analyses of the Beethoven symphonies, and the other works 
presented at the concerts, set the pattern of what such things 
should be; and it was as a result of these, and of the fact that 
he was editor of Macmillan's Magazine from 1868 to 1883, that 
the scheme of his famous Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 
published from 1878 to 1889 (new edition, edited by J. A. Fuller 
Maitland, 1904-1907), was conceived and executed. His own 
articles in that work on Beethoven, Mendelssohn and Schubert 
are monuments of a special kind of learning, and that the rest 
of the book is a little thrown out of balance owing to their great 
length is hardly to be regretted. Long before this he had con- 
tributed to the Dictionary of the Bible, and had promoted the 
foundation of the Palestine Exploration Fund. On a journey to 
Vienna, undertaken in the company of his lifelong friend, Sir 
Arthur Sullivan, the important discovery of a large number of 
compositions by Schubert was made, including the music to 
Rosamunde. When the Royal College of Music was founded in 
1882 he was appointed its first director, receiving the honour of 
knighthood. He brought the new institution into line with the 
most useful European conservatoriums. On the completion of 
the new buildings in 1894 he resigned the directorship, but 
retained an active interest in the institution to the end of his 
life. He died at Sydenham on the 28th of May 1900. 

His life, a most interesting one, was written by Mr Charles Graves. 

(J.A.F. M.) 



GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT (1811-1896), English judge 
and man of science, was born on the nth of July 1811 at Swansea, 
South Wales. After being educated by private tutors, he went 
to Brasenose College, Oxford, where he took an ordinary degree 
in 1832. Three years later he was called to the bar at Lincoln's 
Inn. His health, however, did not allow him to devote himself 
strenuously to practice, and he occupied his leisure with scientific 
studies. About 1839 he constructed the platinum-zinc voltaic 
cell that bears his name, and with the aid of a number of these 
exhibited the electric arc light in the London Institution, 
Finsbury Circus. The result was that in 1840 the managers 
appointed him to the professorship of experimental philosophy, 
an office which he held for seven years. His researches dealt very 
largely with electro-chemistry and with the voltaic cell, of which 
he invented several varieties. One of these, the Grove gas- 
battery, which is of special interest both intrinsically and as 
the forerunner of the secondary batteries now in use for the 
" storage " of electricity, was based on his observation that a 
current is produced by a couple of platinum plates standing 
in acidulated water and immersed, the one in hydrogen, the 
other in oxygen. At one of his lectures at the Institution he 
anticipated the electric lighting of to-day by illuminating the 
theatre with incandescent electric lamps, the filaments being of 
platinum and the current supplied by a battery of his nitric acid 
cells. In 1846 he published his famous book on The Correlation 
of Physical Forces, the leading ideas of which he had already 
put forward in his lectures: its fundamental conception was 
that each of the forces of nature light, heat, electricity, &c. is 
definitely and equivalently convertible into any other, and that 
where experiment does not give the full equivalent, it is because 
the initial force has been dissipated, not lost, by conversion into 
other unrecognized forces. In the same year he received a Royal 
medal from the Royal Society for his Bakerian lecture on 
" Certain phenomena of voltaic ignition and the decomposition 
of water into its constituent gases." In 1866 he presided over 
the British Association at its Nottingham meeting and delivered 
an address on the continuity of natural phenomena. But while he 
was thus engaged in scientific research, his legal work was not 
neglected, and his practice increased so greatly that in 1853 he 
became a Q.C. One of the best-known cases in which he appeared 
as an advocate was that of William Palmer, the Rugeley poisoner, 
whom he defended. In 1 87 1 he was made a judge of the Common 
Pleas in succession to Sir Robert Collier, and remained on the 
bench till 1887. He died in London on the ist of August 1896. 

A selection of his scientific papers is given in the sixth edition of 
The Correlation of Physical Forces, published in 1874. 

GROVE (O.E. graf, cf. O.E. grief a, brushwood, later " greave "; 
the word does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and 
the New English Dictionary finds no Indo-European root to 
which it can be referred; Skeat considers it connected with 
" grave," to cut, and finds the original meaning to be a glade 
cut through a wood), a small group or cluster of trees, growing 
naturally and forming something smaller than a wood, or planted 
in particular shapes or for particular purposes, in a park, &c. 
Groves have been connected with religious worship from the 
earliest times, and in many parts of India every village has its 
sacred group of trees. For the connexion of religion with sacred 
groves see TREE-WORSHIP. 

The word " grove " was used by the authors of the Authorized 
Version of the Bible to translate two Hebrew words: (i) 'eshel, as 
in Gen. xxi. 33, and I Sara. xxii. 6 ; this is rightly given in the 
Revised Version as "tamarisk"; (2) asherah in many places 
throughout the Old Testament. Here the translators followed the 
Septuagint SX<ros and the Vulgate lucus. The 'asherah was a 
wooden post erected at the Canaanitish places of worship, and also 
by the altars of Yahweh. It may have represented a tree. 

GROZNYI, a fortress and town of Russia, North Caucasia, 
in the province of Terek, on the Zunzha river, 82 m. by rail N.E. 
of Vladikavkaz, on the railway to Petrovsk. There are naphtha 
wells close by. The fortifications were constructed in 1819. 
Pop. (1897) 15,599- 

GRUB, the larva of an insect, a caterpillar, maggot. The 
word is formed from the verb " to grub," to dig, break up the 



GRUBER GRUN 



639 



surface of the ground, and clear of stumps, roots, weeds, &c. 
According to the New English Dictionary, " grub " may be 
referred to an ablaut variant of the Old Teutonic grab-, to dig, 
cf. " grave." Skeat (Etym. Diet. 1898) refers it rather to the root 
seen in " grope," " grab," &c., the original meaning " to search 
for." The earliest quotation of the slang use of the word in the 
sense of food in the New English Dictionary is dated 1659 from 
Ancient Poems, Ballads, &c., Percy Society Publications. " Grub- 
street," as a collective term for needy hack-writers, dates from 
the 1 7th century and is due to the name of a street near Moorfields, 
London, now Milton Street, which was as Johnson says " much 
inhabited by writers of small histories, dictionaries and temporary 
poems." 

GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1774-1831), German critic 
and literary historian, was born at Naumburg on the Saale, on 
the zgth of November 1774. He received his education at the 
town school of Naumburg and the university of Leipzig, after 
which he resided successively at Gottingen, Leipzig, Jena and 
Weimar, occupying himself partly in teaching and partly in 
various literary enterprises, and enjoying in Weimar the friend- 
ship of Herder, Wieland and Goethe. In 181 1 he was appointed 
professor at the university of Wittenberg, and after the division 
of Saxony he was sent by the senate to Berlin to negotiate the 
union of the university of Wittenberg with that of Halle. After 
the union was effected he became in 1815 professor of philosophy 
at Halle. He was associated with Jobann Samuel Ersch in the 
editorship of the great work Allgemeine Encyklopddie der Wissen- 
schaften und Kiinste; and after the death of Ersch he continued 
the first section from vol. xviii. to vol. liv. He also succeeded 
Ersch in the editorship of the Allgemeine Literaturzeitung. He 
died on the 7th of August 1851. 

Gruber was the author of a large number of works, the principal 
of which are Charaklerislik Herders (Leipzig, 1805), in conjunction 
with Johann T. L. Danz (1769-1851), afterwards professor of 
theology at Jena; Geschichte des menschlichen Geschlechts (2 vols., 
Leipzig, 1806); Wdrterbuch der altklassischen Mythologie (3 vols., 
Weimar, 1810-1815); Wielands Leben (2 parts, Weimar, 1815-1816), 
and Klopstocks Leben (Weimar, 1832). He also edited Wieland's 
Sdmtliche Werke (Leipzig, 1818-1828). 

GRUMBACH, WILHELM VON (1503-1567), German 
adventurer, chiefly known through his connexion with the 
so-called " Grumbach feuds" (Grumbachsche Handel), the last 
attempt of the German knights to destroy the power of the 
territorial princes. A member of an old Franconian family, 
he was born on the ist of June 1503, and having passed some 
time at the court of Casimir, prince of Bayreuth (d. 1527), fought 
against the peasants during the rising in 1524 and 1525. About 
1540 Grumbach became associated with Albert Alcibiades, the 
turbulent prince of Bayreuth, whom he served both in peace 
and war. After the conclusion of the peace of Passau in 1552, 
Grumbach assisted Albert in his career of plunder in Franconia 
and was thus able to take some revenge upon his enemy, Melchior 
von Zobel, bishop of Wiirzburg. As a landholder Grumbach 
was a vassal of the bishops of Wiirzburg, and had held office 
at the court of Conrad of Bibra, who was bishop from 1540 
to 1544. When, however, Zobel was chosen to succeed Conrad 
the harmonious relations between lord and vassal were quickly 
disturbed. Unable to free himself and his associates from the 
suzerainty of the bishop by appealing to the imperial courts he 
decided to adopt more violent measures, and his friendship with 
Albert was very serviceable in this connexion. Albert's career, 
however, was checked by his defeat at Sievershausen in July 
1553 and his subsequent flight into France, and the bishop took 
advantage of this state of affairs to seize Grumbach's lands. 
The knight obtained an order of restitution from the imperial 
court of justice (Reichskammergericht) , but he was unable to 
carry this into effect; and in April 1558 some of his partisans 
seized and killed the bishop. Grumbach declared he was 
innocent of this crime, but his story was not believed, and he 
fled to France. Returning to Germany he pleaded his cause in 
person before the diet at Augsburg in 1559, but without success. 
Meanwhile he had found a new patron in John Frederick, 
duke of Saxony, whose father, John Frederick, had been obliged 



to surrender the electoral dignity to the Albertine branch of his 
family. Chafing under this deprivation the duke listened 
readily to Grumbach's plans for recovering the lost dignity, 
including a general rising of the German knights and the deposi- 
tion of Frederick II., king of Denmark. Magical charms were 
employed against the duke's enemies, and communications 
from angels were invented which helped to stir up the zeal of 
the people. In 1563 Grumbach attacked Wiirzburg, seized and 
plundered the city and compelled the chapter and the bishop to 
restore his lands. He was consequently placed under the 
imperial ban, but John Frederick refused to obey the order of the 
emperor Maximilian II. to withdraw his protection from him. 
Meanwhile Grumbach sought to compass the assassination of the 
Saxon elector, Augustus; proclamations were issued calling 
for assistance; and alliances both without and within Germany 
were concluded. In November 1566 John Frederick was placed 
under the ban, which had been renewed against Grumbach 
earlier in the year, and Augustus marched against Gotha. 
Assistance was not forthcoming, and a mutiny led to the capitula- 
tion of the town. Grumbach was delivered to his foes, and, 
after being tortured, was executed at Gotha on the i8th of April 

1567- 

See F. Ortloff, Geschichte der Grumbachschen Handel (Jena, 
1868-1870), and J. Voigt, Wilhelm von Grumbach und seine Handel 
(Leipzig, 1846-1847). 

GRUMENTUM, an ancient town in the centre of Lucania, 
33 m. S. of Potentia by the direct road through Anxia, and 52 m. 
by the Via Herculia, at the point of divergence of a road eastward 
to Heraclea. It seems to have been a native Lucanian town, 
not a Greek settlement. In 215 B.C. the Carthaginian general 
Hanno was defeated under its walls, and in 207 B.C. Hannibal 
made it his headquarters. In the Social War it appears as a 
strong fortress, and seems to have been held by both sides at 
different times. It became a colony, perhaps in the time of 
Sulla, at latest under Augustus, and seems to have been of some 
importance. Its site, identified by Holste from the description 
of the martyrdom of St Laverius, is a ridge on the right bank 
of the Aciris (Agri) about 1960 ft. above sea-level, \ m. below 
the modern Saponara, which lies much higher (2533 ft.). Its 
ruins (all of the Roman period) include those of a large amphi- 
theatre (arena 205 by 197 ft.), the only one in Lucania, except 
that at Paestum. There are also remains of a theatre. Inscrip- 
tions record the repair of its town walls and the construction 
of thermae (of which remains were found) in 57-51 B.C., the 
construction in 43 B.C., of a portico, remains of which may be 
seen along an ancient road, at right angles to the main road, 
which traversed Grumentum from S. to N. 

See F. P. Caputi in Notizie degli scavi (1877), 129, and G. Patroni, 
ibid.(iSw) 1 80. (T. As.) 

GRUN. HANS BALDUNG (c. 1470-1545), commonly called 
Grim, a German painter of the age of Durer, was born at Gmiind 
in Swabia, and spent the greater part of his life at Strassburg and 
Freiburg in Breisgau. The earliest pictures assigned to him are 
altarpieces with the monogram H. B. interlaced, and the date 
of 1496, in the monastery chapel of Lichtenthal near Baden. 
Another early work is a portrait of the emperor Maximilian, 
drawn in 1501 on a leaf of a sketch-book now in the print-room at 
Carlsruhe. The "Martyrdom of St Sebastian" and the "Epiphany" 
(Berlin Museum), fruits of his labour in 1507, were painted for 
the market-church of Halle in Saxony. In 1509 Grim purchased 
the freedom of the city of Strassburg, and resided there till 1513, 
when he moved to Freiburg in Breisgau. There he began a 
series of large compositions, which he finished in 1516, and placed 
on the high altar of the Freiburg cathedral. He purchased anew 
the freedom of Strassburg in 1517, resided in that city as his 
domicile, and died a member of its great town council 1545. 

Though nothing is known of Griin's youth and education, 
it may be inferred from his style that he was no stranger to 
the school of which Durer was the chief. Gmund is but 
50 m. distant on either side from Augsburg and Nuremberg. 
Griin's prints were often mistaken for those of Durer; and 
Durer himself was well acquainted with Griin's woodcuts and 



640 



GRUNBERG GRUNDY, S. 



copper-plates in which he traded during his trip to the Nether- 
lands (1520). But Grttn's prints, though Diireresque, are far below 
Durer, and his paintings are below his prints. Without absolute 
correctness as a draughtsman, his conception of human form is 
often very unpleasant, whilst a questionable taste is shown in 
ornament equally profuse and " baroque." Nothing is more 
remarkable in his pictures than the pug-like shape of the faces, 
unless we except the coarseness of the extremities. No trace is 
apparent of any feeling for atmosphere or light and shade. 
Though Grim has been commonly called the Correggio of the 
north, his compositions are a curious medley of glaring and 
heterogeneous colours, in which pure black is contrasted with pale 
yellow, dirty grey, impure red and glowing green. Flesh is a 
mere glaze under which the features are indicated by lines. 
His works are mainly interesting because of the wild and fantastic 
strength which some of them display. We may pass lightly over 
the "Epiphany" of 1507, the "Crucifixion" of 1512, or the 
" Stoning of Stephen " of 1522, in the Berlin Museum. There is 
some force in the " Dance of Death " of 1517, in the museum of 
Basel, or the "Madonna" of 1530, in the Liechtenstein Gallery 
at Vienna. Grtin's best effort is the altarpiece of Freiburg, 
where the " Coronation of the Virgin," and the " Twelve 
Apostles," the " Annunciation, Visitation, Nativity and Flight 
into Egypt," and the " Crucifixion," with portraits of donors, 
are executed with some of that fanciful power which Martin 
Schon bequeathed to the Swabian school. As a portrait painter 
he is well known. He drew the likeness of Charles V., as well 
as that of Maximilian; and his bust of Margrave Philip in the 
Munich Gallery tells us that he was connected with the reigning 
family of Baden as early as 1514. At a later period he had 
sittings from Margrave Christopher of Baden, Ottilia his wife, 
and all their children, and the picture containing these portraits is 
still in the grand-ducal gallery at Carlsruhe. Like Durer and 
Cranach, Griin became a hearty supporter of the Reformation. 
He was present at the diet of Augsburg in 1518, and one of his 
woodcuts represents Luther under the protection of the Holy 
Ghost, which hovers over him in the shape of a dove. 

GRUNBERG, a town of Germany, in Prussian Silesia, beauti- 
fully situated between two hills on an affluent of the Oder, 
and on the railway from Breslau to Stettin via Kiistrin, 36 m. 
N.N.W. of Glogau. Pop. (1905) 20,987. It hasa Roman Catholic 
and two Evangelical churches, a modern school and a technical 
(textiles) school. There are manufactures of cloth, paper, 
machinery, straw hats, leather and tobacco. The prosperity 
of the town depends chiefly on the vine culture in the neighbour- 
hood, from which, besides the exportation of a large quantity 
of grapes, about 700,000 gallons of wine are manufactured 
annually. 

GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI FREDERIK SEVERIN (1783-1872), 
Danish poet, statesman and divine, was born at the parsonage 
of Udby in Zealand on the 8th of September 1783. In 1791 he 
was sent to live at the house of a priest in Jutland, and studied 
at the free school of Aarhuus until he went up to the university 
of Copenhagen in 1800. At the close of his university life he 
made Icelandic his special study, until in 1 805 he took the position 
of tutor in a house on the island of Langeland. The next three 
years were spent in the study of Shakespeare, Schiller and Fichte. 
His cousin, the philosopher Henrik Steffens, had returned to 
Copenhagen in 1802 full of the teaching of Schelling and his 
lectures and the early poetry of Ohlenschlager opened the eyes 
of Grundtvig to the new era in literature. His first work, On the 
Songs in the Edda, attracted no attention. Returning to Copen- 
hagen in 1808 he achieved greater success with his Northern 
Mythology, and again in 1800-1811 with a long epic poem, the 
Decline of the Heroic Life in the North. The boldness of the 
theological views expressed in his first sermon in 1810 offended 
the ecclesiastical authorities, and he retired to a country parish 
as his father's assistant for a while. From 1812 to 1817 he pub- 
lished five or six works, of which the Rhyme of Roskilde is the 
most remarkable. Fromi8i6toi8i9he was editor of a polemical 
journal entitled Dannevirke, and in 1818 to 1822 appeared his 
Danish paraphrases (6 vols.) of Saxo Grammaticus and Snorri. 



During these years he was preaching against rationalism to an 
enthusiastic congregation in Copenhagen, but he accepted in 
1821 the country living of Praesto, only to return to the metropolis 
the year after. In 1825 he published a pamphlet, The Church's 
Reply, against H. N. Clausen, who was professor of theology in 
the university of Copenhagen. Grundtvig was publicly prose- 
cuted and fined, and for seven years he was forbidden to preach, 
years which he spent in publishing a collection of his theological 
works, in paying two visits to England, and in studying Anglo- 
Saxon. In 1832 he obtained permission to preach again, and in 
1839 he became priest of the workhouse church of Vartov 
hospital, Copenhagen, a post he continued to hold until his death. 
In 1837-1841 he published Songs for the Danish Church, a rich 
collection of sacred poetry; in 1838 he brought out a selection 
of early Scandinavian verse; in 1840 he edited the Anglo- 
Saxon poem of the Phoenix, with a Danish transktion. He 
visited England a third time in 1843. From 1844 until after the 
first German war Grundtvig took a very prominent part in 
politics. In 1 86 1 he received the titular rank of bishop, but 
without a see. He went on writing occasional poems till 1866, 
and preached in the Vartov every Sunday until a month before 
his death. His preaching attracted large congregations, and he 
soon had a following. His hymn-book effected a great change 
in Danish church services, substituting the hymns of the national 
poets for the slow measures of the orthodox Lutherans. The 
chief characteristic of his theology was the substitution of the 
authority of the " living word " for the apostolic commentaries, 
and he desired to see each congregation a practically independent 
community. His patriotism was almost a part of his religion, 
and he established popular schools where the national poetry 
and history should form an essential part of the instruction. 
His followers are known as Grundtvigians. He was married three 
times, the last time in his seventy-sixth year. He died on the 
2nd of September 1872. Grundtvig holds a unique position in 
the literature of his country; he has been styled the Danish 
Carlyle. He was above all things a man of action, not an artist; 
and the formless vehemence of his writings, which have had a 
great influence over his own countrymen, is hardly agreeable 
or intelligible to a foreigner. The best of his poetical works were 
published in a selection (7 vols., 1880-1889) by his eldest son, 
Svend Hersleb Grundtvig (1824-1883), who was an authority on 
Scandinavian antiquities, and made an admirable collection of 
old Danish poetry (Danmarks gamle Folkeviser, 1853-1883, 
5 vols.; completed in 1891 by A. Olrik). 

His correspondence with Ingemann was edited by S. Grundtvig 
(1882); his correspondence with Christian Molbech by L. Schroder 
(1888); see also F. Winkel Horn, Grundtvigs Liv og Gjerning (1883); 
and an article by F. Nielsen in Bricka's Dansk Biografisk Lexikon. 

GRUNDY, SYDNEY (1848- ), English dramatist, was born 
at Manchester on the 23rd of March 1848, son of Alderman 
Charles Sydney Grundy. He was educated at Owens College, 
Manchester, and was called to the bar in 1869, practising in 
Manchester until 1876. His farce, A Little Change, was produced 
at the Haymarket Theatre in 1872. He became well known 
as an adapter of plays, among his early successes in this direction 
being The Snowball (Strand Theatre, 1879) from Oscar, ou le 
mari qui trompe sa femme by MM. Scribe and Duvergne, and 
In Honour Bound (1880) from Scribe's Une Chains. In 1887 
he made a popular success with The Bells of Haslemere, written 
with Mr H. Pettitt and produced at the Adelphi. In 1880-1890 
he produced two ingenious original comedies, A White Lie 
(Court Theatre) and A Fool's Paradise (Gaiety Theatre), which 
had been played two years earlier at Greenwich as The Mouse- 
Trap. These were followed by Sowing the Wind (Comedy, 1893), 
An Old Jew (Garrick, 1894), and by an adaptation of Octave 
Feuillet's Montjoye as A Bunch of Violets (Haymarket, 1894). In 
1894 he produced The New Woman and The Slaves of the Ring; 
in 1895, The Greatest of These, played by Mr and Mrs Kendal 
at the Garrick Theatre; The Degenerates (Haymarket, 1899), 
and A Debt of Honour (St James's 1900). Among Mr Grundy 's 
most successful adaptations were the charming Pair of Spectacles 
(Garrick, 1890) from Les Petits Oiseaux of MM. Labiche and 



GRUNDY, MRS GRUYERE 



641 



Delacour. Others were A Village Priest (Haymarket, 1890) 
from Le Secret de la terreuse, a melodrama by MM. Busnach and 
Cauvin; A Marriage of Convenience (Haymarket, 1897) from 
Un Mariage de Louis XV, by Alex. Dumas, pere, The Silver 
Key (Her Majesty's, 1897) from his Mile de Belle-isle, and The 
Musqueteers (1899) from the same author's novel; Frocks and 
Frills (Haymarket, 1902) from the Doigts defies of MM. Scribe 
and Legouve; The Garden of Lies (St James's Theatre, 1904) 
from Mr Justus Miles Forman's novel; Business is Business 
(His Majesty's Theatre, 1905), a rather free adaptation from 
Octave Mirbeau's Les A/aires sont les ajfaires; and The Diplo- 
matists (Royalty Theatre, 1905) from La Poudre aux yeux, 
by Labiche. 

GRUNDY, MRS, the name of an imaginary English character, 
who typifies the disciplinary control of the conventional " pro- 
prieties " of society over conduct, the tyrannical pressure of 
the opinion of neighbours on the acts of others. The name 
appears in a play of Thomas Morton, Speed the Plough (1798), 
in which one of the characters, Dame Ashfield, continually refers 
to what her neighbour Mrs Grundy will say as the criterion 
of respectability. Mrs Grundy is not a character in the play, 
but is a kind of " Mrs Harris " to Dame Ashfield. 

GRUNER, GOTTLIEB SIGMUND (1717-1778), the author of 
the first connected attempt to describe in detail the snowy 
mountains of Switzerland. His father, Johann Rudolf Gruner 
(1680-1761), was pastor of Trachselwald, in the Bernese 
Emmenthal (1705), and later (1725) of Burgdorf, and a great 
collector of information relating to historical and scientific 
matters; his great Thesaurus topographico-historicus totius 
ditionis Bernensis (4 vols. folio, 1729-1730) still remains in MS., 
but in 1732 he published a small work entitled Deliciae urbis 
Bernae, while he possessed an extensive cabinet of natural 
history objects. Naturally such tastes had a great influence 
on the mind of his son, who was born at Trachselwald, and 
educated by his father and at the Latin school at Burgdorf, not 
going to Berne much before 1736, when he published a dissertation 
on the use of fire by the heathen. In 1739 he qualified as a 
notary, in 1741 became the archivist of Hesse-Homburg, and in 
1743 accompanied Prince Christian of Anhalt-Schaumburg to 
Silesia and the university of Halle. He returned to his native 
land before 1749, when he obtained a post at Thorberg, being 
transferred in 1764 to Landshut and Fraubrunnen. It \vas in 
1760 that he published in 3 vols. at Berne his chief work, Die 
Eisgebirge des Schweizerlandes (bad French translation by M. 
de Keralio, Paris, 1770). The first two volumes are filled by 
a detailed description of the snowy Swiss mountains, based not 
so much on personal experience as on older works, and a very 
large number of communications received by Gruner from 
numerous friends; the third volume deals with glaciers in 
general, and their various properties. Though in many respects 
imperfect, Gruner's book sums up all that was known on the 
subject in his day, and forms the starting-point for later writers. 
The illustrations are very curious and interesting. In 1778 he 
republished (nominally in London, really at Berne) much of 
the information contained in his larger work, but thrown into 
the form of letters, supposed to be written in 1776 from various 
spots, under the title of Reisen durch die merkivurdigsien Gegcnden 
Heheliens (2 vols.). (W. A. B. C.) 

GRUNEWALD, MATHIAS. The accounts which are given of 
this German painter, a native of Aschaffenburg, are curiously 
contradictory. Between 1518 and 1530, according to statements 
adopted by Waagen and Passavant, he was commissioned by 
Albert of Brandenburg, elector and archbishop of Mainz, to 
produce an altarpiece for the collegiate church of St Maurice 
and Mary Magdalen at Halle on the Saale; and he acquitted 
himself of this duty with such cleverness that the prelate in 
after years caused the picture to be rescued from the Reformers 
and brought back to Aschaffenburg. From one of the churches 
of that city it was taken to the Pinakothek of Munich in 1836. 
It represents St Maurice and Mary Magdalen between four 
saints, and displays a style so markedly characteristic, and so 
like that of Lucas Cranach, that Waagen was induced to call 

XII. 21 



Grunewald Cranach's master. He also traced the same hand 
and technical execution in the great altarpieces of Annaberg 
and Heilbronn, and in various panels exhibited in the museums 
of Mainz, Darmstadt, Aschaffenburg, Vienna and Berlin. A 
later race of critics, declining to accept the statements of Waagen 
and Passavant, affirm that there is no documentary evidence to 
connect Grunewald with the pictures of Halle and Annaberg, 
and they quote Sandrart and Bernhard Jobin of Strassburg 
to show that Grunewald is the painter of pictures of a different 
class. They prove that he finished before 1516 the large altar- 
piece of Issenheim, at present in the museum of Colmar, and 
starting from these premises they connect the artist with Altdorf er 
and Diirer to the exclusion of Cranach. That a native of the 
Palatinate should have been asked to execute pictures for a 
church in Saxony can scarcely be accounted strange, since we 
observe that Hans Baldung (Grttn) was entrusted with a com- 
mission of this kind. But that a painter of Aschaffenburg should 
display the style of Cranach is strange and indeed incredible, 
unless vouched for by first-class evidence. In this case documents 
are altogether wanting, whilst on the other hand it is beyond 
the possibility of doubt, even according to Waagen, that the 
altarpiece of Issenheim is the creation of a man whose teaching 
was altogether different from that of the painter of the pictures 
of Halle and Annaberg. The altarpiece of Issenheim is a fine 
and powerful work, completed as local records show before 
1 516 by a Swabian, whose distinguishing mark is that he followed 
the traditions of Martin Schongauer, and came under the in- 
fluence of Altdorfer and Diirer. As a work of art the altarpiece 
is important, being a poliptych of eleven panels, a carved central 
shrine covered with a double set of wings, and two side pieces 
containing the Temptation of St Anthony, the hermits Anthony 
and Paul in converse, the Virgin adored by Angels, the Resurrec- 
tion, the Annunciation, the Crucifixion, St Sebastian, St Anthony, 
and the Marys wailing over the dead body of Christ. The author 
of these compositions is also the painter of a series of mono- 
chromes described by Sandrart in the Dominican convent, and 
now in part in the Saalhof at Frankfort, and a Resurrection in 
the museum of Basel, registered in Amerbach's inventory as 
the work of Grunewald. 

GRUTER (or GRUYTERE), JAN (1560-1627), a critic and 
scholar of Dutch parentage by his father's side and English by 
his mother's, was born at Antwerp on the 3rd of December 
1560. To avoid religious persecution his parents while he was 
still young came to England; and for some years he prosecuted 
his studies at Cambridge, after which he went to Leiden, where 
he graduated M. A. In 1 586 he was appointed professor of history 
at Wittenberg, but as he refused to subscribe the formula con- 
cordiae he was unable to retain his office. From 1589 to 1592 
he taught at Rostock, after which he went to Heidelberg, where 
in 1602 he was appointed librarian to the university. He died 
at Heidelberg on the 2oth of September 1627. 

Gruter's chief works were his Inscriptiones antiquae totius orbis 
Romani (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1603), and Lampas, sive fax artium 
liberalium (7 vols., Frankfort, 1602-1634). 
\ 

GRUYERE (Ger. Greyerz), a district in the south-eastern 
portion of the Swiss canton of Fribourg, famed for its cattle 
and its cheese, and the original home of the " Ranz des Vaches," 
the melody by which the herdsmen call their cows home at 
milking time. It is composed of the middle reach (from Mont- 
bovon to beyond Bulle) of the Sarine or Saane valley, with its 
tributary glens of the Hongrin (left), the Jogne (right) and the 
Treme (left), and is a delightful pastoral region (in 1901 it 
contained 17,364 cattle). It forms an administrative district 
of the canton of Fribourg, its population in 1900 being 23,111, 
mainly French-speaking and Romanists. From Montbovon 
(n m. by rail from Bulie) there are mountain railways lead- 
ing S.W. past Les Avants to Montreux (14 m.), and E. up the 
Sarine valley past Chateau d'Oex to Saanen or Gessenay (14 m.), 
and by a tunnel below a low pass to the Simme valley and Spiez 
on the Lake of Thun. The modern capital of the district is the 
small town of Bulle [Ger. Boll], with a 13th-century castle and in 
1900 3330 inhabitants, French-speaking and Romanists. But 

5 



642 



GRYNAEUS, J. J. GRYPHIUS 



the historical capital is the very picturesque little town of 
Gruyeres (which keeps its final " s " in order to distinguish it from 
the district), perched on a steep hill (S.E. of Bulle) above the 
left bank of the Sarine, and at a height of 2713 ft. above the 
sea-level. It is only accessible by a rough carriage road, and 
boasts of a very fine old castle, at the foot of which is the solitary 
street of the town, which in 1900 had 1389 inhabitants. 

The. castle was the seat of the counts of the Gruyere, who are 
first mentioned in 1073. The name is said to come from the 
word gruyer, meaning the officer of woods and forests, but the 
counts bore the canting arms of a crane (grue), which are seen 
all over the castle and the town. That valiant family ended 
(in the legitimate line) with Count Michel (d. 1573) whose extra- 
vagance and consequent indebtedness compelled him in 1555 to 
sell his domains to Bern and Fribourg. Bern took the upper 
Sarine valley (it still keeps Saanen at its head, but in 1798 lost 
the Pays d'En-Haut to the canton du Leman, which in 1803 
became the canton of Vaud). Fribourg took the rest of the 
county, which it added to Bulle and Albeuve (taken in 1537 from 
the bishop of Lausanne), and to the lordship of Jaun in the Jaun 
or Jogne valley (bought in 1502-1504 from its lords), in order to 
form the present administrative district of Gruyere, which is 
not co-extensive with the historical county of that name. 

See the materials collected by J. J. Hisely and published in suc- 
cessive vols. of the Memoires et documents de la suisse romande . . . 
introd. d, I'hist. (1851); Histoire (2 vols., 1855-1857); and Monu- 
ments de I'histoire (2 vols., 1867-1869); K. V. von Bonstetten, 
Briefe liber ein-schweiz. Hirtenland (1781) (Eng. trans., 1784); J. 
Reichlen, La Gruyere illustree (1890), seq. ; H. Raemy, La Gruyere 
(1867); and Les Alpes friboureeoises. by many authors (Lausanne, 
1908). (W. A. B. C.) 

GRYNAEUS (or GRYNER), JOHANN JAKOB (1540-1617), 
Swiss Protestant divine, was born on the ist of October 1540 at 
Bern. His father, Thomas (151 2-1 564) , was for a time professor 
of ancient languages at Basel and Bern, but afterwards became 
pastor of Roteln in Baden. He was nephew of the more eminent 
Simon Grynaeus (q.v.). Johann was educated at Basel, and in 
1559 received an appointment as curate to his father. In 1563 he 
proceeded to Tubingen for the purpose of completing his theo- 
logical studies, and in 1565 he returned to Roteln as successor 
to his father. Here he felt compelled to abjure the Lutheran 
doctrine of the Lord's Supper, and to renounce the formula 
concordiae. Called in 1575 to the chair of Old Testament 
exegesis at Basel, he became involved in unpleasant controversy 
with Simon Sulzer and other champions of Lutheran orthodoxy; 
and in 1584 he was glad to accept an invitation to assist in the 
restoration of the university of Heidelberg. Returning to Basel 
in 1586, after Simon Sulzer's death, as antistes or superintendent 
of the church there and as professor of the New Testament, he 
exerted for upwards of twenty-five years a considerable influence 
upon both the church and the state affairs of that community, 
and acquired a wide reputation as a skilful theologian of the 
school of Ulrich Zwingli. Amongst other labours he helped to 
reorganize the gymnasium in 1588. Five years before his death 
he became totally blind, but continued to preach and lecture 
till his death on the i3th of August 1617. 

His many works include commentaries on various books of the 
Old and New Testament, Theologica theoremata et problemata (1588), 
and a collection of patristic literature entitled Monumenta S. patrum 
orthodoxographa (2 vols., fol., 1569). 

GRYNAEUS, SIMON (1493-1541), German scholar and theo- 
logian of the Reformation, son of Jacob Gryner, a Swabian 
peasant, was born in 1493 at Vehringen, in Hohenzollern- 
Sigmaringen. He adopted the name Grynaeus from the epithet 
of Apollo in Virgil; He was a schoolfellow with Melanchthon 
at Pforzheim, whence he went to the university of Vienna, 
distinguishing himself there as a Latinist and Grecian. His 
appointment as rector of a school at Buda was of no long con- 
tinuance; his views excited the zeal of the Dominicans and he 
was thrown into prison. Gaining his freedom at the instance 
of Hungarian magnates, he visited Melanchthon at Wittenberg, 
and in 1524 became professor of Greek at the university of 
Heidelberg, being in addition professor of Latin from 1526. 
His Zwinglian view of the Eucharist disturbed his relations with 



his Catholic colleagues. From 1526 he had corresponded with 
Oecolampadius, who in 1529 invited him to Basel, which Erasmus 
had just left. The university being disorganized, Grynaeus 
pursued his studies, and in 1531 visited England for research 
in libraries. A commendatory letter from Erasmus gained him 
the good offices of Sir Thomas More. He returned to Basel 
charged with the task of collecting the opinions of continental 
reformers on the subject of Henry VIII. 's divorce, and was 
present at the death of Oecolampadius (Nov. 24, 1531). He now, 
while holding the chair of Greek, was appointed extraordinary 
professor of theology, and gave exegetical lectures on the New 
Testament. In 1534 Duke Ulrich called him to Wiirttemberg in 
aid of the reformation there, as well as for the reconstitution of 
the university of Tubingen, which he carried out in concert with 
Ambrosius Blarer of Constanz. Two years later he had an active 
hand in the so-called First Helvetic Confession (the work of 
Swiss divines at Basel in January 1536); also in the conferences 
which urged the Swiss acceptance of the Wittenberg Concord 
(1536). At the Worms conference (1540) between Catholics 
and Protestants he was the sole representative of the Swiss 
churches, being deputed by the authorities of Basel. He was 
carried off suddenly in his prime by the plague at Basel on the 
ist of August 1541. A brilliant scholar, a mediating theologian, 
and personally of lovable. temperament, his influence was great 
and wisely exercised. Erasmus and Calvin were among his 
correspondents. His chief works were Latin versions of Plutarch, 
Aristotle and Chrysostom. 

His son SAMUEL (1539-1599) was professor of jurisprudence 
at Basel. His nephew THOMAS (151 27-1564) was professor at 
Basel and minister in Baden, and left four distinguished sons 
of whom JOHANN JAKOB (1540-1617) was a leader in the religious 
affairs of Basel. The last of the direct descendants of Simon 
Grynaeus was his namesake SIMON (1725-1799), translator into 
German of French and English anti-deistical works, and author 
of a version of the Bible in modern German (1776). 

See Bayle's Dictionnaire; W. T. Streuber in Hauck's Realency- 
klopddie (1899); and for bibliography, Streuber's S. Grynaei epis- 
tolae (1847). (A. Go.*) 

GRYPHIUS, ANDREAS (1616-1664), German lyric poet and 
dramatist, was born on the nth of October 1616, at Grossglogau 
in Silesia, where his father was a clergyman. The family name 
was Greif, latinized, according to the prevailing fashion, as 
Gryphius. Left early an orphan and driven from his native 
town by the troubles of the Thirty Years' War, he received his 
schooling in various places, but notably at Fraustadt, where he 
enjoyed an excellent classical education. In 1634 he became 
tutor to the sons of the eminent jurist Georg von Schonborn 
(1570-1637), a man of wide culture and considerable wealth, 
who; after filling various administrative posts and writing many 
erudite volumes on law, had been rewarded by the emperor 
Ferdinand II. with the title and office of imperial count-palatine 
(Pfalzgraf). Schonborn, who recognized Gryphius's genius, 
crowned him poela laureatus, gave him the diploma of master 
of philosophy, and bestowed on him a patent of nobility, though 
Gryphius never used the title. A month later, on the 23rd of 
December 1637, Schonborn died; and next year Gryphius went 
to continue his studies at Leiden, where he remained six years, 
both hearing and delivering lectures. Here he fell under the 
influence of the great Dutch dramatists, Pieter Cornelissen Hooft 
(1581-1647) and Joost van den Vondel (1587-1679), who largely 
determined the character of his later dramatic works. After 
travelling in France, Italy and South Germany, Gryphius settled 
in 1647 at Fraustadt, where he began his dramatic work, and in 
1650 was appointed syndic of Glogau, a post he held until his 
death on the i6th of July 1664. A short time previously he had 
been admitted under the title of " The Immortal " into the 
Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft, a literary society, founded in i6r7 
by Ludwig, prince of Anhalt-Kothen on the model of the Italian 
academies. 

Gryphius was a man of morbid disposition, and his melancholy 
temperament, fostered by the misfortunes of his childhood, 
is largely reflected in his lyrics, of which the most famous are the 



GUACHARO GUACO 



643 



Kirchhofsgedanken (1656). His best works are his comedies, 
one of which, Absurda Comica, oder Herr Peter Squenlz (1663), 
is evidently based on the comic episode of Pyramus and Thisbe 
in The Midsummer Night's Dream. Die gelieble Dornrose (1660), 
which is written in a Silesian dialect, contains many touches of 
natural simplicity and grace, and ranks high among the compara- 
tively small number of German dramas of the 17th century. 
Horribilicribrifax (1663), founded on the Miles gloriosus of 
Plautus, is a rather laboured attack on pedantry. Besides 
these three comedies, Gryphius wrote five tragedies. In all of 
them his tendency is to become wild and bombastic, but he 
had the merit of at least attempting to work out artistically 
conceived plans, and there are occasional flashes both of passion 
and of imagination. His models seem to have been Seneca and 
Vondel. He had the courage, in Carolus Stuardus (1649) to deal 
with events of his own day; his other tragedies are Leo Armenius 
(1646); Katharina von Georgien (1657), Cardenio und Celinde 
(1637) and Papinianus (1663). No German dramatic writer 
before him had risen to so high a level, nor had he worthy 
successors until about the middle of the i8th century. 

A complete edition of Gryphius's dramas and lyric poetry has 
been published by H. Palm in the series of the Stuttgart Literarische 
Verein (3 yols., 1878, 1882, 1884). Volumes of selected works will 
be found in W. Muller's Bibliothek der deutschen" Dichter des i-jten 
Jahrhunderts (1822) and in J. Tittmann's Deutsche Dichter des ijten 
Jahrhunderts (1870). There is also a good selection by H. Palm in 
Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur. 

See O. Klopp, Andreas Gryphius als Dramatiker (1851); J. Her- 
mann, Uber Andreas Gryphius (1851); T. Wissowa, Beitrdge zur 
Kenntnis von Andreas Gryphius' Leben und Schriften (1876); J. 
Wysocki, Andreas Gryphius el la, tragedie allemande au XVII' 
siecle; and V. Mannheimer, Die Lyrik des Andreas Gryphius (1904). 

GUACHARO (said to be an obsolete Spanish word signifying 
one that cries, moans or laments loudly), the Spanish-American 
name of what English writers call the oil-bird, the Steatornis 
caripensis of ornithologists, a very remarkable bird, first described 
by Alexander von Humboldt (Voy. aux reg. equinoxiales 
i. 413, Eng. trans, iii. 119; Obs. Zoologie ii. 141, pi. xliv.) 
from his own observation and from examples obtained by 
Aime J. A. Bonpland, on the visit of those two travellers, in 
September 1799, to a cave near Caripe (at that time a monastery 
of Aragonese Capuchins) some forty miles S.E. of Cumana 
on the northern coast of South America. A few years later it 
was discovered, says Latham (Gen. Hist. Birds, 1823, vii. 365), 
to inhabit Trinidad, where it appears to bear the name of Dia- 
blotin; 1 but by the receipt of specimens procured at.Sarayacu 
in Peru, Cajamarca in the Peruvian Andes, and Antioquia 
in Colombia (Proc. Zool. Society, 1878, pp. 139, 140; 1879, 
p. 532), its range has been shown to be much greater than had 
been supposed. The singularity of its structure, its curious 
habits, and its peculiar economical value have naturally attracted 
no little attention from zoologists. First referring it to the genus 
Caprimulgus, its original describer soon saw that it was no true 
goatsucker. It was subsequently separated as forming a sub- 
family, and has at last been regarded as the type of a distinct 
family, Steatornithidae a view which, though not put forth till 
1870 (Zool. Record, vi. 67), seems now to be generally deemed 
correct. Its systematic position, however, can scarcely be 
considered settled, for though on the whole its predominating 
alliance may be with the Caprimulgidae, nearly as much affinity 
may be traced to the Strigidae, while it possesses some characters 
in which it differs from both (Proc. Zool. Society, 1873, pp. 
526-535). About as big as a crow, its plumage exhibits the 
blended tints of chocolate-colour and grey, barred and pencilled 
with dark-brown or black, and spotted in places with white, 
that prevail in the two families just named. The beak is hard, 
strong and deeply notched, the nostrils are prominent, and the 
gape is furnished with twelve long hairs on each side. The legs 
and toes are comparatively feeble, but the wings are large. In 
habits the guacharo is wholly nocturnal, slumbering by day 
in deep and dark caverns which it frequents in vast numbers. 
Towards evening it arouses itself, and, with croaking and 

1 Not to be confounded with the bird so called in the French 
Antilles, which is a petrel (Oestrelata). 



clattering which has been likened to that of castanets, it 
approaches the exit of its retreat, whence at nightfall it issues 
in search of its food, which, so far as is known, consists entirely 
of oily nuts or fruits, belonging especially to the genera Achras, 
Aiphanas, Laurus and Psichotria, some of them sought, it would 
seem, at a very great distance, for Funck ( Bull. A cad. Sc. Bruxelles 
xi. pt. 2, pp. 371-377) states that in the stomach of one he 
obtained at Carip6 he found the seed of a tree which he believed 
did not grow nearer than 86 leagues. The haid, indigestible 
seed swallowed by the guacharo are found in quantities on the 
floor and the ledges of the caverns it frequents, where many of 
them for a time vegetate, the plants thus growing being etiolated 
from want of light, and, according to travellers, forming a 
singular feature of the gloomy scene which these places present. 
The guacharo is said to build a bowl-like nest of clay, in which 
it lays from two to four white eggs, with a smooth but lustreless 
surface, resembling those of some owls. The young soon after 
they are hatched become a perfect mass of fat, and while yet in 
the nest are sought by the Indians, who at Caripe', and perhaps 
elsewhere, make a special business of taking them and extracting 
the oil they contain. This is done about midsummer, when 
by the aid of torches and long poles many thousands of the 
young birds are slaughtered, while their parents in alarm and 
rage hover over the destroyers' heads, uttering harsh and 
deafening cries. The grease is melted over fires kindled at the 
cavern's mouth; run into earthen pots, and preserved for use 
in cooking as well as for the lighting of lamps. It is said to be 
pure and limpid, free from any disagreeable taste or smell, and 
capable of being kept for a year without turning rancid. In 
Trinidad the young are esteemed a great delicacy for the table 
by many, though some persons object to their peculiar scent, 
which resembles that of a cockroach (Blatla), and consequently 
refuse to eat them. The old birds also, according to E. C. 
Taylor (Ibis, 1864, p. 90), have a strong crow-like odour. But 
one species of the genus Steatornis is known. 

In addition to the works above quoted valuable information about 
this curious bird may be found under the following references: 
L'Herminier, Ann. Sc. Nat. (1836), p. 60, and Nouv. Ann. Mus. 
(1838), p. 321; Hautessier, Rev. Zool. (1838), p. 164; J. Muller, 
Monatsb. Berl. Acad. (1841), p. 172, and Archiv fur Anal. (1862), 
pp. i-n; des Murs, Rev. zool. (1843), p. 32, and Ool. Orn. pp. 260- 
263; Blanchard, Ann. Mus. (1859), xi. pi. 4, fig. 30; _K6mg-Wart- 
hausen, Journ. fur Orn. (1868), pp. 384-387; Goering, Vargasia 
(1869), pp. 124-128; Murie, Ibis (1873), pp. 81-86. (A. N.) 

GUACO, HUACO or GUAO, also Vejuco and Bejuco, terms 
applied to various Central and South American and West Indian 
plants, in repute for curative virtues. The Indians and negroes 
of Colombia believe the plants known to them as guaco to 
have been so named after a species of kite, thus designated in 
imitation of its cry, which they say attracts to it the snakes 
that serve it principally for food; they further hold the tradition 
that their antidotal qualities were discovered through the 
observation that the bird eats of their leaves, and even spreads 
the juice of the same on its wings, during contests with its 
prey. The disputes that have arisen as to what is " the true 
guaco " are to be attributed mainly to the fact that the names 
of the American Indians for all natural objects are generic, and 
their genera not always in coincidence with those of naturalists. 
Thus any twining plant with a heart-shaped leaf, white and green 
above and purple beneath, is called by them guaco (R. Spruce, 
in Howard's Neueva Quinologia, " Cinchona succirubra," p. 22, 
note). What is most commonly recognized in Colombia as 
guaco, or Vejuco del guaco, would appear to be Mikania Guaco 
(Humboldt and Bonpland, PI. equinox, ii. 84, pi. 105, 1809), 
a climbing Composite plant of the tribe Eupatoriaceae, affecting 
moist and shady situations, and having a much-branched and 
deep-growing root, variegated, serrate, opposite leaves and dull- 
white flowers, in axillary clusters. The whole plant emits a 
disagreeable odour. It is stated that the Indians of Central 
America, after having " guaconized " themselves, i.e. taken 
guaco, catch with impunity the most dangerous snakes, which 
writhe in their hands as though touched by a hot iron(B . Seemann, 
Hooker's Journ. of Bot. v. 76, 1853). The odour alone of guaco 



644 



GUADALAJARA GUADALQUIVIR 



has been said to cause in snakes a state of stupor and torpidity; 
and Humboldt, who observed that the near approach of a rod 
steeped in guaco-juice was obnoxious to the venomous Coluber 
corallinus, was of opinion that inoculation with it imparts to the 
perspiration an odour which makes reptiles unwilling to bite. 
The drug is not used in modern therapeutics. 

GUADALAJARA, an inland city of Mexico and capital of the 
state of Jalisco, 275 m. (direct) W.N.W. of the Federal capital, 
in lat. 20 41' 10" N., long. 103 21' 15" W. Pop. (1895) 
83,934; (1900) 101,208. Guadalajara is served by a short 
branch of the Mexican Central railway from Irapuato. 
The city is in the Antemarac valley near the Rio Grande de 
Santiago, 5092 ft. above sea-level. Its climate is dry, mild and 
healthy, though subject to sudden changes. The city is well 
built, with straight and well-paved streets, numerous plazas, 
public gardens and shady promenades. Its public services 
include tramways and electric lighting, the Juanacatlan falls 
of the Rio Grande near the city furnishing the electric power. 
Guadalajara is an episcopal see, and its cathedral, built between 
1571 and 1618, is one of the largest and most elaborately 
decorated churches in Mexico. The government palace, which 
like the cathedral faces upon the plaza mayor, is generally 
considered one of the finest specimens of Spanish architecture 
in Mexico. Other important edifices and institutions are the 
university, with its schools of law and medicine, the mint, built 
in 1811, the modern national college and high schools, a public 
library of over 28,000 volumes, an episcopal seminary, an 
academy of fine arts, the Teatro Degollado, and the large modern 
granite building of the penitentiary. There are many interesting 
churches and eleven conventual establishments in the city. 
Charitable institutions of a high character are also prominent, 
among which are the Hospicio, which includes an asylum for 
the aged, infirm, blind, deaf and dumb, foundlings and orphans, 
a primary school for both sexes, and a girls' training school, 
and the Hospital de San Miguel de Helen, which is a hospital, 
an insane asylum, and a school for little children. One of the 
most popular public resorts of the city is the Paseo, a beautiful 
drive and promenade extending along both banks of the Rio San 
Juan de Dios for i j m. and terminating in the alameda, or public 
garden. The city has a good water-supply, derived from springs 
and brought in through an aqueduct 8 m. long. Guadalajara 
is surrounded by a fertile agricultural district and is an important 
commercial town, but the city is chiefly distinguished as the 
centre of the iron, steel and glass industries of Mexico. It is also 
widely known for the artistic pottery manufactured by the 
Indians of the city and of its suburb, San Pedro. Among other 
prominent industries are the manufacture of cotton and woollen 
goods, leather, furniture, hats and sweetmeats. Guadalajara 
was founded in 1531 by Nuno de Guzman, and became the seat 
of a bishop in 1 549. The Calderon bridge near the city was the 
scene of a serious defeat of the revolutionists under Hidalgo in 
January 1811. The severe earthquake of the 3ist of May 1818 
partially destroyed the two cathedral steeples; and that of the 
i ith of March 1875 damaged many of the larger buildings. The 
population includes large Indian and mestizo elements. 

GUADALAJARA, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833 
of districts taken from New Castile; bounded on the N. by 
Segovia, Soria and Saragossa, E. by Saragossa and Teruel, 
S. by Cuenca and W. by Madrid. Pop. (1900) 200,186; area, 
4676 sq. m. Along the northern frontier of Guadalajara rise the 
lofty Guadarrama mountains, culminating in the peaks of La 
Cebollera (6955 ft.) and Ocejon (6775 ft.); the rest of the 
province, apart from several lower ranges in the east, belongs 
to the elevated plateau of New Castile, and has a level or slightly 
undulating surface, which forms the upper basin of the river 
Tagus, and is watered by its tributaries the Tajuna, Henares, 
Jarama and Gallo. The climate of this region, as of Castile 
generally, is marked by the extreme severity of its winter cold 
and summer heat; the soil varies very much in quality, but 
is fertile enough in many districts, notably the cornlands of the 
Alcarria, towards the south. Few of the cork and oak forests 
which formerly covered the mountains have escaped destruction; 



and the higher tracts of land are mainly pasture for the sheep 
and goats which form the principal wealth of the peasantry. 
Grain, olive oil, wine, saffron, silk and flax are produced, but 
agriculture makes little progress, owing to defective com- 
munications and unscientific farming. In 1903, the only 
minerals worked were common salt and silver, and the total 
output of the mines was valued at 25,000. Deposits of iron, 
lead and gold also exist and were worked by the Romans; but 
their exploitation proved unprofitable when renewed in the 
i gth century. Trade is stagnant and the local industries are 
those common to almost all Spanish towns and villages, such as 
the manufacture of coarse cloth and pottery. The Madrid- 
Saragossa railway traverses the province for 70 m.; the roads 
are ill-kept and insufficient. Guadalajara (11,144) is the capital, 
and the only town with more than 5000 inhabitants; Molina 
de Aragon, a fortified town built at the foot of the Parameras 
de Molina (2500-3500 ft.), and on the right bank of the Gallo, 
a tributary of the Tagus, is of some importance as an agricultural 
centre. Siguenza, on the railway, is an episcopal city, with a 
fine Romanesque cathedral dating from the nth century. It 
is probably the ancient Segonlia, founded in 218 B.C. by refugees 
from Saguntum. The population of the province, which numbers 
only 42 per sq. m., decreased slightly between 1870 and 1900, 
and extreme poverty compels many families to emigrate (see 
also CASTILE). 

GUADALAJARA, the capital of the Spanish province of 
Guadalajara, on the left bank of the river Henares, and on 
the Madrid-Saragossa railway, 35 m. E.N.E. of Madrid. Pop. 
(1900) 11,144. Guadalajara is a picturesque town, occupying 
a somewhat sterile plain, 2100 ft. above the sea. A Roman 
aqueduct and the Roman foundations of the bridge built in 
1758 across the Henares bear witness to its antiquity. Under 
Roman and Visigothic rule it was known as Arriaca or Caraca; 
its present name, which sometimes appears in medieval chronicles 
as Godelfare, represents the Wad-al-hajarah, or " Valley of 
Stones," of the Moors, who occupied the town from 714 until 
1081, when it was captured by Alvar Yafiez de Minaya, a comrade 
of the more famous Cid. The church of Santa Maria contains 
the image of the " Virgin of Battles," which accompanied 
Alphonso VI. of Castile (1072-1109) on his campaigns against 
the Moors; and there are several other ancient and interesting 
churches in Guadalajara, besides two palaces, dating from the 
i$th century, and built with that blend of Christian and Moorish 
architecture which Spaniards call the Mudejar style. The more 
important of these is the palace of the ducal house del Infantado, ' 
formerly owned by the Mendoza family, whose panteon, or 
mausoleum, added between 1696 and 1720 to the 13th-century 
church of San Francisco, is 'remarkable for the rich sculpture 
of its tombs. The town and provincial halls date from 1585, 
and the college of engineers was originally built by Philip V., 
early in the i8th century, as a cloth factory. Manufactures of 
soap, leather, woollen fabrics and bricks have superseded the 
original cloth-weaving industry for which Guadalajara was long 
celebrated; there is also a considerable trade in agricultural 
produce. 

GUADALQUIVIR (ancient Baetis, Moorish Wadi al Kebir, " the 
Great River "), a river of southern Spain. What is regarded as 
the main stream rises 4475 ft. above sea-level between the 
Sierra de Cazorla and Sierra del Pozo, in the province of Jaen. 
It does not become a large river until it is joined by the Guadiana 
Menor (Guadianamenor) on the left, and the Guadalimar on the 
right. Lower down it receives many tributaries, the chief being 
the Genii or Jenil, from the left. The general direction of the 
river is west by south, but a few miles above Seville it changes 
to south by west. Below Coria it traverses the series of broad 
fens known as Las Marismas, the greatest area of swamp in the 
Iberian Peninsula. Here it forms two subsidiary channels, the 
western 31 M., the eastern 12 m. long, which rejoin the main 
stream on the borders of the province of Cadiz. Below Sanlucar 
the river enters the Atlantic after a total course of 360 m. 
It drains an area of 21,865 sq. m. Though the shortest of the great 
rivers of the peninsula, it is the only one which flows at all seasons 



GUADELOUPE GUADET 



6 45 



with a full stream, being fed in winter by the rains, in summer by 
the melted snows of the Sierra Nevada. In the time of the Moors 
it was navigable up to Cordova, but owing to the accumulation 
of silt in its lower reaches it is now only navigable up to Seville 
by vessels of 1 200 to 1 500 tons. 

GUADELOUPE, a French colony in the West Indies, lying 
between the British islands of Montserrat on the N., and Dominica 
on the S., between 15 59' and 16 20' N. and 61 31' and 61 50' 
W. It consists of two entirely distinct islands, separated by a 
narrow arm of the sea, Riviere Salee (Salt river), varying from 
100 ft. to 400 ft. in width and navigable for small vessels. The 
western island, a rugged mass of ridges, peaks and lofty uplands, 
is called Bassc-Terre, while the eastern and smaller island, the 
real low-land, is known as Grande-Terre. A sinuous ridge runs 
through Basse-Terre from N. to S. In the north-west rises the 
peak of Grosse Montagne ( 2370 ft.) , from which sharp spurs radiate 
in all directions; near the middle of the west coast are the twin 
heights of Les Mamelles (2536 ft. and 2368ft.). Farther south 
the highest elevation is attained in La Soufriere (4900 ft.). In 
1797 this volcano was active, and in 1843 its convulsions laid 
several towns in ruins; but a few thermal springs and solfataras 
emitting vapour are now its only signs of activity. The range 
terminates in the extreme south in the jagged peak of Caraibe 
(2300 ft.). Basse-Terre is supremely beautiful, its cloud-capped 
mountains being clothed with a mantle of luxuriant vegetation. 
On Grande-Terre the highest elevation is only 450 ft., and this 
island is the seat of extensive sugar plantations. It consists of 
a plain composed mainly of limestone and a conglomerate of sand 
and broken shells known as maconne de ban dieu, much used for 
building. The bay between the two sections of Guadeloupe 
on the north is called Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin, that on the 
south being Petit Cul-de-Sac Marin. Basse-Terre (364 sq. m.) 
is 28 m. long by 12 m. to 15 m. wide; Grande-Terre (255 sq. m.) 
is 22 m. long from N. to S., of irregular shape, with a long 
peninsula, Chateaux Point, stretching from the south-eastern 
extremity. Basse-Terre is watered by a considerable number 
of streams, most of which in the rainy season are liable to sudden 
floods (locally called gallons), but Grande-Terre is practically 
destitute of springs, and the water-supply is derived almost 
entirely from ponds and cisterns. 

The west half of the island consists of a foundation of old 
eruptive rocks upon which rest the recent accumulations of the 
great volcanic cones, together with mechanical deposits derived 
from the denudation of the older rocks. Grande-Terre on the 
other hand, consists chiefly of nearly horizontal limestones 
lying conformably upon a series of fine tuffs and ashes, the whole 
belonging to the early part of the Tertiary system (probably 
Eocene and Oligocene) . Occasional-deposits of marl and limestone 
of late Pliocene age rest unconformably upon these older beds; 
and near the coast there are raised coral reefs of modern date. 

The mean annual temperature is 78 F., and the minimum 
61 F., and the maximum 101 F. From July to November 
heavy rains fall, the annual average on the coast being 86 in., 
while in the interior it is much greater. Guadeloupe is subject 
to terrible storms. In 1825 a hurricane destroyed the town of 
Basse-Terre, and Grand Bourg in Marie Galante suffered a 
like fate in 1865. The soil is rich and fruitful, sugar having long 
been its staple product. The other crops include cereals, cocoa, 
cotton, manioc, yams and rubber; tobacco, vanilla, coffee and 
bananas are grown, but in smaller quantities. Over 30% of the 
total area is under cultivation, and of this more than 50% is 
under sugar. The centres of this industry are St Anne, Pointe-a- 
Pitre and Le Moule, where there are well-equipped usines, and 
there is also a large usinc at Basse-Terre. The forests, confined 
to the island of Basse-Terre, are extensive and rich in valuable 
woods, but, being difficult of access, are not worked. Salt and 
sulphur are the only minerals extracted, and in addition to the 
sugar usines, there are factories for the making of rum, liqueurs, 
chocolate, besides fruit-canning works and tanneries. France 
takes most of the exports; and next to France, the United 
States, Great Britain and India are the countries most interested 
in the import trade. 



The inhabitants of Guadeloupe consist of a few white officials 
and planters, a few East Indian immigrants from the French 
possessions in India, and the rest negroes and mulattoes. These 
mulattoes are famous for their grace and beauty of both form 
and feature. The women greatly outnumber the men, and there 
is a very large percentage of illegitimate births. Pop. (1900) 
182,112. 

The governor is assisted by a privy council, a director of the 
interior, a procurator-general and a paymaster, and there is 
also an elected legislative council of 30 members. The colony 
forms a department of France and is represented in the French 
parliament by a senator and two deputies. Political elections 
are very eagerly contested, the mulatto element always striving 
to gain the preponderance of power. 

The seat of government, of the Apostolic administration and 
of the court of appeal is at Basse-Terre (7762), which is situated 
on the south-west coast of the island of that name. It is 
a picturesque, healthy town standing on an open roadstead. 
Pointe-a-Pitre (17,242), the largest town, lies in Grande-Terre 
near the mouth of the Riviere Salee. Its excellent harbour has 
made it the chief port and commercial capital of the colony. 
Le Moule (10,378) on the east coast of Grande-Terre does a 
considerable export trade in sugar, despite its poor harbour. 
Of the other towns, St Anne (9497), Morne a 1'Eau (8442), Petit 
Canal (6748), St Francois (5265), Petit Bourg (5110) and Trois 
Rivieres (5016), are the most important. 

Round Guadeloupe are grouped its dependencies, namely, 
La Desirade, 6 m. E., a narrow rugged island 10 sq. m. in area; 
Marie Galante 16 m. S.E. Les Saintes, a group of seven small 
islands, 7 m. S., one of the strategic points of the Antilles, 
with a magnificent and strongly fortified naval harbour; St 
Martin, 142 m. N.N.W.; and St Bartholomew, 130 m. N.N.W. 

History. Guadeloupe was discovered by Columbus in 1493, 
and received its name in honour of the monastery of S. Maria 
de Guadalupe at Estremadura in Spain. In 1635 1'Olive and 
Duplessis took possession of it in the name of the French Company 
of the Islands of America, and 1'Olive exterminated the Caribs 
with great cruelty. Four chartered companies were ruined in 
their attempts to colonize the island, and in 1674 it passed 
into the possession of the French crown and long remained a 
dependency of Martinique. After unsuccessful attempts in 1666, 
1691 and 1703, the British captured the island in 1759, and 
held it for four years. Guadeloupe was finally separated from 
Martinique in 1775, but it remained under the governor of the 
French Windward Islands. In 1782 Rodney defeated the French 
fleet near the island, and the British again obtained possession 
in April 1794, but in the following summer they were driven out 
by Victor Hugues with the assistance of the slaves whom he had 
liberated for the purpose. In 1802 Bonaparte, then first consul, 
sent an expedition to the island in order to re-establish slavery, 
but, after a heroic defence, many of the negroes preferred suicide 
to submission. During the Hundred Days in 1810, the British 
once more occupied the island, but, in spite of its cession to 
Sweden by the treaty of 1813 and a French invasion in 1814, 
they did not withdraw till 1816. Between 1816 and 1825 the 
cede of laws peculiar to the island was introduced. Municipal 
institutions were established in 1837; and slavery was finally 
abolished in 1848. 

GUADET, MARGUERITE fiLIE (1758-1794)) French Revolu- 
tionist, was born at St Emilion near Bordeaux on the 2cth 
of July 1758. When the Revolution broke out he had already 
gained a reputation as a brilliant advocate at Bordeaux. In 
1790 he was made administrator of the Gironde and in 1791 
president of the criminal tribunal. In this year he was elected 
to the Legislative Assembly as one of the brilliant group of 
deputies known subsequently as Girondins or Girondists. As 
a supporter of the constitution of 1791 he joined the Jacobin 
club, and here and in the Assembly became an eloquent advocate 
of all the measures directed against real or supposed traitors to 
the constitution. He bitterly attacked the ministers of Louis 
XVI., and was largely instrumental in forcing the king to accept 
the Girondist ministry of the isth of March 1792. He was 



GUADIANA GUAIACUM 



an ardent advocate of the policy of forcing Louis XVI. into 
harmony with the Revolution; moved (May 3) for the dismissal 
pf the king's non-juring confessor, for the banishment of all 
non-juring priests (May 16), for the disbandment of the royal 
guard (May 30), and the formation in Paris of a camp of jederes 
(June 4). He remained a royalist, however, and with Gensonne 
and Vergniaud even addressed a letter to the king soliciting a 
private interview. Whatever negotiations may have resulted, 
however, were cut short by the insurrection of the loth of 
August. Guadet, who presided over the Assembly during part 
of this fateful day, put himself into vigorous opposition to the 
insurrectionary Commune of Paris, and it was on his motion 
that on the 3oth of August the Assembly voted its dissolution 
a decision reversed on the following day. In September Guadet 
was returned by a large majority as deputy to the Convention. 
At the trial of Louis XVI. he voted for an appeal to the people 
and for the death sentence, but with a respite pending appeal. 
In March 1793 he had several conferences with Danton, who was 
anxious to bring about a rapprochement between the Girondists 
and the Mountain during the war in La Vendee, but he un- 
conditionally refused to join hands with the man whom he held 
responsible for the massacres of September. Involved in the fall 
of the Girondists, and his arrest being decreed on the 2nd of 
June 1793, he fled to Caen, and afterwards hid in his father's 
house at St Emilion. He was discovered and taken to Bordeaux, 
where, after his identity had been established, he was guillotined 
on the i7th of June 1794. 

See J. Guadet, Les Girondins (Paris, 1889); and F. A. Aulard, 
Les Orateurs de la legislative el de la convention (Paris, 2nd ed., 1906). 

GUADIANA (anc. Anas, Moorish Wadi Ana), a river of Spain 
and Portugal. The Guadiana was long believed to rise in the 
lowland known as the Campo de Montiel, where a chain of small 
lakes, the Lagunas de Ruidera (partly in Ciudad Real, partly 
in Albacete), are linked together by the Guadiana Alto or Upper 
Guadiana. This stream flows north-westward from the last 
lake and vanishes underground within 3 m. of the river Zancara 
or Giguela. About 22 m. S.W. of the point of disappearance, 
the Guadiana Alto was believed to re-emerge in the form of 
several large springs, which form numerous lakes near the 
Zancara and are known as the " eyes of the Guadiana " (los 
ojos de Guadiana). The stream which connects them with the 
Zancara is called the Guadiana Bajo or Lower Guadiana. It is 
now known that the Guadiana Alto has no such course, but 
flows underground to the Zancara itself, which is the true 
" Upper Guadiana." The Zancara rises near the source of the 
Jucar, in the east of the tableland of La Mancha; thence it 
flows westward, assuming the name of Guadiana near Ciudad 
Real, and reaching the Portuguese frontier 6 m. S.W. of Badajoz. 
In piercing the Sierra Morena it forms a series of foaming rapids, 
and only begins to be navigable at Mertola, 42 m. from its mouth. 
From the neighbourhood of Badajoz it forms the boundary 
between Spain and Portugal as far as a point near Monsaraz, 
where it receives the small river Priega Munoz on the left, and 
passes into Portuguese territory, with a southerly direction. 
At Pomarao it again becomes a frontier stream and forms a 
broad estuary 25 m. long. It enters the Gulf of Cadiz between 
the Portuguese town of Villa Real de Santo Antonio and the 
Spanish Ayamonte, after a total course of 510 m. Its mouth 
is divided by sandbanks into many channels. The Guadiana 
drains an area of 31,940 sq. m. Its principal tributaries are 
the Zujar, Jabalon, Matachel and Ardila from the left; the 
Bullaque, Ruecas, Botoa, Degebe and Cobres from the right. 

The GUADIANA MENOR (or Guadianamenor, i.e. "Lesser 
Guadiana") rises in the Sierra Nevada, receives two large 
tributaries, the Fardes from the right and Barbata from the left, 
and enters the Guadalquivir near Ubeda, after a course of 95 m. 

GUADIX, a city of southern Spain, in the province of Granada; 
on the left bank of the river Guadix, a subtributary of the 
Guadiana Menor, and on the Madrid- Valdepenas-Almeria railway. 
Pop. (1900) 12,652. Guadix occupies part of an elevated plateau 
among the northern foothills of the Sierra Nevada. It is sur- 
rounded by ancient walls, and was formerly dominated by a 



Moorish castle, now in ruins. It is an episcopal see of great 
antiquity, but its cathedral, built in the i8th century on the site 
of a mosque, possesses little architectural merit. The city was 
once famous for i f .s cutlery; but its modern manufactures 
(chiefly earthenware, hempen goods, and hats) are inconsiderable. 
It has some trade in wool, cotton, flax, corn and liqueurs. The 
warm mineral springs of Graena, much frequented during the 
summer, are 6 m. W. Guadix el Viejo, 5 m. N.W., was the 
Roman Acci, and, according to tradition, the seat of the first 
Iberian bishopric, in the 2nd century. After 7 1 1 it rose to some 
importance as a Moorish fortress and trading station, and was 
renamed Wad Ash, " Water of Life." It was surrendered without 
a siege to the Spaniards, under Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1489. 

GUADUAS, a town of the department of Cundinamarca, 
Colombia, 53 m. N.W. of Bogota on the old road between that 
city and the Magdalena river port of Honda. Pop. (1900, 
estimate) 9000, chiefly Indians or of mixed blood. It stands 
in a narrow and picturesque valley formed by spurs of the 
Eastern Cordillera, and on a small stream bearing the same name, 
which is that of the South American bamboo (guaduas), found 
in great abundance along its banks. Sugar-cane and coffee are 
cultivated in the vicinity, and fruits of various kinds are produced 
in great abundance. The elevation of the town is 3353 ft. above 
the sea, and it has a remarkably uniform temperature throughout 
the whole year. Guaduas has a pretty church facing upon its 
plaza, and an old monastery now used for secular purposes. 
The importance of the town sprang from its position on the old 
camino real between Bogota and Honda, an importance that has 
passed away with the completion of the railway from Girardot 
to the Bogota plateau. Guaduas was founded in 1614. 

GUAIACUM, a genus of trees of the natural order Zygo- 
phyllaceae. The guaiacum or lignum-vitae tree (Ger. Guajak- 
baum, Franzosenbaum, Pockenholzbaum; Fr. Gayac, Ga'iac), 
G. officinale, is a native of the West Indies and the north coast 
of South America, where it attains a height of 20 to 30 ft. Its 
branches are numerous, flexuous and knotted; the leaves 
opposite and pinnate, with caducous (falling early) stipules, 
and entire, glabrous, obovate or oval leaflets, arranged in 2 or, 
more rarely, 3 pairs; the flowers are in axillary clusters (cymes), 
and have 5 oval pubescent sepals, 5 distinct pale-blue petals 
three times the length of the sepals, 10 stamens, and a 2-celled 
superior ovary. The fruit is about f in. long, with a leathery 
pericarp, and contains in each of its two cells a single seed 
(see fig.). G. sanctum grows in the Bahamas and Cuba, and at 
Key West in Florida. It is distinguished from G. officinale by 
its smaller and narrow leaflets, which are in 4 to 5 pairs, by its 
shorter and glabrous sepals, and 5-celled and s-winged fruit. 
G. arboreum, the guaiacum tree of Colombia, is found in the valley 
of the Magdalena up to altitudes 800 metres (2625 ft.) above 
sea-level, and reaches considerable dimensions. Its wood is of a 
yellow colour merging into green, and has an almost pulverulent 
fracture; the flowers are yellow and conspicuous; and the fruit 
is dry and 4-winged. 

The lignum vitae of commerce, so named on account of its high 
repute as a medicinal agent in past times, when also it was known 
as lignum sanctum and lignum Indicum, lignum guaycanum, or 
simply guayacan, is procured from G. officinale, and in smaller 
amount from G. sanctum. It is exported in large logs or blocks, 
generally divested of bark, and presents in transverse section 
very slightly marked concentric rings of growth, and scarcely 
any traces of pith; with the aid of a magnifying glass the 
medullary rays are seen to be equidistant and very numerous. 
The outer wood, the sapwood or alburnum, is of a pale yellow 
hue, and devoid of resin; the inner, the heartwood or duramen, 
which is by far the larger proportion, is of a dark greenish-brown, 
contains in its pores 26% of resin, and has a specific gravity of 
I '333> and therefore sinks in water on which the alburnum 
floats. Owing to the diagonal and oblique arrangement of the 
successive layers of its fibres, the wood cannot be split; and on 
account of its hardness, ^density and durability it is much valued 
for the manufacture of ships' pulleys, rulers, skittle-balls, 
mallets and other articles. 



GUALDO TADINO GUALEGUAYCHU 



647 



Chips or turnings of the heartwood of G. officinale (guaiaci 
lignum) are employed in the preparation of the liquor sarsae 
compositus concentrates of British pharmacy. They may be 
recognized by being either yellow of greenish-brown in colour, 
and by turning bluish-green when treated with nitric acid, or 
when heated with corrosive sublimate, and green with solution 




From Bentley & Trimen's Medicinal Plants, by permission of J. & A. Churchill. 

Guaiacum or Lignum Vitae, Guaiacum officinale shoot-bearing leaves 
and flowers, i, Fruit; 2, Vertical section of fruit, showing the 
solitary pendulous seed in each chamber. All about 5 natural size. 

of chloride of lime. They are occasionally adulterated with 
boxwood shavings. Lignum vitae is imported chiefly from 
St Domingo, the Bahamas and Jamaica. 

The bark was formerly used in medicine; it contains much 
calcium oxalate, and yields on incineration 23 % of ash. Guaiacum 
resin, the guaiaci resina of pharmacopoeias, is obtained from the 
wood as an exudation from natural fissures or from incisions; by 
heating billets about 3 ft. in length, bored to permit of the outflow 
of the resin; or by boiling chips and raspings in water to which 
salt has been added to raise the temperature of ebullition. It 
occurs in rounded or oval tears, commonly coated with a greyish- 
green dust, and supposed to be the produce of G. sanctum, or in large 
brownish or greenish-brown masses, translucent at the edges; 
fuses at 85 C. ; is brittle, and has a vitreous fracture, and a slightly 
balsamic odour, increased by pulverization and by heat; and is at 
first tasteless when chewed, but produces subsequently a sense of 
heat in the throat. It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, 
creosote, oil of cloves and solutions of caustic alkalies; and its 
solution gives a blue colour with gluten, raw potato parings and the 
roots of horse-radish, carrot and various other plants. The alcoholic 
tincture becomes green with sodium hypochlorite, and with nitric 
acid turns in succession green, blue and brown. With glycerin it 
gives a clear solution, and with nitrous ether a bluish-green gelatinous 
mass. It is blued by various oxidizing agents, e.g. ozone, and, as 
Schonbein discovered, by the juice of certain fungi. The chief 
constituents are three distinct resins, guaiaconic acid, CigHjoOs 
(70%), guaiac acid, which is closely allied to benzoic acid, and 
guaiaretic acid. Like all resins, these are insoluble in water, soluble 
in alkalies, but precipitated on neutralization of the alkaline solution. 

Guaiacum wood was first introduced into Europe by the Spaniards 
in 1508, and Nicolaus Poll, writing in 1517 (see Luisinus, De morbo 
gallico, p. 210, Ven., 1566), states that some three thousand persons 
in Spain had already been restored to health by it. The virtues of 
the resin, however, were not known until a later period, and in 
Thomas Paynel's translation (Of the Wood called Guaiacum, &c., 
p. 9, ed. of 1540) of Ulrich von Hutten's treatise De morbi gallici 
curatione per administrationem ligni guaiaci (i5!9) we read of the 
wood: " There foloweth fro it, whan it bourneth a gomme, which 
we yet knowe not, for what pourpose it serueth." Fliickiger and 
Hanbury (Pharmacographia, p. 95) state that the first edition of 
the London Pharmacopoeia in which they find the resin mentioned 
is that of 1677. The decoction of the wood was administered in gout, 
the stone, palsy, leprosy, dropsy, epilepsy, and other diseases, 
but principally in the " morbus gallicus, or syphilis, for which it 
was reckoned a certain specific, insomuch that at first " the physi- 
tions wolde not allowe it, perceyuynge that theyr profile wolde 
decay therby " (Paynel, op. cit. p. 8). Minute instructions are 
given in old works as to the mode of administering guaiacum. 
The patient was confined in a closed and heated chamber, was 
placed on the lowest possible diet, and, after liberal purgation, was 
made twice a day to drink a milk-warm decoction of the wood. The 



use of salt was specially to be avoided. A decoction of I Ib of 
guaiacum was held to be sufficient for the four first days of the 
treatment. The earlier opinions as to the efficacy of guaiacum 
came to be much modified in the course of time, and Dr Pearson 
(Observations on the Effects of Various Articles of the Mat. Med. in 
the Cure of Lues Venerea, c. i., 2nd ed., 1807) says: " I never 
saw one single instance in which the powers of this medicine eradi- 
cated the venereal virus." He found its beneficial effects to be most 
marked in cases of secondary symptoms. Guaiacum resin is given 
medicinally in doses of 5-15 grains. Its important preparations in 
the British Pharmacopoeia are the mistura guiaci (dose i-i oz.), 
the ammoniated tincture of guaiacum (dose J-i drachm), in which 
the resin is dissolved by means of ammonia, and the trochiscus or 
lozenge, containing 3 grains of the resin. This lozenge is un- 
doubtedly of value when given early in cases of sore throat, especially 
of rheumatic origin. Powdered guaiacum is also used. 

Guaiacum resin differs pharmacologically from other resins in 
being less irritant, so that it is absorbed from the bowel and exerts 
remote stimulant actions, notably upon the skin and kidneys. It 
affects the bronchi but slightly, since it contains no volatile oil. 

The drug is useful both in acute and chronic sore throat, the 
mixture, according to Sir Lauder Brunton, being more effective 
than the tincture. The aperient action, which it exerts less markedly 
than other members of its class, renders it useful in the treatment 
of chronic constipation. Sir Alfred Garrod has urged the claims of 
this drug in the treatment of chronic gout. Both in this disease and 
in other forms of chronic arthritis guaiacum may be given in com- 
bination with iodides, which it often enables the patient to tolerate. 
Guaiacum is not now used in the treatment of syphilis. 

The tincture of guaiacum is universally used as a test for the 
presence of blood, or rather of haemoglobin, the red colouring matter 
of the blood, in urine or other secretions. This test was first sug- 
gested by Dr John Day of Geelong, Australia. A single drop of the 
tincture should be added to, say, an inch of urine in a test-tube. 
The resin is at once precipitated, yielding a milky fluid. If " ozonic 
ether " an ethereal solution of hydrogen peroxide be now poured 
gently into the test-tube, a deep blue coloration is produced along 
the line of contact if haemoglobin be present. The reaction is due 
to the oxidation of the resin by the peroxide of hydrogen such 
oxidation occurring only if haemoglobin be present to act as an 
oxygen-carrier. 

GUALDO TADINO (anc. Tadinum, i m. to the W.), a town 
and episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, 1755 ft. above sea-level, in 
the province of Perugia, 22 m. N. of Foligno by rail. Pop. (1901), 
town, 4440; commune, 10,756. The suffix Tadino distinguishes 
it from Gualdo in the province of Macerata, and Gualdo Cattaneo, 
S.W. of Foligno. The cathedral has a good rose-window and 
possesses, like several of the other churches, 15th-century 
paintings by Umbrian artists, especially works by Niccolo Alunno. 
The town is still surrounded by walls. The ancient Tadinum 
lay i m. to the W. of the modern town. It is mentioned in the 
Eugubine tablets (see IGUVIUM) as a hostile city against which 
imprecations are directed. In its neighbourhood Narses defeated 
and slew Totila in 552. No ruins are now visible, though they 
seem to have been extant in the I7th century. The new town 
seems to have been founded in 1237. It was at first independent, 
but passed under Perugia in 1292, and later became dependent 
on the duchy of Spoleto. 

GUALEGUAY, a flourishing town and river port of the province 
of Entre Rios, Argentine Republic, on the Gualeguay river, 
32m. above its confluence with the Ibicuy branch of the Parana, 
and about 120 m. N.N.W. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1895) 7810. 
The Gualeguay is the largest of the Entre Rios rivers, traversing 
almost the whole length of the province from N. to S., but it is 
of but slight service in the transportation of produce except the 
few miles below Gualeguay, whose port, known as Puerto Ruiz, 
is 7 m. lower down stream. A steam tramway connects the 
town and port, and a branch line connects with Entre Rios 
railways at the station of Tala. The principal industry in this 
region is that of stock-raising, and there is a large exportation of 
cattle, jerked beef, hides, tallow, mutton, wool and sheep-skins. 
Wood and charcoal are also exported to Buenos Aires. The 
town was founded in 1783. 

GUALEGUAYCHU, a prosperous commercial and industrial 
town and port of the province of Entre Rios, Argentine Republic, 
on the left bank of the Gualeguaychu river, n m. above its 
confluence with the Uruguay, and 120 m. N. of Buenos Aires. 
Pop. (1892, est.) 14,000. It is the chief town of a department 
of the same name, the largest in the province. A bar at the 
mouth of the river prevents the entrance of larger vessels and 



GUALO GUAN 



compels the transfer of cargoes to and from lighters. The town 
is surrounded by a rich grazing country, and exports cattle, 
jerked beef, mutton, hides, pelts, tallow, wool and various 
by-products. A branch line running N. connects with the Entre 
Rios railways at Basavilbaso. The town was founded in 

1783- 

GUALO, CARDINAL (fl. 1216), was sent to England by Pope 
Innocent III. in 1216. He supported John with all the weight 
of papal authority. After John's death he crowned the infant 
Henry III. and played an active part in organizing resistance 
to the rebels led by Louis of France, afterwards king Louis VIII. 
As representing the pope, the suzerain of Henry, he claimed the 
regency and actually divided the chief power with William 
Marshal, earl of Pembroke. He proclaimed a crusade against 
Louis and the French, and, after the peace of Lambeth, he forced 
Louis to make a public and humiliating profession of penitence 
(1217). He punished the rebellious clergy severely, and ruled 
the church with an absolute hand till his departure from England 
in 1218. Gualo's character has been severely criticized by English 
writers; but his chief offence seems to have been that of repre- 
senting unpopular papal claims. 

GUAM (Span. Guajan; Guahan, in the native Chamorro), 
the largest and most populous of the Ladrone or Mariana Islands, 
in the North Pacific, in 13 26' N. lat. and 144 39' E. long., 
about 1823 m. E. by S. of Hong Kong, and about 1450 m. E. 
of Manila. Pop. (1908) about 1 1 ,36o,of whom 363 were foreigners, 
140 being members of the U.S. naval force. Guam extends about 
30 m. from N.N.E. to S.S.W., has an average width of about 
6| m., and has an area of 207 sq. m. The N. portion is a plateau 
from 300 to 600 ft. above the sea, lowest in the interior and 
highest along the E. and W. coast, where it terminates abruptly 
in bluffs and headlands; Mt Santa Rosa, toward the N. 
extremity, has an elevation of 840 ft. A range of hills from 
700 to nearly 1300 ft. in height traverses the S. portion from 
N. to S. a little W. of the middle Mt Jumullong Mangloc, the 
highest peak, has an elevation of 1 2 74 ft. Between the foot of the 
steep W. slope of these hills and the sea is a belt of rolling 
lowlands and to the E. the surface is broken by the valleys of 
five rivers with a number of tributaries, has a general slope 
toward the sea, and terminates in a coast-line of bluffs. Apra 
(formerly San Luis d'Apra) on the middle W. coast is the only good 
harbour; it is about 35 m. across, has a depth of 4-27 fathoms, 
and is divided into an inner and an outer harbour by a peninsula 
and an island. It serves as a naval station and as a port of transit 
between America and the Philippines, at which army transports 
call monthly. Deer, wild hog, duck, curlew, snipe and pigeon 
are abundant game, and several varieties of fish are caught.- 
Some of the highest points of the island are nearly bare of vegeta- 
tion, and the more elevated plateau surface is covered with 
sword grass, but in the valleys and on the lower portions of the 
plateaus there is valuable timber. The lowlands have a rich 
soil; in lower parts of the highlands raised coralliferous limestone 
with a light covering of soil appears, and in the higher parts the 
soil is entirely of clay and silt. The climate is agreeable and 
healthy. From December to June the N.E. trade winds prevail 
and the rainfall is relatively light; during the other six months 
the monsoon blows and produces the rainy season. Destructive 
typhoons and earthquakes sometimes visit Guam. The island 
is thought to possess little if any mineral wealth, with the 
possible exception of coal. Only a small part of Guam is under 
cultivation, and most of this lies along the S.W. coast, its chief 
products being cocoanuts, rice, sugar, coffee and cacao. A 
United States Agricultural Experiment Station in Guam (at 
Agaiia) was provided for in 1908. 

The inhabitants are of the Chamorro (Indonesian) stock, 
strongly intermixed with Philippine Tagals and Spaniards; 
their speech is a dialect of Malay, corrupted by Tagal and 
Spanish. There are very few full-blood Chamorros. The 
aboriginal native was of a very dark mahogany or chocolate 
colour. A majority of the total number of natives live in Agana. 
The natives are nearly all farmers, and most of them are poor, but 
their condition has been improved under American rule. Public 



schools have been established; in 1908 the enrolment was 1700. 
On the island there is a small colony of lepers, segregated only 
after American occupation. Gangrosa is a disease said to be 
peculiar to Guam and the neighbouring islands; it is due to 
a specific bacillus and usually destroys the nasal septum. The 
victims of this disease also are segregated. There is a good general 
hospital. 

Agana (or San Ignacio de Agana) is the capital and principal 
town; under the Spanish regime it was the capital of the 
Laclrones. It is about 5 m. N.E. of Piti, the landing-place of 
Apra harbour and port of entry, with which it is -connected by 
an excellent road. Agana has paved streets and sewer and water 
systems. Other villages, all small, are Asan, Piti, Sumay, 
Umata, Merizo and Inarajan. Guam is governed by a " naval 
governor," an officer of the U.S. navy who is commandant of 
the naval station. The island is divided into four administrative 
districts, each with an executive head called a gobernadorcillo 
(commissioner), and there are a court of appeals, a court of 'first 
instance and courts of justices of the peace. Peonage was 
abolished in the island by the United States in February 1900. 
Telegraphic communication with the Caroline Islands was 
established in 1905; in 1908 there were four cables ending at 
the relay station at Sumay on the Shore of Apra harbour. 

Guam was discovered by Magellan in 1521, was occupied 
by Spain in 1688, was captured by the United States cruiser 
" 'Charleston " in June 1899, and was ceded to the United States 
by the Treaty of Paris on the loth of December 1898. 

See A List of Books (with References to Periodicals) on Samoa and 
Guam (1901 ; issued by the Library of Congress); L. M. Cox, " The 
Island of Guam," in Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, 
vol. 36 (New York, 1904); Gen. Joseph Wheeler, Report on the 
Island of Guam, June 1900 (War Department, Document No. 123); 
F. W. Christian, The Caroline Islands (London, 1899); an account 
of the flora of Guam by W. E. Safford in the publications of the 
National Herbarium (Smithsonian Institution) ; and the reports 
of the naval governor. 

GUAN, a word apparently first introduced into the ornitho- 
logist's vocabulary about 1743 by Edwards, 1 who said that a 
bird he figured (Nat. Hist. Uncommon Birds, pi. xiii.) was 
" so called in the West Indies," and the name has hence been 
generally applied to all the members of the subfamily Penelopinae, 
which are distinguished from the kindred subfamily Cracinae 
or curassows by the broad postacetabular area of the pelvis 
as pointed out by Huxley (Proc. Zool. Society, 1868, p. 297) . 
as well as by their maxilla being wider than it is high, with its 
culmen depressed, the crown feathered, and the nostrils bare 
the last two characters separating the Penelopinae from the 
Oreophasinae, which form the third subfamily of the Cracidae? a 
family belonging to that taxonomer's division Peristeropodes 
of the order Gallinae. 

The Penelopinae have been separated into seven genera, of 
which Penelope and Ortalis, containing respectively about 
sixteen and nineteen species, are the largest, the others numbering 
from one to three only. Into their minute differences it would be 
useless to enter: nearly all have the throat bare of feathers, and 
from that of many of them hangs a wattle; but one form, 
Chamaepetes, has neither of these features, and Stegnolaema, 
though wattled, has the throat clothed. With few exceptions 
the guans are confined to the South-American continent; one 
species of Penelope is however found in Mexico (e.g. at Mazatlan), 
Pipile cumanensis inhabits Trinidad as well as the mainland, 
while three species of Ortalis occur in Mexico or Texas, and one, 
which is also common to Venezuela, in Tobago. Like curassows, 
guans are in great measure of arboreal habit. They also readily 

1 Edwards also gives " quan " as an alternative spelling, and this 
may be nearer the original form, since we find Dampier in 1676 writing 
( Voy. ii. pt. 2, p. 66) of what was doubtless an allied if not the same 
bird as the " quam." The species represented by Edwards does 
not seem to have been identified. 

8 See the excellent Synopsis by Sclater and Salvin in the Pro- 
ceedings of the Zoological Society for 1870 (pp. 504-544), while further 
information on the Cracinae was given by Sclater in the Transactions 
of the same society (ix. pp. 273-288, pis. xl.-liii.). Some additions 
have since been made to the knowledge of the family, but none of 
very great importance. 



GUANABACOA GUANAJUATO 



649 



become tame, but all attempts to domesticate them in the full 
sense of the word have wholly failed, and the cases in which they 
have even been induced to breed and the young have been 
reared in confinement are very few. Yet it would seem that 
guans and curassows will interbreed with poultry (Ibis, 1866, 
p. 24; Bull. Soc. Imp. d' Accumulation, 1868, p. 559; 1869, 
P- 357)i an( l what is more extraordinary is that in Texas the 
hybrids between the chiacalacca (Ortalis vetula) and the domestic 
fowl are asserted to be far superior to ordinary game-cocks for 
fighting purposes. (A. N.) 

GUANABACOA (an Indian name meaning " site of the 
waters "), a town of Cuba, in Havana province, about 6 m. E. 
of Havana. Pop. (1907) 14,368. Guanabacoa is served by railway 
to Havana, with which it is connected by the Regla ferry across 
the bay. It is picturesquely situated amid woods, on high hills 
which furnish a fine view. There are medicinal springs in the 
town, and deposits of liquid bitumen in the neighbouring hills. 
The town is essentially a residence suburb of the capital, and has 
some rather pretty streets and squares and some old and interest- 
ing churches (including Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion, 1714- 
1721). Just outside the city is the church of Potosi with a 
famous " wonder-working " shrine and image. An Indian 
pueblo of the same name existed here before 1555, and a church 
was established in 1576. Already at the end of the i7th century 
Guanabacoa was the fashionable summer residence of Havana. 
It enjoyed its greatest popularity in this respect from the end 
of the 1 8th to the middle of the igth century. It was created 
a villa with an ayuniamiento (city council) in 1743. In 1762 its 
fort, the Little Morro, on the N. shore near Cojimar (a bathing 
beach, where the Key West cable now lands), was taken by the 
English. 

6UANACO, sometimes spelt Huanaca, the larger of the two 
wild representatives in South America of the camel tribe; the 
other being the vicugna. The guanaco (Lama huanacus), which 
stands nearly 4 ft. at the shoulder, is an elegant creature, with 
gracefully curved neck and long slender legs, the hind-pair of the 
latter bearing two naked patches or callosities. The head and 
body are covered with long soft hair of a fawn colour above and 

almost pure white 
beneath. Guanaco 
are found throughout 
the southern half of 
South America, from 
Peru in the north to 
Cape Horn in the 
south, but occur in 
greatest abundance 
in Patagonia. They 
live in herds usually 
of from six to thirty, 
although these occa- 
sionally contain 
several hundreds, 
while solitary indi- 
viduals are sometimes 
met. They are ex- 
ceedingly timid, and 
therefore wary and 
difficult of approach; like many other ruminants, however, 
their curiosity sometimes overcomes their timidity, so as 
to bring them within range of the hunter's rifle. Their cry 
is peculiar, being something between the belling of a deer 
and the neigh of a horse. The chief enemies of the 
guanaco are the Patagonian Indians and the puma, as it forms 
the principal food of both. Its flesh is palatable although 
wanting in fat, while its skin forms the chief clothing material 
of the Patagonians. Guanaco are readily domesticated, and in 
this state become very bold and will attack man, striking him 
from behind with both knees. In the wild state they never 
defend themselves, and if approached from different points, 
according to the Indian fashion of hunting, get completely 
bewildered and fall an easy prey. They take readily to the 




Head of Guanaco. 



water, and have been observed swimming from one island to 
another, while they have been seen drinking salt-water. They 
have a habit of depositing their droppings during successive 
days on the same spot a habit appreciated by the Peruvian 
Indians, who use those deposits for fuel. Guanaco also have 
favourite localities in which to die, as appears from the great 
heaps of their bones found in particular spots. 

GUANAJAY, a town of western Cuba, in Pinar del Rio province, 
about 36 m. (by rail) S.W. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 6400. 
Guanajay is served by the W. branch of the United railways 
of Havana, of which it is the W. terminus. The town lies among 
hills, has an excellent climate, and in colonial times was (like 
Holguin) an acclimatization station for troops fresh from Spain; 
it now has considerable repute as a health resort. The surround- 
ing country is a fertile sugar and tobacco region. Guanajay 
has always been important as a distributing point in the commerce 
of the western end of the island. It was an ancient pueblo, 
of considerable size and importance as early as the end of the 
1 8th century. 

GUANAJUATO, or GUANAXUATO, an inland state of Mexico, 
bounded N. by Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, E. by Queretaro, 
S. by Michoacan and W. by Jalisco. Area, 11,370 sq. m. It 
is one of the most densely populated states of the republic; 
pop. (1895) 1,047,817; (1900) 1,061,724. The state lies 
wholly within the limits of the great central plateau of Mexico, 
and has an average elevation of about 6000 ft. The surface 
of its northern half is broken by the Sierra Gorda and Sierra 
de Guanajuato, but its southern half is covered by fertile plains 
largely devoted to agriculture. It is drained by the Rio Grande 
de Lerma and its tributaries, which in places flow through deeply 
eroded valleys. The climate is semi-tropical and healthy, 
and the rainfall is sufficient to insure good results in agriculture 
and stock-raising. In the warm valleys sugar-cane is grown, 
and at higher elevations Indian corn, beans, barley and wheat. 
The southern plains are largely devoted to stock-raising. Guana- 
juato has suffered much from the destruction of its forests, 
but there remain some small areas on the higher elevations of 
the north. The principal industry of the state is mining, the 
mineral wealth of the mountain ranges of the north being 
enormous. Among its mineral products are silver, gold, tin, 
lead, mercury, copper and opals. Silver has been extracted 
since the early days of the Spanish conquest, over $800,000,000 
having been taken from the mines during the subsequent three 
and a half centuries. Some of the more productive of these 
mines, or groups of mines, are the Veta Madre (mother lode), 
the San Bernabe lode, and the Rayas mines of Guanajuato, and 
the La Valenciana mine, the output of which is said to have 
been $226,000,000 between 1766 and 1826. The manufacturing 
establishments include fiour mills, tanneries and manufactories 
of leather, cotton and woollen mills, distilleries, foundries and 
potteries. The Mexican Central and the Mexican National 
railway lines cross the state from N. to S., and the former 
operates a short branch from Silao to the state capital and 
another westward from Irapuato to Guadalajara. The capital 
is Guanajuato, and other important cities and towns are Le6n, 
or Leon de las Aldamas; Celaya (pop. 25,565 in 1900), an 
important railway junction 22 m. by rail W. from Queretaro, 
and known for its manufactures of broadcloth, saddlery, soap 
and sweetmeats; Irapuato (18,593 i Q 1900), a railway junction 
and commercial centre, 21 m. S. by W. of Guanajuato; Silao 
(i5>355), a railway junction and manufacturing town (woollens 
and cottons), 14 m. S.W. of Guanajuato; Salamanca (13,583), 
on the Mexican Central railway and Lerma river, 25 m. S. by E. of 
Guanajuato, with manufactures of cottons and porcelain; 
Allende (10,547), a commercial town 30 m. E. by S. of Guanajuato, 
with mineral springs; Valle de Santiago (12,660), 50 m. W. by S. 
of Queretaro; Salvatierra (10,393), 60 m. S.E. of Guanajuato; 
Cortazar (8633); La Luz (8318), in a rich mining district; 
Penjamo (8262); Santa Cruz (7239); San Francisco del Rinc6n 
(10,904), 39 m. W. of Guanajuato in a rich mining district; 
and Acambaro (8345), a prosperous town of the plain, 76 m. 
S.S.E. of Guanajuato. 



650 



GUANAJUATO GUANCHES 



GUANAJUATO, or SANTA F DE GUANAJUATO, a city of Mexico 
and capital of the above state, 155 m. (direct) N.W. of the 
Federal capital, on a small tributary of the Rio Grande de Lerma 
or Santiago. Pop. (1895) 39,404; (1900) 41,486. The city is 
built in the Canada de Marfil at the junction of three ravines 
about 6500 ft. above the sea, and its narrow, tortuous streets 
rise steeply as they follow the ravines upward to the mining 
villages clustered about the opening of the mines in the hillsides. 
Guanajuato is sometimes described as a collection of mining 
villages; but in addition there is the central city with its crowded 
winding streets, its substantial old Spanish buildings, its fifty 
ore-crushing mills and busy factories and its bustling commercial 
life. Enclosing the city are the steep, barren mountain sides 
honeycombed with mines. The climate is semi-tropical and is 
considered healthy. The noteworthy public buildings and 
institutions are an interesting old Jesuit church with arches 
of pink stone and delicate carving, eight monasteries, the 
government palace, a mint dating from 1812, a national college, 
the fine Teatro Juarez, and the Pantheon, or public cemetery, 
with catacombs below. The Alhondiga de Granaditas, originally 
a public granary, was used as a fort during the War of Independ- 
ence, and is celebrated as the scene of the first battle (1810) in 
that long struggle. Among the manufactures are cottons, prints, 
soaps, chemicals, pottery and silverware, but mining is the 
principal interest and occupation of the population. The silver 
mines of the vicinity were long considered the richest in Mexico, 
the celebrated Veta Madre (mother lode) even being described 
as the richest in the world; and Guanajuato has the largest 
reduction works in Mexico. The railway outlet for the city 
consists of a short branch of the Mexican Central, which joins 
the trunk line at Silao. Guanajuato was founded in 1554. It 
attained the dignity of a city in 1741. It was celebrated for its 
vigorous resistance to the invaders at the time of the Spanish 
conquest, and was repeatedly sacked during that war. 

GUANCHES, GUANCHIS or GUANCHOS (native Guanchinet; 
Gaw = person, C/we*= Teneriffe, "man of Teneriffe," cor- 
rupted, according to Nunez de la Pena, by Spaniards into 
Guanchos), the aboriginal inhabitants of the Canary Islands. 
Strictly the Guanches were the primitive inhabitants of Teneriffe, 
where they seem to have preserved racial purity to the time of 
the Spanish conquest, but the name came to be applied to the 
indigenous populations of all the islands. The Guanches, now 
extinct as a distinct people, appear, from the study of skulls 
and bones discovered, to have resembled the Cro-Magnon race 
of the Quaternary age, and no real doubt is now entertained that 
they were an offshoot of the great race of Berbers which from 
the dawn of history has occupied northern Africa from Egypt 
to the Atlantic. Pliny the Elder, deriving his knowledge from 
the accounts of Juba, king of Mauretania, states that when 
visited by the Carthaginians under Hanno the archipelago was 
found by them to be uninhabited, but that they saw ruins of 
great buildings. This would suggest that the Guanches were not 
the first inhabitants, and from the absence of any trace of 
Mahommedanism among the peoples found in the archipelago 
by the Spaniards it would seem that this extreme westerly 
migration of Berbers took place between the time of which Pliny 
wrote and the conquest of northern Africa by the Arabs. Many 
of the Guanches fell in resisting the Spaniards, many were sold 
as slaves, and many conformed to the Roman Catholic faith and 
married Spaniards. 

Such remains as there are of their language, a few expressions 
and the proper names of ancient chieftains still borne by certain 
families, connect it with the Berber dialects. In many of the 
islands signs are engraved on rocks. Domingo Vandewalle, 
a military governor of Las Palmas, was the first, in 1752, to 
investigate these; and it is due to the perseverance of D. Aquilino 
Padran, a priest of Las Palmas, that anything about the inscrip- 
tion on the island Hierro has been brought to light. In 1878 
Dr R. Verneau discovered in the ravines of Las Balos some 
genuine Libyan inscriptions. Without exception the rock 
inscriptions have proved to be Numidic. In two of the islands 
(Teneriffe and Gomera) the Guanche type has been retained with 



more purity than in the others. No inscriptions have been found 
in these two islands, and therefore it would seem that the true 
Guanches did not know how to write. In the other islands 
numerous Semitic traces are found, and in all of them are the 
rock-signs. From these facts it would seem that the Numidians, 
travelling from the neighbourhood of Carthage and intermixing 
with the dominant Semitic race, landed in the Canary Islands, 
and that it is they who have written the inscriptions at Hierro 
and Grand Canary. 

The political and social institutions of the Guanches varied. 
In some islands hereditary autocracy prevailed; in others the 
government was elective. In Teneriffe all the land belonged to 
the chiefs who leased it to their subjects. In Grand Canary 
suicide was regarded as honourable, and on a chief inheriting, 
one of his subjects willingly honoured the occasion by throw- 
ing himself over a precipice. In some islands polyandry was 
practised; in others the natives were monogamous. But every- 
where the women appear to have been respected, an insult 
offered any woman by an armed man being a capital offence. 
Almost all the Guanches used to wear garments of goatskins, 
and others of vegetable fibres, which have been found in the 
tombs of Grand Canary. They had a taste for ornaments, 
necklaces of wood, bone and shells, worked in different designs. 
Beads of baked earth, cylindrical and of all shapes, with smooth 
or polished surfaces, mostly black and red in colour, were chiefly 
in use. They painted their bodies; the pintaderas, baked clay 
objects like seals in shape, have been explained by Dr Verneau 
as having been used solely for painting the body in various colours. 
They manufactured rough pottery, mostly without decorations, 
or ornamented by means of the finger-nail. The Guanches' 
weapons were those of the ancient races of south Europe. The 
polished battle-axe was more used in Grand Canary, while stone 
and obsidian, roughly cut, were commoner in Teneriffe. They 
had, besides, the lance, the club, sometimes studded with pebbles, 
and the javelin, and they seem to have known the shield. They 
lived in natural or artificial caves in their mountains. In 
districts where cave-dwellings were impossible, they built small 
roundhouses and, according to the Spaniards, they even practised 
rude fortification. In Palma the old people were at their own 
wish left to die alone. After bidding their family farewell they 
were carried to the sepulchral cave, nothing but a bowl of milk 
being left them. The Guanches embalmed their dead; many 
mummies have been found in an extreme state of desiccation, 
each weighing not more than 6 or 7 Ib. Two almost inaccessible 
caves in a vertical rock by the shore 3 m. from Santa Cruz 
(Teneriffe) are said still to contain bones. The process of embalm- 
ing seems to have varied. In Teneriffe and Grand Canary the 
corpse was simply wrapped up in goat and sheep skins, while 
in other islands a resinous substance was used to preserve the 
body, which was then placed in a cave difficult of access, or buried 
under a tumulus. The work of embalming was reserved for a 
special class, women for female corpses, men for male. Em- 
balming seems not to have been universal, and bodies were often 
simply hidden in caves or buried. 

Little is known of the religion of the Guanches. They appear 
to have been a distinctly religious race. There was a general 
belief in a supreme being, called Acoran, in Grand Canary, 
Achihuran in Teneriffe, Eraoranhan in Hierro, and Abora in 
Palma. The women of Hierro worshipped a goddess called 
Moneiba. According to tradition the male and female gods lived 
in mountains whence they descended to hear the prayers of the 
people. In other islands the natives venerated the sun, moon, 
earth and stars. A belief in an evil spirit was general. The 
demon of Teneriffe was called Guayota and lived in the peak of 
Teyde, which was the hell called Echeyde. In times of drought 
the Guanches drove their flocks to consecrated grounds, where 
the lambs were separated from their mothers in the belief that 
their plaintive bleatings would melt the heart of the Great 
Spirit. During the religious feasts all war and even personal 
quarrels were stayed. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. S. Berthelot, AntiquMs canariennes (Paris, 
1839); Baker Webb and S. Berthelot, Histoire naturette des ties 



GUANIDINE GUARANIS 



651 



Canaries (Paris, 1839) ; Paul Broca, Revue d'anthropologie, iv. (1874) ; 
General L. L. C. Faidherbe, Quelque mots sur I'ethnologie de I'archipel 
canarien (Paris, 1875); Chil y Naranjo, Estudios historicos, climato- 
logicos y Patologicos de las Islas Canarias (Las Palmas, 1876-1889); 
" De la plurality des races humaines de I'archipel canarien," Bull. 
Soc. Anthrop. Paris, 1878; " Habitations et sdpultures des anciens 
habitants des lies Canaries," Revue d'anthrop., 1879; R. Verneau, 
" Sur les Semites aux lies Canaries," and " Sur les anciens habitants 
de la Isleta, Grande Canarie," Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Paris, 1881; 
Rapport sur une mission scientifique dans I'archipel canarien (Paris, 
1887); Cinq annees de sejour aux ties Canaries (Paris, 1891); H. 
Meyer, Die Insel Tenerife (Leipzig, 1896), " t)ber die Urbewohner 
der canarischen Inseln," in Adolf Bastian Festschrift (Berlin, 1896); 
F. von Luschan, Anhang iiber eine Schadelsammlung von den canari- 
schen Inseln; R. Virchow, " Schadel mit Carionecrosis der Sagittal- 
S:gend," Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesellschaft (1896); 
. Sergi, The Mediterranean Race (London, 1901); The Guanches 
of Tenerife . . . , by Alonso de Espinosa, translated by Sir Clements 
Markham, with bibliography (Hakluyt Society, 1907). 

GUANIDINE, CN 3 H 6 or HN: C(NH 2 ) 2 , the amidine of amido- 
carbonic acid. It occurs in beet juice. It was first prepared 
in 1 86 1 by A. Strecker, who oxidized guanine with hydrochloric 
acid and potassium chlorate. It may be obtained synthetically 
by the action of ammonium iodide on cyanamide, CN-NH 2 -j- 
NH 4 I=CN 3 H 5 -HI-; by heating ortho-carbonic esters with 
ammonia to 150 C.; but best by heating ammonium thiocyanate 
to i8o-i90 C., when the thiourea first formed is converted into 
guanidine thiocyanate, 2CS(NH 2 )2=HN:C(NH 2 ) 2 -HCNS+H 2 S. 
It is a colourless crystalline solid, readily soluble in water and 
alcohol; it deliquesces on exposure to air. It has strong basic 
properties, absorbs carbon dioxide readily, and forms well- 
defined crystalline salts. Baryta water hydrolyses it to urea. 
By direct union with glycocoll acid, it yields glycocyamine, 
NH 2 -(HN): C-NH-CH 2 -CO 2 H, whilst with methyl glycocoll 
(sarcosine) it forms creatine, NH 2 -(NH): C-N(CH 3 )-CH 2 -C0 2 H. 

Many derivatives of guanidine were obtained by J. Thiele (Ann., 
1892, 270, p. i; 1893, 273, p. 133; Ber., 1893, 26, pp. 2598, 2645). 
By the action of nitric acid on guanidine in the presence of sul- 
phuric acid, nitroguanidine, HN:C(NH 2 )'NH-NO 2 (a substance 
possessing acid properties) is obtained; from which, by reduction 
with zinc dust, amidoguanidine, HN :C(NH 2 )-NH-NH 2 , is formed. 
This amidoguanidine decomposes on hydrolysis with the formation 
of semicarbazide, NHrCO-NH-Nr^, which, in its turn, breaks 
down into carbon dioxide, ammonia and hydrazine. Amidoguani- 
dine is a body of hydrazine type, for it reduces gold and silver salts 
and yields a benzylidine derivative. On oxidation with potassium 
permanganate, it gives azodicarbondiamidine nitrate, NH 2 -(HN): 
ON: N-C:(NH)-NH 2 -2HNO 3 , which, when reduced by sulphuretted 
hydrogen, is converted into the corresponding hydrazodicarbondi- 
amidine, NH 2 -(HN):ONH-NH-C:(NH)-NH 2 . By the action of 
nitrous acid on a nitric acid solution of amidoguanidine, diazoguani- 
dine nitrate, NH 2 -(HN) : C-NH-N 2 -NO 3> is obtained. This diazo 
compound is decomposed by caustic alkalis with the formation 
of cyanamide and hydrazoic acid, CH4N6-NO 3 = N 8 H+CN-NH 2 + 
HNOs, whilst acetates and carbonates convert it into amidotetra- 

^ N-N. 
zotic acid, H 2 N-C/ II . Amidotetrazotic acid yields addition 

X NH-N 

compounds with amines, and by the further action of nitrous acid 
yields a very explosive derivative, diazotetrazol, CN. By fusing 
guanidine with urea, dicyandiamidineH 2 N-(HN):C-NH-CONH 2 ,is 
formed. 

GUANO (a Spanish word from the Peruvian huanu, dung), 
the excrement of birds, found as large deposits on certain islands 
off the coast of Peru, and on others situated in the Southern 
ocean and off the west coast of Africa. The large proportions 
of phosphorus in the form of phosphates and of nitrogen as 
ammonium oxalate and urate renders it a valuable fertilizer. 
Bat's guano, composed of the excrement of bats, is found in 
certain caves in New Zealand and elsewhere; it is similar in 
composition to Peruvian guano. (See MANURES AND MANURING.) 

QUANTA, a port on the Caribbean coast of the state of Ber- 
mudez, Venezuela, 12 m. N.E. of Barcelona, with which it is 
connected by rail. It dates from the completion of the railway 
to the coal mines of Naricual and Capiricual nearly 1 2 m. beyond 
Barcelona, and was created for the shipment of coal. The 
harbour is horseshoe-shaped, with its entrance, igq8 ft. wide, 
protected by an island less than i m. off the shore. The entrance 
is easy and safe, and the harbour affords secure anchorage for 
large vessels, with deep water alongside the iron railway wharf. 



These advantages have made Guanta the best port on this part of 
the coast, and the trade of Barcelona and that of a large inland 
district have been transferred to it. A prominent feature in its 
trade is the shipment of live cattle. Among its exports are sugar, 
coffee, cacao, tobacco and fruit. 

GUANTANAMO, the easternmost important town of the S. 
coast of Cuba, in the province of Santiago, about 40 m. E. of 
Santiago. Pop. (1907) 14,559. It is situated by the Guazo 
(or Guaso) river, on a little open plain between the mountains. 
The beautiful, land-locked harbour, 10 m. long from N. to S. 
and 4 m. wide in places, has an outer and an inner basin. The 
latter has a very narrow entrance, and 2 to 2-5 fathoms depth 
of water. From the port of Caimanera to the city of 
Guantanamo, 13 m. N., there is a railway, and the city has 
railway connexion with Santiago. Guantanamo is one of the 
two ports leased by Cuba to the United States for a naval 
station. It is the shipping-port and centre of a surrounding 
coffee-, sugar- and lime-growing district. In 1741 an English 
force under Admiral Edward Vernon and General Thomas 
Wentworth landed here to attack Santiago. They named the 
harbour Cumberland bay. After their retreat fortifications 
were begun. The history of the region practically dates, how- 
ever, from the end of the i8th century, when it gained prosperity 
from the settlement of French refugees from Santo Domingo; 
the town, as such, dates only from 1822. Almost all the old 
families are of French descent, and French was the language 
locally most used as late as the last third of the igth century. 
In recent years, especially since the Spanish-American War of 
1898, the region has greatly changed socially and economically. 
Guantanamo was once a fashionable summer residence resort 
for wealthy Cubans. 

GUARANA (so called from the Guaranis, an aboriginal American 
tribe), the plant Paullinia Cupana (or P. sorbilis) of the natural 
order Sapindaceae, indigenous to the north and west of Brazil. It 
has a smooth erect stem; large pinnate alternate leaves, com- 
posed of 5 oblong-oval leaflets; narrow panicles of short -stalked 
flowers; and ovoid or pyriform fruit about as large as a grape, 
and containing usually one seed only, which is shaped like a 
minute horse-chestnut. What is commonly known as guarana, 
guarana bread or Brazilian cocoa, is prepared from the seeds 
as follows. In October and November, at which time they 
become ripe, the seeds are removed from their capsules and 
sun-dried, so as to admit of the ready removal by hand of the 
white aril; they are next ground in a stone mortar or deep dish 
of hard sandstone; the powder, moistened by the addition of a 
small quantity of water, or by exposure to the dews, is then 
made into a paste with a certain proportion of whole or broken 
seeds, and worked up sometimes into balls, but usually into rolls 
not unlike German sausages, 5 to 8 in. in length, and 12 to 16 oz. 
in weight. After drying by artificial or solar heat, the guarana 
is packed between broad leaves in sacks or baskets. Thus pre- 
pared, it is of extreme hardness, and has a brown hue, a bitter 
astringent taste, and an odour faintly resembling that of roasted 
coffee. An inferior kind, softer and of a lighter colour, is manu- 
factured by admixture of cocoa or cassava. Rasped or grated 
into sugar and water, guarana forms a beverage largely consumed 
in S. America. Its manufacture, originally confined to the 
Mauh6s Indians, has spread into various parts of Brazil. 

The properties of guarana as a nervous stimulant and restorative 
are due to the presence of what was originally described as a new 
principle and termed guaranine, but is now known to be identical 
with caffeine or theine. Besides this substance, which is stated to 
exist in it in the form of tannate, guarana yields on analysis the 
glucoside saponin, with tannin, starch, gum, three volatile oils, and 
an acrid green fixed oil (Fournier, Journ. de Pharm. vol. xxxix., 
1861, p. 291). 

GUARANIS, a tribe and stock of South American Indians, 
having their home in Paraguay, Uruguay and on the Brazilian 
coast. The Guaranis had developed some civilization before 
the arrival of the Spaniards, and being a peaceable people 
quickly submitted. They form to-day the chief element in the 
populations of Paraguay and Uruguay. Owing to its patronage 
by the Jesuit missionaries the Guarani language became a 



652 



GUARANTEE 



widespread medium of communication, and in a corrupted form 
is still the common language in Paraguay. 

GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; 
an 0. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which 
appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding) , 
a term more comprehensive and of higher import than either 
" warrant " or " security," and designating either some inter- 
national treaty whereby claims, rights orpossessions are secured, 
or more commonly a mere private transaction, by means of which 
one person, to obtain some trust, confidence or credit for another, 
engages to be answerable for him. 

In English law, a guarantee is a contract to answer for the 
payment of some debt, or the performance of some duty, by 
a third person who is primarily liable to such payment or per- 
formance. It is a collateral contract, which does not extinguish 
the original liability or obligation to which it is accessory, but 
on the contrary is itself rendered null and void should the latter 
fail, as without a principal there can be no accessory. The 
liabilities of a surety are in law dependent upon those of the 
principal debtor, and when the latter cease the former do so 
likewise (per Collins, L.J., in Slacey v. Hill, 1901, i K.B., at 
p. 666; see per Willes, J., in Bateson v. Gosling, 1871, L.R. 7 C.P., 
at p. 14), except in certain cases where the discharge of the 
principal debtor is by operation of law (see In re Fitzgeorge 
ex parle Robson, 1005, i K.B. p. 462). If, therefore, persons 
wrongly suppose that a third person is liable to one of them, 
and a guarantee is given on that erroneous supposition, it is 
invalid ab initio, by virtue of the lex contractus, because its 
foundation (which was that another was taken to be liable) 
has failed (per Willes, J., in Mountstephen v. Lakeman, L.R. 
7 Q.B.. p. 202). According to various existing codes civil, 
a suretyship, in respect of an obligation " non-valable," 
is null and void save where the invalidity is the result 
of personal incapacity of the principal debtor (Codes Civil, 
France and Belgium, 2012; Spain, 1824; Portugal, 822; Italy, 
1899; Holland, 1858; Lower Canada, 1932). In some countries, 
however, the mere personal incapacity of a son under age to 
borrow suffices to vitiate the guarantee of a loan made to him 
(Spain, 1824; Portugal, 822, s.2, 1535, 1536). The Egyptian codes 
sanction guarantees expressly entered into " in view of debtor's 
want of legal capacity " to contract a valid principal obligation 
(Egyptain Codes, Mixed Suits, 605; Native Tribunals, 496). 
The Portuguese code (art. 822, s. i) retains the surety's liability, 
in respect of an invalid principal obligation, until the latter has 
been legally rescinded. 

The giver of a guarantee is called " the surety," or " the 
guarantor "; the person to whom it is given " the creditor," 
or "the guarantee"; while the person whose payment or 
performance is secured thereby is termed " the principal debtor," 
or simply " the principal." In America, but not apparently 
elsewhere, there is a recognized distinction between " a surety " 
_and " a guarantor "; the former being usually bound with the 
' principal, at the same time and on the same consideration, while 
the contract of the latter is his own separate undertaking, in 
which the principal does not join, and in respect of which he is 
not to be held liable, until due diligence has been exerted to 
compel the principal debtor to make good his default. There 
is no privity of contract between the surety and the principal 
debtor, for the surety contracts with the creditor, and they do 
not constitute in law one person, and are not jointly liable to 
the creditor (per Baron Parke in Bain v. Cooper, i Dowl. R. 
(N.S.) n, 14). 

No special phraseology is necessary to the formation of a 
guarantee; and what really distinguishes such a contract from 
one of insurance is not any essential difference between the two 
forms of words insurance and guarantee, but the substance of 
the contract entered into by the parties in each particular case 
(per Romer, L.J., in Seaton v. Heath Seaton v. Burnand, 1899, 
i Q.B. 782, 792, C.A.; per Vaughan Williams, L.J., in In re 
Denton's Estate Licenses Insurance Corporation and Guarantee 
Fund Ltd. v. Denton, 1904, 2 Ch., at p. 188; and see Dane v. 
Mortgage Insurance Corporation, 1894, i Q.B. 54 C.A.) In this 



connexion it may be mentioned that the different kinds of 
suretyships have been classified as follows: (i) Those in which 
there is an agreement to constitute, for a particular purpose, 
the relation of principal and surety, to which agreement the 
creditor thereby secured is a party; (2) those in which there 
is a similar agreement between the principal and surety only, to 
which the creditor is a stranger; and (3) those in which, without 
any such contract of suretyship, there is a primary and a 
secondary liability of two persons for one and the same debt, 
the debt being, as between the two, that of one of those persons 
only, and not equally of both, so that the other, if he should be 
compelled to pay it, would be entitled to reimbursement from 
the person by whom (as between the two) it ought to have been 
paid (per Earl of Selborne, L.C., in Duncan Fox and Co. v. North and 
South Wales Bank, 6 App. Cas., at p. n). According to several 
codes civil sureties are made divisible into conventional, legal 
and judicial (Fr. and Bel., 201.5, 2O 4 et seq.; Spain, 1823; 
Lower Canada, 1930), while the Spanish code further divides 
them into gratuitous and for valuable consideration (art. i, 823). 
In England the common-law requisites of a guarantee in no 
way differ from those essential to the formation of any other 
contract. That is to say, they comprise the mutual assent 
of two or more parties, competency to contract, and, unless 
the guarantee be under seal, valuable consideration. An offer 
to guarantee is not binding until it has been accepted, being 
revocable till then by the party making it. Unless, however, 
as sometimes happens, the offer contemplates an express accept- 
ance, one may be implied, and it may be a question for a jury 
whether an offer of guarantee has in fact been accepted. Where 
the surety's assent to a guarantee has been procured by fraud 
of the person to whom it is given, there is no binding contract. 
Such fraud may consist of suppression or concealment or mis- 
representation. There is some conflict of authorities as to what 
facts must be spontaneously disclosed to the surety by the 
creditor, but it may be taken that the rule on the subject is 
less stringent than that governing insurances upon marine, 
life and other risks (The North British Insurance Co. v. Lloyd, 
10 Exch. 523), though formerly this was denied (Owen v. Homan, 
3 Mac. & G. 378, 397). Moreover, even where the contract 
relied upon is in the form of a policy guaranteeing the solvency 
of a surety for another's debt, and is therefore governed by the 
doctrine of uberrima fides, only such facts as are really material 
to the risk undertaken need be spontaneously disclosed (Seaton v. 
Burnand Burnand v. Seaton, 1900, A.C. 135). As regards 
the competency of the parties to enter into a contract of 
guarantee, this may be affected by insanity or intoxication of 
the surety, if known to the creditor, or by disability of any kind. 
The ordinary disabilities are those of infants and married women 
now in England greatly mitigated as regards the latter by the 
Married Women's Property Acts, 1870 to 1893, which enable a 
married woman to contract, as a feme sole, to the extent of her 
separate property. Every guarantee not under seal must 
according to English law have a consideration to support it, 
though the least spark of one suffices (per Wilmot, J., in Pillan v. 
van Mierop and Hopkins, 3 Burr., at p. 1666; Haigh v. Brooks, 
10 A. & E. 309; Barrel! v. Trussell, 4 Taunt. 117), which, as 
in other cases, may consist either of some right, interest, profit 
or benefit accruing to the one party, or some forbearance, detri- 
ment, loss or responsibility given, suffered or undertaken by the 
other. In some guarantees the consideration is entire as where, 
in consideration of a lease being granted, the surety becomes 
answerable for the performance of the covenants; in other 
cases it is fragmentary, i.e. supplied from time to time as 
where a guarantee is given to secure the balance of a running 
account at a banker's, or a balance of a running account for 
goods supplied (per Lush, L.J., in Lloyd's v. Harper, 16 Ch. Div., 
at p. 319). In the former case, the moment the lease is granted 
there is nothing more for the lessor to do, and such a guarantee 
as that of necessity runs on throughout the duration of the 
lease and is irrevocable. In the latter case, however, unless 
the guarantee stipulates to the contrary, the surety may at any 
time terminate his liability under the guarantee as to future 



GUARANTEE 



6 53 



advances, &c. The consideration for a guarantee must not be 
past or executed, but on the other hand it need not comprise a 
direct benefit or advantage to either the surety or the creditor, 
but may solely consist of anything done, or any promise made, 
for the benefit of the principal debtor. It is more frequently 
executory than concurrent, taking the form either of forbearance 
to sue the principal debtor, or of a future advance of money or 
supply of goods to him. 

By the Indian Contract Act 1872, sect. 127, it is provided that 
the consideration for a guarantee may consist of anything done 
or any promise made for the benefit of the principal debtor by 
the creditor. Total failure of the consideration stipulated for 
by the party giving a guarantee will prevent its being enforced, 
as will also the existence of an illegal consideration. Though in 
all countries the mutual assent of two or more parties is essential 
to the formation of any contract (see e.g. Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 
1108; Port. 643, 647 et seq.; Spain, 1258, 1261; Italy, 1104; 
Holl. 1356; Lower Canada, 984), a consideration is not every- 
where regarded as a necessary element (see Pothier's Law of 
Obligations, Evans's edition, vol. ii. p. 19). Thus in Scotland 
a contract may be binding without a consideration to support it 
(Stair i. 10. 7). 

The statutory requisites of a guarantee are, in England, 
prescribed by (i) the Statute of Frauds, which, with reference 
to guarantees, provides that " no action shall be brought whereby 
to charge the defendant upon any special promise to answer 
for the debt, default or miscarriages of another person, unless the 
agreement upon which such action shall be brought, or some 
memorandum or note thereof, shall be in writing and signed by 
the party to be charged therewith, or some other person thereunto 
by him lawfully authorized," and (2) Lord Tenterden's Act 
(9 Geo. IV. c. 14), which by 6 enacts that " no action shall be 
brought whereby to charge any person upon or by reason of any 
representation or assurance made or given concerning or relating 
to the character, conduct, credit, ability, trade or dealings of 
any other person, to the intent or purpose that such other person 
may obtain credit, money or goods upon" (i.e. " upon credit," 
see per Parke, B., in Lyde v. Barnard, i M. & W., at p. 104), 
" unless such representation or assurance be made in writing 
signed by the party to be charged therewith." This latter 
enactment, which applies to incorporated companies as well as 
to individual persons (Hirst v. West Riding Union Banking Co., 
1901, 2 K.B. 560 C.A.), was rendered necessary by an evasion 
of the 4th section of the Statute of Frauds, accomplished by 
treating the special promise to answer for another's debt, default 
or miscarriage, when not in writing, as required by that section, 
as a false and fraudulent representation concerning another's 
credit, solvency or honesty, in respect of which damages, as for 
a tort, were held to be recoverable (Pasley v. Freeman, 3 T.R. 51). 
In Scotland, where, it should be stated, a guarantee is called 
a " cautionary obligation," similar enactments to those just 
specified are contained in 6 of the Mercantile Law Amendment 
Act (Scotland) 1856, while in the Irish Statute of Frauds (7 Will. 
III. c. 12) there is a provision ( 2) identical with that found in 
the English Statute of Frauds. In India a guarantee may be 
either oral or written (Indian Contract Act, 126), while in the 
Australian colonies, Jamaica and Ceylon it must be in writing. 
The German code civil requires the surety's promise to be verified 
by writing where he has not executed the principal obligation 
(art. 766), and the Portuguese code renders a guarantee provable 
by all the modes established by law for the proof of the principal 
contract (art. 826). According to most codes civil now in force 
a guarantee like any other contract can usually be made verbally 
in the presence of witnesses and in certain cases (where for in- 
stance considerable sums of money are involved) sous signature 
privee or else by judicial or notarial instrument (see Codes Civil, 
Fr. and Bel. 1341; Spain, 1244; Port. 2506, 2513; Italy, 
1341 et seq.; Pothier's Law of Obligations, Evans's ed. i. 257; 
Burge on Suretyship, p. 19; van der Linden's Institutes of 
Holland, p. 120); the French and Belgian Codes, moreover, 
provide that suretyship is not to be presumed but must always 
be expressed (art. 2015). 



The Statute of Frauds does not invalidate a verbal guarantee, 
but renders it unenforceable by action. It may therefore be 
available in support of a defence to an action, and money paid 
under it cannot be recovered. An indemnity is not a guarantee 
within the statute, unless it contemplates the primary liability 
of a third person. It need not, therefore, be in writing when it is 
a. mere promise to become liable for a debt, whenever the person 
to whom the promise is made should become liable (Wildes v. 
Dudlow, L.R. 19 Eq. 198; per Vaughan Williams, L.J. in Harburg 
India-Rubber Co. v. Martin, 1902, i K.B. p. 786; Guild v. 
Conrad, 1894, 2 Q.B. 885 C.A.). Neither does the statute apply 
to the promise of a del credere agent, which binds him, in con- 
sideration of the higher commission he receives, to make no 
sales on behalf of his principal except to persons who are 
absolutely solvent, and renders him liable for any loss that may 
result from the non-fulfilment of his promise. A promise to 
give a guarantee is, however, within the statute, though not one 
to procure a guarantee. 

The general principles which determine what are guarantees 
within the Statute of Frauds, as deduced from a multitude of 
decided cases, are briefly as follows: (i) the primary liability 
of a third person must exist or be contemplated as the foundation 
of the contract (Birkmyr v. Darnell, i Sm. L.C. nth ed. p. 299; 
Mountstephen v. Lakeman, L.R. 7 Q.B. 196; L.R. 7 H.L. 17); 
(2) the promise must be made to the creditor; (3) there must be 
an absence of all liability on the part of the surety independently 
of his express promise of guarantee; (4) the main object of the 
transaction between the parties to the guarantee must be the 
fulfilment of a third party's obligation (see Harburg India- 
rubber Comb Co. v. Martin, 1902, i K.B. 778, 786); and (5) 
the contract entered into must not amount to a sale by the 
creditor to the promiser of a security for a debt or of the debt 
itself (see de Colyar's Law of Guarantees and of Principal and 
Surety, 3rd ed. pp. 65-161, where these principles are discussed 
in detail by the light of decided cases there cited). 

As regards the kind of note or memorandum of the guarantee 
that will satisfy the Statute of Frauds, it is now provided by 3 
of the Mercantile Law Amendment Act 1856, that " no special 
promise to be made, by any person after the passing of this act, 
to answer for the debt, default or miscarriage of another person, 
being in writing and signed by the party to be charged therewith, 
or some other person by him thereunto lawfully authorized, 
shall be deemed invalid to support an action, suit or other pro- 
ceeding, to charge the person by whom such promise shall have 
been made, by reason only that the consideration for such 
promise does not appear in writing or by necessary inference from 
a written document." Prior to this enactment, which is not 
retrospective in its operation, it was held in many cases that as 
the Statute of Frauds requires " the agreement " to be in writing, 
all parts thereof were required so to be, including the considera- 
tion moving to, as well as the promise by, the party to be charged 
(Wain v. Walters, 5 East, 10; Saunders v. Wakefield, 4 B. & 
Aid. 595). These decisions, however, proved to be burdensome 
to the mercantile community, especially in Scotland and the 
north of England, and ultimately led to the alteration of the law, 
so far as guarantees are concerned, by means of the enactment 
already specified. Any writing embodying the terms of the agree- 
ment between the parties, and signed by the party to be charged, 
is sufficient; and the idea of agreement need not be present to 
the mind of the person signing (per Lindley, L.J., in In re Hoyle 
Hoyle v. Hoyle, 1893, i Ch., at p. 98). It is, however, necessary 
that the names of the contracting parties should appear some- 
where in writing; that the party to be charged, or his agent, 
should sign the memorandum or note of agreement, or else 
should sign another paper referring thereto; and that, when the 
note or memorandum is made, a complete agreement shall exist. 
Moreover, the memorandum must have been made before action 
brought, though it need not be contemporaneous with the 
agreement itself. As regards the stamping of the memorandum 
or note of agreement, a guarantee cannot, in England, be given in 
evidence unless properly stamped (Stamp Act 1891). Aguarantee 
for the payment of goods, however, requires no stamp, being 



654 



GUARANTEE 



within the exception contained in the first schedule of the act. 
Nor is it necessary to stamp a written representation or assurance 
as to character within 9 Geo. IV. c. 14, supra. If under seal, a 
guarantee requires sometimes an ad valorem stamp and some- 
times a ten-shilling stamp; in other cases a sixpenny stamp 
generally suffices; and, on certain prescribed terms, the stamps 
can be affixed any time after execution (Stamp Act 1891, 15, 
amended by 15 of the Finance Act 1895). 

The liability incurred by a surety under his guarantee depends 
upon its terms, and is not necessarily coextensive with that of 
the principal debtor. It is, however, obvious that as 
Extent at ^jje surety's obligation is merely accessory to that of 
the P rmc 'P a l it cannot as such exceed it (de Colyar, 
Law of Guarantees, 3rd ed. p. 233 ; Burge, Suretyship, 
p. 5). By the Roman law, if there were any such excess the 
surety's obligation was rendered wholly void and not merely 
void pro tanto. By many existing codes civil, however, a 
guarantee which imposes on the surety a greater liability than 
that of the principal is not thereby invalidated, but the liability 
is merely reducible to that of the principal (Fr. and Bel. 2013; 
Port. 823; Spain, 1826; Italy, 1900; Holland, 1859; Lower 
Canada, 1933). By sec. 128 of the Indian Contract Act 1872 
the liability of the surety is, unless otherwise provided by 
contract, coextensive with that of the principal. Where the 
liability of the surety is less extensive in amount than that of the 
principal debtor, difficult questions have arisen in England and 
America as to whether the surety is liable only for part of the 
debt equal to the limit of his liability, or, up to such limit, for 
the whole debt (Ellis v. Emmanuel, i Ex. Div. 157; Hobson v. 
Bass, 6 Ch. App. 792; Brandt, Suretyship, sec. 219). The 
surety cannot be made liable except for a loss sustained by reason 
of the default guaranteed against. Moreover, in the case of a 
joint and several guarantee by several sureties, unless all sign 
it none are liable thereunder (National Pro. Bk. of England v. 
Brackenbury, 1906, 22 Times L.R. 797). It was formerly 
considered in England to be the duty of the party taking a 
guarantee to see that it was couched in language enabling the 
party giving it to understand clearly to what extent he was 
binding himself (Nicholson v. Paget, i C. & M. 48, 52). This 
view, however, can no longer be sustained, it being now recog- 
nized that a guarantee, like any other contract, must, in cases 
of ambiguity, be construed against the party bound thereby 
and in favour of the party receiving it (Mayer v. Isaac, 6 M. & 
W. 605, 612; Wood v. Priestner, L.R. 2 Exch. 66, 71). The 
surety is not to be changed beyond the limits prescribed by his 
contract, which must be construed so as to give effect to what 
may fairly be inferred to have been the intention of the parties, 
from what they themselves have expressed in writing. In cases 
of doubtful import, recourse to parol evidence is permissible, 
to explain, but not to contradict, the written evidence of the 
guarantee. As a general rule, the surety is not liable if the 
principal debt cannot be enforced, because, as already explained, 
the obligation of the surety is merely accessory to that of the 
principal debtor. It has never been actually decided in England 
whether this rule holds good in cases where the principal debtor 
is an infant, and on that account is not liable to the creditor. 
Probably in such a case the surety might be held liable by 
estoppel (see Kimball v. Newell, 7 Hill (N.Y.) 116). When 
directors guarantee the performance by their company of a 
contract which is ultra vires, and therefore not binding on the 
latter, the directors' suretyship liability is, nevertheless, enforce- 
able against them (Yorkshire Railway Waggon Co. v. Maclure, 
21 Ch. D. 309 C.A.). 

It is not always easy to determine for how long a time liability 
under a guarantee endures. Sometimes a guarantee is limited 
to a single transaction, and is obviously intended to be security 
against one specific default only. On the other hand, it as often 
happens that it is not exhausted by one transaction on the faith 
of it, but extends to a series of transactions, and remains a 
standing security until it is revoked, either by the act of the 
parties or else by the death of the surety. It is then termed a 
continuing guarantee. No fixed rules of interpretation determine 



whether a guarantee is a continuing one or not, but each case 
must be judged on its individual merits; and frequently, in order 
to achieve a correct construction, it becomes necessary to 
examine the surrounding circumstances, which often reveal what 
was the subject-matter which the parties contemplated when 
the guarantee was given, and likewise what was the scope and 
object of the transaction between them. Most continuing 
guarantees are either ordinary mercantile securities, in respect 
of advances made or goods supplied to the principal debtor or 
else bonds for the good behaviour of persons in public or private 
offices or employments. With regard to the latter class of 
continuing guarantees, the surety's liability is, generally speak- 
ing, revoked by any change in the constitution of the persons 
to or for whom the guarantee is given. On this subject it is 
now provided by section 18 of the Partnership Act 1890, which 
applies to Scotland as well as England, that " a continuing 
guarantee or cautionary obligation given either to a firm or to 
a third peison in respect of the transactions of a firm, is, in the 
absence of agreement to the contrary, revoked as to future 
transactions by any change in the constitution of the firm to 
which, or of the firm in respect of the transactions of which the 
guaranty or obligation was given." This section, like the 
enactment it replaces, namely, sec. 4 of the Mercantile Law 
Amendment Act 1856, is mainly declaratory of the English 
common law, as embodied in decided cases, which indicate that 
the changes in the persons to or for whom a guarantee is given 
may consist either of an increase in their number, of a diminution 
thereof caused by death or retirement from business, or of the 
incorporation or consolidation of the persons to whom the 
guarantee is given. In this connexion it may be stated that the 
Government Offices (Security) Act 1875, which has been amended 
by the Statute Law Revision Act 1883, contains certain provisions 
with regard to the acceptance by the heads of public departments 
of guarantees given by companies for the due performance of 
the duties of an office or employment in the public service, and 
enables the Commissioners of His Majesty's Treasury to vary the 
character of any security, for good behaviour by public servants, 
given after the passing of the act. 

Before the surety can be rendered liable on his guarantee, 
the principal debtor must have made default. When, however, 
this has occurred, the creditor, in the absence of express agree- 
ment to the contrary, may sue the surety, without even informing 
him of such default having taken place, or requiring him to pay, 
and before proceeding against the principal debtor or resorting 
to securities for the debt received from the latter. In those 
countries where the municipal law is based on the Roman civil 
law, sureties usually possess the right (which may, however, 
be renounced by them) originally conferred by the Roman 
law, of compelling the creditor to insist on the goods, &c. (if any) 
of the principal debtor being first " discussed," i.e. appraised 
and sold, and appropriated to the liquidation of the debt 
guaranteed (see Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2021 et seq.; Spain, 
1830, 1831; Port. 830; Germany, 771, 772, 773; Holland, 
1868; Italy, 1907; Lower Canada, 1941-1942; Egypt [mixed 
suits] 612; ibid, [native tribunals] 502), before having recourse 
to the sureties. This right, according to a great American 
jurist (Chancellor Kent in Hayes v. Ward, 4 Johns. New York, 
Ch. Cas. p. 132), " accords with a common sense of justice and 
the natural equity of mankind." In England this right has 
never been fully recognized. Neither does it prevail in America 
nor, since the passing of the Mercantile Law Amendment Act 
(Scotland) 1856, s. 8, is it any longer available in Scotland where, 
prior to the last-named enactment, the benefit of discussion, as 
it is termed, existed. In England, however, before any demand 
for payment has been made by the creditor on the surety, the 
latter can, as soon as the principal debtor has made default, 
compel the creditor, on giving him an indemnity against costs 
and expenses, to sue the principal debtor if the latter be solvent 
and able to pay (per A. L. Smith, L.J., in Rouse v. Bradford 
Banking Company, 1894, 2 Ch. 75; per Lord Eldon in Wright v. 
Simpson, 6 Ves., at p. 733), and a similar remedy is also open 
to the surety in America (see Brandt on Suretyship, par. 205, 



GUARANTEE 



655 



p. 290) though in neither of these countries nor in Scotland can 
one of several sureties, when sued for the whole guaranteed 
debt by the creditor, compel the latter to divide his claim 
amongst all the solvent sureties, and reduce it to the share and 
proportion of each surety. However, this beneficium divisionis, 
as it is called in Roman law, is recognized by many existing 
codes (Fr. and Bel. 2025-2027; Spain, 1837; Portugal, 835- 
836; Germany, 426; Holland, 1873-1874; Italy, 1911-1912; 
Lower Canada, 1946; Egypt [mixed suits], 615,616). 

The usual mode in England of enforcing liability under a 
guarantee is by action in the High Court or in the county 
court. It is also permissible for the creditor to obtain redress 
by means of a set-off or counter-claim, in an action brought 
against him by the surety. On the other hand, the surety 
may now, in any' court in which the action on the guarantee is 
pending, avail himself of any set-off which may exist between 
the principal debtor and the creditor. Moreover, if one of 
several sureties for the same debt is sued by the creditor or his 
guarantee, he can, by means of a proceeding termed a third-party 
notice, claim contribution from his co-surety towards the 
common liability. Independent proof of the surety's liability 
under his guarantee must always be given at the trial; as the 
creditor cannot rely either on admissions made by the principal 
debtor, or on a judgment or award obtained against him (Ex 
parle Young In re 'Kitchin, 17 Ch. Div. 668). Should the surety 
become bankrupt either before or after default has been made 
by the principal debtor, the creditor will have to prove against 
his estate. This right of proof is now in England regulated by 
the 37th section of the Bankruptcy Act, 1883, which is most 
comprehensive in its terms. 

A person liable as a surety for another under a guarantee 
possesses various rights against him, against the person to 
whom the guarantee is given, and also against those 
wno mav nave become co-sureties in respect of the 
same debt, default or miscarriage. As regards the 
surety's rights against the principal debtor, the latter may, 
where the guarantee was made with his consent but not otherwise 
(see Hodgson, v. Shaw, 3 Myl. & K. at p. 190), after he has 
made default, be compelled by the surety to exonerate him from 
liability by payment of the guaranteed debt (per Sir W. Grant, 
M.R., in Antrobus v. Davidson, 3 Meriv. 569, 579; per Lindley, 
L.J., in Johnston v. Salvage Association, 19 Q.B.D. 460, 461; and 
see Wolmershausen v. Gullick, 1893, 2 Ch. 514). The moment, 
moreover, the surety has himself paid any portion of the 
guaranteed debt, he is entitled to rank as a creditor for the 
amount so paid, and to compel repayment thereof. In the 
event of the principal debtor's bankruptcy, the surety can 
in England, if the creditor has not already proved in respect 
of the guaranteed debt, prove against the bankrupt's estate, 
not only in respect of payments made before the bankruptcy 
of the principal debtor, but also, it seems, in respect of the 
contingent liability to pay under the guarantee (see Ex parte 
Delmar re Herepath, 1889, 38 W.R. 752), while if the creditor 
has already proved, the surety who has paid the guaranteed 
debt has a right to all dividends received by the creditor from 
the bankrupt in respect thereof, and to stand in the creditor's 
place as to future dividends. This right is, however, often 
waived by the guarantee stipulating that, until the creditor 
has received full payment of all sums over and above the 
guaranteed debt, due to him from the principal debtor, the 
surety shall not participate in any dividends distributed from 
the bankrupt's estate amongst his creditors. As regards the 
rights of the surety against the creditor, they are in England 
exercisable even by one who in the first instance was a principal 
debtor, but has since become a surety, by arrangement with 
his creditor, duly notified to the creditor, though not even 
sanctioned by him. This was decided by the House of Lords in 
the case of Rouse v. The Bradford Banking Co., 1894, A.C. 586, 
removing a doubt created by the previous case of Swire v. 
Redman, i Q.B.D. 536, which must now be treated as overruled. 
The surety's principal right against the creditor entitles him, 
after payment of the guaranteed debt, to the benefit of all 



securities, whether known to him (the surety) or not, which 
the creditor held against the principal debtor; and where, by 
default or laches of the creditor, such securities have been lost, 
or rendered otherwise unavailable, the surety is discharged 
pro tanto. This right, which is not in abeyance till the surety 
is called on to pay (Dixon v. Steel, 1901, 2 Ch. 602), extends to 
all securities, whether satisfied or not, given before or after the 
contract of suretyship was entered into. On this subject the 
Mercantile Law Amendment Act, 1856, 5, provides that " every 
person who being surety for the debt or duty of another, or being 
liable with another for any debt or duty, shall pay such debt or 
perform such duty, shall be entitled to have assigned to him, 
or to a trustee for him, every judgment, specialty, or other 
security, which shall be held by the creditor in respect of such 
debt or duty, whether such judgment, specialty, or other security 
shall or shall not be deemed at law to have been satisfied by the 
payment of the debt or performance of the duty, and such person 
shall be entitled to stand in the place of the creditor, and to use 
all the remedies, and, if need be, and upon a proper indemnity, 
to use the name of the creditor, in any action or other proceeding 
at law or in equity, in order to obtain from the principal debtor, 
or any co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor, as the case may be, 
indemnification for the advances made and loss sustained by 
the person who shall have so paid such debt or performed such 
duty; and such payment or performance so made by such 
surety shall not be pleadable in bar of any such action or other 
proceeding by him, provided always that no co-surety, co- 
contractor, or co-debtor shall be entitled to recover from any 
other co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor, by the means 
aforesaid, more than the just proportion to which, as between 
those parties themselves, such last-mentioned person shall be 
justly liable." This enactment is so far retrospective that it 
applies to a contract made before the act, where the breach 
thereof, and the payment by the surety, have taken place 
subsequently. The right of the surety to be subrogated, on 
payment by him of the guaranteed debt, to all the rights of the 
creditor against the principal debtor is recognized in America 
(Tobin v. Kirk, 80 New York S.C.R. 229), and many other 
countries (Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2029; Spain, 1839; Port. 
839; Germany, 774; Holland, 1877 ; Italy, 1916; Lower 
Canada, 2959; Egypt [mixed suits], 617; ibid, [native tribunals], 

SOS). 

As regards the rights of the surety against a co-surety, he is 
entitled to contribution from him in respect of their common 
liability. This particular right is not the result of any contract, 
but is derived from a general equity, on the ground of equality 
of burden and benefit, and exists whether the sureties be bound 
jointly, or jointly and severally, and by the same, or different, 
instruments. There is, however, no right of contribution where 
each surety is severally bound for a given portion only of the 
guaranteed debt ; nor in the case of a surety for a surety; 
(see In re Denton's Estate, 1904, 2 Ch. 178 C.A.); nor where a 
person becomes a surety jointly with another and at the latter's 
request. Contribution may be enforced, either before payment, 
or as soon as the surety has paid more than his share of the 
common debt (Wolmershausen v. Gullick, 1893, 2 Ch. 514); 
and the amount recoverable is now always regulated by the 
number of solvent sureties, though formerly this rule only 
prevailed in equity. In the event of the bankruptcy of a surety, 
proof can be made against his estate by a co-surety for any 
excess over the latter's contributive share. The right of con- 
tribution is not the only right possessed by co-sureties against 
each other, but they are also entitled to the benefit of all securities 
which have been taken by any one of them as an indemnity 
against the liability incurred for the principal debtor. The 
Roman law did not recognize the right of contribution amongst 
sureties. It is, however, sanctioned by many existing codes 
(Fr. and Bel. 2033; Germany, 426,474; Italy, 1920; Holland, 
1881; Spain, 1844; Port. 845; Lower Canada, 1955; .Egypt 
[mixed suits], 618, ibid, [native tribunals], 506), and also by the 
Indian Contract Act 1872, ss. 146-147. 

The discharge of a surety from liability under his guarantee 



656 



GUARATINGUETA GUARDS 



may be accomplished in various ways, he being regarded, 
especially in England and America, as a " favoured debtor " 
(per Turner, L.J., in Wheatley v. Bastow, 7 De G. M. & G. 279, 
280; per Earl of Selborne, L.C., in In re Sherry London and 
County Banking Co. v. Terry, 25 Ch. D., at p. 703; and see 
Brandt on Suretyship, sees. 79, 80). Thus, fraud subsequent 
to the execution of the guarantee (as where, for example, the 
creditor connives at the principal debtor's default) will certainly 
discharge the surety. Again, a material alteration made by the 
creditor in the instrument of guarantee after its execution may 
also have this effect. The most prolific ground of discharge, 
however, is usually traceable to causes originating in the creditor's 
laches or conduct, the governing principle being that if the 
creditor violates any rights which the surety possessed when he 
entered into the suretyship, even though the damage be nominal 
only, the guarantee cannot be enforced. On this subject it 
suffices to state that the surety's discharge may be accomplished 

(1) by a variation of the terms of the contract between the 
creditor and the principal debtor, or of that subsisting between 
the creditor and the surety (see Rickaby v. Lewis, 22 T.L.R. 130) ; 

(2) by the creditor taking a new security from the principal 
debtor in lieu of the original one; (3) by the creditor discharging 
the principal debtor from liability; (4) by the creditor binding 
himself to give time to the principal debtor for payment of 
the guaranteed debt; or (5) by loss of securities received by 
the creditor in respect of the guaranteed debt. 

In this connexion it may be stated in general terms that 
whatever extinguishes the principal obligation necessarily deter- 
mines that of the surety (which is accessory thereto), not 
only in England but elsewhere also (Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 
2034, 2038; Spain, 1847; Port. 848; Lower Canada, 1956; 
1960; Egypt [mixed suits], 622, ibid, [native tribunals], 509; 
Indian Contract Act 1872, sec. 134), and that, by most of the 
codes civil now in force, the surety is discharged by laches or 
conduct of the creditor inconsistent with the surety's rights 
(see Fr. and Bel. 2037; Spain, 1852; Port. 853; Germany, 
776; Italy, 1928; Egypt [mixed suits], 623), though it may be 
mentioned that the rule prevailing in England, Scotland, 
America and India which releases the surety from liability 
where the creditor, by binding contract with the principal, 
extends without the surety's consent the time for fulfilling the 
principal obligation, while recognized by two existing codes 
civil (Spain, 1851; Port. 852), is rejected by the majority of 
them (Fr. and Bel. 2039; Holland, 1887; Italy, 1930; Lower 
Canada, 1961; Egypt [mixed suits], 613; ib. [native tribunals], 
503); and see Morice, English and Dutch Law, p. 96; van der 
Linden, Institutes of Holland, pp. 120-121). A revocation of 
the contract of suretyship by act of the parties, or in certain 
cases by the death of the surety, may also operate to discharge 
the surety. The death of a surety does not per se determine the 
guarantee, but, save where from its nature the guarantee is 
irrevocable by the surety himself, it can be revoked by express 
notice after his death, or, it would appear, by the creditor 
becoming affected with constructive notice thereof; except 
where, under the testator's will, the executor has the option of 
continuing the guarantee, in which case the executor should, 
it seems, specifically withdraw the guarantee in order to determine 
it. Where one of a number of joint and several sureties dies, 
the future liability of the survivors under the guarantee continues, 
at all events until it has been determined by express notice. 
Moreover, when three persons joined in a guarantee to a bank, 
and their liability thereunder was not expressed to be several, 
it was held that the death of one surety did not determine the 
liability of the survivors. In such a case, however, the estate of 
the deceased surety would be relieved from liability. 

The Statutes of Limitation bar the right of action on guarantees 
under seal after twenty years, and on other guarantees after 
six years, from the date when the creditor might have sued the 
surety. 

AUTHORITIES. De Colyar, Law of Guarantees and of Principal 
and Surety (3rd ed., 1897); American edition, by J. A. Morgan 
(1875); Throop, Validity of Verbal Agreements; Fell, Guarantees 



(2nd ed.); Theobald, Law of Principal and Surety; Brandt, Law of 
Suretyships and Guarantee; article by de Colyar in Journal of 
Comparative Legislation (1905), on " Suretyship from the Standpoint 
of Comparative Jurisprudence." (H. A. de C.) 

GUARATINGUETA, a city of Brazil in the eastern part of 
the state of Sao Paulo, 124 m. N.E. of the city of Sao Paulo. 
Pop. (1890) of the municipality, which includes a large rural 
district and the villages of Apparecida and Roseira, 30,690. 
The city, which was founded in 1651, stands on a fertile plain 
3 m. from the Parahyba river, and is the commercial centre of 
one of the oldest agricultural districts of the state. The district 
produces large quantities of coffee, and some sugar, Indian corn 
and beans. Cattle and pigs are raised. The city dwellings are 
for the most part constructed of rough wooden frames covered 
with mud, called laipa by the natives, and roofed with curved 
tiles. The Sao Paulo branch of the Brazilian Central railway 
passes through the city, by which it is connected with Rio de 
Janeiro on one side and Sao Paulo and Santos on the Other. 

GUARDA, an episcopal city and the capital of an administra- 
tive district bearing the same name, and formerly in the province 
of Beira, Portugal; on the Guarda-Abrantes and Lisbon- 
Villar Formoso railways. Pop. (1900) 6124. Guarda is situated 
3370 ft. above sea-level, at the north-eastern extremity of the 
Serra da Estrella, overlooking the fertile valley of the river C6a. 
It is surrounded by ancient walls, and .contains a ruined 
castle, a fine 16th-century cathedral and a sanatorium for 
consumptives. Its industries comprise the manufacture of 
coarse cloth and the sale of grain, wine and live stock. In 1199 
Guarda was founded, on the site of the Roman Lencia Oppidana, 
by Sancho I. of Portugal, who intended it, as its name implies, 
to be a " guard " against Moorish invasion. The administrative 
district of Guarda coincides with north-eastern Beira; pop. 
(1900), 261,630; area, 1065 sq. m. 

GUARDI, FRANCESCO (1712-1793), Venetian painter, was 
a pupil of Canaletto, and followed his style so closely that his 
pictures are very frequently attributed to his more celebrated 
master. Nevertheless, the diversity, when once perceived, is 
sufficiently marked Canaletto being more firm, solid, distinct, 
well-grounded, and on the whole the higher master, while 
Guardi is noticeable for spirited touch, sparkling colour and 
picturesquely sketched figures in these respects being fully 
equal to Canaletto. Guardi sometimes coloured Canaletto's 
designs. He had extraordinary facility, three or four days being 
enough for producing an entire work. The number of his 
performances is large in proportion to this facility and to the 
love of gain which characterized him. Many of his works are to 
be found in England and seven in the Louvre. 

GUARDIAN, one who guards or defends another, a protector. 
The O. Fr. guarden, garden, mod. gardicn, from guardcr, garder, 
is of Teutonic origin, from the base war-, to protect, cf. O.H. Ger. 
warten, and Eng. "ward"; thus "guardian" and "warden" 
are etymologically identical, as are "guard" and "ward"; 
cf. the use of the correlatives " guardian " and " ward," i.e. a 
minor, or person incapable of managing his affairs, under the 
protection or in the custody of a guardian. For the position 
of guardians of the poor see POOR LAW, and for the legal relations 
between a guardian and his ward see INFANT, MARRIAGE and 
ROMAN LAW. 

GUARDS, AND HOUSEHOLD TROOPS. The word guard is 
an adaptation of the Fr. guarde, mod. garde, O. Ger. ward; see 
GUARDIAN. The practice of maintaining bodyguards is of 
great antiquity, and may indeed be considered the beginning of 
organized armies. Thus there is often no clear distinction 
between the inner ring of personal defenders and the select corps 
of trained combatants who are at the chief's entire disposal. 
Famous examples of corps that fell under one or both these 
headings are the " Immortals " of Xerxes, the Mamelukes, 
Janissaries, the Huscarles of the Anglo-Saxon kings, and the 
Russian Strelitz (Stryeltsi). In modern times the distinction 
of function is better marked, and the fighting men who are 
more intimately connected with the sovereign than the bulk of 
the army can be classified as to duties into " Household Troops," 



GUARDS 



657 



who are in a sense personal retainers, and " Guards," who are 
a corps d'elite of combatants. But the dividing line is not so 
clear as to any given body of troops. Thus the British Household 
Cavalry is part of the combatant army as well as the sovereign's 
escort. 

The oldest of the household or bodyguard corps in the United 
Kingdom is the King's Bodyguard of the Yeomen of the Guard 
(?..), formed at his accession by Henry VII. The " nearest 
guard," the personal escort of the sovereign, is the " King's 
Bodyguard of the Honourable Corps of Genllemen-at-Arms," 
created by Henry VIII. at his accession in 1509. Formed 
possibly on the pattern of the " Pensionnaires " of the French 
kings retainers of noble birth who were the predecessors of 
the Maison du Roi (see below) the new corps was originally 
called " the Pensioners." The importance of such guards 
regiments in the general development of organized armies is 
illustrated by a declaration of the House of Commons, made in 
1674, that the militia, the pensioners and the Yeomen of the 
Guard were the only lawful armed forces in the realm. But 
with the rise of the professional soldier and the corresponding 
disuse of arms by the nobles and gentry, the Gentlemen-at-Arms 
(a title which came into use in James II. 's time, though it did not 
become that of the corps until William IV.'s) retaining their 
noble character, became less and less military. Burke attempted 
without success in 1782 to restrict membership to officers of the 
army and navy, but the necessity of giving the corps an effective 
military character became obvious when, on the occasion of 
a threatened Chartist riot, it was called upon to do duty as an 
armed body at St James's Palace. The corps was reconstituted 
on a purely military basis in 1862, and from that date only 
military officers of the regular services who have received a war 
decoration are eligible for appointment. The office of captain, 
however, is political, the holder (who is always a peer) vacating 
it on the resignation of the government of which he is a member. 
The corps consists at present of captain, lieutenant, standard 
bearer, clerk of the cheque (adjutant), sub-officer and 39 
gentlemen-at-arms. The uniform consists of a scarlet swallow- 
tailed coat and blue overalls, with gold epaulettes, brass dragoon 
helmet with drooping white plume and brass box-spurs, these 
last contrasting rather forcibly with the partizan, an essentially 
infantry weapon, that they carry. 

Tlie Royal Company of Archers. The king's bodyguard for Scot- 
land was constituted in its present form in the year 1670, by an act of 
the privy council of Scotland. An earlier origin has been claimed 
for the company, some connecting it with a supposed archer guard 
of the kings of Scotland. In the above-mentioned year, 1676, the 
minutes of the Royal Company begin by stating, that owing to 
" the noble and usefull recreation of archery being for many years 
much neglected, several noblemen and gentlemen did associate 
themselves in a company for encouragement thereof . . . and did 
apply to the privy council for their approbation . . . which was 
granted." For about twenty years at the end of the I7th century, 
perhaps owing to the adhesion of the majority to the Stuart cause, 
its existence seems to have been suspended. But in 1703 a new 
captain-general, Sir George Mackenzie, Viscount Tarbat, afterwards 
earl of Cromarty (1630-1714), was elected, and he procured for the 
company a new charter from Queen Anne. The rights and privileges 
renewed or conferred by this charter were to be held of the crown 
for the reddsndo of a pair of barbed arrows. This reddendo was paid 
to George IV. at Holyrood in 1822, to Queen Victoria in 1842 and 
to King Edward VII. in 1903. The history of the Royal Company 
since 1703 has been one of great prosperity. Large parades were 
frequently held, and many distinguished men marched in the ranks. 
Several of the leading insurgents in 1745 were members, but the 
company was not at that time suspended in any way. 

In 1822 when King George IV. visited Scotland, it was thought 
appropriate that the Royal Company should act as his majesty's 
bodyguard during his stay, especially as there was a tradition of 
a former archer bodyguard. They therefore performed the duties 
usually assigned to the gentlemen-at-arms. When Queen Victoria 
visited the Scottish capital in 1842, the Royal Company again did 
duty ; the last time they were called out in her reign in their capacity 
of royal bodyguard was in 1860 on the occasion of the great volunteer 
review in the Queen's Park, Edinburgh. They acted in the same 
capacity when King Edward VII. reviewed the Scottish' Volunteers 
there on the l8th of September 1905. 

King George IV. authorized the company to take, in addition 
to their former name, that of " The King's Body Guard for Scot- 
land," and presented to the captain-general a gold stick, thus 



constituting the company part of the royal household. In virtue 
of this stick the captain-general of the Royal Company takes his 
place at a coronation or similar pageant immediately behind the 
gold stick of England. The lieutenants-general of the company 
nave silver sticks; and the council, which is the executive body of 
the company, possess seven ebony ones. George IV. further ap- 
pointed a full dress uniform to be worn by members of the company 
at court, when not on duty as guards, in which latter case the 
ordinary field dress is used. The court dress is green with green 
velvet facings, gold epaulettes and lace, crimson silk sash, and 
cocked hat with green plume. The officers wear a gold sash in 
place of a crimson one, and an aiguillette on the left shoulder. All 
ranks wear swords. The field dress at present consists of a dark- 
green tunic, shoulder- wings and gauntleted cuffs and trousers 
trimmed with black and crimson ; a bow-case worn as a sash, of the 
same colour as the coat, black waistbelt with sword, and Balmoral 
bonnet with thistle ornament and eagle's feather. The officers of 
the company are the captain-general, 4 captains, 4 lieutenants, 
4 ensigns, 12 brigadiers and adjutant. 

Corps of the gentlemen-at-arms or yeoman type do not of 
course count as combatant troops if for no other reason at 
least because they are armed with the weapons of bygone times. 
Colonel Clifford Walton states in his History of the British 
Standing Army that neither the Yeomen of the Guard nor the 
Pensioners were ever subject to martial law. The British guards 
and household troops that are armed, trained and organized 
as part of the army are the Household Cavalry and the Foot 
Guards. 

The Household Cavalry consists at the present day of three 
regiments, and has its origin, as have certain of the Footguard 
regiments, in the ashes of the " New Model " army disbanded 
at the restoration of Charles II. in 1660. In that year the 
" ist or His Majesty's Own Troop of Guards " formed during 
the king's exile of his cavalier followers, was taken on the strength 
of the army. The 2nd troop was formerly in the Spanish service 
as the " Duke of York's Guards," and was also a cavalier unit. 
In 1670, on Monk's death, the original 3rd troop (Monk's Life 
Guards, renamed in 1660 the " Lord General's Troop of Guards ") 
became the 2nd (the queen's) troop, and the duke of York's 
troop the 3rd. In 1685 the ist and 2nd troops were styled Life 
Guards of Horse, and two years later the blue-uniformed " Royal 
Regiment of Horse," a New Model regiment that had been 
disbanded and at once re-raised in 1660, was made a household 
cavalry corps. Later under the colonelcy of the earl of Oxford 
it was popularly called " The Oxford Blues." There were also 
from time to time other troops (e.g. Scots troops 1700-1746) 
that have now disappeared. In 1746 the 2nd troop was dis- 
banded, but it was revived in 1788, when the two senior corps 
were given their present title of ist and 2nd Life Guards. From 
1750 to 1819 the Blues bore the name of " Royal Horse Guards 
Blue," which in 1819 was changed to " Royal Horse Guards 
(The Blues)." The general distinction between the uniforms 
of the red Life Guard and the blue Horse Guard still exists. 
The ist and the 2nd regiments of Life Guards wear scarlet tunics 
with blue collars and cuffs, and the Royal Horse Guards blue 
tunics with scarlet collars and cuffs. All three wear steel 
cuirasses on state occasions and on guard duty. The head-dress 
is a steel helmet with drooping horse-hair plume (white for Life 
Guards, red for Horse Guards). In full dress white buckskin 
pantaloons and long knee boots are worn. Amongst the 
peculiarities of these corps d' elite is the survival of the old custom 
of calling non-commissioned officers "corporal of horse" 
instead of sergeant, and corporal-major instead of sergeant-major, 
the wearing by trumpeters and bandsmen in full dress of a black 
velvet cap, a richly laced coat with a full skirt extending to the 
wearer's knees and long white gaiters. There is little distinction 
between the two Life Guards regiments' uniforms, the most 
obvious point being that the cord running through the white 
leather pouch belt is red for the ist and blue for the 2nd. 

The Foot Guards comprise the Grenadier Guards, the Cold- 
stream Guards, the Scots Guards and the Irish Guards, each 
(except the last) of three battalions. The Grenadiers, originally 
the First Foot Guards, represent a royalist infantry regiment 
which served with the exiled princes in the Spanish army and 
returned at the Restoration in 1660. The Coldstream Guards 



658 



GUARDS 



are a New Model regiment, and were originally called the Lord | 
General's (Monk's) regiment of Foot Guards. Their popular 
title, which became their official designation in 1670, is derived 
from the fact that the army with which Monk restored the 
monarchy crossed the Tweed into England at the village of 
Coldstream, and that his troops (which were afterwards, except 
the two units of horse and foot of which Monk himself was 
colonel, disbanded) were called the Coldstreamers. The two 
battalions of Scots Foot Guards, which regiment was separately 
raised and maintained in Scotland after the Restoration, marched 
to London in 1686 and 1688 and were brought on to the English 
Establishment in 1707. In George III.'s reign they were known 
as the Third Guards, and from 1831 to 1877 (when the present 
title was adopted) as the Scots Fusilier Guards. 

The Irish Guards (one battalion) were formed in 1902, after 
the South African War, as a mark of Queen Victoria's apprecia- 
tion of the services rendered by the various Irish regiments of 
the line. 1 The dress of the Foot Guards is generally similar 
in all four regiments, scarlet tunic with blue collars, cuffs and 
shoulder-straps, blue trousers and high, rounded bearskin cap. 
The regimental distinctions most easily noticed are these. The 
Grenadiers wear a small white plume in the bearskin, the Cold- 
streams a similar red one, the Scots none, the Irish a blue-green 
one. The buttons on the tunic are spaced evenly for the 
Grenadiers, by twos for the Coldstreams, by threes for the Scots 
and by fours for the Irish. The band of the modern cap is red 
for the Grenadiers, white for the Coldstreams, "diced" red and 
white (chequers) for the Scots and green for the Irish. Former 
privileges of foot guard regiments, such as higher brevet rank 
in the army for their regimental officers, are now abolished, but 
Guards are still subject exclusively to the command of their 
own officers, and the officers of the Foot Guards, like those of the 
Household Cavalry, have special duties at court. Neither the 
cavalry nor the infantry guards serve abroad in peace time as 
a rule, but in 1907 a battalion of the Guards, which it was at 
that time proposed to disband, was sent to Egypt. " Guards' 
Brigades " served in the Napoleonic Wars, in the Crimea, in 
Egypt at various times from 1887 to 1898 and in South Africa 
1890-1902. The last employment of the Household Cavalry 
as a brigade in war was at Waterloo, but composite regiments 
made up from officers and men of the Life Guards and Blues were 
employed in Egypt and in S. Africa. 

The sovereigns of France had guards in their service in Mero- 
vingian times, and their household forces appear from time to time 
in the history of medieval wars. Louis XI. was, however, the first 
to regularize their somewhat loose organization, and he did so to 
such good purpose that Francis I. had no less than 8000 guardsmen 
organized, subdivided and permanently under arms. The senior 
unit of the Gardes du Corps was the famous company of Scottish 
archers (CompagniS ecossaise de la Garde du Corps du Roi), which 
was originally formed (1418) from the Scottish contingents that 
assisted the French in the Hundred Years' War. Scott's Quentin 
Durward gives a picture of life in the corps as it was under Louis XI. 
In the following century, however, its regimental history becomes 
somewhat confused. Two French companies were added by Louis 
XI. and Francis I. and the Gardes du Corps came to consist ex- 
clusively of cavalry. About 1634 nearly all the Scots then serving 
went into the " regiment d'H6bron " and thence later into the 
British regular army (see HEPBURN, SIR JOHN). Thereafter, though 
the titles, distinctions and privileges of the original Archer Guard 
were continued, it was recruited from native Frenchmen, preference 
being (at any rate at first) given to those of Scottish descent. At 
its disbandment in 1791 along with the rest of the Gardes du Corps, 
it contained few, if any, native Scots. There was also, for a short 
time (1643-1660), an infantry regiment of Gardes ecossaises. 

In 1671 the title of Maison Militaire du Roi was applied to that 
portion of the household that was distinctively military. It came 
to consist of 4 companies of the Gardes du Corps, 2 companies 
of Mousquetaires (cavalry) (formed 1622 and 1660), I company of 
Chevaux legers (1570), I of Gendarmes de la Maison Rouge, and I of 
Grenadiers a Cheval (1676), with i company of Gardes de la Porte and 
one called the Cent-Suisses, the last two being semi-military. This 
large establishment, which did not include all the guard regiments, 
was considerably reduced by the Count of St Germain's reforms in 



1 The " Irish Guards " of the Stuarts took the side of James II., 
fought against William III. in Ireland and lost their regimental 
identity in the French service to which the officers and soldiers 
transferred themselves on the abandonment of the struggle. 



1775, all except the Gardes du Corps and the Cent-Suisses being 
disbanded. The whole of the Maison du Roi, with the exception 
of the semi-military bodies referred to, was cavalry. 

The Gardes frangaises, formed in 1563, did not form part of the 
Maison. They were an infantry regiment, as were the famous 
Gardes suisses, originally a Swiss mercenary regiment in the Wars 
of Religion, which was, for good conduct at the combat of Arques, 
incorporated in the permanent establishment by Henry IV. in 
1589 and in the guards in 1615. At the Revolution, contrary to 
expectation, the French Guards sided openly with the Constitutional 
movement and were disbanded. The Swiss Guards, however, 
being foreigners, and therefore unaffected by civil troubles, retained 
their exact discipline and devotion to the court to the day on which 
they were sacrificed by their master to the bullets of the Marseillais 
and the pikes of the mob (August 10, 1792). Their tragic fate is 
commemorated by the well-known monument called the " Lion of 
Lucerne," the work of Thorvaldsen, erected near Lucerne in 1821-. 
The " Constitutional," " Revolutionary " and other guards that 
were created after the abolition of the Maison and the slaughter of 
the Swiss are unimportant, but through the " Directory Guards " 
they form a nominal link between the household troops of the 
monarchy and the corps which is perhaps the most famous " Guard " 
in history. The Imperial Guard of Napoleon had its beginnings in 
an escort squadron called the Corps of Guides, which accompanied 
him in the Italian campaign of 1796-1797 and in Egypt. On 
becoming First Consul in 1799 he built up out of this and of the 
guard of the Directory a small corps of horse and foot, called the 
Consular Guard, and this, which was more of a fighting unit than 
a personal bodyguard, took part in the battle of Marengo. The 
Imperial Guard, into which it was converted on the establishment 
of the Empire, was at first of about the strength of a division. 
As such it took part in the Austerlitz and Jena campaigns, but after 
the conquest of Prussia Napoleon augmented it, and divided it into 
the " Old Guard " and the " Young Guard." Subsequently the 
" Middle Guard " was created, and by successive augmentations 
the corps of the guard had grown to be 57,000 strong in 1811-1812 
and 81,000 in 1813. It preserved its general character as a corps 
d 'elite of veterans to the last, but from about 1813 the "Young 
Guard " was recruited directly from the best of the annual conscript 
contingent. The officers held a higher rank in the army than their 
regimental rank in the Guards. At the first Restoration an attempt 
was made to revive the Maison du Roi, but in the constitutional 
regime of the second Restoration this semi-medieval form of body- 
guard was given up and replaced by the Garde Royale, a selected 
fighting corps. This took part in the short war with Spain and a 
portion of it fought in Algeria, but it was disbanded at the July 
Revolution. Louis Philippe had no real guard troops, but the 
memories of the Imperial Guard were revived by Napoleon III., 
who formed a large guard corps in 1853-1854. This, however, 
was open to an even greater degree than Napoleon I.'s guard to the 
objection that it took away the best soldiers from the line. Since 
the fall of the Empire in 1870 there have been no guard troops in 
France. The duty of watching over the safety of the president is 
taken in the ordinary roster of duty by the troops stationed in the 
capital. The " Republican Guard " is the Paris gendarmerie, 
recruited from old soldiers and armed and trained as a military body. 

In Austria-Hungary there are only small bodies of household 
troops (Archer Body Guard, Trabant Guard, Hungarian Crown 
Guards, &c.) analogous to the British Gentlemen at Arms or Yeomen 
of the Guard. Similar forces, the " Noble Guard " and the " Swiss 
Guard," are maintained in the Vatican. The court troops of Spain 
are called " halberdiers " and armed with the halbert. 

In Russia the Guard is organized as an army corps. It possesses 
special privileges, particularly as regards officers' advancement. 

In Germany the distinction between armed retainersand "Guards " 
is well marked. The army is for practical purposes a unit under 
imperial control, while household troops (" castle-guards " as they 
are usually called) belong individually to the various sovereigns 
within the empire. The " Guards," as a combatant force in the 
army are those of the king of Prussia and constitute a strong army 
corps. This has grown gradually from a bodyguard of archers, 
and, as in Great Britain, the functions of the heavy cavalry regiments 
of the Guard preserve to some extent the name and character of a 
body guard (Gardes du Corps). The senior foot guard regiment is 
also personally connected with the royal family. The conversion 
of a palace-guard to a combatant force is due chiefly to Frederick 
William I., to whom drill was a ruling passion, and who substituted 
effective regiments for the ornamental " Trabant Guards " of his 
father. A further move was made by Frederick the Great in sub- 
stituting for Frederick William's expensive " giant " regiment of 
guards a larger number of ordinary soldiers, whom he subjected 
to the same rigorous training and made a corps d'elite. Frederick 
the Great also formed the Body Guard alluded to above. Neverthe- 
less in 1806 the Guard still consisted only of two cavalry regiments 
and four infantry regiments, and it was the example of Napoleon's 
imperial guard which converted this force into a corps of all arms. 
In 1813 its strength was that of a weak division, but in 1860 by 
slight but frequent augmentations it had come to consist of an 
army corps, complete with all auxiliary services. A few guard 



GUARD-SHIP GUARINI 



6 59 



regiments belonging to the minor sovereigns are counted in the 
line of the German army. In war the Guard is employed as a unit, 
like other army corps. It is recruited by the assignment of selected 
young men of each annual contingent, and is thus free from the 
reproach of the French Imperial Guard, which took the best-trained 
soldiers from the regiments of the line. 

GUARD-SHIP, a warship stationed at some port or harbour 
to act as a guard, and in former times in the British navy to 
receive the men impressed for service. She usually was the 
flagship of the admiral commanding on the coast. A guard-boat 
is a boat which goes the round of a fleet at anchor to see that 
due watch is kept at night. 

GUARICO, a large inland state of Venezuela created by the 
territorial redivision of 1904, bounded by Aragua and Miranda 
on the N., Bermudez on the E., Bolivar on the S., and Zamora on 
the W. Pop. (1905 estimate), 78,117. It extends across the 
northern llanos to the Orinoco and Apure rivers and is devoted 
almost wholly to pastoral pursuits, exporting cattle, horses and 
mules, hides and skins, cheese and some other products. The 
capital is Calabozo, and the other principal towns are Camaguan 
(pop. 3648) on the Portugueza river, Guayabal (pop. 3146), 
on a small tributary of the Guarico river, and Zaraza (pop. 
14,546) on the Unare river, nearly 150 m. S.E. of Caracas. 

GUARIENTO, sometimes incorrectly named GUERRIERO, the 
first Paduan painter who distinguished himself. The only date 
distinctly known in his career is 1365, when, having already 
acquired high renown in his native city, he was invited by the 
Venetian authorities to paint a Paradise, and some incidents 
of the war of Spoleto, in the great council-hall of Venice. These 
works were greatly admired at the time, but have long ago 
disappeared under repaintings. His works in Padua have 
suffered much. In the church of the Eremitani are allegories 
of the Planets, and, in its choir, some small sacred histories in 
dead colour, such as an Ecce Homo; also, on the upper walls, 
the life of St Augustine, with some other subjects. A few 
fragments of other paintings by Guariento are still extant in 
Padua. In the gallery of Bassano is a Crucifixion, carefully 
executed, and somewhat superior to a merely traditional method 
of handling, although on the whole Guariento must rather be 
classed in that school of art which preceded Cimabue than as 
having advanced in his vestiges; likewise two other works in 
Bassano, ascribed to the same hand. The painter is buried in 
the church of S. Bernardino, Padua. 

GUARINI, CAMILLO-GUARINO (1624-1683), Italian monk, 
writer and architect, was born at Modena in 1624. He was at 
once a learned mathematician, professor of literature and 
philosophy at Messina, and, from the age of seventeen, was 
architect to Duke Philibert of Savoy. He designed a very large 
number of public and private buildings at Turin, including the 
palaces of the duke of Savoy and the prince of Cacignan, and 
many public buildings at Modena, Verona, Vienna, Prague, 
Lisbon and Paris. He died at Milan in 1683. 

GUARINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1537-1612), Italian poet, 
author of the Pastor fido, was born at Ferrara on the loth of 
December 1537, just seven years before the birth of Tasso. He 
was descended from Guarino da Verona. The young Battista 
studied both at Pisa and Padua, whence he was called, when not 
yet twenty, to profess moral philosophy in the schools of his 
native city. He inherited considerable wealth, and was able early 
in life to marry Taddea de' Bendedei, a lady of good birth. In 
1567 he entered the service of Alphonso II., duke of Ferrara, 
thus beginning the court career which was destined to prove a 
constant source of disappointment and annoyance to him. 
Though he cultivated poetry for pastime, Guarini aimed at 
state employment as the serious business of his life, and managed 
to be sent on various embassies and missions by his ducal master. 
There was, however, at the end of the i6th century no oppor- 
tunity for a man of energy and intellectual ability to distinguish 
himself in the petty sphere of Italian diplomacy. The time too 
had passed when the profession of a courtier, painted in such 
glowing terms by Castiglione, could confer either profit or 
honour. It is true that the court of Alphonso presented a 
brilliant spectacle to Europe, with Tasso for titular poet, and 



an attractive circle of accomplished ladies. But the last duke 
of Ferrara was an illiberal patron, feeding his servants with 
promises, and ever ready to treat them with the brutality that 
condemned the author of the Gerusalemme liberate to a mad- 
house. Guarini spent his time and money to little purpose, 
suffered from the spite and ill-will of two successive secretaries, 
Pigna and Montecatini, quarrelled with his old friend Tasso, 
and at the end of fourteen years of service found himself half- 
ruined, with a large family and no prospects. When Tasso was 
condemned to S. Anna, the duke promoted Guarini to the vacant 
post of court poet. There is an interesting letter extant from 
the latter to his friend Cornelio Bentivoglio, describing the efforts 
he made to fill this place appropriately. " I strove to transform 
myself into another person, and, like a player, reassumed the 
character, costume and feelings of my youth. Advanced in 
manhood, I forced myself to look young; I turned my natural 
melancholy into artificial gaiety, affected loves I did not feel, 
exchanged wisdom for folly, and, in a word, passed from a 
philosopher into a poet." How ill-adapted he felt himself to 
this masquerade life may be gathered from the following sentence: 
" I am already in my forty-fourth year, the father of eight 
children, two of whom are old enough to be my censors, while 
my daughters are of an age to marry." Abandoning so un- 
congenial a strain upon his faculties, Guarini retired in 1582 to 
his ancestral farm, the Villa Guarina, in the lovely country that lies 
between the Adige and Po, where he gave himself up to the cares 
of his family, the nursing of his dilapidated fortunes and the 
composition of the Pastor fido. He was not happy in his 
domestic lot; for he had lost his wife young, and quarrelled 
with his elder sons about the division of his estate. Litigation 
seems to have been an inveterate vice with Guarini; nor was 
he ever free from legal troubles. After studying his biography, 
the conclusion is forced upon our minds that he was originally 
a man of robust and virile intellect, ambitious of greatness, 
confident in his own powers, and well qualified for serious affairs, 
whose energies found no proper scope for their exercise. Literary 
work offered but a poor sphere for such a character, while the 
enforced inactivity of court life soured a naturally capricious 
and choleric temper. Of poetry he spoke with a certain tone of 
condescension, professing to practise it only in his leisure 
moments; nor are his miscellaneous verses of a quality to secure 
for their author a very lasting reputation. It is therefore not a 
little remarkable that the fruit of his retirement a disappointed 
courtier past the prime of early manhood should have been a 
dramatic masterpiece worthy to be ranked with the classics of 
Italian literature. Deferring a further account of the Pastor 
fido for the present, the remaining incidents of Guarini's restless 
life may be briefly told. In 1585 he was at Turin superintending 
the first public performance of his drama, whence Alphonso 
recalled him to Ferrara, and gave him the office of secretary of 
state. This reconciliation between the poet and his patron did 
not last long. Guarini moved to Florence, then to Rome, and 
back again to Florence, where he established himself as the 
courtier of Ferdinand de' Medici. A dishonourable marriage, 
pressed upon his son Guarino by the grand-duke, roused the 
natural resentment of Guarini, always scrupulous upon the point 
of honour. He abandoned the' Medicean court, and took refuge 
with Francesco Maria of Urbino, the last scion of the Montefeltro- 
della-Rovere house. Yet he found no satisfaction at Urbino. 
" The old court is a dead institution," he writes to a friend; 
" one may see a shadow of it, but not the substance in Italy of 
to-day. Ours is an age of .appearances, and one goes 
a-masquerading all the year." This was true enough. Those 
dwindling deadly-lively little residence towns of Italian ducal 
families, whose day of glory was over, and who were waiting 
to be slowly absorbed by the capacious appetite of Austria, 
were no fit places for a man of energy and independence. Guarini 
finally took refuge in his native -Ferrara, which, since the death 
of Alphonso, had now devolved to the papal see. Here, and at 
the Villa Guarina, his last years were passed in study, lawsuits, 
and polemical disputes with his contemporary critics, until 
1612, when he died at Venice in his seventy-fifth year. 



66o 



GUARINO GUASTALLA 



The Pastor fido (first published in 1590) is a pastoral drama 
composed not without reminiscences of Tasso's Aminta. The 
scene is laid in Arcadia, where Guarini supposes it to have been 
the custom to sacrifice a maiden yearly to Diana. But an 
oracle has declared that when two scions of divine lineage are 
united in marriage, and a faithful shepherd has atoned for the 
ancient error of a faithless woman, this inhuman rite shall cease. 
The plot turns upon the unexpected fulfilment of this prophecy, 
contrary to all the schemes which had been devised for bringing 
it to accomplishment, and in despite of apparent improbabilities 
of divers kinds. It is extremely elaborate, and, regarded as a 
piece of cunning mechanism, leaves nothing to be desired. Each 
motive has been carefully prepared, each situation amply 
developed. Yet, considered as a play, the Pastor fido disap- 
points a reader trained in the school of Sophocles or Shakespeare. 
The action itself seems to take place off the stage, and only the 
results of action, stationary tableaux representing the movement 
of the drama, are put before us in the scenes. The art is lyrical, 
not merely in form but in spirit, and in adaptation to the re- 
quirements of music which demands stationary expressions of 
emotion for development. The characters have been well 
considered, and are exhibited with great truth and vividness; 
the cold and eager hunter Silvio contrasting with the tender 
and romantic Mirtillo, and Corisca's meretricious arts enhancing 
the pure affection of Amarilli. Dorinda presents another type 
of love so impulsive that it prevails over a maiden's sense of 
shame, while the courtier Carino brings the corruption of towns 
into comparison with the innocence of the country. In Carino 
the poet painted his own experience, and here his satire upon the 
court of Ferrara is none the less biting because it is gravely 
measured. In Corisca he delineated a woman vitiated by the 
same town life, and a very hideous portrait has he drawn. 
Though a satirical element was thus introduced into the Pastor 
fido in order to relieve its ideal picture of Arcadia, the whole 
play is but a study of contemporary feeling in Italian society. 
There is no true rusticity whatever in the drama. This corre- 
spondence with the spirit of the age secured its success during 
Guarini's lifetime; this made it so dangerously seductive that 
Cardinal Bellarmine told the poet he had done more harm to 
Christendom by his blandishments than Luther by his heresy. 
Without anywhere transgressing the limits of decorum, the 
Pastor fido is steeped in sensuousness; and the immodesty 
of its pictures is enhanced by rhetorical concealments more 
provocative than nudity. Moreover, the love described is 
effeminate and wanjffn,, felt less as passion than as lust en- 
veloped in a veil of sentiment. We divine the coming age of 
cicisbei and castrati. Of Guarini's style it would be difficult to 
speak in terms of too high praise. The thought and experience 
of a lifetime have been condensed in these five acts, and have 
found expression in language brilliant, classical, chiselled to 
perfection. Here and there the taste of the i7th century makes 
itself felt in frigid conceits and forced antitheses; nor does 
Guarini abstain from sententious maxims which reveal the 
moralist rather than the poet. Yet these are but minor blemishes 
in a masterpiece of diction, glittering and faultless like a polished 
bas-relief of hard Corinthian bronze. That a single pastoral 
should occupy so prominent a place in the history of literature 
seems astonishing, until we reflect that Italy, upon the close of 
the i6th century, expressed itself in the Pastor fido, and that 
the influence of this drama was felt through all the art of Europe 
till the epoch of the Revolution. It is not a mere play. The 
sensual refinement proper to an age of social decadence found 
in it the most exact embodiment, and made it the code of 
gallantry for the next two centuries. 

The best edition of the Pastor fido is the aoth, published at Venice 
(Ciotti) in 1602. The most convenient is that of Barbara (Florence, 
1866). For Guarini's miscellaneous Rime, the Ferrara edition, in 
4 yols., 1737, may be consulted. His polemical writings, Verato 
primo and secondo, and his prose comedy called Idropica, were 
published at Venice, Florence and Rome, between 1588 and 1614. 

(J.A.S.) 

GUARINO, also known as VARINUS, and surnamed from 
his birthplace FAVORINUS, PHAVORINUS or GAMERS (c. 1450- 



1 53?)> Italian lexicographer and scholar, was born at Favera 
near Camerino, studied Greek and Latin at Florence under 
Politian, and afterwards became for a time the pupil of Lascaris. 
Having entered the Benedictine order, he now gave himself 
with great zeal to Greek lexicography; and in 1496 published 
his Thesaurus cornucopiac et horti Adonidis, a collection of 
thirty-four grammatical tracts in Greek. He for some time 
acted as tutor to Giovanni dei Medici (afterwards Leo X.), and 
also held the appointment of keeper of the Medicean library at 
Florence. In 1514 Leo appointed him bishop of Nocera. In 
1517 he published a translation of the Apophlhegmata of Joannes 
Stobaeus, and in 1523 appeared his Etymologicum magnum, sive 
thesaurus universae linguae Graecae ex multis variisque auloribus 
collectus, a compilation which has been frequently reprinted, 
and which has laid subsequent scholars under great though not 
always acknowledged obligations. 

GUARINO [GUARINUS] DA VERONA (1370-1460), one 
of the Italian restorers of classical learning, was born in 1370 
at Verona, and studied Greek at Constantinople, where for five 
years he was the pupil of Manuel Chrysoloras. When he set 
out on his return to Italy he was the happy possessor of two 
cases of precious Greek MSS. which he had been at great pains 
to collect; it is said that the loss of one of these by shipwreck 
caused him such distress that his hair turned grey in a single 
night. He supported himself as a teacher of Greek, first at 
Verona and afterwards in Venice and Florence; in 1436 he 
became, through the patronage of Lionel, marquis of Este, 
professor of Greek at Ferrara; and in 1438 and following years 
he acted as interpreter for the Greeks at the councils of Ferrara 
and Florence. He died at Ferrara on the I4th of December 1460. 

His principal works are translations of Strabo and of some of the 
Lives of Plutarch, a compendium of the Greek grammar of Chry- 
soloras, and a series of commentaries on Persius, Juvenal, Martial 
and on some of the writings of Aristotle and Cicero. See Rosmini, 
Vita e disciplina di Guarino (1805-1806); Sabbadini , Guarino 
Veronese (1885); Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. ii. (1908). 

GUARNIERI, or GUARNERIUS, a celebrated family of violin- 
makers of Cremona. The first was Andreas (c. 1626-1698), 
who worked with Antonio Stradivari in the workshop of Nicolo 
Amati (son of Geronimo). Violins of a model original to him 
are dated from the sign of " St Theresa " in Cremona. His son 
Joseph (i666-c. 1739) made instruments at first like his father's, 
but later in a style of his own with a narrow waist; his son, 
Peter of Venice (b. 1695), was also a fine maker. Another son 
of Andreas, Peter (Pietro Giovanni), commonly known "as 
" Peter of Cremona " (b. 1655), moved from Cremona and 
settled at Mantua, where he too worked " sub signo Sanctae 
Teresae." Peter's violins again showed considerable variations 
from those of the other Guarnieri. Hart, in his work on the 
violin, says, " There is increased breadth between the sound- 
holes; the sound-hole is rounder and more perpendicular; 
the middle bouts are more contracted, and the model is more 
raised." 

The greatest of all the Guarnieri, however, was a nephew of 
Andreas, Joseph del Gesu (1687-1745), whose title originates 
in the I.H.S. inscribed on his tickets. His master was Caspar 
di Salo. His conception follows that of the early Brescian 
makers in the boldness of outline and the massive construction 
which aim at the production of tone rather than visual perfection 
of form. The great variety of his work in size, model, &c., 
represents his various experiments in the direction of discovering 
this tone. A stain or sap-mark, parallel with the finger-board 
on both sides, appears on the bellies of most of his instruments. 
Since the middle of the i8th century a great many spurious 
instruments ascribed to this master have poured over Europe. 
It | was not until Paganini played on a "Joseph " that the taste 
of amateurs turned from the sweetness of the Amati and the 
Stradivarius violins in favour of the robuster tone of the Joseph 
Guarnerius. See VIOLIN. 

GUASTALLA, a town and episcopal' see of Emilia, Italy, 
in the province of Reggio, from which it is 18 m. N. by road, 
on the S. bank of the Po, 79 ft. above sea-level. It is also 
connected by rail with Parma and Mantua (via Suzzara). Pop. 



GUATEMALA 



661 



(1901), 2658 (town); 11,091 (commune). It has 16th-century 
fortifications. The cathedral, dating from the loth century, 
has been frequently restored. Guastalla was founded by the 
Lombards in the 7th century; in the church of the Pieve Pope 
Paschal II. held a council in 1106. In 1307 it was seized by 
Giberto da Correggio of Parma. In 1403 it passed to Guido 
Torello, cousin of Filippo Maria Visconti of Milan. In 1539 it 
was sold by the last female descendant of the Torelli to Ferrante 
Gonzaga. In 1621 it was made the seat of a duchy, but in 1748 
it was added to those of Parma and Piacenza, whose history it 
subsequently followed. 

GUATEMALA (sometimes incorrectly written GUATIMALA), 
a name now restricted to the republic of Guatemala and to its 
chief city, but formerly given to a captaincy-general of Spanish 
America, which included the fifteen provinces of Chiapas, 
Suchitepeques, Escuintla, Sonsonate, San Salvador, Vera Paz 
and Peten, Chiquimula, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, 
Totonicapam, Quezaltenango, Solola, Chimaltenango and 
Sacatepeques, or, in other words, the whole of Central America 
(except Panama) and part of Mexico. The name is probably 
of Aztec origin, and is said by some authorities to mean in its 
native form Quauhtematlan, " Land of the Eagle," or " Land 
of Forest "; others, writing it U-ha-tez-ma-la, connect it with 
the volcano of Agua (i.e. " water "), and interpret it as " mountain 
vomiting water." 

The republic of Guatemala is situated between 13 42' and 
17 49' N., and 88 10' and 92 30' W. (For map, see CENTRAL 
AMERICA.) Pop. (1903), 1,842,134; area about 48,250 sq. m. 
Guatemala is bounded on the W. and N. by Mexico, N.E. by 
British Honduras, E. by the Gulf of Honduras, and the republic 
of Honduras, S.E. by Salvador and S. by the Pacific Ocean. 
The frontier towards Mexico was determined by conventions 
of the 2?th of September 1882, the I7th of October 1883, the 
ist of April 1895, and the 8th of May 1899. Starting from the 
Pacific, it ascends the river Suchiate, then follows an irregular line 
towards the north-east, till it reaches the parallel of 17 49' N., 
along which it runs to the frontier of British Honduras. This 
frontier, by the convention of the gth of July 1893, coincides with 
the meridian of 89 20' W., till it meets the river Sarstoon or 
Sarstun, which it follows eastwards to the Gulf of Honduras. 

Physical Description. Guatemala is naturally divided into five 
regions the lowlands of the Pacific coast, the volcanic mountains 
of the Sierra Madre, the so-called plateaus immediately north of 
these, the mountains of the Atlantic versant and the plain of Peten. 
(i) The coastal plains extend along the entire southern seaboard, 
with a mean breadth of 50 m., and link together the belts of similar 
territory in Salvador and the district of Soconusco in Chiapas. 
Owing to their tropical heat, low elevation above sea-level, and 
marshy soil, they are thinly peopled, and contain few important 
towns except the seaports. (2) The precipitous barrier of the 
Sierra Madre, which closes in the coastal plains on the north, is 
similarly prolonged into Salvador and Mexico. It is known near 
Guatemala city as the Sierra de las Nubes, and enters Mexico as the 
Sierra de Istatan. It forms the main watershed between the 
Pacific and Atlantic river systems. Its summit is not a well-defined 
crest, but is often rounded or flattened into a table-land. The 
direction of the great volcanic cones, which rise in an irregular line 
above it, is not identical with the main axis of the Sierra itself, 
except near the Mexican frontier, but has a more southerly trend, 
especially towards Salvador; here the base of many of the igneous 
peaks rests among the southern foothills of the range. It is, however, 
impossible to subdivide the Sierra Madre into a northern and a 
volcanic chain; for the volcanoes are isolated by stretches of com- 
paratively low country; at least thirteen considerable streams 
flow down between them, from the main watershed to the sea. 
Viewed from the coast, the volcanic cones seem to rise directly 
from the central heights of the Sierra Madre, above which they 
tower; but in reality their bases are, as a rule, farther south. 
East of Tacana, which marks the Mexican frontier, and is variously 
estimated at 13,976 ft. and 13,090 ft., and if the higher estimate 
be correct is the loftiest peak in Central America, the principal 
volcanoes are Tajamulco or Tajumulco (13,517 ft.); Santa Maria 
(12,467 ft.), which was in eruption during 1902, after centuries of 
Quiescence, in which its slopes had been overgrown by dense forests; 
Atitlan (11,719), overlooking the lake of that name; Acatenango 
(13,615), which shares the claim of Tacana to be the highest mountain 
of Central America; Fuego (i.e. "fire," variously estimated at 
!2t795 ft- and 12,582 ft.), which received its name from its activity 
at the time of the Spanish conquest ; Agua (i.e. " water," 12,139 ft-). 



so named in 1541 because it destroyed the former capital of Guate- 
mala with a deluge of water from its flooded crater; and Pacaya 
(839), a group of igneous peaks which were in eruption in 1870. 
(3) The so-called plateaus which extend north of the Sierra Madre 
are in fact high valleys, rather than table-lands, enclosed by moun- 
tains. A better idea of this region is conveyed by the native name 
Altos, or highlands, although that term includes the northern 
declivity of the Sierra Madre. The mean elevation is greatest in 
the west (Altos of Quezaltenango) and least in the east (Altos of 
Guatemala). A few of the streams of the Pacific slope actually 
rise in the Altos, and force a way through the Sierra Madre at the 
bottom of deep ravines. One large river, the Chixoy, escapes north- 
wards towards the Atlantic. (4) The relief of the mountainous 
country which lies north of the Altos and drains into the Atlantic 
is varied by innumerable terraces, ridges and underfalls; but its 
general configuration is admirably compared by E. Reclus with the 
appearance of " a stormy sea breaking into parallel billows " (Uni- 
versal Geography, ed. E. G. Ravenstem, div. xxxiii., p. 212). The 
parallel ranges extend east and west with a slight southerly curve 
towards their centres. A range called the Sierra de Chama, which, 
however, changes its name frequently from place to place, strikes 
eastward towards British Honduras, and is connected by low hills 
with the Cockscomb Mountains; another similar range, the Sierra 
de Santa Cruz, continues east to Cape Cocoli between the Polochic 
and the Sarstoon; and a third, the Sierra de las Minas or, in its 
eastern portion, Sierra del Mico, stretches between the Polochic 
and the Motagua. Between Honduras and Guatemala the frontier 
is formed by the Sierra de Merendon. (5) The great plain of Peten, 
which comprises about one-third of the whole area of Guatemala, 
belongs geographically to the Yucatan Peninsula, and consists of 
level or undulating country, covered with grass or forest. Its 
population numbers less than two per sq. m., although many districts 
have a wonderfully fertile soil and abundance of water. The greater 
part of this region is uncultivated, and only utilized as pasture by 
the Indians, who form the majority of its inhabitants. 

Guatemala is richly watered. On the western side of the sierras 
the versant is short, and the streams, while very numerous, are 
consequently small and rapid; but on the eastern side a number 
of the rivers attain a very considerable development. The Motagua, 
whose principal head stream is called the Rio Grande, has a course 
of about 250 m., and is navigable to within 90 m. of the capital, 
which is situated on one of its confluents, the Rio de las Vacas. It 
forms a delta on the south of the Gulf of Honduras. Of similar 
importance is the Polochic, which is about 180 m. in length, and 
navigable about 20 m. above the river-port of Teleman. Before 
reaching the Golfo Amatique it passes through the Golfo Dulce, 
or Izabal Lake, and the Gplfete Dulce. A vast number of streams, 
among which are the Chixoy, the Guadalupe, and the Rio de la 
Pasion, unite to form the Usumacinta, whose noble current passes 
along the Mexican frontier, and flowing on through Chiapas and 
Tabasco, falls into the Bay of Campeche. The Chiapas follows a 
similar course. 

There are several extensive lakes in Guatemala. The Lake of 
Peten or Laguna de Flores, in the centre of the department of 
Peten, is an irregular basin about 27 m. long, with an extreme 
breadth of 13 m. In an island in the western portion stands Flores, 
a town well known to American antiquaries for the number of ancient 
idols which have been recovered from its soil. On the shore of the 
lake is the stalactite cave of Jobitsinal, of great local celebrity; 
and in its depths, according to the popular legend, may still be dis- 
cerned the stone image of a horse that belonged to Cortes. The 
Golfo Dulce is, as its name implies, a fresh-water lake, although so 
near the Atlantic. It is about 36 m. long, and would be of con- 
siderable value as a harbour if the bar at the mouth of the Rio 
Dulce did not prevent the upward passage of seafaring vessels. 
As a contrast the Lake of Atitlan (q.v.) is a land-locked basin en- 
compassed with lofty mountains. About 9 m. S. of the capital lies 
the Lake of Amatitlan (q.v.) with the town of the same name. On 
the borders of Salvador and Guatemala there is the Lake of Guija, 
about 20 m. long and 12 broad, at a height of 2100 ft. above the 
sea. It is connected by the river Ostuma with the Lake of Ayarza 
which lies about 1000 ft. higher at the foot of the Sierra Madre. 

The geology, fauna and flora of Guatemala are discussed under 
CENTRAL AMERICA. The bird-life of the country is remarkably 
rich ; one bird of magnificent plumage, the quetzal, quijal or quesal 
(Trogon resplendens), has been chosen as the national emblem. 

Climate. The climate is healthy, except on the coasts, where 
malarial fever is prevalent. The rainy season in the interior lasts 
from May to October, but on the coast sometimes continues till 
December. The coldest month is January, and the warmest is 
May. The average temperatures for these months at places of different 




of Mexico or the Caribbean Sea; at Tual, a high station on the 
Atlantic slope, it reaches 195 in.; in central Guatemala it is only 
27 in. Towards the Atlantic rain often occurs in the dry season, 
and there is a local saying near the Golfo Dulce that it rains 
thirteen months in the year." Fogs are not rare. In Guatemala, 



662 



GUATEMALA 



Locality. 


Altitude 
(Feet). 


Fahrenheit Degrees. 


a 
/ 
a 

d 
V 
o 
I 

S 


January. 


May. 


Puerto Barrios .... 


6 
3020 
3050 
4280 
4870 
7710 


74 
68 
64 
61 
60 
5 


81 

77 
73 
68 

67 
62 






Guatemala 
Quezaltenango .... 



as in other parts of Central America (g.f.), each of the three climatic 
zones, cold, temperate and hot (tierra fria, tierra templada, tierra 
calienle) has its special characteristics, and it is not easy to generalize 
about the climate of the country as a whole. 

Natural Products. The minerals discovered in Guatemala include 
gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, antimony, coal, salt and 
sulphur; but it is uncertain if many of these exist in quantities 
sufficient to repay exploitation. Gold is obtained at Las Quebradas 
near Izabal, silver in the departments of Santa Rosa and Chiquimula, 
salt in those of Santa Rosa and Alta Vera Paz. During the I7th 
century gold-washing was carried on by English miners in the 
Motagua valley, and is said to have yielded rich profits; hence the 
name of " Gold Coast " was not infrequently given to the Atlantic 
littoral near the mouth of the Motagua. 

The area of forest has only been seriously diminished in the 
west, and amounted to 2030 sq. m. in 1904. Besides rubber, it 
yields many valuable dye-woods and cabinet-woods, such as cedar, 
mahogany and logwood. Fruits, grain and medicinal plants are 
obtained in great abundance, especially where the soil is largely of 
volcanic origin, as in the Altos and Sierra Madre. Parts of the 
Peten district are equally fertile, maize in this region yielding two 
hundredfold from unmanured soil. The vegetable products of 
Guatemala include coffee, cocoa, sugar-cane, bananas, oranges, 
vanilla, aloes, agave, ipecacuanha, castor-oil, sarsaparilla, cinchona, 
tobacco, indigo and the wax-plant (Myrica cerifera). 

Inhabitants. The inhabitants of Guatemala, who tend to 
increase rapidly owing to the high birth-rate, low mortality, 
and low rate of emigration, numbered in 1903 1,842,134, or 
more than one-third of the entire population of Central America. 
Fully 60% are pure Indians, and the remainder, classed as 
Ladinos or " Latins " (i.e. Spaniards in speech and mode of life), 
comprise a large majority of half-castes (mestizos) and civilized 
Indians and a smaller proportion of whites. It includes a 
foreign population of about 12,000 Europeans and North 
Americans, among them being many Jews from the west of the 
United States. There are important German agricultural 
settlements, and many colonists from north Italy who are locally 
called Tiroleses, and despised by the Indians for their industry 
and thrift. About half the births among the Indians and one- 
third among the whites are illegitimate. 

No part of Central America contains a greater diversity of 
tribes, and in 1883 Otto Stoll estimated the number of spoken 
languages as eighteen, although east of the meridian of Lake 
Amatitlan the native speech has almost entirely disappeared 
and been replaced by Spanish. The Indians belong chiefly 
to the Maya stock, which predominates throughout Peten, or 
to the allied Quiche race which is well represented in the Altos 
and central districts. The Itzas, Mopans, Lacandons, Chols, 
Pokonchi and the Pokomans who inhabit the large settlement 
of Mixco near the capital, all belong to the Maya family; but 
parts of central and eastern Guatemala are peopled by tribes 
distinct from the Mayas and not found in Mexico. In the i6th 
century the Mayas and Quiches had attained a high level oi 
civilization (see CENTRAL AMERICA, Archaeology), and at least 
two of the Guatemalan languages, Quiche and Cakchiquel 
possess the rudiments or the relics of a literature. The Quiche 
Popol Vuh, or " Book of History," which was translated into 
Spanish by the Dominican friar Ximenes, and edited with a 
French version by Brasseur de Bourbourg, is an important 
document for students of the local myths. In appearance the 
various Guatemalan tribes differ very little; in almost all the 
characteristic type of Indian is short but muscular, with low 
forehead, prominent cheek-bones and straight black hair. In 
character the Indians are, as a rule, peaceable, though conscious 
of their numerical superiority and at times driven to join in the 
revolutions which so often disturb the course of local politics 
they are often intensely religious, but with a few exceptions 



are thriftless, indolent and inveterate gamblers. Their con- 
fradias, or brotherhoods, each with its patron saint and male 
and female chiefs, exist largely to organize public festivals, and 
to purchase wooden masks, costumes and decorations for the 
dances and dramas in which the Indians delight. These dramas, 
which deal with religious and historical subjects, are of Indian 
origin, and somewhat resemble the mystery-plays of medieval 
Europe, a resemblance heightened by the introduction, due to 
Spanish missionaries, of Christian saints and heroes such as 
Charlemagne. The Indians are devoted to bull-fighting and 
cock-fighting. Choral singing is a popular amusement, and is 
accompanied by the Spanish guitar and native wind-instruments. 
The Indians have a habit of consuming a yellowish edible earth 
containing sulphur; on pilgrimages they obtain images moulded 
of this earth at the shrines they visit, and eat the images as a 
jrophylactic against disease. Maize, beans and bananas, varied 
occasionally with dried meat and fresh pork, form their staple 
diet; drunkenness is common on pay-days and festivals, when 
.arge quantities of a fiery brandy called chicha are consumed. 

Chief Towns. The capital of the republic, Guatemala or Guate- 
mala la Nueva (pop. 1905 about 97,000) and the cities of Quezal- 
tenango (31,000), Totonicapam (28,000), Coban (25,000), Solola* 
(17,000), Escuintla (12,000), Huehuetanango (12,000), Amatitlan 
(10,000) and Atitlan (9000) are described under separate headings. 
All the chief towns except the seaports are situated within the 
mountainous region where the climate is temperate. Retalhuleu, 
among the southern foothills of the Sierra Madre, is one of the 
centres of coffee production, and is connected by rail with the 
Pacific port of Champerico, a very unhealthy place in the wet 
season. Both Retalhuleu and Champerico were, like Quezaltenango, 
Solola, and other towns, temporarily ruined by the earthquake of 
the i8th of April 1902. Santa Cruz Quiche], 25 m. N.E. of Totoni- 
capam, was formerly the capital of the Quiche kings, but has now 
a Ladino population. Livingston, a seaport at the mouth of the 
Polochic (here called the Rio Dulce), was founded in 1806, and 
subsequently named after the author of a code of Guatemalan laws; 
few vestiges remain of the Spanish settlement of Sevilla la Nueva, 
founded in 1844, and of the English colony of Abbotsville, founded 
in 1825, both near Livingston. La Libertad, also called by its 
Indian name of Sacluc, is the principal town of Peten. 

Shipping and Communications. The republic is in regular steam 
communication on the Atlantic side with New Orleans, New York 
and Hamburg, by vessels which visit the ports of Barrios (Santo 
Tomas) and Livingston. On the southern side the ports of San 
Jos6, Champerico and Oc6s are visited by the Pacific mail steamers, 
by the vessels of a Hamburg company and by those of the South 
American (Chilean) and the Pacific Steam Navigation Companies. 
Iztapa, formerly the principal harbour on the south coast, has been 
almost entirely abandoned since 1853. Gualan, on the Motagua, 
and Panzos, on the Polochic, are small river-ports. The principal 
towns are connected by wagon roads, towards the construction and 
maintenance of which each male inhabitant is required to pay two 
pesos or give four days' work a year. There are coach routes be- 
tween the capital and Quezaltenango, but over a great portion of 
the country transport is still on mule-back. All the railway lines 
have been built since 1875. The main lines are the Southern, 
belonging to an American company and running from San Jose 1 
to the capital ; the Northern, a government line from the capital 
to Puerto Barrios, which completes the interoceanic railroad; and 
the Western, from Champerico to Quezaltenango, belonging to a 
Guatemalan company, but largely under German management. 
For local traffic there are several lines; one from Iztapa, near San 
Jos6, to Naranjo, and another from Ocos to the western coffee 
plantations. On the Atlantic slope transport is effected mainly by 
river tow-boats from Livingston along the Golfo Dulce and other 
lakes, and the Polochic river as far as Panzos. The narrow-gauge 
railway that serves the German plantations in the Vera Paz region 
is largely owned by Germans. 

Guatemala joined the Postal Union in 1881 ; but its postal and 
telegraphic services have suffered greatly from financial difficulties. 
The telephonic systems of Guatemala la Nueva, Quezaltenango and 
other cities are owned by private companies. 

Commerce and Industry. The natural resources of Guatemala 
are rich but undeveloped; and the capital necessary for their 
development is not easily obtained in a country where war, re- 
volution and economic crises recur at frequent intervals, where the 
premium on gold has varied by no less than 500% in a single 
year, and where many of the wealthiest cities and agricultural 
districts have been destroyed by earthquake in one day (l8th of 
April 1902). At the beginning of the igth century, Guatemala had 
practically no export trade; but between 1825 and 1850 cochineal 
was largely exported, the centre of production being the Amatitl4n 
district. This industry was ruined by the competition of chemical 
dyes, and a substitute was found in the cultivation of coffee. 



GUATEMALA 



663 



Guatemala is surpassed only by Brazil and the East Indies in the 
quantity of coffee it exports. The chief plantations are owned. and 
managed by Germans ; more than half of the crop is sent to Ger- 
many, while three-fifths of the remainder go to the United States and 
one-fifth to Great Britain. The average yearly product is about 
70,000,000 Ib, worth approximately 1,300,000, and subject to an 
export duty of one gold dollar (45.) per quintal (101 ft). Sugar, 
bananas, tobacco and cocoa are also cultivated; but much of the 
sugar and bananas, most of the cocoa, and all the tobacco are con- 
sumed in the country. During the colonial period, the cocoa of 
western Guatemala and Soconusco was reserved on account of its 
fine flavour for the Spanish court. The indigo and cotton planta- 
tions yield little profit, owing to foreign competition, and have in 
most cases been converted to other uses. The cultivation of bananas 
tends to increase, though more slowly than in other Central American 
countries. Grain, sweet potatoes and beans are grown for home 
consumption. Cattle-farming is carried on in the high pasture- 
lands and the plains of Peten; but the whole number of sheep 
(77,000 in 1900) and pigs (30,000) in the republic is inferior to the 
number kept in many single English counties. Much of the wool 
is sold, like the native cotton, to Indian and Ladino women, who 
manufacture coarse cloth and linen in their homes. 

By the Land Act of 1894 the state domains, except on the coasts 
and frontiers, were divided into lots for sale. The largest holding 
tenable by one person under this act was fixed at 50 caballerias, or 
5625 acres; the price varies from 40 to 80 per caballeria of H2j 
acres. Free grants of uncultivated land are sometimes made to 
immigrants (including foreign companies), to persons who undertake 
to build roads or railways through their allotments, to towns, 
villages and schools. The condition of the Indians on the planta- 
tions is often akin to slavery, owing to the system adopted by some 
planters of making payments in advance; for the Indians soon spend 
their earnings, and thus contract debts which can only be repaid 
by long service. 

In addition to the breweries, rum and brandy distilleries, sugar 
mills and tobacco factories, which are sometimes worked as adjuncts 
to the plantations, there are many purely urban industries, such as 
the manufacture of woollen and cotton goods on a large scale, and 
manufactures of building material and furniture; but these in- 
dustries are far less important than agriculture. 

During the five years 1900 to 1904 inclusive, the average value of 
Guatemalan imports, which consisted chiefly of textiles, iron and 
machinery, sacks, provisions, flour, beer, wine and spirits, amounted 
to 776,000; about one-half came from the United States, and 
nearly one-fourth from the United Kingdom. The exports during 
the same period had an average value of 1,528,000, and ranked as 
follows in order of value: coffee (1,300,000), timber, hides, rubber, 
sugar, bananas, cocoa. 

Finance. Within the republic there are six banks of issue, to 
which the government is deeply indebted. There is practically 
neither gold nor silver in circulation, and the value of the bank- 
notes is so fluctuating that trade is seriously hampered. On the 
25th of June 1903, the issue of bank-notes without a guarantee 
was restricted; and thenceforward all banks were compelled to 
retain gold or silver to the value of 10% of the notes issued in 
1904, 20% in 1905 and 30% in 1906. This reform has not, to 
any appreciable extent, rendered more stable the value of the 
notes issued. The silver peso, or dollar, of 100 centavas is the 
monetary unit, weighs 25 grammes -900 fine, and has a nominal 
value of 43. Being no longer current it has been replaced by the 
paper peso. The nickel coins include the real (nominal value 6d.), 
half-real and quarter-real. The metric system of weights and 
measures has been adopted, but the old Spanish standards remain 
in general use. 

Of the revenue, about 64% is derived from customs and excise; 
9% from property, road, military, slaughter and salt taxes; 1-7% 
from the gunpowder monopoly; and the remainder from various 
taxes, stamps, government lands, and postal and telegraph ser- 
vices. The estimated revenue for 1905-1906 was 23,000,000 pesos 
(about 328,500) ; the estimated expenditure was 27,317,659 pesos 
(390,200), of which 242,800 were allotted to the public debt, 
42,000 to internal development and justice, 29,000 to the army 
and the remainder largely to education. The gold value of the 
currency peso (75 = i in 1903, 7o = i in 1904, 58 = i in 1905) 
fluctuates between limits so wide that conversion into sterling 
(especially for a series of years), with any pretension to accuracy, 
is impracticable. In 1899 the rate of exchange moved between 
710% and 206% premium on gold. According to the official 
statement, the gold debt, which runs chiefly at 4% and is held in 
Germany and England, amounted to 1,987,905 on the 1st of 
January 1905; the currency debt (note issues, internal loans, &c.) 
amounted to 704,730; total 2,692,635, a decrease since 1900 of 
about 300,000. 

Government. According to the constitution of December 
1879 (modified in 1885, 1887, 1889 and 1903) the legislative 
power is vested in a national assembly of 69 deputies (i for every 
20,000 inhabitants) chosen for 4 years by direct popular vote, 
under universal manhood suffrage. The president of the republic 



!s elected in a similar manner, but for 6 years, and he is theoretic- 
ally not eligible for the following term. He is assisted by 6 
ministers, heads of government departments, and by a council 
of state of 13 members, partly appointed by himself and partly 
ay the national assembly. 

Local Government. Each of the twenty-two departments is 
administered by an official called a jefe politico, or political 
chief, appointed by the president, and each is subdivided into 
municipal districts. These districts are administered by one 
or more alcaldes or mayors, assisted by municipal councils, both 
alcaldes and councils being chosen by the people. 

Justice. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, 
consisting of a chief justice and four associate justices elected 
by the people; six appeal courts, each with three judges, also 
elected by the people; and twenty-six courts of first instance, 
each consisting of one judge appointed by the president and two 
by the chief justice of the supreme court. 

Religion and Instruction. The prevailing form of religion 
is the Roman Catholic, but the state recognizes no distinction 
of creed. The establishment of conventual or monastic institu- 
tions is prohibited. Of the population in 1893, 90% could 
neither read nor write, 2% could only read, and 8% could read 
and write. Primary instruction is nominally compulsory, and, 
in government schools, is provided at the cost of the state. 
In 1903 there were 1064 government primary schools. There 
are besides about 128 private (occasionally aided) schools of 
similar character, owners of plantations on which there are more 
than ten children being obliged to provide school accommodation. 
Higher instruction is given in two national institutes at the 
capital, one for men with 500 pupils and one for women with 
300. At Quezaltenango there are two similar institutes, and 
at Chiquimula there are other two. To each of the six there 
is a school for teachers attached, and within the republic there 
are four other schools for teachers. For professional instruction 
(law, medicine, engineering) there are schools supported by 
private funds, but aided occasionally by the government. 
Other educational establishments are a school of art, a national 
conservatory of music, a commercial college, four trades' schools 
with more than 600 pupils and a national library. There is a 
German school, endowed by the German government. 

Defence. For the white and mixed population military 
service is compulsory; from the eighteenth to the thirtieth 
year of age in the active army, and from the thirtieth to the 
fiftieth in the reserve. The effective force of the active army 
is 56,900, of the reserve 29,400. About 7000 officers and men 
are kept in regular service. Military training is given in all 
public and most private schools. 

History. Guatemala was conquered by the Spaniards under 
Pedro de Alvarado between 1522 and 1524. Up to the years 
1837-1839 its history differs only in minor details from that of 
the neighbouring states of Central America (?..). The colonial 
period was marked by the destruction of the ancient Indian 
civilization, the extermination of many entire tribes, and the 
enslavement of the survivors, who were exploited to the utmost 
for the benefit of Spanish officials and adventurers. But although 
the administration was weak, corrupt and cruel, it succeeded 
in establishing the Roman Catholic religion, and in introducing 
the Spanish language among the Indians and Ladinos, who thus 
obtained a tincture of civilization and ultimately a desire for 
more liberal institutions. The Central American provinces 
revolted in 1821, were annexed to the Mexican empire of Iturbide 
from 1822 to 1823, and united to form a federal republic from 
1823 to 1839. In Guatemala the Clerical, Conservative or anti- 
Federal party was supreme; after a protracted struggle it over- 
threw the Liberals or Federalists, and declared the country an 
independent republic, with Rafael Carrera (1814-1865) as pre- 
sident. In 1845 an attempt to restore the federal union failed; 
in 1851 Carrera defeated the Federalist forces of Honduras and 
Salvador at La Arada near Chiquimula, and was recognized as 
the pacificator of the republic. In 1851 a new constitution was 
promulgated, and Carrera was appointed president till 1856, a 
dignity which was in 1854 bestowed upon him for life. His 



GUATEMALA 



rivalry with Gerardo Barrios (d. 1865), president of Salvador, 
resulted in open war in 1863. At Coatepeque the Guatemalans 
suffered a severe defeat, which was followed by a truce. 
Honduras now joined with Salvador, and Nicaragua and Costa 
Rica with Guatemala. The contest was finally settled in favour 
of Carrera, who besieged and occupied San Salvador and made 
himself dominant also in Honduras and Nicaragua. During 
the rest of his rule, which lasted till his death in April 1865, he 
continued to act in concert with the Clerical party, and en- 
deavoured to maintain friendly relations with the European 
governments. Carrera's successor was General Cerna, who had 
been recommended by him for election. The Liberal party 
began to rise'in influence about 1870, and in May 1871 Cerna 
was deposed. The archbishop of Guatemala and the Jesuits were 
driven into exile as intriguers in the interests of the Clericals. 
Pres. Rufino Barrios (1835-1885), elected in 1873, governed the 
country after the manner of a dictator; he expelled the Jesuits, 
confiscated their property and disestablished and disendowed 
the church. But though he encouraged education, promoted 
railway and other enterprises, and succeeded in settling difficulties 
as to the Mexican boundary, the general result of his policy was 
baneful. Conspiracies against him were rife, and in 1884 he 
narrowly escaped assassination. His ambition was to be the 
restorer of the federal union of the Central American states, and 
when his efforts towards this end by peaceful means failed 
he had recourse to the sword. Counting on the support of 
Honduras and Salvador, he proclaimed himself, in February 
1885, the supreme military chief of Central America, and claimed 
the command of all the forces within the five states. President 
Zaldivar, of Salvador, had been his friend, but after the issue of 
the decree of union he entered into a defensive alliance with 
Costa Rica and Nicaragua. In March Barrios invaded Salvador, 
and on the 2nd of April a battle was fought, in which the Guate- 
malan president was killed. He was succeeded by General 
Manuel Barillas. No further effort was made to force on the 
union, and on the i6th of April the war was formally ended. 
Peace, however, only provided opportunity for domestic con- 
spiracy, with assassination and revolution in view. In 1892 
General Jose Maria Reina Barrios was elected president, and in 
1897 he was re-elected; but on the 8th of February 1898 he was 
assassinated. Senor Morales, vice-president, succeeded him; 
but in the same year Don Manuel Estrada Cabrera (b. 1857) was 
elected president for the term ending 1905. Cabrera promoted 
education, commerce and the improvement of communications, 
but his re-election for the term 1905-1911 caused widespread 
discontent. He was charged with aiming at a dictatorship, with 
permitting or even encouraging the imprisonment, torture and 
execution without trial of political opponents, with maladmini- 
stration of the finances and with aggression against the neigh- 
bouring states. A well-armed force, which included a body of 
adventurers from San Francisco (U.S.A.) was organized by 
General Barillas, the ex-president, and invaded Guatemala in 
March 1906 from Mexico, British Honduras and Salvador. 
Barillas (1845-1907) proclaimed his intention of establishing 
a silver currency, and gained, to a great extent, the sympathy of 
the German and British residents; he had been the sole Guate- 
malan president who had not sought to prolong his own tenure 
of office. Ocos was captured by his lieutenant, General Castillo, 
and the revolution speedily became a war, in which Honduras, 
Costa Rica and Salvador were openly involved against Guate- 
mala, while Nicaragua was hostile. But Cabrera held his ground, 
and even gained several indecisive victories. The intervention 
of President Roosevelt and of President Diaz of Mexico brought 
about an armistice on the igth of July, and the so-called " Marble- 
head Pact " was signed on the following day on board the 
United States cruiser " Marblehead." Its terms were embodied 
in a treaty signed (28th of September) by representatives of the 
four belligerent states, Nicaragua taking no part in the negotia- 
tions. The treaty included regulations for the improvement of 
commerce and navigation in the area affected by the war, and 
provided for the settlement of subsequent disputes by the 
arbitration of the United States and Mexico. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. Besides the works cited under CENTRAL 
AMERICA see the interesting narrative of Thomas Gage, the English 
missionary, in Juarros, Compendia de la historia de Guatemala. 
(1808-1818, 2 vols.; new ed., 1857), which in Bailly's English 
translation (London, 1823) long formed the chief authority. See 
also C. Juan Anino, La Republica de Guatemala (Guatemala, 1894); 
T. Brigham, Guatemala, The Land of the Quetzal (London, 1887) ; 
J. M. Caceres, Geografia de Centra-America (Paris, 1882) ; G. Lemale, 
Guia geografica de los centres de poblacion de la republica de Guatemala 
(Guatemala, 1882); F. A. de Fuentes y Guzman, Historia de 
Guatemala, o Recordacion Florida (Madrid, 1882); A. C. and A. P. 
Maudslay, A Glimpse at Guatemala, and some Notes on the Ancient 
Monuments of Central America (London, 1899); Gustavo Niederlein, 
The Republic of Guatemala (Philadelphia, 1898); Ramon A. Salazar, 
Historia del disenvolvimiento intelectual de Guatemala, vol. i. (Guate- 
mala, 1897); Otto Stoll, Reisen und Schilderungen aus den Jahren 
1878-1883 (Leipzig, 1886); J. Mendez, Guia del immigrants en la 
republica de Guatemala (Guatemala, 1895); Karl Sapper, " Grund- 
ziige der physikalischen Geographic von Guatemala, Erganzungs- 
heft No. 115, Petermann's Mitleilungen (Gotha, 1894); Anuario 
de esladistica de la republica de Guatemala (Guatemala) ; Memoria 
de la Secretaria de Instruccion Publica (Guatemala, 1899) ; Handbook 
of Guatemala, revised (Bureau of the American Republics, Washing- 
ton, 1897); United Slates Consular Reports (Washington); British 
Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular Reports (London). 

GUATEMALA, or GUATEMALA LA NUEVA (i.e. " New Guate- 
mala," sometimes written Nueva Guatemala, and formerly 
Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala), the capital of the 
republic of Guatemala, and until 1821 of the Spanish captaincy- 
general of Guatemala, which comprised Chiapas in Mexico and 
all Central America except Panama. Pop. (1905) about 97,000. 
Guatemala is built more than 5000 ft. above sea-level, in a wide 
table-land traversed by the Rio de las Vacas, or Cow River, so 
called from the cattle introduced here by Spanish colonists in 
the i6th century. Deep ravines mark the edge of the table-land, 
and beyond it lofty mountains rise on every side, the highest 
peaks being on the south, where the volcanic summits of the 
Sierra Madre exceed 12,000 ft. Guatemala has a station on the 
transcontinental railway from Puerto Barrios on the Atlantic 
(190 m. N.E.) to San Jos6 on the Pacific (75 m. S. by W.). It 
is thrice the size of any other city in the republic, and has a 
corresponding commercial superiority. Its archbishop is the 
primate of Central America (excluding Panama). Like most 
Spanish-American towns Guatemala is laid out in wide and 
regular streets, often planted with avenues of trees, and it has 
extensive suburbs. The houses, though usually of only one 
storey, are solidly and comfortably constructed; many of them 
are surrounded by large gardens and courts. Among the open 
spaces the chief are the Plaza Mayor, which contains the 
cathedral, erected in 1730, the archiepiscopal palace, the govern- 
ment buildings, the mint and other public offices; and the more 
modern Reforma Park and Plaza de la Concordia, now the 
favourite resorts of the inhabitants. There are many large 
schools for both sexes, besides hospitals and an orphanage. 
Many of the principal buildings, such as the military academy, 
were originally convents. The theatre, founded in 1858, is one 
of the best in Central America. A museum, founded in 1831, 
is maintained by the Sociedad Economica, which in various 
ways has done great service to the city and the country. There 
are two fortresses, the Castello Matamoros, built by Rafael 
Carrera (see GUATEMALA [republic] under History), and the 
Castello de San Jose. Water is brought from a distance of about 
8 m. by two old aqueducts from the towns of Mixco and Pinula; 
fuel and provisions are largely supplied by the Pokoman Indians 
of Mixco. The general prosperity, and to some extent the 
appearance, of Guatemala have procured it the name of the Paris 
of Central America. It is lighted by electricity and has a good 
telephone service. Its trade is chiefly in coffee, but it also 
possesses cigar factories, wool and cotton factories, breweries, 
tanneries and other industrial establishments. The foreign 
trade is chiefly controlled by Germans. 

The first city named Guatemala, now called Ciudad Vieja 
or " Old City," was founded in 1527 by Pedro de Alvarado, the 
conqueror of the country, on the banks of the Rio Pensativo, 
and at the foot of the volcano of Agua (i.e. " Water "). In 
1541 it was overwhelmed by a deluge of water from the flooded 



GUATOS GUAYAQUIL 



665 



crater of Agua; and in 1542 Alvarado founded Santiago de los 
Caballeros la Nueva, now Antigua. This city flourished greatly, 
and by the middle of the i8th century had become the most 
populous place in Central America, with 60,000 inhabitants and 
more than 100 churches and convents. But in 1773 it was 
ruined by an earthquake. It was rebuilt, and ultimately became 
capital of the department of Sacatepeques, and a health-resort 
locally celebrated for its thermal springs. But the Guatemalans 
determined to found a new capital on the site occupied by the 
hamlet of Ermita, 27 m. N.E. Here the third and last city of 
Guatemala was built, and became the seat of government in 
1779. The remarkable regularity of the streets is due to the 
construction of the city on a uniform plan. The wide area 
covered, and the lowness of the houses, were similarly due to 
an ordinance which, in order to minimize the danger from earth- 
quakes, forbade the erection of any building more than 20 ft. 
high. Many of the belfries of convents or churches, added after 
the ordinance had fallen into abeyance, were overthrown by the 
earthquake of 1874, which also destroyed a large part of Antigua. 

GUATOS, a tribe of South American Indians of the upper 
Paraguay. They are of a European fairness and wear beards. 
They live almost entirely in canoes, building rough shelters 
in the swamps. They aided the Brazilians in the war with 
Paraguay 1865-70. Very few survive. 

GUATUSOS, a tribe of American Indians of Costa Rica. They 
are an active, hardy people, who have always maintained 
hostility towards the Spaniards and retain their independence. 
From their language they appear to be a distinct stock. They 
were described by old writers as being very fair, with flaxen 
hair, and these reports led to a belief, since exploded, that they 
were European hybrids. There are very few surviving. 

GUAVA (from the Mexican guayaba), the name applied to 
the fruits of species of Psidium, a genus belonging to the natural 
order Myrtaceae. The species which produces the bulk of the 
guava fruits of commerce is Psidium Guajava, a small tree from 
15 to 20 ft. high, a native of the tropical parts of America and 
the West Indies. It bears short-stalked ovate or oblong leaves, 
with strongly marked veins, and covered with a soft tomentum 
or down. The flowers are borne on axillary stalks, and the fruits 
vary much in size, shape and colour, numerous forms and 
varieties being known and cultivated. The variety of which the 
fruits are most valued is that which is sometimes called the 
white guava (P. Guajava, var. pyrifemm). The fruits are pear- 
shaped, about the size of a hen's egg, covered with a thin bright 
yellow or whitish skin filled with soft pulp, also of a light yellowish 
tinge, and having a pleasant sweet-acid and somewhat aromatic 
flavour. P. Guajava, var. pomiferum, produces a more globular 
or apple-shaped fruit, sometimes called the red guava. The 
pulp of this variety is mostly of a darker colour than the former 
and not of so fine a flavour, therefore the first named is most 
esteemed for eating in a raw state; both, however, are used 
in the preparation of two kinds of preserve known as guava 
jelly and guava cheese, which are made in the West Indies 
and imported thence to England; the fruits are of much too 
perishable a nature to allow of their importation in their natural 
state. Both varieties have been introduced into various parts 
of India, as well as in other countries of the East, where they 
have become perfectly naturalized. Though of course much too 
tender for outdoor planting in England, the guava thrives there 
in hothouses or stoves. 

Psidium variabile (also known as P. Cattleyanum) , a tree of 
from 10 to 20 ft. high, a native of Brazil (the Araca or Araca de 
Praya), is known as the purple guava. The fruit, which is very 
abundantly produced in the axils of the leaves, is large, spherical, 
of a fine deep claret colour; the rind is pitted, and the pulp 
is soft, fleshy, purplish, reddish next the skin, but becoming 
paler towards the middle and in the centre almost or quite white. 
It has a very agreeable acid-sweet flavour, which has been 
likened to that of a strawberry. 

GUAYAMA, a small city and the capital of a municipal 
district and department of the same name, on the southern 
coast of Porto Rico, 53 m. S. of San Juan. Pop. (1899) of the 



city. 5334; (1910) 8321; (1899) of the district, 12,749. The 
district (is6sq. m.) includes Arroyo and Salinas. The city stands 
about 230 ft. above the sea and has a mild, healthy climate. It is 
connected with Ponce by railway (1910), and with the port of 
Arroyo by an excellent road, part of the military road extending to 
Cayey, and it exports sugar, rum, tobacco, coffee, cattle, fruit 
and other products of the department, which is very fertile. 
The city was founded in 1736, but was completely destroyed 
by fire in 1832. It was rebuilt on a rectangular plan and possesses 
several buildings of note. Drinking-water is brought in through 
an aqueduct. 

GUAYAQUIL, or SANTIAGO DE GUAYAQUIL, a city and port 
of Ecuador, capital of the province of Guayas, on the right 
bank of the Guayas river, 33 m. above its entrance into the Gulf 
of Guayaquil, in 2 12' S., 79 51' W. Pop. (1890) 44,772; 
(1897, estimate) 51,000, mostly half-breeds. The city is built 
on a comparatively level pajonal or savanna, extending south- 
ward from the base of three low hills, called Los Cerros de la 
Cruz, between the river and the partially filled waters of the 
Estero Salado. It is about 30 ft. above sea-level, and the lower 
parts of the town are partially flooded in the rainy season. 
The old town is the upper or northern part, and is inhabited 
by the poorer classes, its streets being badly paved, crooked, 
undrained, dirty and pestilential. The great fire of 1896 
destroyed a large part of the old town, and some of its insanitary 
conditions were improved in rebuilding. The new town, or 
southern part, is the business and residential quarter of the 
better classes, but the buildings are chiefly of wood and the 
streets are provided with surface drainage only. Among the 
public buildings are the governor's and bishop's palaces, town- 
hall, cathedral and 9 churches, national college, episcopal 
seminary and schools of law and medicine, theatre, two hospitals, 
custom-house, and several asylums and charitable institutions. 
Guayaquil is also the seat of a university corporation with 
faculties of law and medicine. A peculiarity of Guayaquil is 
that the upper floors in the business streets project over the 
walks, forming covered arcades. The year is divided into a wet 
and dry season, the former from January to June, when the hot 
days are followed by nights of drenching rain. The mean annual 
temperature is about 82 to 83 F.; malarial and bilious fevers 
are common, the latter being known as " Guayaquil fever," 
and epidemics of yellow fever are frequent. The dry or summer 
season is considered pleasant and healthy. The water-supply 
is now brought in through iron mains from the Cordilleras 
53 m. distant. The mains pass under the Guayas river and 
discharge into a large distributing reservoir on one of the hills 
N. of the city. The city is provided with tramway and telephone 
services, the streets are lighted with gas and electricity, and 
telegraph communication with the outside world is maintained 
by means of the West Coast cable, which lands at the small port 
of Santa Elena, on the Pacific coast, about 65 m. W. of Guayaquil. 
Railway connexion with Quito (290 m.) was established in June 
1908. There is also steamboat connexion with the producing 
districts of the province on the Guayas river and its tributaries, 
on which boats run regularly as far up as Bodegas (80 m.) in 
the dry season, and for a distance of 40 m. on the Daule. For 
smaller boats there are about 200 m. of navigation on this 
system of rivers. The exports of the province are almost wholly 
transported on these rivers, and are shipped either at Guayaquil, 
or at Puna, its deep-water port, 6 m. outside the Guayas bar, 
on the E. end of Puna Island. The Guayas river is navigable 
up to Guayaquil for steamers drawing 22 ft. of water; larger 
vessels anchor at Puna, 40 m. from Guayaquil, where cargoes and 
passengers are transferred to lighters and tenders. There is a 
quay on the river front, but the depth alongside does not exceed 
18 ft. The principal exports are cacao, rubber, coffee, tobacco, 
hides, cotton, Panama hats, cinchona bark and ivory nuts, the 
value of all exports for the year 1905 being 14,148,877 sucres, in 
a total of 18,565,668 sucres for the whole republic. In 1908 the 
exports were: cacao, about 64,000,000 Ib, valued at $6,400,000; 
hides, valued at $135,000; rubber, valued at $235,000; coffee, 
valued at $273,000; and vegetable ivory, valued at $102,000. 



666 



GUAYAS GUBBIO 



There are some small industries in the city, including a shipyard, 
saw-mills, foundry, sugar refineries, cotton and woollen mills, 
brewery, and manufactures of soap, cigars, chocolate, ice, soda- 
water and liqueurs. 

Santiago de Guayaquil was founded on St James's day, the 
25th of July 1535, by Sebastian de Benalcazar, but was twice 
abandoned before its permanent settlement in 1537 by Francesco 
de Orellana. It was captured and sacked several times in the 
I7th and i8th centuries by pirates and freebooters by Jacob 
Clark in 1624, by French pirates in 1686, by English freebooters 
under Edward David in 1687, by William Dampier in 1707 
and by Clapperton in 1709. Defensive works were erected in 
1730, andin 1763, when the town was made a governor's residence, 
a castle and other fortifications were constructed. Owing to 
the flimsy construction of its buildings Guayaquil has been 
repeatedly burned, the greater fires occurring in 1707, 1764, 
1865, 1896 and 1899. The city was made the see of a bishopric 
in 1837. 

GUAYAS, or EL GUAYAS, a coast province of Ecuador, 
bounded N. by Manabi and Pichincha, E. by Los Rios, Canar 
and Azuay, S. by El Oro and the Gulf of Guayaquil, and W. 
by the same gulf, the Pacific Ocean and the province of Manabi. 
Pop. (1893, estimate) 98,100; area, 11,504 sq. m. It is very 
irregular in form and comprises the low alluvial districts sur- 
rounding the Gulf of Guayaquil between the Western Cordilleras 
and the coast. It includes (since 1885) the Galapagos Islands, 
lying 600 m. off the coast. The province of Guayas is heavily 
forested and traversed by numerous rivers, for the most part 
tributaries of the Guayas river, which enters the gulf from the 
N. This river system has a drainage area of about 14,000 sq. m. 
and an aggregate of 200 m. of navigable channels in the rainy 
season. Its principal tributaries are the Daule and Babahoyo 
or Chimbo (also called Bodegas), and of the latter the Vinces 
and Yaguachi. The climate is hot, humid and unhealthy, 
bilious and malarial fevers being prevalent. The rainfall is 
abundant and the soil is deep and fertile. Agriculture and the 
collection of forest products are the chief industries. The staple 
products are cacao, coffee, sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco and rice. 
The cultivation of cacao is the principal industry, the exports 
forming about one-third the world's supply. Stock-raising is 
also carried on to a limited extent. Among forest products are 
rubber, cinchona bark, toquilla fibre and ivory nuts. The 
manufacture of so-called Panama hats from the fibre of the 
toquilla palm (commonly called jipijapa, after a town in Manabi 
famous for this industry) is a long-established domestic industry 
among the natives of this and other coast provinces, the humidity 
of the climate greatly facilitating the work of plaiting the delicate 
straws, which would be broken in a dry atmosphere. Guayas 
is the chief industrial and commercial province of the republic, 
about nineteen-twentieths of the commerce of Ecuador passing 
through the port of its capital, Guayaquil. There are no land 
transport routes in the province except the Quito & Guayaquil 
railway, which traverses its eastern half. The sluggish river 
channels which intersect the greater part of its territory afford 
excellent facilities for transporting produce, and a large number 
of small boats are regularly engaged in that traffic. There are 
no large towns in Guayas other than Guayaquil. Duran, on the 
Guayas river opposite Guayaquil, is the starting point of the 
Quito railway and contains the shops and offices of that line. 
The port of Santa Elena on a bay of the same name, about 65 m. 
W. of Guayaquil, is a landing-point of the West Coast cable, 
and a port of call for some of the regular steamship lines. Its 
exports are chiefly Panama hats and salt. 

GUAYCURUS, a tribe of South American Indians on the 
Paraguay. The name has been used generally of all the mounted 
Indians of Gran Chaco. The Guaycurus are a wild, fierce people, 
who paint their bodies and go naked. They are fearless horse- 
men and are occupied chiefly in cattle rearing. 

GUAYMAS, or SAN JOSE DE GUAVMAS, a seaport of Mexico, 
in the state of Sonora, on a small bay opening into the Gulf of 
California a few miles W. of the mouth of the Yaqui river, in 
lat. 27 58' N., long. 110 58' W. Pop. (1900) 8648. The harbour 



is one of the best on the W. coast of Mexico, and the port is a 
principal outlet for the products of the large state of Sonora. 
The town stands on a small, arid plain, nearly shut in by moun- 
tains, and has a very hot, dry climate. It is connected with the 
railways of the United States by a branch of the Southern 
Pacific from Benson, Arizona, and is 230 m. S. by W. of the 
frontier town of Nogales, where that line enters Mexico. The 
exports include gold, silver, hides and pearls. 

GUBBIO (anc. Iguvium, q.v,; med. Eugubium), a town and 
episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, in the province of Perugia, from 
which it is 23 m. N.N.E. by road; by rail it is 13 m. N.W. of 
Fossato di Vico (on the line between Foligno and Ancona) 
and 70 m. E.S.E. of Arezzo. Pop. (1901) 5783 (town); 26,718 
(commune). Gubbio is situated at the foot and on the steep 
slopes of Monte Calvo, from 1568 to 1735 ft. above sea-level, 
at the entrance to the gorge which ascends to Scheggia, probably 
on the site of the ancient Umbrian town. It presents a markedly 
medieval appearance. The most prominent building is the 
Palazzo dei Consoli, on the N. side of the Piazza della Signoria; 
it is a huge Gothic edifice with a tower, erected in 1332-1346, 
according to tradition, by Matteo di Giovanello of Gubbio; 
the name of Angelo da Orvieto occurs on the arch of the main 
door, but his work may be limited to the sculptures of this 
arch. It has two stories above the ground floor, and, being on 
the slope of the hill, is, like the whole piazza, raised on arched 
substructures. On the S. side of the piazza is the Palazzo 
Pretorio, or della Podesta, begun in 1349 and now the municipal 
palace. It contains the famous Tabulae Iguvinae, and a collec- 
tion of paintings of the Umbrian school, of furniture and of 
majolica. On the E. side is the modern Palazzo Ranghiasci- 
Brancaleone, which until 1882 contained fine collections, now 
dispersed. Above the Piazza della Signoria, at the highest 
point of the town, is the Palazzo Ducale, erected by the dukes 
of Urbino in 1474-1480; the architect was, in all probability, 
Lucio da Laurana, to whom is due the palace at Urbino, which 
this palace resembles, especially in its fine colonnaded court. 
The Palazzo Beni, lower down, belongs to a somewhat earlier 
period of the isth century. Pope Martin V. lodged here for a 
few days in 1420. The Palazzo Accoramboni, on the other 
hand, is a Renaissance structure, with a fine entrance arch. 
Here Vittoria Accoramboni was born in 1557. Opposite the 
Palazzo Ducale is the cathedral, dedicated to SS. Mariano e 
Jacopo, a structure of the I2th century, with a facade, adorned 
with contemporary sculptures, partly restored in 1514-1550. 
The interior contains some good pictures by Umbrian artists, 
a fine episcopal throne in carved wood, and a fine Flemish cope 
given by Pope Marcellus II. (1555) in the sacristy. The ex- 
terior of the Gothic church of S. Francesco, in the lower part 
of the town, built in 1259, preserves its original style, but the in- 
terior has been modernized; and the same fate has overtaken the 
Gothic churches of S. Maria Nuova and S. Pietro. S. Agostino, 
on the other hand, has its Gothic interior better preserved. The 
whole town is full of specimens of medieval architecture, the 
pointed arch of the I3th century being especially prevalent. 
A remarkable procession takes place in Gubbio on the 15th of 
May in each year, in honour of S. Ubaldo, when three colossal 
wooden pedestals, each over 30 ft. high, and crowned by statues 
of SS. Ubaldo, Antonio and Giorgio, are carried through the 
town, and then, in a wild race, up to the church of S. Ubaldo 
on the mountain-side (2690 ft.). See H. M. Bower, The Elevation 
and Procession of the Ceri at Gubbio (Folk-lore Society, London, 
1897). 

After its reconstruction with the help of Narses (see IGUVIUM) 
the town remained subject to the exarchs of Ravenna, and, 
after the destruction of the Lombard kingdom in 774, formed 
part of the donation of Charlemagne to the pope. In the nth 
century the beginnings of its independence may be traced. In 
the struggles of that time it was generally on the Ghibelline side. 
In 1151 it repelled an attack of several neighbouring cities, and 
formed from this time a republic governed by consuls. In 1155 
it was besieged by the emperor Frederick I., but saved by the 
intervention of its bishop, S. Ubaldo, and was granted privileges 



GUBEN GUDGEON 



667 



by the emperor. In 1203 it had its first podesta, and from this 
period dates the rise of its importance. In 1387, after various 
political changes, it surrendered to Antonio da Montefeltro of 
Urbino, and remained under the dominion of the dukes of 
Urbino until, in 1624, the whole duchy was ceded to the pope. 

Gubbio was the birthplace of Oderisio, a. famous miniature 
painter (1240-1299), mentioned by Dante as the honour of his 
native town (Purg. xi. 80 " /' onor d'Agobbio "), but no authentic 
works by him exist. In the i4th and isth centuries a branch 
of the Umbrian school of painting flourished here, the most 
famous masters of which were Guido Palmerucci (1280-1345?) 
and several members of the Nelli family, particularly Ottaviano 
(d. 1444), whose best work is the " Madonna del Belvedere " 
in S. Maria Nuova at Gubbio (1404), extremely well preserved, 
with bright colouring and fine details. Another work by him 
is the group of frescoes including a large " Last Judgment," 
and scenes from the life of St Augustine, in the church of 
S. Agostino, discovered in 1902 under a coating of whitewash. 
These painters seem to have been influenced by the contemporary 
masters of the Sienese school. 

Gubbio occupies a far more important place in the history 
of majolica. In a decree of 1438 a vasarius vasorum pictorum is 
mentioned, who probably was not the first of his trade. The art 
was brought to perfection by Giorgio Andreoli, whose father had 
emigrated hither from Pavia, and who in 1498 became a citizen 
of Gubbio. The works by his hand are remarkable for their 
ruby tint, with a beautiful metallic lustre; but only one small 
tazza remains in Gubbio itself. His art was carried on by his sons, 
Cencio and Ubaldo, but was afterwards lost, and only recovered 
in 1853 by Angelico Fabbri and Luigi Carocci. 

Two miles outside Porta Metauro to the N.E. is the Bottac- 
cione, a large water reservoir, constructed in the i2th or i4th 
century; the water is collected in the bed of a stream by a 
massive dam. 

See A. Colasanti, Gubbio (Bergamo, 1905) ; L. McCracken, Gubbio 
(London, 1905). (T. As.) 

GUBEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, at 
the confluence of the Lubis with the Neisse, 28 m. S.S.E. of 
Frankfort-on-Oder, at the junction of railways to Breslau, 
Halle and Forst. Pop. (1875) 23,704; (1905) 36,666. It pos- 
sesses three Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, 
a synagogue, a gymnasium, a modern school, a museum and a 
theatre. The principal industries are the spinning and weaving 
of wool, dyeing, tanning, and the manufacture of pottery ware, 
hats, cloth, paper and machinery. The vine is cultivated in the 
neighbourhood to some extent, and there is also some trade in 
fruit and vegetables. Guben is of Wendish origin. It is men- 
tioned in 1207 and received civic rights in 1235. It was sur- 
rounded by walls in 1311', about which time it came into the 
possession of the margrave of Brandenburg, from whom it 
passed to Bohemia in 1368. It was twice devastated by the 
Hussites, and in 1631 and 1642 it was occupied by the Swedes. 
By the peace of Prague in 1635 it came into the possession of 
the elector of Saxony, and in 1815 it was, with the rest of Lower 
Lusatia, united to Prussia. 

GUBERNATIS, ANGELO DE, COUNT (1840- ), Italian man 
of letters, was born at Turin and educated there and at Berlin, 
where he studied philology. In 1862 he was appointed professor 
of Sanskrit at Florence, but having married a cousin of the 
Socialist Bakunin and become interested in his views he resigned 
his appointment and spent some years in travel. He was 
reappointed, however, in 1867; and in 1891 he was transferred 
to the university of Rome. He became prominent both as an 
orientalist, a publicist and a poet. He founded the Italia 
letteraria (1862), the Rivisla orientate (1867), the Civitla italiana 
and Rivista europea (1869), the Bollettino italiano degli studii 
orientali (1876) and the Revue Internationale (1883), and in 
1887 became director of the Giornale della societa asiatica. In 
1878 he started the Dizionario biografico degli scrittori contcm- 
poranei. His Oriental and mythological works include the 
Piccola enciclopedia indiana (1867), the Fonli vediche (1868), 
a famous work on zoological mythology (1872), and another on 



plant mythology (1878). He also edited the encyclopaedic 
Storia universale della letter atur a (1882-1885). His work in 
verse includes the dramas Cato, Romolo, II re Nala, Don Rodrigo, 
Savitri, &c. 

GUDBRANDSDAL, a district in the midlands of southern 
Norway, comprising the upper course of the river Lougen or 
Laagen from Lillehammer at the head of Lake Mjosen to its 
source in Lake Lesjekogen and tributary valleys. Lillehammer, 
the centre of a rich timber district, is 114 m. N. of Christiania 
by rail. The railway continues through the well-wooded and 
cultivated valley to Otta (70 m.). Several tracks run westward 
into the wild district of the Jotunheim. From Otto good driving 
routes run across the watershed and descend the western slope, 
where the scenery is incomparably finer than in Gudbrandsdal 
itself (a) past Sorum, with the 13th-century churches of 
Vaagen and Lom (a fine specimen of the Stavekirke or timber- 
built church), Aanstad and Polfos, with beautiful falls of the 
Otta river, to Grotlid, whence roads diverge to Stryn on the 
Nordfjord, and to Marok on the Geirangerf jord ; (b) past 
Domaas (with branch road north to Storen near Trondhjem, 
skirting the Dovrefjeld), over the watershed formed by Lesje- 
kogen Lake, which drains in both directions, and down through 
the magnificent Romsdal. 

GUDE (Guoius), MARQUARD (1635-1689), German archaeo- 
logist and classical scholar, was born at Rendsburg in Holstein 
on the ist of February 1635. He was originally intended for 
the law, but from an early age showed a decided preference for 
classical studies. In 1658 he went to Holland in the hope of 
finding work as a teacher of classics, and in the following year, 
through the influence of J. F. Gronovius, he obtained the post of 
tutor and travelling companion to a wealthy young Dutchman, 
Samuel Schars. During his travels Gude seized the opportunity 
of copying inscriptions and MSS. At the earnest request of his 
pupil, who had become greatly attached to him, Gude refused 
more than one professional appointment, and it was not until 
1671 that he accepted the post of librarian to Duke Christian 
Albert of Holstein-Gottorp. Schars, who had accompanied 
Gude, died in 1675, and left him the greater part of his property. 
In 1678 Gude, having quarrelled with the duke, retired into 
private life; but in 1682 he entered the service of Christian V. 
of Denmark as counsellor of the Schleswig-Holstein chancellery, 
and remained in it almost to the time of his death on the 26th 
of November 1689. Gude's great life-work, the collection of 
Greek and Latin inscriptions, was not published till 1731. 
Mention may also be made of his edilio princeps (1661) of the 
treatise of Hippolytus the Martyr on Antichrist, and of his notes 
on Phaedrus (with four new fables discovered by him) published 
in P. Burmann's edition (1698). 

His correspondence (ed. P. Burmann, 1697) is the most important 
authority for the events of Gude's life, besides containing valuable 
information on the learning of the times. See also J. Moller, Cimbria 
literata, iii., and C. Bursian in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, x. 

GUDEMAN, ALFRED (1862- ), American classical scholar, 
was born in Atlanta, Georgia, on the 26th of August 1862. 
He graduated at Columbia University in 1883 and studied under 
Hermann Diels at the University of Berlin. From 1890 to 1893 
he was reader in classical philology at Johns Hopkins University, 
from 1893 to 1902 professor in the University of Pennsylvania, 
and from 1902 to 1904 professor in Cornell University. In 1904 
he became a member of the corps of scholars preparing the 
Wolfflin Thesaurus linguae Latinae a unique distinction for an 
American Latinist, as was the publication of his critical edition, 
with German commentary, of Tacitus' Agricola in 1902 by the 
Weidmannsche Buchhandlung of Berlin. He wrote Latin 
Literature of the Empire (2 vols., Prose and Poetry, 1898-1899), 
a History of Classical Philology (1902) and Sources of Plutarch's 
Life of Cicero (1902); and edited Tacitus' Dialogus de oratoribus 
(text with commentary, 1894 and 1898) and Agricola (1899; 
with Gcrmania, 1900), and Sallust's Catiline (1903). 

GUDGEON (Gobio flumatilis), a small fish of the Cyprinid 
family. It is nearly related to the barbel, and has a small barbel 
or fleshy appendage at each corner of the mouth. It is the 



668 



GUDRUN GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES 



gobione of Italy, goujon of France (whence adapted in M. English 
as gojon), and Grtissling or Grundling of Germany. Gudgeons 
thrive in streams and lakes, keeping to the bottom, and seldom 
exceeding 8 in. in length. In China and Japan there are varieties 
differing only slightly from the common European type. 

GUDRUN (KUDRUN), a Middle High German epic, written 
probably in the early years of the I3th century, not long after 
the Nibelungenlied, the influence of which may be traced upon 
it. It is preserved in a single MS. which was prepared at the 
command of Maximilian I., and was discovered as late as 1820 
in the Castle of Ambras in Tirol. The author was an unnamed 
Austrian poet, but the story itself belongs to the cycle of sagas, 
which originated on the shores of the North Sea. The epic falls 
into three easily distinguishable parts the adventures of King 
Hagen of Ireland, the romance of Hettel, king of the Hegelingen, 
who woos and wins Hagen's daughter Hilde, and lastly, the 
more or less parallel story of how Herwig, king of Seeland, wins, 
in opposition to her father's wishes, Gudrun, the daughter of 
Hettel and Hilde. Gudrun is carried off by a king of Normandy, 
and her kinsfolk, who are in pursuit, are defeated in a great 
battle on the island of Wiilpensand off the Dutch coast. The 
finest parts of the epic are those in which Gudrun, a prisoner in 
the Norman castle, refuses to become the wife of her captor, 
and is condemned to do the most menial work of the household. 
Here, thirteen years later, Herwig and her brother Ortwin find 
her washing clothes by the sea; on the following day they 
attack the Norman castle with their army and carry out the 
long-delayed retribution. 

The epic of Gudrun is not unworthy to stand beside the 
greater Nibelungenlied, and it has been aptly compared with 
it as the Odyssey to the Iliad. Like the Odyssey, Gudrun is an 
epic of the sea, a story of adventure; it does not turn solely 
round the conflict of human passions; nor is it built up round 
one all-absorbing, all-dominating idea like the Nibelungenlied. 
Scenery and incident are more varied, and the poet has an 
opportunity for a more lyric interpretation of motive and 
character. Gudrun is composed in stanzas similar to those 
of the Nibelungenlied, but with the essential difference that the 
last line of each stanza is identical with the others, and does 
not contain the extra accented syllable characteristic of the 
Nibelungen metre. 

Gudrun was first edited by von der Hagen in vol. i. of his 
Heldenbuch (1820). Subsequent editions by A. Ziemann and A. J. 
Vollmer followed in 1837 and 1845. The best editions are those 
by K. Bartsch (4th ed., 1880), who has also edited the poem 
for Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur (vol. 6, 1885), by B. 
Symons (1883) and by E. Martin (2nd ed., 1901). L. Ettmuller 
first applied Lachmann's ballad-theory to the poem (1841), and K. 
Mullcnhoff (Kudrun, die echten Teile des Gedichts, 1845) rejected 
more than three-quarters of the whole as " not genuine." There are 
many translations of the epic into modern German, the best known 
being that of K. Simrock (isth ed., 1884). A translation into 
English by M. P. Nichols appeared at Boston, U.S.A., in 1889. 

See K. Bartsch, Beitrage zur Geschichte und Kritik der Kudrun 
(1865); H. Keck, Die Gudrunsage (1867); W. Wilmanns, Die 
Entwickelung der Kudrundichtung (1873); A. F6camp, Le Poeme 
de Gudrun, ses origines, sa formation el son histoire (1892) ; F. Panzer, 
Hilde-Gudrun (1901). For later versions and adaptations of the 
saga see O. Benedict, Die Gudrunsage in der neueren Literatur (1902.) 

GUEBRIANT, JEAN BAPTISTE BUDES, COMTE DE (1602- 
1643), marshal of France, was born at Plessis-Budes, near St 
Brieuc, of an old Breton family. He served first in Holland, and 
in the Thirty Years' War he commanded from 1638 to 1639 the 
French contingent in the army of his friend Bernard of Saxe- 
Weimar, distinguishing himself particularly at the siege of 
Breisach in 1638. Upon the death of Bernard he received 
the command of his army, and tried, in conjunction with J. 
Baner (1596-1641), the Swedish general, a bold attack upon 
Regensburg (1640). His victories of Wolfenbuttel on the 
agth of June 1641 and of Kempen in 1642 won for him the 
marshal's baton. Having failed in an attempt to invade Bavaria 
in concert with Torstensson he seized Rottweil, but was mortally 
wounded there on the I7th of November 1643. 

A biography was published by Le Laboureur, Histoire du mareschal 
de Guttriant, in 1656. See A. Brinzinger in Wurttembergische 
Vierteljahrschrift fur Landesgeschichte (1902). 



GUELDER ROSE, so called from Guelderland, its supposed 
source, termed also marsh elder, rose elder, water elder (Ger. 
W asserholder , Schneeball; Fr. viorne-obier, I'obier d'Europe), 
known botanically as Viburnum Opulus, a shrub or small tree 
of the natural order Caprifoliaceae, a native of Britain, and 
widely distributed in the temperate and colder parts of Europe, 
Asia and North America. It is common in Ireland, but rare 
in Scotland. In height it is from 6 to 1 2 ft., and it thrives best 
in moist situations. The leaves are smooth, 2 to 3 in. broad, with 
3 to 5 unequal serrate lobes, and glandular stipules adnate to 
the stalk. In autumn the leaves change their normal bright 
green for a pink or crimson hue. The flowers, which appear in 
June and July, are small, white, and arranged in cymes 2 to 4 in. 
in diameter. The outer blossoms in the wild plant have an 
enlarged corolla, f in. in diameter, and are devoid of stamens 
or pistils; in the common cultivated variety all the flowers are 
sterile and the inflorescence is globular, hence the term " snow- 
ball tree " applied to the plant, the appearance of which at the 
time of flowering has been prettily described by Cowper in his 
Winter Walk at Noon. The guelder rose bears juicy, red, elliptical 
berries, f in. long, which ripen in September, and contain each a 
single compressed seed. In northern Europe these are eaten, 
and in Siberia, after fermentation with flour, they are distilled 
for spirit. The plant has, however, emetic, purgative and nar- 
cotic properties; and Taylor (Med. Jurisp. i. 448, 2nd ed., 1873) 
has recorded an instance of the fatal poisoning of a child by 
the berries. Both they and the bark contain valerianic acid. 
The woody shoots of the guelder rose are manufactured into 
various small articles in Sweden and Russia. Another member 
of the genus, Viburnum, Lantana, wayfaring tree, is found in dry 
copses and hedges in England, except in the north. - 

GUELPH, a city of Ontario, Canada, 45 m. W. of Toronto, 
on the river Speed and the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific 
railways. Pop. (1901) 11,496. It is the centre of a fine agri- 
cultural district, and exports grain, fruit and live-stock in large 
quantities. It contains, in addition to the county and municipal 
buildings, the Ontario Agricultural College, which draws students 
from all parts of North and South America. The river affords 
abundant water-power for flour-mills, saw-mills, woollen-mills 
and numerous factories, of which agricultural implements, 
sewing machines and musical instruments are the chief. 

GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. These names are doubtless 
Italianized forms of the German words Welf and Waiblingen, 
although one tradition says that they are derived from Guelph 
and Gibel, two rival brothers of Pistoia. Another theory derives 
Ghibelline from Gibello, a word used by the Sicilian Arabs to 
translate Hohenstaufen. However, a more popular story tells 
how, during a fight around Weinsberg in December 1 140 between 
the German king Conrad III. and Welf, count of Bavaria, a 
member of the powerful family to which Henry the Lion, duke 
of Saxony and Bavaria, belonged, the soldiers of the latter 
raised the cry " Hie Welf!" to which the king's troops replied 
with " Hie Waiblingen ! " this being the name of one of Conrad's 
castles. But the rivalry between Welf and Hohenstaufen, of 
which family Conrad was a member, was anterior to this event, 
and had been for some years a prominent fact in the history of 
Swabia and Bavaria, although its introduction into Italy in a 
slightly modified form, however only dates from the time of 
the Italian expeditions of the emperor Frederick I. It is about 
this time that the German chronicler, Otto of Freising, says, 
" Duae in Romano orbe apud Galliae Germaniaeve fines famosae 
familiae actenus fuere, una Heinricorum de Gueibelinga, alia 
Guelforum de Aldorfo, altera imperatores, altera magnos duces 
producere solita." Chosen German king in 1152, Frederick 
was not only the nephew and the heir of Conrad, he was related 
also to the Welfs; yet, although his election abated to some 
extent the rivalry between Welf and Hohenstaufen in Germany, 
it opened it upon a larger and fiercer scale in Italy. 

During the long and interesting period covered by Frederick's 
Italian campaigns, his enemies, prominent among whom were 
the cities of the Lombard League, became known as Welfs, 
or Guelphs, while his partisans seized upon the rival term of 



GUENEVERE 



669 



Waiblingen, or Ghibelline, and the contest between these two 
parties was carried on with a ferocity unknown even to the 
inhabitants of southern Germany. The distracted state of 
northern Italy, the jealousies between various pairs of towns, 
the savage hatred between family and family, were some of the 
causes which fed this feud, and it reached its height during the 
momentous struggle between Frederick II. and the Papacy in 
the I3th century. The story of the contest between Guelph 
and Ghibelline, however, is little less than the history of Italy 
in the middle ages. At the opening of the I3th century it was 
intensified by the fight for the German and imperial thrones 
between Philip, duke of Swabia, a son of Frederick I., and the 
Welf, Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., 
a fight waged in Italy as well as in Germany. Then, as the heir 
of Philip of Swabia and the rival of Otto of Brunswick, Frederick 
II. was forced to throw himself into the arms of the Ghibellines, 
while his enemies, the popes, ranged themselves definitely among 
the Guelphs, and soon Guelph and Ghibelline became synonymous 
with supporter of pope and emperor. 

After the death of Frederick II. in 1250 the Ghibellines 
looked for leadership to his son and successor, the German king, 
Conrad IV., and then to his natural son, Manfred, while the 
Guelphs called the French prince, Charles of Anjou, to their aid. 
But the combatants were nearing exhaustion, and after the 
execution of Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, in 1268, 
this great struggle began to lose force and interest. Guelph 
and Ghibelline were soon found representing local and family 
rather than papal and imperial interests; the names were 
taken with little or no regard for their original significance, 
and in the isth century they began to die out of current politics. 
However, when Louis XII. of France conquered Milan at the 
beginning of the i6th century the old names were revived; 
the French king's supporters were called Guelphs and the 
friends of the emperor Maximilian I. were referred to as 
Ghibellines. 

The feud of Guelph and Ghibelline penetrated within the 
walls of almost every city of northern Italy, and the contest 
between the parties, which practically makes the history of 
Florence during the I3th century, is specially noteworthy. 
First one side and then the other was driven into exile; the 
Guelph defeat at the battle of Monte Aperto in 1 260 was followed 
by the expulsion of the Ghibellines by Charles of Anjou in 1 266, 
and on a smaller scale a similar story may be told of many other 
cities (see FLORENCE). 

The Guelph cause was buttressed by an idea, yet very 
nebulous, of Italian patriotism. Dislike of the German and the 
foreigner rather than any strong affection for- the Papacy was 
the feeling which bound the Guelph to the pope, and so enabled 
the latter to defy the arms of Frederick II. The Ghibelline 
cause, on the other hand, was aided by the dislike of the temporal 
power of the pope and the desire for a strong central authority. 
This made Dante a Ghibelline, but the hopes of this party, 
kindled anew by the journey of Henry VII. to Italy in 1310, 
were extinguished by his departure. J. A. Symonds thus de- 
scribes the constituents of the two parties: " The Guelph party 
meant the burghers of the consular Communes, the men of 
industry and commerce, the upholders of civil liberty, the 
friends of democratic expansion. The Ghibelline party in- 
cluded the naturalized nobles, the men of arms and idleness, the 
advocates of feudalism, the politicians who regarded constitu- 
tional progress with disfavour. That the banner of the church 
floated over the one camp, while the standard of the empire 
rallied to itself the hostile party, was a matter of comparatively 
superficial moment." In another passage the same writer thus 
describes the sharp and universal division between Guelph and 
Ghibelline: " Ghibellines wore the feathers in their caps upon 
one side, Guelphs upon the other. Ghibellines cut fruit at table 
crosswise, Guelphs straight down . . . Ghibellines drank out 
of smooth and Guelphs out of chased goblets. Ghibellines wore 
white and Guelphs red roses." It is interesting to note that 
while Dante was a Ghibelline, Petrarch was a Guelph. 

See J. A. Symonds, The Renaissance in Italy, vol. i. (1875). 



GUENEVERE (Lat. Guanhumara; Welsh, Gwenhwyfar; 
O. Eng. Gaynore), in Arthurian romance the wife of King 
Arthur. Geoffrey of Monmouth, who calls her Guanhumara, 
makes her a Roman lady, but the general tradition is that she 
was of Cornish birth and daughter to King Leodegrance. 
Wace, who, while translating Geoffrey, evidently knew, and 
used, popular tradition, combines these two, asserting that she 
was of Roman parentage on the mother's side, but cousin to 
Cador of Cornwall by whom she was brought up. The tradition 
relating to Guenevere is decidedly confused and demands 
further study. The Welsh triads know no fewer than three 
Gwenhwyfars; Giraldus Cambrensis, relating the discovery of 
the royal tombs at Glastonbury, speaks of the body found as 
that of Arthur's second wife; the prose Merlin gives Guenevere 
a bastard half-sister of the same name, who strongly resembles 
her; and the Lancelot relates how this lady, trading on the 
likeness, persuaded Arthur that she was the true daughter of 
Leodegrance, and the queen the bastard interloper. This episode 
of the false Guenevere is very perplexing. 

To the majority of English readers Guenevere is best known 
in connexion with her liaison with Lancelot, a story which, in 
the hands of Malory and Tennyson, has assumed a form widely 
different from the original conception, and at once more pictur- 
esque and more convincing. In the French romances Lancelot 
is a late addition to the Arthurian cycle, his birth is not recorded 
till long after the marriage of Arthur and Guenevere, and he is 
at least twenty years the junior of the queen. The relations 
between them are of the most conventional and courtly char- 
acter, and are entirely lacking in the genuine dramatic passion 
which marks the love story of Tristan and Iseult. The Lancelot- 
Guenevere romance took form and shape in the artificial atmo- 
sphere encouraged by such patronesses of literature as Eleanor 
of Aquitaine and her daughter Marie, Comtesse de Champagne 
(for whom Chretien de Troyes wrote his Chevalier de la Charrelle), 
and reflects the low social morality of a time when love between 
husband and wife was declared impossible. But though Guene- 
vere has changed her lover, the tradition of her infidelity is of 
much earlier date and formed a part of the primitive Arthurian 
legend. Who the original lover was is doubtful; the Vita 
Gildae relates how she was carried off by Melwas, king of Aestiva 
Regis, to Glastonbury, whither Arthur, at the head of an army, 
pursued the ravisher. A fragment of a Welsh poem seems to 
confirm this tradition, which certainly lies at the root of her 
later abduction by Meleagaunt. In the Lanzelet of Ulrich von 
Zatzikhoven the abductor is Falerin. The story in these forms 
represents an other-world abduction. A curious fragment of 
Welsh dialogues, printed by Professor Rhys in his Studies on 
the Arthurian Legend, appears to represent Kay as the abductor, 
In the pseudo-Chronicles and the romances based upon them 
the abductor is Mordred, and in the chronicles there is no doubt 
that the lady was no unwilling victim. On the final defeat of 
Mordred she retires to a nunnery, takes the veil, and is no more 
heard of. Wace says emphatically 

Ne fu oie ne veue, 

Ne fu trovee, ne seue 

For la vergogne del mesfait 

Et del pecie gu ele avoit fait (i i. 13627-30). 

Layamon, who in his translation of Wace treats his original 
much as Wace treated Geoffrey, says that there was a tradition 
that she had drowned herself, and that her memory and that 
of Mordred were hateful in every land, so that none would offer 
prayer for their souls. On the other hand certain romances, 
e.g. the Perceval, give her an excellent character. The truth is 
probably that the tradition of his wife's adultery and treachery 
was a genuine part of the Arthurian story, which, neglected for 
a time, was brought again into prominence by the social con- 
ditions of the courts for which the later romances were com- 
posed; and it is in this later and conventionalized form that 
the tale has become familiar to us (see also LANCELOT). 

See Studies on the Arthurian Legend by Professor Rhys; The 
Legend of Sir Lancelot, Grimm Library, xii., (Jessie L. Weston; 
Der Karrenrilter, ed. Professor Foerster. 0- L._W.) 



670 



GUENON GUERIN, BARON 



GUENON (from the French, = one who grimaces, hence an 
ape), the name applied by naturalists to the monkeys of the 
African genus Cercopithecus, the Ethiopian representative of 
the Asiatic macaques, from which they differ by the absence of 
a posterior heel to the last molar in the lower jaw. 

GUERET, a town of central France, capital of the department 
of Creuse, situated on a mountain declivity 48 m. N.E. of Limoges 
on the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906), town, 6042; commune 
(including troops, &c.) , 8058. Apart from the Hotel des Monney- 
roux (used as prefecture), a picturesque mansion of the isth 
and i6th centuries, with mansard roofs and mullioned windows, 
Gueret has little architectural interest. It is the seat of a 
prefect and a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance, 
a chamber of commerce and lycees and training colleges, for 
both sexes. The industries include brewing, saw-milling, 
leather-making and the manufacture of basket-work and 
wooden shoes, and there is trade in agricultural produce and 
cattle. Gueret grew up round an abbey founded in the yth 
century, and in later times became the capital of the district of 
Marche. 

GUEREZA, the native name of a long-tailed, black and white 
Abyssinian monkey, Colobus guereza (or C. abyssinicus), char- 
acterized by the white hairs forming a long pendent mantle. 
Other east African monkeys with a similar type of colouring, 
which, together with the wholly black west African C. satanas, 
collectively constitute the subgenus Guereza, may be included 
under the same title; and the name may be further extended 
to embrace all the African thumbless monkeys of the genus 
Colobus. These monkeys are the African representatives of 
the Indo-Malay langurs (Semnopithecus) , with which they agree 
in their slender build, long limbs and tail, and complex stomachs, 
although differing by the rudimentary thumb. The members 
of the subgenus Guereza present a transition from a wholly 
black animal (C. satanas) to one (C. caudalus) in which the sides 
of the face are white, and the whole flanks, as well as the tail, 
clothed with a long fringe of pure white hairs. 

GUERICKE, HEINRICH ERNST FERDINAND (1803-1878), 
German theologian, was born at Wettin in Saxony on the 25th 
of February 1803 and studied theology at Halle, where he was 
appointed professor in 1829. He greatly disliked the union 
between the Lutheran and the Reformed churches, which had 
been accomplished by the Prussian government in 1817, and in 
1833 he definitely threw in his lot with the Old Lutherans. In 
1835 he lost his professorship, but he regained it in 1840. Among 
his works were a Life of August Hermann Francke (1827, Eng. 
trans. 1837), Church History (1833, Eng. trans, by W. T. Shedd, 
New York, 1857-1863), Allgemeine christliche Symbolik (1839). 
In 1840 he helped to found the Zeitschrift filr die gesammte 
lutherische Theologie und Kirche, and he died at Halle on the 
4th of February 1878. 

GUERICKE, OTTO VON (1602-1686), German experimental 
philosopher, was born at Magdeburg, in Prussian Saxony, on 
the 20th of November 1602. Having studied law at Leipzig, 
Helmstadt and Jena, and mathematics, especially geometry 
and mechanics, at Leiden, he visited France and England, and 
in 1636 became engineer-in-chief at Erfurt. In 1627 he was 
elected alderman of Magdeburg, and in 1646 mayor of that city 
and a magistrate of Brandenburg. His leisure was devoted to 
scientific pursuits, especially in pneumatics. Incited by the 
discoveries of Galileo, Pascal and Torricelli, he attempted the 
creation of a vacuum. He began by experimenting with a pump 
on water placed in a barrel, but found that when the water 
was drawn off the air permeated the wood. He then took a 
globe of copper fitted with pump and stopcock, and discovered 
that he could pump out air as well as water. Thus he became 
the inventor of the air-pump (1650). He illustrated his discovery 
before the emperor Ferdinand III. at the imperial diet which 
assembled at Regensburg in 1654, by the experiment of the 
" Magdeburg hemispheres." Taking two hollow hemispheres 
of copper, the edges of which fitted nicely together, he exhausted 
the air from between them by means of his pump, and it is 
recorded that thirty horses, fifteen back to back, were unable 



to pull them asunder until the air was readmitted. Besides 
investigating other phenomena connected with a vacuum, he 
constructed an electrical machine which depended on the excita- 
tion of a rotating ball of sulphur; and he made successful 
researches in astronomy, predicting the periodicity of the return 
of comets. In 1681 he gave up office, and retired to Hamburg, 
where he died on the nth of May 1686. 

His principal observations are given in his work, Experimenta 
nova, ut vacant, Magdeburgica de vacua spatio (Amsterdam, 1672). 
He is also the author of a Geschichle der Belagerung und Eroberung 
von Magdeburg. See F. W. Hoffmann, Otto von Guericke (Magdeburg, 
1874). 

GUERIDON, a small table to hold a lamp or vase, supported 
by a tall column or a human or mythological figure. This piece 
of furniture, often very graceful and elegant, originated in France 
towards the middle of the I7th century. In the beginning the 
table was supported by a negro or other exotic figure, and there 
is some reason to believe that it took its name from the generic 
appellation of the young African groom or " tiger," who was 
generally called " Gueridon," or as we should say in English 
" Sambo." The swarthy figure and brilliant costume of the 
" Moor " when reproduced in wood and picked out in colours 
produced a very striking effect, and when a small table was 
supported on the head by the upraised hands the idea of passive 
service was suggested with completeness. The gueridon is still 
occasionally seen in something approaching its original form; 
but it had no sooner been introduced than the artistic instinct 
of the French designer and artificer converted it into a far 
worthier object. By the death of Louis XIV. there were several 
hundreds of them at Versailles, and within a generation or two 
they had taken an infinity of forms columns, tripods, termini 
and mythological figures. Some of the simpler and more artistic 
forms were of wood carved with familiar decorative motives and 
gilded. Silver, enamel, and indeed almost any material from 
which furniture can be made, have been used for their con- 
struction. A variety of small " occasional " tables are now 
called in French gueridons. 

GUERIN, JEAN BAPTISTE PAULIN (1783-1855), French 
painter, was born at Toulon, on the 25th of March 1783, of poor 
parents. He learnt, as a lad, his father's trade of a locksmith, 
whilst at the same time he followed the classes of the free school 
of art. Having sold some copies to a local amateur, Guerin 
started for Paris, where he came under the notice of Vincent, 
whose counsels were of material service. In 1810 Guerin made 
his first appearance at the Salon with some portraits, which had 
a certain success. In 1812 he exhibited " Cain after the murder 
of Abel " (formerly in Luxembourg), and, on the return of the 
Bourbons, was much employed in works of restoration and de- 
coration at Versailles. His " Dead Christ " (Cathedral, Baltimore) 
obtained a medal in 1817, and this success was followed up by 
a long series of works, of which the following are the more note- 
worthy: " Christ on the knees of the Virgin " (1819); " Anchises 
and Venus" (1822) (formerly in Luxembourg); "Ulysses and 
Minerva " (1824) (Musee de Rennes) ;" the Holy Family " (1829) 
(Cathedral, Toulon); and " Saint Catherine " (1838X81 Roch). 
In his treatment of subject, Guerin attempted to realize rococo 
graces of conception, the liveliness of which was lost in the 
strenuous effort to be correct. His chief successes were attained 
by portraits, and those of Charles Nodier and the Abbe Lamen- 
nais became widely popular. He died on the igth of January 
1855. 

GUlZRIN, PIERRE NARCISSE, BARON (1774-1833), French 
painter, was born at Paris on the i3th of May 1774. Becoming 
a pupil of Jean Baptiste Regnault, he carried off one of the three 
" grands prix " offered in 1796, in consequence of the competition 
not having taken place since 1793. The pension was not indeed 
re-established, but Guerin fulfilled at Paris the conditions imposed 
upon a pensionnaire, and produced various works, one of which 
brought him prominently before the public. This work, " Marcus 
Sextus " (Louvre), exhibited at the Salon of 1799, excited wild 
enthusiasm, partly due to the subject, a victim of Sulla's 
proscription returning to Rome to find his wife dead and his 
house in mourning in which an allusion was found to the actual 



GUERIN, MAURICE DE GUERNSEY 



671 



situation of the emigres. Gudrin on this occasion was publicly 
crowned by the president of the Institute, and before his 
departure for Rome (on the re-establishment of the Ecole under 
Suvee) a banquet was given to him by the most distinguished 
artists of Paris. In 1800, unable to remain in Rome on account 
of his health, he went to Naples, where he painted the " Grave of 
Amyntas." In 1802 Guerin produced "Phaedra and Hippolytus" 
(Louvre); in 1810, after his return to Paris, he again achieved 
a great success with " Andromache and Pyrrhus " (Louvre); and 
in the same year also exhibited "Cephalus and Aurora" (Collection 
Sommariva) and " Bonaparte and the Rebels of Cairo" (Versailles) . 
The Restoration brought to Guerin fresh honours; he had received 
from the first consul in 1803 the cross of the Legion of Honour, 
and in 1815 Louis XVIII. named him Academician. The success 
of Guerin's " Hippolytus " of " Andromache," of " Phaedra " 
and of " Clytaemnestra" (Louvre) had been ensured by the skilful 
selection of highly melodramatic situations, treated with the 
strained and pompous dignity proper to the art of the first empire; 
in " Aeneas relating to Dido the disasters of Troy" (Louvre), 
which appeared side by side with " Clytaemnestra " at the Salon 
of 1817, the influence of the Restoration is plainly to be traced. 
In this work Guerin sought to captivate the public by an appeal 
to those sensuous charms which he had previously rejected, 
and by the introduction of picturesque elements of interest. 
But with this work Guerin's public successes came to a close. 
He was, indeed, commissioned to paint for the Madeleine a 
scene from the history of St Louis, but his health prevented him 
from accomplishing what he had begun, and in 1822 he accepted 
the post of director of the ficole de Rome, which in 1816 he had 
refused. On returning to Paris in 1828, Guerin, who had pre- 
viously been made chevalier of the order of St Michel, was 
ennobled. He now attempted to complete " Pyrrhus and Priam," 
a work which he had begun at Rome, but in vain; his health had 
finally broken down, and in the hope of improvement he returned 
to Italy with Horace Vernet. Shortly after his arrival at Rome 
Baron Guerin died, on the 6th of July 1833, and was buried 
in the church of La Trinita de' Monti by the side of Claude 
Lorraine. 

A careful analysis and criticism of his principal works will be 
found in Meyer's Geschichte der franzosischen Malerei. 

GUERIN DU CAYLA, GEORGES MAURICE DE (1810-1839), 
French poet, descended from a noble but poor family, was born 
at the chateau of Le Cayla in Languedoc, on the 4th of August 
1810. He was educated for the church at a religious seminary 
at Toulouse, and then at the College Stanislas, Paris, after 
which he entered the society at La Chesnaye in Brittany, founded 
by Lamennais. It was only after great hesitation, and without 
being satisfied as to his religious vocation, that under the in- 
fluence of Lamennais he joined the new religious order in the 
autumn of 1832; and when, in September of the next year, 
Lamennais, who had come under the displeasure of Rome, 
severed connexion with the society, Maurice de Guerin soon 
followed his example. Early in the following year he went to 
Paris, where he was for a short time a teacher at the College 
Stanislas. In November 1838 he married a Creole lady of some 
fortune; but a few months afterwards he was attacked by 
consumption and died on the igth of July 1839. In the Revue 
des deux mondes for May isth, 1840, there ap'peared a notice 
of Maurice de Guerin by George Sand, to which she added two 
fragments of his writings one a composition in prose entitled 
the Centaur, and the other a short poem. His Reliquiae (2 vols., 
1861), including the Centaur, his journal, a number of his letters 
and several poems, was edited by G. S. Trebutien, and accom- 
panied with a biographical and critical notice by Sainte-Beuve; 
a new edition, with the title Journal, lettres et poemes, followed 
in 1862; and an English translation of it was published at New 
York in 1867. Though he was essentially a poet, his prose is 
more striking and original than his poetry. Its peculiar and 
unique charm arises from his strong and absorbing passion for 
nature, a passion whose intensity reached almost to adoration 
and worship, but in which the pagan was more prominent than 
the moral element. According to Sainte-Beuve, "no French 



poet or painter has rendered so well the feeling for nature the 
feeling not so much for details as for the ensemble and the divine 
universality, the feeling for the origin of things and the sovereign 
principle of life." 

The name of EUGENIE DE GUERIN (1805-1848), the sister 
of Maurice, cannot be omitted from any notice of him. 
Her Journals (1861, Eng. trans., 1865) and her Lettres 
(1864, Eng. trans., 1865) indicated the possession of gifts 
of as rare an order as those of her brother, though of a 
somewhat different kind. In her case mysticism assumed a 
form more strictly religious, and she continued to mourn her 
brother's loss of his early Catholic faith. Five years older than 
he, she cherished a love for him which was blended with a 
somewhat motherly anxiety. After his death she began the 
collection and publication of the scattered fragments of his 
writings. She died, however, on the 3ist of May 1848, before 
her task was completed. 

See the notices by George Sand and Sainte-Beuve referred to 
above; Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi (vol. xii.) and Nouveaux 
Lundis (vol. iii.); G. Merlet, Causeries sur les femmes et les livres 
(Paris, 1865); Selden, L 'Esprit des femmes de noire temps (Paris, 
1864); Marelle, Eugenie et Maurice de Guerin (Berlin, 1869); 
Harriet Parr, M. and E. de Guerin, a monograph (London, 1870); 
and Matthew Arnold's essays on Maurice and Eugenie de GueVin, 
in his Essays in Criticism. 

GUERNIERI, or WERNER, a celebrated mercenary captain who 
lived about the middle of the I4th century. He was a member 
of the family of the dukes of Urslingen, and probably a de- 
scendant of the dukes of Spoleto. From 1340 to 1343 he was 
in the service of the citizens of Pisa, but afterwards he col- 
lected a troop of adventurers which he called the Great Company, 
and with which he plundered Tuscany and Lombardy. He then 
entered the service of Louis I. the Great, king of Hungary and 
Poland, whom he assisted to obtain possession of Naples; but 
when dismissed from this service his ravages became more 
terrible than ever, culminating in the dreadful sack of Anagni 
in 1358, shortly after which Guernieri disappeared from history. 
He is said to have worn a breastplate with the inscription, 
" The enemy of God, of pity and of mercy." 

GUERNSEY (Fr. Guernesey), one of the Channel Islands, 
belonging to Britain, the second in size and westernmost of the 
important members of the group. Its chief town, St Peter Port, 
on the east coast, is in 2 33' W., 49 27' N., 74 m. S. of Portland 
Bill on the English coast, and 30 m. from the nearest French 
coast to the east. The island, roughly triangular in form, is 
9^ m. long from N.E. to S.W. and has an extreme breadth of 
Si m. and an area of 15,691 acres or 24-5 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 
40,446, the density being thus 162 per sq. m. 

The surface of the island rises gradually from north to south, 
and reaches its greatest elevation at Haut Nez (349 ft.) above 
Point Icart on the south coast. The coast scenery, which forms 
one of the principal attractions to the numerous summer visitors 
to the island, is finest on the south. This coast, between Jerbourg 
and Pleinmont Points, respectively at the south-eastern and 
south-western corners of the island, is bold, rocky and indented 
with many exquisite little bays. Of these the most notable are 
Moulin Huet, Saint's, and Petit Bot, all in the eastern half of 
the south coast. The cliffs, however, culminate in the neigh- 
bourhood of Pleinmont. Picturesque caves occur at several 
points, such as the Creux Mahie. On the west coast there is a 
succession of larger bays Rocquaine Perelle, Vazon, and Cobo. 
Off the first lies Lihou Island, the Hanois and other islets, and 
all three bays are sown with rocks. The coast, however, 
diminishes in height, until at the north-eastern extremity of the 
island the land is so low across the Vale or Braye du Val, from 
shore to shore, that the projection of L'Ancresse is within a 
few feet of being isolated. The east coast, on which, besides the 
town and harbour of St Peter Port, is that of St Sampson, pre- 
sents no physical feature of note. The interior of the island 
is generally undulating, and gains in beauty from its rich vegeta- 
tion. Picturesque glens descend upon some of the southern 
bays (the two converging upon Petit Bot are notable), and the 
high-banked paths, arched with foliage, which follow the small 



672 



GUERRAZZI GUESDE 



rills down to Moulin Huet Bay, are much admired under the 
name of water-lanes. 

The soil is generally light sandy loam, overlying an angular 
gravel which rests upon the weathered granite. This soil 
requires much manure, and a large proportion of the total area 
(about three-fifths) is under careful cultivation, producing a 
considerable amount of grain, but more famous for market- 
gardening. Vegetables and potatoes are exported, with much 
fruit, including grapes and flowers. Granite is quarried and 
exported from St Sampson, and the fisheries form an important 
industry. 

For administrative purposes Guernsey is united with A'derney, 
Sark, Herm and the adjacent islets to form the bailiwick of 
Guernsey, separate from Jersey. The peculiar constitution, 
machinery of administration and justice, finance, &c., are con- 
sidered under the heading CHANNEL ISLANDS. Guernsey is 
divided into the ten parishes of St Peter Port, St Sampson, Vale, 
Catel, St Saviour, St Andrew, St Martin, Forest, St Peter du 
Bois and Torteval. The population of St Peter Port in 1901 
was 18,264; of the other parishes that of St Sampson was 5614 
and that of Vale 5082. The population of the bailiwick of 
Guernsey nearly doubled between 1821 and 1901, and that of 
the island increased from 35,243 in 1891 to 40,446 in 1901. 
The island roads are excellent, Guernsey owing much in this 
respect to Sir John Doyle (d. 1834), the governor whose monu- 
ment stands on the promontory of Jerbourg. Like Jersey and 
the neighbouring part of France, Guernsey retains considerable 
traces of early habitation in cromlechs and menhirs, of which 
the most notable is the cromlech in the north at L'Ancresse. 
As regards ecclesiastical architecture, all the parish churches 
retain some archaeological interest. There is good Norman 
work in the church of St Michael, Vale, and the church of St 
Peter Port is a notable building of various periods from the early 
i4th century. Small remains of monastic buildings are seen at 
Vale and on Lihou Island. 

GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO DOMENICO (1804-1873), Italian 
publicist, born at Leghorn, was educated for the law at Pisa, 
and began to practise in his native place. But he soon took to 
politics and literature, under the influence of Byron, and his 
novel, the Batlagli di Benei>ento(i?i2-]}, brought him into notice. 
Mazzini made his acquaintance, and with Carlo Bini they started 
a paper, the Indicator*, at Leghorn in 1829, which was quickly 
suppressed. Guerrazzi himself had to endure several terms of 
imprisonment for his activity in the cause of Young Italy, and 
it was in Portoferrato in 1834 that he wrote his most famous 
novel Assidio di Firenze. He was the most powerful Liberal 
leader at Leghorn, and in 1848 became a minister, with some 
idea of exercising a moderating influence in the difficulties 
with the grand-duke of Tuscany. In 1849, when the latter 
fled, he was first one of the triumvirate with Mazzini and 
Montanelli, and then dictator, but on the restoration he was 
arrested and imprisoned for three years. His Apologia was 
published in 1852. Released from prison, he was exiled to 
Corsica, but subsequently was restored and was for some time a 
deputy at Turin (1862-1870), dying of apoplexy at Leghorn 
on the 25th of September 1873. He wrote a number of other 
works besides the novels already mentioned, notably Isabella 
Orsini (1845) and Beatrice Ccnci (1854), and his Opere were 
collected at Milan (1868). 

See the Life and Works by Bosio (1877), and Carducci's edition of 
his letters (1880). 

GUERRERO, a Pacific coast state of Mexico, bounded N.W. 
by Michoacan, N. by Mexico (state) and Morelos, N.E. and E. 
by Puebla and Oaxaca, and S. and W. by the Pacific. Area, 
24,996 sq. m. Pop., largely composed of Indians and mestizos 
(1895), 417,886; (1900) -479,205. The state is roughly broken 
by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which cover its entire surface 
with the exception of the low coastal plain (averaging about 
20 m. in width) on the Pacific. The valleys are usually narrow, 
fertile and heavily forested, but difficult of access. The state 
is divided into two distinct zones the tierras calientes of the 
coast and lower river courses where tropical conditions prevail, 



and the tierras templadas of the mountain region where the 
conditions are subtropical. The latter is celebrated for its 
agreeable and healthy climate, and for the variety and character 
of its products. The principal river of the state is the Rio de las 
Balsas or Mescala, which, having its source in Tlaxcala, flows 
entirely across the state from W. to E., and then southward to 
the Pacific on the frontier of Michoacan. This river is 429 m. 
long and receives many affluents from the mountainous region 
through which it passes, but its course is very precipitous and 
its mouth obstructed by sand bars. The agricultural products 
include cotton, coffee, tobacco and cereals, and the forests produce 
rubber, vanilla and various textile fibres. Mining is undeveloped, 
although the mineral resources of the state include silver, gold, 
mercury, lead, iron, coal, sulphur and precious stones. The 
capital, Chilpancingo, or Chilpancingo de los Bravos (pop. 7497 
in 1900), is a small town in the Sierra Madre about no m. from 
the coast and 200 m. S. of the Federal capital. It is a healthy 
well-built town on the old Acapulco road, is lighted by electricity 
and is temporarily the western terminus of the Interoccanic 
railway from Vera Cruz. It is celebrated in the history of 
Mexico as the meeting-place of the revolutionary congress of 
1813, which issued a declaration of independence. Chilpancingo 
was badly damaged by an earthquake in January 1902, and 
again on the i6th of April 1907. Other important towns of the 
state are Tixtla, or Tixtla de Guerrero, formerly the capital 
(pop. 6316 in 1900), 3 m. N.E. of Chilpancingo; Chilapa (8256 in 
1895), the most populous town of the state, partially destroyed 
by a hurricane in 1889, and again by the earthquake of 1907; 
Iguala (6631 in 1895); and Acapulco. Guerrero was organized 
as a state in 1849, its territory being taken from the states of 
Mexico, Michoacan and Puebla. 

GUERRILLA (erroneously written " guerilla," being the 
diminutive of the Span, guerra, war), a term currently used to 
denote war carried on by bands in any irregular and unorganized 
manner. At the Hague Conference of 1899 the position of 
irregular combatants was one of the subjects dealt with, and the 
rules there adopted were reaffirmed at the Conference of 1907. 
They provide that irregular bands in order to enjoy recognition 
as belligerent forces shall (a) have at their head a person 
responsible for his subordinates, (b) wear some fixed distinctive 
badge recognizable at a distance, (c) carry arms openly, and (d) 
conform in their operations to the laws and customs of war. 
The rules, however, also provide that in case of invasion the 
inhabitants of a territory who on the approach of the invading 
enemy spontaneously take up arms to resist it, shall be regarded 
as belligerent troops if they carry arms openly and respect the laws 
and customs of war, although they may not have had time to 
become organized in accordance with the above provisions. 
These rules were borrowed almost word for word from the project 
drawn up at the Brussels international conference of 1874, 
which, though never ratified, was practically incorporated in the 
army regulations issued by the Russian government in connexion 
with the war of 1877-78. (T. BA.) 

GUERRIN1, OLINDO (1845- ), Italian poet, was born 
at Sant' Alberto, Ravenna, and after studying law took to a 
life of letters, becoming eventually librarian at Bologna Univer- 
sity. In 1877 he published Postuma, a volume of canzoniere, 
under the name of Lorenzo Stechetti, following this with Polemica 
(1878), Canli popolari romagnoli (1880) and other poetical 
works, and becoming known as the leader of the " verist " 
school among Italian lyrical writers. 

GUESDE, JULES BASILE (1845- ), French socialist, 
was born in Paris on the nth of November 1845. He had 
begun his career as a clerk in the French Home Office, but at 
the outbreak of the Franco-German War he was editing Les 
Droits de I'homme at Montpellier, and had to take refuge at 
Geneva in 1871 from a prosecution instituted on account of 
articles which had appeared in his paper in defence of the 
Commune. In 1876 he returned to France to become one of 
the chief French apostles of Marxian collectivism, and was 
imprisoned for six months in 1878 for taking part in the first 
Parisian International Congress. He edited at different times 



GUEST, E. GUEVARA, A. DE 



673 



Les Droits de I'homme, Le Cri du peuple, Le Socialiste, but his 
best-known organ was the weekly EgalUe. He had been in close 
association with Paul Lafargue, and through him with Karl Marx, 
whose daughter he married. It was in conjunction with Marx 
and Lafargue that he drew up the programme accepted by the 
national congress of the Labour party at Havre in 1880, which 
laid stress on the formation of an international labour party 
working by revolutionary methods. Next year at the Reims 
congress the orthodox Marxian programme of Guesde was 
opposed by the " possibilists," who rejected the intransigeant 
attitude of Guesde for the opportunist policy of Benoit Malon. 
At the congress of St-Etienne the difference developed into 
separation, those who refused all compromise with a capitalist 
government following Guesde, while the opportunists formed 
several groups. Guesde took his full share in the consequent 
discussion between the Guesdists, the Blanquists, the possibilists, 
&c. In 1893 he was returned to the Chamber of Deputies for 
Lille (7th circonscription) withalarge majorityover the Christian 
Socialist and Radical candidates. He brought forward various 
proposals in social legislation forming the programme of the 
Labour party, without reference to the divisions among the 
Socialists, and on the zoth of November 1894 succeeded in 
raising a two days' discussion of the collectivist principle in the 
Chamber. In 1902 he was not re-elected, but resumed his seat 
in 1906. In 1903 there was a formal reconciliation at the Reims 
congress of the sections of the party, which then took the name 
of the Socialist party of France. Guesde, nevertheless, continued 
to oppose the opportunist policy of Jaures, whom he denounced 
for supporting one bourgeois party against another. His defence 
of the principle of freedom of association led him, incongruously 
enough, to support the religious Congregations against Emile 
Combes. Besides his numerous political and socialist pamphlets 
he published in 1901 two volumes of his speeches in the Chamber 
of Deputies entitled Quatre ans de lutte de classe 1893-1898. 

GUEST, EDWIN (1800-1880), English antiquary, was born in 
1800. He was educated at King Edward's school, Birmingham, 
and at Caius College, Cambridge, where he graduated as eleventh 
wrangler, subsequently becoming a fellow of his college. Called 
to the bar in 1828, he devoted himself, after some years of legal 
practice, to antiquarian and literary research. In 1838 he 
published his exhaustive History of English Rhythms, He also 
wrote a very large number of papers on Roman-British history, 
which, together with a mass of fresh material for a history of 
early Britain, were published posthumously under the editorship 
of Dr Stubbs under the title Origines Celticae (1883). In 1852 
Guest was elected master of Caius College, becoming LL.D. in 
the following year, and in 1854-1855 he was vice-chancellor of 
Cambridge University. Guest was a fellow of the Royal Society, 
and an honorary member of the Society of Antiquaries. He 
died on the 23rd of November 1880. 

GUEST (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. 
Cast, and Swed. giist; cognate with Lat. hostis, originally a 
stranger, hence enemy; cf. " host " ), one who receives hos- 
pitality in the house of another, his " host "; hence applied to 
a parasite. 

GUETTARD, JEAN ETIENNE (1715-1786), French naturalist 
and mineralogist, was born at Etampes.on the 2 2nd of September 
1715. In boyhood he gained a knowledge of plants from his 
grandfather, who was an apothecary, and later he qualified as a 
doctor in medicine. Pursuing the study of botany in various 
parts of France and other countries, he began to take notice of 
the relation between the distribution of plants and the soils and 
subsoils. In this way his attention came to be directed to 
minerals and rocks. In 1746 he communicated to the Academy 
of Sciences in Paris a memoir on the distribution of minerals and 
rocks, and this was accompanied by a map on which he had 
recorded his observations. He thus, as remarked by W. D. 
Conybeare, " first carried into execution the idea, proposed by 
[Martin] Lister years before, of geological maps." In the course 
of his journeys he made a large collection of fossils and figured 
many of them, but he had no clear ideas about the sequence 
of strata. He made observations also on the degradation of 

XII. 22 



mountains by rain, rivers and sea; and he was the first to 
ascertain the existence of former volcanoes in the district of 
Auvergne. He died in Paris on the 7th of January 1786. 

His publications include: Observations sur les plantes (2 vols., 
1747); Histoire de la decouverte faite en France de matieres sent- 
blables a celles dont la porcelaine de la Chine est composee (1765); 
Mimoires sur differentes parties des sciences et arts (5 vols., 1768- 
1783); Memoir e sur la mineralogie du Dauphine (2 vols., 1779). 
See The Founders of Geology, by Sir A. Geikie (1897). 

GUEUX, LES, or " THE BEGGARS," a name assumed by the 
confederacy of nobles and other malcontents, who in 1566 
opposed Spanish tyranny in the Netherlands. The leaders of 
the nobles, who signed a solemn league known as " the Com- 
promise," by which they bound themselves to assist in defending 
the rights and liberties of the Netherlands against the civil and 
religious despotism of Philip II., were Louis, count of Nassau, 
and Henry, count of Brederode. On the sth of April 1566 
permission was obtained for the confederates to present a petition 
of grievances, called " the Request," to the regent, Margaret, 
duchess of Parma. About 250 nobles marched to the palace 
accompanied by Louis of Nassau and Brederode. The regent 
was at first alarmed at the appearance of so large a body, but 
one of her councillors, Berlaymont by name, was heard to 
exclaim, " What, madam, is your highness afraid of these 
beggars (ces gueux)f" The appellation was not forgotten. At 
a great feast held by some 300 confederates at the Hotel Culem- 
burg three days later, Brederode in a speech declared that if need 
be they were all ready to become " beggars " in their country's 
cause. The words caught on, and the hall resounded with loud 
cries of " Vivent les gucuxl" The name became henceforward a 
party appellation. The patriot party adopted the emblems of 
beggarhood, the wallet and the bowl, as trinkets to be worn on 
their hats or their girdles, and a medal was struck having on one 
side the head of Philip II., on the other two clasped hands with 
the motto " Fidele au roy, jusques a porter la besace." The 
original league of " Beggars " was short-lived, crushed by the 
iron hand of Alva, but its principles survived and were to be 
ultimately triumphant. 

In the year 1569 the prince of Orange, who had now openly 
placed himself at the head of the party of revolt, granted letters 
of marque to a number of vessels manned by crews of desperadoes 
drawn from all nationalities. These fierce corsairs under the 
command of a succession of daring and reckless leaders the 
best-known of whom is William de la Marck, lord of Lumey 
were called " Guetix de mer," or " Sea Beggars." At first they 
were content with plundering both by sea and land and carrying 
their booty to the English ports where they were able to refit 
and replenish their stores. This went on till 1572, when Queen 
Elizabeth suddenly refused to admit them to her harbours. 
Having no longer any refuge, the Sea Beggars in desperation 
made an attack upon Brill, which they seized by surprise in the 
absence of the Spanish garrison on the ist of April 1572. En- 
couraged by their unhoped-for success, they now sailed to 
Flushing, which was also taken by a coup de main. The capture 
of these two towns gave the signal for a general revolt of the 
northern Netherlands, and is regarded- as the real beginning of 
the War of Dutch Independence. 

GUEVARA, ANTONIO DE (c. 1490-1544), Spanish chronicler 
and moralist, was a native of the province of Alava, and passed 
some of his earlier years at the court of Isabella, queen of Castile. 
In 1528 he entered the Franciscan order, and afterwards accom- 
panied the emperor Charles V. during his journeys to Italy and 
other parts of Europe. After having held successively the offices 
of court preacher, court historiographer, bishop of Guadix and 
bishop of Mondonedo, he died in 1544. His earliest work, 
entitled Reloj de principes, published at Valladolid in 1529, and, 
according to its author, the fruit of eleven years' labour, is a 
didactic novel, designed, after the manner of Xenophon's Cyr- 
paedia, to delineate, in a somewhat ideal way for the benefit 
of modern sovereigns, the life and character of an ancient prince, 
Marcus Aurelius, distinguished for wisdom and virtue. It was 
often reprinted in Spanish; and before the close of the century 
had also been translated into Latin, Italian, French and English, 



674 



GUEVARA, L. V. DE GUIANA 



an English translation being by J. Bourchier (London, 1546) 
and another being by T. North. It is difficult now to account for 
its extraordinary popularity, its thought being neither just nor 
profound, while its style is stiff and affected. It gave rise to a 
literary controversy, however, of great bitterness and violence, 
the author having ventured without warrant to claim for it an 
historical character, appealing to an imaginary " manuscript 
in Florence." Other works of Guevara are the Decada de 
los Cesares (Valladolid, 1539), or "Lives of the Ten Roman 
Emperors," in imitation of the manner of Plutarch and Suetonius ; 
and the Epistolas familiares (Valladolid, 1539-1545), sometimes 
called " The Golden Letters," often printed in Spain, and 
translated into all the principal languages of Europe. They are 
in reality a collection of stiff and formal essays which have long 
ago fallen into merited oblivion. Guevara, whose influence upon 
the Spanish prose of the i6th century was considerable, also 
wrote Libra de los invenlores del arle de mar ear (Valladolid, 1539, 
and Madrid, 1895). 

GUEVARA, LUIS VELEZ DE (1579-1644), Spanish dramatist 
and novelist, was born at Ecija on the ist of August 1579. 
After graduating as a sizar at the university of Osuna in 1596, 
he joined the household of Rodrigo de Castro, cardinal-arch- 
bishop of Seville, and celebrated the marriage of Philip II. in 
a poem signed " Velez de Santander," a name which he con- 
tinued to use till some years later. He appears to have served 
as a soldier in Italy and Algiers, returning to Spain in 1602 when 
he entered the service of the count de Saldana, and dedicated 
himself to writing for the stage. He died at Madrid on the 
loth of November 1644. He was the author of over four hundred 
plays, of which the best are Reinar despues de morir, Mas pesa el 
rey que la sangre, La Luna de la Sierra and El Diablo estd en 
Canlillana; but he is most widely known as the author of El 
Diablo cojuelo (1641), a fantastic novel which suggested to Le 
Sage the idea of his Diable boiteux. 

GUGLIELMI, PIETRO (1727-1804), Italian composer, was 
born at Massa Carrara in May 1727, and died in Rome on the 
igth of November 1804. He received his first musical education 
from his father, and afterwards studied under Durante at the 
Conservatorio di Santa Maria di Loreto at Naples. His first 
operatic work, produced at Turin in 1755, established his 
reputation, and soon his fame spread beyond the limits of his 
own country, so that in 1762 he was called to Dresden to con- 
duct the opera there. He remained for some years in Germany, 
where his works met with much success, but the greatest triumphs 
were reserved for him in England. He went to London, ac- 
cording to Burney, in 1768, but according to Florimo in 1772, 
returning to Naples in 1777. He still continued to produce 
operas at an astounding rate, but was unable to compete suc- 
cessfully with the younger masters of the day. In 1793 he 
became maestro di cappella at St Peter's, Rome. He was a very 
prolific composer of Italian comic opera, and there is in most 
of his scores a vein of humour and natural gaiety not surpassed 
by Cimarosa himself. In serious opera he was less successful. 
But here also he shows at least the qualities of a competent 
musician. Considering the enormous number of his works, his 
unequal workmanship and the frequent instances of mechanical 
and slip-shod writing in his music need not surprise us. The 
following are among the most celebrated of his operas: I Due 
Gemelli, La Serva inamorata, La Pastorella nobile, La Bella Pec- 
catrice, Rinaldo, Artaserse, Didone and Enea e Laiiinia. He also 
wrote oratorios and miscellaneous pieces of orchestral and 
chamber music. Of his eight sons two at least acquired fame as 
musicians Pietro Carlo (1763-1827), a successful imitator of 
his father's operatic style, and Giacomo, an excellent singer. 

GUIANA (Guyana, Guayana 1 ), the general name given in its 

'The origin of the name is somewhat obscure, and has been 
variously interpreted. But the late Col. G. E. Church supplies the 
following note, which has the weight of his great authority: " I 
cannot confirm the suggestion of Schomburgk that Guayani ' re- 
ceived its name from a small river, a tributary of the Orinoco', 
supposed to be the Waini or Guainia. In South America, east of 
the Andes, it was the common custom of any tribe occupying a 
length of river to call it simply ' the river ' ; but the other tribes 



widest acceptation to the part of South America lying to the 
north-east from 8 40' N. to 3 30' S. and from 50 W. to 68 30' 
W. Its greatest length, from Cabo do Norte to the confluence 
of the Rio Xie and Rio Negro, is about 1250 m., its greatest 
breadth, from Barima Point in the mouth of the Orinoco to 
the confluence of the Rio Negro and Amazon, 800 m. Its area 
is roughly 690,000 sq. m. Comprised in this vast territory are 
Venezuelan (formerly Spanish) Guiana, lying on both sides of 
the Orinoco and extending S. and S.W. to the Rio Negro and 
Brazilian settlements; British Guiana, extending from Venez- 
uela to the left bank of the Corentyn river; Dutch Guiana 

designated any section of it by the name of the people living on its 
banks. Many streams, therefore, had more than a dozen names. 
It is probable that no important river had one name alone through- 
out its course, prior to the time of the Conquest. The radical wini, 
waini, wayni, is found as a prefix, and very frequently as a termina- 
tion, to the names of numerous rivers, not only throughout Guayana 
but all over the Orinoco and Amazon valleys. For instance, Paymary 
Indians called the portion of the Purus river which they occupied the 
Waini. It simply means water, or a fountain of water, or a river. 
The alternative suggestion that Guayana is an Indian word signify- 
ing ' wild coast,' I also think untenable. This term, applied to the 
north-east frontage of South America between the Orinoco and the 
Amazon, is found on the old Dutch map of Hartsinck, who calls it 
' Guiana Caribania of de Wilde Kust,' a name which must have 
well described it when, in 1580, some Zealanders, of the Netherlands, 
sent a ship to cruise along it, from the mouth of the Amazon to 
that of the Orinoco, and formed the first settlement near the river 
Pomeroon. The map of Firnao Vaz Dpurado, 1564, calls the 
northern part of South America, including the present British 
Guiana, ' East Peru.' An anonymous Spanish map, about 1566, 
gives Guayana as lying on the east side of the Orinoco just above 
its mouth. About 1660, Sebastien de Ruesta, cosmographer of the 
Casa de Conlraclacion de Seville, shows Guayana covering the 
British, French and Dutch Guayanas. According to the map of 
Nicolas de Fer, 1719, a tribe of Guayazis (Guyanas) occupied the 
south side of the Amazon river, front of the island of Tupinambara, 
east of the mouth of the Madeira. Aristides Rojas, an eminent 
Venezuelan scholar, says that the Mariches Indians, near Caracas, 
inhabited a site called Guayana long before the discovery of South 
America by the Spaniards. Coudreau in his Chez nos Indiens 
mentions that the Roucouyennes of Guayani take their name from 
a large tree in their forests, ' which appears to be the origin of the 
name Guayane.' According to Michelana y Rojas, in their report 
to the Venezuelan government on their voyages in the basin of the 
Orinoco, ' Guyana derives its name from the Indians who live 
between the Caroni river and the Sierra de Imataca, called Guayanos.' 
My own studies of aboriginal South America lead me to support the 
statement of Michelana y Rojas, but with the following enlargement 
of it: The Portuguese, in the early part of the l6th century, found 
that the coast and mountain district of Rio de Janeiro, between 
Cape Sao Thome and Angra dos Reis, belonged to the formidable 
Tamoyos. South of these, for a distance of about 300 m. of the 
ocean slope of the coast range, were the Guayana tribes, called by 
the early writers Guiands, Goyand, Guayana, Goand and, plural, 
Goayndzes, Goayandzes and Guayandzes. They were constantly at 
feud with the Tamoyos and with their neighbours on the south, the 
Carijos, as well as with the vast Tapuya hordes of the Sertao of the 
interior. Long before the discovery, they had been forced to 
abandon their beautiful lands, but had recuperated their strength, 
returned and reconquered their ancient habitat. Meanwhile, how- 
ever, many of them had migrated northward, some had settled in 
the Sertao back of Bahia and Pernambuco, others on the middle 
Amazon and in the valley of the Orinoco, but a large number had 
crossed the lower Amazon and occupied an extensive area of country 
to the north of it, about the size of Belgium, along the Tumuchumac 
range of highlands, and the upper Paron and Maroni rivers, as well 
as a large district on the northern slope of the above-named range. 
In their new home they became known as Roucouyennes, because, 
like the Mundurucus of the middle Amazon, they rubbed and 
painted themselves with roucou or urucu (Bixa Orellana) ; _but 
other surrounding tribes called them Ouayanas, that is Guayanas 
the Gua, so common to the Guarani-Tupi tongue, having become 
corrupted into Oua. Porto Seguro says of the so-called Tupis, ' at 
other times they gave themselves the name of Guayd or Guayana, 
which probably means " brothers," from which comes Guayazes and 
Guayanazes. . . . The latter occupied the country just south of 
Rio de Janeiro. . . . The masters of the Capitania of St Vincente 
called themselves Guianas.' Guinila, referring to north-eastern 
South America (1745), speaks of five missions being formed to 
civilize the ' Nation Guayana.' In view of the above, it may be 
thought reasonable to assume that the vast territory now known 
as Guayana (British, Dutch, French, Brazilian and Venezuelan) 
derives its name from its aborigines who were found there at the 
time of the discovery, and whose original home was the region I 
have indicated." 



GUIANA 



675 




(or Surinam), from the Corentyn to the Maroni river; French 
Guiana (or Cayenne), from the Maroni to the Oyapock river; 1 
Brazilian (formerly Portuguese) Guiana, extending from the 
southern boundaries of French, Dutch, British and part of 
Venezuelan Guiana, to the Amazon and the Negro. Of these 
divisions the first and last are now included in Venezuela and 
Brazil respectively; British, Dutch and French Guiana are 
described in order below, and are alone considered here. 

In their physical geography the three Guianas present certain 
common characteristics. In each the principal features are the 
rivers and their branch streams. In each colony the northern 
portion consists of a fluviomarine deposit extending inland and 
gradually rising to a height of 10 to 15 ft. above the sea. This 
alluvial plain varies in width from 50 m. to 18 m. and is traversed 
by ridges of sand and shells, roughly parallel to what is now 
the coast, indicating the trend of former shore lines. By the 
draining and diking of these lands the plantations have been 
formed along the coast and up the rivers. These low lands are 
attached to a somewhat higher plateau, which towards the 
coast is traversed by numerous huge sand-dunes and inland by 
ranges of hills rising in places to as much as 2000 ft. The 
greater part of this belt of country, in which the auriferous 
districts principally occur, is covered with a dense growth of 
jungle and high forest, but savannahs, growing only a long 
wiry grass and poor shrubs, intrude here and there, being in the 
S.E. much nearer to the coast than in the N.W. The hinterlands 
consist of undulating open savannahs rising into hills and 
mountains, some grass-covered, some in dense forest. 

Geology *. Guiana is formed almost entirely of gneiss and crystal- 

1 This is the boundary generally accepted ; but it is in dispute. 

1 See C. B. Brown and J. G. Sawkins, Reports on the Physical, 
Descriptive and Economic Geology of British Guiana (London, 1875) ; 
C. Velain, " Esquisse geologique de la Guyane frangaise et des 



line schists penetrated by numerous dikes of diorite, diabase, &c. 
The gold of the placer deposits appears to be derived, not from 
quartz reefs, but from the schists and intrusive rocks, the selvages 
of the diabase dikes sometimes containing as much as 5 oz. of 
gold to the ton. In British Guiana a series of conglomerates, red 
and white sandstone and red shale, rests upon the gneiss and 
forms the remarkable table-topped mountains Roraima, Kukenaam, 
&c. The beds are horizontal, and according to Brown and Sawkins, 
three layers of greenstone, partly intrusive and partly contem- 
poraneous, are interstratified with the sedimentary deposits. The 
age of these beds is uncertain, but they evidently correspond with 
the similar series which occurs in Brazil, partly Palaeozoic and 
partly Cretaceous. In Dutch Guiana there are a few small patches 
supposed to belong to the Cretaceous period. Along the coast, 
and in the lower parts of the river valleys, are deposits which are 
mainly Quaternary but may also include beds of Tertiary age. 

History. The coast of Guiana was sighted by Columbus in 
1498 when he discovered the island of Trinidad and the peninsula 
of Paria, and in the following year by Alonzo de Ojeda and 
Amerigo Vespucci; and in 1500 Vincente Yafiez Pinzon ventured 
south of the equator, and sailing north-west along the coast 
discovered the Amazon; he is believed to have also entered 
some of the other rivers of Guiana, one of which, now called 
Oyapock, is marked on early maps as Rio Pinzon. Little, 
however, was known of Guiana until the fame of the fabled 
golden city Manoa or El Dorado tempted adventurers to explore 
its rivers and forests. From letters of these explorers found in 

bassins du Parou et du Yari (affluents de 1'Amazone) d'apres les 
explorations du Dr Crevaux," Bull. Soc. Geoer. ser. 7, vol. vi. 
(Paris, 1885), pp. 453-492 (with geological map); E. Martin, Geo- 
logische Studien iiber Niederlandisch-West-Indien, auf Grund eieener 
Untersuchungsreisen (Leiden, 1888); W. Bergt, " Zur Geologic 
des Coppename- und Nickerietales in Surinam (Hollandisch- 
Guyana), ' Samml. a. Geol. Reichsmus. (Leiden), ser. 2, Bd. ii. 
Heft 2, pp. 93-163 (with 3 maps); and for British Guiana, the 
official reports on the geology of various districts, by J. B. Harrison, 
C. W. Anderson, H. I. Perkins, published at Georgetown. 



6 7 6 



GUIANA 



captured ships, Sir Walter Raleigh was induced to ascend the 
Orinoco in search of El Dorado in 1595, to send Lawrence 
Keymis on the same quest in the following year, and in 1617 
to try once again, with the same intrepid lieutenant, an ex- 
pedition fraught with disaster for both of them. As early as 
1580 the Dutch had established a systematic trade with the 
Spanish main, but so far as is known their first voyage to Guiana 
was in 1598. By 1613 they had three or four settlements on 
the coast of Demerara and Essequibo, and in about 1616 some 
Zeelanders settled on a small island, called by them Kyk ober al 
(" see over all "), in the confluence of the Cuyuni and Mazaruni 
rivers. While the Dutch traders were struggling for a footing 
in Essequibo and Demerara, English and French traders were 
endeavouring to form settlements on the Oyapock river, in 
Cayenne and in Surinam, and by 1652 the English had large 
interests in the latter and the French in Cayenne. In 1663 
Charles II. issued letters patent to Lord Willoughby of Parham 
and Lawrence Hyde, second son of the earl of Clarendon, grant- 
ing them the district between the Copenam and Maroni rivers, 
a province described as extending from E. to W. some 120 m. 
This colony was, however, formally ceded to the Netherlands 
in 1667 by the peace of Breda, Great Britain taking possession 
of New York. Meanwhile the Dutch West India Company, 
formed in 1621, had taken possession of Essequibo, over which 
colony it exercised sovereign rights until 1791. In 1624 a Dutch 
settlement was effected in the Berbice river, and from this grew 
Berbice, for a long time a separate and independent colony. 
In 1657 the Zeelanders firmly established themselves in the 
Pomeroon, Monica and Demerara rivers, and by 1674 the Dutch 
were colonizing all the territory now known as British and 
Dutch Guiana. The New Dutch West Indian Company, founded 
in that year to replace the older company which had failed, 
received Guiana by charter from the states-general in 1682. 
In the following year the company sold one-third of their territory 
to the city of Amsterdam, and another third to Cornelis van 
Aerssens, lord of Sommelsdijk. The new owners and the 
company incorporated themselves as the Chartered Society of 
Surinam, and Sommelsdijk agreed to fill the post of governor of 
the colony at his own expense. The lucrative trade in slaves 
was retained by the West Indian Company, but the society 
could import them on its own account by paying a fine to the 
company. Sommelsdijk's rule was wise and energetic. He 
repressed and pacified the Indian tribes, erected forts and 
disciplined the soldiery, constructed the canal which bears his 
name, established a high court of justice and introduced the 
valuable cultivation of the cocoa-nut. But on the i7th of June 
1688 he was massacred in a mutiny of the soldiers. The " third " 
which Sommelsdijk possessed was offered by his widow to William 
III. of England, but it was ultimately purchased by the city of 
Amsterdam for 700,000 fl. The settlements in Essequibo pro- 
gressed somewhat slowly, and it was not until immigration was 
attracted in 1740 by offers to newcomers of free land and im- 
munity for a decade from taxation that anything like a colony 
could be said to exist there. In 1732 Berbice placed itself under 
the protection of the states-general of Holland and was granted 
a constitution, and in 1773 Demerara, till then a dependency of 
Essequibo, was constituted as a separate colony. In 1781 the 
three colonies, Demerara, Essequibo and Berbice, were captured 
by British privateers, and were placed by Rodney under the 
governor of Barbados, but in 1782 they were taken by France, 
then an ally of the Netherlands, and retained until the peace 
of 1783, when they were restored to Holland. In 1784 Essequibo 
and Demerara were placed under one governor, and Georgetown 
then called Stabroek was fixed on as the seat of government. 
The next decade saw a series of struggles between the colonies 
and the Dutch West India company, which ended in the company 
being wound up and in the three colonies being governed directly 
by the states-general. In 1796 the British again took possession, 
and retained the three colonies until the peace of Amiens in 
1802, when they were once again restored to Holland, only to 
be recaptured by Great Britain in 1803, in which year the 
history proper of British Guiana began. 






I. BRITISH GUIANA, the only British possession in S. America, 
was formally ceded in 1814-1815. The three colonies were in 
1831 consolidated into one colony divided into three 
counties, Berbice extending from the Corentyn river 
to the Abary creek, Demerara from the Abary to the 
Boerasirie creek, Essequibo from the Boerasirie to the Venez- 
uelan frontier. This boundary-line between British Guiana 
and Venezuela was for many years the subject of dispute. The 
Dutch, while British Guiana was in their possession, claimed the 
whole watershed of the Essequibo river, while the Venezuelans 
asserted that the Spanish province of Guayana had extended 
up to the left bank of the Essequibo. In 1840 Sir Robert 
Schomburgk had suggested a demarcation, afterwards known 
as the " Schomburgk line "; and subsequently, though no 
agreement was arrived at, certain modifications were made in 
this British claim. In 1886 the government of Great Britain 
declared that it would thenceforward exercise jurisdiction up to 
and within a boundary known as " the modified Schomburgk 
line." Outposts were located at points on this line, and for some 
years Guianese police and Venezuelan soldiers faced one another 
across the Amacura creek in the Orinoco mouth and at Yuruan 
up the Cuyuni river. In 1897 the dispute formed the subject 
of a message to congress from the president of the United States, 
and in consequence of this intervention the matter was sub- 
mitted to an international commission, whose award was issued 
at Paris in 1899 (see VENEZUELA). By this decision neither 
party gained its extreme claim, the line laid down differing 
but little from the original Schomburgk line. The demarcation 
was at once undertaken by a joint commission appointed by 
Venezuela and British Guiana and was completed in 1904. 
It was not found practicable, owing to the impassable nature 
of the country, to lay down on earth that part of the boundary 
fixed by the Paris award between the head of the Wenamu creek 
and the summit of Mt. Roraima,and the boundary commissioners 
suggested a deviation to follow the watersheds of the Caroni, 
Cuyuni and Mazaruni rivers, a suggestion accepted by the two 
governments. In 1902 the delimitation of the boundary between 
British Guiana and Brazil was referred to the arbitration of the 
king of Italy, and by his reward, issued in June 1904, the sub- 
stantial area in dispute was conceded to British Guiana. The 
work of demarcation has since been carried out. 

Towns, 6*c. The capital of British Guiana is Georgetown, at 
the mouth of the Demerara river, on its right bank, with a 
population of about 50,000. New Amsterdam, on the right 
bank of the Berbice river, has a population of about 7500. 
Each possesses a mayor and town council, with statutory powers 
to impose rates. There are nineteen incorporated villages, and 
ten other locally governed areas known as country districts, the 
affairs of which are controlled by local authorities, known as 
village councils and country authorities respectively. 

Population. The census of 1891 gave the population of 
British Guiana as 278,328. There was no census taken in 1901. 
By official estimates the population at the end of 1904 was 
301,923. Of these some 120,000 were negroes and 124,000 
East Indians; 4300 were Europeans, other than Portuguese, 
estimated at about 11,600, and some 30,000 of mixed race. 
The aborigines Arawaks, Caribs, Wapisianas, Warraws, &c. 
who numbered about 10,000 in 1891, are now estimated at 
about 6500. In 1904 the birth-rate for the whole colony was 
30-3 per 1000 and the death-rate 28-8. 

Physical Geography. The surface features of British Guiana 
may be divided roughly into four regions: first, the alluvial sea- 
board, flat and below the level of high-water; secondly, the forest 
belt, swampy along the rivers but rising into undulating lands and 
hills between them ; thirdly, the savannahs in and inland of the 
forest belt, elevated table-lands, grass-covered and practically 
treeless; and fourthly, the mountain ranges. The eastern portion 
of the colony, from the sourceof its two largest rivers, the Corentyn 
and Essequibo, is a rough inclined plain, starting at some 900 ft. 
above sea-level at the source of the Takutu in the west, but only 
some 400 at that of the Corentyn in the west, and sloping down 
gradually to the low alluvial flats about 3 ft. below high-water 
fine. The eastern part is generally forested; the western is an 
almost level savannah, with woodlands along the rivers. The 



GUIANA 



677 



northern portion of British Guiana, the alluvial flats alluded to 
already, consists of a fluviomarine deposit extending inland from 
25 m. to 30 m., gradually rising to about 12 ft. above high-water 
mark and ending against beds oY sandy clay, the residua of igneous 
rocks decomposed in situ, which form an extensive undulating 
region rising to 150 ft. above the sea and stretching back to the 
forest-covered hills. Roughly parallel to the existing coast-line are 
narrow reef j of sand and sea-shells, which are dunes indicating the 
trend of former limits of the sea, and still farther back are the 
higher " sand hills," hills of granite or diabase with a thick stratum 
of coarse white sand superimposed. From the coast-line seawards 
the ocean deepens very gradually, and at low tide extensive flats 
of sand and of mixed clay and sand (called locally " caddy ") are 
left bare, these flats being at times covered with a deposit of thin 
drift mud. 

Two great parallel mountain systems cross the colony from W. 
to E., the greater being that of the Pacaraima and Merum< Mts., 
and the lesser including the Kanuku Mts. (2000 ft.), while the 
Acarai Mts., a densely-wooded range rising to 2500 ft., form the 
southern boundary of British Guiana and the watershed between 
the Essequibo and the Amazon. These mountains rise generally 
in a succession of terraces and broad plateaus, with steep or even 
sheer sandstone escarpments. They are mostly flat-topped, and 
their average height is about 3500 ft. The Pacaraima Mts., how- 
ever, reach 8635 ft. at Roraima, and the latter remarkable mountain 
rises as a perpendicular wall of red rock 1500 ft. in height springing 
out of the forest-clad slopes below the summit, and was considered 
inaccessible until in December 1884 Messrs im Thurn and Perkins 
found a ledge by which the top could be reached. The summit is 
a table-land some 12 sq. m. in area. Mt. Kukcnaam is of similar 
structure and also rises above 8500 ft. Other conspicuous summits 
(about 7000 ft.) are Iwalkarima, Eluwarima, Ilutipu and Waiaka- 
piapu. The southern portion of the Pacaraima range comprises 
rugged hills and rock-strewn valleys, but to the N., where the sand- 
stone assumes the table-shaped form, there are dense forests, and 
the scenery is of extraordinary grandeur. Waterfalls frequently 
descend the cliffs from a great height (nearly 2000 ft. sheer at 
Roraima and Kukenaam). The sandstone formation can be traced 
from the northern Pacaraima range on the N.W. to the Corentyn 
in the S.E. It is traversed in places by dikes and sills of diabase or 
dolerite, while bosses of more or less altered gabbro rise through it. 
The surface of a large part of the colony is composed of gneiss, and 
of gneissose granite, which is seen in large water-worn bosses in the 
river beds. Intrusive granite is of somewhat rare occurrence; 
where found, it gives rise to long low rolls of hilly country and to 
cataracts in the rivers. Extensive areas of the country consist of 
quartz-porphyry, porphyrites and felstone, and of more or less 
schistose rocks derived from them. These rocks are closely con- 
nected with the gneissose granites and gneiss, and there are reasons 
for believing that the latter are the deep-seated portions of them 
and are only visible where they have been exposed by denudation. 
Long ranges of hills, varying in elevation from a few hundreds to 
fromaoooft. to 3000 ft., traverse the plains of the gneissose districts. 
These are caused either by old intrusions of diabase and gabbro 
which have undergone modifications, or by later ones of dolerite. 
These ranges are of high importance, as the rocks comprising them 
are the main source of gold in British Guiana. 

Rivers. The principal physical features of British Guiana are 
its rivers and their branches, which form one vast network of 
waterways all over it, and are the principal, indeed practically the 
only, highways inland from the coast. Chief among them are the 
Waini, the Essequibo, and its tributaries the Mazaruni and Cuyuni, 
the Demerara, the Berbice and the Corentyn. The Essequibo 
rises in the Acarai Mts., in o 41' N. and about 850 ft. above the 
sea, and flows northwards for about 600 m. until it discharges itself 
into the ocean by an estuary nearly 15 m. in width. In this 
estuary are several large and fertile islands, on four of which sugar 
used to be grown. Now but one, Wakenaam, can boast of a factory. 
The Essequibo can be entered only by craft drawing less than 
20 ft. and is navigable for these vessels for not more than 50 m., 
its subsequent course upwards being frequently broken by cataracts 
and rapids. Some 7 m. below the first series of rapids it is joined 
by the Mazaruni, itself joined by the Cuyuni some 4 m. farther up. 
It has a remarkable course from its source in the Merume Mountains, 
about 2400 ft. above the sea. It flows first south, then west, north- 
west, north, and finally south-east to within 20 m. of its own source, 
forming many fine falls, and its course thereafter is still very tortuous. 
In 4 N. and 58 W., the Essequibo is joined by the Rupununi, 
which, rising in a savannah at the foot of the Karawaimento Mts., 
has a northerly and easterly course of fully 200 m. In 3 37' N. 
the Awaricura joins the Rupununi, and by this tributary the Pirara, 
a tributary of the Amazon, may be reached, an example of the 
interesting series of itabos connecting nearly all S. American rivers 
with one another. Another large tributary of the Essequibo is the 
Potaro, on which, at 1130 ft. above sea-level and in 5 8' N. and 
59 19' W., is the celebrated Kaieteur fall, discovered in 1870 by Mr 
C. Barrington Brown while engaged on a geological survey. This 
fall is produced by the river flowing from a tableland of sandstone 
and conglomerate into a deep valley 822 ft. below. For the first 
741 ft. the water falls as a perpendicular column, thence as a sloping 



cataract to the still reach below. The river 200 yds. above the fall 
is about 400 ft. wide, while the actual waterway of the fall itself 
varies from 120 ft. in dry weather to nearly 400 ft. in rainy seasons. 
The Kaieteur, which it took Mr Brown a fortnight to reach from 
the coast, can now be reached on the fifth day from Georgetown. 
Among other considerable tributaries of the Essequibo are the 
Siparuni, Burro-Burro, Rewa, Kuyuwini and Kassi-Kudji. The 
Demerara river, the head-waters of which are known only to Indians, 
rises probably near 5 N., and after a winding northerly course of 
some 200 m. enters the ocean in 6 50' N. and 58 20' W. A bar 
of mud and sand prevents the entrance of vessels drawing more 
than 19 ft. The river is from its mouth, which is nearly 2 m. wide, 
navigable for 70 m. to all vessels which can enter. The Berbice 
river rises in about 3 40' N., and in 3 53' N. is within 9 m. of the 
Essequibo. At its mouth it is about 2\ m. wide, and is navigable 
for vessels drawing not more than 12 ft. for about 105 m. and for 
vessels drawing not more than 7 ft. for fully 1 75 m. Thence upwards 
it is broken by great cataracts. The Canje creek joins the Berbice 
river close to the sea. The Corentyn river rises in i 48' 30* N., 
about 140 m. E. of the Essequibo, and flowing northwards enters 
the Atlantic by an estuary some 14 m. wide. The divide between its 
head-waters and those of streams belonging to the Amazon system 
is only some 400 ft. in elevation. It is navigable for about 150 m., 
some of the reaches being of great width and beauty. The upper 
reaches are broken by a series of great cataracts, some of which, 
until the discovery of Kaieteur, were believed to be the grandest in 
British Guiana. Among other rivers are the Pomeroon, Moruca 
and Barima, while several large streams or creeks fall directly into 
the Atlantic, the largest being the Abary, Mahaicony and Mahaica, 
between Berbice and Demerara, and the Boerasirie between Demerara 
and Essequibo. The colour of the water of the rivers and creeks 
is in general a dark brown, caused by the infusion of vegetable 
matter, but where the streams run for a long distance through 
savannahs they are of a milky colour. 

Climate. The climate is, as tropical countries go, not unhealthy. 
Malarial fevers are common but preventible; and phthisis is pre- 
valent, not because the climate is unsuitable to sufferers from 
pulmonary complaints, but because of the ignorance of the common 
people of the elementary principles of hygiene, an ignorance which 
the state is endeavouring to lessen by including the teaching of 
hygiene in the syllabus of the primary schools. The temperature is 
uniform on the coast for the ten months from October to July, the 
regular N.E. trade winds keeping it down to an average of 80 F. 
In August and September the trades die away and the heat becomes 
oppressive. In the interior the nights are cold and damp. Hurri- 
canes, indeed even strong gales, are unknown; a tidal wave is an 
impossibility; and the nature of the soil of the coast lands renders 
earthquakes practically harmless. Occasionally there are severe 
droughts, and the rains are sometimes unduly prolonged, but 
usually the year is clearly divided into two wet and two dry seasons. 
The long wet season begins in mid-April and lasts until mid-August. 
The long dry season is from September to the last week in November. 
December and January constitute the short rainy season, and 
February and March the short dry season. The rainfall varies 
greatly in different parts of the colony; on the coast it averages 
about 80 in. annually. 

Flora. The vegetation is most luxuriant and its growth per- 
petual. Indigenous trees and plants abound in the utmost variety, 
while many exotics have readily adapted themselves to local con- 
ditions. Along the coast is a belt of courida and mangrove the 
bark of the latter being used for tanning forming a natural barrier 
to the inroads of the sea, but one which very unwisely has been 
in parts almost ruined to allow of direct drainage. The vast forests 
afford an almost inexhaustible supply of valuable timbers; green- 
heart and mora, largely used in shipbuilding and for wharves and 
dock and lock gates; silverbally, yielding magnificent planks for all 
kinds of boats; and cabinet woods, such as cedar and crabwood. 
There may be seen great trees, struggling for life one with the 
other, covered with orchids some of great beauty and value-^and 
draped with falling lianas and vines. Giant palms fringe the river- 
banks and break the monotony of the mass of smaller foliage. 
Many of the trees yield gums, oils and febrifuges, the bullet tree 
being bled extensively for batata, a gum used largely in the manu- 
facture of belting. Valuable varieties of rubber have also been 
found in several districts, and since early in 1905 have attracted the 
attention of experts from abroad. On the coast plantains, bananas 
and mangoes grow readily and are largely used for food, while 
several districts are admirably adapted to the growth of limes. 
Oranges, pineapples, star-apples, granadillas, guavas are among the 
fruits; Indian corn, cassava, yams, eddoes, tannias, sweet potatoes 
and ochroes are among the vegetables, while innumerable varieties 
of peppers are grown and used in large quantities by all classes. 
The dainty avocado pear, purple and green, grows readily. In the 
lagoons and trenches many varieties of water-lilies grow wild, the 
largest being the famous Victoria reeia. 

Fauna. Guiana is full of wild animals, birds, insects and 
reptiles. Among the wild animals, one and all nocturnal, are 
the mipourrie or tapir, manatee, acouri and labba (both ex- 
cellent eating), sloth, ant-eater, armadillo, several kinds of deer, 
baboons, monkeys and the puma and jaguar. The last is s?en 



678 



GUIANA 



frequently down on the coast, attracted from the forest by the 
cattle grazing on the front and back pasture lands of the estates. 
Among the birds may be mentioned the carrion crow (an invaluable 
scavenger), vicissi and muscovy ducks, snipe, teal, plover, pigeon, 
the ubiquitous kiskadee or qu'est que dit, a species of shrike his 
name derived from his shrill call the canary and the twa-twa, 
both charming whistlers. These are all found on the coast. In the 
forest are maam (partridge), maroudi (wild turkey), the beautiful 
bell-bird with note like a silver gong, the quadrille bird with its 
tuneful oft-repeated bar, great flocks of macaws and parrots, and 
other birds of plumage of almost indescribable richness and variety. 
On the coast the trenches and canals are full of alligators, but the 
great cayman is found only in the rivers of the interior. Among the 
many varieties of snakes are huge constricting camoudies, deadly 
bushmasters, labarrias and rattlesnakes. Among other reptiles 
are the two large lizards, the salumpenta (an active enemy of the 
barn-door fowl), and the iguana, whose flesh when cooked resembles 
tender chicken. The rivers, streams and trenches abound with 
fishes, crabs and shrimps, the amount of the latter consumed being 
enormous, running into tons weekly as the coolies use them in their 
curries and the blacks in their foo-foo. 

Government and Administration. Executive power is vested 
in a governor, who is advised in all administrative matters by 
an executive council, consisting of five official and three un- 
official members nominated by the crown. Legislative authority 
is vested in the Court of Policy, consisting of the governor, who 
presides and without whose permission no legislation can be 
initiated, seven other official members and eight elected members. 
This body has, however, no financial authority, all taxation and 
expenditure being dealt with by the Combined Court, consisting 
of the Court of Policy combined with six financial representatives. 
The elected members of the Court of Policy and the financial 
representatives are elected by their several constituencies for 
five years. Qualification for the Court of Policy is the owner- 
ship, or possession under lease for a term of twenty-one years, 
of eighty acres of land, of which at least forty acres are under 
cultivation, or of house property to the value of $7500. A 
financial representative must be similarly qualified or be in 
receipt of a clear income of not less than 300 per annum. 
Every male is entitled to be registered as a voter who (in addition 
to the usual formal qualifications) owns (during six months prior 
to registration) three acres of land in cultivation or a house of 
the annual rental or value of 20; or is a secured tenant for 
not less than three years of six acres of land in cultivation or 
for one year of a house of 40 rental; or has an income of not 
less than 100 per annum; or has during the previous twelve 
months paid 4, 33. 4d. in direct taxation. Residence in the 
electoral district for six months prior to registration is coupled 
with the last two alternative qualifications. Plural voting is 
legal but no plumping is allowed. The combined court is by 
this constitution, which was granted in 1891, allowed the use 
of all revenues due to the crown in return for a civil list voted 
for a term now fixed at three years. English is the official and 
common language. The Roman-Dutch law, modified by orders- 
in-council and local statutes, governs actions in the civil courts, 
but the criminal law is founded on that of England. Magis- 
trates have in civil cases jurisdiction up to 20, while an appeal 
lies from ' their decisions in any criminal or civil case. The 
supreme court consists of a chief justice and two puisne judges, 
and has various jurisdictions. The full court, consisting of the 
three judges or any two of them, has jurisdiction over all civil 
matters, but an appeal lies to His Majesty in privy council in 
cases involving 500 and upwards. A single judge sits in in- 
solvency, in actions involving not over 520, and in appeals from 
magistrates' decisions. The appeal full court, consisting of 
three judges, sits to hear appeals from decisions of a single judge 
in the limited civil, appellate and insolvency courts. Criminal 
courts are held four times a year in each county, a single judge 
presiding in each court. A court of crown cases reserved is 
formed by the three judges, of whom two form a quorum pro- 
vided the chief-justice is one of the two. There are no imperial 
troops now stationed in British Guiana, but there is a semi- 
military police force, a small militia and two companies of 
volunteers. The Church of England and the Church of Scotland 
are both established, and grants-in-aid are also given to the 



Roman Catholic and Wesleyan churches and to several other 
denominations. 

The revenue and expenditure now each amount annually to an 
average of a little over 500,000. About one-half of the revenue is 
produced by import duties, and about 90,000 by excise. The 
public debt on the jist of March 1905 stood at 989,620. 

The system of primary education is denominational and is mainly 
supported from the general revenue. During 1904-1905, 213 schools 
received grants-in-aid amounting to 23,500, the average cost per 
scholar being a little over i. These grants are calculated on the 
results of examinations held annually, an allowance varying from 
43. 4jd. to is. o^d. being made for each pass in reading, writing, 
arithmetic, school-garden work, nature study, singing and drill, 
English, geography, elementary hygiene and sewing. Secondary 
education is provided in Georgetown at some private establishments, 
and for boys at Queen's College, an undenominational government 
institution where the course of instruction is the same as at a public 
school in England, and the boys are prepared for the Cambridge 
local examinations, on the result of which annually depend the 
Guiana scholarship ^open to boysand girls,and carrying a university 
or professional training in England and two scholarships at 
Queen's College. 

Industries and Trade. At the end of the third decade of the 
igth century the principal exports were sugar, rum, molasses, cotton 
and coffee. In 1830, 9,500,000 ft of coffee were sent abroad, but 
after the emancipation of the slaves it almost ceased as an export, 
and the little that is now grown is practically entirely consumed 
in the colony. The cultivation of cotton ceased in 1844, and, but 
for a short revival during the American civil war, has never prospered 
since. Efforts have been made to resuscitate its growth, but the 
experiments of the Board of Agriculture have only shown that Sea 
Island cotton is not adaptable to local conditions, and that no 
other known variety can as yet be recommended. To-day the 
principal exports are sugar, rum, molasses, molascuit a cattle food 
made from molasses gold, timber, balata, shingles and cattle. 
The annual value of the total exports is just under 2,000,000, of 
which about two-thirds go to Great Britain and British possessions. 
The cultivation of rice has made great strides in recent years, and, 
where difficulties of drainage and irrigation can be economically 
overcome, promises to increase rapidly. In 1873, 32,000,000 ft of 
rice were imported, whereas in 19041905, the quantity imported 
having fallen to 20,500,000 ft, there were over 18,000 acres under 
rice cultivation, and exportation, principally to the British West 
Indies, had commenced. The cultivation of the sugar-cane, and its 
manufacture into sugar and its by-products, still remains, in spite 
of numerous fluctuations, the staple industry. The provision of a 
trustworthy labour supply for the estates is of great importance, 
and local scarcity has made it necessary since 1840 to import it 
under a system of indenture. In that year and until 1867, liberated 
Africans were brought from Rio de Janeiro, Havana, Sierra Leone 
and St Helena, and in 1845 systematic immigration from India 
commenced and has since been carried on annually save in 1849 
1850. In 1853 immigration from China was tried, and was carried 
on by the government from 1859 to 1866, when it ceased owing to 
a convention arranged at Peking, stipulating that all immigrants 
should on the expiry of their term of indenture be entitled to be sent 
back at the expense of the colony, a liability it could not afford to 
incur. To reduce the cost of supervision and kindred expenses, 
and consequently of the cane and its manufacture into sugar, the 
policy of centralization has been universally adopted, and forty-six 
estates now produce as much sugar as three times that number did 
in 1875. During recent years Canada has come forward as a large 
buyer of Guiana's sugar, and in 1904-1905 the same amount went 
there as to the United States, in each case over 44,000 tons, whereas 
in 1901-1902 the United States took 85,000 tons and Canada under 
8000 tons. Practically all the rum and molascuit go to England, 
and the molasses to Holland and Portuguese possessions. The lands 
on the coast and on the river banks up to the sand hills are of marked 
fertility, and can produce almost any tropical vegetable or fruit. 
Cultivation, however, save on the sugar, coffee and cocoa estates, 
and by a few exceptional small farmers, is carried on in a haphazard 
and half-hearted manner, and the problem of agricultural develop- 
ment is one of great difficulty for the government. Much of the 
privately-owned land is not beneficially occupied, and in many cases 
it is not possible even to learn to whom it belongs, and though there 
are vast tracts of uncultivated crown land where a large farm or a 
small homestead can be easily and cheaply acquired, the difficulties 
involved in clearing, draining, and in some cases of protecting it by 
dams, are prohibitive to all but the exceptionally determined. 

Prospecting for gold began in 1880, and from 188.1 to 1893-1894 
the output, chiefly from alluvial workings, increased from 250 oz. 
to nearly 140,000 oz. annually. The industry then received a serious 
check by the failure of several mines, and for nearly a decade was 
almost entirely in the hands of the small tributor, known locally as 
a pork-knocker. There has been some revival, chiefly due to foreign 
enterprise. At Omai on the Essequibo river a German syndicate 
worked a large concession on the hydraulic process of placer mining 
with considerable success, and more recently took to dredging on its 



GUIANA 



679 



flats. In the Puruni (a tributary of the Mazaruni) American capita- 
lists, working the Peters' mine, have established their workings to a 
considerable depth, besides constructing a road, 6p m. in length, 
from Kartabo point, at the confluence of the Guyuni and Mazaruni, 
to the Puruni river opposite the mine. An English syndicate started 
dredging in the Conawarook, a tributary of the Essequibo. The 
principal gold districts are on the Essequibo and its tributaries 
the chief being the Cuyuni, Mazaruni, Potaro and Conawarook 
and on the Barima, Barama and Waini rivers in the north-west 
district. There have been smaller workings, mostly unsuccessful, 
in the Demerara and Berbice rivers. 

Diamonds and other precious stones have been found in small 
quantities, and since 1900 efforts have been made to extend the 
output, nearly 1 1 ,000 carats weight of diamonds being exported in 
1904. But though the small stones found were of good water, the 
cost of transport to the diamond fields, on the Mazaruni river, was 
heavy, and after 1904 the industry declined. Laws dealing with 
gold and precious stones passed in 1880, 1886 and 1887, and regula- 
tions in 1899, were codified in 1902 and amended in 1905. 

Timber is cut, and balata and rubber collected, from crown lands 
by licences issued from the department of Lands and Mines. Wood- 
cutting, save on concessions held by a local company owning an 
up-country line of railway connecting the Demerara and Essequibo 
rivers, is limited to those parts of the forest which are close to the 
lower stretches of the rivers and creeks, the overland haulage of 
the heavy logs being both difficult and costly, while transport 
through the upper reaches of the rivers is impossible on account of 
the many cataracts and rapids. The average annual value of im- 
ports is 1,500,000, of which about two-thirds are from Great Britain 
and British possessions. Of the vessels trading with the colony, 
most are under the British flag, the remainder being principally 
American and Norwegian. 

The money of account is dollars and cents, but, with the exception 
of the notes of the two local banks, the currency is British sterling. 
The unit of land measure is the Rhynland rood, roughly equal to 
12 ft. 4 in. A Rhynland acre contains 300 square roods. 

Inland Communication, &c. The public roads extend along the 
coast from the Corentyn river to some 20 m. N. of the Essequibo 
mouth on the Aroabisci coast, and for a short distance up each of 
the principal rivers and creeks entering the sea between these 
points. A line of railway 6oJ m. in length runs from Georgetown 
to Rosignol on the left bank of the Berbice river opposite New 
Amsterdam; and another line 15 m. long starts from Vreed-en-hoop, 
on the left bank of the Demerara river opposite Georgetown, and 
runs to Greenwich Park on the right bank of the Essequibo river 
some 3 m. from its mouth. A light railway, metre gauge, 1 8$ m. 
in length, connects Wismar (on the left bank of the Demerara 
river some 70 m. from its mouth) with Rockstone (on the right bank 
of the Essequibo, and above the first series of cataracts in that river). 
Steamers run daily to and from Georgetown and Wismar, and 
launches to and from Rockstone and Tumatumari Fall on the 
Potaro, and all expeditions for the goldfields of the Essequibo and 
its tributaries above Rockstone travel by this route. Another 
steamer goes twice a week to Bartica at the confluence of the 
Essequibo and Mazaruni, and another weekly to Mt. Everard on 
the Barima, from which termini expeditions start to the other 
gold and diamond fields. Steamers also run from Georgetown to 
New Amsterdam and up the Berbice river for about 100 m. Above 
the termini of these steamer routes all travelling is done in keelless 
bateaux, propelled by paddlers and steered when coming through 
the rapids at both bow and stern by certificated bowmen and 
steersmen. Owing to the extreme dangers of this inland travelling, 
stringent regulations have been framed as to the loading of boats, 
supply of ropes and qualifications of men in charge, and the shooting 
of certain falls is prohibited. Voyages up-country are of necessity 
slow, but the return journey is made with comparatively great 
rapidity, distances laboriously covered on the up-trip in three days 
being done easily in seven hours when coming back. 

From England British Guiana is reached in sixteen days by the 
steamers of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, and in nineteen 
days by those of the direct line from London and Glasgow. There 
are also regular services from Canada, the United States, France 
and Holland. 

History. When, taken over in 1803 the prospects of three 
British colonies were by no means promising, and during the 
next decade the situation became very critical. Owing to the 
increased output of sugar by conquered Dutch and French 
colonies the English market was glutted and the markets of 
the continent of Europe were not available, Bonaparte having 
closed the ports. The years 1811 and 1812 were peculiarly 
disastrous, especially to those engaged in the manufacture of 
sugar, and at a public meeting held in Georgetown early in the 
latter year it was stated that the produce of the colony ordinarily 
worth 1,860,000 had on account of deteriorated value decreased 
by fully one-third. At this meeting it was resolved to petition 
the imperial parliament to allow the interchange of produce 



with the United States; a resolution which was unfortunately 
rendered abortive by the outbreak of war between England and 
the States in 1812, the trade of British Guiana being instead 
actually harried by American privateers. In his address to 
the Combined Court on the 2oth of October 1812 the governor 
(General Carmichael) stated that a vessel with government 
stores had been captured by an American privateer, and in 
February 1813 the imperial government sent H.M.S. " Peacock " 
to protect the coast. On the 23rd of that month in cruising 
along the east coast of Demerara the " Peacock " met the 
American privateer " Hornet," and though, after a gallant 
struggle, in which Captain Peake, R.N., was killed, the English 
ship was sunk with nearly all her crew, the colony did not suffer 
from any further depredations. In the following years news 
of the agitation in England in favour of emancipation gradually 
became known to the slaves and caused considerable unrest 
among them, culminating in 1823 in a serious outbreak on the 
estates on the east coast of Demerara. Negroes, demanding 
their freedom, attacked the houses of several managers, and 
although at most points these attacks were repulsed with but 
little loss on either side, the situation was so serious as to neces- 
sitate the calling out of the military. The ringleaders were 
arrested and promptly and vigorously dealt with, while a special 
court-martial was appointed to try the Rev. John Smith, of 
the London Missionary Society, who it was alleged had fostered 
the rising by his teachings to the slave congregation at his 
chapel in Le Ressouvenir. This trial was stigmatized as unfair 
by the missionary party in England, but on the whole appears 
to have been conducted decently by an undoubtedly unbiassed 
court. It is difficult now to form any very definite conclusion. 
Mr Smith certainly had great influence over the slaves, and 
while his teaching prior to the outbreak was at least ill-advised, 
he made no efforts while the disturbances were going on to use 
his influence on the side of law and order; indeed all he could 
say in his own defence was that he was ignorant of what was 
going on, a statement it is impossible to believe to have been 
strictly veracious. He was found guilty and sentenced to be 
hanged. It is obvious that it was never intended to carry out 
this sentence, and on the 2pth of November the governor an- 
nounced that he felt it imperative on him to transmit the findings 
of the court for His Majesty's consideration. The question of 
Smith's guilt or innocence created a great deal of feeling in 
England, the anti-slavery and missionary societies making it 
a basis for increased agitation in favour of the slaves; but 
the imperial government evidently agreed with the colonial 
executive in holding that he could not be exonerated of grave 
responsibility, as the order of the king was that while the sentence 
of death was remitted Mr Smith was to be dismissed from the 
colony and to enter into a recognizance in 2000 not to return 
to British Guiana or to reside in any other West Indian colony. 
This order reached Georgetown in April 1824, but Mr Smith 
had died in the city jail on the 6th of February of a pul- 
monary complaint from which he had been suffering for some 
time. 

Sir Benjamin d'Urban was governor from April 1824 to May 
1833, the principal event of his administration being the con- 
solidation in 1831 of the three colonies into one colony divided 
into three counties, Berbice, Demerara and Essequibo; 

Governor d'Urban was succeeded in June 1833 by Sir James 
Carmichael Smyth, who began his administration by a pro- 
clamation to the slaves stating that while the king intended to 
improve their condition, the details of his plans were not as yet 
completed, and warning them against impatience or insub- 
ordination. When the resolutions foreshadowing emancipation, 
passed by the House of Commons on the I2th of June 1833, 
reached the colony, the planters, to whom the governor's pro- 
clamation had been most distasteful, were thunderstruck and 
even the government was surprised. Naturally the slaves were 
wildly jubilant. Emancipation brought troublous times through 
which the governor steered the colony with great tact and firm- 
ness, serious troubles being nipped in the bud solely by his great 
personality, and the subsequent conflicts with the apprentices 



68o 



GUIANA 



might have been obviated had he lived longer. He died at 
Camp House on the 4th of March 1838. 

In the years following emancipation the colony was in a 
serious condition. The report of a commission in 1850 proved 
that it was virtually ruined, and only by the introduction of 
immigrants to provide a reliable labour supply were the sugar 
estates saved from total extinction. By 1853 the colony had 
begun to make headway, and Sir Henry Barkly, the then gover- 
nor, was able to state in his speech to the Combined Court in 
January that its progress was in every way satisfactory. During 
Governor Barkly's administration the long series of struggles 
between the legislature and the executive terminated, and when 
he left in May 1853 he did so with the respect and good-will of 
all classes. The strengthening of the labour supply was not 
effected without troubles. In 1847 the negroes in Berbice 
attacked the persons and property of the Portuguese immigrants, 
the riots spreading to Demerara and Essequibo, and not until 
the military were called out were the disturbances quelled. 
Similar riots in 1862 were only stopped by the prompt and 
firm action of the new governor, Mr (afterwards Sir) Francis 
Hincks, while rows between negroes and Chinese and negroes 
and East Indians were frequent. Gradually, however, things 
quieted down, and until 1883 the estates as a whole did well. 
In 1884 the price of sugar fell so seriously as to make the pro- 
spects of the colony very gloomy, and for nearly two decades 
proprietors had to be content with a price kept artificially low 
by bounty-fed beet-sugar, many estates being ruined, while 
those that survived only did so by the application of every 
economy, and by their owners availing themselves of every new 
discovery in the sciences of cultivation and manufacture. 

The year 1889 was marked by an outbreak on the part of a 
section of the negro population in Georgetown directed against 
the Portuguese residents there. A Portuguese had murdered 
his black paramour and had been convicted and sentenced to 
death. The governor commuted the sentence to penal servitude 
for life. Shortly after this a Portuguese stall-holder in the 
market assaulted a small black boy whom he suspected of 
pilfering, the latter having to be taken to a hospital, while the 
former, after being taken to a police station was, through some 
misunderstanding or informality, at once released. Almost 
immediately excitable and unreasoning negroes were rushing 
about loudly proclaiming that the boy was dead, that the 
Portuguese were allowed to kill black people and to go free, and 
calling on one another to take their own revenge. Mobs gathered 
quickly, attacked individual Portuguese and wrecked their 
shops and houses, and not until the city had been given up for 
two days to scenes of disgraceful disorder were the efforts of the 
police and special constables successful in quelling the disturb- 
ances. The damage done amounted to several thousands of 
dollars, the Portuguese owners being eventually compensated 
from general revenue. 

In 1884 the dispute as to the boundary with Venezuela 
became acute. It was reported to the colonial government that 
the government of Venezuela had granted to an American 
syndicate a concession which covered much of the territory 
claimed by Great Britain, and although prompt investigation 
by an agent despatched by the governor did not then disclose 
any trace of interference with British claims, a further visit in 
January 1885, made in consequence of reports that servants of 
the Manoa Company had torn down notices posted by Mr 
McTurk on his former visit, discovered that the British notices 
had been covered over by Venezuelan ones and resulted in the 
government of Great Britain declaring that it would thence- 
forward exercise jurisdiction up to and within a boundary 
known as "the modified Schomburgk line." Outposts were 
located at points on this line, and for some years Guianese police 
and Venezuelan soldiers faced one another across the Amacura 
creek in the Orinoco mouth and at Yuruan up the Cuyuni river. 
Guianese officers were, however, presumably instructed not 
actively to oppose acts of aggression by the Venezuelan govern- 
ment, for in January 1895 Venezuelan soldiers arrested Messrs 
D. D. Barnes and A. H. Baker, inspectors of police in charge at 



Yuruan station, conveyed them through Venezuela to Caracas, 
eventually allowing them to take steamer to Trinidad. For 
this act compensation was demanded and was eventually paid 
by Venezuela. The diplomatic question as to the boundary 
the results of which are stated above was passed out of the 
hands of the colony; see the account of the arbitration under 
VENEZUELA. 

The last two months of 1005 were marked by serious dis- . 
turbances in Georgetown, and in a lesser degree on the east 
and west banks of the Demerara river. On the zgth of November 
the dock labourers employed on the wharves in Georgetown 
struck for higher wages, and large crowds invaded the principal 
stores in the city, compelling men willing to work to desist and 
in some cases assaulting those who opposed them. By the 
evening of the 3Oth of November they had got so far out of 
hand as to necessitate the reading of the Riot Act and a pro- 
clamation by the governor (Sir F. M. Hodgson) forbidding all 
assemblies. On the morning of the ist of December serious 
disturbances broke out at Ruimvelt, a sugar estate directly 
south of Georgetown, where the cane-cutters had suddenly 
struck for higher pay, and the police were compelled to fire on 
the mob, killing some and wounding others. All through that 
day mobs in all parts of the city assaulted any white man they 
met, houses were invaded and windows smashed, and on two 
further occasions the police had to fire. At night torrential rains 
forced the rioters to shelter, and enabled the police to get rest, 
their places being taken by pickets of militiamen and special 
constables. On Saturday, the 2nd of December, the police had 
got the upper hand, and the arrival that night of H.M.S. 
" Sappho " and on Sunday of H.M.S. " Diamond " gave the 
government complete control of the situation. Threatened 
troubles on the sugar estates on the west bank were suppressed 
by the prompt action of the governor, and the arrest of large 
numbers of the rioters and their immediate trial by special 
courts restored thorough order. 

AUTHORITIES. See Raleigh's Voyages for the Discovery of Guiana 
1595-1596, (" Hakluyt " series) ; Laurence Keymis' Relation of 
the second Voyage to Guiana (1596), (" Hakluyt " series); Sir R. H. 
Schomburgk, Description of British Guiana (London, 1840); C. 
Waterton, Wanderings in South America, 1812-1825 (London, 1828); 
I. Rodway, History of British Guiana (Georgetown, 1891-1894); 
H. G. Dalton, History of British Guiana (London, 1855) ; J. W. 
Boddam Whetham, Roraima and British Guiana (London, 1879); 
C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of British Colonies; E. F. im Thurn, 
Among the Indians of Guiana (London, 1883); British Guiana 
Directory (Georgetown, 1906) ; G. D. Bayley, Handbook of British 
Guiana (Georgetown, 1909). (A. G. B.*) 

II. DUTCH GUIANA, or Surinam, has an area of about 57)9 
sq. m. British Guiana bounds it on the west and French on 
the east (the long unsettled question of the French 
boundary is dealt with in section III., FRENCH 
GUIANA) . The various peoples inhabiting Surinam are 
distributed according to the soil and the products. The Indians 
(Caribs, Arawaks, Warrous) live on the savannahs, or on the 
upper Nickerie, Coppename and Maroni, far from the planta- 
tions, cultivating their fields of manioc or cassava, and for the 
rest living by fishing and hunting. They number about 2000. 
The bush negroes (Marrons) dwell between 3 and 4 N., near 
the isles and cataracts. They are estimated at 10,000, and are 
employed in the transport of men and goods to the goldfields, 
the navigation of the rivers in trade with the Indians, and in the 
transport of wood to Paramaribo and the plantations. They 
are the descendants of runaway slaves, and before missionaries 
had worked among them their paganism retained curious traces 
of their former connexion with Christianity. Their chief god 
was Gran Gado (grand-god), his wife Maria, and his son Jesi 
Kist. Various minor deities were also worshipped, Ampuka the 
bush-god, Toni the water-god, &c. Their language was based 
on a bastard English, mingled with many Dutch, Portuguese 
and native elements. . Their chiefs are called gramman or grand 
man; but the authority of these men, and the peculiarities of 
language and religion, have in great measure died out owing 
to modern intercourse with the Dutch and others. The in- 
habitants of Paramaribo and the plantations comprise a variety 



Dutch 
Guiana. 



GUIANA 



681 



of races, represented by Chinese, Javanese, coolies from India 
and the West Indies, negroes and about 2000 whites. Of non- 
Christian immigrants there are about 6000 Mahommedans and 
12,000 Hindus; and Jews number about 1200. The total 
population was given in 1907 as 84,103, exclusive of Indians, 
&c., in the forests. Nearly one-half of this total are in Para- 
maribo and one-half in the districts. The population has shown 
a tendency to move from the districts to the town; thus in 
1852 there were 6000 persons in the town and 32,000 in the 
districts. 

The principal settlements have been made in the lower valley 
of the Surinam, or between that river and the Saramacca on 
the W. and the Commewyne on the E. The Surinam is the chief 
of a number of large rivers which rise in the Tumuc Humac 
range or the low hills between it and the sea, which they enter 
on the Dutch seaboard, between the Corentyn and the Maroni 
(Dutch Corantijn and Marcnvijne), which form the boundaries 
with British and French territories respectively. Between the 
rivers of Dutch Guiana there are remarkable cross channels 
available during the floods at least. As the Maroni communi- 
cates with the Cottica, which is in turn a tributary of the Comme- 
wyne, a boat can pass from the Maroni to Paramaribo; 
thence by the Sommelsdijk canal it can reach the Saramacca; 
and from the Saramacca it can proceed up the Coppename, and 
by means of the Nickerie find its way to the Corentyn. The 
rivers are not navigable inland to any considerable extent, as 
their courses are interrupted by rapids. The interior of the 
country consists for the most part of low hills, though an extreme 
height of 3800 ft. is known in the Wilhelmina Kette, in the 
west of the colony, about 3 50' to 4 N. The hinterland south 
of this latitude, and that part of the Tumuc Humac range along 
which the Dutch frontier runs, are, however, practically unex- 
plored. Like the other territories of Guiana the Dutch colony 
is divided physically into a low coast-land, savannahs and 
almost impenetrable forest. 

Meteorological observations have been carried on at five 
stations (Paramaribo, Coronie, Sommelsdijk, Nieuw-Nickerie 
and Groningen). The mean range of temperature for the day, 
month and year shows little variation, being respectively 
77-54-88-38 F., 76-1- 78-62 F. and 70-52 - 90-14 -F. 
The north-east trade winds prevail throughout the year, but 
the rainfall varies considerably; for December and January 
the mean is respectively 8-58 and 9-57 in., for May and June 
11-26 and 10-31 in., but for February and March 7-2 and6-8i in., 
and for September 2-48 and 2-0 in. The seasons comprise a 
long and a short dry season, and a period of heavy and of slight 
rainfall. 

Products and Trade. It has been found exceedingly difficult to 
exploit the produce of the forests. The most important crops and 
those supplying the chief exports are cocoa, coffee and sugar, all 
cultivated on the larger plantations, with rice, maize and bananas 
on the smaller or coast lands. Most of the larger plantations are 
situated on the lower courses of the Surinam, Commewyne, Nickerie 
and Cottica, and on the coast lands, rarely in the upper parts. 
Goldfields lie in the older rocks (especially the slate) of the upper 
Surinam, Saramacca and Maroni. The first section of a railway 
designed to connect the goldfields with Paramaribo was opened in 
1906. The annual production of gold amounts in value to about 
100,000, but has shown considerable fluctuation. Agriculture is 
the chief means of subsistence. About 42,000 acres are under 
cultivation. Of 30,000 persons whose occupation is given in official 
statistics, close upon 21,000 are engaged in agriculture or on the 
plantations, 2400 in gold-mining and only 1000 in trade. The 
exports increased in value from 200,800 in 1875 to 459,800 in 
1899, and imports from 260,450 in 1875 to 510,180 in 1899; but 
the average value of exports over five years subsequently was only 
414,000, while that of imports was 531,000. 

Administration. The colony is under a governor, who is president 
of an executive council, which also includes a vice-president and 
three members nominated by the crown. The legislative body is 
the states, the members of which are elected for six years by electors, 
of whom there is one for every 200 holders of the franchise. The 
colony is divided into sixteen districts. For the administration of 
justice there are three cantonal courts, two district courts, and the 
supreme court at Paramaribo, whose president and permanent 
members are nominated by the crown. The average local revenue 
(1901-1906) was about 276,000 and theexpenditureabout3i7,ooo; 
both fluctuated considerably, and a varying subvention is necessary 



from the home government (16,000 in 1902, 60,400 in 1906; the 
annual average is about 37,000). There are a civic guard of about 
1800 men and a militia of 500, with a small garrison. 

History. The history of the Dutch in Guiana, and the 
compression of their influence within its present limits, belongs 
to the general history of Guiana (above). Surinam and the 
Dutch islands of the West Indies were placed under a common 
government in 1828, the governor residing at Paramaribo, but 
in 1845 they were separated. Slavery was abolished in 1863. 
Labour then became difficult to obtain, and in 1870 a convention 
was signed between Holland and England for the regulation of 
the coolie traffic, and a Dutch government agent for Surinam 
was appointed at Calcutta. The problem was never satisfactorily 
solved, but the interest of the mother-country in the colony 
greatly increased during the last twenty years of the ipth 
century, as shown by the establishment of the Surinam Associa- 
tion, of the Steam Navigation Company's service to Paramaribo, 
and by the formation of a botanical garden for experimental 
culture at that town, as also by geological and other scientific 
expeditions, and the exhibition at Haarlem in 1898. 

AUTHORITIES. Among the older works on Surinam the first 
rank is held by Jan Jacob Hartsinck's masterly Beschryving van 
Guiana, of de Wilde Kust, in Zuid Amerika (2 vols., Amsterdam, 
1770). Extracts from this work, selected for their bearing upon 
British boundary questions, were translated and annotated by 
J. A. J. de Villiers (London, 1897). A valuable Geschiedenis der 
Kolonie van Suriname, by a number of " learned Jews," was 
published at Amsterdam in 1791 ; and it was supplemented and so 
far superseded by Wolbers, Geschiedenis van Suriname (Amsterdam 
1861). See further W. G. Palgrave, Dutch Guiana (London, 
1876); A. Kappler, Surinam, sein Land, &c. (Stuttgart, 1887); 
Prince Roland Bonaparte, Les Habitants de Surinam (Paris, 1884); 
K. Martin, " Benefit iiber eine Reise ins Gebiet des Oberen- 
Surinam," Bijdragen v. h. Inst. voor Tool Land en Volkenkunde, 
i. i. (The Hague); Westerouen van Meeteren, La Guyane neer- 
landaise (Leiden, 1884); H. Ten Kate, " Een en ander over 
Suriname," Gids (1888); G. Verschuur, "Voyages aux trois 
Guyanes, " Tour du monde (1893), pp. i, 49, 65; W. L. Loth, 
Beknopte Aardrijkskundige beschrijwng van Suriname (Amsterdam, 
1898), and Tijdschrift van het Aardrijkskundig Genootschap (1878), 
79. 93; Asch van Wyck, " La Colonie de Surinam," Les Pays-Bas 
(1898); L. Thompson, Overzicht der Geschiedenis van Suriname 
(The Hague, 1901); Catalogus der Nederl. W. I. ten Toonstelling te 
Haarlem (1899) ; Guide a trovers la section des Indes neerlandaises, 
p. 323 (Amsterdam, 1899); Surinaamsche Almanak (Paramaribo, 
annually). For the language of the bush-negroes see Wullschlaegel, 
Kurzgefasste neger-englische Grammatik (Bautzen, 1854), and Deutsch 
neger-englisches Worterbuch (Lobau, 1865). 

III. FRENCH GUIANA (Guyane}. This colony is situated 
between Dutch Guiana and Brazil. A delimitation of the 
territory belonging to France and the Netherlands 
was arrived at in 1891, by decision of the emperor of 
Russia. This question originated in the arrangement 
of 1836, that the river Maroni should form the frontier. It 
turned on the claim of the Awa or the Tapanahoni to be recog- 
nized as the main head-stream of the Maroni, and the final 
decision, in indicating the Awa, favoured the Dutch. In 1905 
certain territory lying between the upper Maroni and the Itany, 
the possession of which had not then been settled, was acquired 
by France by agreement between the French and Dutch govern- 
ments. The question of the exploitation of gold in the Maroni 
was settled by attributing alternate reaches of the river to France 
and Holland; while France obtained the principal islands in 
the lower Maroni. The additional territory thus attached to 
the French colony amounted to 965 sq. m. In December 1900 
the Swiss government as arbitrators fixed the boundary between 
French Guiana and Brazil as the river Oyapock and the water- 
shed on the Tumuc Humac mountains, thus awarding to France 
about 3000 of the 100,000 sq. m. which she claimed. This 
dispute was of earlier origin than that with the Dutch; dis- 
sensions between the French and the Portuguese relative to 
territory north of the Amazon occurred in the i7th century. 
In 1700 the Treaty of Lisbon made the contested area (known 
as the Terres du Cap du Nord) neutral ground. The treaty of 
Utrecht in 1713 indicated as the French boundary a river 
which the French afterwards claimed to be the Araguary, but 
the Portuguese asserted that the Oyapock was intended. After 



682 



GUIANA 



Brazil had become independent the question dragged on until 
in 1890-1895 there were collisions in the contested territory 
between French and Brazilian adventurers. This compelled 
serious action, and a treaty of arbitration, preliminary to the 
settlement, was signed at Rio de Janeiro in 1897. French Guiana, 
according to official estimate, has an area of about 51,000 sq. m. 
The population is estimated at about 30,000; its movement is 
not rapid. Of this total 12,350 live at Cayenne, 10,100 were 
in the communes, 5700 formed the penal population, 1500 were 
native Indians (Galibi, Emerillon, Oyampi) and 500 near 
Maroni were negroes. Apart from Cayenne, which was rebuilt 
after the great fire of 1888, the centres of population are un- 
important: Sinnamarie with 1500 inhabitants, Mana with 1750, 
Roura with 1200 and Approuague with 1150. In 1892 French 
Guiana was divided into fourteen communes, exclusive of the 
Maroni district. Belonging to the colony are also the three 
Safety Islands (Royale, Joseph and Du Diable the last notable 
as the island where Captain Dreyfus was imprisoned), the Enfant 
Perdu Island and the five Remire Islands. 

A considerable portion of the low coast land is occupied by 
marshes, with a dense growth of mangroves or, in the drier parts, 
with the pinot or wassay palm (Euterpe oleracea). Settlements are 
confined almost entirely to the littoral and alluvial districts. The 
forest-clad hills of the hinterland do not generally exceed 1500 ft. 
in elevation; that part of the Tumuc Humac range which forms 
the southern frontier may reach an extreme elevation of 2600 ft. 
But the dense tropical forests attract so much moisture from the 
ocean winds that the highlands are the birthplace of a large number 
of rivers which in the rainy season especially pour down vast volumes 
of water. Not less than 15 are counted between the Maroni and the 
Oyapock. South-eastward from the Maroni the first of importance 
is the Mana, which is navigable for large vessels 10 m. from its mouth, 
and for smaller vessels 27 m. farther. Passing the Sinnamary and 
the Kourou, the Oyock is next reached, near the mouth of which 
is Cayenne, the capital of the colony, and thereafter the Approuage. 
All these rivers take their rise in a somewhat elevated area about 
the middle of the colony; those streams which rise farther south, 
in the Tumuc Humac hills, are tributaries of the two frontier rivers, 
the Maroni on the one hand or the Oyapock on the other. 

Climate and Products. The rainy season begins in November or 
December, and lasts till the latter part of June; but there are 
usually three or four weeks of good weather in March. During the 
rest of the year there is often hardly a drop of rain for months, but 
the air is always very moist. At Cayenne the average annual rainfall 
amounts to fully 130 in., and it is naturally heavier in the interior. 
During the hotter part of the year August, September, October 
the temperature usually rises to about 86 F., but it hardly ever 
exceeds 88; in the colder season the mean is 79 and it seldom 
sinks so low as 70. Between day and night there is very little 
thermometric difference. The prevailing winds are the N.N.E. and 
the S.E. ; and the most violent are those of the N.E. During the 
rainy season the winds keep between N. and E., and during the 
dry season between S. and E. Hurricanes are unknown. In flora 
and fauna French Guiana resembles the rest of the Guianese region. 
Vegetation is excessively rich. Among leguminous trees, which are 
abundantly represented, the wacappu is the finest of many hard- 
wood trees. Caoutchouc and various palms are also common. 
The manioc is a principal source of food ; rice is an important object 
of cultivation; and maize, yams, arrowroot, bananas and the 
bread-fruit are also to be mentioned. Vanilla is one of the common 
wild plants of the country. The clove tree has been acclimatized, 
and in the latter years of the empire it formed a good source of 
wealth ; the cinnamon tree was also successfully introduced in 
1772, but like that of the pepper-tree and the nutmeg its cultivation 
is neglected. A very small portion of the territory indeed is de- 
voted to agriculture, although France has paid some attention to 
the development of this branch of activity. In 1880 a colonial 
garden was created near Cayenne; since 1894 an experimental 
garden has been laid out at Baduel. About 8200 acres are cultivated, 
of which 5400 acres are under cereals and rice, the remaining being 
under coffee (introduced in 1716), cacao, cane and other cultures. 
The low lands between Cayenne and Oyapock are capable of bearing 
colonial produce, and the savannahs might support large herds; 
cereals, root-crops and vegetables might easily be grown on the 
high grounds, and timber working in the interior should be pro- 
fitable. 

Gold-mining is the most important industry in the colony. 
Placers of great wealth have been discovered on the Awa, on the 
Dutch frontier and at Carsevenne in the territory which formed the 
subject of the Franco-Brazilian dispute. But wages are high and 
transport is costly, and the amount of gold declared at Cayenne did 
not average more than 130,550 oz. annually in 1900^-1905. Silver 
and iron have been found in various districts; kaolin is extracted 
in the plains of MontsineVy; and phosphates have been discovered 



at several places. Besides gold-workings, the industrial establish- 
ments comprise saw-mills, distilleries, brick-works and sugar- 
works. 

Trade and Communications. The commerce in 1885 amounted 
to 336,000 for imports and to 144,000 for exports; in 1897 the 
values were respectively 373,350 and 286,400, but in 1903, while 
imports had increased in value only to 418,720, exports had risen 
to 493,213. The imports consist of wines, flour, clothes, &c. ; 
the chief are gold, phosphates, timber, cocoa and rosewood essence. 
Cayenne is the only considerable port. One of the drawbacks to the 
development of the colony is the lack of labour. Native labour is 
most difficult to obtain, and attempts to utilize convict labour have 
not proved very successful. Efforts to supply the need by immigra- 
tion have not done so completely. The land routes are not numerous. 
The most important are that from Cayenne to Mana by way of 
Kourou, Sinnamarie and Iracoubo, and that from Cayenne along 
the coast to Kaw and the mouth of the Approuague. Towards the 
interior there are only foot-paths, badly made. By water, Cayenne 
is in regular communication with the Safety Islands (35 m.), and the 
mouth of the Maroni (80 m.), with Fort de France in the island of 
Martinique, where travellers meet the mail packet for France, and 
with Boston (U.S.A.). There is a French cable between Cayenne 
and Brest. 

Administration. The colony is administered by a commissioner- 
general assisted by a privy council, including the secretary general 
and chief of the judicial service, the military, penitentiary and 
administrative departments. In 1879 an elective general council 
of sixteen members was constituted. There are a tribunal of first 
instance and a higher tribunal at Cayenne, besides four justices of 
peace, one of whom has extensive jurisdiction in other places. Of 
the 256,000 demanded for the colony in the colonial budget for 
19061 2 35i o represented the estimated expenditure on the penal 
settlement, so that the cost of the colony was only about 21,000. 
The local budget for 1901 balancedat 99,000 and in 1905 at i 16,450. 
Instruction is given in the college of Cayenne and in six primary 
schools. At the head of the clergy is an apostolic prefect. The 
armed force consists of two companies of marine infantry, half a 
battery of artillery, and a detachment of gendarmerie, and com- 
prises about 380 men. The penal settlement was established by a 
decree of 1852. From that year until 1867, 18,000 exiles had been 
sent to Guiana, but for the next twenty years New Caledonia became 
the chief penal settlement in the French colonies. But in 1885- 
1887 French Guiana was appointed as a place of banishment for 
confirmed criminals and for convicts sentenced to more than eight 
years' hard labour. A large proportion of these men have been 
found unfit for employment upon public works. 

History. The Sieur La Revardiere, sent out in 1604 by 
Henry IV. to reconnoitre the country, brought back a favour- 
able report; but the death of the king put a stop to the projects 
of formal colonization. In 1626 a small body of traders from 
Rouen settled on the Sinnamary, and in 1635 a similar band 
founded Cayenne. The Compagnie du Cap Nord, founded by 
the people of Rouen in 1643 and conducted by Poncet de Bretigny, 
the Compagnie de la France Equinoxiale, established in 1645, 
and the second Compagnie de la France Equinoxiale, or Com- 
pagnie des Douze Seigneurs, established in 1652, were failures, 
the result of incompetence, mismanagement and misfortune. 
From 1654 the Dutch held the colony for a few years. The 
French Compagnie des Indes Occiden tales, chartered in 1664 
with a monopoly of Guiana commerce for forty years, proved 
hardly more successful than its predecessors; but in 1674 the 
colony passed under the direct control of the crown, and the 
able administration of Colbert began to tell favourably on its 
progress, although in 1686 an unsuccessful expedition against 
the Dutch in Surinam set back the advance of the French 
colony until the close of the century. 

The year 1763 was marked by a terrible disaster. Choiseul, 
the prime minister, having obtained for himself and his cousin 
Praslin a concession of the country between the Kourou and 
the Maroni, sent out about 12,000 volunteer colonists, mainly 
from Alsace and Lorraine. They were landed at the mouth of 
the Kourou, where no preparation had been made for their 
reception, and where even water was not to be obtained. Mis- 
management was complete; there was (for example) a shop for 
skates, whereas the necessary tools for tillage were wanting. 
By 1765 no more than 918 colonists remained alive, and these 
were a famished fever-stricken band. A long investigation in 
Paris resulted in the imprisonment of the incompetent leaders of 
the expedition. Several minor attempts at colonization in 
Guiana were made in the latter part of the century; but they 



GUIART GUIBERT, COMTE DE 



683 



all seemed to suffer from the same fatal prestige of failure. 
During the revolution band after band of political prisoners 
were transported to Guiana. The fate of the royalists, nearly 
600 in number, who were exiled on the i8th Fructidor (1797), 
was especially sad. Landed on the Sinnamary without shelter 
or food, two-thirds of them perished miserably. In 1800 Victor 
Hugues was appointed governor, and he managed to put the 
colony in a better state; but in 1809 his work was brought to 
a close by the invasion of the Portuguese and British. 

Though French Guiana was nominally restored to the French 
in 1814, it was not really surrendered by the Portuguese till 
1817. Numerous efforts were now made to establish the colony 
firmly, although its past misfortunes had prejudiced the public 
mind in France against it. In 1822 the first steam sugar mills 
were introduced; in 1824 an agricultural colony (Nouvelle 
Angouleme) was attempted in the Mana district, which, after 
failure at first, became comparatively successful. The emanci- 
pation of slaves and the consequent dearth of labour almost 
ruined the development of agricultural resources about the 
middle of the century, but in 1853 a large body of African 
immigrants was introduced. The discovery of gold on the 
Approuague in 1855 caused feverish excitement, and seriously 
disturbed the economic condition of the country. 

AUTHORITIES. A detailed bibliography of French Guiana will be 
found in Ternaux-Compans, Notice historique de la Guyane franc.aise 
(Paris, 1843). Among more recent works, see E. Bassieres, Notice 
sur la Guyane, issued on the occasion of the Paris Exhibition (1900) ; 
Publications de la societe d'etudes pour la colonisation de la Guyane 
franc.aise (Paris, 1843-1844); H. A. Coudreau, La France equinoxiale 
(1887), Dialectes indiens de Guyane (1891), Dix ansde Guyane(i8g2), 
and Chez nos Indiens (1893), all at Paris; G. Brousseau, Les 
Richesses de la Guyane fran$aise (Paris, 1901); L. F. Viala, Les 
Trois Guyanes (Montpellier, 1893). 

GUIART (or GTJIARD), GUILLAUME (d. c. 1316), French 
chronicler and poet, was probably born at Orleans, and served 
in the French army in Flanders in 1304. Having been disabled 
by a wound he began to write, lived at Arras and then in Paris, 
thus being able to consult the large store of manuscripts in the 
abbey of St Denis, including the Grandes chroniques de France. 
Afterwards he appears as a menestrel de bouche. Guiart's poem 
Branche des royaulx lignages, was written and then rewritten 
between 1304 and 1307, in honour of the French king Philip IV., 
and in answer to the aspersions of a Flemish poet. Comprising 
over 21,000 verses it deals with the history of the French kings 
from the time of Louis VIII.; but it is only really important 
for the period after 1296 and for the war in Flanders from 1301 
to 1304, of which it gives a graphic account, and for which it is 
a high authority. It was first published by J. A. Buchon 
(Paris, 1828), and again in tome xxii. of the Recueil des historiens 
des Gaules et de la France (Paris, 1865). 

See A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome iii. (Paris, 
1903). 

GUIBERT, or WIBERT (c. 1030-1100), of Ravenna, antipope 
under the title of Clement III. from the 25th of June 1080 until 
September noo, was born at Parma between 1020 and 1030 of 
the noble imperialist family, Corregio. He entered the priest- 
hood and was appointed by the empress Agnes, chancellor and, 
after the death of Pope Victor II. (1057), imperial vicar in Italy. 
He strove to uphold the imperial authority during Henry IV. 's 
minority, and presided over the synod at Basel (1061) which 
annulled the election of Alexander II. and created in the person 
of Cadalous, bishop of Parma, the antipope Honorius II. 
Guibert lost the chancellorship in 1062. In 1073, through the 
influence of Empress Agnes and the support of Cardinal Hilde- 
brand, he obtained the archbishopric of Ravenna and swore 
fealty to Alexander II. and his successors. He seems to have 
been at first on friendly terms with Gregory VII., but soon 
quarrelled with him over the possession of the city of Imola, 
and henceforth was recognized as the soul of the imperial faction 
in the investiture contest. He allied himself with Cencius, 
Cardinal Candidus and other opponents of Gregory at Rome, 
and, on his refusal to furnish troops or to attend the Lenten 
synod of 1075, he was ecclesiastically suspended by the pope. 
He was probably excommunicated at the synod of Worms 



(1076) with other Lombard bishops who sided with Henry IV., 
and at the Lenten synod of 1078 he was banned by name. The 
emperor, having been excommunicated for the second time in 
March 1080, convened nineteen bishops of his party at Mainz 
on the 3ist of May, who pronounced the deposition of Gregory; 
and on the 25th of June he caused Guibert to be elected pope 
by thirty bishops assembled at Brixen. Guibert, whilst retain- 
ing possession of his archbishopric, accompanied his imperial 
master on most of the latter's military expeditions. Having 
gained Rome, he was installed in the Lateran and consecrated 
as Clement III. on the 24th of March 1084. One week later, 
on Easter Sunday, he crowned Henry IV. and Bertha in St 
Peter's. Clement survived not only Gregory VII. but also 
Victor III. and Urban II., maintaining his title to the end and 
in great measure his power over Rome and the adjoining regions. 
Excommunication was pronounced against him by all his rivals. 
He was driven out of Rome finally by crusaders in 1097, and 
sought refuge in various fortresses on his own estates. St 
Angelo, the last Guibertist stronghold in Rome, fell to Urban II. 
on the 24th of August 1098. Clement, on the accession of 
Paschal II. in 1099, prepared to renew his struggle but was 
driven from Albano by Norman troops and died at Civita 
Castellana in September noo. His ashes, which were said by 
his followers to have worked miracles, were thrown into the 
water by Paschal II. 

See J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. 
bis Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); Jaffe'-Wattenbach, Regesta pontif. 
Roman. (2nd ed., 1885-1888); K. J.von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, 
vol. v. (2nd ed.); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. iv., 
trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); and O. 
Kohncke, Wibert von Ravenna (Leipzig, 1888). (C. H. HA.). 

GUIBERT (1053-1124), of Nogent, historian and theologian, 
was born of noble parents at Clermont-en-Beauvoisis, and 
dedicated from infancy to the church. He received his early 
education at the Benedictine abbey of Flavigny (Flaviacum) 
or St Germer, where he studied with great zeal, devoting himself 
at first to the secular poets, an experience which left its imprint 
on his works; later changing to theology, through the influence 
of Anselm of Bee, afterwards of Canterbury. In 1104, he was 
chosen to be head of the abbey of Notre Dame de Nogent and 
henceforth took a prominent part in ecclesiastical affairs. His 
autobiography (De vita sua, sive monodiarum), written towards 
the close of his life, gives many picturesque glimpses of his time 
and the customs of his country. The description of the com- 
mune of Laon is an historical document of the first order. The 
same local colour lends charm to his history of the first crusade 
(Gesta Dei per Francos) written about mo. But the history 
is largely a paraphrase, in ornate style, of the Gesta Francorum 
of an anonymous Norman author (see CRUSADES); and when 
he comes to the end of his authority, he allows his book to 
degenerate into an undigested heap of notes and anecdotes. 
At the same time his high birth and his position in the church 
give his work an occasional value. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Guibert's works, edited by d'Achery, were first 
published in 1651, in I vol. folio, at Paris ( Venerabilis Guiberti 
abbatis B. Mariae de Novigento opera omnia), and republished 
in Migne's Patrologia Latino, yols. clvi. and clxxxiv. They include, 
besides minor works, a treatise on homiletics (" Liber quo ordine 
sermo fieri debeat ") ; ten books of Moralia on Genesis, begun in 
1084, but not completed until in6,composed on the model of Gregory 
the Great's Moralia in Jpbum; five books of Tropologiae on Hosea, 
Amos and the Lamentations; a treatise on the Incarnation, against 
the Jews; four books De pignoribus sanctorum, a remarkably free 
criticism on the abuses of saint and relic worship; three books of 
autobiography, De vita sua, sive monodiarum ; and eight books of 
the Historia quae_ dicitur Gesta Dei per Francos, sive historiaHiero- 
solymitana (the ninth book is by another author). Separate editions 
exist of the last named, in J. Bongars, Gesta Dei per Francos, i., 
and Recueil des historiens des croisades, hist. Occtd., iv. 115-263. 
It has been translated into French in Guizot'sCoWec/ion, ix. 1-338. 
See H. von Sybel, Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (Leipzig, 1881); 
B. Monod, Le Maine Guibert et son temps (Paris, 1905) ;and Guibert 
de Nogent; histoire de sa vie, edited by G. Bourgin (Paris, 1907). 

GUIBERT, JACQUES ANTOINE HIPPOLYTE, COMTE DE 
(1743-1790), French general and military writer, was born at 
Montauban, and at the age of thirteen accompanied his father, 
Charles Benoit, comte de Guibert (1715-1786), chief of staff to 



68 4 



GUICCIARDINI 



Marshal de Broglie, throughout the war in Germany, and won 
the cross of St Louis and the rank of colonel in the expedition 
to Corsica (1767). In 1770 he published his Essa i general de 
tactique in London, and this celebrated work appeared in numer- 
ous subsequent editions and in English, German and even 
Persian translations (extracts also in Liskenne and Sauvan, 
Bibl. historique et militaire, Paris, 1845). Of this work (for a 
detailed critique of which see Max Jahns, Gesck. d, Kriegswissen- 
schaften, vol. iii. pp. 2058-2070 and references therein) it may be 
said that it was the best essay on war produced by a soldier 
during a period in which tactics were discussed even in the salon 
and military literature was more abundant than at any time up 
to 1871. Apart from technical questions, in which Guibert's 
enlightened conservatism stands in marked contrast to the 
doctrinaire progressiveness of Menil Durand, Folard and others, 
the book is chiefly valued for its broad outlook on the state of 
Europe, especially of military Europe in the period 1763-1792. 
One quotation may be given as being a most remarkable prophecy 
of the impending revolution in the art of war, a revolution which 
the " advanced " tacticians themselves scarcely foresaw. " The 
standing armies, while a burden on the people, are inadequate 
for the achievement of great and decisive results in war, and 
meanwhile the mass of the people, untrained in arms, de- 
generates. . . . The hegemony over Europe will fall to that 
nation which . . . becomes possessed of manly virtues and 
creates a national army " a prediction fulfilled almost to the 
letter within twenty years of Guibert's death. In 1773 he 
visited Germany and was present at the Prussian regimental 
drills and army manoeuvres; Frederick the Great, recognizing 
Guibert's ability, showed great favour to the young colonel and 
freely discussed military questions with him. Guibert's Journal 
d'un voyage en Allemagne was published, with a memoir, by 
Toulongeon (Paris, 1803). His Defense du systeme de guerre 
moderne, a reply to his many critics (Neuchatel, 1779) is a 
reasoned and scientific defence of the Prussian method of 
tactics, which formed the basis of his work when in 1775 he began 
to co-operate with the count de St Germain in a series of much- 
needed and successful reforms in the French army. In 1777, 
however, St Germain fell into disgrace, and his fall involved that 
of Guibert who was promoted to the rank of marechal de camp 
and relegated to a provincial staff appointment. In his semi- 
retirement he vigorously defended his old chief St Germain 
against his detractors. On the eve of the Revolution he was 
recalled to the War Office, but in his turn he became the object 
of attack and he died, practically of disappointment, on the 
6th of May 1790. Other works of Guibert, besides those men- 
tioned, are: Observations sur la constitution politique el militaire 
des armies de S. M. Prussienne (Amsterdam, 1778), loges of 
Marshal Catinat (1775), of Michel de 1'Hopital (1778), and of 
Frederick the Great (1787). Guibert was a member of the 
Academy from 1786, and he also wrote a tragedy, Le Connt table 
de Bourbon (1775) and a journal of travels in France and Switzer- 
land. 

See Toulongeon, floge veridique de Guibert (Paris, 1 790) ; Madame 
de Stael, loge de Guibert; Bardin, Notice historique du general 
Guibert (Paris, 1836); Flavian d'Aldeguier, Discours sur la vie et 
les ecrits du comic de Guibert (Toulouse, 1855); Count Forestie, 
Biographic du comte de Guibert (Montauban, 1855); Count zur 
Lippe, " Friedr. derGrosse und Oberst Guibert" (Militar-WochenblaU, 
1873, 9 and 10). 

GUICCIARDINI, FRANCESCO (1483-1540), the celebrated 
Italian historian and statesman, was born at Florence in the 
year 1483, when Marsilio Ficino held him at the font of baptism. 
His family was illustrious and noble; and his ancestors for 
many generations had held the highest posts of honour in the 
state, as may be seen in his own genealogical Ricordi autobio- 
grafici e di famiglia (Op. ined. vol. x.). After the usual educa- 
tion of a boy in grammar and elementary classical studies, his 
father, Piero, sent him to the universities of Ferrara and Padua, 
where he stayed until the year 1505. The death of an uncle, 
who had occupied the see of Cortona with great pomp, induced 
the young Guicciardini to hanker after an ecclesiastical career. 
He already saw the scarlet of a cardinal awaiting him, and to 



this eminence he would assuredly have risen. His father, how- 
ever, checked this ambition, declaring that, though he had five 
sons, he would not suffer one of them to enter the church in its 
then state of corruption and debasement. Guicciardini, whose 
motives were confessedly ambitious (see Ricordi, Op. ined. 
x. 68), turned his attention to law, and at the age of twenty-three 
was appointed by the Signoria of Florence to read the Institutes 
in public. Shortly afterwards he engaged himself in marriage 
to Maria, daughter of Alamanno Salviati, prompted, as he 
frankly tells us, by the political support which an alliance with 
that great family would bring him (ib. x. 71). He was then 
practising at the bar, where he won so much distinction that the 
Signoria, in 1512, entrusted him with an embassy to the court 
of Ferdinand the Catholic. Thus he entered on the real work 
of his life as a diplomatist and statesman. His conduct upon that 
legation was afterwards severely criticized; for his political 
antagonists accused him of betraying the true interests of the 
commonwealth, and using his influence for the restoration of 
the exiled house of Medici to power. His Spanish correspond- 
ence with the Signoria (Op. ined. vol. vi.) reveals the extra- 
ordinary power of observation and analysis which was a chief 
quality of his mind; and in Ferdinand, hypocritical and pro- 
foundly dissimulative, he found a proper object for his scientific 
study. To suppose that the young statesman learned his frigid 
statecraft in Spain would be perhaps too simple a solution of 
the problem offered by his character, and scarcely fair to the 
Italian proficients in perfidy. It is clear from Guicciardini 's 
autobiographical memoirs that he was ambitious, calculating, 
avaricious and power-loving from his earliest years; and in 
Spain he had no more than an opportunity of studying on a 
large scale those political vices which already ruled the minor 
potentates of Italy. Still the school was pregnant with in- 
structions for so apt a pupil. Guicciardini issued from this first 
trial of his skill with an assured reputation for diplomatic ability, 
as that was understood in Italy. To unravel plots and weave 
counterplots; to meet treachery with fraud; to parry force 
with sleights of hand; to credit human nature with the basest 
motives, while the blackest crimes were contemplated with cold 
enthusiasm for their cleverness, was reckoned then the height 
of political sagacity. Guicciardini could play the game to per- 
fection. In 1515 Leo X. took him into service, and made him 
governor of Reggio and Modena. In 1521 Parma was added to 
his rule, and in 1523 he was appointed viceregent of Romagna 
by Clement VII. These high offices rendered Guicciardini the 
virtual master of the papal states beyond the Apennines, during 
a period of great bewilderment and difficulty. The copious 
correspondence relating to his administration has recently been 
published (Op. ined. vols. vii., viii.). In 1526 Clement gave him 
still higher rank as lieutenant-general of the papal army. While 
holding this commission, he had the humiliation of witnessing 
from a distance the sack of Rome and the imprisonment of 
Clement, without being able to rouse the perfidious duke of 
Urbino into activity. The blame of Clement's downfall did not 
rest with him; for it was merely his duty to attend the camp, 
and keep his master informed of the proceedings of the generals 
(see the Correspondence, Op. ined. vols. iv., v.). Yet Guicciar- 
dini's conscience accused him, for he had previously counselled 
the pope to declare war, as he notes in a curious letter to himself 
written in 1527 (Op. ined., x. 104). Clement did not, however, 
withdraw his confidence, and in 1531 Guicciardini was advanced 
to the governorship of Bologna, the most important of all the 
papal lord-lieutenancies (Correspondence, Op. ined. vol. ix.) . This 
post he resigned in 1534 on the election of Paul III., preferring 
to follow the fortunes of the Medicean princes. It may here be 
noticed that though Guicciardini served three popes through a 
period of twenty years, or perhaps because of this, he hated the 
papacy with a deep and frozen bitterness, attributing the woes 
of Italy to the ambition of the church, and declaring he had 
seen enough of sacerdotal abominations to make him a Lutheran 
(see Op. ined. i. 27, 104, 96, and 1st. d' It., ed. Ros., ii. 218). 
The same discord between his private opinions and his public 
actions may'be traced in his conduct subsequent to 1534. As a 



GUICCIARDINI 



685 



political theorist, Guicciardini believed that the best form of 
government was a commonwealth administered upon the type 
of the Venetian constitution (Op. ined, i.^6; ii. 130 sq.); and 
we have ample evidence to prove that he had judged the tyranny 
of the Medici at its true worth (Op. ined. i. 171, on the tyrant; 
the whole Storia Fiorentina and Reggimento di Firenze, ib. i. 
and iii., on the Medici). Yet he did not hesitate to place his 
powers at the disposal of the most vicious members of that 
house for the enslavement of Florence. In 1527 he had been 
declared a rebel by the Signoria on account of his well-known 
Medicean prejudices; and in 1530. deputed by Clement to 
punish the citizens after their revolt, he revenged himself with a 
cruelty and an avarice that were long and bitterly remembered. 
When, therefore, he returned to inhabit Florence in 1534, he 
did so as the creature of the dissolute Alessandro de' Medici. 
Guicciardini pushed his servility so far as to defend this in- 
famous despot at Naples in 1535, before the bar of Charles V., 
from the accusations brought against him by the Florentine 
exiles (Op. ined. vol. ix.). He won his cause; but in the eyes 
of all posterity he justified the reproaches of his contemporaries, 
who describe him as a cruel, venal, grasping seeker after power, 
eager to support a despotism for the sake of honours, offices 
and emoluments secured for himself by a bargain with the 
oppressors of his country. Varchi, Nardi, Jacopo Pitti and 
Bernardo Segni are unanimous upon this point; but it is only 
the recent publication of Guicciardini 's private MSS. that has 
made us understand the force of their invectives. To plead 
loyalty or honest political conviction in defence of his Medicean 
partianship is now impossible, face to face with the opinions 
expressed in the Ricordi politici and the Storia Fiorentina. 
Like Machiavelli, but on a lower level, Guicciardini was willing 
to " roll stones," or to do any dirty work for masters whom, 
in the depth of his soul, he detested and despised. After the 
murder of Duke Alessandro in 1537, Guicciardini espoused the 
cause of Cosimo de' Medici, a boy addicted to field sports, and 
unused to the game of statecraft. The wily old diplomatist 
hoped to rule Florence as grand vizier under this inexperienced 
princeling. He was mistaken, however, in his schemes, for 
Cosimo displayed the genius of his family for politics, and coldly 
dismissed his would-be lord-protector. Guicciardini retired in 
disgrace to his villa, where he spent his last years in the com- 
position of the Storia d' Italia. He died in 1540 without male 
heirs. 

Guicciardini was the product of a cynical and selfish age, 
and his life illustrated its sordid influences. Of a cold and 
worldly temperament, devoid of passion, blameless in his 
conduct as the father of a family, faithful as the servant of his 
papal patrons, severe in the administration of the provinces 
committed to his charge, and indisputably able in his conduct 
of affairs, he was at the same time, and in spite of these qualities, 
a man whose moral nature inspires a sentiment of liveliest re- 
pugnance. It is not merely that he was ambitious, cruel, 
revengeful and avaricious, for these vices have existed in men 
far less antipathetic than Guicciardini. Over and above those 
faults, which made him odious to his fellow-citizens, we trace in 
him a meanness that our century is less willing to condone. 
His phlegmatic and persistent egotism, his sacrifice of truth and 
honour to self-interest, his acquiescence in the worst conditions 
of the world, if only he could use them for his own advantage, 
combined with the glaring discord between his opinions and his 
practice, form a character which would be contemptible in our 
eyes were it not so sinister. The social and political decrepitude 
of Italy, where patriotism was unknown, and only selfishness 
survived of all the motives that rouse men to action, found its 
representative and exponent in Guicciardini. When we turn 
from the man to the author, the decadence of the age and race 
that could develop a political philosophy so arid in its cynical 
despair of any good in human nature forces itself vividly upon 
our notice. Guicciardini seems to glory in his disillusionment, 
and uses his vast intellectual ability for the analysis of the 
corruption he had helped to make incurable. If one single 
treatise of that century should be chosen to represent the spirit 



of the Italian people in the last phase of the Renaissance, the 
historian might hesitate between the Principe of Machiavelli 
and the Ricordi politici of Guicciardini. The latter is perhaps 
preferable to the former on the score of comprehensiveness. 
It is, moreover, more exactly adequate to the actual situation, 
for the Principe has a divine spark of patriotism yet lingering 
in the cinders of its frigid science, an idealistic enthusiasm sur- 
viving in its moral aberrations; whereas a great Italian critic 
of this decade has justly described the Ricordi as " Italian 
corruption codified and elevated to a rule of life." Guicciardini 
is, however, better known as the author of the Storia d'ltalia, 
that vast and detailed picture of his country's sufferings between 
the years 1494 and 1532. Judging him by this masterpiece of 
scientific history, he deserves less commendation as a writer 
than as a thinker and an analyst. The style is wearisome and 
prolix, attaining to precision at the expense of circumlocution, 
and setting forth the smallest particulars with the same dis- 
tinctness as the main features of the narrative. The whole 
tangled skein of Italian politics, in that involved and stormy 
period, is unravelled with a patience and an insight that are 
above praise. It is the crowning merit of the author that he 
never ceases to be an impartial spectator a cold and curious 
critic. We might compare him to an anatomist, with knife and 
scalpel dissecting the dead body of Italy, and pointing out the 
symptoms of her manifold diseases with the indifferent analysis 
of one who has no moral sensibility. This want of feeling, while 
it renders Guicciardini a model for the scientific student, has 
impaired the interest of his history. Though he lived through 
that agony of the Italian people, he does not seem to be aware 
that he is writing a great historical tragedy. He takes as much 
pains in laying bare the trifling causes of a petty war with Pisa 
as in probing the deep-seated ulcer of the papacy. Nor is he 
capable of painting the events in which he took a part, in their 
totality as a drama. Whatever he touches, lies already dead 
on the dissecting table, and his skill is that of the analytical 
pathologist. Consequently, he fails to understand the essential 
magnitude of the task, or to appreciate the vital vigour of the 
forces contending in Europe for mastery. This is very notice- 
able in what he writes about the Reformation. Notwithstanding 
these defects, inevitable in a writer of Guicciardini's tempera- 
ment, the Storia d' Italia was undoubtedly the greatest historical 
work that had appeared since the beginning of the modern era. 
It remains the most solid monument of the Italian reason in 
the 1 6th century, the final triumph of that Florentine school 
of philosophical historians which included Machiavelli, Segni, 
Pitti, Nardi, Varchi, Francesco Vettori and Donato Giannotti. 
Up to the year 1857 the fame of Guicciardini as a writer, and the 
estimation of him as a man, depended almost entirely upon the 
History of Italy, and on a few ill-edited extracts from his aphor- 
isms. At that date his representatives, the counts Piero and 
Luigi Guicciardini, opened their family archives, and com- 
mitted to Signer Giuseppe Canestrini the publication of his 
hitherto inedited MSS. in ten important volumes. The vast 
mass of documents and finished literary work thus given to 
the world has thrown a flood of light upon Guicciardini, whether 
we consider him as author or as citizen. It has raised his re- 
putation as a political philosopher into the first rank, where he 
now disputes the place of intellectual supremacy with his friend 
Machiavelli; but it has coloured our moral judgment of his 
character and conduct with darker dyes. From the stores of 
valuable materials contained in those ten volumes, it will be 
enough here to cite (i) the Ricordi politici, already noticed, 
consisting of about 400 aphorisms on political and social topics; 
(2) the observations on Machiavelli's Discorsi, which bring into 
remarkable relief the views of Italy's two great theorists on 
statecraft in the i6th century, and show that Guicciardini 
regarded Machiavelli somewhat as an amiable visionary or 
political enthusiast; (3) the Storia Fiorentina, an early work 
of the author, distinguished by its animation of style, brilliancy 
of portraiture, and liberality of judgment; and (4) the Dialogo 
del reggimento di Firenze, also in all probability an early work, 
in which the various forms of government suited to an Italian 



686 



GUICHARD GUICHEN 



commonwealth are discussed with infinite subtlety, contrasted, 
and illustrated from the vicissitudes of Florence up to the year 
1494. To these may be added a series of short essays, entitled 
Discorsi politici, composed during Guicciardini's Spanish lega- 
tion. It is only after a careful perusal of these minor works 
that the student of history may claim to have comprehended 
Guicciardini, and may feel that he brings with him to the con- 
sideration of the Stori'a d' Italia the requisite knowledge of the 
author's private thoughts and jealously guarded opinions. 
Indeed, it may be confidently affirmed that those who desire 
to gain an insight into the true principles and feelings of the 
men who made and wrote history in the i6th century will find 
it here far more than in the work designed for publication by the 
writer. Taken in combination with Machiavelli's treatises, the 
Opere inedite furnish a comprehensive body of Italian political 
philosophy anterior to the date of Fra Paolo Sarpi. (J. A. S.) 

See Rosini's edition of the Storia d' Italia (10 vols.,Pisa, 1819), 
and the Opere inedite, in 10 vols., published at Florence, 1857. 
A complete and initial edition of Guicciardini's works is now in 
preparation in the hands of Alessandro Gherardi of the Florence 
archives. Among the many studies on Guicciardini we may mention 
Agostino Rossi's Francesco Guicciardini e il governo Fiorentino 
(2 vols., Bologna, 1896), based on many new documents; F. de 
Sanctis's essay " L'Uomo del Guicciardini," in his Nuovi Saggi 
critici (Naples, 1879), and many passages in Professor P. Villari's 
Machiavelli (Eng. trans., 1892); E. Benoist's Guichardin, historien 
et homme d'etat italien an XVI" siecle (Paris, 1862), and C.Gioda's 
Francesco Guicciardini e le sue opere inedite (Bologna, 1880) are not 
without value, but the authors had not had access to many im- 
portant documents since published. See also Geoffrey's article 
" Une Autobiographic de Guichardin d'apres ses ceuvres in^dites," 
in the Revue des deux mondes (ist of February 1874). 

GUICHARD, KARL GOTTLIEB (1724-1775), soldier and 
military writer, known as QUINTUS ICILIUS, was born at Magde- 
burg in 1724, of a family of French refugees. He was educated 
for the Church, and at Leiden actually preached a sermon as a 
candidate for the pastorate. But he abandoned theology for 
more secular studies, especially that of ancient history, in which 
his learning attracted the notice of the prince of Orange, who 
promised him a vacant professorship at Utrecht. On his arrival, 
however, he found that another scholar had been elected by the 
local authorities, and he thereupon sought and obtained a 
commission in the Dutch army. He made the campaigns of 
1747-48 in the Low Countries. In the peace which followed, 
his combined military and classical training turned his thoughts 
in the direction of ancient military history. His notes on this 
subject grew into a treatise, and in 1754 he went over to England 
in order to consult various libraries. In 1757 his Memoires 
militaires sur les Grecs et les Remains appeared at the Hague, and 
when Carlyle wrote his Frederick the Great it had reached its 
fifth edition. Coming back, with English introductions, to the 
Continent, he sought service with Ferdinand of Brunswick, who 
sent him on to Frederick the Great, whom he joined in January 
1758 at Breslau. The king was very favourably impressed with 
Guichard and his works, and he remained for nearly 18 months 
in the royal suite. His Prussian official name of Quintus Icilius 
was the outcome of a friendly dispute with the king (see Nikolai, 
Anekdolen, vi. 129-145; Carlyle, Frederick the Great, viii. 
113-114). Frederick in discussing the battle of Pharsalia spoke 
of a centurion Quintus Caecilius as Q. Icilius. Guichard ventured 
to correct him, whereupon the king said, " You shall be Quintus 
Icilius," and as Major Quintus Icilius he was forthwith gazetted 
to the command of a free battalion. This corps he commanded 
throughout the later stages of the Seven Years' War, his battalion, 
as time went on, becoming a regiment of three battalions, and 
Quintus himself recruited seven more battalions of the same 
kind of troops. His command was almost always with the 
king's own army in these campaigns, but for a short time it 
fought in the western theatre under Prince Henry. When not 
on the march he was always at the royal headquarters, and it 
was he who brought about the famous interview between the 
king and Gellert (see Carlyle, Frederick the Great, ix. 109; 
Gellert, Briefwechsel mil Demoiselle Lucius, ed. Ebert, Leipzig, 
1823, pp. 629-631) on the subject of national German literature. 
On 22nd January 1761 Quintus was ordered to sack the castle 



of Hubertusburg (a task which Major-General Saldern had point- 
blank refused to undertake, from motives of conscience), and 
carried out his task, it is said, to his own very considerable 
profit. The place cannot have been seriously injured, as it was 
soon afterwards the meeting-place of the diplomatists whose 
work ended in the peace of Hubertusburg, but the king never 
ceased to banter Quintus on his supposed depredations. The 
very day of Frederick's triumphant return from the war saw the 
disbanding of most of the free battalions, including that of 
Quintus, but the major to the end of his life remained with the 
king. He was made lieutenant-colonel in 1765, and in 1773, 
in recognition of his work Memoires critiques et historiques sur 
plusieurs points d'antiquites militaires, dealing mainly with 
Caesar's campaigns in Spain (Berlin, 1773), was promoted colonel. 
He died at Potsdam, 1775. 

GUICHEN, LUC URBAIN DE BOUEXIC, COMTE DE (1712- 
1790), French admiral, entered the navy in 1730 as " garde de la 
Marine," the first rank in the corps of royal officers. His pro- 
motion was not rapid. It was not till 1748 that he became 
" lieutenant de vaisseau," which was, however, a somewhat 
higher rank than the lieutenant in the British navy, since it 
carried with it the right to command a frigate. He was " capi- 
taine de vaisseau," or post captain, in 1756. But his reputation 
must have been good, for he was made chevalier de Saint Louis 
in 1748. In 1775 he was appointed to the frigate "Terpsichore," 
attached to the training squadron, in which the due de Chartres, 
afterwards notorious as the due d'Orleans and as Philippe 
Egalite, was entered as volunteer. In the next year he was 
promoted chef d'escadre, or rear-admiral. When France had 
become the ally of the Americans in the War of Independence, he 
hoisted his flag in the Channel fleet, and was present at the battle 
of Ushant on the 27th of July 1779. In March of the following 
year he was sent to the West Indies with a strong squadron 
and was there opposed to Sir George Rodney. In the first meeting 
between them on the I7th of April to leeward of Martinique, 
Guichen escaped disaster only through the clumsy manner in 
which Sir George's orders were executed by his captains. Seeing 
that he had to deal with a formidable opponent, Guichen acted 
with extreme caution, and by keeping the weather gauge afforded 
the British admiral no chance of bringing him to close action. 
When the hurricane months approached (July to September) 
he left the West Indies, and his squadron, being in a bad state 
from want of repairs, returned home, reaching Brest in September. 
Throughout all this campaign Guichen had shown himself very 
skilful in handling a fleet, and if he had not gained any marked 
success, he had prevented the British admiral from doing any 
harm to the French islands in the Antilles. In December 1781 
the comte de Guichen was chosen to command the force which 
was entrusted with the duty of carrying stores and reinforce- 
ments to the West Indies. On the I2th Admiral Kempenfelt, 
who had been sent out by the British Government with an 
unduly weak force to intercept him, sighted the French admiral 
in the Bay of Biscay through a temporary clearance in a fog, 
at a moment when Guichen's warships were to leeward of the 
convoy, and attacked the transports at once. The French 
admiral could not prevent his enemy from capturing twenty of 
the transports, and driving the others into a panic-stricken 
flight. They returned to port, and the mission entrusted to 
Guichen was entirely -defeated. He therefore returned to port 
also. He had no opportunity to gain any counterbalancing 
success during the short remainder of the war, but he was present 
at the final relief of Gibraltar by Lord Howe. His death occurred 
on the I3th of January 1790. The comte de Guichen was, by 
the testimony of his contemporaries, a most accomplished 
and high-minded gentleman. It is probable that he had more 
scientific knowledge than any of his English contemporaries 
and opponents. But as a commander in war he was notable 
chiefly for his skill in directing the orderly movements of a 
fleet, and seems to have been satisfied with formal operations, 
which were possibly elegant but could lead to no substantial 
result. He had none of the combative instincts of his country- 
man Suffren, or of the average British admiral. 



GUIDE GUIDO OF AREZZO 



687 



See vicomte de Noaijles, Marins et soldats fran^ais en Amerique 
(1903); and E. Chevalier, Histoire de la marine franfaise pendant 
la guerre de I' independence amSricaine (1877). (D. H.) 

GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier 
French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the 
Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, 
the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. 
witan, to know), an agency for directing or showing the way, 
specifically a person who leads or directs a stranger over unknown 
or unmapped country, or conducts travellers and tourists 
through a town, or over buildings of interest. In European 
wars up to the time of the French Revolution, the absence of 
large scale detailed maps made local guides almost essential to 
the direction of military operations, and in the i8th century the 
general tendency to the stricter organization of military re- 
sources led in various countries to the special training of guide 
officers (called Feldjager, and considered as general staff officers 
in the Prussian army), whose chief duty it was to find, and if 
necessary establish, routes across country for those parts of 
the army that had to move parallel to the main road and as 
nearly as possible at deploying interval from each other, for in 
those days armies were rarely spread out so far as to have the 
use of two or more made roads. But the necessity for such 
precautions died away when adequate surveys (in which guide 
officers were, at any rate in Prussia, freely employed) were 
carried out, and, as a definite term of military organization to-day, 
"guide" possesses no more essential peculiarity than fusilier, 
grenadier or rifleman. The genesis of the modern " Guide " 
regiments is perhaps to be found in a short-lived Corps of Guides 
formed by Napoleon in Italy in 1796, which appears to have 
been a personal escort or body guard composed of men who 
knew the country. In the Belgian army of to-day the Guide 
regiments correspond almost to the Guard cavalry of other 
nations; in the Swiss army the squadrons of "Guides" act as 
divisional cavalry, and in this role doubtless are called upon 
on occasion to lead columns. The " Queen's own Corps of 
Guides " of the Indian army consists of infantry companies 
and cavalry squadrons. In drill, a " guide " is an officer or 
non-commissioned officer told off to regulate the direction and 
pace of movements, the remainder of the unit maintaining 
their alignment and distances by him. 

A particular class of guides are those employed in mountain- 
eering; these are not merely to show the way but stand in the 
position of professional climbers with an expert knowledge of 
rock and snowcraft, which they impart to the amateur, at the 
same time assuring the safety of the climbing party in dangerous 
expeditions. This professional class of guides arose in the 
middle of the igth century when Alpine climbing became re- 
cognized as a sport (see MOUNTAINEERING). It is thus natural 
to find that the Alpine guides have been requisitioned for 
mountaineering expeditions all over the world. In climbing 
in Switzerland, the central committee of the Swiss Alpine Club 
issues a guides' tariff which fixes the charges for guides and 
porters; there are three sections, for the Valais and Vaudois 
Alps, for the Bernese Oberland, and for central and eastern 
Switzerland. The names of many of the great guides have 
become historical. In Chamonix a statue has been raised to 
Jacques Balmat, who was the first to climb Mont Blanc in 1786. 
Of the more famous guides since the beginning of Alpine climbing 
may be mentioned Auguste Balmat, Michel Cros, Maquignay, 
J. A. Carrel, who went with E. Whymper to the Andes, the 
brothers Lauener, Christian Aimer and Jakob and Melchior 
Anderegg. 

" Guide " is also applied to a book, in the sense of an ele- 
mentary primer on some subject, or of one giving full informa- 
tion for travellers of a country, district or town. In mechanical 
usage, the term " guide " is of wide application, being used of 
anything which steadies or directs the motion of an object, as 
of the "leading" screw of a screw-cutting lathe, of a loose 
pulley used to steady a driving-belt, or of the bars or rods in a 
steam-engine which keep the sliding blocks moving in a straight 
line. The doublet " guy " is thus used of a rope which steadies 



a sail when it is being raised or lowered, or of a rope, chain or 
stay supporting a funnel, mast, derrick, &c. 

GUIDI, CARLO ALESSANDRO (1650-1712), Italian lyric 
poet, was born at Pavia in 1650. As chief founder of the well- 
known Roman academy called " L'Arcadia," he had a con- 
siderable share in the reform of Italian poetry, corrupted at 
that time by the extravagance and bad taste of the poets Marini 
and Achillini and their school. The poet Guidi and the critic 
and jurisconsult Gravina checked this evil by their influence 
and example. The genius of Guidi was lyric in the highest 
degree; his songs are written with singular force, and charm 
the reader, in spite of touches of bombast. His most celebrated 
song is that entitled Alia Fortuna (To Fortune), which certainly 
is one of the most beautiful pieces of poetry of the I7th century. 
Guidi was squint-eyed, humpbacked, and of a delicate constitu- 
tion, but possessed undoubted literary ability. His poems were 
printed at Parma in 1671, and at Rome in 1704. In 1681 he 
published at Parma his lyric tragedy Amalasunta in Italy, and 
two pastoral dramas Daphne and Endymion. The last had the 
honour of being mentioned as a model by the critic Gravina, in 
his treatise on poetry. Less fortunate was Guidi's poetical 
version of the six homilies of Pope Clement XI., first as having 
been severely criticized by the satirist Settano, and next as 
having proved to be the indirect cause of the author 's death. 
A splendid edition of this version had been printed in 1712, 
and, the pope being then in San Gandolfo, Guidi went there to 
present him with a copy. On the way he found out a serious 
typographical error, which he took so much to heart that he 
was seized with an apoplectic fit at Frascati and died on the 
spot. Guidi was honoured with the special protection of 
Ranuccio II., duke of Parma, and of Queen Christina of Sweden. 

GUIDICCIONI, GIOVANNI (1480-1541), Italian poet, was born 
at Lucca in 1480, and died at Macerata in 1541. He occupied a 
high position, being bishop of Fossombrone and president of 
Romagna. The latter office nearly cost him his life; a murderer 
attempted to kill him, and had already touched his breast with 
his dagger when, conquered by the resolute calmness of the 
prelate, he threw away the weapon and fell at his feet, asking 
forgiveness. The Rime and Letters of Guidiccioni are models of 
elegant and natural Italian style. The best editions are those 
of Genoa (1749), Bergamo (1753) and Florence (1878). 

GUIDO OF AREZZO (possibly to be identified with Guido 
de St Maur des Fosses), a musician who lived in the nth century. 
He has by many been called the father of modern music, and a 
portrait of him in the refectory of the monastery of Avellana 
bears the inscription Bealus Guido, inventor musicae. Of his 
life little is known, and that little is chiefly derived from the 
dedicatory letters prefixed to two of his treatises and addressed 
respectively to Bishop Theodald (not Theobald, as Burney writes 
the name) of Arezzo, and Michael, a monk of Pomposa and 
Guide's pupil and friend. Occasional references to the cele- 
brated musician in the works of his contemporaries are, however, 
by no means rare, and from these it may be conjectured with all 
but absolute certainty that Guido was born in the last decade 
of the icth century. The place of his birth is uncertain in 
spite of some evidence pointing to Arezzo; on the title-page of 
all his works he is styled Guido Aretinus, or simply Aretmus. 
At his first appearance in history Guido was a monk in the 
Benedictine monastery of Pomposa, and it was there that he 
taught singing and invented his educational method, by means 
of which, according to his own statement, a pupil might learn 
within five months what formerly it would have taken him ten 
years to acquire. Envy and jealousy, however, were his only 
reward, and by these he was compelled to leave his monastery 
" inde est, quod me vides prolixis finibus exulatum," as he says 
himself in the second of the letters above referred to. According 
to one account, he travelled as far as Bremen, called there by 
Archbishop Hermann in order to reform the musical service. 
But this statement has been doubted. Certain it is that not 
long after his flight from Pomposa Guido was livrng at Arezzo, 
and it was here that, about 1030, he received an invitation to 
Rome from Pope John XIV. He obeyed the summons, and the 



688 



GUIDO OF SIENA GUIDO RENI 



pope himself became his first and apparently one of his most 
proficient pupils. But in spite of his success Guide could not be 
induced to remain in Rome, the insalubrious air of which seems 
to have affected his health. In Rome he met again his former 
superior, the abbot of Pomposa, who seems to have repented 
of his conduct, and to have induced Guido to return to Pomposa; 
and here all authentic records of Guide's life cease. We only 
know that he died, on the i7th of May 1050, as prior of Avellana, 
a monastery of the Camaldulians; such at least is the statement 
of the chroniclers of that order. It ought, however, to be added 
that the Camaldulians claim the celebrated musician as wholly 
their own, and altogether deny his connexion with the Bene- 
dictines. 

The documents discovered by Dom Germain Morin, the 
Belgian Benedictine, about 1888, point to the conclusion that 
Guido was a Frenchman and lived from his youth upwards in 
the Benedictine monastery of St Maur des Fosses where he 
invented his novel system of notation and taught the brothers 
to sing by it. In codex 763 of the British Museum the com- 
poser of the " Micrologus " and other works by Guido of Arezzo 
is always described as Guido de Sancto Mauro. 

There is no doubt that Guide's method shows considerable 
progress in the evolution of modern notation. It was he who 
for the first time systematically used the lines of the staff, and 
the intervals or spatia between them. There is also little doubt 
that the names of the first six notes of the scale, ut, re, mi, fa, 
sol, la, still in use among Romance nations, were introduced by 
Guido, although he seems to have used them in a relative rather 
than in an absolute sense. It is well known that these words 
are the first syllables of six lines of a hymn addressed to St John 
the Baptist, which may be given here: 

Ut queant laxis resonare fibris 
Afira gestorum /amuli tuorum, 
Solve polluti labii reatum, 

Sancte Joannes. 

In addition to this Guido is generally credited with the intro- 
duction of the F clef. But more important than all this, perhaps, 
is the thoroughly practical tone which Guido assumes in his 
theoretical writings, and which differs greatly from the clumsy 
scholasticism of his contemporaries and predecessors. 

The most important of Guido's treatises, and those which are 
generally acknowledged to be authentic, are Micrologus Guidonis de 
disciplina artis musicae, dedicated to Bishop Theodald of Arezzo, 
and comprising a complete theory of music, in 20 chapters; Musicae 
Guidonis regulae rhythmicae in anliphonarii sui prologum prolatae, 
written in trochaic decasyllabics of anything but classical structure ; 
Aliae Guidon-is regulae de ignoto cantu, identidem in antiphonarii sui 
prologum prolatae; and the Epistola Guidonis Michaeli monacho de 
ignoto cantu, already referred to. These are published in the second 
volume of Gerbert's Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra. A very 
important manuscript unknown to Gerbert (the Codex bibliothecae 
Uticensis, in the Paris library) contains, besides minor treatises, an 
antiphonarium and gradual undoubtedly belonging to Guido. 

See also L. Angeloni, G. d' Arezzo (1811); Kiesewetter, Guido von 
Arezzo (1840); Kornmiiller, " Leben und Werken Guidos von 
Arezzo," in Habert's Jahrb. (1876); Antonio Brandi, G. Aretino 
(1882); G. B. Ristori, Biografia di Guido monaco d' Arezzo (1868). 

.. GUIDO OF SIENA. The name of this Italian painter is of 
considerable interest in the history of art, on the ground that, 
if certain assumptions regarding him could be accepted as true, 
he would be entitled to share with Cimabue, or rather indeed 
to supersede him in, the honour of having given the first onward 
impulse to the art of painting. The case stands thus. In the 
church of S. Domenico in Siena is a large painting of the " Virgin 
and Child Enthroned," with six angels above, and in the Bene- 
dictine convent of the same city is a triangular pinnacle, once 
a portion of the same composition, representing the Saviour in 
benediction, with two angels; the entire work was originally 
a triptych, but is not so now. The principal section of this 
picture has a rhymed Latin inscription, giving the painter's 
name as Gu . . . o de Senis, with the date 1221: the genuine- 
ness of the inscription is not, however, free from doubt, and 
especially it is maintained that the date really reads as 1281. 
In the general treatment of the picture there is nothing to 
distinguish it particularly from other work of the same early 



period; but the heads of the Virgin and Child are indisputably 
very superior, in natural character and graceful dignity, to 
anything to be found anterior to Cimabue. The question there- 
fore arises, Are these heads really the work of a man who painted 
in 1 221 ? Crowe and Cavalcaselle pronounce in the negative, 
concluding that the heads are repainted, and are, as they now 
stand, due to some artist of the I4th century, perhaps Ugolino 
da Siena; thus the claims of Cimabue would remain undisturbed 
and in their pristine vigour. Beyond this, little is known of 
Guido da Siena. There is in the Academy of Siena a picture 
assigned to him, a half-figure of the " Virgin and Child," with 
two angels, dating probably between 1250 and 1300; also in 
the church of S. Bernardino in the same city a Madonna dated 
1262. Milanesi thinks that the work in S. Domenico is due to 
Guido Graziani, of whom no other record remains earlier than 
1278, when he is mentioned as the painter of a banner. Guido 
da Siena appears always to have painted on panel, not in fresco 
on the wall. He has been termed, very dubiously, a pupil of 
Pietrolinp, and the master of " Diotisalvi," Mino da Turrita and 
Berlinghieri da Lucca. 

GUIDO RENI (1575-1642), a prime master in the Bolognese 
school of painting, and one of the most admired artists of the 
period of incipient decadence in Italy, was born at Calvenzano 
near Bologna on the 4th of November 1575. His father was a 
musician of repute, a player on the flageolet; he wished to bring 
the lad up to perform on the harpsichord. At a very childish 
age, however, Guido displayed a determined bent towards the 
art of form, scribbling some attempt at a drawing here, there 
and everywhere. He was only nine years of age when Denis 
Calvart took notice of him, received him into his academy of 
design by the father's permission, and rapidly brought him 
forward, so that by the age of thirteen Guido had already at- 
tained marked proficiency. Albani and Domenichino became 
soon afterwards pupils in the same academy. With Albani 
Guido was very intimate up to the earlier period of manhood, 
but they afterwards became rivals, both as painters and as 
heads of ateliers, with a good deal of asperity on Albani's part; 
Domenichino was also pitted against Reni by the policy of 
Annibale Caracci. Guido was still in the academy of Calvart 
when he began frequenting the opposition school kept by 
Lodovico Caracci, whose style, far in advance of that of the 
Flemish painter, he dallied with. This exasperated Calvart. 
Him Guido, not yet twenty years of age, cheerfully quitted, 
transferring himself openly to the Caracci academy, in which he 
soon became prominent, being equally skilful and ambitious. 
He had not been a year with the Caracci when a work of his 
excited the wonder of Agostino and the jealousy of Annibale. 
Lodovico cherished him, and frequently painted him as an angel, 
for the youthful Reni was extremely handsome. After a while, 
however, Lodovico also felt himself nettled, and he patronized 
the competing talents of Giovanni Barbiere. On one occasion 
Guido had made a copy of Annibale's " Descent from the 
Cross"; Annibale was asked to retouch it, and, finding nothing 
to do, exclaimed pettishly, " He knows more than enough " 
(" Costui ne sa troppo "). On another occasion Lodovico, con- 
sulted as umpire, lowered a price which Reni asked for an early 
picture. This slight determined the young man to be a pupil 
no more. He left the Caracci, and started on his own account 
as a competitor in the race for patronage and fame. A renowned 
work, the story of " Callisto and Diana," had been completed 
before he left. 

Guido was faithful to the eclectic principle of the Bolognese 
school of painting. He had appropriated something from 
Calvart, much more from Lodovico Caracci; he studied with 
much zest after Albert Diirer; he adopted the massive, sombre 
and partly uncouth manner of Caravaggio. One day Annibale 
Caracci made the remark that a style might be formed reversing 
that of Caravaggio in such matters as the ponderous shadows 
and the gross common forms; this observation germinated in 
Guido's mind, and he endeavoured after some such style, aiming 
constantly at suavity. Towards 1602 he went to Rome with 
Albani, and Rome remained his headquarters for twenty years. 



GUIENNE 



689 



Here, in the pontificate of Paul V. (Borghese), he was greatly 
noted and distinguished. In the garden-house of the Rospigliosi 
Palace he painted the vast fresco which is justly regarded as his 
masterpiece " Phoebus and the Hours preceded by Aurora." 
This exhibits his second manner, in which he had deviated far 
indeed from the promptings of Caravaggio. He founded now 
chiefly upon the antique, more especially the Niobe group and 
the " Venus de' Medici, " modified by suggestions from Raphael, 
Correggio, Parmigiano and Paul Veronese. Of this last painter, 
although on the whole he did not get much from him, Guido 
was a particular admirer; he used to say that he would rather 
have been Paul Veronese than any other master Paul was 
more nature than art. The " Aurora " is beyond doubt a work 
of pre-eminent beauty and attainment; it is stamped with 
pleasurable dignity, and, without being effeminate, has a more 
uniform aim after graceful selectness than can readily be traced 
in previous painters, greatly superior though some of them had 
been in impulse and personal fervour of genius. The pontifical 
chapel of Montecavallo was assigned to Reni to paint; but, 
being straitened in payments by the ministers, the artist made 
off to Bologna. He was fetched back by Paul V. with cere- 
monious eclat, and lodging, living and equipage were supplied 
to him. At another time he migrated from Rome to Naples, 
having received a commission to paint the chapel of S. Gennaro. 
The notorious cabal of three painters resident in Naples 
Corenzio, Caracciolo and Ribera offered, however, as stiff an 
opposition to Guido as to some other interlopers who preceded 
and succeeded him. They gave his servant a beating by the 
hands of two unknown bullies, and sent by him a message to 
his master to depart or prepare for death; Guido waited for no 
second warning, and departed. He now returned to Rome; 
but he finally left that city abruptly, in the pontificate of Urban 
VIII., in consequence of an offensive reprimand administered to 
him by Cardinal Spinola. He had received an advance of 400 
scudi on account of an altarpiece for St Peter's, but after some 
lapse of years had made no beginning with the work. A broad 
reminder from the cardinal put Reni on his mettle; he returned 
the 400 scudi, quitted Rome within a few days, and steadily 
resisted all attempts at recall. He now resettled in Bologna. 
He had taught as well as painted in Rome, and he left pupils 
behind him; but on the whole he did not stamp any great 
mark upon the Roman school of painting, apart from his own 
numerous works in the papal city. 

In Bologna Guido lived in great splendour, and established a 
celebrated school, numbering more than two hundred scholars. 
He himself drew in it, even down to his latest years. On first 
returning to this city, he charged about 21 for a full-length 
figure (mere portraits are not here in question), half this sum 
for a half-length, and 5 for a head. These prices must be 
regarded as handsome, when we consider that Domenichino 
about the same time received only 10, IDS. for his very large and 
celebrated picture, the " Last Communion of St Jerome." 
But Guido's reputation was still on the increase, and in process 
of time he quintupled his prices. He now left Bologna hardly 
at all; in one instance, however, he went off to Ravenna, and, 
along with three pupils, he painted the chapel in the cathedral 
with his admired picture of the " Israelites gathering Manna." 
His shining prosperity was not to last till the end. Guido was 
dissipated, generously but indiscriminately profuse, and an 
inveterate gambler. The gambling propensity had been his 
from youth, but until he became elderly it did not noticeably 
damage his fortunes. It grew upon him, and in a couple of 
evenings he lost the enormous sum of 14,400 scudi. The vice 
told still more ruinously on his art than on his character. In 
his decline he sold his time at so much per hour to certain picture 
dealers; one of them, the Shylock of his craft, would stand by, 
watch in hand, and see him work. Half-heartedness, half-per- 
formance, blighted his product: self-repetition and mere 
mannerism, with affectation for sentiment and vapidity for 
beauty, became the art of Guido. Some of these trade-works, 
heads or half-figures, were turned out in three hours or even 
less. It is said that, tardily wise, Reni left off gambling for 



nearly two years; at last he relapsed, and his relapse was 
followed not long afterwards by his death, caused by malignant 
fever. This event took place in Bologna on the i8th of August 
1642; he died in debt, but was buried with great pomp in the 
church of S. Domenico. 

Guido was personally modest, although he valued himself on his 
position in the art, and would tolerate no slight in that relation; 
he was extremely upright, temperate in diet, nice in his person and 
his dress. He was fond of stately houses, but could feel also the 
charm of solitude. In his temper there was a large amount of 
suspiciousness; and the jealousy which his abilities and his suc- 
cesses excited, now from the Caracci, now from Albani, now from 
the monopolizing league of Neapolitan painters, may naturally 
have kept this feeling in active exercise. Of his numerous scholars, 
Simone Cantarini, named II Pesarese, counts as the most distin- 
guished ; he painted an admirable head of Reni, now in the Bolognese 
Gallery. The portrait in the Uffizi Gallery of Florence is from Reni's 
own hand. Two other good scholars were Giacomo Semenza and 
Francesco Gessi. 

The character of Guido's art is so well known as hardly to call 
for detailed analysis, beyond what we have already intimated. His 
most characteristic style exhibits a prepense ideal, of form rather 
than character, with a slight mode of handling, and silvery, some- 
what cold, colour. In working from the nude he aimed at perfec- 
tion of form, especially marked in the hands and feet. But he was 
far from always going to choice nature for his model; he trans- 
muted ad libitum, and painted, it is averred, a Magdalene of de- 
monstrative charms from a vulgar-looking colour-grinder. His 
best works have beauty, great amenity, artistic feeling and high 
accomplishment of manner, all alloyed by a certain core of common- 
place; in the worst pictures the commonplace swamps everything, 
and Guido has flooded European galleries with trashy and empty 
pretentiousness, all the more noxious in that its apparent grace of 
sentiment and form misleads the unwary into approval, and the 
dilettante dabbler into cheap raptures. Both in Rome and wherever 
else he worked he introduced increased softness of style, which 
was then designated as the modern method. His pictures are 
mostly Scriptural or mythologic in subject, and between two and 
three hundred of them are to be found in various European col- 
lections more than a hundred of these containing life-sized figures. 
The portraits which he executed are few those of Sixtus V., 
Cardinal Spada and the so-called Beatrice Cenci being among the 
most noticeable. The identity of the last-named portrait is very 
dubious; it certainly cannot have been painted direct from Beatrice, 
who had been executed in Rome before Guido ever resided there. 
Many etchings are attributed to him some from his own works, 
and some after other masters; they are spirited, but rather negligent. 

Of other works not already noticed, the following should be 
named: in Rome (the Vatican), the "Crucifixion of St Peter," an 
example of the painter's earlier manner; in S. Lorenzo in Lucina, 
"Christ Crucified"; in Forli, the "Conception"; in Bologna, 
the " Alms of St Roch " (early), the " Massacre of the Innocents," 
and the " Pieta, or Lament over the Body of Christ " (in the church 
of the Mendicanti), which is by many regarded as Guido's prime 
executive work; in the Dresden Gallery, an " Ecce Homo"; in 
Milan (Brera Gallery), "Saints Peter and Paul"; in Genoa (church 
of S. Ambrogio), the "Assumption of the Virgin"; in Berlin, 
" St Paul the Hermit and St Anthony in the Wilderness." The 
celebrated picture of " Fortune " (in the Capitol) is one of Reni's 
finest treatments of female form; as a specimen of male form, the 
" Samson Drinking from the Jawbone of an Ass " might be named 
beside it. One of his latest works of mark is the " Ariadne," which 
used to be in the Gallery of the Capitol. The Louvre contains 
twenty of his pictures, the National Gallery of London seven, and 
others were once there, now removed to other public collections. 
The most interesting of the seven is the small " Coronation of the 
Virgin," painted on copper, an elegantly finished work, more pretty 
than beautiful. It was probably painted before the master quitted 
Bologna for Rome. 

For the life and works of Guido Reni, see Bolognini, Vita di 
Guido Reni (1839); Passed, Vile de' pittori; and Malvasia, Felsina 
Pittrice; also Lanzi, Storia pitlorica. . (W. M. R.) 

GUIENNE, an old French province which corresponded 
roughly to the Aquitania Secunda of the Romans and the arch- 
bishopric of Bordeaux. In the izth century it formed with 
Gascony the duchy of Aquitaine, which passed under the 
dominion of the kings of England by the marriage of Eleanor 
of Aquitaine to Henry II.; but in the I3th, through the con- 
quests of Philip Augustus, Louis VIII. and Louis IX., it was 
confined within the narrower limits fixed by the treaty of Paris 
(1259). It is at this point that Guienne becomes distinct from 
Aquitaine. It then comprised the Bordelais (the old countship 
of Bordeaux), the Bazadais, part of Pe'rigord, Limousin, Quercy 
and Rouergue, the Agenais ceded by Philip III. (the Bold) to 
Edward I. (1279), and (still united with Gascony) formed a 



690 



GUIGNES GUILDHALL 



duchy extending from the Charente to the Pyrenees. This 
duchy was held on the terms of homage to the French kings, 
an onerous obligation; and both in 1296 and 1324 it was con- 
fiscated by the kings of France on the ground that there had 
been a failure in the feudal duties. At the treaty of Br6tigny 
(1360) Edward III. acquired the full sovereignty of the duchy 
of Guienne, together with Aunis, Saintonge, Angoumois and 
Poitou. The victories of du Guesclin and Gaston Phoebus, 
count of Foix, restored the duchy soon after to its 13th-century 
limits. In 1451 it was conquered and finally united to the 
French crown by Charles VII. In 1469 Louis XI. gave it in 
exchange for Champagne and Brie to his brother Charles, duke 
of Berry, after whose death in 1472 it was again united to the 
royal dominion. Guienne then formed a government which 
from the iyth century onwards was united with Gascony. The 
government of Guienne and Gascony, with its capital at Bor- 
deaux, lasted till the end of the ancien regime. Under the 
Revolution the departments formed from Guienne proper were 
those of Gironde, Lot-et-Garonne, Dordogne, Lot, Aveyron and 
the chief part of Tarn-et-Garonne. 

GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE (1721-1800), French orientalist, was 
born at Pontoise on the igth of October 1721. He succeeded 
Fourmont at the Royal Library as secretary interpreter of the 
Eastern languages. A Memoire historique sur I'origine des 
Huns el des Turcs, published by de Guignes in 1748, obtained his 
admission to the Royal Society of London in 1752, and he 
became an associate of the French Academy of Inscriptions in 
1754. Two years later he began to publish his learned and 
laborious Hisloire generate des Huns, des Mongoles, des Turcs 
et des autres Tartares occidentaux (1756-1758); and in 1757 he 
was appointed to the chair of Syriac at the College de France. 
He maintained that the Chinese nation had originated in 
Egyptian colonization, an opinion to which, in spite of every 
argument, he obstinately clung. He died in Paris in 1800. 
The Hisloire had been translated into German by Dahnert 
(1768-1771). De Guignes left a son, Christian Louis Joseph 
(1759-1845), who, after learning Chinese from his father, went 
as consul to Canton, where he spent seventeen years. On his 
return to France he was charged by the government with the 
work of preparing a Chinese-French-Latin dictionary (1813). 
He was also the author of a work of travels (Voyages d Pekin, 
Manille, et Vile de France, 1808). 

See QueYard, La France litteraire, where a list of the memoirs 
contributed by de Guignes to the Journal des savants is given. 

GUILBERT, YVETTE (1869- ), French diseuse, was born in 
Paris. She served for two years until 1885 in the Magasin du 
Printemps, when, on the advice of the journalist, Edmond 
Stoullig, she trained for the stage under Landrol. She made 
her debut at the Bouffes du Nord, then played at the Varietes, 
and in 1890 she received a regular engagement at the Eldorado 
to sing a couple of songs at the beginning of the performance. 
She also sang at the Ambassadeurs. She soon won an immense 
vogue by her rendering of songs drawn from Parisian lower-class 
life, or from the humours of the Latin Quarter, " Quatre z'etudi- 
ants " and the " Hotel du numero trois " being among her early 
triumphs. Her adoption of an habitual yellow dress and long 
black gloves, her studied simplicity of diction, and her ingenuous 
delivery of songs charged with risque meaning, made her famous. 
She owed something to M. Xanrof, who for a long time composed 
songs especially for her, and perhaps still more to Aristide Bruant, 
who wrote many of her argot songs. She made successful tours 
in England, Germany and America, and was in great request as 
an entertainer in private houses. In 1895 she married Dr M. 
Schiller. In later years she discarded something of her earlier 
manner, and sang songs of the " pompadour " and the " crino- 
line " period in costume. She published the novels La Vedette 
and Les Demi-vieilles, both in 1902. 

GUILDFORD, a market town and municipal borough, and 
the county town of Surrey, England, in the Guildford parlia- 
mentary division, 29 m. S.W. of London by the London and 
South Western railway; served also by the London, Brighton, 
and South Coast and the South Eastern and Chatham railways. 



Pop. (1901) 15,938. It is beautifully situated on an acclivity 
of the northern chalk Downs and on the river Wey. Its older 
streets contain a number of picturesque gabled houses, with 
quaint lattices and curious doorways. The ruins of a Norman 
castle stand finely above the town and are well preserved; 
while the ground about them is laid out as a public garden. 
Beneath the Angel Inn and a house in the vicinity are extensive 
vaults, apparently of Early English date, and traditionally 
connected with the castle. The church of St Mary is Norman 
and Early English, with later additions and considerably re- 
stored; its aisles retain their eastward apses and it contains 
many interesting details. The church of St Nicholas is a modern 
building on an ancient site, and that of Holy Trinity is a brick 
structure of 1763, with later additions, also on the site of an 
earlier church, from which some of the monuments are preserved, 
including that of Archbishop Abbot (1640). The town hall 
dates from 1683 and contains a number of interesting pictures. 
Other public buildings are the county hall, corn-market and 
institute with museum and library. Abbot's Hospital, founded 
by Archbishop Abbot in 1619, is a beautiful Tudor brick building. 
The county hospital (1866) was erected as a memorial to Albert, 
Prince Consort. The Royal Free Grammar School, founded in 
1509, and incorporated by Edward VI., is an important school 
for boys. At Cranleigh,6 m. S.E., is a large middle-class county 
school. The town has flour mills, iron foundries and breweries, 
and a large trade in grain; while fairs are held for live stock. 
There is a manufacture of gunpowder in the neighbouring village 
of Chilworth. Guildford is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese 
of Winchester. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen 
and 12 councillors. Area, 2601 acres. 

Guildford (Gyldeford, Geldeford), occurs among the posses- 
sions of King Alfred, and was a royal borough throughout the 
middle ages. It probably owed its rise to its position at the 
junction of trade routes. It is first mentioned as a borough in 
1131. Henry III. granted a charter to the men of Guildford in 
1256, by which they obtained freedom from toll throughout 
the kingdom, and the privilege of having the county court 
held always in their town. Edward III. granted charters to 
Guildford in 1340, 1346 and 1367; Henry VI. in 1423; Henry 
VII. in 1488. Elizabeth in 1580 confirmed earlier charters, and 
other charters were granted in 1603, 1626 and 1686. The 
borough was incorporated in 1486 under the title of the mayor 
and good men of Guildford. During the middle ages the govern- 
ment of the town rested with a powerful merchant gild. Two 
members for Guildford sat in the parliament of 1295, and the 
borough continued to return two representatives until 1867 
when the number was reduced to one. By the Redistribution 
Act of 1885 Guildford became merged in the county for electoral 
purposes. Edward II. granted to the town the right of having 
two fairs, at the feast of St Matthew (2ist of September) and 
at Trinity respectively. Henry VII. granted fairs on the feast 
of St Martin (nth of November) and St George (23rd of April). 
Fairs in May for the sale of sheep and in November for the sale 
of cattle are still held. The market rights date at least from 
1276, and three weekly markets are still held for the sale 
of corn, cattle and vegetables respectively. The cloth trade 
which formed the staple industry at Guildford in the middle 
ages is now extinct. 

GUILDHALL, the hall of the corporation of the city of London, 
England. It faces a courtyard opening out of Gresham Street. 
The date of its original foundation is not known. An ancient 
crypt remains, but the hall has otherwise undergone much 
alteration. It was rebuilt in 1411, beautified by the muni- 
ficence of successive officials, damaged in the Great Fire of 1666, 
and restored in 1789 by George Dance; while the hall was 
again restored, with a new roof, in 1870. This fine chamber, 
152 ft. in length, is the scene of the state banquets and enter- 
tainments of the corporation, and of the municipal meetings 
" in common hall." The building also contains a council 
chamber and various court rooms, with a splendid library, open 
to the public, a museum and art gallery adjoining. The hall 
contains several monuments and two giant figures of wood, 



GUILFORD (TITLE) GUILFORD 



691 



known as Gog and Magog. These were set up in 1 708, but the 
appearance of giants in city pageants is of much earlier date. 

GUILFORD, BARONS AND EARLS OF. FRANCIS NORTH, 
ist Baron Guilford (1637-1685), was the third son of the 4th 
Baron North (see NORTH, BARONS), and was created Baron 
Guilford in 1683, after becoming lord keeper in succession to 
Lord Nottingham. He had been an eminent lawyer, solicitor- 
general (1671), attorney-general (1673), and chief-justice of the 
common pleas (1675), an d in 1679 was made a member of the 
council of thirty and on its dissolution of the cabinet. He was 
a man of wide culture and a stanch royalist. In 1672 he married 
Lady Frances Pope, daughter and co-heiress of the earl of 
Downe, who inherited the Wroxton estate; and he was suc- 
ceeded as 2nd baron by his son Francis (1673-1729), whose eldest 
son Francis (1704-1790), after inheriting first his father's title 
as 3rd baron, and then (in 1734) the barony of North from his 
kinsman the 6th Baron North, was in 1752 created ist earl of 
Guilford. His first wife was a daughter of the earl of Halifax, 
and his son and successor Frederick was the English prime 
minister, commonly known as Lord North, his courtesy title 
while the ist earl was alive. 

FREDERICK NORTH, 2nd earl of Guilford, but better known 
hy his courtesy title of Lord North (1732-1792), prime minister 
of England during the important years of the American War, 
was born on the I3th of April 1732, and after being educated at 
Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, was sent to make the grand 
tour of the continent. On his return he was, though only 
twenty-two years of age, at once elected M.P. for Banbury, of 
which town his father was high steward; and he sat for the 
same town in parliament for nearly forty years. In 1759 he 
was chosen by the duke of Newcastle to be a lord of the treasury, 
and continued in the same office under Lord Bute and George 
Grenville till 1765. He had shown himself such a ready debater 
that on the fall of the first Rockingham ministry in 1766 he was 
sworn of the privy council, and made paymaster-general by the 
duke of Grafton. His reputation for ability grew so high that 
in December 1767, on the death of the brilliant Charles Towns- 
hend, he was made chancellor of the exchequer. His popularity 
with both the House of Commons and the people continued to 
increase, for his temper was never ruffled, and his quiet humour 
perpetually displayed; and, when the retirement of the duke 
of Grafton was necessitated by the hatred he inspired and the 
attacks of Junius, no better successor could be found for the 
premiership than the chancellor of the exchequer. Lord North 
succeeded the duke in March 1770, and continued in office for 
twelve of the most eventful years in English history. George 
III. had at last overthrown the ascendancy of the great Whig 
families, under which he had so long groaned, and determined to 
govern as well as rule. He knew that he could only govern by 
obtaining a majority in parliament to carry out his wishes, and 
this he had at last obtained by a great expenditure of money 
in buying seats and by a careful exercise of his patronage. 
But in addition to a majority he must have a minister who would 
consent to act as his lieutenant, and such a minister he found 
in Lord North. How a man of undoubted ability such as Lord 
North was could allow himself to be thus used as a mere in- 
strument cannot be explained; but the confidential tone of the 
king's letters seems to show that there was an unusual intimacy 
between them, which may account for North's compliance. 
The path of the minister in parliament was a hard one; he had 
to defend measures which he had not designed, and of which 
he had not approved, and this too in a House of Commons in 
which all the oratorical ability of Burke and Fox was against 
him, and when he had only the purchased help of Thurlow and 
Wedderburne to aid him. The most important events of his 
ministry were those of the American War of Independence. 
He cannot be accused of causing it, but one of his first acts was 
the retention of the tea-duty, and he it was also who introduced 
the Boston Port Bill in 1774. When the war had broken out he 
earnestly counselled peace, and it was only the earnest solici- 
tations of the king not to leave his sovereign again at the mercy 
of the Whigs that induced him to defend a war which from 1779 



he knew to be both hopeless and impolitic. At last, in March 
1782, he insisted on resigning after the news of Cornwallis's 
surrender at Yorktown, and no man left office more blithely. 
He had been well rewarded for his assistance to the king: his 
children had good sinecures; his half-brother, Brownlow North 
(1741-1820), was bishop of Winchester; he himself was chan- 
cellor of the university of Oxford, lord-lieutenant of the county 
of Somerset, and had finally been made a knight of the Garter, 
an honour which has only been conferred on three other members 
of the House of Commons, Sir R. Walpole, Lord Castlereagh 
and Lord Palmerston. Lord North did not remain long out of 
office, but in April 1783 formed his famous coalition with his old 
subordinate, C. J. Fox (q.v.), and became secretary of state 
with him under the nominal premiership of the duke of Portland. 
He was probably urged to this coalition with his old opponent 
by a desire to show that he could act independently of the king, 
and was not a mere royal mouthpiece. The coalition ministry 
went out of office on Fox's India Bill in December 1783, and 
Lord North, who was losing his sight, then finally gave up 
political ambition. He played, when quite blind, a somewhat 
important part in the debates on the Regency Bill in 1 789, and 
in the next year succeeded his father as earl of Guilford. He 
did not long survive his elevation, and died peacefully on the 
5th of August 1792. It is impossible to consider Lord North a 
great statesman, but he was a most good-tempered and humorous 
member of the House of Commons. In a time of unexampled 
party feeling he won the esteem and almost the love of his most 
bitter opponents. Burke finely sums up his character in his 
Letter to a Noble Lord: " He was a man of admirable parts, of 
general knowledge, of a versatile understanding, fitted for every 
sort of business; of infinite wit and pleasantry, of a delightful 
temper, and with a mind most disinterested. But it would be 
only to degrade myself," he continues, " by a weak adulation, 
and not to honour the memory of a great man, to deny that he 
wanted something of the vigilance and spirit of command which 
the times required." 

By his wife Anne (d. 1797), daughter of George Speke of White 
Lackington, Somerset, Guilford had four sons, the eldest of 
whom, George Augustus (1757-1802), became 3rd earl on his 
father's death. This earl was a member of parliament from 
1778 to 1792 and was a member of his father's ministry and 
also of the royal household; he left no sons when he died on 
the 2oth of April 1802 and was succeeded in the earldom by his 
brother Francis (1761-1817), who also left no sons. The youngest 
brother, Frederick (1766-1827), who now became 5th earl of 
Guilford, was remarkable for his great knowledge and love of 
Greece and of the Greek language. He had a good deal to do 
with the foundation of the Ionian university at Corfu, of which 
he was the first chancellor and to which he was very liberal. 
Guilford, who was governor of Ceylon from 1798 to 1805, died 
unmarried on the i4th of October 1827. His cousin, Francis 
(1772-1861), a son of Brownlow North, bishop of Winchester 
from 1781 to 1820, was the 6th earl, and the latter's descendant, 
Frederick George (b. 1876), became 8th earl in 1886. 

On the death of the 3rd earl of Guilford in 1802 the barony of 
North fell into abeyance between his three daughters, the 
survivor of whom, Susan (1797-1884), wife of John Sidney Doyle, 
who took the name of North, was declared by the House of 
Lords in 1841 to be Baroness North, and the title passed to her 
son, William Henry John North, the nth baron (b. 1836) 
(see NORTH, BARONS). 

For the Lord Keeper Guilford see the Lives by the Hon. R. North, 
edited by A. Jessopp (1890); and E. Foss, The Judges of England, 
vol. vii. (1848-1864). For the prime minister, Lord North, see 
Correspondence of George III. wtth Lord North, edited by W. B. 
Donne (1867) ; Horace Walpole, Journal of the Reign of George III. 
(1859), and Memoirs of the Reign of George III., edited by G. F. R. 
Barker (1894); Lord Brougham, Historical Sketches of Statesmen, 
vol. i. (1839); Earl Stanhope, History of England (1858); Sir T. E. 
May, Constitutional History of England (1863-1865) ; and W. E. H. 
Lecky, History of England in the i8th century (1878-1890). 

GUILFORD, a township, including a borough of the same 
name, in New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on Long 
Island Sound and at the mouth of the Menunkatuck or West 



692 GUILLAUME, J. B. C. E. GUILLAUME D'ORANGE 



river, about 16 m. E. by S. of New Haven. Pop. of the township, 
including the borough (1900), 2785, of whom 387 were foreign- 
born; (1910) 3001; pop. of the borough (igio), 1608. The 
borough is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford 
railroad. On a plain is the borough green of nearly il acres, 
which is shaded by some fine old elms and other trees, and in 
which there is a soldiers' monument. About the green are 
several churches and some of the better residences. On an 
eminence commanding a fine view of the Sound is an old stone 
house, erected in 1639 for a parsonage, meeting-house and 
fortification; it was made a state museum in 1898, when 
extensive alterations were made to restore the interior to its 
original appearance. The Point of Rocks, in the harbour, is 
an attractive resort during the summer season. There are 
about 12 ft. of water on the harbour bar at high tide. The 
principal industries of Guilford are coastwise trade, the 
manufacture of iron castings, brass castings, wagon wheels 
and school furniture, and the canning of vegetables. Near the 
coast are quarries of fine granite; the stone for the pedestal of 
the Statue of Liberty on Bedloe's Island, in New York Harbour, 
was taken from them. 

Guilford was founded in 1639 as an independent colony by a 
company of twenty-five or more families from Kent, Surrey 
and Sussex, England, under the leadership of Rev. Henry Whit- 
field (1597-1657). While still on shipboard twenty-five members 
of the company signed a plantation covenant whereby they 
agreed not to desert the plantation which they were about to 
establish. Arriving at New Haven early in July 1639, they 
soon began negotiations with the Indians for the purchase of 
land, and on the 29th of September a deed was signed by which 
the Indians conveyed to them the territory between East 
River and Stony Creek for "12 coates, 12 Fathoms of Wampam, 
12 glasses (mirrors), 12 payer of shooes, 12 Hatchetts, 12 paire of 
Stockings, 12 Hooes, 4 kettles, 12 knives, 12 Halts, 12 Por- 
ringers, 12 spoones, and 2 English coates." Other purchases of 
land from the Indians were made later. Before the close of the 
year the company removed from New Haven and established the 
new colony; it was known by the Indian name Menuncatuck 
for about four years and the name Guilford (from Guildford, 
England) was then substituted. As a provisional arrangement, 
civil power for the administration of justice and the preservation 
of the peace was vested in four persons until such time as a 
church should be organized. This was postponed until 1643 
when considerations of safety demanded that the colony should 
become a member of the New Haven Jurisdiction, and then 
only to meet the requirements for admission to this union were 
the church and church state modelled after those of New Haven. 
Even then, though suffrage was restricted to church members, 
Guilford planters who were not church members were required 
to attend town meetings and were allowed to offer objections 
/ to any proposed order or law. From 1661 until the absorption 
of the members of the New Haven Jurisdiction by Connecticut, 
in 1664, William Leete (1611-1683), one of the founders of 
Guilford, was governor of the Jurisdiction, and under his leader- 
ship Guilford took a prominent part in furthering the sub- 
mission to Connecticut, which did away with the church state 
and the restriction of suffrage to freemen. Guilford was the 
birthplace of Fitz-Greene Halleck (1790-1867), the poet; of 
Samuel Johnson (1696-1771), the first president of King's 
College (now Columbia University); of Abraham Baldwin 
(1754-1807), prominent as a statesman and the founder of the 
University of Georgia; and of Thomas Chittenden, the first 
governor of Vermont. The borough was incorporated in 1815. 

See B. C. Steiner, A History of the Plantation of Menunca-Tuck 
and of the Original Town of Guilford, Connecticut (Baltimore, 1897), 
and Proceedings at the Celebration of the z^oth Anniversary of the 
Settlement of Guilford, Connecticut (New Haven, 1889). 

GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGENE (1822- 
1905), French sculptor, was born at Montbard on the 4th of 
July 1822, and studied under Cavelier, Millet, and Barrias, at 
the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, which he entered in 1841, and where 
he gained the prix de Rome in 1845 with " Theseus finding on a 



rock his Father's Sword." He became director of the Ecole des 
Beaux-Arts in 1864, and director-general of Fine Arts from 
1878 to 1879, when the office was suppressed. Many of his 
works have been bought for public galleries, and his monuments 
are to be found in the public squares of the chief cities of France. 
At Rheims there is his bronze statue of " Colbert," at Dijon his 
" Rameau " monument. The Luxembourg Museum has his 
"Anacreon" (1852), " Les Gracques " (1853), " Faucheur " 
(1855), and the marble bust of " Mgr Darboy "; the Versailles 
Museum the portrait of " Thiers "; the Sorbonne Library the 
marble bust of " Victor le Clerc, doyen de la faculte des lettres." 
Other works of his are at Trinity Church, St Germain 1'Auxerrois, 
and the church of St Clotilde, Paris. Guillaume was a prolific 
writer, principally on sculpture and architecture of the Classic 
period and of the Italian Renaissance. He was elected member 
of the Academic Francaise in 1862, and in 1891 was sent to 
Rome as director of the Academic de France in that city. He 
was also elected an honorary member of the Royal Academy, 
London, 1869, on the institution of that class. 

GUILLAUME DE LORRIS (fl. 1230), the author of the earlier 
section of the Roman de la rose, derives his surname from a small 
town about equidistant from Montargis and Gien, in the present 
department of Loiret. This and the fact of his authorship may 
be said to be the only things positively known about him. The 
rubric of the poem, where his own part finishes, attributes Jean de 
Meun's continuation to a period forty years later than William's 
death and the consequent interruption of the romance. Arguing 
backwards, this death used to be put at about 1260; but Jean 
de Meun's own work has recently been dated earlier, and so the 
composition of the first part has been thrown back to a period 
before 1 240. The author represents himself as having dreamed 
the dream which furnished the substance of the poem in his 
twentieth year, and as having set to work to " rhyme it " five 
years later. The later and longer part of the Roman shows 
signs of greater intellectual vigour and wider knowledge than the 
earlier and shorter, but Guillaume de Lords is to all appearance 
more original. The great features of his four or five thousand 
lines are, in the first place, the extraordinary vividness and 
beauty of his word-pictures, in which for colour, freshness 
and individuality he has not many rivals except in the greatest 
masters, and, secondly, the fashion of allegorical presentation, 
which, hackneyed and wearisome as it afterwards became, 
was evidently in his time new and striking. There are of course 
traces of it before, as in some romances, such as those of Raoul 
de Houdenc, in the troubadours, and in other writers; but it 
was unquestionably Guillaume de Lorris who fixed the style. 

For an attempt to identify Guillaume de Lorris see L. Jarry, 
Guillaume de Lorris el le testament d'Alphonse de Poitiers (1881). 
Also Paulin Paris in the Hist. lilt, de la France, vol. xxiii. 

GUILLAUME DE PALERME ( WILLIAM OF PALERNE), hero of 
romance. The French verse romance was written at the desire 
of a Countess Yolande, generally identified with Yolande, 
daughter of Baldwin IV., count of Flanders. The English poem 
in alliterative verse was written about 1350 by a poet called 
William, at the desire of Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford, 
(d. 1361). Guillaume, a foundling supposed to be of low degree, 
is brought up at the court of the emperor of Rome, and loves 
his daughter Melior who is destined for a Greek prince. The 
lovers flee into the woods disguised in bear-skins. Alfonso, 
who is Guillaume's cousin and a Spanish prince, has been 
changed into a wolf by his step-mother's enchantments. He 
provides food and protection for the fugitives, and Guillaume 
eventually triumphs over Alfonso's father, and wins back from 
him his kingdom. The benevolent werwolf is disenchanted, 
and marries Guillaume's sister. 

See Guillaume de Palerne, ed. H. Michelant (Soc. d. anc. textes fr., 
1876); Hist. lilt, de la France, xxii. 829; William of Palermt, ed. 
Sir F. Madden (Roxburghe Club, 1832), and W. W. Skeat (E. E. 
Text Soc., extra series No. I, 1867); M. Kaluza, in Eng. Studien 
(Heilbronn, iv. 196). The prose version of the French romance, 
printed by N. Bonfons, passed through several editions. 

GUILLAUME D'ORANGE (d. 812), also known as Guillaume 
Fierabrace, St Guillaume de Gellone, and the Marquis au court 



GUILLAUME D'ORANGE 



693 



nez, was the central figure of the southern cycle of French 
romance, called by the trouveres the gesle of Garin de Monglane. 
The cycle of Guillaume has more unity than the other great 
cycles of Charlemagne or of Boon de Mayence, the various 
poems which compose it forming branches of the main story 
rather than independent epic poems. There exist numerous 
cyclic MSS. in which there is an attempt at presenting a con- 
tinuous histoire poelique of Guillaume and his family. MS. Royal 
20 D xi. in the British Museum contains eighteen chansons 
of the cycle. Guillaume, son of Thierry or Theodoric and of Aide, 
daughter of Charles Martel, was born in the north of France 
about the middle of the 8th century. He became one of the best 
soldiers and trusted counsellors of Charlemagne, and in 790 was 
made count of Toulouse, when Charles's son Louis the Pious 
was put under his charge. He subdued the Gascons, and 
defended Narbonne against the infidels. In 793 Hescham, the 
successor of Abd-al-Rahman II., proclaimed a holy war against 
the Christians, and collected an army of 100,000 men, half of 
which was directed against the kingdom of the Asturias, while 
the second invaded France, penetrating as far as Narbonne. 
Guillaume met the invaders near the river Orbieux, at Villedaigne, 
where he was defeated, but only after an obstinate resistance 
which so far exhausted the Saracens that they were compelled to 
retreat to Spain. He took Barcelona from the Saracens in 803, 
and in the next year founded the monastery of Gellone (now Saint 
Guilhem-le Desert), of which he became a member in 806. He 
died there in the odour of sanctity on the 28th of May 812. 

No less than thirteen historical personages bearing the name 
of William (Guillaume) have been thought by various critics 
to have their share in the formation of the legend. William, 
count of Provence, son of Boso II., again delivered southern 
France from a Saracen invasion by his victory at Fraxinet in 
973, and ended his life in a cloister. William Tow-head (TUe 
d'ttoupe), duke of Aquitaine (d. 983), showed a fidelity to Louis 
IV. paralleled by Guillaume d'Orange's service to Louis the 
Pious. The cycle of twenty or more chansons which form the 
geste of Guillaume reposes on the traditions of the Arab invasions 
of the south of France, from the battle of Poitiers (732) under 
Charles Martel onwards, and on the French conquest of Catalonia 
from the Saracens. In the Norse version of the Carolingian epic 
Guillaume appears in his proper historical environment, as a 
chief under Charlemagne; but he plays a leading part in the 
Couronnement Looys, describing the formal associations of 
Louis the Pious in the empire at Aix (813, the year after Guil- 
laume's death), and after the battle of Aliscans it is from the 
emperor Louis that he seeks reinforcements. This anachronism 
arises from the fusion of the epic Guillaume with the champion 
of Louis IV., and from the fact that he was the military and civil 
chief of Louis the Pious, who was titular king of Aquitaine 
under his father from the time when he was three years old. 
The inconsistencies between the real and the epic Guillaume 
are often left standing in the poems. The personages associated 
with Guillaume in his Spanish wars belong to Provence, and 
have names common in the south. The most famous of these 
are Beuves de Comarchis, Ernaud de Girone, Garin d'Anseun, 
Aimer le chetif, so called from his long captivity with the Saracens. 
The separate existence of Aimer, who refused to sleep under a 
roof, and spent his whole life in warring against the infidel, is 
proved. He was Hadhemar, count of Narbonne, who in 809 
and 810 was one of the leaders sent by Louis against Tortosa. 
No doubt the others had historical prototypes. In the hands 
of the trouveres they became all brothers of Guillaume, and 
sons of Aymeri de Narbonne, 1 the grandson of Garin de Monglane, 
and his wife Ermenjart. Nevertheless when Guillaume seeks 
help from Louis the emperor he finds all his relations in Laon, 
in accordance with his historic Prankish origin. 

1 The poem of Aymeri de Narbonne contains the account of the 
young Aymeri's brilliant capture of Narbonne, which he then 
receives as a fief from Charlemagne, of his marriage with Ermenjart, 
sister of Boniface, king of the Lombards, and of their children. The 
fifth daughter, Blanchefleur, is represented as the wife of Louis the 
Pious. The opening of this poem furnished, though indirectly, the 
matter of the AymerMot of Victor Hugo's Legende des siecles. 



The central fact of the geste of Guillaume is the battle of the 
Archamp or Aliscans, in which perished Guillaume's heroic 
nephew, Vezian or Vivien, a second Roland. At the eleventh 
hour he summoned Guillaume to his help against the overwhelm- 
ing forces of the Saracens. Guillaume arrived too late to help 
Vivien, was himself defeated, and returned alone to his wife 
Guibourc, leaving his knights all dead or prisoners. This event 
is related in a Norman-French transcript of an old French 
chanson de gesle, the Chanfun de Willame which only was 
brought to light in 1901 at the sale of the books of Sir Henry 
Hope Edwardes- in the Covenant Vivien, a recension of an older 
French chanson and in Aliscans. Aliscans continues the story, 
telling how Guillaume obtained reinforcements from Laon, and 
how, with the help of the comic hero, the scullion Rainouart 
or Rennewart, he avenged the defeat of Aliscans and his nephew's 
death. Rainouart turns out to be the brother of Guillaume's 
wife Guibourc, who was before her marriage the Saracen princess 
and enchantress Orable. Two other poems are consecrated to 
his later exploits, La Balaille Loquifer, the work of a French 
Sicilian poet, Jendeu de Brie (fl. 1170), and LeMoniage Rainouart. 
The staring-point of Herbert le due of Dammartin (fl. 1170) 
in Foucon de Candie (Candie = Gandia in Spain ?) is the return 
of Guillaume from the battle; and the Italian compilation 
I Nerbonesi, based on these and other chansons, seems in some 
cases to represent an earlier tradition than the later of the French 
chansons, although its author Andrea di Barberino wrote towards 
the end of the i4th century. The minnesinger Wolfram von 
Eschenbach based his Willehalm on a French original which 
must have differed from the versions we have. The variations 
in the story of the defeat of Aliscans or the Archant, and the 
numerous inconsistencies of the narratives even when considered 
separately have occupied many critics. Aliscans (Aleschans, 
Alyscamps, Elysii Campi) was, however, generally taken to 
represent the battle of Villedaigne, and to take its name from 
the famous cemetery outside Aries. Wolfram von Eschenbach 
even mentions the tombs which studded the field of battle. 
Indications that this tradition was not unassailable were not 
lacking before the discovery of the Chanfun de Willame, which, 
although preserved in a very corrupt form, represents the earliest 
recension we have of the story, dating at least from the begin- 
ning of the 1 2th century. It seems probable that the Archant 
was situated in Spain near Vivien's headquarters at Tortosa, and 
that Guillaume started from Barcelona, not from Orange, to 
his nephew's help. The account of the disaster was modified by 
successive trouveres, and the uncertainty of their methods may 
be judged by the fact that in the Chanfun de Willame two con- 
secutive accounts (n. 450-1326 and n. 1326-2420) of the fight 
appear to be set side by side as if they were separate episodes. 
Le Couronnement Looys, already mentioned, Le Charroi de Nimes 
(i2th century) in which Guillaume, who had been forgotten in 
the distribution of fiefs, enumerates his services to the terrified 
Louis, and Aliscans (i2th century), with the earlier Chanc,un, are 
among the finest of the French epic poems. The figure of 
Vivien is among the most heroic elaborated by the trouveres, 
and the giant Rainouart has more than a touch of Rabelaisian 
humour. 

The chansons de geste of the cycle of Guillaume are: Enfances 
Garin de Monglane (isth century) and Garin de Monglane (i3th 
century), on which is founded the prose romance of GuMn de 
Monglane, printed in the 15th century by Jehan Trepperel and 
often later; Girars de Viane (j3th century, by Bertrand de Bar- 
sur-Aube), ed. P. Tarb6 (Reims, 1850); Hernaut de Beaulande 
(fragment I4th century); Renter de Gennes, which only survives 
in its prose form; Avmeri de Narbonne (c. 1210) by Bertrand de 
Bar-sur-Aube, ed. L. Demaison (Soc. des anc. textes fr., Paris, 2 vols., 
1887); Les Enfances Guillaume (i3th century); Les Narbonnais, 
ed. H. Suchier (Soc. des anc. textes fr., 2 vols., 1898), with a Latin 
fragment dating from the nth century, preserved at the Hague; 
Le Couronnement Looys (ed. E. Langlois, 1888), Le Charroi de Ntmes, 
La Prise d'Orange, Le Covenant Vivien, Aliscans, which were edited 
by W. J. A. Jonckblpet in vol. i. of his Guillaume d'Orange (The 
Hague, 1854); a critical text of Aliscans (Halle, 1903, vol. i.) is 
edited by E. Wienbeck, W. Hartnacke and P. Rasch; Loquifer and 
Le Montage Rainouart (i2th century); Bovon de Commarchis (l3th 
century), recension of the earlier Siege de Barbastre, by Adenes li 



694 



GUILLEMOT GUILLOTINE 



Rois, ed. A. Scheler (Brussels, 1874); Gmbert d Andrenas (1.3th 
century); La Prise de Cordres (iyh century); La Mart A wen de 
Narbonne, ed. J. Couraye de Pare (Soc. des Anciens Textes francais, 
Paris, 1884); Foulque de Candie (ed. P. Tarb6, Re.ms, 1860); Le 
Moniage Guillaume (i2th century); Les Enfances Vivien (ed. C. 
Wahlund and H. v. Feilitzen, Upsala and Pans 1895); Chan^n 
de Willame (Chiswick Press, 1903), described by P. Meyer in Romania 
fxxxiii S97-6I8). The ninth branch of the KarlamagnusSaga (ed. 
C R Unger, Christiania, 1860) deals with the geste of Guillaume. 
I'Nerbonesi is edited bv J. G. Isola (Bologna, 1877, &c.). 

See C Revillout Etude hist, et lilt, sur la vita sancti Willelmi 
CMnntne'llier 1876) W. J. A. Jonckbloet, Guillaume d'Orange 
^eols P iT 5 ' 4 , The Haguej; L. darus (p, for W. Volk) Herzog 
Wilhelm von Aquitanien (Munster, 1865) ; P. Pans, in Hist. /._ de 
la France (vol. xxii., 1852); L. Gautier, popeesfranc,atses (vol. iv., 
2nd ed 1882) ; R. Weeks, The newly discovered Chanfun de Willame 
(Chicago 1904); A. Thomas, Etudes romanes (Paris, 1891), on 
Vivien- L Saltet, " S. Vidian de Martres-Tolosanes " in Bull, de 
litt. cedes. (Toulouse, 1902); P. Becker, Die altfrz. Wilhelmsageu. 
ihre Beziehung zu Wilhelm dem Heihgen Halle 1896), and Der 



inre nezienung zu vv utunn u-c/ *vwwro v*i..v-, *~-7~/ -~ - 
sudfranzosische Sagenkreis und seine Probleme (Halle, 1898^; A. 
Teanroy " Etudes sur le cycle de Guillaume au court nez (in 
Romania, vols, 25 and 26, 1896-1897); H. Suchier, ' Recherches 
sur Guillaume d'Orange " (in Romania, vol. 32, 1903). The 

conclusions arrived at by earlier writers are combated by Joseph 
Bedier in the first volume, " Le Cycle de Guillaume d Orange 
(1908) of his Legendes epiques, in which he constructs a theory that 
the cycle of Guillaume d'Orange grew up round the various shrines 
on the pilgrim route to Saint Gilles of Provence and Saint James ol 
Compostella that the chansons de geste were, in fact, the product 
of llth and I2th century trouveres, exploiting local ecclesiastical 
traditions, and were not developed from earlier poems dating back 
perhaps to the lifetime of Guillaume of Toulouse, the saint of 
Gellone. 

GUILLEMOT (Fr. guillemot 1 ), the name accepted by nearly 
all modern authors for a sea-bird, the Colymbus troile of 
Linnaeus and the Uria troile of Latham, which nowadays it 
seems seldom if ever to bear among those who, from their voca- 
tion, are most conversant with it, though, according to Willughby 
and Ray his translator, it was in their time so called " by those 
of Northumberland and Durham." Around the coasts of Britain 
it is variously known as the frowl, kiddaw or skiddaw, langy 
(cf. Ice. Langvia), lavy, marrock, murre, scout (cf. COOT), 
scuttock, strany, tinker or tinkershire and willock. In former 
days the guillemot yearly frequented the cliffs on many parts 
of the British coasts in countless multitudes, and this is still 
the case in the northern parts of the United Kingdom; but 
more to the southward nearly all its smaller settlements have 
been rendered utterly desolate by the wanton and cruel destruc- 
tion of their tenants during the breeding season, and even the 
inhabitants of those which were more crowded had become so 
thinned that, but for the intervention of the Sea Birds Preserva- 
tion Act (32 & 33 Viet. cap. 17), which provided under penalty 
for the safety of this and certain other species at the time of 
year when they were most exposed to danger, they would un- 
questionably by this time have been exterminated so far as 
England is concerned. 

Part of the guillemot's history is still little understood. We 
know that it arrives at its wonted breeding stations on its 
accustomed day in spring, that it remains there till, towards the 
end of the summer, its young are hatched and able, as they soon 
are, to encounter the perils of a seafaring life, when away go all, 
parents and progeny. After that time it commonly happens 
that a few examples are occasionally met with in bays and shallow 
waters. Tempestuous weather will drive ashore a large number 
in a state of utter destitution many of them indeed are not 
unfrequently washed up dead but what becomes of the bulk 
of the birds, not merely the comparatively few thousands that 
are natives of Britain, but the tens and hundreds of thousands, 
not to say millions, that are in summer denizens of more northern 
latitudes, no one can say. This mystery is not peculiar to the 
guillemot, but is shared by all the Alcidae that inhabit the 
Atlantic Ocean. Examples stray every season across the Bay of 



1 The word, however, seems to be cognate with or derived from 
the Welsh and Manx Guillem, or Gwilym as Pennant spells it. 1 he 
association may have no real meaning, but one cannot help com- 
paring the resemblance between the French guillemot and GuiUaume 
with that between the English willock (another name for the bird) 
and William. 



Biscay, are found off the coasts of Spain and Portugal, enter 
the Mediterranean and reach Italian waters, or, keeping farther 
south, may even touch the Madeiras, Canaries or Azores; but 
these bear no proportion whatever to the mighty hosts of whom 
they are literally the " scouts," and whose position and move- 
ments they no more reveal than do the vedettes of a well- 
appointed army. The common guillemot of both sides of the 
Atlantic is replaced farther northward by a species with a stouter 
bill, the U. arra or U. bruennichi of ornithologists, and on the 
west coast of North America by the U. calif arnica. The habits 
of all these are essentially the same, and the structural resem- 
blance between all of them and the Auks is so great that several 
systematists have relegated them to the genus Alca, confining 
the genus Uria to the guillemots of another group, of which 
the type is the U. grylla, the black guillemot of British authors, 
the dovekey or Greenland dove of sailors, the tysty of Shetlanders. 
This bird assumes in summer an entirely black plumage with 
the exception of a white patch on each wing, while in winter 
it is beautifully marbled with white and black. Allied to it 
as species or geographical races are the U. mandti, U. columba 
and U. carbo. All these differ from the larger guillemots by 
laying two or three eggs, which are generally placed in some 
secure niche, while the members of the other group lay but a 
single egg, which is invariably exposed on a bare ledge. (A. N.) 
GUILLOCHE, a French word for an ornament, either painted 
or carved, which was one of the principal decorative bands 
employed by the Greeks in their temples or on their vases. 
Guilloches are single, double or triple; they consist of a series 
of circles equidistant one from the other and enclosed in a band 
which winds round them and interlaces. This guilloche is 
of Asiatic origin and was largely employed in the decoration of the 
Assyrian palaces, where it was probably copied from Chaldaean 
work, as there is an early example at Erech which dates from the 
time of Gudea (2294 B.C.). The ornament as painted by the 
Greeks has almost entirely disappeared, but traces are found in 
the temple of Nemesis at Rhamnus; and on the terra-cotta slabs 
by which the timber roofs of Greek temples were protected, it is 
painted in colours which are almost as brilliant as when first 
produced, those of the Treasury of Gela at Olympia being of great 
beauty. These examples are double guilloches, with two rows of 
circles, each with an independent interlacing band and united 
by a small arc with palmette inside; in both the single and double 
guilloches of Greek work there is a flower in the centre of the 
circles. In the triple guilloche, the centre row of circles comes 
half-way between the others, and the enclosing band crosses 
diagonally both ways, interlacing alternately. The best example 
of the triple guilloche is that which is carved on the torus mould- 
ing of the base and on the small convex moulding above the 
echinus of the capitals of the columns of the Erechtheum at 
Athens. It was largely employed in Roman work, and the single 
guilloche is found almost universally as a border in mosaic 
pavements, not only in Italy but throughout Europe. In the 
Renaissance in Italy it was also a favourite enrichment for 
borders and occasionally in France and England. 

GUILLON, MARIE NICOLAS SYLVESTRE (1760-1847), 
French ecclesiastic, was born in Paris on the ist of January 1760. 
He was librarian and almoner in the household of the princess de 
Lamballe, and when in 1792 she was executed, he fled to the 
provinces, where under the name of Pastel he practised medicine. 
A man of facile conscience, he afterwards served in turn under 
Napoleon, the Bourbons and the Orleanists, and became canon of 
St Denis, bishop of Morocco and dean of the Sorbonne. 

Among his many literary works are a Collection des brefs du pape 
Pie VI (1798), Bibliotheque choisie des peres grecs et latins ( 
26 vols.) and a French translation of Cyprian with notes (1837, 2 
vols.). 

GUILLOTINE, the instrument for inflicting capital punish- 
ment by decapitation, introduced into France at the period of the 
Revolution. It consists of two upright posts surmounted by a 
cross beam, and grooved so as to guide an oblique-edged knife, 
the back of which is heavily weighted to make it fall swiftly and 
with force when the cord by which it is held aloft is let go. Some 



GUILT GUIMARD 



695 



ascribe the invention of the machine to the Persians; and 
previous to the period when it obtained notoriety under its 
present name it had been in use in Scotland, England and various 
parts of the continent. There is still preserved in the antiquarian 
museum of Edinburgh the rude guillotine called the " maiden " 
by which the regent Morton was decapitated in 1581. The last 
persons decapitated by the Scottish " maiden " were the marquis 
of Argyll in 1661 and his son the earl of Argyll in 1685. 
It would appear that no similar machine was ever in general 
use in England; but until 1650 there existed in the forest 
of Hardwick, which was coextensive with the parish of 
Halifax, West Riding, Yorkshire, a mode of trial and execution 
called the gibbet law, by which a felon convicted of theft within 
the liberty was sentenced to be decapitated by a machine called 
the Halifax gibbet. A print of it is contained in a small book 
called Halifax and its Gibbet Law (1708), and in Gibson's edition 
of Camden's Britannia (1722). In Germany the machine was in 
general use during the middle ages, under the name of the Diele, 
the Hobel or the Dolabra. Twojold German engravings, the one 
by George Penez, who died in 1550, and the other by Heinrich 
Aldegrever, with the date 1553, represent the death of a son of 
Titus Manlius by a similar instrument, and its employment for 
the execution of a Spartan is the subject of the engraving of the 
eighteenth symbol in the volume entitled Symbolicae quaesliones 
de universe genere, by Achilles Bocchi (1555). From the i3th 
century it was used in Italy under the name of Mannaia for the 
execution of criminals of noble birth. The Chronique de Jean 
d' Anton, first published in 1835, gives minute details of an execu- 
tion in which it was employed at Genoa in 1507; and it is 
elaborately described by Pere Jean Baptiste Labat in his Voyage 
en Espagne et en Italic en 1730. It is mentioned by Jacques, 
viscomte de Puysegur, in his Memoires as in use in the south of 
France, and he describes the execution by it of Marshal Mont- 
morency at Toulouse in 1632. For about a century it had, how- 
ever, fallen into general disuse on the continent; and Dr 
Guillotine, who first suggested its use in modern times, is said 
to have obtained his information regarding it from the description 
of an execution that took place at Milan in 1702, contained in 
an anonymous work entitled Voyage historique et politique de 
Suisse, d'ltalie, et d'Allemagne. 

Guillotine, who was born at Saintes, May 28, 1738, and elected 
to the Constituent Assembly in 1789, brought forward on the 
ist December of that year two propositions regarding capital 
punishment, the second of which was that, " in all cases of 
capital punishment it shall be of the same kind that is, decapita- 
tion and it shall be executed by means of a machine." The 
reasons urged in support of this proposition were that in cases 
of capital punishment the privilege of execution by decapitation 
should no longer be confined to the nobles, and that it was 
desirable to render the process of execution as swift and painless 
as possible. The debate was brought to a sudden termination 
in peals of laughter caused by an indiscreet reference of Dr 
Guillotine to his- machine, but his ideas seem gradually to have 
leavened the minds of the Assembly, and after various debates 
decapitation was adopted as the method of execution in the 
penal code which became law on the 6th October 1791. At first 
it was intended that decapitation should be by the sword, but 
on account of a memorandum by M. Sanson, the executioner, 
pointing out the expense and certain other inconveniences 
attending that method, the Assembly referred the question to a 
committee, at whose request Dr Antoine Louis, secretary to the 
Academy of Surgeons, prepared a memorandum on the subject. 
Without mentioning the name of Guillotine, it recommended the 
adoption of an instrument similar to that which was formerly 
suggested by him. The Assembly decided in favour of the report, 
and the contract was offered to the person who usually provided 
the instruments of justice; but, as his terms were considered 
exorbitant, an agreement was ultimately come to with a German 
of the name of Schmidt, who, under the direction of M. Louis, 
furnished a machine for each of the French departments. After 
satisfactory experiments had been made with the machine on 
several dead bodies in the hospital of Bicetre, it was erected on 



the Place de Greve for the execution of the highwayman Pelletier 
on the 25th April 1792. While the experiments regarding the 
machine were being carried on, it received the name Louisetle 
or La Petite Louison, but the mind of the nation seems soon to 
have reverted to Guillotine, who first suggested its use; and in 
the Journal des revolutions de Paris for 28th April 1792 it is 
mentioned as la guillotine, a name which it thenceforth bore 
both popularly and officially. In 1795 the question was much 
debated as to whether or not death by the guillotine was in- 
stantaneous, and in support of the negative side the case of 
Charlotte Corday was adduced whose countenance, it is said, 
blushed as if with indignation when the executibner, holding up 
the head to the public gaze, struck it with his fist. The connexion 
of the instrument with the horrors of the Revolution has hindered 
its introduction into other countries, but in 1853 it was adopted 
under the name of Fallschwert or Fallbeil by the kingdom of 
Saxony; and it is used for the execution of sentences of death 
in France, Belgium and some parts of Germany. It has often 
been stated that Dr Guillotine perished by the instrument which 
bears his name, but it is beyond question that he survived the 
Revolution and died a natural death in 1814. 

See S6dillot, Reflexions historiques et physiologiques sur le supplice 
de la guillotine (1795); Sue, Opinion sur le supplice de la guillotine, 
(1796); Reveille^- Parise, Etude biographique sur Guillotine (Paris, 
1851); Notice historique et physiologique sur le supplice de la guil- 
lotine (Paris, 1830) ; Louis Dubois, Recherches historiques et physio- 
logiques sur la guillotine et details sur Sanson (Paris, 1843) ; and a 
paper by J. W. Croker in the Quarterly Review for December 1843, 
reprinted separately in 1850 under the title The Guillotine, a historical 
Essay. 

GUILT, a lapse from duty, a crime, now usually the fact of 
wilful wrong-doing, the condition of being guilty of a crime, 
hence conduct deserving of punishment. The O. Eng. form 
of the word is gylt. The New English Dictionary rejects for 
phonetic reasons the usually accepted connexion with the 
Teutonic root gald-, to pay, seen in Ger. gelten, to be of value, 
Geld, money, payment, English " yield." 

GUIM ARABS (sometimes written Guimaraens) , a town of 
northern Portugal, in the district of Braga, formerly included in 
the province of Entre-Minho-e-Douro; 36 m. N.E. of Oporto 
by the Trofa-Guimaraes branch of the Oporto-Corunna railway. 
Pop. (1900) 9104. Guimaraes is a very ancient town with 
Moorish fortifications; and even the quarters which are locally 
described as " new " date partly from the i-sth century. It 
occupies a low hill, skirted on the north-west by a small tributary 
of the river Ave. The citadel, founded in the nth century by 
Count Henry of Burgundy, was in 1094 the birthplace of his 
son Alphonso, the first king of Portugal. The font in which 
Alphonso was baptized is preserved, among other interesting 
relics, in the collegiate church of Santa Maria da Oliveira, " St 
Mary of the Olive," a Romanesque building of the I4th century, 
which occupies the site of an older foundation. This church 
owes its name to the legend that the Visigothic king Wamba 
(672-680) here declined the crown of Spain, until his olive wood 
spear-shaft blossomed as a sign that he should consent. The 
convent of Sao Domingos, now a museum of antiquities, has a 
fine I2th-i3th century cloister; the town hall is built in the blend 
of Moorish and Gothic architecture known as Manoelline. 
Guimaraes has a flourishing trade in wine and farm produce; 
it also manufactures cutlery, linen, leather and preserved fruits. 
Near the town are Citania, the ruins of a prehistoric Iberian 
city, and the hot sulphurous springs of Taipas, frequented since 
the 4th century, when Guimaraes itself was founded. 

GUIMARD, MARIE MADELEINE (1743-1816), French dancer, 
was born in Paris on the loth of October 1743. For twenty-five 
years she was the star of the Paris Opera. She made herself 
even more famous by her love affairs, especially by her long 
liaison with the prince de Soubise. She bought a magnificent 
house at Pantin, and built a private theatre connected with it, 
where Colle's Partie de chasse de Henri IV which was prohibited 
in public, and most of the Proverbes of Carmontelle (Louis 
Carrogis, 1717-1806), and similar licentious performances were 
given to the delight of high society. In 1772, in defiance of the 



6 9 6 



GUIMET GUINEA 



archbishop of Paris, she opened a gorgeous house with a theatre 
seating five hundred spectators in the Chaussee d'Antin. In this 
Temple of Terpsichore, as she named it, the wildest orgies took 
place. In 1786 she was compelled to get rid of the property, 
and it was disposed of by lottery for her benefit for the sum of 
300,000 francs. Soon after her retirement in 1789 she married 
Jean Etienne Despreaux (1748-1820), dancer, song-writer and 
playwright. 

GUIMET, JEAN BAPTISTS (1795-1871), French industrial 
chemist, was born at Voiron on the 2oth of July 1795. He studied 
at the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris, and in 1817 entered the 
Administration des Poudres et Salpetres. In 1828 he was 
awarded the prize offered by the Societe d'Encouragement pour 
1'Industrie Nationale for a process of making artificial ultramarine 
with all the properties of the substance prepared from lapis 
lazuli; and six years later he resigned his official position in 
order to devote himself to the commercial production of that 
material, a factory for which he established at Fleurieux sur 
Saone. He died on the 8th of April 1871. 
His son EMILE ETIENNE GUIMET, born at Lyons on the 26th 
of June 1836, succeeded him in the direction of the factory, 
and founded the Musee Guimet, which was first located at Lyons 
in 1879 and was handed over to the state and transferred to 
Paris in 1885. Devoted to travel, he was in 1876 commissioned 
by the minister of public instruction to study the religions of 
the Far East, and the museum contains many of the fruits of 
this expedition, - including a fine collection of Japanese and 
Chinese porcelain and many objects relating not merely to the 
religions of the East but also to those of Ancient Egypt, Greece 
and Rome. He wrote Lettres sur /M/gerie (1877) and Promenades 
japonaises (1880), and also some musical compositions, including 
a grand opera, Tai-Tsoung (1894). 

GUINEA, the general name applied by Europeans to part of 
the western coast region of equatorial Africa, and also to the 
gulf formed by the great bend of the coast line eastward and then 
southward. Like many other geographical designations the 
use of which is controlled neither by natural nor political 
boundaries, the name has been very differently employed by 
different writers and at different periods. In the widest accepta- 
tion of the term, the Guinea coast may be said to extend from 
13 N. to 16 S., from the neighbourhood of the Gambia to Cape 
Negro. Southern or Lower Guinea comprises the coasts of 
Gabun and Loango (known also as French Congo) and the Portu- 
guese possessions on the south-west coast, and Northern or 
Upper Guinea stretches from the river Casamance to andinclusive 
of the Niger delta, Cameroon occupying a middle position. In 
a narrower use of the name, Guinea is the coast only from Cape 
Palmas to the Gabun estuary. Originally, on the other hand, 
Guinea was supposed to begin as far north as Cape Nun, opposite 
the Canary Islands, and Gomes Azurara, a Portuguese historian 
of the isth century, is said to be the first authority who brings 
the boundary south to the Senegal. The derivation of the name 
is uncertain, but is probably taken from Ghinea, Ginnie, Genni 
or Jenne, a town and kingdom in the basin of the Niger, famed 
for the enterprise of its merchants and dating from the 8th 
century A.D. The name Guinea is found on maps of the middle 
of the I4th century, but it did not come into general use in 
Europe till towards the close of the I5th century. 1 

1 Guinea may, however, be derived from Ghana (or Ghanata) the 
name of the oldest known state in the western Sudan. Ghana dates, 
according to some authorities, from the 3rd century A.D. From 
the 7th to the I2th century it was a powerful empire, its dominions 
extending, apparently, from the Atlantic to the Niger bend. At 
one time Jenn6 was included within its borders. Ghana was finally 
conquered by the Mandingo kings of Melle in the I3th century. Its 
capital, also called Ghana, was west of the Niger, and is generally 
placed some 200 m. west of Jennc. In this district L. Desplagnes 
discovered in 1907 numerous remains of a once extensive city, 
which he identified as those of Ghana. The ruins lie 25 m. W. of 
the Niger, on both banks of a marigot, and are about 40 m. N. by E. 
of Kulikoro (see La Geographic, xvi. 329). By some writers 
Ghana city is, however, identified with Walata, which town is men- 
tioned by Arab historians as the capital of Ghanata. The identifica- 
tion of Ghana city with Jenn6 is not justified, though Idrisi seems 
to be describing Jennd when writing of " Ghana the Great." 



Although the term Gulf of Guinea is applied generally to that 
part of the coast south of Cape Palmas and north of the mouth 
of the Congo, particular indentations have their peculiar designa- 
tions. The bay formed by the configuration of the land between 
Cape St Paul and the Nun mouth of the Niger is known as the 
Bight of Benin, the name being that of the once powerful native 
state whose territory formerly extended over the whole district. 
The Bight of Biafra, or Mafra (named after the town of Mafra in 
southern Portugal), between Capes Formosa and Lopez, is the 
most eastern part of the Gulf of Guinea; it contains the islands 
Fernando Po, Prince's and St Thomas's. The name Biafra 
as indicating the country fell into disuse in the later part of 
the igth century. 

The coast is generally so low as to be visible to navigators only 
within a very short distance, the mangrove trees being their 
only sailing marks. In the Bight of Biafra the coast forms an 
exception, being high and bold, with the Cameroon Mountains 
for background. At Sierra Leone also there is high land. The 
coast in many places maintains a dead level for 30 to 50 m. 
inland. Vegetation is exceedingly luxuriant and varied. The 
palm-oil tree is indigenous and abundant from the river Gambia 
to the Congo. The fauna comprises nearly all the more remark- 
able of African animals. The inhabitants are the true Negro 
stock. 

By the early traders the coast of Upper Guinea was given 
names founded on the productions characteristic of the different 
parts. The Grain coast, that part of the Guinea coast extending 
for 500 m. from Sierra Leone eastward to Cape Palmas received 
its name from the export of the seeds of several plants of a 
peppery character, called variously grains of paradise, Guinea 
pepper and melegueta. The name Grain coast was first applied 
to this region in 1455. It was occasionally styled the Windy or 
Windward coast, from the frequency of short but furious 
tornadoes throughout the year. Towards the end of the i8th 
century, Guinea pepper was supplanted in Europe by peppers 
from the East Indies. The name now is seldom used, the Grain 
coast being divided between the British colony of Sierra Leone 
and the republic of Liberia. The Ivory coast extends from Cape 
Palmas to 3 W., and obtained its name from the quantity of 
ivory exported therefrom. It is now a French possession. East- 
wards of the Ivory coast are the Gold and Slave coasts. The 
Niger delta was for long known as the Oil rivers. To two 
regions only of the coast is the name Guinea officially applied, 
the French and Portuguese colonies north of Sierra Leone being 
so styled. 

Of the various names by which the divisions of Lower Guinea 
were known, Loango was applied to the country south of the 
Gabun and north of the Congo river. It is now chiefly included 
in French Congo. Congo was used to designate the country 
immediately south of the river of the same name, usually spoken 
of until the last half of the igth century as the Zaire. Congo is 
now one of the subdivisions of Portuguese West Africa (see 
ANGOLA). It must not be confounded with the Belgian 
Congo. 

Few questions in historical geography have been more keenly 
discussed than that of the first discovery of Guinea by the 
navigators of modern Europe. Lancelot Malocello, a Genoese, 
in 1270 reached at least as far as the Canaries. The first direct 
attempt to find a sea route to India was, it is said, also made by 
Genoese, Ugolino and Guido de Vivaldo, TedisioDoria and others 
who equipped two galleys and sailed south along the African 
coast in 1291. Beyond the fact that they passed Cape Nun 
there is no trustworthy record of their voyage. In 1346 a Catalan 
expedition started for " the river of gold " on the Guinea coast; 
its fate is unknown. The French claim that between 1364 and 
1410 the people of Dieppe sent out several expeditions to Guinea; 
and Jean de Bethencourt, who settled in the Canaries about 
1402, made explorations towards the south. At length the 
consecutive efforts of the navigators employed by Prince Henry 
of Portugal Gil Eannes, Diniz Diaz, Nuno Tristam, Alvaro 
Fernandez, Cadamosto, Usodimare and Diego Gomez made 
known the coast as far as the Gambia, and by the end 



GUINEA GUINGAMP 



697 



of the isth century the whole region was familiar to 
Europeans. 

For further information see SENEGAL, GOLD COAST, IVORY COAST, 
FRENCH GUINEA, PORTUGUESE GUINEA, LIBERIA, &c. For the 
history of European discoveries, consult G. E. de Azurara, Chronica 
de descobrimento e conquista de Guine, published, with an intro- 
duction, by Barros de Santarem (Paris, 1841), English translation, 
The Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, by C. R. Beazley and E. 
Prestage (Hakluyt Society publications, 2 vols., London, 1896-1899), 
vol. ii. has an introduction on the early history of African explora- 
tion, &c. with full bibliographical notes). L. Estancelin, Recherches 
sur les voyages et decouvertes des navigateurs normands en Afrique 
(Paris, 1832); Villault de Bellefond, Relation des cosies d'Afrique 



des pays situes sur la cote occidentale d'Afrique (Paris, 1842); R. H. 
Major, Life of Prince Henry the Navigator (London, 1868) ; and the 
elaborate review of Major's work by M. Codine in the Bulletin de la 
Soc. de Geog. (1873); A. E. Nordenskiold, Periplus (Stockholm, 
1897); The Story of Africa, vol. i. (London, 1892), edited by Dr 
Robert Brown. 

GUINEA, a gold coin at one time current in the United 
Kingdom. It was first coined in 1663, in the reign of Charles II., 
from gold imported from the Guinea coast of West Africa by a 
company of merchants trading under charter from the British 
crown hence the name. Many of the first guineas bore an 
elephant on one side, this being the stamp of the company; 
in 1675 a castle was added. Issued at the same time as the 
guinea were five-guinea, two-guinea and half-guinea pieces. 
The current value of the guinea on its first issue was twenty 
shillings. It was subsidiary to the silver coinage, but this latter 
was in such an unsatisfactory state that the guinea in course of 
time became over-valued in relation to silver, so much so that 
in 1694 it had risen in value to thirty shillings. The rehabilita- 
tion of the silver coinage in William III.'s reign brought down 
the value of the guinea to 2is. 6d. in 1698, at which it stood until 
1717, when its value was fixed at twenty-one shillings. This 
value the guinea retained until its disappearance from the 
coinage. It was last coined in 1813, and was superseded in 1817 
by the present principal gold coin, the sovereign. In 1718 the 
quarter-guinea was first coined. The third-guinea was first 
struck in George III.'s reign (1787). To George III.'s reign also 
belongs the " spade-guinea," a guinea having the shield on the 
reverse pointed at the base or spade-shaped. It is still customary 
to pay subscriptions, professional fees and honoraria of all kinds, 
in terms of " guineas," a guinea being twenty-one shillings. 

GUINEA FOWL, a well-known domestic gallinaceous bird, 
so called from the country whence in modern times it was 
brought to Europe, the Meleagris and Avis or Gallina Numidica 
of ancient authors. 1 Little is positively known of the wild stock 
to which we owe our tame birds, nor can the period of its re- 
introduction (for there is apparently no evidence of its domestica- 
tion being continuous from the time of the Romans) be assigned 
more than roughly to that of the African discoveries of the 
Portuguese. It does not seem to have been commonly known 
till the middle of the i6th century, when John Caius sent a 
description and figure, with the name Callus Mauritanus, to 
Gesner, who published both in his Paralipomena in 1555, and 
in the same year Belon also gave a notice and woodcut under 
the name of Poulle de la Guinie; but while the former authors 
properly referred their bird to the ancient Meleagris, the latter 
confounded the Meleagris and the turkey. 

The ordinary guinea fowl of the poultry-yard (see also POULTRY 
AND POULTRY-FARMING) is the Numida meleagris of ornitho- 
logists. The chief or only changes which domestication seems 
to have induced in its appearance are a tendency to albinism 
generally shown in the plumage of its lower parts, and frequently, 
though not always, the conversion of the colour of its legs and 

1 Columella (De re rustica, viii. cap. 2) distinguishes the Melea- 
gris from the Gallina Africana or Numidica, the latter having, he 
says, a red wattle (palea, a reading obviously preferable to galea), 
while it was blue in the former. This would look as if the Meleagris 
had sprung from what is now called Numida ptilorhyncha, while the 
Gallina Africana originated in the N. meleagris, speciec which 
have a different range, and if so the fact would point to two distinct 
introductions one by Greeks, the other by Latins. 



feet from dark greyish-brown to bright orange. That the home 
of this species is West Africa from the Gambia J to the Gaboon 
is certain, but its range in the interior is quite unknown. It 
appears to have been imported early- into the Cape Verd Islands, 
where, as also in some of the Greater Antilles and in Ascension, 
it has run wild. Representing the species in South Africa we 
have the N. coronala, which is very numerous from the Cape 
Colony to Ovampoland, and the N. cornuta of Drs Finsch and 
Hartlaub, which replaces it in the west as far as the Zambesi. 
Madagascar also has its peculiar species, distinguishable by its 
red crown, the N. mitrata of Pallas, a name which has often been 
misapplied to the last. This bird has been introduced to 
Rodriguez, where it is now found wild. Abyssinia is inhabited 
by another species, the N. ptilorhyncha, 3 which differs from all 
the foregoing by the absence of any red colouring about the head. 
Very different from all of them, and the finest species known, is 
the N. vulturina of Zanzibar, conspicuous by the bright blue in 
its plumage, the hackles that adorn the lower part of its neck, 
and its long tail. By some writers it is thought to form a separate 
genus, Acryllinm. All these guinea fowls except the last are 
characterized by having the crown bare of feathers and elevated 
into a bony " helmet," but there is another group (to which 
the name Guttera has been given) in which a thick tuft of feathers 
ornaments the top of the head. This contains four or five 
species, all inhabiting some parlor other of Africa, the best known 
being the N. cristata from Sierra Leone and other places on the 
western coast. This bird, apparently mentioned by Marcgrave 
more than 200 years ago, but first described by Pallas, is remark- 
able for the structure unique, if not possessed by its represen- 
tative forms of its furcula, where the head, instead of being 
the thin plate found in all other Gallinae, is a hollow cup opening 
upwards, into which the trachea dips, and then emerges on its 
way to the lungs. Allied to the genus Numida, but readily 
distinguished thereform among other characters by the possession 
of spurs and the absence of a helmet, are two very rare forms, 
Agelastes and Phasidus, both from western Africa. Of their 
habits nothing is known. All these birds are beautifully figured 
in Elliot's Monograph of the Phasianidae, from drawings by 
Wolf. (A. N.) 

GUINEA-WORM (Draconliasis), a disease due to the Filaria 
medinensis,oi Dracunculus, or Guinea-worm, a filarious nematode 
like a horse-hair, whose most frequent habitat is the subcutaneous 
and intramuscular tissues of the legs and feet. It is common on 
the Guinea coast, and in many other tropical and subtropical 
regions and has been familiarly known since ancient times. 
The condition of dracontiasis due to it is a very common one, 
and sometimes amounts to an epidemic. The black races are 
most liable, but Europeans of almost any social rank and of 
either sex are not altogether exempt. The worm lives in water, 
and, like the Filaria sanguinis hominis, appears to have an 
intermediate host for its larval stage. It is doubtful whether 
the worm penetrates the skin of the legs directly; it is not 
impossible that the intermediate host (a cyclops) which contains 
the larvae may be swallowed with the water, and that the larvae 
of the Dracunculus may be set free in the course of digestion. 

GUINES, a town in the interior of Havana province, Cuba, 
about 30 m. S.E. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 8053. It is situated 
on a plain, in the midst of a rich plantation district, chiefly 
devoted to the cultivation of tobacco. The first railway in Cuba 
was built from Havana to Gtiines between 1835 and 1838. One 
of the very few good highways of the island also connects Giiines 
with the capital. The pueblo of Giiines, which was built on a 
great private estate of the same name, dates back to about 1735. 
The church dates from 1850. Guines became a " villa " in 1814, 
and was destroyed by fire in 1817. 

GUINGAMP, a town of north-western France, capital of an 
arrondissement in the department of C6tes-du-Nord, on the 

* Specimens from the Gambia are said to be smaller, and have been 
described as distinct under the name of N. rendalli. 

3 Darwin (Anim. and PI. under Domestication, i. 294), gives this 
as the original stock of the modern domestic birds, but obviously by 
an accidental error. As before observed, it may possibly have been 
the true itttmaypli of the Greeks. 



6 9 8 



GUINNESS GUIRAUD 



right bank of the Trieux, 20 m. W.N.W. of St Brieuc on the 
railway to Brest. Pop. (1906), town 6937, commune 9212. 
Its chief church, Notre-Dame de Bon-Secours, dates from the 
I4th to the i6th centuries; -two towers rise on each side of the 
richly sculptured western portal and a third surmounts the 
crossing. A famous statue of the Virgin, the object of one of 
the most important " pardons " or religious pilgrimages in 
Brittany, stands in one of the two northern porches. The 
central square is decorated by a graceful fountain in the Renais- 
sance style, restored in 1743. Remains of the ramparts and of 
the chateau of the dukes of Penthievre, which belong to the 
1 5th century, still survive. Guingamp is the seat of a sub- 
prefect and of a tribunal of first instance. It is an important 
market for dairy-cattle, and its industries include flour-milling, 
tanning and leather-dressing. Guingamp was the chief town of 
the countship (subsequently the duchy) of Penthievre. The 
Gothic chapel of Graces, near Guingamp, contains fine 
sculptures. 

GUINNESS, the name of a family of Irish brewers. The 
firm was founded by ARTHUR GUINNESS, who about the middle 
of the 1 8th century owned a modest brewing-plant at Leixlip, 
a village on the upper reaches of the river Liffey. In or about 
1759 Arthur Guinness, seeking to extend his trade, purchased 
a small porter brewery belonging to a Mr Rainsford at St James's 
Gate, Dublin. By careful attention to the purity of his product, 
coupled with a shrewd perception of the public taste, he built 
up a considerable business. But his third son, BENJAMIN LEE 
GUINNESS (1798-1868), may be regarded as the real maker of 
the firm, into which he was taken at an early age, and of which 
about 1825 he was given sole control. Prior to that date the 
trade in Guinness's porter and stout had been confined to Ireland, 
but Benjamin Lee Guinness at once established agencies in the 
United Kingdom, on the continent, in the British colonies and 
in America. The export trade soon assumed huge proportions; 
the brewery was continually enlarged, and when in 1855 his 
father died, Benjamin Lee Guinness, who in 1851 was elected 
first lord mayor of Dublin, found himself sole proprietor of the 
business and the richest man in Ireland. Between 1860 and 
1865 he devoted a portion of this wealth to the restoration 
of St Patrick's cathedral, Dublin. The work, the progress 
of which he regularly superintended himself, cost 160,000. 
Benjamin Lee Guinness represented the city of Dublin in parlia- 
ment as a Conservative from 1865 till his death, and in 1867 
was created a baronet. He died in 1868, and was succeeded in 
the control of the business by Sir Arthur Edward Guinness (b. 
1840), his eldest, and Edward Cecil Guinness (b. 1847), his third, 
son. Sir ARTHUR EDWARD GUINNESS, who for some time repre- 
sented Dublin in parliament, was in 1880 raised to the peerage 
as Baron Ardilaun, and about the same time disposed of his 
share in the brewery to his brother Edward Cecil Guinness. 
In 1886 EDWARD CECIL GUINNESS disposed of the brewery, 
the products of which were then being sent all over the world, 
to a limited company, in which he remained the largest share- 
holder. Edward Cecil Guinness was created a baronet in 1885, 
and in 1891 was raised to the peerage as Baron Iveagh. 

The Guinness family have been distinguished for their philan- 
thropy and public munificence. Lord Ardilaun gave a recreation 
ground to Dublin, and the famous Muckross estate at Killarney 
to the nation. Lord Iveagh set aside 250,000 for the creation 
of the Guinness trust (1889) for the erection and maintenance 
of buildings for the labouring poor in London and Dublin, and 
was a liberal benefactor to the funds of Dublin university. 

GUINOBATAN, a town of the province of Albay, Luzon, 
Philippine Islands, on the Inaya river, 9 m. W. by N. of the town 
of Albay. Pop. (1903), 20,027. Its chief interest is in hemp, 
which is grown in large quantities in the neighbouring country. 

GUIPUZCOA, a maritime province of northern Spain, included 
among the Basque provinces, and bounded on the N. by the 
Bay of Biscay; W. by the province of Biscay (Vizcaya); S. and 
S.E. by Alava and Navarre: and N.E. by the river Bidassoa, 1 

1 A small island in the Bidassoa, called La Isla de los Faisanes, or 
1'Isle de la Conference, is celebrated as the place where the marriage 



which separates it from France. Pop. (1900), 195,850; area, 
728 sq. m. Situated on the northern slope of the great Can- 
tabrian chain at its junction with the Pyrenees, the province has 
a great variety of surface in mountain, hill and valley; and its 
scenery is highly picturesque. The coast is much indented, 
and has numerous harbours, but none of very great importance; 
the chief are those of San Sebastian, Pasajes, Guetaria, Deva 
and Fuenterrabia. The rivers (Deva, Urola, Oria, Urumea, 
Bidassoa) are all short, rapid and unnavigable. The mountains 
are for the most part covered with forests of oak, chestnut or 
pine; holly and arbutus are also common, with furze and heath 
in the poorer parts. The soil in the lower valleys is generally 
of hard clay and unfertile; it is cultivated with great care, 
but the grain raised falls considerably short of what is required 
for home consumption. The climate, though moist, is mild, 
pleasant and healthy; fruit is produced in considerable 
quantities, especially apples for manufacture into zaragua or 
cider. The chief mineral products are iron, lignite, lead, copper, 
zinc and cement. Ferruginous and sulphurous springs are very 
common, and are much frequented every summer by visitors 
from all parts of the kingdom. There are excellent fisheries, 
which supply the neighbouring provinces with cod, tunny, 
sardines and oysters; and the average yearly value of the coast- 
ing trade exceeds 400,000. By Irun, Pasajes and the frontier 
roads 4,000,000 of imports and 3,000,000 of exports pass to 
and from France, partly in transit for the rest of Europe. Apart 
from the four Catalan provinces, no province has witnessed such 
a development of local industries as Guipuzcoa. The principal 
industrial centres are Irun, Renteria, Villabona, Vergara and 
Azpeitia for cotton and linen stuffs; Zumarraga for osies; 
Eibar, Plasencia and Elgoibar for arms and cannon and gold 
incrustations; Irun for soap and carriages; San Sebastian, 
Irun and Onate for paper, glass, chemicals and saw-mills; 
Tolosa for paper, timber, cloths and furniture; and the banks 
of the bay of Pasajes for the manufacture of liqueurs of every 
kind, and the preparation of wines for export and for consumption 
in the interior of Spain. This last industry occupies several 
thousand French and Spanish workmen. An arsenal was 
established at Azpeitia during the Carlist rising of 1870-1874; 
but the manufacture of ordnance and gunpowder was subse- 
quently discontinued. The main line of the northern railway 
from Madrid to France runs through the province, giving access, 
by a loop line, to the chief industrial centres. The custom-house 
through which it passes on the frontier is one of the most 
important in Spain. Despite the steep gradients, where traffic 
is hardly possible except by ox-carts, there are over 350 m. of 
admirably engineered roads, maintained solely by the local 
tax-payers. After San Sebastian, the capital (pop. 1900, 37,812), 
the chief towns are Fuenterrabia (4345) and Irun (9912). Other 
towns with more than 6000 inhabitants are Azpeitia (6066), 
Eibar (6583), Tolosa (8m) and Vergara (6196). Guipuzcoa 
is the smallest and one of the most densely peopled provinces of 
Spain; for its constant losses by emigration are counterbalanced 
by a high birth-rate and the influx of settlers from other districts 
who are attracted by its industrial prosperity. 

For an account of its inhabitants and their customs, language and 
history, see BASQUES and BASQUE PROVINCES. 

GUIRAUD, ERNEST (1837-1892), French composer, was 
born at New Orleans on the 26th of June 1837. He studied at 
the Paris Conservatoire, where he won the grand prix de Rome. 
His father had gained the same distinction many years previously, 
this being the only instance of both father and son obtaining 
this prize. Ernest Guiraud composed the following operas: 
Sylne (1864), Le Kobold (1870), Madame Turlupin (1872), 
Piccolino (1876), Galante Aventure (1882), and also the ballet 
Gretna Green, given at the Opera in 1873. His opera Fredegonde 
was left in an unfinished condition and was completed by Camille 
Samt-Sae'ns. Guiraud, who was a fellow-student and intimate 

of the duke of Guienne was arranged between Louis XI. and Henry 
IV. in 1463, where Francis I., the prisoner of Charles V., was 
exchanged for his two sons in 1526, and where in 1659 " the Peace of 
the Pyrenees " was concluded between D. Luis de Haro and Cardinal 
Mazarin. 



GUISBOROUGH GUISE 



699 



friend of Georges Bizet, was for some years professor of composi- 
tion at the Conservatoire. He was the author of an excellent 
treatise on instrumentation. He died in Paris on the 6th of 
May 1892. 

GUISBOROUGH, or GUISBROUGH, a market town in the 
Cleveland parliamentary division of the North Riding of York- 
shire, England, 10 m. E.S.E. of Middlesbrough by a branch of 
the North-Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 5645. 
It is well situated in a narrow, fertile valley at the N. foot of 
the Cleveland Hills. The church of St Nicholas is Perpendicular, 
greatly restored. Other buildings are the town hall, and the 
modern buildings of the grammar school founded in 1 56 1 . Ruins 
of an Augustinian priory, founded in 1129, are beautifully 
situated near the eastern extremity of the town. The church 
contains some fine Decorated work, and the chapter house and 
parts of the conventual buildings may be traced. Considerable 
fragments of Norman and transitional work remain. Among 
the historic personages who were buried within its walls was 
Robert Bruce, lord of Annandale, the competitor for the throne 
of Scotland with John Baliol, and the grandfather of King 
Robert the Bruce. About I m. S.E. of the town there is a 
sulphurous spring discovered in 1822. The district neighbouring 
to Guisborough is rich in iron-stone. Its working forms the 
chief industry of the town, and there are also tanneries and 
breweries. 

GUISE, a town of northern France, in the department of 
Aisne, on the Oise, 31 m. N. of Laon by rail. Pop. (1906), 7562. 
The town was formerly the capital of the district of Thierache 
and afterwards of a countship (see below). There is a chateau 
dating in part from the middle of the i6th century. Camille 
Desmoulins was in 1762 born in the town, which has erected a 
statue to him. The chief industry is the manufacture of iron 
stoves and heating apparatus', carried on on the co-operative 
system in works founded by J. B. A. Godin, who built for his 
workpeople the huge buildings known as the familist&re, in front 
of which stands his statue. A board of trade-arbitration is 
among the public institutions. 

GUISE, HOUSE OF, a cadet branch of the house of Lorraine 
(q.v.). Rene II., duke of Lorraine (d. 1508), united the two 
branches of the house of Lorraine. From his paternal grand- 
mother, Marie d'Harcourt, Rene inherited the countships of 
Aumale, Mayenne, Elbeuf, Lillebonne, Brionne and other 
French fiefs, in addition to the honours of the elder branch, 
which included the countship of Guise, the dowry of Marie of 
Blois on her marriage in 1333 with Rudolph or Raoul of Lorraine. 
Rene's eldest surviving son by his marriage with Philippa, 
daughter of Adolphus of Egmont, duke of Gelderland, was 
Anthony, who succeeded his father as duke of Lorraine (d. 1544), 
while the second, Claude, count and afterwards duke of Guise, 
received the French fiefs. The Guises, though naturalized in 
France, continued to interest themselves in the fortunes of 
Lorraine, and their enemies were always ready to designate 
them as foreigners. The partition between the brothers Anthony 
and Claude was ratified by a further agreement in 1530, reserving 
the lapsed honours of the kingdoms of Jerusalem, Sicily, Aragon, 
the duchy of Anjou and the countships of Provence and Maine 
to the duke of Lorraine. Of the other sons of Rene II., John 
(1498-1550) became the first cardinal of Lorraine, while Ferri, 
Louis and Francis fell fighting in the French armies at Marignano 
(1515), Naples (1528) and Pavia (1525) respectively. 

CLAUDE OF LORRAINE, count and afterwards ist duke of 
Guise (1496-1550), was born on the 2oth of October 1496. He 
was educated at the French court, and at seventeen allied 
himself to the royal house of France by a marriage with 
Antoinette de Bourbon (1493-1583) daughter of Francois, Count 
of Vendome. Guise distinguished himself at Marignano (1515), 
and was long in recovering from the twenty-two wounds he 
received in the battle; in 1521 he fought at Fuenterrabia, when 
Louise of Savoy ascribed the capture of the place to his efforts; in 
1522 he defended northern France, and forced the English to 
raise the siege of Hesdin; and in 1523 he obtained the government 
of Champagne and Burgundy, defeating at Neufchateau the 



imperial troops who had invaded his province. In 1525 he 
destroyed the Anabaptist peasant army, which was overrunning 
Lorraine, at Lupstein, near Saverne (Zabern). On the return 
of Francis I. from captivity, Guise was erected into a duchy 
in the peerage of France, though up to this time only princes of 
the royal house had held the title of duke and peer of France. 
The Guises, as cadets of the sovereign house of Lorraine and 
descendants of the house of Anjou, claimed precedence of the 
Bourbon princes. Their pretensions and ambitions inspired 
distrust in Francis I., although he rewarded Guise's services by 
substantial gifts in land and money. The duke distinguished 
himself in the Luxemburg campaign in 1542, but for some years 
before his death he effaced himself before the growing fortunes 
of his sons. He died on the I2th of April 1550. 

He had been supported in all his undertakings and intrigues 
by his brother JOHN, cardinal of Lorraine (1498-1550), who 
had been made coadjutor of Metz at the age of three. The 
cardinal was archbishop of Reims, Lyons and Narbonne, bishop 
of Metz, Toul, Verdun, Therouanne, Lucon, Albi, Valence, 
Nantes and Agen, and before he died had squandered most of 
the wealth which he had derived from these and other benefices. 
Part of his ecclesiastical preferments he gave up in favour of 
his nephews. He became a member of the royal council in 1 530, 
and in 1536 was entrusted with an embassy to Charles V. 
Although a complaisant helper in Francis I.'s pleasures, he was 
disgraced in 1542, and retired to Rome. He died at Nogent- 
sur-Yonne on the i8th of May 1550. He was extremely dis- 
solute, but as an open-handed patron of art and learning, as 
the protector and friend of Erasmus, Marot and Rabelais he 
did something to counter-balance the general unpopularity of 
his calculating and avaricious brother. 

Claude of Guise had twelve children, among them Francis, 2nd 
duke of Guise; Charles, 2nd cardinal of Lorraine (1524-1574), who 
became archbishop of Reims in 1538 and cardinal in 1547; Claude, 
marquis of Mayenne, duke of Aumale (1526-1573), governor of 
Burgundy, who married Louise de Breze', daughter of Diane de 
Poitiers, thus securing a powerful ally for the family; Louis (1527- 
1578), bishop of Troyes, archbishop of Sens and cardinal of Guise; 
Ren6, marquis of Elbeuf (1536-1566), from whom descended the 
families of Harcourt, Armagnac, Marsan and Lillebonne; Mary of 
Lorraine (q.v.), generally known as Mary of Guise, who after the 
death of her second husband, James V. of Scotland, acted as regent 
of Scotland for her daughter Mary, queen of Scots; and Francis 
(1534-1563), grand prior of the order of the Knights of Malta. The 
solidarity of this family, all the members of which through three 
generations cheerfully submitted to the authority of the head of the 
house, made it a formidable factor in French politics. 

FRANCIS OF LORRAINE, 2nd duke of Guise (1519-1563), " le 
grand Guise," was born at Bar on the i7th of February 1519. 
As count of Aumale he served in the French army, and was 
nearly killed at the siege of Boulogne in 1545 by a wound which 
brought him the name of "Balafre." Aumale was made (1547) 
a peerage-duchy in his favour, and on the accession of Henry II. 
the young duke, who had paid assiduous court to Diane de 
Poitiers, shared the chief honours of the kingdom with the 
constable Anne de Montmorency. Both cherished ambitions 
for their families, but the Guises were more unscrupulous in 
subordinating the interests of France to their own. Mont- 
morency's brutal manners, however, made enemies where Guise's 
grace and courtesy won him friends. Guise was a suitor for 
the hand of Jeanne d'Albret, princess of Navarre, who refused, 
however, to become a sister-in-law of a daughter of Diane de 
Poitiers and remained one of the most dangerous and persistent 
enemies of the Guises. He married in December 1548 Anne of 
Este, daughter of Ercole II., duke of Ferrara, and through her 
mother Renee, a granddaughter of Louis XII. of France. In 
the same year he had put down a peasant rising in Saintonge 
with a humanity that compared very favourably with the 
cruelty shown by Montmorency to the town of Bordeaux. He 
made preparations in Lorraine for the king's German campaign 
of 1551-52. He was already governor 'of Dauphin6, and now 
became grand chamberlain, prince of Joinville, and hereditary 
seneschal of Champagne, with large additions to his already 
considerable revenues. He was charged with the defence of 
Metz, which Henry II. had entered in 1551. He reached the 



yoo 



GUISE 



city in August 1552, and rapidly gave proof of his great powers 
as a soldier and organizer by the skill with which the place, badly 
fortified and unprovided with artillery, was put in a state of 
defence. Metz was invested by the duke of Alva in October 
with an army of 60,000 men, and the emperor joined his 
forces in November. An army of brigands commanded by Albert 
of Brandenburg had also to be reckoned with. Charles was 
obliged to raise the siege on the 2nd of January 1553, having 
lost, it is said, 30,000 men before the walls. Guise used his 
victory with rare moderation and humanity, providing medical 
care for the sick and wounded left behind in the besiegers' camp. 
The subsequent operations were paralysed by the king's suspicion 
and carelessness, and the constable's inactivity, and a year later 
Guise was removed from the command. He followed the con- 
stable's army as a volunteer, and routed the army of Charles V. 
at the siege of Renty on the izth of August 1554. Mont- 
morency's inaction rendered the victory fruitless, and a bitter 
controversy followed between Guise and the constable's nephew 
Coligny, admiral of France, which widened a breach already 
existing. 

The conclusion of a six years' truce at Vaucelles (1556) dis- 
appointed Guise's ambitions, and he was the main mover in the 
breach of the treaty in 1558, when he was sent at the head of a 
French army to Italy to the assistance of Pope Paul IV. against 
Spain. Guise, who perhaps had in view the restoration to his 
family of the Angevin dominion of Naples and Sicily, crossed the 
Alps early in 1557 and after a month's delay in Rome, where he 
failed to receive the promised support, marched on the kingdom 
of Naples, then occupied by the Spanish troops under Alva. 
He seized and sacked Campli (April i7th), but was compelled 
to raise the siege of Civitella. Meanwhile the pope had veered 
round to a Spanish alliance, and Guise, seeing that no honour 
was to be gained in the campaign, wisely spared his troops, so 
that his army was almost intact when, in August, he was hastily 
summoned home to repel the Spanish army which had invaded 
France from the north, and had taken St Quentin. On reaching 
Paris in October Guise was made lieutenant-general of the 
kingdom, and proceeded to prepare for the siege of Calais. The 
town was taken, after six days' fighting, on the 6th of January 
1558, and this success was followed up by the capture of Guines, 
Thionville and Arlon, when the war was ended by the treaty 
of Cateau Cambresis (1559). Although his brother, the cardinal 
of Lorraine, was one of the negotiators, this peace was concluded 
against the wishes of Guise, and was regarded as a triumph of the 
constable's party. The Guises were provided with a weapon 
against Montmorency by the bishop of Arras (afterwards Cardinal 
Granvella), who gave to the cardinal of Lorraine at an interview 
at Peronne in 1558 an intercepted letter proving the Huguenot 
leanings of the constable's nephews. 

On the accession in 1559 of Francis II., their nephew by 
marriage with Mary Stuart, the royal authority was practically 
delegated to Guise and the cardinal, who found themselves 
beyond rivalry for the time being. They had, however, to cope 
with a new and dangerous force in Catherine de' Medici, who 
was now for the first time free to use her political ability. The 
incapacity, suspicion and cruelty of the cardinal, who controlled 
the internal administration, roused the smaller nobility 
against the Lorraine princes. A conspiracy to overturn their 
government was formed at Nantes, with a needy Perigord 
nobleman named La Renaudie as its nominal head, though the 
agitation had in the first instance been fostered by the agents 
of Louis I., prince of Conde. The Guises were warned of the 
conspiracy while the court was at Blois, and for greater security 
removed the king to Amboise. La Renaudie, nothing daunted, 
merely postponed his plans; and the conspirators assembled 
in small parties in the woods round Amboise. They had, how- 
ever, been again betrayed and many of them were surrounded 
and taken before the coup could be delivered; one party, which 
had seized the chateau of Noizay, surrendered on a promise 
of amnesty given " on his faith as a prince " by James of Savoy, 
duke of Nemours, a promise which, in spite of the duke's protest, 
was disregarded. On the igth of March 1560, La Renaudie and 



the rest of the conspirators openly attacked the chateau of 
Amboise. They were repelled; their leader was killed; and 
a large number were taken prisoners. The merciless vengeance 
of the Guises was the measure of their previous fears. For a 
whole week the torturings, quarterings and hangings went on, 
the bodies being cast into the Loire, the young king and queen 
witnessing the bloody spectacle day by day from a balcony of the 
chateau. 

The cruel repression of this " conspiracy of Amboise " inspired 
bitter hatred of the Guises, since they were avenging a rising 
rather against their own than the royal authority. They now 
entrenched themselves with the king at Orleans, and the Bourbon 
princes, Anthony, king of Navarre, and his brother Conde, were 
summoned to court. The Guises convened a special commission 
to try Conde, who was condemned to death; but the affair was 
postponed by the chancellor, and the death of Francis II. in 
December saved Conde. Guise then made common cause with 
his old rival Montmorency and with the Marshal de Saint Andre 
against Catherine, the Bourbons and Coligny. This alliance, 
constituted on the 6th of April 1561, and known as the trium- 
virate, aimed at the annulment of the concessions made by 
Catherine to the Huguenots. The cardinal of Lorraine fomented 
the discord which appeared between the clergy of the two 
religions when they met at the colloquy of Poissy in 1561, but 
in spite of the extreme Catholic views he there professed, he was 
at the time in communication with the Lutheran princes of 
Germany, and in February 1562 met the duke of Wurttemberg 
at Zabern to discuss the possibility of a religious compromise. 

The signal for civil war was given by an attack of Guise's 
escort on a Huguenot congregation at Vassy (ist of March 1562). 
Although Guise did not initiate the massacre, and although, 
when he learned what was going on, he even tried to restrain 
his soldiers, he did not disavow their action. When Catherinede' 
Medici forbade his entry into Paris, he accepted the challenge, 
and on the i6th of March he entered the city, where he was a 
popular hero, at the head of 2000 armed nobles. The provost of 
the merchants offered to put 20,000 men and two million livres 
at his disposal. In September he joined Montmorency in 
besieging Rouen, which was sacked as if it had been a foreign 
city, in spite of Guise's efforts to save it from the worst horrors. 
At the battle of Dreux (igth of December 1562) he commanded 
a reserve army, with which he saved Montmorency's forces from 
destruction and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Huguenots. 
The prince of Conde was his prisoner, while the capture of 
Montmorency by the Huguenots and the assassination of the 
Marshal de Saint-Andre after the battle left Guise the undisputed 
head of the Catholic party. He was appointed lieutenant-general 
of the kingdom, and on the 5th of February 1563 he appeared 
with, his army before Orleans. On the igth, however, he was 
shot by the Huguenot Jean Poltrot de Mere as he was returning 
to his quarters, and died on the 24th of the effects of the wound. 
Guise's splendid presence, his generosity and humanity and his 
almost unvarying success on the battlefield made him the idol 
of his soldiers. He attended personally to the minutest details, 
and Monluc complains that' he even wrote out his own orders, 
The mistakes and cruelties associated with his name were partly 
due to the evil counsels of his brother Charles, the cardinal, 
whose cowardice and insincerity were the scorn of his contem- 
poraries. The negotiations of the Guises with Spain dated from 
the interview with Granvella at Peronne, in 1558, and after the 
death of his brother the cardinal of Lorraine was constantly in 
communication with the Spanish court, offering, in the event 
of the failure of direct heirs to the Valois kings, to deliver up the 
frontier fortresses and to acknowledge Philip II. as king of France. 
His death in 1574 temporarily weakened the extreme Catholic 
party. 

Of the children of Francis " le Balafr6 " five survived him: Henry, 
3rd duke of Guise; Charles, duke of Mayenne (1554-1611) (q.v.), who 
consolidated the League; Catherine (1552-1596), who married Louis 
of Bourbon, duke of Montpensier, and encouraged the fanaticism of 
the Parisian leaguers; Louis, second cardinal of Guise, afterwards of 
Lorraine (1555-1588), who was assassinated with his brother Henry; 
and Francis (1558-1573). 



GUISE 



701 



HENRY OF LORRAINE, 3rd duke of Guise (1550-1588), born 
on the 3ist of December 1550, was thirteen years old at the 
time of his father's death, and grew up under the domination 
of a passionate desire for revenge. Catherine de' Medici refused 
to take steps against Coligny, who was formally accused by the 
duchess of Guise and her brothers-in-law of having incited the 
murder. In 1566 she insisted on a formal reconciliation at 
Moulins between the Guises and Coligny, at which, however, none 
of the sons of the murdered man was present. Henry and his 
brothers were, however, compelled in 1572 to sign an ambiguous 
assent to this agreement. Guise's widow married James of 
Savoy, duke of Nemours, and the young duke at sixteen went 
to fight against the Turks in Hungary. On the fresh outbreak 
of civil war in 1567 he returned to France and served under his 
uncle Aumale. In the autumn of 1 568 he received a considerable 
command, and speedily came into rivalry with Henry of Valois, 
duke of Anjou. He had not inherited his father's generalship, 
and his rashness and headstrong valour more than once brought 
disaster on his troops, but the showy quality of his fighting 
brought him great popularity in the army. In the defence of 
Poitiers in 1 569 with his brother, the duke of Mayenne, he showed 
more solid abilities as a soldier. On the conclusion of peace in 
1 570 he returned to court, where he made no secret of his attach- 
ment to Margaret of Valois. His pretensions were violently 
resented by her brothers, who threatened his life, and he saved 
himself by a precipitate marriage with Catherine of Cleves 
(daughter of Francis of Cleves, duke of Nevers, and Margaret 
of Bourbon), the widow of a Huguenot nobleman, Antoine de 
Crog, prince of Porcien. Presently he ended his disgrace by an 
apparent reconciliation with Henry of Valois and an alliance 
with Catherine de' Medici. He was an accomplice in the first 
attack on Coligny's life, and when permission for the massacre 
of Saint Bartholomew had been extorted from Charles IX. he 
roused Paris against the Huguenots, and satisfied his personal 
vengeance by superintending the murder of Coligny. He was 
now the acknowledged chief of the Catholic party, and the 
power of his family was further increased by the marriage (1575) 
of Henry III. with Louise of Vaudemont, who belonged to the 
elder branch of the house of Lorraine. In a fight at Dormans 
(loth of October 1575), the only Catholic victory in a disastrous 
campaign, Guise received a face wound which won for him his 
father's name of Balafre and helped to secure the passionate 
attachment of the Parisians. He refused to acquiesce in the 
treaty of Beaulieu (sth of May 1576), and with the support of 
the Jesuits proceeded to form a " holy league " for the defence 
of the Roman Catholic Church. The terms of enrolment enjoined 
offensive action against all who refused to join. This association 
had been preceded by various provincial leagues among the 
Catholics, notably one at Peronne. Conde had been imposed 
on this town as governor by the terms of the peace, and the 
local nobility banded together to resist him. This, like the Holy 
League itself, was political as well as religious in its aims, and 
was partly inspired by revolt against the royal authority. In 
the direction of the League Guise was hampered by Philip 
of Spain, who subsidized the movement, while he also had to 
submit to the dictation of the Parisian democracy. Ulterior 
ambitions were freely ascribed to him. It was asserted that 
papers seized from his envoy to Rome, Jean David, revealed a 
definite design of substituting the Lorraines, who represented 
themselves as the successors of Charlemagne, for the Valois; 
but these papers were probably a Huguenot forgery. Henry III. 
eventually placed himself at the head of the League, and resumed 
the war against the Huguenots; but on the conclusion of peace 
(September 1577) he seized the opportunity of disbanding the 
Catholic associations. The king's jealousy of Guise increased 
with the duke's popularity, but he did not venture on an open 
attack, nor did he dare to avenge the murder by Guise's partisans 
of one of his personal favourites, Saint-Megrin, who had been 
set on by the court to compromise the reputation of the duchess 
of Guise. 1 

1 This incident supplied Alexandre Dumas plre with the subject 
of his Henri III et sa cour (1829). 



Meanwhile the duke had entered on an equivocal alliance with 
Don John of Austria. He was also in constant correspondence 
with Mary of Lorraine, and meditated a descent on Scotland 
in support of the Catholic cause. But the great riches of the 
Guises were being rapidly dissipated, and in 1578 the duke 
became a pensioner of Philip II. When in 1 584 the death of the 
duke of Anjou made Henry of Navarre the next heir to the 
throne, the prospect of a Huguenot dynasty roused the Catholics 
to forget their differences, and led to the formation of a new 
league of the Catholic nobles. At the end of the same year Guise 
and his brother, the duke of Mayenne, with the assent of other 
Catholic nobles, signed a treaty at joinville with Philip II., 
fixing the succession to the crown on Charles, cardinal of Bourbon , 
to the exclusion of the Protestant princes of his house. In March 
1585 the chiefs of the League issued the Declaration of Peronne, 
exposing their grievances against the government and announcing 
their intention to restore the dignity of religion by force of arms. 
On the refusal of Henry III. to accept Spanish help against 
his Huguenot subjects, war broke out. The chief cities of France 
declared for the League, and Guise, who had recruited his forces 
in Germany and Switzerland, took up his headquarters at 
Chalons, while Mayenne occupied Dijon, and his relatives, the 
dukes of Elbeuf, Aumale and Mercceur, 2 roused Normandy 
and Brittany. Henry III. accepted, or feigned to accept, the 
terms imposed by the Guises at Nemours (7th of July 1585). 
The edicts in favour of the Huguenots were immediately revoked. 
Guise added to his reputation as the Catholic champion by 
defeating the German auxiliaries of the Huguenots at Vimory 
(October 1587) and Auneau (November 1587). The protestations 
of loyalty to Henry III. which had marked the earlier manifestoes 
of the League were modified. Obedience to the king was now 
stated to depend on his giving proof of Catholic Zealand showing 
no favour to heresy. In April 1588 Guise arrived in Paris, 
where he put himself at the head of the Parisian mob, and on 
the 1 2th of May, known as the Day of the Barricades, he actually 
had the crown within his grasp. He refused to treat with 
Catherine de' Medici, who was prepared to make peace at any 
cost, but restrained the populace from revolution and permitted 
Henry to escape from Paris. Henry came to terms with the 
League in May, and made Guise lieutenant-general of the royal 
armies. The estates-general, which were assembled at Blois, 
were devoted to the Guise interest, and alarmed the king by 
giving voice to the political as well as the religious aspirations 
of the League. Guise remained at the court of Blois after 
receiving repeated warnings that Henry meditated treason. 
On the 2 5th of December he was summoned to the king's chamber 
during a sitting of the royal council, and was murdered by 
assassins carefully posted by Henry III. himself. The cardinal 
of Lorraine was murdered in prison on the next day. The 
history of the Guises thenceforward centres in the duke of 

Mayenne (q.v.). 

By his wife, Catherine of Cleves, the third duke had fourteen 
children: among them Charles, 4th duke of Guise (1571-1640); 
Claude, duke of Chevreuse (1578-1657), whose wife, Marie de Rohan, 
duchess of|Chevreuse, became famous for her intrigues; Louis(is85- 
1621), 3rd cardinal of Guise, archbishop of Reims, remembered for 
his liaison with Charlotte des Essarts, mistress of Henry IV. 

CHARLES, 4th duke of Guise (1571-1640), was imprisoned 
for three years after his father's death. He married Henriette 
Catherine de Joyeuse, widow of the duke of Montpensier. His 
eldest son predeceased him, and he was succeeded by his second 
son HENRY (1614-1664), who had been archbishop of Reims, 
but renounced the ecclesiastical estate and became sth duke. 
He made an attempt (1647) on the crown of Naples, and was a 
prisoner in Spain from 1648 to 1652. A second expedition to 
Naples in 1654 was a fiasco. He was succeeded by his nephew, 
Louis JOSEPH (1656-1671), as 6th duke. With his son, FRANCIS 
JOSEPH (1670-1675), the line failed; and the title and estates 
passed to his great-aunt, Marie of Lorraine, duchess of Guise 

1 Philippe-Emmanuel of Lorraine, duke of Mercoeur, a ^adet of 
Lorraine and brother of Louise de Vauddmont, Henry III.'s queen. 
His wife, Mary of Luxemburg, descended from the dukes of Brittany, 
and he was made governor of the province in 1582. He aspired to 
separate sovereignty, and called his son prince and duke of Brittany. 



702 



GUISE 





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GUITAR 



703 



(1615-1688), daughter of the 4th duke, and with her the title 
became extinct. The title is now vested in the family of the 
Bourbon-Orleans princes. 

AUTHORITIES. A number of contemporary documents relating to 
the Guises are included by L. Cimber and F. Danjou in their Archives 
curieuses de I'histoire de France (Paris, 1834, &c.). Vol. iii. contains a 
soldier's diary of the siege of Metz, first published in Italian (Lyons, 
1553), accounts of the sieges of Calais (Tours, 1558), of Thionville 
(Paris, 1558) ; vol. iv. an account of the tumult of Amboise from the 
Memoires of Conde, and four accounts of the affair of Vassy; vol. v. 
four accounts of the battle of Dreux, one dictated by Guise, and 
accounts of the murder of Guise; vol. xi. accounts of the Parisian 
revolution of 1558; and vol. xii. numerous pamphlets and pieces 
dealing with the murder of Henry of Guise and his brother. An 
account of the murder of Guise and of the subsequent measures taken 
by Mayenne, which was supplied by the Venetian ambassador, 
G. Mocenigo, to his government, is printed by H. Brown in the Eng. 
Hist. Rev. (April 1895). For the foreign policy of the Guises, and 
especially their relations with Scotland, there is abundant material 
in the English Calendar of State Papers of Queen Elizabeth (Foreign 
Series) and in the correspondence of Cardinal Granvella. The 
memoirs of Francis, duke of Guise, covering the years 1547 to 1563, 
were published by Michel and Poujoulat in series I, vol. iy. of their 
Coll. de memoires. Among contemporary memoirs see especially those 
of the prince of Conde, of Blaise de Monluc and of Gaspard de Saulx- 
Tavannes. See also La Vie deF.de Lorraine, due de Guise (Paris, 
1681), by J. B. H. du Trousset de Valincourt; A. de Ruble, L'As- 
sassinat de F. de Lorraine, due de Guise (1897), where there is a list of 
the MS. sources available for a history of the house; R. de Bouille, 
Hist, des dues de Guise (4 vols., 1849) ; H. Forneron, Les Guise et leur 
epogue (2 vols., 1887). 

GUITAR (Fr. guitarre, Ger. Guitarre, Ital. chitarra, Span. 
guitarra), a musical instrument strung with gut strings twanged 
by the fingers, having a body with a flat back and graceful 
incurvations in complete contrast to the members of the family 
of lute (q.v.), whose back is vaulted. The construction of the 
instrument is of paramount importance in assigning to the 
guitar its true position in the history of musical instruments, 
midway between the cithara (q.v.) and the violin. The medieval 
stringed instruments with neck fall into two classes, characterized 
mainly by the construction of the body: (i) Those which, 
like their archetype the cithara, had a body composed of a flat 
or delicately arched back and soundboard joined by ribs. (2) 
Those which, like the lyre, had a body consisting of a vaulted 
back over which was glued a flat soundboard without the inter- 
mediary of ribs; this method of construction predominates 
among Oriental Instruments and is greatly inferior to the first. 
A striking proof of this inferiority is afforded by the fact that 
instruments with vaulted ,backs, such as the rebab or rebec, 
although extensively represented during the middle ages in all 
parts of Europe by numerous types, have shown but little or no 
development during the course of some twelve centuries, and 
have dropped out one by one from the realm of practical music 
without leaving a single survivor. The guitar must be referred 
to the first of these classes. 

The back and ribs of the guitar are of maple, ash or cherry- 
wood, frequently inlaid with rose-wood, mother-of-pearl, 
tortoise-shell, &c., while the soundboard is of pine and has one 
large ornamental rose sound hole. The bridge, to which the 
strings are fastened, is of ebony with an ivory nut which deter- 
mines the one end of the vibrating strings, while the nut at the 
end of the fingerboard determines the other. The neck and 
fingerboard are made of hard wood, such as ebony, beech or pear. 
The head, bent back from the neck at an obtuse angle contains 
two parallel barrels or long holes through 
which the pegs or metal screws pass, three 
on each side of the head. The correct 
positions for stopping the intervals are 
marked on the fingerboard by little metal 
ridges called frets. The modern guitar 
has six strings, three of gut and three of 
silk covered with silver wire, tuned as 
shown. To the thumb are assigned the three deepest strings, 
while the first, second and third fingers are used to twang the 
highest strings. It is generally stated that the sixth or lowest 
string was added in 1790 by Jacob August Otto of Jena, who 
was the first in Germany to take up the construction of guitars 



Notation. 




after their introduction from Italy in 1788 by the duchess Amalic 
of Weimar. Otto l states that it was Capellmeister Naumann of 
Dresden who requested him to make him a guitar with six 
strings by adding the low E, a spun wire string. The original 
guitar brought from Italy by the duchess Amalie had five 
strings, 2 the lowest A being the only one covered with wire. Otto 
also covered the D in order to increase the fulness of the 
tone. In Spain six-stringed guitars and vihuelas were known 
in the i6th century; they are described by Juan Bermudo 3 and 
others. 4 The lowest string was tuned to G. 
Other Spanish guitars of the same period 
had four, five or seven strings or courses of 
strings in pairs of unisons. They were always 
twanged by the fingers. 

The guitar is derived from the cithara 6 both 
structurally and etymologically. It is usually 
asserted that the guitar was introduced into 
Spain by the Arabs, but this statement is open 
to the gravest doubts. There is no trace among 
the instruments of the Arabs known to us of any 
similar to the guitar in construction or shape, 
although a guitar (fig. 2) with slight incurva- 
tions was known to the ancient Egyptians.* 
There is also extant a fine example of the guitar, 
with ribs and incurvations and a long neck 

Crovided with numerous frets, on a Hittite 
as-relief on the dromos at Euyuk (c. 1000 B.C.) 
in Cappadocia. 7 Unless other monuments of 
much later date should come to light showing 
guitars with ribs, we shall be justified in 
assuming that the instrument, which required 
skill in construction, died out in Egypt and in 
Asia before the days of classic Greece, and had 
to be evolved anew from the cithara by the 
Greeks of Asia Minor. That the evolution 
should take place within the Byzantine Empire F rom J uan Bermudo. 
or in Syria would be quite consistent with the FIG. I. Spanish 
traditions of the Greeks and their veneration Guitar with seven 
for the cithara, which would lead them to adapt Strings. 1555. 
the neck and other improvements to it, rather Vihuela da Mono. 
than adopt the rebab, the tanbur or the 
barbiton from the Persians or Arabians. This is, in fact, what seems 
to have taken place. It is true that in the I4th century in 
an enumeration of musical instruments by the Archipreste de 
Hita, a guitarra morisca is mentioned and unfavourably compared 
with the guitarra latina ; moreover, the Arabs of the present day still 
use an instrument called kuitra (which in N.Africa would be guithara), 
but it has a vaulted back, the body being like half a pear with a long 
neck; the strings are twanged by means of a quill. The Arab 
instrument therefore belongs to a different class, and to admit 
the instrument as the ancestor of the Spanish guitar would be tanta- 
mount to deriving the guitar from the lute. 8 

By piecing together various indications given by Spanish writers, 
we obtain a clue to the identity of the medieval instruments, 
which, in the absence of absolute proof, is entitled to serious con- 
sideration. From Bermudo's work, quoted above, we learn that 
the guitar and the vihuela da mano were practically identical, differ- 
ing only in accordance and occasionally in the number of strings.' 
Three kinds of vihuelas were known in Spain during the middle ages, 
distinguished by the qualifying phrases da arco(with bow),damano (by 
hand), da penola (with quill). Spanish scholars 10 who have inquired 
into this question of identity state that theguitarra latinav/as after- 
wards known as the vihuela da mano, a statement fully supported by 

1 Uber den Bau der Bogeninstrumente (Jena, 1828), pp. 94 and 95. 

2 See Pietro Millioni, Vero e facil modo d' imparare a sonare et 
accordare da se medesimo la chitarra spagnola, with illustration 
(Rome, 1637). 

3 Declaration de instruments musicales (Ossuna, 1555), fol. xciii. b 
and fol. xci. a. See also illustration of vihuela da mano. 

4 See also G. G. Kapsperger, Libra primo di Villanelle con I' in- 
favolutura del chitarone et alfabeto per la chitarra spagnola (three 
books, Rome, 1610-1623). 

6 See Kathleen Schlesmger, The Instruments of the Orchestra, part ii. 
" Precursors of the Violin Family," pp. 230-248. 

* See Denon's Voyage in Egypt (London, 1807, pi. 55). 

7 Illustrated from a drawing in Perrot and Chipiez, " Judee 
Sardaigne, Syrie, Cappadoce. Vol. iv. of Hist, de I' art dam 
I'antiquite, Paris, 1887, p. 670. Also see plate from a photograph 
by Prof. John Garstang, in Kathleen Schlesinger, op. cit. 

8 See Biernath, Die Guitarre (1908). 

9 See also Luys Milan, Libra de musica de vihuela da mano, 
Intitulado II Maestro, where the accordance is D, G, C, E, A, D from 
bass to treble. 

10 Mariano Soriano, Fuerles Historia de la musica espanola 
(Madrid, 1855), i. 105, and iv. 208, &c. 



704 



GUITAR FIDDLE 



other evidence. As the Arab kuitra was known to be played by means 
of a quill, we shall not be far wrong in identifying it -withthevihuelada 
penola. The word vihuela or mgola is connected with the Latin 
fidicula or fides, a stringed instrument mentioned by Cicero ' as being 
made from the wood of the plane-tree and having many strings. 
The remaining link in the chain of identification is afforded by St 
Isidore, bishop of Seville in the 7th century, 
who states that fidicula was another name for 
cithara, " Veteres aut citharas fidicula vel 
fidice nominaverunt." 2 The fidicula there- 
fore was the cithara, either in its original 
classical form or in one of the transitions which 
transformed it into the guitar. The existence 
of a superior guitarra latino side by side with 
the guitarra morisca is thus explained. It was 
derived directly from the classical cithara intro- 
duced by the Romans into Spain, the archetype 
of the structural beauty which formed the 
basis of the perfect proportions and delicate 
structure of the violin. In an inventory 3 made 
by Philip van Wilder of the musical instruments 
which had belonged to Henry VIII. is the 
following item bearing on the question: " foure 
gitterons with iiii. cases they are called Spanishe 
Vialles." Vial or viol was the English equivalent 
of vihuela. The transitions whereby the cithara 
acquired a neckand became a guitar are shown in the miniatures (fig. 3) 
of a single MS., the celebrated Utrecht Psalter, which gave rise to so 
many discussions. The Utrecht Psalter was executed in the diocese 
of Reims in the 9th century, and the miniatures, drawn by an Anglo- 
Saxon artist attached to the Reims school, are unique, and illustrate 




From Dsnon's Voyage 
in Egypt. 

FIG. 2. Ancient 
Egyptian Guitar. 
1700 to 1200 B.C. 




FIG. 3. Instrumentalists from the Utrecht Psalter, 9th century: 
(a) The bass rotta, first transition of cithara in (C) ; (b, c, d). Transi- 
tions showing the addition of neck to the body of the cithara. 

the Psalter, psalm by psalm. It is evident that the Anglo-Saxon 
artist, while endowed with extraordinary talent and vivid imagina- 
tion, drew his inspiration from an older Greek illustrated Psalter 
from the Christian East, 4 where the evolution of the guitar took 
place. 

One of the earliest representations (fig. 4) of a guitar in Western 
Europe occurs in a Passionate from Zwifalten A.D. 1180, now in the 



1 De natura deorum, ii. 8, 22. 

- See Etymologiarium, lib. iii., cap. 21. 

3 See British Museum, Harleian MS. 1419. fol. 200. 

4 The literature of the Utrecht Psalter embraces a large number of 
books and pamphlets in many languages of which the principal are 
here given: Professor J. O. West wood, Facsimiles of the Miniatures 
and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS. (London, 1868); Sir 
Thos. Duffus-Hardy, Report on the Athanasian Creed in connection 
with the Utrecht Psalter (London, 1872); Report on the Utrecht 
Psalter, addressed to the Trustees of the British Museum (London, 
1874); Sir Thomas Duffus-Hardy, Further Report on the Utrecht 
Psalter (London, 1874) ; Walter de Gray Birch, The History, Art and 
Palaeography of the MS. styled the Utrecht Psalter (London, 1876); 
Anton Springer, " Die Psalterillustrationen im friihen Mittelalter mit 
besonderer Riicksicht auf den Utrecht Psalter," Abhandlungen der 
kgl. sdchs. Ges. d. IVissenschaften, phil.-hist. Klasse, Bd. viii. pp. 187- 
296, with IO facsimile plates in autotype from the MS.; Adclf 
Goldschmidt, " Der Utrecht Psalter," in Repertorium fur Kunsl- 
wissenschaft, Bd. xv. (Stuttgart, 1892), pp. 156-166; Franz Friedrich 
Leitschuh, Geschichte der karolingischen Malerei, ihr Bilderkreis und 
seine Qttellen (Betlin, 1894), pp. 321-330; Adolf Goldschmidt, Der 
Albani Psalter in Hildesheim, &c. (Berlin, 1895); Paul Durrieu, 
L'Origine du MS. celebre dit le Psaullier d' Utrecht (Paris, 1895) ; Hans 
Graeven, " Die Vorlage des Utrecht Psalters," paper read before the 
XI. International Oriental Congress, Paris, 1897. See also Reper- 
torium fur Kunstwissenschaft (Stuttgart, 1898), Bd. xxi. pp. 28-35; 
J. J. Tikkanen, Abendlandische Psalter-Illustration im Mitlelaller, 
part iii. " Der Utrecht Psalter " (Helsingfors, 1900), 320 pp. and 
77 ills. (Professor Tikkanen now accepts the Greek or Syrian origin 
of the Utrecht Psalter); Georr Swarzenski, "Die karolingische 
Malerei und Plastik in Reims, in Jahrbuch d. kgl. preussischen 
Kunstsammlungen, Bd. xxiii. (Berlin, 1902), pp. 81-100; Ormonde 
M. Dalton, " The Crystal of Lothair," in Archaologie, vol. lix. (1904) 




Royal Library at Stuttgart.' St Pelagia seated on an ass holds a 
rotta, or cithara in transition, while one of the men-servants leading 
icr ass holds her guitar. Both instruments have three strings and the 
:haracteristic guitar outline with incurvations, the rotta differing 
n having no neck. Mersenne 6 writing early in the I7th century 
describes and figures two 
Spanish guitars, one with 
four, the other with five 
strings; the former had 
a cittern head, the latter 
the straight head bent 
back at an obtuse angle 
From the neck, as in the 
modern instrument; he 
jives the Italian, French 
and Spanish tablatures 
which would seem to 
show that the guitar 
already enjoyed a certain 
vogue in France and 
Italy as well as in Spain. 

Mersenne states that the prom Dr H. Janitschek's Geschichte der deutschen 
proportions of the guitar Malerei. 

demand that the length FIG. 4. Representation of a European 
of the neck from shoulder Guitar. A.D. Il8o. 

to nut shall be equal to 

the length of the body from the centre of the rose to the tail 
end. From this time until the middle of the igth century the 
guitar enjoyed great popularity on the continent, and became 
the fashionable instrument in England after the Peninsular War, 
mainly through the virtuosity of Ferdinand Sor, who also 
wrote compositions for it. This popularity of the guitar was 
due less to its merits as a solo instrument than to the ease 
with which it could be mastered sufficiently to accompany the voice. 
The advent of the Spanish guitar in England led to the wane in the 
popularity of the cittern, also known at that time in contradistinc- 
tion as the English or wire-strung guitar, although the two instru- 
ments differed in many particulars. As further evidence of the great 
popularity of the guitar all over Europe may be instanced the extra- 
ordinary number of books extant on the instrument, giving instruc- 
tions how to play the guitar and read the tablature. 7 (K. S.) 

GUITAR FIDDLE (Troubadour Fiddle), a modern name 
bestowed retrospectively upon certain precursors of the violin 
possessing characteristics of both guitar and fiddle. The name 
" guitar fiddle " is intended to emphasize the fact that the 
instrument in the shape of the guitar, which during the middle 
ages represented the most perfect principle of construction for 
stringed instruments with necks, adopted at a certain period the 
use of the bow from instruments of a less perfect type, the rebab 
and its hybrids. The use of the bow with the guitar entailed 
certain constructive changes in the instrument: the large central 
rose sound-hole was replaced by lateral holes of various shapes; 
the flat bridge, suitable for instruments whose strings were 
plucked, gave 
place to the 
arched bridge 
required in order 
to enable the bow 
to vibrate each 
string separ- 
ately; the arched 
bridge, by raising 
the strings higher 
above the sound- 
board, made the 

Stopping of From Ruhlmann's Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente. 
strings on the FIG. I. Typical Alto Guitar Fiddle, 1 5th 
neck extremely century (Pinakothek, Munich), 

difficult if not impossible; this matter was adjusted by the 
addition of a finger-board of suitable shape and dimensions (fig. i). 
At this stage the guitar fiddle possesses the essential features of 

Kathleen Schlesinger, The Instruments of the Orchestra, part ii. " The 
Precursors of the Violin Family," chap. viii. " The Question of the 
Origin of the Utrecht Psalter," pp. 352-382 (with illustrations), where 
all the foregoing are summarized. 

6 Reproduced in Hubert Janitschek's Geschichte der deutschen 
Malerei, Bd. iii. of Gesch. der deutschen Kunst (Berlin, 1890), p. 1 1 8. 

6 Harmonie universelle (Paris, 1636), liyre ii. prop. xiv. 

7 See C. F. Becker, Darstellung der musik. Literatur (Leipzig, 1836) ; 
and Wilhelm Tappert, " Zur Geschichte der Guitarre," in Monatshefte 
fur Musikgeschichte (Berlin, 1882), No. 5. pp. 77-85). 




GUITRY GUIZOT 



705 




the violin, and may justly claim to be its immediate predecessor l 
not so much through the viols which were the outcome of the 
Minnesinger fiddle with sloping shoulders, as through the inter- 
mediary of the Italian lyra, a guitar-shaped bowed instrument 
with from 7 to 12 strings. 

From such evidence as we now possess, it would seem that the 
evolution of the early guitar with a neck from the Greek cithara took 
place under Greek influence in the Christian East. The various 
stages of this transition have been definitely established by the re- 
markable miniatures of the Utrecht Psalter. 2 Two kinds of citharas 
are shown: the antique rectangular, 3 and the later design with 
rounded body having at the point where the arms are added indica- 
tions of the waist or incurvations characteristic of the outline of the 
Spanish guitar. 4 The first stage in the transition is shown by a 
cithara or rotta ' in which arms and transverse bar are replaced by a 
kind of frame repeating the outline of the body and thus completing 
the second lobe of the Spanish guitar. The next stages in the transi- 
tion are concerned with the addition of a neck 8 and of frets. 7 All 
these instruments are twanged by the fingers. One may conclude that 
the use of the bow was either unknown at this time (c. 6th century 
A.D.), or that it was still confined to instruments of the rebab type. 
The earliest known representation of a guitar fiddle complete with 
bow* (fig. 2) occurs in a Greek Psalter written and illuminated in 
Caesarea by the archpriest Theodoras in 1066 (British Museum, Add. 
MS. 19352). Instances of perfect guitar fiddles 
abound in the I3th century MSS. and monu- 
ments, as for instance in a picture by Cimabue 
(1240-1302), in the Pitti Gallery in Florence.' 

An evolution on parallel lines appears also 
to have taken place from the antique rectangular 
cithara 10 of the citharoedes, which was a favourite 
in Romano-Christian art. 11 In this case examples 
illustrative of the transitions are found repre- 
sented in great variety in Europe. The ojd 
German rotta 12 of the 6th century preserved in 
the Volker Museum, Berlin, and the instru- 
ments played by King David in two early 
Anglo-Saxon illuminated MSS., one a Psalter 
(Cotton MS. Vesp. A. i. British Museum) 
finished in A.D. 700, the other " A Commentary 
on the Psalms by Cassiodorus manu Bedae " of 
the 8th century preserved in the Cathedral 
Library at Durham 13 form examples of the first 
stage of transition. From such types as these 
the rectangular crwth or crowd was evolved by 
the addition of a finger-board and the reduc- 
tion in the number of strings, which follows 
as a natural consequence as soon as an extended compass can be 
obtained by stopping the strings. By the addition of a neck we 
obtain the clue to the origin of rectangular citterns with rounded 
corners and of certain instruments played with the bow whose bodies 
or sound-chests have an outline based upon the rectangle with 
various modifications. We may not look upon this type of guitar 
fiddle as due entirely to western or southern European initiative; 
its origin like that of the type approximating to the violin is evidently 
Byzantine. It is found among the frescoes which cover walls and 
barrel vaults in the palace of Kosseir "Amra, 14 believed to be that of 
Caliph Walid II. (A.D. 744) of the Omayyad dynasty, or of Prince 

1 See " The Precursors of the Violin Family," by Kathleen 
Schlesinger, part ii. of An Illustrated Handbook on the Instruments of 
the Orchestra (London, 1908), chs. ii. and x. 

2 See Kathleen Schlesinger, op. cit. part ii., the " Utrecht Psalter," 
pp. 127-135, and the " Question of the Origin of the Utrecht 
Psalter," pp. 136-166, where the subject is discussed and illustrated. 

I Idem, see pi. yi. (2) to the right centre. 

4 Idem, see pi. iii. centre and figs. 118 and 119. 
' Idem, see fig. 117, p. 341, and figs. 172 and 116. 

6 Idem, see fig. 121, p. 246, figs. 122, 123, 125 and 126 pi. iii. vi. 
(i) and (2). 

7 Idem, see fig. 126, p. 350, and pi. iii. right centre. 

* Idem, see fig. 173, p. 448. * Idem, see fig. 205, p. 480. 

"'See Museo Pio Clementina, by Visconti (Milan, 1818). 

11 See for example Georgics, iv. 471-475 in the Vatican Virgil 
(Cod. 3225), in facsimile (Rome, 1899) (British Museum press-mark 8, 
tab. f. vol. ii.). 

12 This rotta was found in an Alamannic tomb of the 4th to the 7th 
centuries at Oberflacht in the Black Forest. A facsimile is preserved 
in the collection of the Kgl. Hochschule, Berlin, illustrations in 
" (Irabfunde am Berge Lupfen bei Oberflacht, 1846," Jahresberichle 
<i. Wurttemb. Altertums-Vereins, iii. (Stuttgart, 1846), tab. viii. also 
Kathleen Schlesinger, op. cit. part ii. fig. 168 (drawing from the 
facsimile). 

II Reproductions of both miniatures are to be found in Professor 
J. O. Westwood's Facsimiles of the Miniatures and Ornaments of 
Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS. (London, 1868). 

4 An illustration occurs in the fine publication of the Austrian 
Academy of Sciences, Kusejr 'Amra (Vienna, 1907, pi. xxxiv.). 

MI. 23 



From a Byzantine MS. 
in the British Museum. 

FIG. 2. Earliest 
example of the 
GuitarFiddle. A.D. 
1066. 



Ahmad, the Abbasid (862-866). The instrument, a cittern with four 
strings, is being played by a bear. Other examples occur in the 
Stuttgart Carofingian Psalter" (loth century); in MS. 1260 (Bibl. 
Imp. Paris) Tristan and Yseult; as guitar fiddle in the Liber Regalis 
preserved in Westminster Abbey (i4th century); in the Sforza 
Book 16 (1444-1476), the Book of Hours executed for Bona of Savoy, 
wife of Gaieazzo Maria Sforza; on one of the carvings of the I3th 
century in the Cathedral of Amiens. It has also been painted by 
Italian artists of the I5th and i6th centuries. (K. S.) 

GUITRY, LUCIEN GERMAIN (1860- ), French actor, was 
born in Paris. He became prominent on the French stage at the 
Porte Saint-Martin theatre in 1900, and the Varietes in 1001, 
and then became a member of the Comedie Francaise, but he 
resigned very soon in order to become director of the Renaissance, 
where he was principally associated with the actress Marthe 
Brandes, who had also left the Comedie. Here he established 
his reputation, in a number of plays, as the greatest contemporary 
French actor in the drama of modern reality. 

GUIZOT, FRANCOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME (1787-1874), 
historian, orator and statesman, was born at Nimes on the 4th of 
October 1787, of an honourable Protestant family belonging to the 
bourgeoisie of that city. It is characteristic of the cruel disabilities 
which still weighed upon the Protestants of France before the 
Revolution, that his parents, at the time of their union, could 
not be publicly or legally married by their own pastors, and that 
the ceremony was clandestine. The liberal opinions of his 
family did not, however, save it from the sanguinary intolerance 
of the Reign of Terror, and on the 8th April 1794 his father 
perished at Nimes upon the scaffold. Thenceforth the education 
of the future minister devolved entirely upon his mother, a 
woman of slight appearance and of homely manners, but endowed 
with great strength of character and clearness of judgment. 
Madame Guizot was a living type of the Huguenots of the i6th 
century, stern in her principles and her faith, immovable in her 
convictions and her sense of duty. She formed the character of 
her illustrious son and shared every vicissitude of his life. In the 
days of his power her simple figure, always clad in deep mourning 
for her martyred husband, was not absent from the splendid 
circle of his political friends. In the days of his exile in 1848 
she followed him to London, and there at a very advanced age 
closed her life and was buried at Kensal Green. Driven from 
Nimes by the Revolution, Madame Guizot and her son repaired 
to Geneva, where he received his education. In spite of her 
decided Calvinistic opinions, the theories of Rousseau, then 
much in fashion, were not without their influence on Madame 
Guizot. She was a strong Liberal, and she even adopted the 
notion inculcated in the mile that every man ought to learn a 
manual trade or craft. Young Guizot was taught to be a car- 
penter, and he so far succeeded in his work that he made a table 
with his own hands, which is still preserved. Of the progress of 
his graver studies little is known, for in the work which he 
entitled Memoirs of my own Times Guizot omitted all personal 
details of his earlier life. But his literary attainments must 
have been precocious and considerable, for when he arrived in 
Paris in 1805 to pursue his studies in the faculty of laws, he 
entered at eighteen as tutor into the family of M. Stapfer, 
formerly Swiss minister in France, and he soon began to write 
in a journal edited by M. Suard, the Publiciste. This connexion 
introduced him to the literary society of Paris. In October 1809. 
being then twenty-two, he wrote a review of M. de Chateau- 
briand's Martyrs, which procured for him the approbation and 
cordial thanks of that eminent person, and he continued to 
contribute largely to the periodical press. At Suard's he had 
made the acquaintance of Pauline Meulan, an accomplished lady 
of good family, some fourteen years older than himself, who 
had been forced by the hardships of the Revolution to earn her 
living by literature, and who also was engaged to contribute a 
series of articles to Suard's journal. These contributions were 

16 See reproduction of some of the miniatures in Jacob and H. von 
Hefner-Alteneck, Trachten des christlichen Mittelalters (Darmstadt, 
1840-1854, 3 vols.), and in Trachten, Kunstwerke und Gerdtschaften 
vomfruhen Mitlelalter (Frankfort-on-Main, 1879-1890). 

"Add. MS. 34294, British Museum, vol. ii. fol. 83, 161, vol. iii. 
fol. 402, vol. iv. fols. 534 and 667. 



GUIZOT 



interrupted by her illness, but immediately resumed and con- 
tinued by an unknown hand. It was discovered that Francois 
Guizot had quietly supplied the deficiency on her behalf. The 
acquaintance thus begun ripened into friendship and love, and 
in 1812 Mademoiselle de Meulan consented to marry her youthful 
ally. She died in 1827; she was the author of many esteemed 
works on female education. An only son, born in 1819, died 
in 1837 of consumption. In 1828 Guizot married Elisa Dillon, 
niece of his first wife, and also an author. She died in 1833, 
leaving a son, Maurice Guillaume (1833-1892), who attained 
some reputation as a scholar and writer. 

During the empire, Guizot, entirely devoted to literary 
pursuits, published a collection of French synonyms (1809), 
an essay on the fine arts (1811), and a translation of Gibbon 
with additional notes in 1812. These works recommended him 
to the notice of M. de Fontanes, then grand-master of the 
university of France, who selected Guizot for the chair of modern 
history at the Sorbonne in 1812. His first lecture (which is 
reprinted in his Memoirs) was delivered on the nth of December 
of that year. The customary compliment to the all-powerful 
emperor he declined to insert in it, in spite of the hints given him 
by his patron, but the course which followed marks the beginning 
of the great revival of historical research in France in the igth 
century. He had now acquired a considerable position in the 
society of Paris, and the friendship of Royer-Collard and the 
leading members of the liberal party, including the young due 
de Broglie. Absent from Paris at the moment of the fall of 
Napoleon in 1814, he was at once selected, on the recommenda- 
tion of Royer-Collard, to serve the government of Louis XVIII. 
in the capacity of secretary-general of the ministry of the 
interior, under the abbe de Montesquieu. Upon the return 
of Napoleon from Elba he immediately resigned, on the 25th of 
March 1815 (the statement that he retained office under General 
Carnot is incorrect), and returned to his literary pursuits. After 
the Hundred Days, he repaired to Ghent, where he saw Louis 
XVIII., and in the name of the liberal party pointed out to his 
majesty that a frank adoption of a liberal policy could alone 
secure the duration of the restored monarchy advice which 
was ill-received by M. de Blacas and the king's confidential 
advisers. This visit to Ghent, at the time when France was a 
prey to a second invasion, was made a subject of bitter reproach 
to Guizot in after life by his political opponents, as an unpatriotic 
action. " The Man of Ghent " was one of the terms of insult 
frequently hurled against him in the days of his power. But the 
reproach appears to be wholly unfounded. The true interests 
of France were not in the defence of the falling empire, but in 
establishing a liberal policy on a monarchical basis and in 
combating the reactionary tendencies of the ultra-royalists. It 
is at any rate a remarkable circumstance that a young professor 
of twenty-seven, with none of the advantages of birth or political 
experience, should have been selected to convey so important 
a message to the ears of the king of France, and a proof, if any 
were wanting, that the Revolution had, as Guizot said, " done 
its work." 

On the second restoration, Guizot was appointed secretary- 
general of the ministry of justice under M. de Barb6-Marbois, 
but resigned with his chief in 1816. Again in 1819 he was 
appointed general director of communes and departments in 
the ministry of the interior, but lost his office with the fall of 
Decazes in February 1820. During these years Guizot was one 
of the leaders of the Doctrinaires, a small party strongly attached 
to the charter and the crown, and advocating a policy 
which has become associated (especially by Faguet) with the 
name of Guizot, that of the juste milieu, a via media between 
absolutism and popular government. Their opinions had more of 
the rigour of a sect than the elasticity of a political party. Ad- 
hering to the great principles of liberty and toleration, they were 
sternly opposed to the anarchical traditions of the Revolution. 
They knew that the elements of anarchy were still fermenting 
in the country; these they hoped to subdue, not by reactionary 
measures, but by the firm application of the power of a limited 
constitution, based on the suffrages of the middle class and 



defended by the highest literary talent of the times. Their 
motives were honourable. Their views were philosophical. 
But they were opposed alike to the democratical spirit of the 
age, to the military traditions of the empire, and to the bigotry 
and absolutism of the court. The fate of such a party might 
be foreseen. They lived by a policy of resistance; they perished 
by another revolution (1830). They are remembered more for 
their constant opposition to popular demands than by the 
services they undoubtedly rendered to the cause of temperate 
freedom. 

In 1820, when the reaction was at its height after the murder 
of the due de Berri, and the fall of the ministry of the due 
Decazes, Guizot was deprived of his offices, and in 1822 even 
his course of lectures were interdicted. During the succeeding 
years he placed an important part among the leaders of the 
liberal opposition to the government of Charles X., although 
he had not yet entered parliament, and this was also the time 
of his greatest literary activity. In 1822 he had published his 
lectures on representative government (Histoire des origines du 
gouvernement represenlatif, 1821-1822, 2 vols.; Eng. trans. 
1852); also a work on capital punishment for political offences 
and several important political pamphlets. From 1822 to 1830 
he published two important collections of historical sources, the 
memoirs of the history of England in 26 volumes, and the 
memoirs of the history of France in 31 volumes, and a revised 
translation of Shakespeare, and a volume of essays on the 
history of France. The most remarkable work from his own 
pen was the first part of his Histoire de la revolution d'Anglelerre 
depuis Charles I" d Charles II. (2 vols., 1826-1827; Eng. 
trans., 2 vols., Oxford, 1838), a book of great merit and im- 
partiality, which he resumed and completed during his exile 
in England after 1848. The Martignac administration restored 
Guizot in 1828 to his professor's chair and to the council of 
state. Then it was that he delivered the celebrated courses 
of lectures which raised his reputation as an historian to the 
highest point of fame, and placed him amongst the best writers of 
France and of Europe. These lectures formed the basis of 
his general Histoire de la civilisation en Europe (1828; Eng. 
trans, by W. Hazlitt, 3 vols., 1846), and of his Histoire de la 
civilisation en France (4 vols., 1830), works which must ever be 
regarded as classics of modern historical research. 

Hitherto Guizot's fame rested on his merits as a writer on 
public affairs and as a lecturer on modern history. He had 
attained the age of forty-three before he entered upon the full 
display of his oratorical strength. In January 1830 he was 
elected for the first time by the town of Lisieux to the chamber 
of deputies, and he retained that seat during the whole of his 
political life. Guizot immediately assumed an important 
position in the representative assembly, and the first speech he 
delivered was in defence of the celebrated address of the 221, 
in answer to the menacing speech from the throne, which was 
followed by the dissolution of the chamber, and was the precursor 
of another revolution. On his returning to Paris from Nimes 
on the 27th of July, the fall of Charles X. was already imminent. 
Guizot was called upon by his friends Casimir-P6rier, Laffitte, 
Villemain aad Dupin to draw up the protest of the liberal 
deputies against the royal ordinances of July, whilst he applied 
himself with them to control the revolutionary character of the 
late contest. Personally, Guizot was always of opinion that it 
was a great misfortune for the cause of parliamentary government 
in France that the infatuation and ineptitude of Charles X. 
and Prince Polignac rendered a change in the hereditary line of 
succession inevitable. But, though convinced that it was 
inevitable, he became one of the most ardent supporters of Louis- 
Philippe. In August 1830 Guizot was made minister of the 
interior, but resigned in November. He had now passed into 
the ranks of the conservatives, and for the next eighteen years 
was the most determined foe of democracy, the unyielding 
champion of "a monarchy limited by a limited number of 
bourgeois." 

In 1831 Casimir-Perier formed a more vigorous and compact 
administration, which was terminated in May 1832 by his death; 



GUIZOT 



707 



the summer of that year was marked by a formidable republican 
rising in Paris, and it was not till the nth of October 1832 that 
a stable government was formed, in which Marshal Soult was 
first minister, the due de Broglie took the foreign office, Thiers 
the home department, and Guizot the department of public 
instruction. This ministry, which lasted for nearly four years, 
was by far the ablest that ever served Louis Philippe. 
Guizot, however, was already marked with the stigma of un- 
popularity by the more advanced liberal party. He remained 
unpopular all his life, " not," said he, " that I court unpopularity, 
but that I think nothing about it." Yet never were his great 
abilities more useful to his country than whilst he. filled this 
office of secondary rank but of primary importance in the 
department of public instruction. The duties it imposed on him 
were entirely congenial to his literary tastes, and he was master 
of the subjects they concerned. He applied himself in the first 
instance to carry the law of the 28th of June 1833, and then for 
the next three years to put it into execution. In establishing 
and organizing primary education in France, this law marked 
a distinct epoch in French history. In fifteen years, under its 
influence, the number of primary schools rose from ten to 
twenty-three thousand; normal schools for teachers, and a 
general system of inspection, were introduced; and boards of 
education, under mixed lay and clerical authority, were created. 
The secondary class of schools and the university of France were 
equally the subject of his enlightened protection and care, 
and a prodigious impulse was given to philosophical study and 
historical research. The branch of the Institute of France 
known as the " Academic des Sciences Morales et Politiques," 
which had been suppressed by Napoleon, was revived by Guizot. 
Some of the old members of this learned body Talleyrand, 
Sieyes, Roederer and Lakanal again took their seats there, 
and a host of more recent celebrities were added by election for 
the free discussion of the great problems of political and social 
science. The " Soci6te de 1'Histoire de France " was founded 
for the publication of historical works; and a vast publication 
of medieval chronicles and diplomatic papers was undertaken 
at the expense of the state (see HISTORY; and FRANCE, History, 
section Sources). 

The object of the cabinet of October 1832 was to organize 
a conservative party, and to carry on a policy of resistance to the 
republicanf action which threatened the existence of the monarchy. 
It was their pride and their boast that their measures never 
exceeded the limits of the law, and by the exercise of legal power 
alone they put down an insurrection amounting to civil war in 
Lyons and a sanguinary revolt in Paris. The real strength of 
the ministry lay not in its nominal heads, but in the fact that in 
this government and this alone Guizot and Thiers acted in cordial 
co-operation. The two great rivals in French parliamentary 
eloquence followed for a time the same path; but neither of 
them could submit to the supremacy of the other, and circum- 
stances threw Thiers almost continuously on a course of 
opposition, whilst Guizot bore the graver responsibilities of 
power. 

Once again indeed, in 1839, they were united, but it was in 
opposition to M. Mole, who had formed an intermediate govern- 
ment, and this coalition between Guizot and the leaders of the 
left centre and the left, Thiers and Odilon Barrot, due to his 
ambition and jealousy of Mole, is justly regarded as one of the 
chief inconsistencies of his life. Victory was secured at the 
expense of principle, and Guizot's attack upon the government 
gave rise to a crisis and a republican insurrection. None of 
the three chiefs of that alliance took ministerial office, however, 
and Guizot was not sorry to accept the post of ambassador in 
London, which withdrew him for a time from parliamentary 
contests. This was in the spring of 1840, and Thiers succeeded 
shortly afterwards to the ministry of foreign affairs. 

Guizot was received with marked distinction by the queen 
and by the society of London. His literary works were highly 
esteemed, his character was respected, and France was never 
more worthily represented abroad than by one of her greatest 
orators. He was known to be well versed in the history and the 



literature of England, and sincerely attached to the alliance of 
the two nations and the cause of peace. But, as he himself 
remarked, he was a stranger to England and a novice in diplom- 
acy; and unhappily the embroiled state of the Syrian question, 
on which the French government had separated itself from the 
joint policy of Europe, and possibly the absence of entire con- 
fidence between the ambassador and the minister of foreign 
affairs, placed him in an embarrassing and even false position. 
The warnings he transmitted to Thiers were not believed. The 
warlike policy of Thiers was opposed to his own convictions. 
The treaty of the i sth of July was signed without his knowledge 
and executed in the teeth of his remonstrances. For some weeks 
Europe seemed to be on the brink of war, until the king put an 
end to the crisis by refusing his assent to the military preparations 
of Thiers, and by summoning Guizot from London to form a 
ministry and to aid his Majesty in what he termed " ma lutte 
tenace centre 1'anarchie." Thus began, under dark and adverse 
circumstances, on the apth of October 1840, the important 
administration in which Guizot remained the master-spirit for 
nearly eight years. He himself took the office of minister for 
foreign affairs, to which he added some years later, on the 
retirement of Marshal Soult, the ostensible rank of prime 
minister. His first care was the maintenance of peace and the 
restoration of amicable relations with the other powers of Europe. 
If he succeeded, as he did succeed, in calming the troubled 
elements and healing the wounded pride of France, the result 
was due mainly to the indomitable courage and splendid 
eloquence with which he faced a raging opposition, gave unity 
and strength to the conservative party, who now felt that they 
had a great leader at their head, and appealed to the thrift and 
prudence of the nation rather than to their vanity and their 
ambition. In his pacific task he was fortunately seconded by 
the formation of Sir Robert Peel's administration in England, 
in the autumn of 1841. Between Lord Palmerston and Guizot 
there existed an incompatibility of character exceedingly 
dangerous in the foreign ministers of two great and in some 
respects rival countries. With Lord Palmerston in office, Guizot 
felt that he had a bitter and active antagonist in every British 
agent throughout the world; the combative element was strong 
in his own disposition; and the result was a system of perpetual 
conflict and counter-intrigues. Lord Palmerston held (as it 
appears from his own letters) that war between England and 
France was, sooner or later, inevitable. Guizot held that such 
a war would be the greatest of all calamities, and certainly never 
contemplated it. In Lord Aberdeen, the foreign secretary of 
Sir Robert Peel, Guizot found a friend and an ally perfectly 
congenial to himself. Their acquaintance in London had been 
slight, but it soon ripened into mutual regard and confidence. 
They were both men of high principles and honour; the Scotch 
Presbyterianism which had moulded the faith of Lord Aberdeen 
was reflected in the Huguenot minister of France; both were 
men of extreme simplicity of taste, joined to the refinement of 
scholarship and culture; both had an intense aversion to war 
and felt themselves ill-qualified to carry on those adventurous 
operations which inflamed the imagination of their respective 
opponents. In the eyes of Lord Palmerston and Thiers their 
policy was mean and pitiful; but it was a policy which secured 
peace to the world, and united the two great and free nations of 
the West in what was termed the entente cordiale. Neither of 
them would have stooped to snatch an advantage at the expense 
of the other; they held the common interest of peace and 
friendship to be paramount; and when differences arose, as they 
did arise, in remote parts of the world, in Tahiti, in Morocco, 
on the Gold Coast, they were reduced by this principle to their 
proper insignificance. The opposition in France denounced 
Guizot's foreign policy as basely subservient to England. He 
replied in terms of unmeasured contempt, " You may raise 
the pile of calumny as high as you will; vous n'arriverez jamais 
a la hauteur de mon detain !" The opposition in England 
attacked Lord Aberdeen with the same reproaches, but in vain. 
King Louis Philippe visited Windsor. The queen of England 
(in 1843) stayed at the Chateau d'Eu. In 1845 British and 



yo8 



GUIZOT 



French troops fought side by side for the first time in an expedi- 
tion to the River Plate. 

The fall of Sir Robert Peel's government in 1846 changed 
these intimate relations; and the return of Lord Palmerston to 
the foreign office led Guizot to believe that he was again exposed 
to the passionate rivalry of the British cabinet. A friendly 
understanding had been established at Eu between the two 
courts with reference to the future marriage of the young queen 
of Spain. The language of Lord Palmerston and the conduct 
of Sir Henry Bulwer (afterwards Lord Balling) at Madrid led 
Guizot to believe that this understanding was broken, and that 
it was intended to place a Coburg on the throne of Spain. 
Determined to resist any such intrigue, Guizot and the king 
plunged headlong into a counter-intrigue, wholly inconsistent 
with their previous engagements to England, and fatal to the 
happiness of the queen of Spain. By their influence she was 
urged into a marriage with a despicable offset of the house of 
Bourbon, and her sister was at the same time married to the 
youngest son of the French king, in direct violation of Louis 
Philippe's promises. This transaction, although it was hailed 
at the time as a triumph of the policy of France, was in truth 
as fatal to the monarch as it was discreditable to the minister. 
It was accomplished by a mixture of secrecy and violence. It 
was defended by subterfuges. By the dispassionate judgment 
of history it has been universally condemned. Its immediate 
effect was to destroy the Anglo-French alliance, and to throw 
Guizot into closer relations with the reactionary policy of 
Metternich and the Northern courts. 

The history of Guizot's administration, the longest and the 
last which existed under the constitutional monarchy of France, 
bears the stamp of the great qualities and the great defects of his 
political character, for he was throughout the master-spirit of 
that government. His first object was to unite and discipline 
the conservative party, which had been broken up by previous 
dissensions and ministerial changes. In this he entirely succeeded 
by his courage and eloquence as a parliamentary leader, and by 
the use of all those means of influence which France too liberally 
supplies to a dominant minister. No one ever doubted the 
purity .and disinterestedness of Guizot's own conduct. He 
despised money; he lived and died poor; and though he 
encouraged the fever of money-getting in the French nation, his 
own habits retained their primitive simplicity. But he did not 
disdain to use in others the baser passions from which he was 
himself free. Some of his instruments were mean; he employed 
them to deal with meanness after its kind. Gross abuses and 
breaches of trust came to light even in the ranks of the govern- 
ment, and under an incorruptible minister the administration 
was denounced as corrupt. Licet uti alieno vitio is a proposition 
as false in politics as it is in divinity. 

Of his parliamentary eloquence it is impossible to speak too 
highly. It was terse, austere, demonstrative and commanding, 
not persuasive, not humorous, seldom adorned, but condensed 
with the force of a supreme authority in the fewest words. He 
was essentially a ministerial speaker, far more powerful in 
defence than in opposition. Like Pitt he was the type of 
authority and resistance, unmoved by the brilliant charges, 
the wit, the gaiety, the irony and the discursive power of his 
great rival. Nor was he less a master of parliamentary tactics 
and of those sudden changes and movements in debate which, 
as in a battle, sometimes change the fortune of the day. His 
confidence in himself, and in the majority of the chamber which 
he had moulded to his will, was unbounded; and long success 
and the habit of authority led him to forget that in a country 
like France there was a people outside the chamber elected by 
a small constituency, to which the minister and the king himself 
were held responsible, 

A government based on the principle of resistance and re- 
pression and marked by dread and distrust of popular power, 
a system of diplomacy which sought to revive the traditions of 
the old French monarchy, a sovereign who largely exceeded the 
bounds of constitutional power and whose obstinacy augmented 
with years, a minister who, though far removed from the servility 



of the courtier, was too obsequious to the personal influence of 
the king, were all singularly at variance with the promises of the 
Revolution of July, and they narrowed the policy of the adminis- 
tration. Guizot's view of politics was essentially historical 
and philosophical. His tastes and his acquirements gave him 
little insight into the practical business of administrative govern- 
ment. Of finance he knew nothing; trade and commerce were 
strange to him; military and naval affairs were unfamiliar to 
him; all these subjects he dealt with by second hand through 
his friends, P. S. Dumon (1797-1870), Charles Marie Tanneguy, 
Comte Duchatel (1803-1867), or Marshal Bugeaud. The con- 
sequence was that few measures of practical improvement were 
carried by his administration. Still less did the government 
lend an ear to the cry for parliamentary reform. On this subject 
the king's prejudices were insurmountable, and his ministers 
had the weakness to give way to them. It was impossible to 
defend a system which confined the suffrage to 200,000 citizens, 
and returned a chamber of whom half were placemen. Nothing 
would have been easier than to strengthen the conservative 
party by attaching the suffrage to the possession of land in 
France, but blank resistance was the sole answer of the govern- 
ment to the just and moderate demands of the opposition. 
Warning after warning was addressed to them in vain by friends 
and by foes alike; and they remained profoundly unconscious 
of their danger till the moment when it overwhelmed them. 
Strange to say, Guizot never acknowledged either at the time 
or to his dying day the nature of this error; and he speaks of 
himself in his memoirs as the much-enduring champion of liberal 
government and constitutional law. He utterly fails to perceive 
that a more enlarged view of the liberal destinies of France and 
a less intense confidence in his own specific theory might have 
preserved the constitutional monarchy and averted a vast series 
of calamities, which were in the end fatal to every principle 
he most cherished. But with the stubborn conviction of 
absolute truth he dauntlessly adhered to his own doctrines to 
the end. 

The last scene of his political life was singularly characteristic 
of his inflexible adherence to a lost cause. In the afternoon of 
the 2$rd of February 1848 the king summoned his minister 
from the chamber, which was then sitting, and informed him 
that the aspect of Paris and the country during the banquet 
agitation for reform, and the alarm and division of opinion in 
the royal family, led him to doubt whether he could retain his 
ministry. That doubt, replied Guizot, is decisive of the question, 
and instantly resigned, returning to the chamber only to announce 
that the administration was at an end and that Mole had been 
sent for by the king. Mole failed in the attempt to form a govern- 
ment, and between midnight and one in the morning Guizot, 
who had according to his custom retired early to rest, was again 
sent for to the Tuileries. The king asked his advice. " We are 
no longer the ministers of your Majesty," replied Guizot; " it 
rests with others to decide on the course to be pursued. But 
one thing appears to be evident: this street riot must be put 
down; these barricades must be taken; and for this purpose 
my opinion is that Marshal Bugeaud should be invested with full 
power, and ordered to take the necessary military measures, and 
as your Majesty has at this moment no minister, I am ready to 
draw up and countersign such an order." The marshal, who 
was present, undertook the task, saying, " I have never been 
beaten yet, and I shall not begin to-morrow. The barricades 
shall be carried before dawn." After this display of energy the 
king hesitated, and soon added: " I ought to tell you that M. 
Thiers and his friends are in the next room forming a govern- 
ment!" Upon this Guizot rejoined, " Then it rests with them 
to do what they think fit," and left the palace. Thiers and 
Barrot decided to withdraw the troops. The king and Guizot 
next met at Claremont. This was the most perilous conjuncture 
of Guizot's life, but fortunately he found a safe refuge in Paris 
for some days in the lodging of a humble miniature painter 
whom he had befriended, and shortly afterwards effected his 
escape across the Belgian frontier and thence to London, where 
he arrived on the $rd of March. His mother and daughters 



GUJARAT--GUJARATI AND RAJASTHANI 



had preceded him, and he was speedily installed in a modest 
habitation in Pelham Crescent, Brompton. 

The society of England, though many persons disapproved 
of much of his recent policy, received the fallen statesman with 
as much distinction and respect as they had shown eight years 
before to the king's ambassador. Sums of money were placed 
at his disposal, which he declined. A professorship at Oxford 
was spoken of, which he was unable to accept. He stayed in 
England about a year, devoting himself again to history. He 
published two more volumes on the English revolution, and in 
1854 his Histoire de la republique d'Angleterre et de Cromwell 
(2 vols., 1854), then his Histoire du protectorat de Cromwell et 
du ritablissement des Stuarts (2 vols., 1856). He also published 
an essay on Peel, and amid many essays on religion, during the 
ten years 1858-1868, appeared the extensive Memoires pour 
servir a I'histoire de man temps, in nine volumes. His speeches 
were included in 1863 in his Histoire parlementaire de la France 
(5 vols. of parliamentary speeches, 1863). 

Guizot survived the fall of the monarchy and the government 
he had served twenty-six years. He passed abruptly from the 
condition of one of the most powerful and active statesmen in 
Europe to the condition of a philosophical and patriotic spectator 
of human affairs. He was aware that the link between himself 
and public life was broken for ever; and he never made the 
slightest attempt to renew it. He was of no party, a member 
of no political body; no murmur of disappointed ambition, no 
language of asperity, ever passed his lips; it seemed as if the 
fever of oratorical debate and ministerial power had passed from 
him and left him a greater man than he had been before, in the 
pursuit of letters, in the conversation of his friends, and as head 
of the patriarchal circle of those he loved. The greater part of 
the year he spent at his residence at Val Richer, an Augustine 
monastery near Lisieux in Normandy, which had been sold at 
the time of the first Revolution. His two daughters, who married 
two descendants of the illustrious Dutch family of De Witt, 
so congenial in faith and manners to the Huguenots of France, 
kept his house. One of his sons-in-law farmed the estate. And 
here Guizot devoted his later years with undiminished energy 
to literary labour, which was in fact his chief means of subsistence. 
Proud, independent, simple and contented he remained to the 
last; and these years of retirement were perhaps the happiest 
and most serene portion of his life. 

Two institutions may be said even under the second empire 
to have retained their freedom the Institute of France and the 
Protestant Consistory. In both of these Guizot continued to the 
last to take an active part. He was a member of three of the five 
academies into which the Institute of France is divided. The 
Academy of Moral and Political Science owed its restoration 
to him, and he became in 1832 one of its first associates. The 
Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres elected him in 1833 
as the successor to M. Dacier; and in 1836 he was chosen a 
member of the French Academy, the highest literary distinction 
of the country. In these learned bodies Guizot continued for 
nearly forty years to take a lively interest and to exercise a 
powerful influence. He was the jealous champion of their 
independence. His voice had the greatest weight in the choice 
of new candidates; the younger generation of French writers 
never looked in vain to him for encouragement; and his constant 
aim was to maintain the dignity and purity of the profession 
of letters. 

In the consistory of the Protestant church in Paris Guizot 
exercised a similar influence. His early edusation and his 
experience of life conspired to strengthen the convictions of a 
religious temperament. He remained through life a firm believer 
in the truths of revelation, and a volume of Meditations on the 
Christian Religion was one of his latest works. But though 
he adhered inflexibly to the church of his fathers and combated 
. the rationalist tendencies of the age, which seemed to threaten 
it with destruction, he retained not a tinge of the intolerance or 
asperity of the Calvinistic creed. He respected in the Church of 
Rome the faith of the majority of his countrymen; and the 
writings of the great Catholic prelates, Bossuet and Bourdaloue, 



709 

were as familiar and as dear to him as those of his own persuasion, 
and were commonly used by him in the daily exercises of family 
worship. 

In these literary pursuits and in the retirement of Val Richer 
years passed smoothly and rapidly away; and as his grand- 
children grew up around him, he began to direct their attention 
to the history of their country. From these lessons sprang his 
last and not his least work, the Histoire de France racontee a mes 
pelits enfants, for although this publication assumed a popular 
form, it is not less complete and profound than it is simple and 
attractive. The history came down to 1 789, and was continued 
to 1870 by his daughter Madame Guizot de Witt from her 
father's notes. 

Down to the summer of 1874 Guizot's mental vigour and 
activity were unimpaired. His frame, temperate in all things, 
was blessed with a singular immunity from infirmity and disease; 
but the vital power ebbed away, and he passed gently away on 
the 1 2th of September 1874, reciting now and then a verse of 
Corneille or a text of Scripture. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. See his own Memoires pour servir a I'histoire de 
man temps (8 vols., 1858-1861) ; Lettres de M. Guizot a sa famille et A 
ses amis (1884) ; C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi (vol. i., 1857) 
and Ncuveaux Lundis (vols. i. and ix., 1863-1872); E. Scherer, 
tudes critiques sur la literature contemporaine (vol. iv., 1873); 
Mme de Witt, Guizot dans sa famille (1880); Jules Simon, Thiers, 
Guizot et Remusat (1885) ; E. Faguet, Politiques et moralistes au XIX' 
siecle (1891); G. Bardqux, Guizot (1894) ' n t ' le s 6 68 f "Les 
Grands Ecrivains francais " ; Maurice Guizot, Les Annies de retraite 
de M. Guizot (1901); and for a long list of books and articles on 
Guizot in periodicals see H. P. Thieme, Guide bibliographique de la 
litterature franfaise de 1800 a 1906 (s.v. Guizot, Paris, 1907). For a 
notice of his first wife see C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Portraits de femmes 
(1884), and Ch. de Re'musat, Critiques et etudes litteraires (vol. ii., 
1847). (H. R.; J. T. S.*) 

GUJARAT or GUZERAT, a region of India, in the Bombay 
Presidency. In the widest sense of the name it includes the 
whole of the country where the Gujarati language is spoken, 
i.e. the northern districts and states of the Presidency from 
Palanpur to Damaun, with Kathiawar and Cutch. But it is 
more properly confined to the country north of the Nerbudda 
and east of the Rann of Cutch and Kathiawar. In this sense 
it has an area of 29,071 sq. m., with a population in 1901 of 
4,798,504. It includes the states distributed among the agencies 
of Palanpur, Mahi Kantha, Rewa Kantha and Cambay, with 
most of Baroda and the British districts of Ahmedabad, Kaira, 
Panch Mahals and Broach. Less than one-fourth is British 
territory. The region takes its name from the Gujars, a tribe 
who passed into India from the north-west, established a kingdom 
in Rajputana, and spread south in A.D. 400-600. The ancient 
Hindu capital was Anhilvada; the Mahommedan dynasty, 
which ruled from 1396 to 1572, founded Ahmedabad, which is 
still the largest city; but Gujarat owed much of its historical 
importance to the seaports of Broach, Cambay and Surat. 
Its fertile plain, with a regular rainfall and numerous rivers, 
has caused it to be styled the " garden of India." It suffered, 
however, severely from the famine of 1899-1901. For an 
account of the history, geography, &c., of Gujarat seethe 
articles on the various states and districts. Gujarat gives its 
name to the vernacular of northern Bombay, viz. Gujarati, 
one of the three great languages of that Presidency, spoken by 
more than 9 millions. It has an ancient literature and a peculiar 
character. As the language of the Parsis it is prominent in the 
Bombay press; and it is also the commercial language of 
Bombay city, which lies outside the territorial area of Gujarat. 

See J. Campbell, History of Gujarat (Bombay, 1896); Sir E. C. 
Bayley, The Muhammedan Kingdom of Gujarat (1886); A. K. 
Forbes, Ras Mala (1856). 

GUJARATI and RAJASTHANI, the names of two members 
of the western sub-group of the Intermediate Group of Indo- 
Aryan languages (?..). The remaining member of this sub-group 
is Panjabi or Punjabi (see HINDOSTANI). In 1901 the speakers 
of those now dealt with numbered: Gujarati, 9,439,925, and 
Rajasthani, 10,917,712. The two languages are closely connected 
and might almost be termed co-dialects of the same form of 
speech. Together they occupy an almost square block of country, 



710 

some 400 m. broad, reaching from near Agra and Delhi on the 
river Jumna to the Arabian Sea. Gujarati (properly Gujardti) is 
spoken in Gujarat, the northern maritime province of the Bombay 
Presidency, and also in Baroda and the native states adjoining. 
Rajasthani (properly Rajaslhani, from " Rajasthdn," the native 
name for Rajputana) is spoken in Rajputana and the adjoining 
parts of Central India. 

In the articles INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT the 
history of the earlier stages of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars is 
given at some length. It is there shown that, from the most 
ancient times, there were two main groups of these forms of 
speech one, the language of the Midland, spoken in the country 
near the Gangetic Doab, and the other, the so-called " Outer 
Band," containing the Midland on three sides, west, north and 
south. The country to the west and south-west of the Midland, 
in which this outer group of languages was spoken, included 
the modern Punjab, Rajputana and Gujarat. In process of 
time the population of the Midland expanded and carried its 
language to its new homes. It occupied the eastern and central 
Punjab, and the mixed (or " intermediate ") language which 
there grew up became the modern Panjabi. To the west it 
spread into Rajputana, till its progress was stopped by the 
Indian desert, and in Rajputana another intermediate language 
took rise and became Rajasthani. As elsewhere explained, the 
language-wave of the Midland exercised less and less influence 
as it travelled farther from its home, so that, while in eastern 
Rajputana the local dialect is now almost a pure midland speech, 
in the west there are many evident traces of the old outer 
language still surviving. To the south-west of Rajputana there 
was no desert to stop the wave of Midland expansion, which 
therefore rolled on unobstructed into Gujarat, where it reached 
the sea. Here the survivals of the old outer language are 
stronger still. The old outer Prakrit of north Gujarat was known 
as " Saurastri," while the Prakrit of the Midland invaders was 
called " Sauraseni," and we may therefore describe Gujarati 
as being an intermediate language derived (as explained in the 
articles PRAKRIT) from a mixture of the Apabhramsa forms of 
Saurastrl and Sauraseni, in which the latter predominated. 

It will be observed tb.at, at the present day, Gujarati breaks 
the continuity of the outer band of Indo-Aryan languages. 
To its north it has Sindhi and to its south Marathi, both outer 
languages with which it has only a slight connexion. On the 
other hand, on the east and north-east it has Rajasthani, into 
which it merges so gradually and imperceptibly that at the 
conventional border-line, in the state of Palanpur, the inhabitants 
of Rajputana say that the local dialect is a form of Gujarati, 
while the inhabitants of Gujarat say that it is Rajasthani. 

Gujarati has no important local dialects, but there is consider- 
able variation in the speeches of different classes of the corn- 
tan a mun ity. Parsees and Mussulmans (when the latter 
use the language as a rule the Gujarat Mussulmans 
speak Hindostani) have some striking peculiarities of pronuncia- 
tion, the most noticeable of which is the disregard by the latter 
of the distinction between cerebral and dental letters. The 
uneducated Hindus do not pronounce the language in the same 
way as their betters, and this difference is accentuated in northern 
Gujarat, where the lower classes substitute e for I, c for k, ch for 
kh, s for c and ch, h for s, and drop h as readily as any cockney. 
There is also (as in the case of the Mussulmans) a tendency to 
confuse cerebral and dental consonants, to substitute r for d and 
/, to double medial consonants, and to pronounce the letter 
a as , something like the a in " all." The Bhils of the hills 
east of Gujarat also speak a rude Gujarati, with special dialectic 
peculiarities of their own, probably due to the fact that the 
tribes are of Dravidian origin. These Bhil peculiarities are 
further mixed with corruptions of Marathi idioms in Nimar 
and Khandesh, where we have almost a new language. 

Rajasthani has numerous dialects, each state claiming one 
or more of its own. Thus, in the state of Jaipur there have been 
catalogued no less than ten dialects among about 1,688,000 
people. All Rajasthani dialects can, however, be easily classed 
in four well-defined groups, a north-eastern, a southern, a 



GUJARATI AND RAJASTHANI 



western and an east-central. The north-eastern (Mewati) is 
that form of Rajasthani which is merging into the Western 
Hindi of the Midland. It is a mixed form of speech, and need 
not detain us further. Similarly, the southern (M5lvl) is much 
mixed with the neighbouring Bundell form of Western Hindi. 
The western (Marwajl) spoken in Marwar and its neighbourhood, 
and the east-central (Jaipurl) spoken in Jaipur and its neighbour- 
hood, may be taken as the typical Rajasthani dialects. In the 
following paragraphs we shall therefore confine ourselves to 
Gujarati, Marwari and Jaipuri. 

We know more about the ancient history of Gujarati than we 
do about that of any other Indo-Aryan language. The one 
native grammar of Apabhramsa Prakrit which we possess in a 
printed edition, was written by Hemacandra (i2th century A.D.), 
who lived in what is now north Gujarat, and who naturally 
described most fully the particular vernacular with which he was 
personally familiar. It was known as the Nagara Apabhramsa, 
closely connected (as above explained) with Sauraseni, and was 
so named after the Nagara Brahmans of the locality. These 
men carried on the tradition of learning inherited from Hema- 
candra, and we see Gujarati almost in the act of taking birth 
in a work called the Mugdhdvabodhamauktika, written by one 
of them only two hundred years after his death. Formal 
Gujarati literature is said to commence with the poet Narsingh 
Meta in the isth century. Rajasthani literature has received 
but small attention from European or native -scholars, and we 
are as yet unable to say how far back the language goes. 

Both Gujarati and Rajasthani are usually written in current 
scripts related to the well-known Nagari alphabet (see SANSKRIT) . 
The form employed in Rajputana is known all over northern 
India as the " Mahajani " alphabet, being used by bankers or 
Mahajans, most of whom are Marwaris. It is noteworthy as 
possessing two distinct characters for d and r. The Gujarati 
character closely resembles the KaithI character of northern 
India (see BIHARI). The Nagari character is also freely used in 
Rajputana, and to a less extent in Gujarat, where it is employed 
by the Nagara Brahmans, who claim that their tribe has given 
the alphabet its name. 

In the following description of the main features of our two 
languages, the reader is presumed to be familiar with the leading 
facts stated in the articles INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES and 
PRAKRIT. The article HINDOSTANI may also be perused with 
advantage. 

(Abbreviations. Skr. = Sanskrit. Pr. = Prakrit. Ap.= Apabh- 
ramsa. G.= Gujarati. R. = Rajasthani. H.= Hindostani.) 

Vocabulary. The vocabulary of both Gujarat and Rajasthani is 
very free from tatsama words. The great mass of both vocabularies 
is tadbhava (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES). Rajputana was from 
an early period brought into close contact with the Mogul court at 
Agra and Delhi, and even in the I3th century A.D. official documents 
of the Rajput princes contained many borrowed Persian and Arabic 
words. Gujarati, under the influence of the learned Nagara Brah- 
mans, has perhaps more tatsama words than Rajasthani, but their 
employment is not excessive. On the- other hand, Parsees and 
Mussulmans employ Persian and Arabic words with great freedom ; 
while, owing to its maritime connexions, the language has also 
borrowed occasional words from other parts of Asia and from Europe. 
This is specially marked in the strange dialect of the Kathiawar 
boatmen who travel all over the world as lascars on the great steam- 
ships. Their language is a mixture of Hindostani and Gujarati 
with a heterogeneous vocabulary. 

Phonetics. With a few exceptions to be mentioned below, the 
sound-system of the two languages is the same as that of Sanskrit, 
and is represented in the same manner in the Roman character 
(see SANSKRIT). The simplest method for considering the subject 
in regard to Gujarati is to compare it with the phonetical system of 
Hindostani (q.v.). As a rule, Rajasthani closely follows Gujarati 
and need not be referred to except in special cases. G. invariably 
simplifies a medial Pr. double consonant, lengthening the preceding 
vowel in compensation. Thus Skr. mraksa$am, Ap. makkhanu, 
H. makkhan, but G. makhatf, butter. In H. this rule is generally 
observed, but in G. it is uniyersal, while, on the other hand, in 
Panjabi the double consonant is never simplified, but is retained as 
in Ap. In G. (and sometimes in R.) when a is followed by h it is. 
changed to e, as in H. shahr, G. feher, a city. As in other outer 
languages H. at and au are usually represented by a short e and by 
a (sounded like the a in " all ") respectively. Thus H. baifha. G. 
befho, seated; H. cautha, G. c&tho (written cotho), fourth. In R. 
this e is often further weakened to the sound of a in " man," a change 



GUJARATI AND RAJASTHANI 



which is also common in Bengali. Many words which have in H. 
have o in G. and R., thus, H. likhe, G. lakhe, he writes; H. din, 
G. and R. dan, a day. Similarly we have a for u, as in H. turn, G., R. 
tame, you. In colloquial G. a often becomes a, and J becomes e ; thus, 
pdni for pant, water; mares for marts, I shall strike. As in most 
Indo-Aryan vernaculars an a after an accented syllable is very lightly 
pronounced, and is here represented by a small " above the line. 

The yedic cerebral / and the cerebral v are very common as medial 
letters in both G. and R. (both being unknown to literary H.). 
The rule is, as elsewhere in western and southern intermediate 
and outer languages, that when n and / represent 
a double nn (or nn) or a double Win Pr. they are dental, 
but when they represent single medial letters they are 
cerebralized. Thus Ap. sonnaii, G. sontt, gold; Ap. 
ghanau, G. ghanu, dense; Ap. callai, G. call, he goes; 
Ap. calai, G. call, he moves. In northern G. and in 
some caste dialects dental and cerebral letters are 
absolutely interchangeable, as in ddh'ao or dahddo, a 
day; tu or (u, thou ; dldho or didho, given. In G. and R. 
medial 4 is pronounced as a rough cerebral f, and is 
then so transcribed. We have seen that in the Marwari 
alphabet there are actually distinct letters for these two 
sounds. In colloquial G. c and ch are j>ronounced s, 
especially in the north, as in pas for pac, five; pusyo 
for puchyo, he asked. Similarly, in the north, j and jh 
become z, as in zad for jhad, a tree. In some localities 
(as in Marathi) we have ts and dz for these sounds, as 
in Tsarotar (name of a tract of country) for Carotar. On 
the other hand, k, kh and g, especially when preceded or 
followed by i, e or y, become in the north c, ch and j 
respectively; thus, dic'ro for dik'ro, a son; chetar for 
khltar, a field; lajyo for lagyo, begun. A similar change 
is found in dialectic Marathi, and is, of course, one of 
the commonplaces of the philology of the Romance 
languages. The sibilants s and i are colloquially pro- 
nounced h (as in several outer languages), especially in the 
north. Thus dlh for des, a country ; hu (OTSU, what ; ham"- 
jdvyo for sam"jdvyo, he explained. An original aspirate 
is, however, often dropped, as in ' for hu, I ; 'ate for 
hathl, on the hand. Standard G. is at the same time 
fond of pronouncing an h where it is not written, as in 
ami, we, pronounced ahme. In other respects both G. 
and R. closely agree in their phonetical systems with 
the Apabhramsa form of Sauraseni Prakrit from which 
the Midland language is derived. 

Declension. Gujarati agrees with Marathi (an outer 
language) as against Hindostani in retaining the 
neuter gender of Sanskrit and Prakrit. Moreover, 
the neuter gender is often employed to indicate living 
beings of which the sex is uncertain, as in the case of 
dik'ru, a child, compared with dik"ro, a son, and dik a ri, a daughter. 
In R. there are only sporadic instances of the neuter, which grow 
more and more rare as we approach the Midland. Nouns in both G. 
and R. may be weak or strong as is fully explained in the article 
HINDOSTANI. We have there seen that the strong form of masculine 
nouns in Western Hindi generaljy ends in au, the a of words like 
the Hindostani ghor.d, a horse, being an accident due to the fact that 
the Hindostani dialect of Western Hindi borrows this termination 
from Panjabi. G. and R. follow Western Hindi, for their masculine 
strong forms end in 6. Feminine strong forms end in tas elsewhere. 
Neuter strong forms in G. end in fi, derived as follows: Skr, svar- 
nakam, Ap. sonnaii, G. sonu, gold. As an example of the three 
genders of the same word we may take G. chok'rd (masc.), a boy; 
chok'n (fern.), a girl; chok'ru (neut.), a child. Long forms corre- 
sponding to the Eastern Hindi ghor.wd, a horse, are not much used, 
but we not infrequently meet another long form made by suffixing 
the pleonastic termination do or r.o (fern, di or ri; G. neut. du or rfi) 
which is directly descended from the Ap. pleonastic termination 
dau, dai, dau. We come across this most often in R., where it is used 
contemptuously, as in Turuk-r.o, a Turk. 

In the article HINDOSTANI it is shown that all the oblique cases of 
each number in Sanskrit and Prakrit became melted down in the 
modern languages into one general oblique case, which, in the Mid- 
land, is derived in the singular from the Ap. termination -hi or -hi, and 
that even this has survived only in the case of strong masculine 
nouns; thus, ghora, obi. ghorl. In G. and R. this same termination 
has also survived, but for all nouns as the case sign of the agent and 
locative cases. The general oblique case is the same as the nomina- 
tive, except in the case of strong masculine and neuter nouns in o 
and u respectively, where it ends in a, not I. This a-termination is 
characteristic of the outer band of languages, and is one of the sur- 
vivals already^ referred to. It is derived from the Apabhramsa 
genitive form in -aha, corresponding to the Magadhi Pr. (an outer 
Prakrit) termination -aha. Thus, G. chok'ro, a son; chdk'ru, a 
child ; obi. sing, chdk'rd. 

In G. the nominative and oblique plural for all nouns are formed 
by adding o to the oblique form singular, but in the neuter strong 
forms the oblique singular is nasalized. The real plural is the same 
in form as the oblique singular in the case of masculines, and as a 
nasalized oblique singular in the case of neuter strong forms, as in 



711 

other modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars, and the added o is a further 
plural termination (making a double plural, exactly as it does in the 
Ardhamagadhi Prakrit puttd-o, sons) which is often dropped. The 
nasalization of the strong neuter plurals is inherited from Ap., in 
which the neuter nom. plural of such nouns ended in -aui In R. 
the nominative plural of masculine nouns is the same in form as the 
oblique case singular, and the oblique plural ends in a. The feminine 
has H both in the nominative and in the oblique plural. These are 
all explained in the article HINDOSTANI. We thus get the following 
paradigms of the declension of nouns. 





Apabhramsa. 


Gujarati. 


Rajasthani. 


Strong Noun Masc. 








" A horse." Sing. Nom. 


ghodaii 


ghSdo 


ghodd 


Obi. 


ghodaaha 


ghoda 


ghodd 


Ag.-Loc. 
Plur. Nom. 


ghoifaahi 
ghodad 


ghodi, ghodde 
ghodd-o 


ghodai 
ghodd 


Obi. 


ghodaaha 


ghodd-o 


ghoda 


Ag.-Loc. 


ghodaahJ 


ghodd-o-l 


ghoda 


Strong Noun Neut. 
"Gold." Sing. Nom. 


sonnaii 


sons. 




Obi. 


sonnaaha 


sond 




Ag.-Loc. 


sonnaahi 


sone, sonde 




Plur. Nom. 


sonnadf 


sdne^ 




Obi. 


sonnaaha 


sona-o 




Ag.-Loc. 


sonnaahi 


sona-o-e 




Strong Noun Fern. 









" A mare." Sing. Nom. 


ghodia 


ghodi 


ghodi 


Obi. 


ghodiahi 


ghodi 


ghodi 


Ag.-Loc. 
Plur. Nom. 


ghoifiae 
ghodid-o 


ghodie 
ghodi-o 


ghodi 
ghodya 


Obi. 


ghodiahu 


ghodi-o 


ghodya 


Ag.-Loc. 
Weak Noun Masc. or Neut. 


ghodiahi 


ghodi-6-e 


ghoifya 


" A house." Sing. Nom. 


gharu (neut.) 


ghar 


ghar 


Obi. 


gharaha 


ghar 


ghar 


Ag.-Loc. 


gharahi 


gharl 


gharai 


Plur. Nom. 


ghardt 


ghar-d 


ghar 


Obi. 
Ag.-Loc. 


gharaha 
gharahi 


ghar-o 
ghar-o-l 


ghara 
ghara 


Weak Noun Fern. 








" A word." Sing. Nom. 


valid 


wdt 


bat 


Obi. 


vallahi 


wdt 


bat 


Ag.-Loc. 


vattae 


wdtl 


bat 


Plur. Nom. 


vattd-o 


wdt-o 


bald 


Obi. 


vatlahu 


wdt-o 


bdta 


Ag.-Loc. 


vatlaM 


wdt-o-e 


bdta 



The general oblique case can be employed for any case except the 
nominative, but, in order to define the meaning, it is customary to 
add postpositions as in Hindostani. These are : 





Genitive. 


Dative. 


Ablative. 


Locative. 


Gujarati . . . 
Rajasthani . 


no 
ro, ko 


ne 
nai, rai, kai 


thi 
su 


ma 
mat 



The suffix no of the genitive is believed to be a contraction of 
land, which is found in old Gujarati poetry, and which, under the 
form tanas in Sanskrit and tanaii in Apabhramsa, mean " belonging 
to." It is an adjective, and agrees in gender, number and case with 
the thing possessed. Thus, raja-no dikro, the king's son; rdja-ni 
dik'ri, the king's daughter; raja-nu, ghar, the king's house; rdjd-nd 
dik"rd-ne, to the king s son (nd is in the oblique case masculine to 
agree with dik'rd) ; rdjd-ne gharl, in the king's house. The ro and 
ko of R. are similarly treated, but, of course, have no neuter. The 
dative postpositions are simply locatives of the genitive ones, as in 
all modern Indo-Arvan languages (see HINDOSTANI). TK, the post- 
position of the G. ablative, is connected with thawtt, to be, one of the 
verbs substantive in that language. The ablative suffix is made in 
this way in many modern Indo-Aryan languages (e.g. Bengali, q.v.). 
It means literally " having been " and is to be ultimately referred 
to the Sanskrit root, sthd, stand. The derivation of the other 
postpositions is discussed in the article HINDOSTANI. 

Strong adjectives agree with the nouns they qualify in gender, 
number and case, as in the examples of the genitive above. Weak 
adjectives are immutable. 

Pronouns closely agree with those found in Hindostani In the 
table on following page we give the first two personal pronouns, 
and the demonstrative pronoun " this." 

Similarly are formed the remaining pronouns, viz. G. a, R. u, he, 
that; G. te, R. so (obi. sing, fl), that; G. je, R. jo, who; G. kdit 
(obi. kdn, ko, or ke), R. kun (obi. kun), who?; G. ifl, R. kat, what ?; 
G..R. koi, anyone, someone, kat anything, something. G. has two 
other demonstratives, pelo and olyo, both meaning " that." The 
derivation of these and of Sit has been discussed without any decisive 
result. The rest are explained in the article HINDOSTANI. The 



7 I2 



GUJARATI AND RAJASTHANI 





Apabhramsa. 


Gujarat!. 


Rajasthani. 


I Nom. 


hau 


ha 


hit, mhu, mat 


Obi. 


mat, mahu, majjhu 


ma, maj 


ma, mha, mu 


MY 


maharau 


maro 


maro, mharo 


WE Nom. 


amhe 


ante 


mhe^ 


Obi. 


amhaha 


am-o 


mhq 


OUR 


amharau 


amard 


mha-ro, mhti-ko 


THOU Nom. 


tuha 


tit 


tu 


Obi. 


tat, tuha, tujjliu 


to, tuj 


ta, tha, tu 


THY 


tuharaii 


taro 


tharo 


YOU Nom. 


tumhe 


tame 


the, tame 


Obi. 


tumhaha 


tam-o 


tha, tama 


YOUR 


tumharau 


tamard 


tha-ro, thS-ko 


THIS, HE Nom. 


eho 


e 


yo 


Obi. 


(?) ehaha, imaha 


e 


I 


THESE, THEY Nom. 


ei 


e-o 


e, jye 


Obi. 


eammi, ehana 


em 


ina, ya. 



reflexive pronoun is G. ap a ne, R. apa. It is generally employed as a 
plural of the first personal pronoun including the person addressed ; 
thus G. ap'ne, we (including you), but ante, we (excluding you). 
In G. pole, pbl. pota, is used to mean " self." 

Conjugation. The old present has survived as in Hindostani and 
other Indian languages. Taking the base call or ca\, go, as our model, 
we have : 





Apabhramsa. 


Gujarati. 


Rajasthani. 


Sing. I . . 

2 

Plur. I '. '. 

2 

3 


callaii 
callahi 
callai 
callahu 

<allahu 
callaM 


calu 
cole 
cole 
calle 
cold 
cole 


cafu 
calai 
cafai 
ca\a 
ca\6 
ca(ai 



The derivation of the G. I plural is unknown. That of the other 
G. and R. forms is manifest. The imperative closely follows this, 
but as usual has no termination in the second person singular. 

In R. the future may be formed by adding go (cf. Hindostani go), 
Id, or la to the old present. Thus, ca}u-go, caju-lo or calu-ld I shall 
go. The go and Id agree in gender and number with the subject, 
but la is immutable. The termination with I is also found in Bhojpuri 
(see BIHARI), in Marathi and in Nepali. For go see HINDOSTANI. 
Another form of the future has s or h for its characteristic letter, 
and is the only one employed in G. Thus, Ap. cattisau or callihau, 
G. callS, R. (Jaipuri) cal'syu, (Marwari) cal'hu. The other personal 
terminations differ considerably from those of the old present, and 
closely follow Ap. Thus, Ap. 3 sing, callisai or cattihi, G. cal'Se, 
Marwari cal'hi. 

The participles and infinitive are as follows: 





Apabhramsa. 


Gujarati. 


Rajasthani. 


Pres. Part. Active . 
Past. Part. Passive 
Future Part. Passive . 
Infinitive .... 


callantau 

tall inn 
calliawau 


cal'td 
calyo 
cal'vo 
cal'vu 


caf'td 
calyo 
cal'bo 
ca( a bd 



In G. the infinitive is simply the neuter of the future passive 
participle. The participles are employed to form finite tenses; 
thus G. hit cal a to, I used to go; hu calyo, I went. If the verb is 
transitive (see HINDOSTANI) the passive meaning of the past participle 
comes into force. The subject is put into the case of the agent, and 
the participle inflects to agree with the object, or, if there is no object, 
is employed impersonajty in the neuter (in G.) or in the masculine 
(in R.). In Hindostani, if the object is expressed in the dative, the 
participle is also employed impersonally, in the masculine; thus 
rajd-ne sherm-ko mara [masc., not marl, (fern.], by-the-king, with 
reference-to-the-tigress, it-(impersonal)-was-killed, i.e. the king killed 
the tigress. But in G. and R., even if the object is in the dative, 
the past participle agrees with it; thus, G. rajae waghan-ne marl, 
by-the-king, with-reference-to-the-tigress, she-was-killed. Other 
examples from G. of this passive construction are me kahyu, by 
me it was said, I saidj tene ci((hl lakhl, by him a letter was written, 
he wrote a letter; e bale vag'da-ma, dahada kadya, by this lady, in the 
wilderness, days were passed, i.e. she passed her days in the wilder- 
ness; rajae vicaryu, the king considered. The idiom of R. is exactly 
the same in these cases, except that the masculine must be used 
where G. has the neuter; thus, rajaai vicaryo. The future passive 
participle is construed in much the same way, but (as in Latin) the 
subject may be put into the dative. Thus, mare a cap"dl vac'in, mihi 
ille liber (est) legendus, I must read that book, but also tene (agent 
case) e kam karvtt, by him this business is to be done. 

G. also forms a past participle in eld (calelo), which is one of the 
many survivals of the outer language. This -/- participle is typical 
of most of the languages of the outer band, including Marathi, Oriya, 
Bengali, Bihari and Assamese. It is formed by the addition of the 



Prakrit pleonastic suffix -ilia-, which was not used by the Prakrit 
of the Midland, but was common elsewhere. Compare, for instance, 
the Ardhamagadhi past participle passive an-illia-, brought. 

The usual verbs substantive are as follows: G. chu, R. hu or chu, 
I am, which are conjugated regularly as old presents, and G. halo, 
R. ho or cho, was, which is a past participle, like the Hindostani 
(q.v.) tha. Hu, halo and ho are explained in the article on that 
language. Chu is for Skr. r,cchami, Ap. acchau. The use of this base 
is one of the outer band survivals. _Even in Prakrit, it is not found 
(so far as the present writer is aware) in the Sauraseni of the Midland. 
Using these as auxiliaries the finite verb makes a whole series of 
periphrastic tenses. A present definite is formed by conjugating the 
old present tense (not the present participle) with the present tense 
of the verb substantive. Thus, G. calu chu, I am going. A similar 
idiom is found in some Western Hindi dialects, but Hindostani em- 
ploys the present participle; thus, calta hu. In G. and R., however, 
the imperfect is formed with the present participle as in H. Thus, 
G. hU cdl"td hato, I was going. So, as in H., we have a perfect 
hu calyo (or calelo) chu, I have gone, and a pluperfect hu calyo (or 
calelo) hato, I had gone. The R. periphrastic tenses are made on the 
same principles. With the genitive of the G. future passive participle, 
cal a va-nd, we have a kind of gerundive, as in hu calvand chu, I am 
to be gone, i.e. I am about to go; hu cal"vano hato, I was about to go. 

The same series of derivative verbs occurs in G. and R. as in H. 
Thus, we have a potential passive (a simple passive in G.) formed by 
adding a to the base, as in G. lakh'vu, to write, lakhavu, to be written ; 
and a causal by adding av or 34, as in lakh&iPvu, to cause to write; 
besvii, to sit, besad"vu, to seat. A new passive may be formed in 
G. from the causal, as in tap"vu, to be hot ; tapav"vu, to cause to be 
hot; to heat; tapdvavu, to be heated. 

Several verbs have irregular past participles. These must be 
learnt from the grammars. So also the numerous compound verbs, 
such as (G.) call sak"vu, to be able to go; cati cuk'vu, to have com- 
pleted going ; calya kar"vii, to be in the habit of going, and so on. 

Very little is known about the literature of Rajputana, except 
that it is of large extent. It includes a number of bardic chronicles 
of which only one has been partially edited, but the 
contents of which have been described by Tod in his 
admired Rajasthan. It also includes a considerable religious 
literature, but the whole mass of this is still in MS. From those 
specimens which the present writer has examined, it would 
appear that most of the authors wrote in Braj Bhasha, the 
Hindu literary dialect of Hindostani (q.v.) In Marwar it is an 
acknowledged fact that the literature falls into two branches, 
one called Pingal and couched in Braj Bhasha, and the other 
called Dingal and couched in Rajasthani. The most admired 
work in I.)ingal is the Raghunalh Rilpak written by Mansa Ram 
in the beginning of the igth century. It is nominally a treatise 
on prosody, but, like many other works of the same kind, it 
contrives to pay a double debt, for the examples of the metres 
are so arranged as to form a complete epic poem celebrating the 
deeds of the hero Rama. 

The earliest writer of importance in Gujarati, and its most 
admired poet, was Narsingh Meta, who lived in the I5th 
century A.D. Before him therewerewritersonSanskrit grammar, 
rhetoric and the like, who employed an old form of Gujarati 
for their explanations. Narsingh does not appear to have 
written any considerable work, his reputation depending on his 
short songs, many of which exhibit much felicity of diction. 
He had several successors, all admittedly his inferiors. Perhaps 
the most noteworthy of these was Rewa Sankar, the translator 
of the Mahabharata (see SANSKRIT: Literature). A more 
important side of Gujarati literature is its bardic chronicles, 
the contents of which have been utilized by Forbes in his Ras 
Mala. Modern Gujarati literature mostly consists of translations 
or imitations of English works. 

AUTHORITIES. Volume ix. of the Linguistic Survey of India 
contains a full and complete account of Gujarati and Rajasthani, 
including their various dialectic forms. 

For Rajasthani, see S. H. Kellogg, Grammar of the Hindi Language 
(and ed., London, 1893). In this are described several dialects of 
Rajasthani. See also Ram Karn Sarma, Marwari Vyakarana 
(Jodhpur, 1901) (a Marwari grammar written in that language), 
and G. Macalister, Specimens of the Dialects spoken in the State of 
Jaipur (contains specimens, vocabularies and grammars) (Allahabad, 
1898). 

For Gujarati, there are numerous grammars, amongst which we 
may note W. St C. Tisdall, Simplified Grammar of the Gujarati 
Language (London, 1892) and (the most complete) G. P. Taylor, 
The Student's Gujarati Grammar (2nd ed., Bombay, 1908). As for 
dictionaries, the most authoritative is the Narma-koS of Narmada 



GUJRANWALA GULBARGA 



Sankar (Bhaunagar and Surat, 1873), in Gujarati throughout. For 
English readers we may mention Shahpurji Edalji's (and ed., 
Bombay, 1868), the introduction to which contains an account of 
Gujarati literature by J. Glasgow, Belsare's (Ahmedabad, 1895), and 
Karbhari's (Ahmedabad, 1899). (G. A. GR.) 

GUJRANWALA, a town and district of British India, in the 
Lahore division of the Punjab. The town is situated 40 m. N. 
of Lahore by rail. It is of modern growth, and owes its import- 
ance to the father and grandfather of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, 
whose capital it formed during the early period of the Sikh 
power. Pop. (1901) 29,224. There are manufactures of brass- 
ware, jewellery, and silk and cotton scarves. 

The DISTRICT comprises an area of 3198 sq. m. In 1901 the 
population was 756,797, showing an increase of 29% in the 
decade. The district is divided between a low alluvial tract 
along the rivers Chenab and Degh and the upland between them, 
which forms the central portion of the Rechna Doab, inter- 
mediate between the fertile submontane plains of Sialkot and 
the desert expanses of Jhang. Part of the upland tract has been 
brought under cultivation by the Chenab canal. The country 
is very bare of trees, and the scenery throughout is tame and in 
the central plateau becomes monotonous. It seems likely that 
the district once contained the capital of the Punjab, at an epoch 
when Lahore had not begun to exist. We learn from the Chinese 
Buddhist pilgrim, Hsuan Tsang, that about the year 630 he 
visited a town known as Tse-kia (or Taki), the metropolis of the 
whole country of the five rivers. A mound near the modern 
village of Asarur has been identified as the site of the ancient 
capital. Until the Mahommedan invasions little is known of 
Gujranwala, except that Taki had fallen into oblivion and Lahore 
had become the chief city. Under Mahommedan rule the district 
flourished for a time; but a mysterious depopulation fell upon 
the tract, and the whole region seems to have been almost 
entirely abandoned. On the rise of Sikh power, the waste plains 
of Gujranwala were seized by various military adventurers. 
Charat Singh took possession of the village of Gujranwala, and 
here his grandson the great Maharaja Ranjit Singh was born. 
The Sikh rule, which was elsewhere so disastrous, appears to 
have been an unmitigated benefit to this district. Ranjit Singh 
settled large colonies in the various villages, and encouraged 
cultivation throughout the depopulated plain. In 1847 the 
district came under British influence in connexion with the 
regency at Lahore; and in 1849 it was included in the territory 
annexed after the second Sikh war. A large export trade is 
carried on in cotton, wheat and other grains. The district is 
served by the main line and branches of the North-Western 
railway. 

GUJRAT, a town and district of British India, in the Rawal- 
pindi division of the Punjab, lying on the south-western border 
of Kashmir. The town stands about 5 m. from the right bank 
of the river Chenab, 70 m. N. of Lahore by rail. Pop. (1901) 
19,410. It is built upon an ancient site, formerly occupied, 
according to tradition, by two successive cities, the second of 
which is supposed to have been destroyed in 1303, the year of 
a Mongol invasion. More than 200 years later either Sher Shah 
or Akbar founded the existing town. Though standing in the 
midst of a Jat neighbourhood, the fort was first garrisoned by 
Gujars, and took the name of Gujrat. Akbar's fort, largely 
improved by Gujar Singh, stands in the centre of the town. 
The neighbouring shrine of the saint Shah Daula serves 
as a kind of native asylum for lunatics. The town has manu- 
factures of furniture, inlaid work in gold and iron, brass-ware, 
boots, cotton goods and shawls. 

The DISTRICT OF GUJRAT comprises a narrow wedge of sub- 
Himalayan plain country, possessing few natural advantages. 
From the basin of the Chenab on the south the general level 
rises rapidly towards the interior, which, owing to the great 
distance of the water beneath the surface, assumes a dreary 
and desert aspect. A range of low hills, known as the Pabbi, 
traverses the northern angle of Gujrat. They are composed 
of a friable Tertiary sandstone and conglomerate, destitute of 
vegetation, and presenting a mere barren chaos of naked rock, 
deeply scored with precipitous ravines. Immediately below the 



Pabbi stretches a high plateau, terminating abruptly in a pre- 
cipitous bluff some 200 ft. in height. At the foot of this plateau 
is a plain, which forms the actual valley of the Chenab and 
participates in the irrigation from the river bed. 

Numerous relics of antiquity stud the surface of the district. 
Mounds of ancient construction yield early coins, and bricks are 
found whose size and type prove them to belong to the pre- 
historic period. A mound now occupied by the village of Moga 
or Mong has been identified as the site of Nicaea, the city built 
by Alexander the Great on the field of his victory over Porus. 
The Delhi empire established its authority in this district under 
Bahlol Lodi (1451-1489). A century later it was visited by 
Akbar, who founded Gujrat as the seat of government. During 
the decay of the Mogul power, the Ghakkars of Rawalpindi 
overran this portion of the Punjab and established themselves in 
Gujrat about 1741. Meanwhile the Sikh power had been assert- 
ing itself in the eastern Punjab, and in 1765 the Ghakkar chief 
was defeated by Sirdar Gujar Singh, chief of the Bhangi con- 
federacy. On his death, his son succeeded him, but after a 
few months' warfare, in 1798, he submitted himself as vassal 
to the Maharaja Ranjit Singh. In 1846 Gujrat first came under 
the supervision of British officials. Two years later the district 
became the theatre for the important engagements which decided 
the event of the second Sikh war. After several bloody battles 
in which the British were unsuccessful, the Sikh power was 
irretrievably broken at the engagement which took place at 
Gujrat on the 22nd of February 1849. The Punjab then passed 
by annexation under British rule. 

The district comprises an area of 2051 sq. m. In 1901 the 
population was 750,548, showing a decrease of i%, compared 
with an increase of 10% in the previous decade. The district 
has a large export trade in wheat and other grains, oil, wool, 
cotton and hides. The main line and the Sind-Sagar branch 
of the North-Western railway traverse it. 

GULA, a Babylonian goddess, the consort of Ninib. She is 
identical with another goddess, known as Bau, though it would 
seem that the two were originally independent. The name Bau 
is more common in the oldest period and gives way in the post- 
Khammurabic age to Gula. Since it is probable that Ninib (q.v.) 
has absorbed the cults of minor sun-deities, the two names may 
represent consorts of different gods. However this may be, the 
qualities of both are alike, and the two occur as synonymous 
designations of Ninib's female consort. Other names borne by 
this goddess are Nin-Karrak, Ga-tum-dug and Nin-din-dug, 
the latter signifying " the lady who restores to life." The 
designation well emphasizes the chief trait of Bau-Gula which is 
that of healer. She is often spoken of as " the great physician," 
and accordingly plays a specially prominent r61e in incantations 
and incantation rituals intended to relieve those suffering from 
disease. She is, however, also invoked to curse those who 
trample upon the rights of rulers or those who do wrong with 
poisonous potions. As in the case of Ninib, the cult of Bau-Gula 
is prominent in Shirgulla and in Nippur. While generally in 
close association with her consort, she is also invoked by herself, 
and thus retains a larger measure of independence than most 
of the goddesses of Babylonia and Assyria. She appears in a 
prominent position on the designs accompanying the Kudurrus 
boundary-stone monuments of Babylonia, being represented 
by a statue, when other gods and goddesses are merely pictured 
by their shrines, by sacred animals or by weapons. In neo- 
Babylonian days her cult continues to occupy a prominent 
position, and Nebuchadrezzar II. speaks of no less than 
three chapels or shrines within the sacred precincts of E-Zida 
in the city of Borsippa, besides a temple in her honour at 
Babylon. (M. JA.) 

GULBARGA, an ancient city of India, situated in the Nizam's 
dominions, 70 m. S.E.of Sholapur. Pop. (1901) 29,228. Origin- 
ally a Hindu city, it was made the capital of the Bahmani kings 
when that dynasty established their independence in the Deccan 
in 1347, and it remained such until 1422. The palaces, mosques 
and tombs of these kings still stand half-ruined. The most 
notable building is a mosque modelled after that of Cordova 



GULF STREAM GULL 



in Spain, covering an area of 38,000 sq. ft., which is almost 
unique in India as being entirely covered in. Since the opening 
of a station on the Great India Peninsula railway, Gulbarga 
has become a centre of trade, with cotton-spinning and weaving 
mills. It is also the headquarters of a district and division of the 
same name. The district, as recently reconstituted, has an area 
of 6004 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 1,041,067. 

GULF STREAM, 1 the name properly applied to the stream 
current which issues from the Gulf of Mexico and flows north- 
eastward, following the eastern coast of North America, and 
separated from it by a narrow strip of cold water (the Cold Wall), 
to a point east of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland. The 
Gulf Stream is a narrow, deep current, and its velocity is esti- 
mated at about 80 m. a day. It is joined by, and often indis- 
tinguishable from, a large body of water which comes from 
outside the West Indies and follows the same course. The term 
was formerly applied to the drift current which carries the mixed 
waters of the Gulf Stream and the Labrador current eastwards 
across the Atlantic. This is now usually known as the " Gulf 
Stream drift," although the name is not altogether appropriate. 
See ATLANTIC. 

OULFWEED, in botany, a popular name for the seaweed 
Sargassum bacciferum, one of the brown seaweeds (Phaeophyceae) , 
large quantities of which are found floating in the Gulf of Mexico, 
whence it is carried northwards by the Gulf Stream, small 
portions sometimes being borne as far as the coasts of the British 
Isles. It was observed by Columbus, and is remarkable among 
seaweeds for its form, which resembles branches bearing leaves and 
berries; the latter, to which the species-name bacciferum refers, 
are hollow floats answering the same purpose as the bladders 
in another brown seaweed, Fucus vesiculosus, which is common 
round the British Isles between high and low water. 

GULL, SIR WILLIAM WITHEY, ist Bart. (1816-1890), 
English physician, was the youngest son of John Gull, a barge- 
owner and wharfinger of Thorpe-le-Soken, Essex, and was born 
on the 3ist of December 1816 at Colchester. He began life 
as a schoolmaster, but in 1837 Benjamin Harrison, the treasurer 
of Guy's Hospital, who had noticed his ability, brought him up 
to London from the school at Lewes where he was usher, and 
gave him employment at the hospital, where he also gained 
permission to attend the lectures. In 1843 he was made a 
lecturer in the medical school of the hospital, in 1851 he was 
chosen an assistant physician, and in 1856 he became full 
physician. In 1847 he was elected Fullerian professor of 
physiology in the Royal Institution, retaining the post for the 
usual three years, and in 1848 he delivered the Gulstonian 
Lectures at the College of Physicians, where he filled every office 
of honour but that of president. He died in London on the zgth 
of January 1890 after a series of paralytic strokes, the first of 
which had occurred nearly three years previously. He was 
created a baronet in 1872, in recognition of the skill and care he 
had shown in attending the prince of Wales during his attack 
of typhoid in 1871. Sir William Gull's fame rested mainly on 
his success as a clinical practitioner; as he said himself, he was 
" a clinical physician or nothing." This success must be largely 
ascribed to his remarkable powers of observation, and to the 
great opportunities he enjoyed for gaining experience of disease. 
He was sometimes accused of being a disbeliever in drugs. 
That was not the case, for he prescribed drugs like other 
physicians when he considered them likely to be beneficial. 
He felt, however, that their administration was only a part of 
the physician's duties, and his mental honesty and outspokenness 
prevented him from deluding either himself or his patients with 
unwarranted notions of what they can do. But though he 
regarded medicine as primarily an art for the relief of physical 
suffering, he was far from disregarding the scfentific side of his 

1 The word " gulf," a portion of the sea partially enclosed by the 
coast-line, and usually taken as referring to a tract of water larger 
than a bay and smaller than a sea, is derived through the Fr. golfe, 
from Late Gr. <ci\0os, class. Gr. xiXTros, bosom, hence bay, cf. Lat. 
sinus. In University slang, the term is used of the position of those 
who fail to obtain a place in the honours list at a public examination, 
bat are allowed a "pass." 



profession, and he made some real contributions to medical 
science. His papers were printed chiefly in Guy's Hospital 
Reports and in the proceedings of learned societies: among the 
subjects he wrote about were cholera, rheumatic fever, taenia, 
paraplegia and abscess of the brain, while he distinguished for 
the first time (1873) the disease now known as myxoedema, 
describing it as a " cretinoid state in adults." 

GULL (Welsh gwylan, Breton, goelann, whence Fr. goelamf), 
the name commonly adopted, to the almost entire exclusion 
of the O. Eng. MEW (Icel. mdfur, Dan. maage, Swedish 
mdse, Ger. Meve, Dutch meeuw, Fr. mouetle), for a group 
of sea-birds widely and commonly known, all belonging to the 
genus Larus of Linnaeus, which subsequent systematists have 
broken up in a very arbitrary and often absurd fashion. The 
family Laridae is composed of two chief groups, Larinae and 
Sterninae the gulls and the terns, though two other subfamilies 
are frequently counted, the skuas (Stercorariinae) , and that 
formed by the single genus Rhynchops, the skimmers; but 
there seems no strong reason why the former should not be 
referred to the Larinae and the latter to the Sterninae. 

Taking the gulls in their restricted sense, Howard Saunders, 
who has subjected the group to a rigorous revision (Proc. Zool. 
Society, 1878, pp. 155-211), admits forty-nine species of them, 
which he places in five genera instead of the many which some 
prior investigators had sought to establish. Of the genera 
recognized by him, Pagophila and Rhodostethia have but one 
species each, Rissa and Xema two, while the rest belong to Larus. 
The Pagophila is the so-called ivory-gull, P. eburnea, names 
which hardly do justice to the extreme whiteness of its plumage, 
to which its jet-black legs offer a strong contrast. The young, 
however, are spotted with black. An inhabitant of the most 
northern seas, examples, most commonly young birds of the 
year, find their way in winter to more temperate shores. Its 
breeding-place has seldom been discovered, and the first of its 
eggs ever seen by ornithologists was brought home by Sir L. 
M'Clintock in 1853 from Cape Krabbe (Journ. R. Dubl. Society, 
i. 60, pi. i); others were subsequently obtained by Dr Malmgren 
in Spitsbergen. Of the species of Rissa, one is the abundant 
and well-known kittiwake, R. tridaclyla, of circumpolar range, 
breeding, however, also in comparatively low latitudes, as on 
the coasts of Britain, and in winter frequenting southern waters. 
The other is R. breviroslris, limited to the North Pacific, between 
Alaska and Kamchatka. The singular fact requires to be noticed 
that in both these species the hind toe is generally deficient, 
but that examples of each are occasionally found in which this 
functionless member has not wholly disappeared. We have 
then the genus Larus, which ornithologists have attempted most 
unsuccessfully to subdivide. It contains the largest as well as 
the smallest of gulls. In some species the adults assume a dark- 
coloured head every breeding-season, in others any trace of dark 
colour is the mark of immaturity. The larger species prey fiercely 
on other kinds of birds, while the smaller content themselves 
with a diet of small animals, often insects and worms. But 
however diverse be the appearance, structure or habits of the 
extremities of the series of species, they are so closely connected 
by intermediate forms that it is hard to find a gap between them 
that would justify a generic division. Forty-three species of 
this genus are recognized by Saunders. About fifteen belong to 
Europe and fourteen to North America, of which (excluding 
stragglers) some five only are common to both countries. Our 
knowledge of the geographical distribution of several of them 
is still incomplete. Some have a very wide range, others very 
much the reverse, as witness L. fuliginosus, believed to be 
confined to the Galapagos, and L. scopulinus and L. bulleri to 
New Zealand, the last indeed perhaps only to the South Island. 
The largest species of the group are the glaucous gull and greater 
black-backed gull, L. glaucus and L. marinus, of which the former 
is circumpolar, and the latter nearly so not being hitherto found 
between Labrador and Japan. The smallest species is the 
European L. minutus, though the North American L. Philadelphia 
does not much exceed it in size. Many of the gulls congregate 
in vast numbers to breed, whether on rocky cliffs of the sea-coast 



GULLY GUM 



or on healthy islands in inland waters. Some of the settlements 
of the black-headed or " peewit " gull, L. ridibundus, are a 
source of no small profit to their proprietors, the eggs, which 
are rightly accounted a great delicacy, being taken on an orderly 
system up to a certain day, and the birds carefully protected. 
Ross's or the roseate gull, Rhodostethia rosea, forms a well-marked 
genus, distinguished not so much by the pink tint of its plumage 
(for that is found in other species) but by its small dove-like bill 
and wedge-shaped tail. It is an exceedingly scarce bird, and 
beyond its having an Arctic habitat, little has yet been ascertained 
about it. More rare still is one of the species of Xema, X. 
furcatum, of which only two specimens, both believed to have 
come from the Galapagos, have been seen. Its smaller congener 
Sabine's gull, X. sabinii, is more common, and has been found 
breeding both in Arctic America and in Siberia, and several 
examples, chiefly immature birds, have been obtained in the 
British islands. Both species of Xema are readily distinguished 
from all other gulls by their forked tails. (A. N.) 

GULLY, JOHN (1783-1863), English sportsman and politician, 
was born at Wick, near Bath, on the 2ist of August 1783, the son 
of an innkeeper. He came into prominence as a boxer, and in 
1805 he was matched against Henry Pearce, the " Game Chicken," 
before the duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.) and 
numerous other spectators, and after fighting sixty-four rounds, 
which occupied an hour and seventeen minutes, was beaten. 
In 1807 he twice fought Bob Gregson, the Lancashire giant, for 
two hundred guineas a side, winning on both occasions. As the 
landlord of the " Plough " tavern in Carey Street, London, he 
retired from the ring in 1808, and took to horse-racing. In 
1827 he lost 40,000 by backing his horse " Mameluke " (for 
which he had paid four thousand guineas) for the St Leger. 
In partnership with Robert Ridskale, in 1832, he made 85,000 
by winning the Derby and St Leger with " St Giles " and 
" Margrave. " In partnership with John Day he won the Two 
Thousand Guineas with " Ugly Buck " in 1844, and two years 
later he took the Derby and the Oaks with " Pyrrhus the First " 
and " Mendicant," in 1854 the Two Thousand Guineas with 
"Hermit." and in the same year, in partnership with Henry 
Padwick, the Derby with " Andover." Having bought Ack- 
worth Park near Pontefract he was M.P. from December 1832 
to July 1837. In 1862 he purchased the Wingate Grange estate 
and collieries. Gully was twice married and had twelve children 
by each wife. He died at Durham on the 9th of March 1863. 
He appears to have been no relation of the subsequent Speaker, 
Lord Selby. 

GULPAlcAN (Jerbddegan of the Arab geographers), a district 
and city in Central Persia, situated N.W. of Isfahan and S.E. 
of Irak. Together with Khunsar it forms a small province, 
paying a yearly revenue of about 6000. The city of Gulpaigan 
is situated 87 m. N.W. of Isfahan, at an elevation of 5875 ft. 
in 33 24' N. and 50 20' E., and has a population of about 5000. 
The district is fertile and produces much grain and some opium. 
Sometimes it is under the governor-general of the Isfahan 
province, at others it forms part of the province of Irak, and at 
times, as in 1906, is under a governor appointed from Teheran. 

GUM (Fr. gomme, Lat. gommi, Gr. Mfap, possibly a Coptic 
word; distinguish " gum," the fleshy covering of the base of 
a tooth, in O. Eng. gdma, palate, cf. Ger. Gaumen, roof of the 
mouth; the ultimate origin is probably the root gha, to open 
wide, seen in Gr. \aivtiv, to gape, cf. "yawn"), the generic 
name given to a group of amorphous carbo-hydrates of the 
general formula (C 6 H 10 O s )n, which exist in the juices of almost 
all plants, and also occur as exudations from stems, branches 
and fruits of plants. They are entirely soluble or soften in water, 
and form with it a thick glutinous liquid or mucilage. They 
yield mucic and oxalic acids when treated with nitric acid. 
In structure the gums are quite amorphous, being neither organ- 
ized like starch nor crystallized like sugar. They are odourless 
and tasteless, and some yield clear aqueous solutions the real 
gums while others swell up and will not percolate filter paper 
the vegetable mucilages. The acacias and the Rosaceae yield 
their gums most abundantly when sickly and in an abnormal 





state, caused by a fulness of sap in the young tissues, whereby 
the new cells are softened and finally disorganized; the cavities 
thus formed fill with liquid, which exudes, dries and constitutes 
the gum. 

Gum arabic may be taken as the type of the gums entirely 
soluble in water. Another variety, obtained from the Prosopis 
dulcis, a leguminous plant, is called gum mesquite or mezquite; 
it comes from western Texas and Mexico, and is yellowish in 
colour, very brittle and quite soluble in water. 

Gum arabic occurs in pieces of varying size, and some kinds 
are full of minute cracks. The specific gravity of Turkey picked gum 
(the purest variety) is 1-487, or, when dried at 100 C., 1-525. It is 
soluble in water to an indefinite extent ; boiled with dilute sulphuric 
acid it is converted into the sugar galactose. Moderately strong 
nitric acid changes it into mucic, saccharic, tartaric and oxalic acids. 
Under the influence of yeast it does not enter into the alcoholic 
fermentation, but M. P. E. Berthelot, by digesting with chalk and 
cheese, obtained from it 12 % of its weight of alcohol, along with 
calcium lactate, but no appreciable quantity of sugar. Gum arabic 
may be regarded as a potassium and calcium salt of gummic or arabic 
acid. _ T. Graham (Chemical and Physical Researches) recommended 
dialysis as the best mode of preparing gummic acid, and stated that 
the power of gum to penetrate the parchment septum is 400 times 
less than that of sodium chloride, and, further, that by mixing the gum 
with substances of the crystalloid class the diffusibility is lowered, 
and may be even reduced to nothing. The mucilage must be acidu- 
lated with hydrochloric acid before dialysing, to set free the gummic 
acid. By adding alcohol to the solution, the acid is precipitated as 
a white amorphous mass, which becomes glassy at 100 . Its formula 
is (CjHioOs^HaO, and it forms compounds with nearly all bases which 
are easily soluble in water. Gummic acid reddens litmus, its re- 
action being about equal to carbonic acid. When solutions of gum 
arabic and gelatin are mixed, oily drops of a compound of the two 
are precipitated, which on standing form a nearly colourless jelly, 
melting at 25 C., or by the heat of the hand. This substance can 
be washed without decomposition. Gummic acid is soluble in 
water; when well dried at 100 C., it becomes transformed into 
metagummic acid, which is insoluble, but swells up in water like 
gum tragacanth. 

Gum arabic, when heated to 150 C. with two parts of acetic 
anhydride, swells up to a mass which, when washed with boiling 
water, and then with alcohol, gives a white amorphous insoluble 
powder called acetyl arabin C.Hg^HaO^Oj. It is saponified by 
alkalies, with reproduction of soluble gum. Gum arabic is not 
precipitated from solution by alum, stannous chloride, sulphate or 
nitrate of copper, or neutral lead acetate; with basic lead acetate 
it forms a white jelly, with ferric chloride it yields a stiff clear 
gelatinoid mass, and its solutions are also precipitated by borax. 

The finer varieties are used as an emollient and demulcent 
in medicine, and in the manufacture of confectionery; the 
commoner qualities are used as an adhesive paste, for giving 
lustre to crape, silk, &c., in cloth finishing to stiffen the fibres, 
and in calico-printing. For labels, &c., it is usual to mix sugar 
or glycerin with it to prevent it from cracking. 

Gum Senegal, a variety of gum arabic produced by Acacia 
Verek, occurs in pieces generally rounded, of the size of a pigeon's 
egg, and of a reddish or yellow colour, and specific gravity 1.436. 
It gives with water a somewhat stronger mucilage than gum 
arabic, from which it is distinguished by its clear interior, fewer 
cracks and greater toughness. It is imported from the river 
Gambia, and from Senegal and Bathurst. 

Chagual gum, a variety brought from Santiago, Chile, resembles 
gum Senegal. About 75% is soluble in water. Its solution is 
not thickened by borax, and is precipitated by neutral lead 
acetate; and dilute sulphuric acid converts it into rf-glucose. 

Gum tragacanth, familiarly called gum dragon, exudes from 
the stem, the lower part especially, of the various species of 
Astragalus, especially A. gummifer, and is collected in Asia 
Minor, the chief port of shipment being Smyrna. Formerly only 
what exuded spontaneously was gathered; this was often of 
a brownish colour; but now the flow of the gum is aided by 
incisions cut near the root, and the product is the fine, white, 
flaky variety so much valued in commerce. The chief flow of 
gum takes place during the night, and hot and dry weather is 
the most favourable for its production. 

In colour gum tragacanth is of a dull white; it occurs in horny, 
flexible and tough, thin, twisted flakes, translucent, and with peculiar 
wavy lines on the surface. When dried at temperatures under 
loo C. it loses about 14% of water, and is then easily powdered. 
Its specific gravity is I -384. With water it swells by absorption, and 



GUMBEL GUMBO 



with even fifty times its weight of that liquid forms a thick mucilage. 
Part of it only is soluble in water, and that resembles gummic acid in 
being precipitated by alcohol and ammonium oxalate, but differs 
from it in giving a precipitate with neutral lead acetate and none 
with borax. The insoluble part of the gum is a calcium salt of 
bassorin (CisHsoOio), which is devoid of taste and smell, forms a 
gelatinoid mass with water, but by continued boiling is rendered 
soluble. 

Gum tragacanth is used in calico-printing as a thickener of 
colours and mordants; in medicine as a demulcent and vehicle 
for insoluble powders, and as an excipient in pills; and for 
setting and mending beetles and other insect specimens. It is 
medicinally superior to gum acacia, as it does not undergo 
acetous fermentation. The best pharmacopeial preparation 
is the Mttcilago Tragacanthae. The compound powder is a 
useless preparation, as the starch it contains is very liable to 
ferment. 

Gum kuteera resembles in appearance gum tragacanth, for 
which the attempt has occasionally been made to substitute it. 
It is said to be the product of Sterculia urens, a plant of the 
natural order Sterculiaceae. 

Cherry tree gum is an exudation from trees of the genera 
Prunus and Cerasus. It occurs in shiny reddish lumps, resem- 
bling the commoner kinds of gum arabic. With water, in which 
it is only partially soluble, it forms a thick mucilage. Sulphuric 
acid converts it into /-arabinose; and nitric acid oxidizes it to 
oxalic acid (without the intermediate formation of mucic acid 
as in the case of gum arabic). 

Gum of Bassora, from 'Bassora or Bussorah in Asia, is some- 
times imported into the London market under the name of the 
hog tragacanth. It is insipid, crackles between the teeth, occurs 
in variable-sized pieces, is tough, of a yellowish-white colour, 
and opaque, and has properties similar to gum tragacanth. 
Its specific gravity is 1-36. It contains only i% of soluble 
gum or arabin. Under the name of Caramania gum it is mixed 
with inferior kinds of gum tragacanth before exportation. 

Mucilage. Very many seeds, roots, &c., when infused in 
boiling water, yield mucilages which, for the most part, consist 
of bassorin. Linseed, quince seed and marshmallow root yield 
it in large quantity. In their reactions the different kinds of 
mucilage present differences; e.g. quince seed yields only 
oxalic acid when treated with nitric acid, and with a solution of 
iodine in zinc iodide it gives, after some time, a beautiful red 
tint. Linseed does not give the latter reaction; by treatment 
with boiling nitric acid it yields mucic and oxalic acids. 

Gum Resins. This term is applied to the inspissated milky juices 
of certain plants, which consist of gum soluble in water, resin and 
essential oil soluble in alcohol, other vegetable matter and a small 
amount of mineral matter. They are generally opaque and solid, and 
often brittle. When finely powdered and rubbed down with water 
they form emulsions, the undissolved resin being suspended in the 
gum solution. Their chief uses are in medicine. Examples are 
ammoniacum, asafetida, bdellium, euphorbium, gamboge, myrrh, 
sagapanum and scammony. 

GUMBEL, KARL WILHELM VON, BARON (1823-1898), 
German geologist, was born at Dannenfels, in the Palatinate 
of the Rhine, on the nth of February 1823, and is known chiefly 
by his researches on the geology of Bavaria. He received a 
practical and scientific education in mining at Munich and 
Heidelberg, taking the degree of Ph.D. at Munich in 1862; 
and he was engaged for a time at the colliery of St Ingbert and 
as a surveyor in that district. In 1851, when the Geological 
Survey of Bavaria was instituted, Giimbel was appointed chief 
geologist; in 1863 he was made honorary professor of geognosy 
and surveying at the university of Munich, and in 1879, .Oberberg 
director of the Bavarian mining department with which the 
Geological Survey was incorporated. His geological map of 
Bavaria appeared in 1858, and the official memoir descriptive 
of the detailed work, entitled Geognostische Beschreibung des 
Konigreichs Bayern was issued in three parts (1861, 1868 and 
1879). He subsequently published his Geologie von Bayern in 
2 vols. (1884-1894), an elaborate treatise on geology, with special 
reference to the geology of Bavaria. In the course of his long 
and active career he engaged in much palaeontological work: 
he studied the fauna of the Trias, and in 1861 introduced the 



term Rhaetic for the uppermost division of that system; he 
supported at first the view of the organic nature of Eozoon (1866 
and 1876), he devoted special attention to Foraminifera, and 
described those of the Eocene strata of the northern Alps (1868) ; 
he dealt also with Receptaculites (1875) which he regarded as a 
genus belonging to the Foraminifera. He died on the i8th of 
June 1898. 

OUMBINNEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province 
of East Prussia, on the Pissa, an affluent of the Pregel, 22 m. by 
rail S. W. of Eydtkuhnen on the line to Konigsberg. Pop. (1905), 
14,194. The surrounding country is pleasant and fruitful, and 
the town has spacious and regular streets shaded by linden 
trees. It has a Roman Catholic and three Evangelical churches, 
a synagogue, a gymnasium, two public schools, a public library, 
a hospital and an infirmary. In the market square there is a 
statue of the king of Prussia Frederick William I., who in 1724 
raised Gumbinnen to the rank of a town, and in 1732 brought 
to it a number of persons who had been driven from Salzburg by 
religious persecution. On the bridge over the Pissa a monument 
has been erected to the soldiers from the neighbourhood who 
fell in the Franco-German war of 1870-71. Iron founding and 
the manufacture of machinery, wool, cotton, and linen weaving, 
stocking-making, tanning, brewing and distilling are the principal 
industries. There are horse and cattle markets, and some trade 
in corn and linseed. 

See J. Schneider, Aus Gumbinnens Vergangenheit (Gumbinnen, 
1904). 

GUMBO, or OKRA, termed also Okro, Ochro, Kelmia, 
Gubbo and Syrian mallow (Sans. Tindisa, Bengali Dheras, 
Pers. Bdmiyah the Bammia of Prosper Alpinus ; Fr. 
Gombaut, or better Gombo, and Ketmie comestible), Hibiscus 
esculentus, a herbaceous hairy annual plant of the natural order 
Malvaceae, probably of African origin, and now naturalized or 
cultivated in all tropical countries. The leaves are cordate, 
and 3 to 5-lobed, and the flowers yellow, with a crimson centre; 
the fruit or pod, the Bendi-Kai of the Europeans of southern 
India, is a tapering, xo-angled capsule, 4 to 10 in. in length, 
except in the dwarf varieties of the plant, and contains numerous 
oval dark-coloured seeds, hairy at the base. Three distinct 
varieties of the gumbo (Quiabo and Quimgombo) in Brazil have 
been described by Pacheco. The unripe fruit is eaten either 
pickled or prepared like asparagus. It is also an ingredient 
in various dishes, e.g. the gumbo of the Southern United States 
and the calalou of Jamaica; and on account of the large amount 
of mucilage it contains, it is extensively consumed, both fresh 
and in the form of the prepared powder, for the thickening of 
broths and soups. For winter use it is salted or sliced and dried. 
The fruit is grown on a very large scale in the vicinity of Con- 
stantinople. It was one of the esculents of Egypt in the time 
of Abul-Abbas el-Nebati, who journeyed to Alexandria in 1216 
(Wiistenfeld, Gesch. d. arab. Ante, p. 118, Gott., 1840), and is 
still cultivated by the Egyptians, who called it Bammge. 

The seeds of the gumbo are used as a substitute for coffee. 
From their demulcent and emollient properties, the leaves and 
immature fruit have long been in repute in the East for the 
preparation of poultices and fomentations. Alpinus (1592) 
mentions the employment of their decoction in Egypt in oph- 
thalmia and in uterine and other complaints. 

The musk okra (Sans., Latdkasturikd, cf. the Gr. K&artap; Bengali, 
Laldkasturi; Ger. Bisamkornerstrauch; Fr. Ketmie musquee), 
Hibiscus Abelmoschus (Abelmoschus moschaius), indigenous to India, 
and cultivated in most warm regions of the globe, is a suffruticose 
plant, bearing a conical 5-ridgea pod about 3 in. in length, within 
which are numerous brown reniform seeds, smaller than those of H. 
escidentus. The seeds possess a musky odour, due to an oleo-resin 
present in the integument, and are known to perfumers under the 
name of ambrette as a substitute for musk. They are said to be used 
by the Arabs for scenting coffee. The seeds (in the Fantee language, 
Incromahom) are used in Africa as beads; and powdered and steeped 
in rum they are valued in the West Indies as a remedy for snake- 
bites. The plant yields an^xcellent fibre, and, being rich in mucilage, 
is employed in Upper India for the clarifying of sugar. The best- 
perfumed seeds are reported to come from Martinique. 

See P. Alpinus, De plantis Aegypti, cap. xxvii. p. 38 (Venice, 1592) ; 
J. Sontheimer's Aba Allah ibn Ahmad, &c., i. 118 (Stuttgart, 



GUMTI GUN 



717 



1840-1842); P. P. Pacheco, "La Ketmie potagdre ou comestible," 
La Belgtque horticole, iv. 63 (1853) ; Delia Sudda, " De 1'emploi 
a Constantinople de la racine de 1 Hibiscus esculentus," Repert. de 
pharm., January 1860, p. 229; E. I. Waring, Pharm. of India, p. 
35 (1868); O. ropp, " Uber die Ascnenbestandteile der Samen von 
Acacia nilotica und Hibiscus esculentus in Agypten," Arch, der 
Pharm. cxcv. p. 140 (1871); Drury, The Useful Plants of India, pp. 
i, 2 (2nd ed., 1873); U. C. Dutt, The Mat. Med. of the Hindus, pp. 
123, 321 (1877); Lanessan, Hist, des drogues, \. 181-184 (1878); 
G. Watt, Dictionary of the Economic Products of India (1890). 

GUHTI, a river of northern India. It rises in a depression in 
the Pilibhit district of the United Provinces, and after a sinuous 
but generally south-easterly course of 500 m. past Lucknow and 
Jaunpur joins the Ganges in Ghazipar district. At Jaunpur it 
is a fine stream, spanned by a 16th-century bridge of sixteen 
arches, and is navigable by vessels of 17 tons burden. There 
is also a small river of the same name in the Tippera district 
of eastern Bengal and Assam. 

GUHULJINA, or GUMURDJINA, a town of European Turkey, 
in the vilayet of Adrianople. Pop. (1905), about 8000, of whom 
three-fourths are Turks and the remainder Greeks, Jews or 
Armenians. Gumuljina is situated on the river Karaja-Su, 
south of the eastern extremity of the Rhodope range of mountains 
and 13 m. inland from the Aegean Sea. It has a station on the 
railway between Salonica and Dedeagatch. The district produces 
wheat, maize, barley and tobacco; sericulture and viticulture 
are both practised on a limited scale. A cattle fair is held 
annually on Greek Palm Sunday. Copper and antimony are 
found in the neighbourhood. 

GUMUS, or GUMZ, Negroes of the Shangalla group of tribes, 
dwelling in the mountainous district of Fazogli on the Sudan- 
Abyssinian frontier. They live in independent groups, some 
being mountaineers while others are settled on the banks 
of the Blue Nile. Gumz in the native tongue signifies 
" people," and the sub-tribes have distinctive names. The Gumus 
are nature-worshippers, God and the sun being synonymous. 
On ceremonial occasions they carry parasols of honour (see 
SHANGALLA). 

GUMUSH-KHANEH, the chief town of a sanjak of the same 
name in the Trebizond vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated on 
high ground (4400 ft.) in the valley of the Kharshut Su, about 
5 m. to south of the Trebizond-Erzerum chaussee. Th6 silver 
mines from which the place takes its name were noted in ancient 
times and are mentioned by Marco Polo. Pop. about 3000, 
chiefly Greeks, who are in the habit of emigrating to great 
distances to work in mines. They practically supply the whole 
lead- and silver-mining labour in Asiatic Turkey, %.nd in conse- 
quence the Greek bishop of Gumush-Khaneh has under his 
jurisdiction all the communities engaged in this particular class 
of mines. 

GUN, a general term for a weapon, tubular in form, from 
which a projectile is discharged by means of an explosive. 
When applied to artillery the word is confined to those pieces 
of ordnance which have a direct as opposed to a high-angle fire, 
in which case the terms " howitzer " and " mortar " are used 
(see ORDNANCE and MACHINE-GUN). " Gun " as applied to 
firearms which are carried in the hand and fired from the shoulder, 
the old " hand gun," is now chiefly used of the sporting shot-gun, 
with which this article mainly deals; in military usage this type 
of weapon, whether rifle, carbine, &c., is known collectively as 
" small arms " (see RIFLE and PISTOL). The origin of the word, 
which in Mid. Eng. is gonne or gunne, is obscure, but it has 
been suggested by Professor W. W. Skeat that it conceals a 
female name, Gunnilde or Gunhilda. The names, e.g. Mons Meg 
at Edinburgh Castle and faule Crete (heavy Peg), known to 
readers of Carlyle's Frederick the Great, will be familiar parallel- 
isms. " Gunne " would be a shortened " pet name " of Gunn- 
hilde. The New English Dictionary finds support for the sugges- 
tion in the fact that in Old Norwegian gunne and hilde both 
mean " war," and quotes an inventory of war material at 
Windsor Castle in 1330-1331, where is mentioned " una magna 
balista de cornu quae vocatur Domina Gunilda." Another 
suggestion for the origin of the word is that the word represents 





a shortened form, gonne, of a supposed French mangonne, a 
mangonel, but the French word is mangonneau. 

Firearms are said to have been first used in European warfare 
in the i4th century. The hand gun (see fig. i) came into 
practical use in 1446 
and was of very rude 
construction. It con- 
sisted of a simple iron n- 
or brass tube with a 
touch-hole at the top 
fixed in a straight stock 
of wood, the end of 
which passed under the " 
right armpit when the 
" gonne " was about to 
be fired. A similar 

weapon (see fig. 2) was FIG. i. Hand Gun. 

also used by the horse-soldier, with a ring at the end of the 
stock, by which it was suspended by a cord round the neck; 
a forked rest, fitted by a ring to the saddlebow, served to steady 
the gun. This rest, when not in use, hung down in front of the 
right leg. A match was made of cotton or hemp spun slack, 
and boiled in a strong solution of saltpetre or in the lees of 
wine. The touch-hole was first placed on the top of the barrel, 
but afterwards at the side, with a 
small pan underneath to hold the 
priming, and guarded by a cover 
moving on a pivot. 

An improvement in firearms took 
place in the first year of the reign 
of Henry VII., or at the dose of 
Edward IV., by fixing a cock (Fr. 
serpentine) on the hand gun to hold 
the match, which was brought 
down to the priming by a trigger, 
whence the term matchlock. This 
weapon is still in use among the 
Chinese, Tatars, Sikhs, Persians and Turks. An improvement 
in the stock was also made during this period by forming it 
with a wide butt end to be placed against the right breast. 
Subsequently the stock was bent, a German invention, and the 
arm was called a hackbutt or hagbut, and the smaller variety 
a demihague. The arquebus and hackbutt were about a yard 
in length, including barrel and stock, and the demihague was 
about half the 
size and weight, 
the forerunner of 
the pistol. The 
arquebus was 
the standard 
infantry firearm 
in Europe from 
the battle of 
Pavia to the in- 
troduction of the 
heavier and 
more powerful 
musket. It did 
not as a rule 
require a rest, as 
did the musket. 
The wheel-lock, 
an improvement From General n^yd,. pool's rn a Condi 1626-1675. 
on the match- F , G 3 ._ M usketeer, 1626. 

lock, was in- 
vented in Nuremberg in 1517; was first used at the siege 
of Parma in 1521; was brought to England in 1530, and con- 
tinued in partial use there until the time of Charles II. This 
wheel-lock consisted of a fluted or grooved sted wheel which 
protruded into the priming pan, and was connected with a 
strong spring. The cock, also regulated by a spring, was fitted 
with a piece of iron pyrites. In order to discharge the gun the 



FIG. 2. MountedMan 
with Hand Gun. 




7i8 



GUN 



lock was wound up by a key, the cock was let down on the 
priming pan, the pyrites resting on the wheel; on the trigger 
being pressed the wheel was released and rapidly revolved, 
emitting sparks, which ignited the powder in the pan. The 
complicated and expensive nature of this lock, with its liability 
to injury, no doubt prevented its general adoption. 

About 1540 the Spaniards constructed a larger and heavier 
firearm (matchlock), carrying a ball of 10 to the pound, called 
a musket. This weapon was introduced into England before the 
middle of the i6th century, and soon came into general use 
throughout Europe. The snaphance was invented about this 
period in Germany, and from its comparative cheapness was 





From General Hardy de Pe'rim'i Turennc et Condi, 1626-167;. 

FIGS. 4 and 5. Musketeers, 1675. 

much used in England, France and Holland. It held a flint 
instead of the pyrites of the wheel or firelock, which ignited the 
powder in the pan by striking on a piece of furrowed steel, when 
released by the trigger, and emitting sparks. 

As a sporting weapon the gun may be said to date from the 
invention of the wheel-lock in the beginning of the i6th century, 
though firearms were used for sporting purposes in Italy, Spain, 
Germany, and to some extent in France, in the isth century. 
Before that period the longbow in England and the crossbow on 
the Continent were the usual weapons of the chase. In Great 
Britain little use appears to have been made of firearms for game 
shooting until the latter half of the i7th century, and the arms 
then used for the purpose were entirely of foreign make. 

The French gunmakers of St-Etienne claim for their town 
that it is the oldest centre of the firearms industry. They do 
not appear to have made more than the barrels of the finest 
sporting arms, and these even were sometimes made in Paris. 
The production of firearms by the artists of Paris reached its 
zenith about the middle of the i;th century. The Italian, 
German, Spanish and Russian gunsmiths also showed great 
skill in the elegance and design of their firearms, the Spaniards 
In particular being makers of fine barrels. The pistol (q.v.) is 
understood to have been made for the first time about 1540 at 
Pistoia in Italy. About 1635 the modern firelock or flint-lock 
was invented, which only differed from the snaphance by the cover 
of the pan forming part of the furrowed steel struck by the flint. 
Originally the priming was put into the pan from a flask contain- 
ing a fine-grained powder called serpentine powder. Later the 
top of the cartridge was bitten off and the pan filled therefrom 
before loading. The mechanism of the flint-lock musket rendered 
all this unnecessary, as, in loading, a portion of the charge passed 
through the vent into the pan, where it was held by the cover or 
hammer. The matchlock, as a military weapon, gradually gave 
way to the firelock, which came into general use in the last half 
of the 1 7th century, and was the weapon of Marlborough's and 
Wellington's armies. This was the famous " Brown Bess " of the 
British army. The highest development of the flint-lock is found 
in the fowling-pieces of the end of the i8th and beginning of the 
igth centuries, particularly those made by Joseph Manton, the 
celebrated English gunsmith and inventor. The Napoleonic wars 
afforded English gunmakers an opportunity, which they fully 
utilized, of gaining the supremacy over their foreign competitors 
in the gunmaking trade. English gunmakers reduced the weight, 



improved the shooting powers, and perfected the lock mechanism 
of the sporting gun, and increased the range 
and efficiency of the rifle. This transference 
of the gunmaking craft from the Continent 
to England was also assisted by the tyranny 
of the foreign gunmaking gilds. In 1637 the 
London gunmakers obtained their charter of 
incorporation. The important gunmaking 
industry of Birmingham dates from 1603, and 
soon rivalled that of London. Double shot- 
guns do not appear to have been generally 
used until the iQth century. 
The first successful double 
guns were built with the 
barrels over and under, and 
not side by side, and were 
invented about 1616 by 
one Guilliano Bossi of 
Rome. In 1784 double 
shot guns were described as 
a novelty. Joseph Manton 
patented the elevated rib 
which rested on the barrels. 
The general success of the 
double gun was eventually 
due to the light weight 
which the better material 
and workmanship of tne 
best gunmakers made pos- 
sible, and to the quickness 
and certainty of ignition of 
the modern cartridge. 

The objections to the 
flint-lock were that it did 
not entirely preserve the 
priming from wet, and that 
the flint sparks sometimes 
failed to ignite the charge. 
In 1807 the Rev. Alexander 
John Forsyth obtained a 
patent for priming with a 
fulminating powder made 
of chlorate of potash, sul- 
phur and charcoal, which 
exploded by concussion. 
This important improve- 
ment in firearms was not 
recognized and adopted by 
the military authorities 
until more than thirty 
years later. In the mean- 
time it was gradually de- 
veloped, and the copper 
percussion cap invented, 
by various gunmakers and 
private individuals. 
Thomas Shaw of Phila- 
delphia first used fulminate 
in a steel cap in 1814, which 
he changed to a copper cap 
in 1 8 1 6. It was not until 
the introduction of the 
copper cap that the per- 
cussion gun could be con- 
sidered in every way 
superior to the flint. In 
i834,in the reign of William 
IV., Forsyte's invention 
was tested at Woolwich by 
firing 6000 rounds from six 
flint-lock muskets, and a 
similar number from six percussion muskets, in all weathers 




*.* e 
-<" 

<o 



GUN 



719 





This trial established the percussion principle. The shooting 
was found to be more accurate, the recoil less, the charge 
of powder having been reduced from 6 to 4$ drs., the 
rapidity of firing greater and the number of miss-fires much 
reduced, being as i to 26 nearly in favour of the percussion 



system. In consequence of this successful trial the military 
flint-lock in 1839 was altered to suit the percussion principle. 
This was easily accomplished by replacing the hammer and pan 
by a nipple with a hole through its centre to the vent or touch- 
hole, and by replacing the cock which held the flint by a smaller 
cock or hammer with a hollow to fit on the nipple when released 
by the trigger. On the nipple was placed the copper cap contain- 
ing the detonating composition, now made of three parts of 
chlorate of potash, two of fulminate of mercury and one of 
powdered glass. 

In 1840 the Austrian army was supplied with the percussion 
musket, and in 184^ a new model percussion musket with a block 
or back-sight for 150 yds. was issued to the British army, u Ib 
6 oz. in weight, 4 ft. 6J in. in length without bayonet, 6 ft. 
with bayonet and with a barrel 3 ft. 3 in. in length, firing a 
bullet of 145 to the Ib with 4^ drs. of powder. This musket 
was larger in bore than that of France, Belgium, Russia and 
Austria, and thus had the advantage of being able to fire their 
balls, while the English balls could not be fired from their barrels. 
But the greater weight and momentum of the English ball was 
counteracted by the excess of windage. This percussion musket 
of 1842, the latest development of the renowned Brown Bess, 
continued in use in the British army until partially superseded 
in 1851 by the Mini6 rifle, and altogether by the Enfield rifle 



720 



GUN 



in 1855. For further information as to the history and develop- 
ment of military, target and sporting rifles see RIFLE. 

Illustrations are given herewith of a German Carbine of the i6th 
century, with double wheel-lock (fig. 8); a snaphance (fig. 9); 
several forms of the Brown Bessor flint-lock military musket(English, 
William III., fig. 10; George II., fig. 11; George III., fig. 12; 
French, Napoleon, fig. 13) ; and of the percussion musket adopted in 
the British service in 1839 (fig. 14). Examples of non-European 
firearms are shown in figs. 6 and 7, representing a Moorish flint-lock 
and an Indian matchlock respectively. Figs. 15-18 represent 
various carbines, musketoons and blunderbusses, fig. 15 snowing 
a small blunderbuss or musketoon of the early i8th century, fig. 16 
a large blunderbuss of 1750, fig. 17 a flint-lock cavalry carbine of 
about 1825 and fig. 18 a percussion carbine of 1830. All these are 
drawn from arms in the museum of the Royal United Service 
Institution, London. 

Modern Shot Guns. The modern sporting breech-loaders 
may be said to have originated with the invention of the cartridge- 
case containing its own means of ignition. The breech-loading 
mechanism antedated the cartridge by many years, the earliest 
breech-loading hand guns dating back to 1 537. Another distinct 
type of breech-loader was invented in France about the middle 
of the 1 7th century. During the I7th and i8th centuries breech- 
loading arms were very numerous and of considerable variety. 
The original cartridge, a charge of powder and bullet in a paper 
envelope, dates from 1 586. These were used with muzzle-loaders, 
the base of the cartridge being ripped or bitten off by the soldier 
before placing in the barrel. It was only when the detonating 
cap came into use that the paper cartridge answered well in 
breech-loaders. The modern breech-loader has resulted from a 
gradual series of improvements, and not from any one great 
invention. Its essential feature is the prevention of all escape 
of gas at the breech when the gun is fired by means of an expan- 
sive cartridge-case containing its own means of ignition. The 
earlier breech-loaders were not gas-tight, because the cartridge- 
cases were either consumable or the load was placed in a strong 
non-expansive breech-plug. The earliest efficient modern 
cartridge-case was the pin-fire, patented by Houiller, a Paris 
gunsmith, in 1847, with a thin weak shell which expanded by 
the force of the explosion, fitted perfectly in the barrel, and thus 
formed an efficient gas check. Probably no invention connected 
with firearms has wrought such changes in the principle of gun- 
construction as those effected by the expansive cartridge-case. 
This invention has completely revolutionized the art of gun- 
making, has been successfully applied to all descriptions of 
firearms, and has produced a new and important industry 
that of cartridge manufacture. 

About 1836, C. Lefaucheux, a Paris gunsmith, improved 
the old Pauly system of breech-loading, but its breech action 
was a crude mechanism, with single grip worked by a 
bottom lever. The double grip for the barrels was the subsequent 
invention of a Birmingham gunmaker. The central-fire cartridge, 
practically as now in use, was introduced into England in 1861 
by Daw. It is said to have been the invention of Pottet, of 
Paris, improved upon by Schneider, and gave rise to considerable 
litigation in respect of its patent rights. Daw, who controlled 
the English patents, was the only exhibitor of central-fire guns 
and cartridges at the International Exhibition of 1862. In 
his system the barrels work on a hinge joint, the bottom lever 
withdraws the holding-down bolt; the cartridge is of the modern 
type, the cap being detonated by a striker passing through the 
standing breech to the inner face. The cartridge-case is with- 
drawn by a sliding extractor fitted to the breech ends of the 
barrels. Daw was subsequently defeated in his control of the 
patents by Eley Bros., owing to the patent not having been kept 
in force in France. The modern breech-loading gun has been 
gradually and steadily improved since 1860. Westley Richards 
adopted and improved Matthews' top-lever mechanism. About 
1866 the rebounding lock was introduced, and improved in 1869. 
The treble wedge-fast mechanism for holding down the barrels 
was originated by W. W. Greener in 1865, and perfected in 1873. 
A very important improvement was the introduction of the 
hammerless gun, in which the mechanism for firing is placed 
entirely within the gun. This was made possible by the introduc- 



tion of the central-fire cartridge. In 1862 Daw, and in 1866 
Green, introduced hammerless guns in which the cocking was 
effected by the under lever. These guns did not attain popularity. 
In 1 87 1 T. Murcott patented a hammerless gun, the first to obtain 
distinct success. This also was a lever-cocking gun. About the 
same time Needham introduced the principle of utilizing the 
weight of the barrels to assist in cocking. In 1875 Anson and 
Deeley utilized the fore-end attached to the barrels to cock the 
locks. From this date hammerless guns became really popular. 
Subsequently minor improvements were made by many other 
gun-makers, including alternative movements introduced by 
Purdey and Rogers. Imprcvements were also introduced 
by Westley Richards, Purdey and others, including cocking by 
means of the mainspring. In 1874 J. Needham introduced 
the ejector mechanism, by which each empty cartridge-case is 
separately and automatically thrown out of the gun when the 
breech is opened, the necessary force being provided by the 
mainspring of the lock. W. W. Greener and some other gun- 
makers have since introduced minor modifications and improve- 
ments of this mechanism. Next in turn came Perks and other 
inventors, who separated the ejector mechanism from the lock 
work. This very decided improvement is universal to-day. 
A later innovation in the modern breech-loader is the single 
trigger mechanism introduced by some of the leading English 
gun-makers, by which both barrels can be fired in succession 
by a single trigger. This improvement enables both barrels 
to be rapidly fired without altering the grip of the right hand, 
but deprives the shooter of the power of selecting his barrel. 

Repeating or magazine shot-guns on the principle of the 
repeating rifle, with a magazine below the single firing barrel, 
are also made by some American and continental gun-makers, 
but as yet have not come into general use, being comparatively 
cumbersome and not well balanced. The difficulty of a shifting 
balance as each cartridge is fired has also yet to be overcome. 
Several varieties of a combination rifle and shot-gun are also 
made, for a description of which see RIFLE. 

The chief purposes for which modern shot-guns are required 
are game-shooting, trap-shooting at pigeons and wild-fowling. 
The game gun may be any bore from 32 to 10 gauge. The usual 
standard bore is 12 gauge unless it be for a boy, when it is 20 
gauge. The usual weight of the i2-bore double-barrelled game 
gun is from 6 to 7 ft with barrels 30 in. long, there, however, 
being a present tendency to barrels of a shorter length. These 
barrels are made of steel, as being a stronger and more homo- 
geneous material than the barrels formerly produced, which were 
mostly of Damascus pattern, a mixture of iron and steel. Steel 
barrels, drilled from the solid block, were originally produced 
by Whitworth. To-day the makers of steel for this purpose 
are many. The standard charge for the i2-bore is 42 grains of 
smokeless powder and i oz. to ifth oz. of shot. Powder of a 
lighter gravimetric density is occasionally employed, when the 
weight of the charge is reduced to 33 grains. This charge of 
powder corresponds to the 3 drams of black powder formerly 
used. The ordinary game gun should have a killing circle of 
30 in. at 30 yds. with the first barrel and at 40 yds. with the 
second. Improved materials and methods of manufacture, and 
what is known as " choke " boring of the barrels, have enabled 
modern gun-makers to regulate the shooting of guns to a nicety. 
Choke-boring is the constriction of the diameter of the barrel 
near the muzzle, and was known in America in the early part 
of the igth century. In 1875 Pape of Newcastle was awarded 
a prize for the invention of choke-boring, there being no other 
claimant. The methods of choke-boring have since been varied 
and improved by the leading English gun-makers. The pigeon 
gun is usually heavier than the game gun and more choked. It 
generally weighs from 7 to 8 Ib. Its weight, by club rules, is 
frequently restricted to 7? Ib and its bore to 12 gauge. The 
standard wild-fowling gun is a double 8-bore with 3O-in. barrels 
weighing 15 Ib. and firing a charge of 7 drams of powder and 
zf to 3 oz. of shot. These guns are also made in both smaller and 
larger varieties, including a single barrel 4-bore, which is the 
largest gun that can be used from the shoulder, and single 



GUNA GUNCOTTON 



721 



barrel punt guns of ij-in. bore, weighing 100 lb. While no 
conspicuous advance in improved gun-mechanism and invention 
has been made during the last few years, the materials and 
methods of manufacture, and the quality and exactitude of the 
gun-maker's work, have continued gradually and steadily to 
improve. English, and particularly London-made, guns stand 
pre-eminent all over the world. (H. S.-K.) 

6UNA, a town and military station in Central India, in the 
state of Gwalior. Pop. (1901) 11,452. After the Mutiny, it 
became the headquarters of the Central India Horse, whose 
commanding officer acts as ex-officio assistant to the resident of 
Gwalior; and its trade has developed rapidly since the opening 
of a station on a branch of the Great Indian Peninsula railway 
in 1899. 

GUNCOTTON, an explosive substance produced by the action 
of strong nitric acid on cellulose at the ordinary temperature; 
chemically it is a nitrate of cellulose, or a mixture of nitrates, 
according to some authorities. The first step in the history of 
guncotton was made by T. J. Pelouze in 1838, who observed that 
when paper or cotton was immersed in cold concentrated nitric 
acid the materials, though not altered in physical appearance, 
became heavier, and after washing and drying were possessed 
of self-explosive properties. At the time these products were 
thought to be related to the nitrated starch obtained a little 
previously by Henri Braconnot and called xyloidin; they are 
only related in so far as they are nitrates. C. F. Schonbein of 
Basel published his discovery of guncotton in 1846 (Phil. Mag. 
[3], 3i> P- 7). an< i tn > s was shortly after followed by investigations 
by R. R. Bottger of Frankfort and Otto and Knop, all of whom 
added to our knowledge of the subject, the last-named introducing 
the use of sulphuric along with nitric acid in the nitration-process. 
The chemical composition and constitution of guncotton has 
been studied by a considerable number of chemists and many 
divergent views have been put forward on the subject. W. Crum 
was probably the first to recognize that some hydrogen atoms 
of the cellulose had been replaced by an oxide of nitrogen, and 
this view was supported more or less by other workers, especially 
Hadow, who appears to have distinctly recognized that at least 
three compounds were present, the most violently explosive of 
which constituted the main bulk of the product commonly 
obtained and known as guncotton. This particular product was 
insoluble in a mixture of ether and alcohol, and its composition 
could be expressed by the term tri-nitrocellulose. Other products 
were soluble in the ether-alcohol mixture: they were less 
highly nitrated, and constituted the so-called collodion gun- 
cotton. 

The smallest empirical formula for cellulose (q.v.) may certainly 
be written CjHioOs. How much of the hydrogen and oxygen 
are in the hydroxylic (OH) form cannot be absolutely stated, 
but from the study of the acetates at least three hydroxyl groups 
may be assumed. The oldest and perhaps most reasonable idea 
represents guncotton as cellulose trinitrate, but this has been 
much disputed, and various formulae, some based on cellulose 
as C^HttOio, others on a still more complex molecule, have been 
proposed. The constitution of guncotton is a difficult matter to 
investigate, primarily on account of the very insoluble nature 
of cellulose itself, and also from the fact that comparatively 
slight variations in the concentration and temperature of the 
acids used produce considerable differences in the products. 
The nitrates are also very insoluble substances, all the so-called 
solvents merely converting them into jelly. No method has yet 
been devised by which the molecular weight can be ascertained. 1 
The products of the action of nitric acid on cellulose are not 
nitro compounds in the sense that picric acid is, but are nitrates 
or nitric esters. 

Guncotton is made by immersing cleaned and dried cotton 
waste in a mixture of strong nitric and sulphuric acids. The 

1 The composition of the cellulose nitrates was reviewed by G. 
Lunge (Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1901, 23, p. 527), who, assuming the 
formula CjjHwOw for cellulose, showed how the nitrocelluloses 
described by different chemists may be expressed by the formula 
)*, where * has the values 4, 5, 6, ... 12. 



relative amounts of the acids in the mixture and the time of 
duration of treatment of the cotton varies somewhat in different 
works, but the underlying idea is the same, viz. employing such 
an excess of sulphuric over nitric that the latter will be rendered 
anhydrous or concentrated and maintained as such in solution in 
the sulphuric acid, and that the sulphuric acid shall still be suffi- 
ciently strong to absorb and combine with the water produced 
during the actual formation of the guncotton. In the recent 
methods the cotton remains in contact with the acids for two to 
four hours at the ordinary air temperature (15 C.), in which time 
it is almost fully nitrated, the main portion, say 90%, having 
a composition represented by the formula 2 C 6 H7O2(NOj)3, the 
remainder consisting of lower nitrated products, some oxidation 
products and traces of unchanged cellulose and cellulose 
sulphates. The acid is then slowly run out by an opening in the 
bottom of the pan in which the operation is conducted, and water 
distributed carefully over its surface displaces it in the interstices 
of the cotton, which is finally subjected to a course of boiling 
and washing with water. This washing is a most important part 
of the process. On its thoroughness depends the removal of 
small quantities of products other than the nitrates, for instance, 
some sulphates and products from impurities contained in the 
original cellulose. Cellulose sulphates are one, and possibly the 
main, cause of instability in guncotton, and it is highly desirable 
that they should be completely hydrolysed and removed in 
the washing process. The nitrated product retains the outward 
form of the original cellulose. In the course of the washing, 
according to a method introduced by Sir F. Abel, the cotton is 
ground into a pulp, a process which greatly facilitates the 
complete removal of acids, &c. This pulp is finally drained, and 
is then either compressed, while still moist, into .slabs or blocks 
when required for blasting purposes, or it is dried when required 
for the manufacture of propellants. Sometimes a small quantity 
of an alkali (e.g. sodium carbonate) is added to the final washing 
water, so that quantities of this alkaline substance ranging from 
o- 5 % to a little over i % are retained by the guncotton. The 
idea is that any traces of acid not washed away by the washing 
process or produced later by a slow decomposition of the sub- 
stance will be thereby neutralized and rendered harmless. 
Guncotton in an air-dry state, whether in the original form or 
after grinding to pulp and compressing, burns with very great 
rapidity but does not detonate unless confined. 

, Immediately after the discovery of guncotton Schonbein 
proposed its employment as a substitute for gunpowder, and 
General von Lenk carried out a lengthy and laborious series of 
experiments intending to adapt it especially for artillery use. 
All these and many subsequent attempts to utilize it, either loose 
or mechanically compressed in any way, signally failed. How- 
ever much compressed by mechanical means it is still a porous 
mass, and when it is confined as in a gun the flame and hot gases 
from the portion first ignited permeate the remainder, generally 
causing it actually to detonate, or to burn so rapidly that its 
action approaches detonation. The more closely it is confined 
the greater is the pressure set up by a small part of the charge 
burning, and the more completely will the explosion of the 
remainder assume the detonating form. The employment of 
guncotton as a propellant was possible only after the discovery 
that it could be gelatinized or made into a colloid by the action 
of so-called solvents, e.g. ethylacetate and other esters, acetone 
and a number of like substances (see CORDITE). 

When quite dry guncotton is easily detonated by a blow on an 
anvil or hard surface. If dry and warm it is much more sensitive to 
percussion or friction, and also becomes electrified by friction under 
those conditions. The amount of contained moisture exerts a con- 
siderable effect on its sensitiveness. With about 2 % of moisture it 
can still be detonated on an anvil, but the action is generally confined 
to the piece struck. As the quantity of contained water increases it 
becomes difficult or even impossible to detonate by an ordinary 
blow. Compressed dry guncotton is easily detonated by an initiative 
detonator such as mercuric fulminate. Guncotton containing more 
than 15% of water is uninflammable, may be compressed or worked 
without danger and is much more difficult to detonate by a fulminate 

2 This formula is retained mainly on account of its simplicity. 
It also expresses all that is necessary in this connexion. 



722 



GUNDULICH GUNNING 



detonator than when dry. 1 A small charge of dry guncotton will, 
however, detonate the wet material, and this peculiarity is made 
use of in the employment of guncotton for blasting purposes. A 
charge of compressed wet guncotton may be exploded, even under 
water, by the detonation of a small primer of the dry and water- 
proofed material, which in turn can be started by a small fulminate 
detonator. The explosive wave from the dry guncotton primer is 
in fact better responded to by the wet compressed material than the 
dry, and its detonation is somewhat sharper than that of the dry. 
It is not necessary for the blocks of wet guncotton to be actually m 
contact if they be under water, and the peculiar explosive wave 
can also be conveyed a little distance by a piece of metal such as a 
railway rail. The more nearly the composition of guncotton 
approaches that represented by CsHyOzCNOaJs, the more_stable is 
it as regards storing at ordinary temperatures, and the higher the 
igniting temperature. Carefully prepared guncotton after washing 
with Alcohol-ether until nothing more dissolves may require to be 
heated to 180-185 C. before inflaming. Ordinary commercial gun- 
cottons, containing from 10 to 15% of lower nitrated products, will 
ignite as a rule some 20-25 lower. 

Assuming the above formula to represent guncotton, there is 
sufficient oxygen for internal combustion without any carbon being 
left. The gaseous mixture obtained by burning guncotton in a 
vacuum vessel contains steam, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, 
nitrogen, nitric oxide, and methane. When slowly heated in a 
vacuum vessel until ignition takes place, some nitrogen dioxide, NOs, 
is also produced. When kept for some weeks at a temperature of 
100 in steam, a considerable number of fatty acids, some bases, and 
glucose-like substances result. Under different pressures the relative 
amounts of the combustion products vary considerably. Under very 
great pressures carbon monoxide, steam and nitrogen are the main 
products, but nitric oxide never quite disappears. 

Dilute mineral acids have little or no action on guncotton. Strong 
sulphuric acid in contact with it liberates first nitric acid and later 
oxides of nitrogen, leaving a charred residue or a brown solution 
according to the quantity of acid. It sometimes fires on contact with 
strong sulphuric acid, especially when slightly warmed. The alkali 
hydroxides (e.g. sodium hydroxide) will in a solid state fire it on 
contact. Strong or weak solutions of these substances also decom- 
pose it, producing some alkali nitrate and nitrite, the cellulose 
molecule being only partially restored, some quantity undergoing 
oxidation. Ammonia is also active, but not quite in the same 
manner as the alkali hydroxides. Dry guncotton heated in ammonia 
gas detonates at about 70, and ammonium hydroxide solutions of all 
strengths slowly decompose it, yielding somewhat complex products. 
Alkali sulphohydrates reduce guncotton, or other nitrated celluloses, 
completely to cellulose. The production of the so-called " artificial 
silk depends on this action. 

A characteristic difference between guncotton and collodion 
cotton is the insolubility of the former in ether or alcohol or a mixture 
of these liquids. The so-called collodion cottons are nitrated 
celluloses, but of a lower degree of nitration (as a rule) than guncotton. 
They are sometimes spoken of as " lower " or " soluble " cottons or 
nitrates. The solubility in ether-alcohol may be owing to a lower 
degree of nitration, or to the temperature conditions under which the 
process of manufacture has been carried on. If guncotton be correctly 
represented by the formula CeH 7 O 2 (NOa)8, it should contain a little 
more than 14% of nitrogen. Guncottons are examined for degree 
of nitration by the nitrometer, in which apparatus they are decom- 
posed by sulphuric acid in contact with mercury, and all the nitrogen 
is evolved as nitric oxide, NO, which is measured and the weight of its 
contained nitrogen calculated. Ordinary guncottons seldom contain 
more than 13% of nitrogen, and in most cases the amount does not 
exceed 12-5 %. Generally speaking, the lower the nitrogen content of 
a guncotton, as found by the nitrometer, the higher the percentage of 
matters soluble in a mixture of ether-alcohol. These soluble matters 
are usually considered as " lower " nitrates. 

Guncottons are usually tested by the Abel heat test for stability 
(see CORDITE). Another heat test, that of Will, consists in heating 
a weighed quantity of the guncotton in a stream of carbon dioxide 
to 130 C., passing the evolved gases over some red-hot copper, and 
finally collecting them over a solution of potassium hydroxide which 
retains the carbon dioxide and allows the nitrogen, arising from the 
guncotton decomposition, to be measured. This is done at definite 
time intervals so that the rate of decomposition can be followed. 
The relative stability is then judged by the amount of nitrogen gas 
collected in a certain time. Several modifications of this and of the 
Abel heat test are also in use. (See Ex PLOSIVES.) (W. R. E. H.) 

GUNDULICH, IVAN (1588-1638), known also as Giovanni 
Gondola, Servian poet, was born at Ragusa on the 8th of January 
1588. His father, Franco Gundulich, once the Ragusan envoy 
to Constantinople and councillor of the republic, gave him an 
excellent education. He studied the " humanities " with the 
Jesuit, Father Muzzi, and philosophy with Father Ricasoli. 
After that he studied Roman law and jurisprudence in general. 
He was member of the Lower Council and once served as the 
1 Air-dried guncotton will contain 2 % or less of moisture. 



chief magistrate of the republic. He died on the 8th of December 
1638. A born poet, he admired much the Italian poets of his 
time, from whom he made many translations into Servian. It 
is believed that he so translated Tasso's Gerusalemme liberata. 
He is known to have written eighteen works, of which eleven 
were dramas, but of these only three have been fully preserved, 
others having perished during the great earthquake and fire in 
1667. Most of those dramas were translations from the Italian, 
and were played, seemingly with great success, by the amateurs 
furnished by the noble families of Ragusa. But his greatest 
and justly celebrated work is an epic, entitled Osman, in twenty 
cantos. It is the first political epic on the Eastern Question, 
glorifying the victory of the Poles over Turks and Tatars in the 
campaign of 1621, and encouraging a league of the Christian 
nations, under the guidance of Vladislaus, the king of Poland, 
for the purpose of driving away the Turks from Europe. The 
fourteenth and fifteenth cantos are lost. It is generally believed 
that the Ragusan government suppressed them from considera- 
tion for the Sultan, the protector of the republic,,: those two 
cantos having been violently anti-Turkish. 

Osman was printed for the first time in Ragusa in 1826, the two 
missing cantos being replaced by songs written by Pietro Sorgo (or 
Sorkochevich). From this edition the learned Italian, Francesco 
Appendini, made an Italian translation published in 1827. Since 
that time several other editions have been made. The best are con- 
sidered to be the edition of the South Slavonic Academy in Agram 
(1877) and the edition published in Semlin (1889) by Professor 
Yovan Boshkovich. In the edition of 1844 (Agram) the last cantos, 
fourteen and fifteen, were replaced by very fine compositions of the 
Serbo-Croatian poet, Mazhuranich (Mazuranic). The complete 
works of Gundulich have been published in Agram, 1847, by V. 
Babukich and by the South Slavonic Academy of Agram in 1889. 

(C. Ml.) 

GUNC-'L, JOSEF (1810-1889), Hungarian composer and 
conductor, was born on the ist of December 1810, at Zsambek, 
in Hungary. After starting life as a school-teacher, and learning 
the. elements of music from Ofen, the school-choirmaster, he 
became first oboist at Graz, and, at twenty-five, bandmaster of 
the 4th regiment of Austrian artillery. His first composition, 
a Hungarian march, written in 1836, attracted some notice, 
and in 1843 he was able to establish an orchestra in Berlin. 
With this band he travelled far, even (in 1849) to America. It is 
worth recording that Mendelssohn's complete Midsummer 
Night's Dream music is said to have been first played by Gung'l's 
band. In 1853 he became bandmaster to the 23rd Infantry 
Regiment at Brutfn, but in 1864 he lived at Munich, and in 1876 
at Frankfort, after (in 1873) having conducted with great success 
a series of promenade concerts at Covent Garden, London. From 
Frankfort Gung'l went to Weimar to live with his daughter, 
a well-known German opera singer and local prima donna. 
There he died, on the 3ist of January 1889. Gung'l's dances 
number over 300, perhaps the most popular being the " Amor- 
etten," "Hydropaten," "Casino," "Dreams on the Ocean" 
waltzes; "In Stiller Mitternacht " polka, and " Blue Violets " 
mazurka. His Hungarian march was transcribed by Liszt. 
His music is characterized by the same easy flowing melodies 
and well-marked rhythm that distinguish the dances of Strauss, 
to whom alone he can be ranked second in this kind of com- 
position. 

GUNNER, or MASTER GUNNEK, in the navy, the warrant 
officer who has charge of the ordnance and ammunition, and 
of the training of the men at gun drill. His functions in this 
respect are of less relative importance than they were in former 
times, when specially trained corps of seamen gunners had not 
been formed. 

GUNNING, PETER (1614-1684), English divine, was born at 
Hoo, in Kent, and educated at the King's School, Canterbury, 
and Clare College, Cambridge, where he became a fellow in 1633. 
Having taken orders, he advocated the royalist cause from the 
pulpit with much eloquence. In 1644 he retired to Oxford, 
and held a chaplaincy at New College until the city surrendered 
to the parliamentary forces in 1646. Subsequently he was 
chaplain, first to the royalist Sir Robert Shirley of Eatington 
(1629-1656), and then at the Exeter House chapel. After the 



GUNNY GUNPOWDER 



723 



Restoration in 1660 he returned to Clare College as master, and 
was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity. He also 
received the livings of Cottesmore, Rutlandshire, ' and Stoke 
Bruerne, Northamptonshire. In 1661 he became head of St 
John's College, Cambridge, and was elected Regius professor 
of divinity. He was consecrated bishop of Chichester in 1669, 
and was translated to the see of Ely in 1674-1675. Holding 
moderate religious views, he deprecated alike the extremes 
represented by Puritanism and Roman Catholicism. 

His works are chiefly reports of his disputations, such as that 
which appears in the Scisme Unmask't (Paris, 1658), in which the 
definition of a schism is discussed with two Romanist opponents. 

GUNNY, a sort of cloth, the name of which is supposed to be 
derived from ganga or gania of Rumphius, or from gonia, a 
vernacular name of the Crotolaria juncea a plant common in 
Madras. One of the first notices of the term itself is to be found 
in Knox's Ceylon, in which he says: " The filaments at the bottom 
of the stem (coir from the coco-nut husk, Cocos nucifera) may 
be made into a coarse cloth called gunny, which is used for bags 
and similar purposes." 

Warden, in The Linen Trade, says: 

" A very large proportion of the jute grown in Bengal is made into 
cloth in the districts where it is cultivated, and this industry forms 
the grand domestic manufacture of all the populous eastern districts 
of Bengal. It pervades all classes, and penetrates into every house- 
hold, almost every one, man, woman and child, being in some way 
engaged in it. Boatmen, husbandmen, palankeen carriers, domestic 
servants, every one, in fact, being Hindu for Mussulmans spin cotton 
only pass their leisure moments, distaff in hand, spinning gunny 
twist. It is spun by the takur and dhara, the former being a kind of 
spindle, which is turned upon the thigh or the sole of the foot, and 
the latter a reel, on which the thread, when sufficiently twisted, is 
wound up. Another kind of spinning machine, called a ghurghurea, is 
occasionally used. A bunch of the raw material is hung up in every 
farmer's house, or on the protruding stick of a thatched roof, and 
every one who has leisure forms with these spindles some coarse 
pack-thread, of which ropes are twisted for the use of the farm. 
The lower Hindu castes, from this pack-thread, spin a finer thread 
for being made into cloth, and, there being a loom in nearly every 
house, very much of it is woven by the women of the lower class of 
people. It is especially the employment of the Hindu widow, as it 
enables her to earn her bread without being a burden on her family. 
The cloth thus made is of various qualities, such as clothing for the 
family (especially the women, a great proportion of whom on all the 
eastern frontier wear almost nothing else), coarse fabrics, bedding, 
rice and sugar bags, sacking, pack-sheet, &c. Much of it is woven into 
short lengths and very narrow widths, two or three of which are some- 
times sewed into one piece before they are sold. That intended for 
rice and sugar bags is made about 6 feet long, and from 24 to 27 inches 
wide, and doubled. A considerable quantity of jute yarn is dyed and 
woven into cloth for various local purposes, and some of it is also 
sent out of the district. The principal places where chotee, or jute 
cloth for gunny bags is made are within a radius of perhaps 150 to 
200 miles around Dacca, and there both labour and land are remark- 
ably cheap. The short, staple, common jute is generally consumed in 
the local manufacture, the finer and long stapled being reserved for 
the export trade. These causes enable gunny cloth and bags to be 
sold almost as cheaply as the raw material, which creates an 
immense demand for them in nearly every market of the world." 

Such appeared to be the definition of gunny cloth at the time 
the above was written between 1850 and 1860. Most of the 
Indian cloth for gunny bags is now made by power, and within 
about 20 m. of Calcutta. In many respects the term gunny cloth 
is still applied to all and sundry, but there is no doubt that the 
original name was intended for cloth which was similar to what 
is now known as " cotton bagging." This particular type of 
cloth is still largely made in the hand loom, even in Dundee, 
this method of manufacture being considered, for certain reasons, 
more satisfactory than the power loom method (see JUTE and 
BAGGING). 

GUNPOWDER, an explosive composed of saltpetre, charcoal 
and sulphur. Very few substances have had a greater effect 
on civilization than gunpowder. Its employment altered the 
whole art of war, and its influence gradually and indirectly 
permeated and affected the whole fabric of society. Its direct 
effect on the arts of peace was but slight, and had but a limited 
range, which could not be compared to the modern extended 
employment of high explosives for blasting in mining and 
engineering work. 



It is probably quite incorrect to speak of the discovery of 
gunpowder. From modern researches it seems more likely and 
more just to think of it as a thing that has developed, passing 
through many stages mainly of improvement, but some 
undoubtedly retrograde. There really is not sufficient solid 
evidence on which to pin down its invention to one man. As 
Lieutenant-Colonel H. W. L. Hime (Gunpowder and Ammunition, 
1904) says, the invention of gunpowder was impossible until 
the properties of nearly pure saltpetre had become known. The 
honour, however, has been associated with two names in par- 
ticular, Berthold Schwartz, a German monk, and Friar Roger 
Bacon. Of the former Oscar Guttmann writes (Monumenla 
pidveris pyrii, 1904, p. 6): "Berthold Schwartz was generally 
considered to be the inventor of gunpowder, and only in England 
has Roger Bacon's claim been upheld, though there are English 
writers who have pleaded in favour of Schwartz. Most writers 
are agreed that Schwartz invented the first fire-arms, and as 
nothing was known of an inventor of gunpowder, it was perhaps 
considered justifiable to give Schwartz the credit thereof. 
There is some ambiguity as to when Schwartz lived. The year 
1354 is sometimes mentioned as the date of his invention of 
powder, and this is also to be inferred from an inscription on 
the monument to him in Freiburg. But considering there can 
be no doubt as to the manufacture in England of gunpowder 
and cannon in 1344, that we have authentic information of 
guns in France in 1338 and in Florence in 1326, and that the 
Oxford MS. De officiis regum of 1325 gives an illustration of a 
gun, Berthold Schwartz must have lived long before 1354 to 
have been the inventor of gunpowder or guns." In Germany 
also there were powder-works at Augsburg in 1340, in Spandau 
in 1344, and Liegnitz in 1348. 

Roger Bacon, in his De mirabili poteslate arlis et naturae 
(1242), makes the most important communication on the history 
of gunpowder. Reference is made to an explosive mixture as 
known before his time and employed for " diversion, producing 
a noise like thunder and flashes like lightning." In one passage 
Bacon speaks of saltpetre as a violent explosive, but there is 
no doubt that he knew it was not a self-explosive substance, 
but only so when mixed with other substances, as appears from 
the statement in De secrelis operibus artis et naturae, printed 
at Hamburg in 1618, that " from saltpetre and other ingredients 
we are able to make a fire that shall burn at any distance we 
please." A great part of his three chapters, 9, 10, n, long 
appeared without meaning until the anagrammatic nature of 
the sentences was realized. The words of this anagram are 
(chap, n): " Item ponderis totum 30 sed tamen salis petrae luru 
vopo mr can utri 1 et sulphuris; et sic facies tonitruum et corusca- 
tionem, si scias artificium. Videas tamen utrum loquar aenig- 
mate aut secundum veritatem."' Hime, in his chapter on the 
origin of gunpowder, discusses these chapters at length, and gives, 
omitting the anagram, the translation: " Let the total weight 
of the ingredients be 30, however, of saltpetre ... of sulphur; 
and with such a mixture you will produce a bright flash and a 
thundering noise, if you know the trick. You may find (by 
actual experiment) whether I am writing riddles to you or the 
plain truth." The anagram reads, according to Hime, " salis 
petrae r(ecipe) vii part(es), v nov(ellae) corul(i), v et sulphuris " 
(take seven parts of saltpetre, five of young hazel-wood, and five 
of sulphur). Hime then goes on to show that Bacon was in 
possession of an explosive which was a considerable advance on 
mere incendiary compositions. Bacon does not appear to have 
been aware of the projecting power of gunpowder. He knew 
that it exploded and that perhaps people might be blown up or 
frightened by it; more cannot be said. The behaviour of small 
quantities of any explosive is hardly ever indicative of its 
behaviour in large quantities and especially when under con- 
finement. Hime is of opinion that Bacon blundered upon 
gunpowder whilst playing with some incendiary composition, 
such as those mentioned by Marcus Graecus and others, in which 

1 These words were emended by some authors to read luru mope 
can ubre, the letters of which can be arranged to give pulvere car- 
bonum. 



724 



GUNPOWDER 



he employed his comparatively pure saltpetre instead of crude 
nitrum. It has been suggested that Bacon derived his knowledge 
of these fiery mixtures from the MS. Liber ignium, ascribed to 
Marcus Graecus, in the National Library in Paris (Dutens, 
Enquiry into Origin of Discoveries attributed to Moderns). 
Certainly this Marcus Graecus appears to have known of some 
incendiary composition containing the gunpowder ingredients, 
but it was not gunpowder. Hime seems to doubt the existence 
of any such person as Marcus Graecus, as he says: " The Liber 
ignium was written from first to last in the period of literary 
forgeries and pseudographs . . . and we may reasonably 
conclude that Marcus Graecus is as unreal as the imaginary 
Greek original of the tract which bears his name." Albertus 
Magnus in the De mirabilibus mundi repeats some of the receipts 
given in Marcus Graecus, and several other writers give receipts 
for Greek fire, rockets, &c. Dutens gives many passages in his 
work, above-named, from old authors in support of his view 
that a composition of the nature of gunpowder was not unknown 
to the ancients. Hime's elaborate arguments go to show that 
these compositions could only have been of the incendiary type 
and not real explosives. His arguments seem to hold good as 
regards not only the Greeks but also the Arabs, Hindus and 
Chinese (see also FIREWORKS). 

There seems no doubt that incendiary compositions, some 
perhaps containing nitre, mostly, however, simply combustible 
substances as sulphur, naphtha, resins, &c., were employed and 
projected both for defence and offence, but they were projected 
or blown by engines and not by themselves. It is quite incon- 
ceivable that a real propelling explosive should have been 
known in the time of Alexander or much later, and not have 
immediately taken its proper place. In a chapter discussing 
this question of explosives amongst the Hindus, Hime says: 
" It is needless to enlarge the list of 'quotations: incendiaries 
pursued much the same course in Upper India as in Greece and 
Arabia." No trustworthy evidence of an explosive in India is 
to be found until the aist of April 1526, the date of the decisive 
battle of Panipat, in which Ibrahim, sultan of Delhi, was killed 
and his army routed by Baber the Mogul, who possessed both 
great and small fire-arms. 

As regards also the crusader period (1097-1291), so strange 
and deadly an agent of destruction as gunpowder could not 
possibly have been employed in the field without the full know- 
ledge of both parties, yet no historian, Christian or Moslem, 
alludes to an explosive of any kind, while all of them carefully 
record the use of incendiaries. The employment of rockets 
and " wildfire " incendiary composition seems undoubtedly of' 
very old date in India, but the names given to pieces of artillery 
under the Mogul conqueror of Hindustan point to a European, 
or at least to a Turkish origin, and it is quite certain that 
Europeans were retained in the service of Akbar and Aurangzeb. 
The composition of present day Chinese gunpowder is almost 
identical with that employed in Europe, so that in all probability 
the knowledge of it was obtained from Western sources. 

In the writings of Bacon there is no mention of guns or the 
use of powder as a propellant, but merely as an explosive and 
destructive power. Owing perhaps to this obscurity hanging 
over the early history of gunpowder, its employment as a 
propelling agent has been ascribed to the Moors or Saracens. 
J. A. Conde (Historia de la dominacion de los Arabes en Espana) 
states that Ismail Ben Firaz, king of Granada, who in 1325 
besieged Boza, had among his machines " some that cast globes 
of fire," but there is not the least evidence that these were guns. 
The first trustworthy document relative to the use of gun- 
powder in Europe, a document still in existence, and bearing date 
February n, 1326, gives authority to the council of twelve of 
Florence and others to appoint persons to superintend the 
manufacture of cannons of brass and iron balls, for the defence 
of the territory, &c., of the republic. John Barbour, arch- 
deacon of Aberdeen, writing in 1375, states that cannons (crakys 
of war) were employed in Edward III.'s invasion of Scotland 
in 1327. An indenture first published by Sir N. H. Nicolas 
in his History of the Royal Navy (London, 1846), and again by 



Lieutenant-Colonel H. Brackenbury (Proc. R.A. Inst., 1865), 
stated to be 1338, contains references to small cannon as among 
the stores of the Tower, and also mentions " un petit barrell de 
gonpoudre le quart' plein." If authentic, this is possibly the 
first mention of gunpowder as such in England, but some doubts 
have been thrown upon the date of this MS. From a contem- 
porary document in the National Library in Paris it seems that 
in the same year (1338) there existed in the marine arsenal at 
Rouen an iron weapon called pot de feu, for propelling bolts, 
together with some saltpetre and sulphur to make powder for 
the same. Preserved in the Record Office in London are trust- 
worthy accounts from the year 1345 of the purchase of ingredients 
for making powder, and of the shipping of cannon to France. 
In 1346 Edward III. appears to have ordered all available 
saltpetre and sulphur to be bought up for him. In the first 
year of Richard II. (1377) Thomas Norbury was ordered to buy, 
amongst other munitions, sulphur, saltpetre and charcoal, to 
be sent to the castle of Brest. In 1414 Henry V. ordered 
that no gunpowder should be taken out of the kingdom 
without special licence, and in the same year ordered twenty 
pipes of willow charcoal and other articles for the use of the 
guns. 

The manufacture of gunpowder seems to have been carried 
on as a crown monopoly about the time of Elizabeth, and 
regulations respecting gunpowder and nitre were made about 
1623 (James I.). Powder-mills were probably in existence at 
Waltham Abbey about the middle or towards the end of the 
1 6th century. 

Ingredients and their Action. Roger Bacon in his anagram gives 
the first real recipe for gunpowder, viz. (according to Hime, ch. xii.) 
saltpetre 41-2, charcoal 29-4, sulphur 29-4. Dr John Arderne ot 
Newark, who began to practise about 1350 and was later surgeon to 
Henry IV., gives a recipe (Sloane MSS. 335, 795), saltpetre 66-6, 
charcoal 22-2, sulphur n-i, " which are to be thoroughly mixed on 
a marble and then sifted through a cloth." This powder is nominally 
of the same composition as one given in a MS. of Marcus Graecus, 
but the saltpetre of this formula by Marcus Graecus was undoubtedly 
answerable for the difference in behaviour of the two compositions. 
Roger Bacon had not only refined and obtained pure nitre, but had 
appreciated the importance of thoroughly mixing the components of 
the powder. Most if not all the early powder was a " loose " mixture 
of the three ingredients, and the most important step in connexion 
with the development of gunpowder was undoubtedly the introduc- 
tion of wet mixing or " incorporating." Whenever this was done, the 
improvement in the product must have been immediately evident. 
In the damp or wetted state pressure could be applied with compara- 
tive safety dtfring the mixing. The loose powder mixture came to be 
called " serpentine "; after wet mixing it was more or less granu- 
lated or corned and was known as " corned "powder. Corned powder 
seems to have been gradually introduced. It is mentioned in the 
Fire Book of Conrad von Schongau (in 1429), and was used for hand- 
guns in England long before 1560. It would seem that corned powder 
was used for hand-guns or small arms in the isth century, but cannon 
were not made strong enough to withstand its explosion for quite 
another century (Hime). According to the same writer, in the period 
1250-1450, when serpentine only was used, one powder could differ 
from another in the proportions of the ingredients; in the modern 
period say 1700-1886 the powders in use (in each state)differed 
only as a general rule in the size of the grain, whilst during the transi- 
tion period 1450-1700 they generally differed both in composi- 
tion and size of grain. 

Corned or grained powder was adopted in France in 1525, and in 
1540 the French utilized an observation that large-grained powder 
was the best for cannon, and restricted the manufacture to three sizes 
of grain or corn, possibly of the same composition. Early in the i8th 
century two or three sizes of grain and powder of one composition 
appear to have become common. The composition of English 
powder seems to have settled down to 75 nitre, 15 charcoal, and 10 
sulphur, somewhere about the middle of the i8th century. 

The composition of gunpowders used in different countries at 
different times is illustrated in the following tables: 

English Powders (Hime). 





1250. 


1350. 


1560. 


1647. 


1670. 


1742. 


1781. 


Saltpetre . 
Charcoal . 
Sulphur 


41-2 
29-4 
29-4 


66-6 

22-2 
II'l 


50-0 

33-3 
16-6 


66-6 
16-6 
16-6 


71-4 
14-3 
14-3 


75-o 
12-5 
12-5 


75-o 
15-0 

IO-0 1 



1 This represents the composition of English powder at present, 
and no doubt it has remained the same for a longer time than the 
above date indicates. 



GUNPOWDER 



725 



Foreign Powders (Hime). 





France. 


Sweden. 


Germany. 


Denmark. 


France. 


Sweden. 


Germany. 




1338. 


1560. 


1595- 


1608. 


1650. 


1697. 


1882. 


Saltpetre . 
Charcoal . 
Sulphur 


5 ? 

25 


66-6 
16-6 
16-6 


52-2 
26-1 
21-7 


68-3 
23-2 
8-5 


75-6 
13-6 
10-8 


73 
17 
10 


78 
'!' 




1 Brown or coco-powder for large charges in guns. The charcoal is not burnt black but roasted 
until brown, and is made from some variety of straw, not wood. 

When reasonably pure, none of the ingredients of gunpowder 
absorbs any material quantity of moisture from the atmosphere, 
and the nitre only is a soluble substance. It seems extremely 
probable that for a long period the three substances were simply 
mixed dry, indeed sometimes kept separate and mixed just before 
being required; the consequence must have been that, with every 
care as to weighing out, the proportions of any given quantity 
would alter on carriage. Saltpetre is considerably heavier than 
sulphur or charcoal, and would tend to separate out towards the 
bottom of the containing vessel if subjected to jolting or vibration. 
When pure there can only be one kind of saltpetre or sulphur, 
because they are chemical individuals, but charcoal is not. Its com- 
position, rate of burning, &c., depend not only on the nature of the 

- -- -- uch on the 

The woods 
and 

the two latter are never thoroughly expellecf in charcoal-making. 
If they were, the resulting substance would be of no use for gun- 
powder. 1-3% of hydrogen and 8-15% of oxygen generally 
remain in charcoals suitable for gunpowder. A good deal of the 
fieriness and violence of explosion of a gunpowder depends on the 
mode of burning of the charcoal as well as on the wood from which 
it is made. 

Properties of Ingredients. Charcoal is the chief combustible in 
powder. It must burn freely, leaving as little ash or residue as 
possible; it must be friable, and grind into a non-gritty powder. 
The sources from which powder charcoal is made are dogwood 
(Rhamnus frangula), willow (Salix alba), and alder (Betula alnus). 
Dogwood is mainly used for small-arm powders. Powders made from 
dogwood charcoal burn more rapidly than those from willow, &c. 
The wood after cutting is stripped of bark and allowed to season for 
two or three years. It is then picked to uniform size and charred in 
cylindrical iron cases or slips, which can be introduced into slightly 
larger cylinders set in a furnace. The slips are provided with 
openings for the escape of gases. The rate of heating as well as the 
absolute temperature attained have an effect on the product, a slow 
rate of heating yielding more charcoal, and a high temperature 
reducing the hydrogen and oxygen in the final product. When heated 
for seven hours to about 800 C. to 900 C. the remaining hydrogen 
and oxygen amount to about 2 % and 12 % respectively. The time 
of charring is as a rule from 5 to 7 hours. The slips are then removed 
from the furnace and placed in a larger iron vessel, where they are 
kept comparatively air-tight until quite cold. The charcoal is then 
sorted, and stored for some time before grinding. The charcoal is 
ground, and the powder sifted on a rotating reel or cylinder of fine 
mesh copper-wire gauze. The sifted powder is again stored for 
some time before use in closed iron vessels. 

Sicilian sulphur is most generally employed for gunpowder, and 
for complete purification is first distilled and then melted and cast 
into moulds. It is afterwards ground into a fine powderjand sifted 
as in the case of the charcoal. 

Potassium nitrate is eminently suitable as an oxygen-provider, 
not being deliquescent. Nitrates are continually being produced in 
surface soils, &c., by the oxidation of nitrogenous substances. 
Nitric and nitrous acids are also produced by electric discharges 
through the atmosphere, and these are found eventually as nitrates 
in soils, &c. Nitre is soluble in water, and much more so in hot than 
in cold. Crude nitre, obtained from soils or other sources, is purified 
by recrystallization. The crude material is dissolved almost to 
saturation in boiling water: on filtering and then cooling this liquor 
to about 30 C. almost pure nitre crystallizes out, most of the usual 
impurities still remaining in solution. By rapidly cooling and agitat- 
ing the nitre solution crystals are obtained of sufficient fineness for the 
manufacture of powder without special grinding. Nitre contains 
nearly 48 % of oxygen by weight, five-sixths of which is available for 
combustion purposes. Nearly all the jgases of the powder explosion 
are derived from the nitre. The specific gravity of nitre is 2-2 : 200 
grams will therefore occupy about 100 cubic centimetres volume. 
This quantity on its decomposition by heat alone yields 28 grams or 
22,400 c.c. of nitrogen, and 80 grams or 56,000 c.c. of oxygen as gases, 
and 94 grams of potassium oxide, a fusible solid which vaporizes 
at a very high temperature. 

Incorporation. The materials are weighed out separately, mixed 
by passing through a sieve, and then uniformly moistened with a 
certain quantity of water, whilst on the bed of the incorporating 
mill. This consists of two heavy iron wheels mounted so as to 
run in a circular bed. The incorporation requires about four hours. 



The mechanical action of rollers on 
the powder paste is a double one: 
not only crushing but mixing by 
pushing forwards and twisting side- 
ways. The pasty mass is deflected so 
that it repeatedly comes under first one 
roller and then the next by scrapers, 
set at an angle to the bed, which follow 
each wheel. 

Although the charge is wet it is 
possible for it to be fired either by the 
heat developed by the roller friction, by 
sparks from foreign matters, as bits of 

stone, &c., or possibly by heat generated by oxidation of the 
materials. The mills are provided with a drenching apparatus 
so arranged that in case of one mill firing it and its neigh- 
bours will be drowned by water from a cistern or tank immediately 
above the mill. The product from the incorporation is termed 
" mill-cake." 

After this incorporation in the damp state the ingredients never 
completely separate on drying, however much shaken, because each 
particle of nitre is surrounded by a thin layer of water containing 
nitre in solution in which the particles of charcoal and sulphur are 
entangled and retained. After due incorporation, powders are 
pressed to a certain extent whilst still moist. The density to which 
a powder is pressed is an important matter in regard to the rate of 
burning. The effect of high density is to slow down the initial rate 
of burning. Less dense powders burn more rapidly from the first 
and tend to put a great strain on the gun. Fouling is usually less 
with denser powders; and, as would be expected, such powders bear 
transport better and give less dust than light powders. Up to a 
certain pressure, hardness, density, and size of grain of a powder 
have an effect on the rate of burning and therefore on pressure. 
Glazing or polishing powder grains, also exerts a slight retarding 
action on burning and enables the powders to resist atmospheric 
moisture better. Excess of moisture in gunpowder has a marked 
effect in reducing the explosiveness. All powders are liable to 
absorb moisture, the quality and kind of charcoal being the main 
determinant in this respect; hard burnt black charcoal is least 
absorbent. The material employed in brown powders absorbs 
moisture somewhat readily. Powder kept in a very damp atmo- 
sphere, and especially in a changeable one, spoils rapidly, the salt- 
petre coming to the surface in solution and then crystallizing out. 
The pieces also break up owing to the formation of large crystals 
of nitre in the mass. After the pressing of the incorporated powder 
into a " press-cake," it is broken up or granulated by suitable 
machines, and the resulting grains separated and sorted by sifting 
through sieves of determined sizes of mesh. Some dust is fori.ied 
in this operation, which is sifted away and again worked up under 
the rollers (for sizes of grains see fig. i). These grains, cubes, &c., 
are then either polished by rotating in drums alone or with graphite, 
which adheres to and coats the surfaces of the grains. This process 
is generally followed with powders intended for small-arms or 
moderately small ordnance. 

Shaped Powders. Prisms or prismatic powder are made by 
breaking up the press-cake into a moderately fine state, whilst still 
moist, and pressing a certain quantity in a mould. The moulds 
generally employed consist of a thick plate of bronze in which are 
a number of hexagonal perforations. Accurately fitting plungers 
are so applied to these that one can enter at the top and the other 
at the bottom. The lower plunger being withdrawn to the bottom 
of the plate the hexagonal hole is charged with the powder and the 
two plungers set in motion, thus compressing the powder between 
them. After the desired pressure has been applied the top plunger 
is withdrawn, and the lower one pushed upward to eject the prism 
of powder. The axial perforations in prism powders are made by 
small bronze rods which pass through the lower plunger and fit 
into corresponding holes in the upper one. If these prisms are 
made by a steadily applied pressure a density throughout of about 
1-78 may be obtained. Further to regulate the rate of burning so 
that it shall be slow at first and more rapid as the powder is con- 
sumed, another form of machine was devised, the cam press, in which 
the pressure is applied very rapidly to the powder. It receives in 
fact one blow, which compresses the powder to the same dimensions, 
but the density of the outer layers of substance of the prism is much 
greater than in the interior. 

The leading idea in connexion with all shaped powder grains, 
and with the very large sizes, was to regulate the rate of burning so 
as to avoid extreme pressure when first ignited and to keep up the 
pressure in the gun as more space was provided in the chamber or 
tube by the movement of the shot towards the muzzle. In the 
perforated prismatic powder the ignition is intended to proceed 
through the perforations; since in a charge the faces of the prisms 
fit pretty closely together, it was thought that this arrangement 
would prevent unburnt cores or pieces of powder from being blown 
out. These larger grain powders necessitated a lengthened bore to 
take advantage of the slower production of gases and complete 
combustion of the powder. General T. J. Rodman first suggested 
and employed the perforated cake cartridge in 1860, the cake having 
nearly the diameter of the bore and a thickness of I to 2 in. 



726 



GUNPOWDER 



with perforations running parallel with the gun axis. The burning 
would then start from the comparatively small surfaces of the 
perforations, which would become larger as the powder burnt away. 
Experiments bore out this theory perfectly. It was found that 
small prisms were more convenient to make than large disks, and 
as the prisms practically fit together into a disk the same result 
was obtained. This effect of mechanical density on rate of burning 
is good only up to a certain pressure, above which the gases are 
driven through the densest form of granular material. After 
granulating or pressing into shapes, all powders must be dried. 
This is done by heating in specially ventilated rooms heated by 
steam pipes. As a rule this drying is followed by the finishing or 
polishing process. Powders are finally blended, t.e. products from 
different batches or " makes " are mixed so that identical proof 
results are obtained. 

Sizes and Shapes of Powders. In fig. I, a to k show the relative 
sizes and shapes of grain as formerly employed for military purposes, 
except that the three largest powders, e-f-g and h are figured half- 
size to save space, whereas the remainder indicate the actual dimen- 
sions of the grains, a is for small-arms, all the others are for cannon 
of various sizes. 



V 

!,*, 






(half-size.) 



(half-size.) 





(half-size.) 

i. 
-Q.38-* 



(half-size.) 




- 0.75 




FIG. i. 



Proof of Powder. In addition to chemical examination powder is 
passed through certain mechanical tests : 

1. For colour, glaze, texture and freedom from dust. 

2. For proper iiicorporation. 

3. For shape, size and proportion of the grains. The first is judged 
by eye, and grains of the size required are obtained by the use of 
sieves of different sizes. 

4. Density. The density is generally obtained in some form of 
mercury densimeter, the powder being weighed in air and then 
under mercury. In some forms of the instrument the air can be 
pumped out so that the weighing takes place in vacua. 

5. Moisture and absorption of moisture. The moisture and 
hygroscopic test consists in weighing a sample, drying at 100 C. 
for a certain time, weighing again, &c., until constant. The dried 
weighed sample can then be exposed to an artificial atmosphere of 
known moisture and temperature, and the gain in weight per hour 
similarly ascertained by periodic weighings. 

6. Firing proof. The nature of this depends upon the purpose for 
which the powder is intended. For sporting powders it consists in 
the " pattern " given by the shot upon a target at a given distance, 
or, if fired with a bullet, upon the "figure of merit," or mean radial 
deviation of a certain number of rounds; also upon the penetrative 



power. For military purposes the " muzzle " velocity produced 
by a powder is ascertained by a chronograph which measures the 
exact time the bullet or other projectile takes to traverse a known 
distance between two wire screens. By means of " crusher gauges " 
the exact pressure per square inch upon certain points in the interior 
of the bore can be found. 

In the chemical examination of gunpowder the points to be 
ascertained are, in addition to moisture, freedom from chlorides or 
sulphates, and correct proportion of nitre and sulphur to charcoal. 

Products of Fired Powder and Changes taking place on Explosion. 
With a mixture of the complexity of gunpowder it is quite impossible 
to say beforehand what will be the relative amounts of products. 
The desired products are nitrogen and carbon dioxide as gases, and 
potassium sulphate and carbonate as solids. But the ingredients 
of the mixture are not in any simple chemical proportion. Burning 
in contact with air under one atmosphere pressure, and burning in 
a closed or partially closed vessel under a considerable number of 
atmospheres pressure, may produce quite different results. The 
temperature of a reaction always rises with increased pressure. 
Although the main function of the nitre is to give up oxygen and 
nitrogen, of the charcoal to produce carbon dioxide and most of 
the heat,_and of the sulphur by vaporizing to acce|erate the rate of 
burning, it is quite impossible to represent the actions taking place 
on explosion by any simple or single chemical equation. Roughly 
speaking, the gases from black powder burnt in a closed vessel have 
a volume at o C. and 760 mm. pressure of about 280 times that of 
the original powder. The temperature produced under one atmo- 
sphere is above 2000 C., and under greater pressures considerably 
higher. 

Experiments have been made by Benjamin Robins (1743), Charles 
Mutton (1778), Count Rumford (1797), Gay-Lussac (1823), R. 
Bunsen and L. Schiskoff (1857), T. J. Rodman (1861), C. Karolyi 
(1863), and later many researches by Sir Andrew Noble and Sir 
F. A. Abel, and by H. Debus and others, all with the idea of getting 
at the precise mechanism of the explosion. Debus (Ann., 1882, 
vols. 212, 213; 1891, vol. 265) discussed at great length the results 
of researches by Bunsen, Karolyi, Noble and Abel, and others on 
the combustion of powder in closed vessels in such manner that all 
the products could be collected and examined and the pressures 
registered. A Waltham Abbey powder, according to an experiment 
by Noble and Abel, gave when fired in a closed vessel the following 
quantities of products calculated from one gram of powder: 

Fractions of Fractions of a 
a gram. molecule or atom. 

Potassjum carbonate . 

Potassium sulphate 
,, thiosulphate 
,, sulphide 

Sulphur 

Carbon dioxide 

Carbon monoxide . 

Nitrogen 

Hydrogen, 

Hydrogen sulphide 

Potassium thiocyanate 



Nitre 

Ammonium carbonate 



26IJ 

1268 
1666 
0252 
0012 
2678 

339 
1071 
0008 
0080 
0004 
0005 

O002 



00189 molecule 
00072 
00087 i. 
00017 .. 
00004 atom 
00608 molecule 
00121 
00765 atom 
0008 
00023 molecule 



From this, and other results, Debus concluded that Waltham 
Abbey powder could be represented by the formula 16KNO 3 +21-18C 
+6.63S and that on combustion in a closed vessel the end results 
could be fairly expressed (rounding off fractions) by 16KNOj+ 
21C+5S = 5K 2 CO s +K 2 SO4+2K 2 S 2 +13CO. i +3CC>+8N 2 . Some of 
the sulphur is lost, part combining with the metal of the apparatus 
and part with hydrogen in the charcoal. The military powders 
of most nations can be represented by the formula 16KNO 3 
+21'2C-f-6-6S, proportions which are reasonably near to a theoreti- 
cal mixture, that is one giving most complete combustion, greatest 
gas volume and temperature. The combustion of powder consists 
of two processes: (i.) oxidation, during which potassium carbonate 
and sulphate, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are mainly formed, and 
(ii.) a reduction process in which free carbon acts on the potassium 
sulphate and free sulphur on the potassium carbonate, producing 
potassium sulphide and carbon monoxide respectively. Most 
powders contain more carbon and sulphur than necessary, hence 
the second stage. In this second stage heat is lost. The potassium 
sulphide is also the most objectionable constituent as regards fouling. 

The energy of a powder is given, according to Berthelot, by 
multiplying the gas volume by the heat (in calories) produced during 
burning; Debus shows that a powder composed of 16KNO 3 to 8C 
and 8S would have the least, and one of composition 16KNOj+ 
24C+16S the greatest, when completely burnt. The greatest 
capability with the lowest proportion of carbon and sulphur to nitre 
would be obtained from the mixture-r-16KNO s +22C+8S. 

Smokeless and even noiseless powders seem to have been sought 
for during the whole gunpowder period. In 1756 one was experi- 
mented with in France, but was abandoned owing to difficulties 
in manufacture. Modern smokeless powders are certainly less noisy 
than the black powders, mainly because of the absence of metallic 
salts which although they may be gaseous whilst in the gun are 



GUNPOWDER PLOT 



727 



certainly ejected as solids or become solids at the moment of contact 
with air. 

Brown Powders. About the middle of the I9th century guns and 
projectiles were made much larger and heavier than previously, 
and it was soon found that the ordinary black powders of the most 
dense form burnt much too rapidly, straining or bursting the pieces. 
Powders were introduced containing about 3 % sulphur and 17-19 % 
of a special form of charcoal made from slightly charred straw, 
or similar material. This " brown charcoal " contains a considerable 
amount of the hydrogen and oxygen of the original plant substance. 
The mechanical processes of manufacture of these brown powders 
is the same as for black. They, however, differ from black by burning 
very slowly, even under considerable pressure. This comparative 
slowness is caused by (i) the presence of a small amount of water 
even when air-dry; (2) the fact that the brown charcoal is practi- 
cally very slightly altered cellulosic material, which before it can 
burn completely must undergo a little further resolution or charring 
at the expense of some heat from the portion of charge first ignited ; 
and (3) the lower content of sulphur. An increase of a few per cent 
in the sulphur of black powder accelerates its rate of burning, and 
it may become almost a blasting powder. A decrease in sulphur has 
the reverse effect. It is really the sulphur vapour that in the early 
period of combustion spreads the flame through the charge. 

Many other powders have been made or proposed in which nitrates 
or chlorates of the alkalis or of barium, &c., are the oxygen providers 
and substances as sugar, starch, and many other organic compounds 
as the combustible elements. Some of these compositions have found 
employment for blasting or even as sporting powders, but in most 
cases their objectionable properties of fouling, smoke and mode of 
exploding have prevented their use for military purposes. The 
adoption by the French government of the comparatively smokeless 
nitrocellulose explosive of Paul Vieille in 1887 practically put an 
end to the old forms of gunpowders. The first smokeless powder 
was made in 1865 by Colonel E. Schultze (Ding. Pol. Jour. 174, 
P- 3 2 3; I 75> P.- 453) by nitrating wood meal and adding potassium 
and barium nitrates. It is somewhat similar in composition to the 
E. C. sporting powder. F. Uchatius, in Austria, proposed a smoke- 
less powder made from nitrated starch, but it was not adopted 
owing to its hygroscopic nature and also its tendency to detonate. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. VanucchioBiringuccio,.De/at>ofe<:Ania (Venice, 
1540) ; Tartaglia, Quesiti e invenzioni diversi (lib. lii.) (Venice, 1546) ; 
Peter Whitehorne, How to make Saltpetre, Gunpowder, &c. (London, 
1573); Nic. Macchiavelli, The Arte of Wane, trans, by White- 
horne (London, 1588) ; Hanzelet, Recueil de plusiers machines mili- 
laires (Paris, 1620) ; Boillet Langrois, Modelles artifices de feu 
(1620) ; Kruger, Chemical Meditations on the Explosion of Gun- 
powder (in Latin) (1636) ; Collado, On the Invention of Gunpowder 
(Spanish) (1641); The True Way to make all Sorts of Gunpowder 
and Matches (1647) ; Hawksbee, On Gunpowder (1686) ; Winter, 
On Gunpowder (in Latin) ; Robins, New Principles of Gunnery 
(London, 1742) (new ed. by Hutton, 1805); D'Antoni, Essame della 
pohtere (Turin, 1765) (trans, by Captain Thomson, R.A., London, 
1787); Count Rumford, "Experiments on Fired Gunpowder," 
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (1797) ; Charles Hutton, Mathematical Tracts, 
vol. iii. (1812); Sir W. Congreve, A Short Account of Improvements 
in Gunpowder* made by (London, 1818); Bunsen and Schiskoff, 
" On the Chemical Theory of Gunpowder," Fogg. Ann., 1857, 
vol. cii. ; General Rodman, Experiments on Metal for Cannon, and 
Qualities of Cannon Powder (Boston, 1861); Napoleon III., Etudes 
sur le passe et I'avenir de I'artillerie, vol. iii. (Paris, 1862) ; Von Karolyi, 
" On the Products of the Combustion of Gun Cotton and Gun- 
powder," Phil. Mag. (October 1863); Captain F. M. Smith, Hand- 
book of the Manufacture and Proof of Gunpowder at Waltham Abbey 
(London, 1870) ; Noble and Abel, Fired Gunpowder (London, 1875, 
1880); Noble, Artillery and Explosives (1906); H. W. L. Hime, 
Gunpowder and Ammunition, their Origin and Progress (1904); 
O. Guttmann, The Manufacture of Explosives (1895), Monumenta 
pulveris pyrii (1906) ; Notes on Gunpowder and Gun Cotton, published 
by order of the secretary of state for war (London, 1907). (See also 
EXPLOSIVES.) (W. R. E. H.) 

GUNPOWDER PLOT, the name given to a conspiracy for 
blowing up King James I. and the parliament on the sth of 
November 1603. 

To understand clearly the nature and origin of the famous 
conspiracy, it is necessary to recall the political situation and 
the attitude of the Roman Catholics towards the government 
at the accession of James I. The Elizabethan administration 
had successfully defended its own existence and the Protestant 
faith against able and powerful antagonists, but this had not 
been accomplished without enforcing severe measures of re- 
pression and punishment upon those of the opposite faith. 
The beginning of a happier era, however, was expected with 
the opening of the new reign. The right of James to the crown 
could be more readily acknowledged by the Romanists than 
that of Elizabeth: Pope Clement VIII. appeared willing to 



meet the king half-way. James himself was by nature favour- 
able to the Roman Catholics and had treated the Roman 
Catholic lords in Scotland with great leniency, in spite of their 
constant plots and rebellions. Writing to Cecil before his 
accession he maintained, " I am so far from any intention of 
persecution as I protest to God I reverence their church as our 
mother church, although clogged with many infirmities and 
corruptions, besides that I did ever hold persecution as one of 
the infallible notes of a false church." He declared to North- 
umberland, the kinsman and master of Thomas Perdy, the 
conspirator, " as for the Catholics, I will neither persecute any 
that will be quiet and give but an outward obedience to the 
law, neither will I spare to advance any of them that will be of 
good service and worthily deserved." It is probable that these 
small but practical concessions would have satisfied the lay 
Roman Catholics and the secular priests, but they were very 
far from contenting the Jesuits, by whom the results of such 
leniency were especially feared: " What rigour of laws would 
not compass in so many years," wrote Henry Tichborne, the 
Jesuit, in 1598, " this liberty and lenity will effectuate in 20 days, 
to wit the disfurnishing of the seminaries, the disanimating of 
men to come and others to return, the expulsion of the society 
and confusion as in Germany, extinction of zeal and favour, 
disanimation of princes from the hot pursuit of the enterprise. 
. . . We shall be left as a prey to the wolves that will besides 
drive our greatest patron [the king of Spain] to stoop to a peace 
which will be the utter ruin of our edifice, this many years in 
building." Unfortunately, about this time the Jesuits, who 
thus thrived on political intrigue, and who were deeply impli- 
cated in treasonable correspondence with Spain, had obtained 
a complete ascendancy over the secular priests, who were for 
obeying the civil government as far as possible and keeping free 
from politics. The time, therefore, as far as the Roman Catholics 
themselves were concerned, was not a propitious one for intro- 
ducing the moderate concessions which alone James had 
promised: James, too, on his side, found that religious tolera- 
tion, though clearly sound in principle, was difficult in practice. 
During the first few months of the reign all went well. In July 
1603 the fines for recusancy were remitted. In January 1604 
peaceable Roman Catholics could live unmolested and " serve 
God according to their consciences without any danger." But 
James's expectations that the pope would prevent dangerous 
and seditious persons from entering the country were unful- 
filled and the numbers of the Jesuits and the Roman Catholics 
greatly increased. Rumours of plots came to hand. Cecil, 
though like his master naturally in favour of toleration, with 
his experience gained in the reign of Elizabeth, was alarmed 
at the policy pursued and its results, and great anxiety was 
aroused in the government and nation, which was in the end 
shared by the king. It was determined finally to return to the 
earlier policy of repression. On the 22nd of February 1604 a 
proclamation was issued banishing priests; on the 28th of 
November 1604, recusancy fines were demanded from 13 wealthy 
persons, and on the loth of February 1605 the penal laws were 
ordered to be executed. The plot, however, could not have 
been occasioned by these measures, for it had been already 
conceived in the mind of Robert Catesby. It was aimed at the 
repeal of the whole Elizabethan legislation against the Roman 
Catholics and perhaps derived some impulse at first from the 
leniency lately shown by the administration, afterwards gaining 
support from the opposite cause, the return of the government 
to the policy of repression. 

It was in May 1603 that Catesby told Percy, in reply to the 
latter's declaration of his intention to kill the king, that he was 
" thinking of a most sure way." Subsequently, about the ist of 
November 1603, Catesby sent a message to his cousin Robert 
Winter at Huddington, near Worcester, to come to London, 
which the latter refused. On the arrival of a second urgent 
summons shortly afterwards he obeyed, and was then at a house 
at Lambeth, probably in January 1604, initiated by Catesby 
together with John Wright into the plot to blow up the parlia- 
ment house. Before putting this plan into execution, however, 



728 



GUNPOWDER PLOT 



it was decided to try a " quiet way "; and Winter was sent over 
to Flanders to obtain the good offices of Juan de Velasco, duke of 
Frias and constable of Castile, who had arrived there to conduct 
the negotiations for a peace between England and Spain, in order 
to obtain the repeal of the penal laws. Winter, having secured 
nothing but vain promises from the constable, returned to 
England about the end of April, bringing with him Guy Fawkes, 
a man devoted to the Roman Catholic cause and recommended 
for undertaking perilous adventures. Subsequently the three 
and Thomas Percy, who joined the conspiracy in May, met in a 
house behind St Clement's and, having taken an oath of secrecy 
together, heard Mass and received the Sacrament in an adjoining 
apartment from a priest stated by Fawkes to have been Father 
Gerard. Later several other persons were included in the plot, 
viz. Winter's brother Thomas, John Grant, Ambrose Rokewood, 
Robert Keyes, Sir Everard Digby, Francis Tresham, a cousin of 
Catesby and Thomas Bates Catesby's servant, all, with the 
exception of the last, being men of good family and all Roman 
Catholics. Father Greenway and Father Garnet, the Jesuits, 
were both cognisant of the plot (see GARNET, HENRY). On the 
24th of May 1604 a house was hired in Percy's name adjoining 
the House of Lords, from the cellar of which they proposed to 
work a mine. They began on the i ith of December 1604, and by 
about March had got half-way through the wall. They then 
discovered that a vault immediately under the House of Lords 
was available. This was at once hired by Percy, and 36 barrels of 
gunpowder, amounting to about i ton and 12 cwt., were brought 
in and concealed under coal and faggots. The preparations 
being completed in May the conspirators separated. Fawkes 
was despatched to Flanders, where he imparted the plot to Hugh 
Owen, a zealous Romanist intriguer. Sir Edmund Baynham 
was sent on a mission to Rome to be at hand when the news came 
to gain over the pope to the cause of the successful conspirators. 
An understanding was arrived at with several officers levied for 
the service of the archduke, that they should return at once to 
England when occasion arose of defending the Roman Catholic 
cause. A great hunting match was organized at Danchurch in 
Warwickshire by Digby, to which large numbers of the Roman 
Catholic gentry were invited, who were to join the plot after 
the successful accomplishment of the explosion of the 5th of 
November, the day fixed for the opening of parliament, and 
get possession of the princess Elizabeth, then residing in the 
neighbourhood; while Percy was to seize the infant prince 
Charles and bring him on horseback to their meeting-place. Guy 
Fawkes himself was to take ship immediately for Flanders, spread 
the news on the continent and get supporters. The conspirators 
imagined that a terrorized and helpless government would 
readily agree to all their demands. Hitherto the secret had been 
well kept and the preparations had been completed with extra- 
ordinary success and without a single drawback; but a very 
serious difficulty now confronted the conspirators as the time for 
action arrived, and disturbed their consciences. The feelings of 
ordinary humanity shrunk from the destruction of so many 
persons guiltless of any offence. But in addition, among the 
peers to be assassinated were included many Roman Catholics 
and some lords nearly connected in kinship or friendship with the 
plotters themselves. Several appeals, however, made to Catesby 
to allow warning to be given to certain individuals were firmly 
rejected. 

On the 26th of October Lord Monteagle, a brother-in-law of 
Francis Tresham, who had formerly been closely connected with 
some of the other conspirators and had engaged in Romanist 
plots against the government, but who had given his support to 
the new king, unexpectedly ordered supper to be prepared at his 
house at Haxton, from which he had been absent for more than a 
year. While at supper about 6 o'clock an anonymous letter was 
brought by an unknown messenger which, having glanced at, he 
handed to Ward, a gentleman of his service and an intimate 
friend of Winter, the conspirator, to be read aloud. The cele- 
brated letter ran as follows: 

" My lord, out of the love I bear to some of your friends, I have 
a care for your preservation. Therefore I would advise you, as you 



tender your life, to devise some excuse to shift of your attendance 
of this Parliament, for God and man hath concurred to punish the 
wickedness of this time. And think not slightly of this advertise- 
ment, but retire yourself into your country, where you may expect 
the event in safety, for though there be no appearance of any stir, 
yet I say they shall receive a terrible blow the Parliament, and 
yet they shall not see who hurts them. This counsel is not to be 
contemned, because it may do you good and can do you no harm, 
for the danger is past as soon as you have burnt the letter: and 1 
hope God will give you the grace to make good use of it, to whose 
holy protection I commend you." 

The authorship of the letter has never been disclosed or proved, 
but all evidence seems to point to Tresham, and to the proba- 
bility that he had some days before warned Monteagle and agreed 
with him as to the best means of making known the plot and 
preventing its execution, and at the same time of giving the 
conspirators time to escape (see TRESHAM, FRANCIS). 

Monteagle at once started for Whitehall, found Salisbury and 
other ministers about to sit down to supper, and showed the 
letter, whereupon it was decided to search the cellar under the 
House of Lords before the meeting of parliament, but not too 
soon, so that the plot might be ripe and be fully disclosed. 
Meanwhile Ward, on the 27th of October, as had evidently been 
intended, informed Winter that the plot was known, and on the 
28th Winter informed Catesby and begged him to give up the 
whole project. Catesby, however, after some hesitation, finding 
from Fawkes that nothing had been touched in the cellar, and 
prevailed upon by Percy, determined to stand firm, hoping that 
the government had put no credence in Monteagle's letter, and 
Fawkes returned to the cellar to keep guard as before. On the 
4th the king, having been shown the letter, ordered the earl of 
Suffolk, as lord chamberlain, to examine the buildings. He was 
accompanied by Monteagle. On arriving at the cellar, the door 
was opened to him by Fawkes. Seeing the enormous piles of 
faggots he asked the name of their owner, to which Fawkes 
replied that they belonged to Percy. His name immediately 
aroused suspicions, and accordingly it was ordered that a further 
search should be made by Thomas Knyvett, a Westminster 
magistrate who, coming with his men at night, discovered the 
gunpowder and arrested Fawkes on the threshold. 

The opinion that the whole plot was the work of Salisbury, that 
he acted as an agent provocateur and lured on his victims to 
destruction, repeated by some contemporary and later writers and 
recently.formulated and urged with great ability, has no solid 
foundation. Nor is it even probable that he was aware of its 
existence till he received Monteagle's letter. Even after its 
reception complete belief was not placed in the 'warning. A 
search was made only to make sure that nothing was wrong and 
guided only by Monteagle's letter, while no attempt was made to 
seize the conspirators. The steps taken by Salisbury after the 
discovery of the gunpowder do not show the possession of any 
information of the plot or of the persons who were its chief agents 
outside Fawkes's first statement, and his knowledge is seen to 
develop according to the successive disclosures and confessions of 
the latter. Thus on the 7th of November he had no knowledge 
of the mine, and it is only after Fawkes's examination by torture 
on the Qth, when the names of the conspirators were drawn from 
him, that the government was able to classify them according 
to their guilt and extent of their participation. The inquiry was 
not conducted by Salisbury alone, but by several commissioners, 
some of whom were Roman Catholics, and many rivals and 
secret enemies. To conceal his intrigue from all these would 
have been impossible, and that he should have put himself in their 
power to such an extent is highly improbable. Again, the plan 
agreed upon for disclosing the plot was especially designed to 
allow the conspirators to escape, and therefore scarcely a method 
which would have been arranged with Salisbury. Not one of the 
conspirators, even when all hope of saving life was gone, made any 
accusation against Salisbury or the government and all died 
expressing contrition for their crime. Lastly Salisbury had no 
conceivable motive in concocting a plot of this description. His 
political power and position in the new reign had been already 
secured and by very different methods. He was now at the 
height of his influence, having been created Viscount Cranborne 



GUN-ROOM GUNTER 



729 



in August 1604 and earl of Salisbury in May 1605; and James 
had already, more than 16 months before the discovery of the 
plot, consented to return to the repressive measures against the 
Romanists. The success with which the conspirators concealed 
their plot from Salisbury's spies is indeed astonishing, but is 
probably explained by its very audacity and by the absence of 
incriminating correspondence, the medium through which the 
minister chiefly obtained his knowledge of the plans of his 
enemies. 

On the arrest of Fawkes the other conspirators, except Tresham, 
fled in parties by different ways, rejoining each other in Warwick- 
shire, as had been agreed in case the plot had been successful. 
Catesby, who with some others had covered the distance of 
80 m. between London and his mother's house at Ashby St 
Legers in eight hours, informed his friends in Warwickshire, who 
had been awaiting the issue of the plot, of its failure, but suc- 
ceeded in persuading Sir Everard Digby, by an unscrupulous 
falsehood, to further implicate himself in his hopeless cause by 
assuring him that both James and Salisbury were dead; and, 
according to Father Garnet, this was not the first time that 
Catesby had been guilty of lies in order to draw men into the plot. 
He pushed on the same day with his companions in the direction 
of Wales, where, it was hoped, they would be joined by bands of 
insurgents. They arrived at Huddington at 2 in the afternoon. 
On the morning of the 7th the band, numbering about 36 persons, 
confessed and heard Mass, and then rode away to Holbeche, 
2 m. from Stourbridge, in Staffordshire, the house of Stephen 
Littleton, who had been present at the hunting at Danchurch 
(see DIGBY, EVERARD), where they arrived at 10 o'clock at night, 
having on their way broken into Lord Windsor's house at Hewell 
Grange and taken all the armour they found there. Their case 
was now desperate. None had joined them : " Not one came to 
take our part," said Sir Everard Digby, " though we had expected 
so many." They were being followed by the sheriff and all the 
forces of the county. All spurned them from their doors when 
they applied for succour. One by one their followers fled from 
the house in which the last scene was to be played out. They 
now began to feel themselves abandoned not only by man but 
by God; for an explosion of some of their gunpowder, on the 
morning of the 8th, by which Catesby and some others were 
scorched, struck terror into their hearts as a judgment from 
heaven. The assurance of innocence and of a just cause which 
till now had alone supported them was taken away. The great- 
ness of their crime, its true nature, now struck home to them, and 
the few moments which remained to them of life were spent in 
prayer and in repentance. The supreme hour had now arrived. 
About 1 1 o'clock the sheriff and his men came up and immediately 
began firing into the house. Catesby, Percy and the two Wrights 
were killed, Winter and Rokewood wounded and taken prisoners 
with the men who still adhered to them. In all eight of the con- 
spirators, including the two Winters, Digby, Fawkes, Rokewood, 
Keyes and Bates, were executed, while Tresham died in the 
Tower. Of the priests involved, Garnet was tried and executed, 
while Greenway and Gerard succeeded in escaping. 

So ended the strange and famous Gunpowder Plot. However 
atrocious its conception and its aims, it is impossible not to feel, 
together with horror for the deed, some pity and admiration for 
the guilty persons who took part in it. " Theirs was a crime 
which it would never have entered into the heart of any man to 
commit who was not raised above the lowness of the ordinary 
criminal." They sinned not against the light but in the dark. 
They erred from ignorance, from a perverted moral sense rather 
than from any mean or selfish motive, and exhibited extraordinary 
courage and self-sacrifice in the pursuit of what seemed to them 
the cause of God and of their country. Their punishment was 
terrible. Not only had they risked and lost all in the attempt 
and drawn upon themselves the frightful vengeance of the state, 
but they saw themselves the means of injuring irretrievably the 
cause for which they felt such devotion. Nothing could have 
been more disastrous to the cause of the Roman Catholics than 
their crime. The laws against them were immediately increased 
in severity, and the gradual advance towards religious toleration 



was put back for centuries. In addition a new, increased and 
long-enduring hostility was aroused in the country against the 
adherents of the old faith, not unnatural in the circumstances, 
but unjust and undiscriminating, because while some of the 
Jesuits were no doubt implicated, the secular priests and Roman 
Catholic laity as a whole had taken no part in the conspiracy. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The recent controversy concerning the nature 
and origin of the plot can be followed in What was the Gunpowder 
Plot ? by John Gerard, S.J. (1897); What Gunpowder Plot was, by 
S. R. Gardiner (a rejoinder) (1897); The Gunpowder Plot ... in 
reply to Professor Gardiner, by John Gerard, S.J. (1897); Thomas 
Winter's Confession and the Gunpowder Plot, by John Gerard, S.J. 
(with facsimiles of his writing) (1898); Eng. Hist. Rev. iii. 510 
and xii. 791; Edinburgh Review, clxxxv. 183; Athenaeum 
1897, ii. 149, 785, 855; 1898, i. 23, ii. 352, 420; Academy, vol. 52 
p. 84; The Nation, vol. 65 p. 400. A considerable portion of the 
controversy centres round the question of the authenticity of 
Thomas Winter's confession, the MS. of which is at Hatfield, sup- 
ported by Professor Gardiner, but denied by Father Gerard princi- 
pally on account of the document having been signed " Winter " 
instead of " Wintour," the latter apparently being the conspirator's 
usual style of signature. The document was deposited by the 3rd 
Marquess of Salisbury for inspection at the Record Office, and 
was pronounced by two experts, one from the British Museum and 
another from the Record Office, to be undoubtedly genuine. The 
cause of the variation in the signature still remains unexplained, but 
ceases to have therefore any great historical importance. The 
bibliography of the contemporary controversy is given in the article 
on Henry Garnet in the Dictionary of National Biography and in 
The Gunpowder Plot by David Jardine (1857), the latter work still 
remaining the principal authority on the subject; add to these 
Gardiner s Hist, of England, i., where an excellent account is given; 
History of the Jesuits in England, by Father Ethelred Taunton 
(1901); Father Gerard's Narrative in Condition of the Catholics 
under James I. (1872), and Father Greenway's Narrative in Troubles 
of our Catholic Forefathers, 1st series (1872), interesting as con- 
temporary accounts, but not to be taken as complete or infallible 
authorities, of the same nature being Historia Provinciae A nglicanae 
Societatis Jesu, by Henry More, S.J. (1660), pp. 309 et seq.; also 
History of Great Britain, by John Speed (1611), pp. 839 et seq.; 
Archaeologia, xii. 200, xxviii. 422, xxix. 80; Harleian Miscellany 
(1809), iii. 119-135, or Somers Tracts (1809), ii. 97-117; M. A. 
Tierney's ed. of Dodd's Church History, vol. iv. (1841); Treason 
and Plot, by Martin Hume (1901); Notes and Queries, 7 ser. vi., 
8 ser. iv. 408, 497, v. 55, xii. 505, 9 ser. xi. 115; Add. MSS. 
Brit. Mus. 6178; Stale Trials, ii.; Calendar of State Pap. Dom. 
(1603-1610), and the official account, A True and Perfect Relation of 
the Whole Proceedings against the late most Barbarous Traitors (1606), 
a neither true nor complete narrative however, now superseded as 
an authority, reprinted as The Gunpowder Treason . . . with ad- 
ditions in 1679 by Thomas Barlow, bishop of Lincoln. A large 
number of letters and papers in the State Paper Office relating to 
the plot were collected in one volume in 1819, called the Gunpowder 
Plot Book; these are noted in their proper place in the printed 
calendars of State Papers, Domestic Series; see also articles on 
FAWKES, GUY; TRESHAM, FRANCIS; MONTEAGLE, WILLIAM 
PARKER, 4TH BARON; PERCY, THOMAS; CATESBY, ROBERT; 
GARNET, HENRY; DIGBY, SIR EVERARD. (P. C. Y.) 

GUN-ROOM, a ship cabin occupied by the officers below the 
rank of lieutenant, but who are not warrant officers of the class of 
the boatswain, gunner or carpenter. In the wooden sailing ships 
it was on the lower deck, and was originally the quarters of the 
gunner. 

GUNTER, EDMUND (1581-1626), English mathematician, of 
Welsh extraction, was born in Hertfordshire in 1581. He was 
educated at Westminster school, and in 1 599 was elected a student 
of Christ Church, Oxford. He took orders, became a preacher 
in 1614, and in 1615 proceeded to the degree of bachelor in 
divinity. Mathematics, however, which had been his favourite 
study in youth, continued to engross his attention, and on the 
6th of March 1619 he was appointed professor of astronomy in 
Gresham College, London. This post he held till his death on the 
zoth of December 1626. With Gunter's name are associated 
several useful inventions, descriptions of which are given in his 
treatises on the Sector, Cross-staff, Bow, Quadrant and other 
Instruments. He contrived his sector about the year 1606, and 
wrote a description of it in Latin, but it was more than sixteen 
years afterwards before he allowed the book to appear in English. 
In 1620 he published his Canon triangulorum (see LOGARITHMS). 
There is reason to believe that Gunter was the first to discover 
(in 1622 or 1625) that the magnetic needle does not retain the 
same declination in the same place at all times. By desire of 



730 

James I. he published in 1624 The Description and Use of His 
Majestie's Dials in Whitehall Garden, the only one of his works 
which has not been reprinted. He introduced the words cosine 
and cotangent, and he suggested to Henry Briggs, his friend and 
colleague, the use of the arithmetical complement (see Brigg's 
A rithmelica Logarithmica, cap. xv.) . His practical inventions are 
briefly noticed below: 

Gunter's Chain, the chain in common use for surveying, is 22 yds. 
long and is divided into 100 links. Its usefulness arises from its 
decimal or centesimal division, and the fact that 10 square chains 
make an acre. 

Gunter's Line, a logarithmic line, usually laid down upon scales, 
sectors, &c. It is also called the line of lines and the line of numbers, 
being only the logarithms graduated upon a ruler, which therefore 
serves to solve problems instrumentally in the same manner as 
logarithms do arithmetically. 

Gunter's Quadrant, an instrument made of wood, brass or other 
substance, containing a kind of stereographic projection of the sphere 
on the plane of the equinoctial, the eye being supposed to be placed 
in one of the poles, so that the tropic, ecliptic, and horizon form the 
arcs of circles, but the hour circles are other curves, drawn by 
means of several altitudes of the sun for some particular latitude 
every year. This instrument is used to find the hour of the day, 
the sun's azimuth, &c., and other common problems of the sphere 
or globe, and also to take the altitude of an object in degrees. 

Gunter's Scale (generally called by seamen the Gunter) is a large 
plane scale, usually 2 ft. long by about ij in. broad, and engraved 
with various lines of numbers. On one side are placed the natural 
lines (as the line of chords, the line of sines, tangents, rhumbs, &c.), 
and on the other side the corresponding artificial or logarithmic 
ones. By means of this instrument questions in navigation, trigono- 
metry, &c., are solved with the aid of a pair of compasses. 

GtiNTHER, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1695-1723), German poet, 
was born at Striegau in Lower Silesia on the 8th of April 1695. 
After attending the gymnasium at Schweidnitz, he was sent in 
1715 by his father, a country doctor, to study medicine at 
Wittenberg; but he was idle and dissipated, had no taste for the 
profession chosen for him, and came to a complete rupture with 
bis family. In 1717 he went to Leipzig, where he was befriended 
by J. B. Mencke (1674-1732), who recognized his genius; and 
there he published a poem on the peace of Passarowitz (concluded 
between the German emperor and the Porte in 1718) which 
acquired him reputation. A recommendation from Mencke to 
Frederick Augustus II. of Saxony, king of Poland, proved worse 
than useless, as Giinther appeared at the audience drunk. From 
that time he led an unsettled and dissipated life, sinking ever 
deeper into the slough of misery, until he died at Jena on the 
15th of March 1723, when only in his 28th year. Goethe pro- 
nounces Giinther to have been a poet in the fullest sense of the 
term. His lyric poems as a whole give evidence of deep and 
lively sensibility, fine imagination, clever wit, and a true ear for 
melody and rhythm; but an air of cynicism is more or less 
present in most of them, and dull or vulgar witticisms are not 
infrequently found side by side with the purest inspirations of 
his genius. 

Giinther's collected poems were published in'four volumes (Breslau, 
1 723-1735). They are also included in vol. vi. of Tittmann's Deutsche 
Dichter des 17 ten Jahrh. (Leipzig, 1874), and vol. xxxviii. of 
Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur (1883). A pretended auto- 
biography of Giinther appeared at Schweidnitz in 1732, and a life 
of him by Siebrand at Leipzig in 1738. See Hoffmann von Fallers- 
leben, /. Ch. Gunther (Breslau, 1833) ; O. Roquette, Leben und Dichten 
J. Ch. Gunthers (Stuttgart, 1860); M. Kalbeck, Neue Beitrage zur 
Biographie des Dichters C. Gunther (Breslau, 1879). 

GUNTHER OF SCHWARZBURG (1304-1349) , German king, was 
a descendant of the counts of Schwarzburg and the younger son 
of Henry VII., count of Blankenburg. He distinguished himself 
as a soldier, and rendered good service to the emperor Louis IV., 
on whose death in 1347 he was offered the German throne, after 
it had been refused by Edward III., king of England. He was 
elected German king at Frankfort on the 3Oth of January 1349 
by four of the electors, who were partisans of the house of Wittels- 
bach and opponents of Charles of Luxemburg, afterwards the 
emperor Charles IV. Charles, however, won over many of 
Giinther's adherents, defeated him at Eltville, and Gunther, who 
was now seriously ill, renounced his claims for the sum of 20,000 
marks of silver. He died three weeks afterwards at Frankfort, 



GUNTHER, J. C. GUPTA 



and was buried in the cathedral of that city, where a statue was 
erected to his memory in 1352. 

See Graf L. tJtterodt zu Scharffenberg, Gunther, Graf von Schwarz- 
burg, erwiihlter deutscher Konig (Leipzig, 1862); and K. Janson, 
Das Konigtum Gunthers von Schwarzburg (Leipzig, 1880). 

GUNTRAM, or GONTRAN (561-592), king of Burgundy, was one 
of the sons of Clotaire I. On the death of his father (561) he 
and his three brothers divided the Prankish realm between them, 
Guntram receiving as his share the valleys of the Saone and 
Rhone, together with Berry and the town of Orleans, which he 
made his capital. On the death of Charibert (567), he further 
obtained the cimtates of Saintes, Angoulfime and Perigueux. 
During the civil war which broke out between the kings of 
Neustria and Austrasia, his policy was to try to maintain a state of 
equilibrium. After the assassination of Sigebert (575), he took 
the youthful Childebert II. under his protection, and, thanks to 
his assistance against the intrigues of the great lords, the latter 
was able to maintain his position in Austrasia. After the death 
of Chilperic (584) he protected the young Clotaire II. in the same 
way, and prevented Childebert from seizing his dominions. His 
course was rendered easier by the fact that his own sons had 
died; consequently, having an inheritance at his disposal, he 
was able to offer it to whichever of his nephews he wished. The 
danger to the Prankish realm caused by the expedition of 
Gundobald (585), and the anxiety which was caused him by the 
revolts of the great lords in Austrasia finally decided him in favour 
of Childebert. He adopted him as his son, and recognized him as 
his heir at the treaty of Andelot (587); he also helped him to 
crush the great lords, especially Ursion and Berthefried, who were 
conquered in la Woe'vre. From this time on he ceased to play a 
prominent part in the affairs of Austrasia. He died in 592, and 
Childebert received his inheritance without opposition. Gregory 
of Tours is very indulgent to Guntram, who showed himself on 
occasions generous towards the church; he almost always calls 
him " good king Guntram," and in his writings are to be found 
such phrases as "good king Guntram took as his servant a concu- 
bine Veneranda " (iv. 25); but Guntram was really no better 
than the other kings of his age; he was cruel and licentious, 
putting his cubicularius Condo to death, for instance, because he 
was suspected of having killed a buffalo in the Vosges. He was 
moreover^ coward, and went in such constant terror of assassina- 
tion that he always surrounded himself with a regular body- 
guard. 

See Krusch, " Zur Chronologic der merowingischen Konige," in 
the Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, xxii. 451-490; Ulysse 
Chevalier, Bio-bibliographie (2nd ed.), s.v. " Guntram." (C. PF.) 

GUNTUR, a town and district of British India, in the Madras 
presidency. The town (pop. in 1901 , 30,833) has a station on the 
Bellary-Bezwada branch of the Southern Mahratta railway. It 
is situated east of the Kondavid hills, and is very healthy. 
It appears to have been founded in the i8th century by the 
French. At the time of the cession of the Circars to the English 
in 1765, Guntur was specially exempted during the life of Basalat 
Jang, whose personal jagir it was. In 1788 it came into British 
possession, the cession being finally confirmed in 1823. It has 
an important trade in cotton, with presses and ginning factories. 
There is a second-grade college supported by the American 
Lutheran Mission. Until 1859, Guntur was the headquarters of 
a district of the same name, and in 1904 a new DISTRICT OF 
GUNTUR was constituted, covering territory which till then had 
been divided between Kistna and Nellore. Area, 5733 sq. m. 
The population on this area in 1901 was 1,490,635. The district 
is bounded on the E. and N. by the river Kistna; in the W. a 
considerable part of the boundary is formed by the Gundlakamma 
river. The greater part consists of a fertile plain irrigated by 
canals from the Kistna, and producing cotton, rice and other 
crops. 

GUPTA, an empire and dynasty of northern India, which 
lasted from about A.D. 320 to 480. The dynasty was founded by 
Chandragupta L, who must not be confounded with his famous 
predecessor Chandragupta Maurya. He gave his name to the 
Gupta era, which continued in use for several centuries, dating 



GURA GURKHA 



73 1 



from the 26th of February, A.D. 320. Chandragupta was suc- 
ceeded by Samudragupta (c. A.D. 326-375), one of the greatest 
of Indian kings, who conquered nearly the whole of India, and 
whose alliances extended from the Oxus to Ceylon; but his 
name was at one time entirely lost to history, and has only 
been recovered of recent years from coins and inscriptions. His 
empire rivalled that of Asoka, extending from the Hugli on the 
east to the Jumna and Chambal on the west, and from the foot of 
the Himalayas on the north to the Nerbudda on the south. His 
son Chandragupta II. (c. A.D. 375-413) was also known as Vikra- 
Maditya (q.v.) , and seems to have been theoriginalof the mythical 
Hindu king of that name. About 388 he conquered the Saka 
satrap of Surashtra (Kathiawar) and penetrated to the Arabian 
Sea. His administration is described in the work of Fa-hien, 
the earliest Chinese pilgrim, who visited India in A.D. 405-411. 
Pataliputra was the capital of the dynasty, but Ajodhya seems to 
have been sometimes used by both Samudragupta and Chandra- 
gupta II. as the headquarters of government. The Gupta 
dynasty appears to have fostered a revival of Brahmanism at the 
expense of Buddhism, and to have given an impulse to art and 
literature. The golden age of the empire lasted from A.D. 330 to 
455, beginning to decline afterthelatterdate. When Skandagupta 
came to the throne in 455, India was threatened with an irruption 
of the White Huns, on whom he inflicted a severe defeat, thus 
saving his kingdom for a time; but about 470 the White Huns 
(see EPHTHALITES) returned to the attack, and the empire was 
gradually destroyed by their repeated inroads. When Skanda- 
gupta died about 480, the Gupta empire came to an end, but the 
dynasty continued to rule in the eastern provinces for several 
generations. The last known prince of the imperial line of 
Guptas was Kamaragupta II. (c. 535), after whom it passed " by 
an obscure transition " into a dynasty of eleven Gupta princes, 
known as " the later Guptas of Magadha," who seem for the 
most part to have been merely local rulers of Magadha. One of 
them, however, Adityasena, after the death of the paramount 
sovereign in 648, asserted his independence. The last known 
Gupta king was Jivitagupta II., who reigned early in the 8th 
century. About the middle of the century Magadha passed under 
the sway of the Pal kings of Bengal. 

See J. F. Fleet, Gupta Inscriptions (1888); and Vincent A. Smith, 
The Early History of India (2nd ed., Oxford, 1908), pp. 264-295. 

GURA, EUGEN (1842-1906), German singer, was born near 
Saatz in Bohemia, and educated at first for the career of a painter 
at Vienna and Munich; but later, developing a fine baritone 
voice, he took up singing and studied it at the Munich Conserva- 
torium. In 1865 he made his debut at the Munich opera, and in 
the following years he gained the highest reputation in Germany, 
being engaged principally at Leipzig till 1876 and then at Ham- 
burg till 1883. He sang in 1876 in the Ring at Bayreuth, and was 
famous for his Wagnerian roles; and his Hans Sachs in Meister- 
singer, as performed in London in 1882, was magnificent. In 
later years he showed the perfection of art in his singing of German 
Lieder. He died in Bavaria on the 26th of August 1906. 

GURDASPUR, a town and district of British India, in the 
Lahore division of the Punjab. The town had a population 
in 1901 of 5764. It has a fort (now containing a Brahman 
monastery) which was famous for the siege it sustained in 1712 
from the Moguls. The Sikh leader, Banda, was only reduced by 
starvation, when he and his men were tortured to death after 
capitulating. 

The DISTRICT comprises an area of 1889 sq. m. It is bounded 
on the N. by the native states of Kashmir and Chamba, on the E. 
by Kangra district and the river Beas, on the S.W. by Amritsar 
district, and on the W. by Sialkot, and occupies the submontane 
portion of the Bari Doab, or tract between the Beas and the 
Ravi. An intrusive spur of the British dominions runs north- 
ward into the lower Himalayan ranges, to include the mountain 
sanatorium of Dalhousie, 7687 ft. above sea-level. This station, 
which has a large fluctuating population during the warmer 
months, crowns the most westerly shoulder of a magnificent 
snowy range, the Dhaoladhar, between which and the plain two 
minor ranges intervene. Below the hills stretches a picturesque 



and undulating plateau covered with abundant timber, made 
green by a copious rainfall, and watered by the streams of the 
Bari Doab, which, diverted by dams and embankments, now 
empty their waters into the Beas directly, in order that their 
channels may not interfere with the Bari Doab canal. The 
district contains several large jhils or swampy lakes, and is 
famous for its snipe-shooting. It is historically important in 
connexion with the rise of the Sikh confederacy. The whole of 
the Punjab was then distributed among the Sikh chiefs who 
triumphed over the imperial governors. In the course of a few 
years, however, the maharaja Ranjit Singh acquired all the 
territory which those chiefs had held. Pathankot and the 
neighbouring villages in the plain, together with the whole hill 
portion of the district, formed part of the area ceded by the 
Sikhs to the British after the first Sikh war in 1846. In 
1862, after receiving one or two additions, the district was 
brought into its present shape. In 1901 the population was 
940,334, showing a slight decrease, compared with an increase of 
15% in the previous decade. A branch of the North- Western 
railway runs through the district. The largest town and chief 
commercial centre is Batala. There are important woollen mills 
at Dhariwal, and besides their products the district exports 
cotton, sugar, grain and oil-seeds. 

GURGAON, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi 
division of the Punjab. The town (pop. in 1901, 4765) is the 
headquarters of the district, but is otherwise unimportant. The 
district has an area of 1984 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by 
Rohtak, on the W. and S.W. by portions of the Alwar, Nabha 
and Jind native states, on the S. by the Muttra district of the 
United Provinces, on the E. by the river Jumna and on the N.E. 
by Delhi. It comprises the southernmost corner of the Punjab 
province, stretching away from the level plain towards the hills 
of Rajputana. Two low rocky ranges enter its borders from the 
south and run northward in a bare and unshaded mass toward 
the plain country. East of the western ridge the valley is wide 
and open, extending to the banks of the Jumna. To the west 
lies the subdivision of Rewari, consisting of a sandy plain dotted 
with isolated hills. Numerous torrents carry off the drainage 
from the upland ranges, and the most important among them 
empty themselves at last into the Najafgarh jhtt. This swampy 
lake lies to the east of the civil station of Gurgaon, and stretches 
long arms into the neighbouring districts of Delhi and Rohtak. 
Salt is manufactured in wells at several villages. The mineral 
products are iron ore, copper ore, plumbago and ochre. 

In 1803 Gurgaon district passed into the hands of the British 
after Lord Lake's conquests. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 
May 1857, the nawab of Farukhnagar, the principal feudatory of 
the district, rose in rebellion. The Meos and many Rajput 
families followed his example. A faithful native officer preserved 
the public buildings and records at Rewari from destruction; 
but with this exception, British authority became extinguished 
for a time throughout Gurgaon. After the fall of the rebel 
capital, a force marched into the district and either captured or 
dispersed the leaders of rebellion. The territory of thenawab was 
confiscated on account of his participation in the Mutiny. Civil 
administration was resumed under orders from the Punjab 
government, to which province the district was formally annexed 
on the final pacification of the country. The population in 1901 
was 746,208, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The 
largest town and chief trade centre is Rewari. The district is 
now traversed by several lines of railway, and irrigation is 
provided by the Agra canal. The chief trade is in cereals, but 
hardware is also exported. 

GURKHA (pronounced gdorka; from Sans, gau, a cow, and 
raks, to protect), the ruling Hindu race in Nepal (<?..). The 
Gurkhas, or Gurkhalis, claim descent from the rajas of Chitor in 
Rajputana. When driven out of their own country by the 
Mahommedan invasion, they took refuge in the hilly districts 
about Kumaon, whence they gradually invaded the country to 
the eastward as far as Gurkha, Noakote and ultimately to the 
valley of Nepal and even Sikkim. They were stopped by the 
English in an attempt to push south, and the treaty of Segauli, 



732 



GURNALL GURNEY, E. 



which ended the Gurkha War of 1814, definitely limited their 
territorial growth. The Gurkhas of the present day remain 
Hindus by religion, but show in their appearance a strong 
admixture of Mongolian blood. They make splendid infantry 
soldiers, and by agreement with their government about 20,000 
have been recruited for the Gurkha regiments of the Indian army. 
As a rule they are bold, enduring, faithful, frank, independent 
and self-reliant. They despise other Orientals, but admire and 
fraternize with Europeans, whose tastes in sport and war they 
share. They strongly resemble the Japanese, but are of a 
sturdier build. Their national weapon is the kukri, a heavy 
curved knife, which they use for every possible purpose. 

See Capt. Eden Vansittart, Notes on the Gurkhas (1898); and P. 
D. Bonarjee, The Fighting Races of India (1899). 

GURNALL, WILLIAM (1617-1679), English author, was born 
in 1617 at King's Lynn, Norfolk. He was educated at the free 
grammar school of his native town, and in 1631 was nominated 
to the Lynn scholarship in Emmanuel College, Cambridge, where 
he graduated B.A. in 1635 and M.A. in 1639. He was made 
rector of Lavenham in Suffolk in 1644; and before he received 
that appointment he seems to have officiated, perhaps as curate, 
at Sudbury. At the Restoration he signed the declaration 
required by the Act of Uniformity, and on this account he was 
the subject of a libellous attack, published in 1665, entitled 
Covenant- Renouncers Desperate Apostates. He died on the i2th 
of October 1679. Gurnall is known by his Christian in Complete 
Armour, published in three volumes, dated 1655, 1658 and 1662. 
It consists of a series of sermons on the latter portion of the 6th 
chapter of Ephesians, and is described as a " magazine from 
whence the Christian is furnished with spiritual arms for the 
battle, helped on with his armour, and taught the use of his 
weapon; together with the happy issue of the whole war." 
The work is more practical than theological; and its quaint 
fancy, graphic and pointed style, and its fervent religious tone 
render it still popular with some readers. 

See also An Inquiry into the Life of the Rev. W. Gurnall, by 
H. M'Keon (1830), and a biographical introduction by Bishop Ryle 
to the Christian in Complete Armour (1865). 

GURNARD (Trigla), a genus of fishes forming a group of the 
family of " mailed cheeks " (Triglidae) , and easily recognized by 
three detached finger-like appendages in front of the pectoral fins, 
and by their large, angular, bony head, the sides of which are 
protected by strong, hard and rough bones. The pectoral 
appendages are provided with strong nerves, and serve not only 
as organs of locomotion when the fish moves on the bottom, but 
also as organs of touch, by which it detects small animals on 
which it feeds. Gurnards are coast-fishes, generally distributed 
over the tropical and temperate areas; of the forty species 
known six occur on the coast of Great Britain, viz. the red 




Trigla pleuracanthica. 

gurnard ( T. pint) , the streaked gurnard ( T. lineata) , the sapphirim 
gurnard (T. hirundo), the grey gurnard (T. gurnardus), the pipe: 
( T. lyra) and the long-finned gurnard ( T. obscura or T. lucerna) 
Although never found very far from the coast, gurnards descenc 
to depths of several hundred fathoms; and as they are bottom 
fish they are caught chiefly by means of the trawl. Not rarely 
however, they may be seen floating on the surface of the water 
with their broad, finely coloured pectoral fins spread out like 
fans. In very young fishes, which abound in certain localitie 
v on the coast in the months of August and September, the pectoral 



re comparatively much longer than in the adult, extending to 
he end of the body; they are beautifully coloured and kept 
xpanded, the little fishes looking like butterflies. When caught 
ind taken out of the water, gurnards emit a grunting noise, 
which is produced by the vibrations of a diaphragm situated 
ransversely across the cavity of the bladder and perforated in 
he centre. This grunting noise gave rise to the name " gur- 
lard," which is probably an adaptation or variation of the Fr. 
grognard, grumbler, cf. the Fr. grondin, gurnard, from grander, 
and Ger. Knurrfisch. Their flesh is very white, firm and whole- 
ome. 

GURNEY, the name of a philanthropic English family of 
>ankers and merchants, direct descendants of Hugh de Gournay, 
ord of Gournay, one of the Norman noblemen who accompanied 
William the Conqueror to England. Large grants of land were 
made to Hugh de Gournay in Norfolk and Suffolk, and Norwich 
las since that time been the headquarters of the family, the 
majority of whom were Quakers. Here in 1770 the brothers 
fohn and Henry Gurney founded a banking-house, the business 
>assing in 1779 to Henry's son, Bartlett Gurney. On the death of 
Sartlett Gurney in 1802 the bank became the property of his 
three cousins, of whom JOHN GURNEY (1750-1809) was the most 
remarkable. One of his daughters was Elizabeth Fry; another 
married Sir Thomas Powell Buxton. Of his sons one was JOSEPH 
JOHN GURNEY (1788-1847), a well-known philanthropist of the 
day; another, SAMUEL GURNEY (1786-1856) assumed on his 
Other's death the control of the Norwich bank. Samuel Gurney 
also took over about the same time the control of the London bill- 
iroking business of Richardson, Overend & Company, in which 
ie was already a partner. This business had been founded in 
1800 by Thomas Richardson, clerk to a London bill-discounter, 
and John Overend, chief clerk in the bank of Smith, Payne & 
Company at Nottingham, the Gurneys supplying the capital. 
At that time bill-discounting was carried on in a spasmodic 
fashion by the ordinary merchant in addition to his regular 
business, but Richardson considered that there was room for a 
London house which should devote itself entirely to the trade in 
bills. This, at that time, novel idea proved an instant success. 
The title of the firm was subsequently changed to Overend, 
Gurney & Company, and for forty years it was the greatest 
discounting-house in the world. During the financial crisis of 
1825 Overend, Gurney & Company were able to make short 
loans to many other bankers. The house indeed became known as 
the bankers' banker," and secured many of the previous clients 
of the Bank of England. Samuel Gurney died in 1856. He was 
a man of very charitable disposition, and during the latter years 
of his life charitable and philanthropic undertakings almost 
monopolized his attention. In 1865 the business of Overend, 
Gurney & Company, which had come under less competent 
control, was converted into a joint stock company, but in 1866 
the firm suspended payment with liabilities amounting to eleven 
millions sterling. 

GURNEY, EDMUND (1847-1888), English psychologist, was 
born at Hersham, near Walton-on-Thames, on the 23rd of March 
1847. He was educated at Blackheath and at Trinity College, 
Cambridge, where he took a high place in the classical tripos and 
obtained a fellowship. His work for the schools was done, says 
his friend F. W. H. Myers, " in the intervals of his practice on the 
piano." Dissatisfied with his own executive skill as a musician, 
he wrote The Power of Sound (1880), an essay pn the philosophy 
of music. He then studied medicine with no intention of practis- 
ing, devoting himself to physics, chemistry and physiology. In 
1880 he passed the second M.B. Cambridge examination in the 
science of the healing profession. These studies, and his great 
logical powers and patience in the investigation of evidence, he 
devoted to that outlying field of psychology which is called 
" Psychical Research." He asked whether, as universal tradition 
declares, there is an unexplored region of human faculty trans- 
cending the normal limitations of sensible knowledge. That 
there is such a region it was part of the system of Hegel to declare, 
and the subject had been metaphysically treated by Hartmann, 
Schopenhauer, Du Prel, Hamilton and others, as the philosophy 



GURWOOD GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON 



733 



of the Unconscious or Subconscious. But Gurney's purpose was 
to approachjthe subject by observation and experiment, especially 
in the hypnotic field, whereas vague and ill-attested anecdotes 
had hitherto been the staple of the evidence of metaphysicians. 
The tendency of his mind was to investigate whatever facts may 
give a colour of truth to the ancient belief in the persistence of the 
conscious human personality after the death of the body. Like 
Joseph Glanvill's, the natural bent of Gurney's mind was sceptical. 
Both thought the current and traditional reports of supernormal 
occurrences suggesti\je and worth investigating by the ordinary 
methods of scientific observation, and inquisition into evidence 
at first hand. But the method of Gurney was, of course, much 
more strict than that of the author of Sadducismus Triumphatus, 
and it included hypnotic and other experiments unknown to 
Glanvill. Gurney began at what he later saw was the wrong end 
by studying, with Myers, the " seances "of professed spiritualistic 
" mediums " (1874-1878). Little but detection of imposture 
came of this, but an impression was left that the subject ought 
not to be abandoned. In 1882 the Society for Psychical Research 
was founded. (See PSYCHICAL RESEARCH.) Paid mediums were 
discarded, at least for the time, and experiments were made in 
" thought-transference " and hypnotism. Personal evidence as 
to uninduced hallucinations was also collected. The first results 
are embodied in the volumes of Phantasms of the Living, a vast 
collection (Podmore, Myers and Gurney), and in Gurney's 
remarkable essay, Hallucinations. The chief consequence was 
to furnish evidence for the process called "telepathy," involving 
the provisional hypothesis that one human mind can affect 
another through no recognized channel of sense. The fact was 
supposed to be established by the experiments chronicled in the 
Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, and it was 
argued that similar experiences occurred spontaneously, as, for 
example, in the many recorded instances of " deathbed wraiths " 
among civilized and savage races. (Tylor, Primitive Culture, . 
chapter xi., especially pp. 449-450, 1873. Lang, Making of 
Religion, pp. 120-124, 1898.) The dying man is supposed 
to convey the hallucination of his presence as one living 
person experimentally conveys his thought to another, by 
" thought - transference." Gurney's hypnotic experiments, 
marked by great exactness, patience and ingenuity, were under- 
taken in 1885-1888. Their tendency was, in Myers's words, 
" to prove so far as any one operator's experience in this protean 
subject can be held to prove anything that there is sometimes, 
in the induction of hypnotic phenomena, some agency at work 
which is neither ordinary nervous stimulation (monotonous or 
sudden) nor suggestion conveyed by any ordinary channel to the 
subject's mind." These results, if accepted, of course corroborate 
the idea of telepathy. (SeeGurney, "Hypnotism and Telepathy," 
Proceedings S.P.R. vol. iv.) Experiments by MM. Gibert, Janet, 
Richet, Hericourt and others are cited as tending in the same 
direction. Other experiments dealt with " the relation of the 
memory in the hypnotic state to the memory in another hypnotic 
state, and of both to the normal or waking memory." The result 
of Gurney's labours, cut short by his early death, was to raise and 
'strengthen the presumption that there exists an unexplored 
region of human faculty which ought not to be neglected by 
science as if the belief in it were a mere survival of savage super- 
stition. Rather, it appears to have furnished the experiences 
which, misinterpreted, are expressed in traditional beliefs. 
That Gurney was credulous and easily imposed upon those who 
knew him, and knew his penetrating humour, cannot admit; 
nor is the theory likely to be maintained by those whom bias 
does not prevent from studying with care his writings. In con- 
troversy " he delighted in replying with easy courtesy to attacks 
envenomed with that odium plus quant theologicum which the 
very allusion to a ghost or the human soul seems in some philo- 
sophers to inspire." In discussion of themes unpopular and 
obscure Gurney displayed the highest tact, patience, good 
temper, humour and acuteness. There never was a more dis- 
interested student. In addition to his work on music and his 
psychological writings, he was the author of Tertium Quid 
(1887), a collection of essays, on the whole a protest against one- 



sided ideas and methods of discussion. He died at Brighton on 
23rd June 1888, from the effects of an overdose of narcotic 
medicine. (A. L.) 

GURWOOD, JOHN (1790-1845), British soldier, began his 
career in a merchant's office, but soon obtained an ensigncy in 
the 52nd (1808). With his regiment he served in the " Light 
Division " of Wellington's army throughout the earlier Penin- 
sular campaigns, and at Ciudad Rodrigo (igth Jan. 1812) he 
led one of the forlorn hopes and was severely wounded. For his 
gallant conduct on this occasion Wellington presented Gurwood 
with the sword of the French governor of Ciudad Rodrigo. A 
little later, transferring to the 9th Light Dragoons, he was made 
brigade-major to the Guards' cavalry which had just arrived in 
the Peninsula. In the latter part of the war he served as brigade- 
major to Lambert's brigade of the sixth infantry division, and 
was present at the various actions in which that division played 
a conspicuous part the Nivelle, the Nive, Orthes and Toulouse. 
At Waterloo Captain Gurwood was for the third time severely 
wounded. In the first twelve years of the peace he was pro- 
moted up to the grade of lieut. -colonel, and in 1841 became 
brevet-colonel. He was for many years the duke of Wellington's 
private secretary, and was entrusted by him with the collection 
and editing of the Wellington Despatches, which occupied Gur- 
wood from 1837 to the end of his life. This work is a monument 
of industrious skill, and earned its author a Civil List Pension of 
200. But overwork and the effects of his wounds had broken 
his health, and he committed suicide on Christmas day 1845. 
He was a C.B. and deputy-lieutenant of the Tower. 

GUSLA, or GUSLI, an ancient stringed instrument still in use 
among the Slavonic races. The modern Servian gusla is a kind 
of tanbur (see PANDURA), consisting of a round, concave body 
covered with a parchment soundboard; there is but one horse- 
hair string, and the peg for tuning it is inserted in oriental fashion 
in the back of the head. The gusla is played with a primitive 
bow called goudalo. The gouslars or blind bards of Servia and 
Croatia use it to accompany their chants. C. G. Anton 1 men- 
tions an instrument of that name in the shape of a half-moon 
strung with eighteen strings in use among the Tatars. Prosper 
Merimee 2 has taken the gusla as the title for a book of Servian 
poems, which are supposed to have been collected by him among 
the peasants, but which are thought to have been inspired by the 
Viaggio in Dalmazia of Albarto Fortis. 

Among the Russians, the gusli is an instrument of a different 
type, a kind of psaltery having five or more strings stretched 
across a flat, shallow sound-chest in the shape of a wing. In the 
gusli the strings, of graduated length, are attached to little nails 
or pins at one end, and at the other they are wound over a rod 
having screw attachments for increasing and slackening the 
tension. There is no bridge to determine the vibrating length of 
the strings. The body of the instrument is shaped roughly like 
the tail of the grand piano, following the line of the strings; the 
longest being at the left of the instrument. Matthew Guthrie 
gives an illustration of the gusli. 3 (K. S.) 

GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON (1496-1560), king of Sweden, was 
born at his mother's estate at Lindholm on Ascension Day 1496. 
He came of a family which had shone conspicuously in 15th- 
century politics, though it generally took the anti-national side. 
His father, Erik Johansson of Rydboholm, " a merry and jocose 
gentleman," but, like all the Swedish Vasas, liable to sudden 
fierce gusts of temper, was one of the senators who voted for the 
deposition of Archbishop Trolle, at the riksdag of 1517 (see 
SWEDEN, History), for which act of patriotism he lost his head. 
Gustavus's mother, Cecilia Mansdatter, was closely connected 
by marriage with the great Sture family. Gustavus's youthful 
experiences impressed him with a life-long distrust of everything 
Danish. In his eighteenth year he was sent to the court of his 
cousin Sten Sture. At the battle of Brannkyrka, when Sture 

1 Erste Linien eines Versuchs iiber den Ursprung der alien Sloven 
(Leipzig, 1783-1789), p. 145. 

1 La Guzla, ou choix de poesies lyriques recueillies dans la Dalmatic , 
la Bosnie, la Croatie, &c. (Paris, 1827). 

3 Dissertations sur les antiquites de Russie (St Petersburg, 1795), 
pi. ii. No. 9, p. 31. 



734 



GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON 



defeated Christian II. of Denmark, the young Gustavus bore the 
governor's standard, and in the same year (1518) he was delivered 
with five other noble youths as a hostage to King Christian, who 
treacherously carried him prisoner to Denmark. He was 
detained for twelve months in the island fortress of Kalo, on the 
east coast of Jutland, but contrived to escape to Liibeck in 
September 1519. There he found an asylum till the 2oth of May 
1520, when he chartered a ship to Kalmar, one of the few Swedish 
fortresses which held out against Christian II. 

It was while hunting near Lake Malar that the news of the 
Stockholm massacre was brought to him by a peasant fresh from 
the capital, who told him, at the same time, that a price had been 
set upon his head. In his extremity, Gustavus saw only one 
way of deliverance, an appeal for help to the sturdy yeomen of the 
dales. How the dalesmen set Gustavus on the throne and how 
he and they finally drove the Danes out of Sweden (1521-1523) 
is elsewhere recorded (see SWEDEN: History). But his worst 
troubles only began after his coronation on the 6th of June 1523. 
The financial position of the crown was the most important of all 
the problems demanding solution, for upon that everything else 
depended. By releasing his country from the tyranny of 
Denmark, Gustavus had made the free independent development 
of Sweden a possibility. It was for him to realize that possibility. 
First of all, order had' to be evolved from the chaos in which 
Sweden had been plunged by the disruption of the Union; and 
the shortest, perhaps the only, way thereto was to restore the 
royal authority, which had been in abeyance during ninety years. 
But an effective reforming monarchy must stand upon a sound 
financial basis; and the usual revenues of the crown, always 
inadequate, were so diminished that they did not cover half the 
daily expenses of government. New taxes could only be imposed 
with extreme caution, while the country was still bleeding from 
the wounds of a long war. And men were wanted even more 
than money. The lack of capable, trustworthy administrators 
in Sweden was grievous. The whole burden of government 
weighed exclusively on the shoulders of the new king, a young 
man of seven and twenty. Half his time was taken up in 
travelling from one end of the kingdom to the other, and doing 
purely clerical work for want of competent assistance. We can 
form some idea of his difficulties when we learn that, in 1533, he 
could not send an ambassador to Liibeck because not a single 
man in his council, except himself, knew German. It was this 
lack of native talent which compelled Gustavus frequently to 
employ the services of foreign adventurers like Berent von 
Mehlen, John von Hoja, Konrad von Pyhy and others. 

It was not the least of Gustavus's many anxieties, that he had 
constantly to be on the watch lest a formidable democratic rival 
should encroach on his prerogative. That rival was the Swedish 
peasantry. He succeeded indeed in putting down the four 
formidable rebellions which convulsed the realm from 1525 to 
1542, but the consequent strain upon his resources was very 
damaging, and more than once he was on the point of abdicating 
and emigrating, out of sheer weariness. Moreover he was in con- 
stant fear of the Danes. Necessity compelled him indeed (1534- 
1536) to take part in Grevens fejde (Counts' War) (see DENMARK, 
History), as the ally of Christian III., but his exaggerated 
distrust of the Danes was invincible. " We advise and exhort 
you," he wrote to the governor of Kalmar, " to put no hope or 
trust in the Danes, or in their sweet scribbling, inasmuch as they 
mean nothing at all by it except how best they may deceive and 
betray us Swedes." Such instructions were not calculated to 
promote confidence between Swedish and Danish negotiators. 
A fresh cause of dispute was generated in 1548, when Christian 
III.'s daughter was wedded to Duke Augustus of Saxony. On 
that occasion, apparently by way of protest against the decree of 
the diet of Vesteras (isth of January 1544), declaring the 
Swedish crown hereditary in Gustavus's family, the Danish king 
caused to be quartered on his daughter's shield not only the three 
Danish lions and the Norwegian lion with the axe of St Olaf , but 
also " the three crowns " of Sweden. Gustavus, naturally 
suspicious, was much perturbed by the innovation, and warned 
all his border officials to be watchful and prepare for the worst. 



In 1557 he even wrote to the Danish king protesting, against the 
placing of " the three crowns " in the royal Danish seal beneath 
the arms of Denmark. Christian III. replied that*" the three 
crowns " signified not Sweden in especial, but the three Scan- 
dinavian kingdoms, and that their insertion in the Danish shield 
was only a reminiscence of the union of Kalmar. But Gustavus 
was not satisfied, and this was the beginning of " the three 
crowns " dispute which did so much damage to both kingdoms. 

The events which led to the rupture of Gustavus with the Holy 
See are set forth in the proper place (se^ SWEDEN: History). 
Here it need only be added that it was a purely political act, as 
Gustavus, personally, had no strong dogmatic leanings either 
way. He not unnaturally expressed his amazement when that 
very juvenile reformer Olavus Petri confidently informed him 
that the pope was antichrist. He consulted the older and graver 
Laurentius Andreae, who told him how " Doctor Martinus had 
clipped the wings of the pope, the cardinals and the big bishops," 
which could not fail to be pleasing intelligence to a monarch who 
was never an admirer of episcopacy, while the rich revenues of the 
church, accumulated in the course of centuries, were a tempting 
object to the impecunious ruler of an impoverished people. 
Subsequently, when the Protestant hierarchy was forcibly 
established in Sweden, matters were much complicated by the 
absolutist tendencies of Gustavus. The incessant labour, the 
constant anxiety, which were the daily portion of Gustavus Vasa 
during the seven and thirty years of his reign, told at last even 
upon his magnificent constitution. In the spring of 1560, 
conscious of an ominous decline of his powers, Gustavus sum- 
moned his last diet, to give an account of his stewardship. On 
the 1 6th of June 1560 the assembly met at Stockholm. Ten days 
later, supported by his sons, Gustavus greeted the estates in the 
great hall of the palace, when he took a retrospect of his reign, 
reminding them of the misery of the kingdom during the union 
and its deliverance from " that unkind tyrant, King Christian." 
Four days later the diet passed a resolution confirming the 
hereditary right of Gustavus's son, Prince Eric, to the throne. 
The old king's last anxieties were now over and he could die in 
peace. He expired on the 2gth of September 1560. 

Gustavus was thrice married. His first wife, Catherine, 
daughter of Magnus I., duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, bore him in 
1 533 his eldest son Eric. This union was neither long nor happy, 
but the blame for its infelicity is generally attributed to the lady, 
whose abnormal character was reflected and accentuated in her 
unhappy son. Much more fortunate was Gustavus's second 
marriage, a year after the death of his first consort, with his own 
countrywoman, Margaret Lejonhufvud, who bore him five sons 
and five daughters, of whom three sons, John, Magnus and 
Charles, and one daughter, Cecilia, survived their childhood. 
Queen Margaret died in 1551; and a twelvemonth later 
Gustavus wedded her niece, Catharine Stenbock, a handsome 
girl of sixteen, who survived him more than sixty years. 

Gustavus's outward appearance in the prime of life is thus 
described by a contemporary: " He was of the middle 
height, with a round head, light yellow hair, a fine long beard, 
sharp eyes, a ruddy countenance . . . and a body as fitly and- 
well proportioned as any painter could have painted it. He was 
of a sanguine-choleric temperament, and when untroubled and 
unvexed a bright and cheerful gentleman, easy to get on with, 
and however many people-happened to be in the same room with 
him, he was never at a loss for an answer to every one of them." 
Learned he was not, but he had naturally bright and clear under- 
standing, an unusually good memory, and a marvellous capacity 
for taking pains. He was also very devout, and his morals were 
irreproachable. On the other hand, Gustavus had his full share 
of the family failings of irritability and suspiciousness, the latter 
quality becoming almost morbid under the pressure of adverse 
circumstances. His energy too not infrequently degenerated 
into violence, and when crossed he was apt to be tyrannical. 

See A. Alberg, Gustavus Vasa and his Times (London, 1882); 
R. N. Bain, Scandinavia, chaps, iii. and v. (Cambridge, 1905); 
P. B. Watson, The Swedish Revolution under Gustavus Vasa (London, 
1889); O. Sjogren, Gustaf Vasa (Stockholm, 1896); C. M. Butler, 



GUSTAVUS. II. ADOLPHUS 



735 



The Reformation in Sweden (New York, 1883); Sveriges Historia 
(Stockholm, 1877-1881) ; I. Weidling, Schwedische Geschichte im 
Zeilalter der Reformation (Gotha, 1882). (R. N. B.) 

GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS (1594-1632), king of Sweden, 
the eldest son of Charles IX. and of Christina, daughter of 
Adolphus, duke of Holstein-Gottorp, was born at Stockholm 
castle on the gth of December 1594. From the first he was 
carefully nurtured to be the future prop of Protestantism by his 
austere parents. Gustavus was well grounded in the classics, 
and his linguistic accomplishments were extraordinary. He may 
be said to have grown up with two mother-tongues, Swedish and 
German; at twelve he had mastered Latin, Italian and Dutch; 
and he learnt subsequently to express himself in Spanish, Russian 
and Polish. But his practical father took care that he should 
grow up a prince, not a pedant. So early as his ninth year he was 
introduced to public life; at thirteen he received petitions and 
conversed officially with the foreign ministers; at fifteen he 
administered his duchy of Vestmanland and opened the Orebro 
diet with a speech from the throne; indeed from 1610 he may be 
regarded as his father's co-regent. In all martial and chivalrous 
accomplishments he was already an adept; and when, a year 
later, he succeeded to supreme power, his superior ability was as 
uncontested as it was incontestable. 

The first act of the young king was to terminate the frat- 
ricidal struggle with Denmark by the peace of Knared (28th 
of January 1613). Simultaneously, another war, also an heritage 
from Charles IX., had been proceeding in the far distant regions 
round lakes Ilmen, Peipus and Ladoga, with Great Novgorod as 
its centre. It was not, however, like the Danish War, a national 
danger; but a political speculation meant to be remunerative and 
compensatory, and was concluded very advantageously for Sweden 
by the peace of Stolbova on the 27th of February 1617 (see 
SWEDEN : History) . By this peace Gustavus succeeded in exclud- 
ing Muscovy from the Baltic. " I hope to God," he declared to 
the Stockholm diet in 1617, when he announced the conclusion of 
peace, " that the Russians will feel it a bit difficult to skip over 
that little brook." The war with Poland which Gustavus re- 
sumed in 162 1 was a much more difficult affair. It began with an 
attack upon Riga as the first step towards conquering Livonia. 
Riga was invested on the i3th of August and surrendered on the 
15th of September; on the 3rd of October Mitau was occupied; 
but so great were the ravages of sickness during the campaign 
that the Swedish army had to be reinforced by no fewer than 
10,000 men. A truce was thereupon concluded and hostilities 
were suspended till the summer of 1625, in the course of which 
Gustavus took Kokenhusen and invaded Lithuania. In January 
1626 he attacked the Poles at Walhof and scattered the whole of 
their army after slaying a fifth part of it. This victory, remark- 
able besides as Gustavus's first pitched battle, completed the 
conquest of Livonia. As, however, it became every year more 
difficult to support an army in the Dvina district, Gustavus now 
resolved to transfer the war to the Prussian provinces of Poland 
with a view to securing the control of the Vistula, as he had already 
secured the control of the Dvina. At the end of 1626, the 
Swedish fleet, with 14,000 men on board, anchored in front of the 
chain of sand-dunes which separates the Frische-Haff from the 
Baltic. Pillau, the only Baltic port then accessible to ships of 
war, was at once occupied, and Konigsberg shoitly afterwards 
was scared into an unconditional neutrality. July was passed in 
conquering the bishopric of Ermeland. The surrender of Elbing 
and Marienburg placed Gustavus in possession of the fertile and 
easily defensible delta of the Vistula, which he treated as a 
permanent conquest, making Axel Oxenstjerna its first governor- 
general. Communications between Danzig and the sea were cut 
off by the erection of the first of Gustavus's famous entrenched 
camps at Dirschau. From the end of August 1626 the city was 
blockaded, and in the meantime Polish irregulars, under the 
capable Stanislaus Koniecpolski, began to harass the Swedes. 
But the object of the campaign, a convenient basis of operations, 
was won; and in October the king departed to Sweden to get 
reinforcements. He returned in May 1627 with 7000 men, 
which raised his forces to 14,000, against which Koniecpolski 



could only oppose 9000. But his superior strategy frustrated all 
the efforts of the Swedish king, who in the course of the year was 
twice dangerously wounded and so disabled that he could never 
wear armour again. Gustavus had made extensive preparations 
for the ensuing campaign and took the field with 32,000 men. 
But once again, though far outnumbered, and unsupported by 
his own government, the Polish grand-hetman proved more than 
a match for Gustavus, who, on the loth of September, broke up 
his camp and returned to Prussia; the whole autumn campaign 
had proved a failure and cost him 5000 men. During the ensuing 
campaign of 1629 Gustavus had to contend against the combined 
forces of Koniecpolski and 10,000 of Wallenstein's mercenaries. 
The Polish commander now showed the Swedes what he could do 
with adequate forces. At Stuhm, on the 29th of June, he 
defeated Gustavus, who lost most of his artillery and narrowly 
escaped capture. The result of the campaign was the conclusion 
of the six years' truce of Altmark, which was very advantageous 
to Sweden. 

And now Gustavus turned his attention to Germany. The 
motives which induced the Swedish king to intervene directly in 
the Thirty Years' War are told us by himself in his correspondence 
with Oxenstjerna. Here he says plainly that it was the fear lest 
the emperor should acquire the Baltic ports and proceed to build 
up a sea-power dangerous to Scandinavia. For the same reason, 
the king rejected the chancellor's alternative of waging a simply 
defensive war against the emperor by means of the fleet, with 
Stralsund as his base. He was convinced by the experience of 
Christian IV. of Denmark that the enemies' harbours could be 
wrested from them only by a successful offensive war on land; 
and, while quite alive to the risks of such an enterprise in the 
face of two large armies, Tilly's and Wallenstein's, each of them 
larger than his own, he argued that the vast extent of territory 
and the numerous garrisons which the enemy was obliged to 
maintain, more than neutralized his numerical superiority. 
Merely to blockade all the German ports with the Swedish fleet 
was equally impossible. The Swedish fleet was too weak for 
that; it would be safer to take and fortify the pick of them. In 
Germany itself, if he once got the upper hand, he would not find 
himself without resources. It is no enthusiastic crusader, but an 
anxious and farseeing if somewhat speculative statesman who 
thus opens his mind to us. No doubt religious considerations 
largely influenced Gustavus. He had the deepest sympathy for 
his fellow-Protestants in Germany; he regarded them as God's 
peculiar people, himself as their divinely appointed deliverer. 
But his first duty was to Sweden; and, naturally and rightly, 
he viewed the whole business from a predominantfy Swedish 
point of view. Lutherans and Calvinists were to be delivered 
from a " soul-crushing tyranny "; but they were to be delivered 
by a foreign if friendly power; and that power claimed as her 
reward the hegemony of Protestant Europe and all the political 
privileges belonging to that exalted position. 

On the igth of May 1630 Gustavus solemnly took leave of the 
estates of the realm assembled at Stockholm. He appeared 
before them holding in his arms his only child and heiress, the 
little princess Christina, then in her fourth year, and tenderly 
committed her to the care of his loyal and devoted people. Then 
he solemnly took the estates to witness, as he stood there " in the 
sight of the Almighty," that he had begun hostilities" out of no 
lust for war, as many will certainly devise and imagine," but in 
self-defence and to deliver his fellow-Christians from oppression. 
On the 7th of June 1630 the Swedish fleet set sail, and two days 
after midsummer day, the whole army, 16,000 strong, was 
disembarked at Peenemtinde. Gustavus's plan was to take 
possession of the mouths of the Oder Haff, and, resting upon 
Stralsund in the west and Prussia in the east, penetrate into 
Germany. In those days rivers were what railways now are, the 
great military routes; and Gustavus's German war was a war 
waged along river lines. The opening campaign was to be fought 
along the line of the Oder. Stettin, the capital of Pomerania, 
and the key of the Oder line, was occupied and converted into a 
first-class fortress. He then proceeded to clear Pomerania of the 
piebald imperial host composed of every nationality under 



GUSTAVU.S III. 



heaven, and officered by Italians, Irishmen, Czechs, Croats, 
Danes, Spaniards and Walloons. Gustavus's army has often 
been described by German historians as an army of foreign 
invaders; in reality it was far more truly Teutonic than the 
official defenders of Germany at that period. Gustavus's 
political difficulties (see SWEDEN: History) chained him to his 
camp for the remainder of the year. But the dismissal of 
Wallenstein and the declaration in Gustavus's favour of Magde- 
burg, the greatest city in the Lower Saxon Circle, and strate- 
gically the strongest fortress of North Germany, encouraged him 
to advance boldly. But first, honour as well as expediency 
moved him to attempt to relieve Magdeburg, now closely invested 
by the imperialists, especially as his hands had now been con- 
siderably strengthened by a definite alliance with France (treaty 
of Barwalde, I3th of January 1631). Magdeburg, therefore, 
became the focus of the whole campaign of 1631; but the 
obstructive timidity of the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony 
threw insuperable obstacles in his way, and, on the very day 
when John George I. of Saxony closed his gates against Gustavus 
the most populous and prosperous city in North Germany 
became a heap of smoking ruins (2oth of May). Gustavus, still 
too weak to meet the foe, entrenched himself at Werben, at the 
confluence of the Havel and Elbe. Only on the 1 2th of September 
did the elector of Saxony, alarmed for the safety of his own 
states, now invaded by the emperor, place himself absolutely at 
the disposal of Gustavus; and, five days later, at the head of the 
combined Swedish-Saxon army, though the Swedes did all the 
fighting, Gustavus routed Tilly at the famous battle of Breiten- 
feld, north of Leipzig. 

The question now was: In what way should Gustavus utilize 
his advantage? Should he invade the Austrian crown lands, 
and dictate peace to Ferdinand II. at the gates of Vienna ? Or 
should he pursue Tilly westwards and crush the league at its own 
hearth and home? Oxenstjerna was the first alternative, 
but Gustavus decided in favour of the second. His decision has 
been greatly blamed. More than one modern historian has 
argued that if Gustavus had done in 1631 what Napoleon did in 
1805 and 1809, there would have been a fifteen instead of a thirty 
years' war. But it should be borne in mind that, in the days of 
Gustavus, Vienna was by no means so essential to the existence 
of the Habsburg monarchy as it was in the days of Napoleon; 
and even Gustavus could not allow so dangerous an opponent as 
Tilly time to recover himself. Accordingly, he set out for the 
Rhine, taking Marienberg and Frankfort on his way, and on the 
2oth of December entered Mainz, where he remained throughout 
the winter of 1631-1632. At the beginning of 1632, in order to 
bring about the general peace he so earnestly desired, he proposed 
to take the field with an overwhelming numerical majority. The 
signal for Gustavus to break up from the Rhine was the sudden 
advance of Tilly from behind the Danube. Gustavus pursued 
Tilly into Bavaria, forced the passage of the Danube at Donau- 
worth and the passage of the Lech, in the face of Tilly's strongly 
entrenched camp at Rain, and pursued the flying foe to the 
fortress of Ingolstadt where Tilly died of his wounds a fortnight 
later. Gustavus then liberated and garrisoned the long-oppressed 
Protestant cities of Augsburg and Ulm, and in May occupied 
Munich. The same week Wallenstein chased John George from 
Prague and manoeuvred the Saxons out of Bohemia. Then, 
armed as he was with plenipotentiary power, he offered the 
elector of Saxony peace on his own terms. Gustavus suddenly 
saw himself exposed to extreme peril. If Tilly had made John 
George such an offer as Wallenstein was now empowered to 
make, the elector would never have become Gustavus's ally; 
would he remain Gustavus's ally now? Hastily quitting his 
quarters in Upper Swabia, Gustavus hastened towards Nurem- 
berg on his way to Saxony, but finding that Wallenstein and 
Maximilian of Bavaria had united their forces, he abandoned the 
attempt to reach Saxony, and both armies confronted each 
other at Nuremberg which furnished Gustavus with a point of 
support of the first order. He quickly converted the town into 
an entrenched and fortified camp. Wallenstein followed the 
king's example, and entrenched himself on the western bank of 



the Regnitz in a camp twelve English miles in circumference. 
His object was to pin Gustavus fast to Nuremberg and cut off his 
retreat northwards. Throughout July and August the two 
armies faced each other immovably. On the 24th of August, 
after an unsuccessful attempt to storm Alte Veste, the key of 
Wallenstein's position, the Swedish host retired southwards. 

Towards the end of October, Wallenstein, after devastating 
Saxony, was preparing to go into winter quarters at Ltitzen, 
when the king surprised him as he was crossing the Rippach 
(ist of November) and a rearguard action favourable to the 
Swedes ensued. Indeed, but for nightfall, Wallenstein's scattered 
forces might have been routed. During the night, however, 
Wallenstein re-collected his host for a decisive action, and at day- 
break on the 6th of November, while an autumn mist still lay 
over the field, the battle began. It was obviously Gustavus's plan 
to drive Wallenstein away from the Leipzig road, north of which 
he had posted himself, and thus, in case of success, to isolate, and 
subsequently, with the aid of the Saxons in the Elbe fortresses, 
annihilate him. The king, on the Swedish right wing, succeeded 
in driving the enemy from the trenches and capturing his cannon. 
What happened after that is mere conjecture, for a thick mist 
now obscured the autumn sun, and the battle became a colossal 
melee the details of which are indistinguishable. It was in the 
midst of that awful obscurity that Gustavus met his death how 
or where is not absolutely certain; but it would seem that he 
lost his way in the darkness while leading the Smaland horse to 
the assistance of his infantry, and was despatched as he lay 
severely wounded on the ground by a hostile horseman. 

By his wife, Marie Eleonora, a sister of the elector of Branden- 
burg, whom he married in 1620, Gustavus Adolphus had one 
daughter, Christina, who succeeded him on the throne of Sweden. 

See Sveriges Historia (Stockholm, 1877, 81), vol. iv. ; A. Oxen- 
stjerna, Skrifter och Brefvexling (Stockholm, 1900, &c.) ; G. Bjorlen, 
Gustaf Adolf (Stockholm, 1890) ; R. N. Bain, Scandinavia (Cam- 
bridge, 1905); C. R. L. Fletcher, Gustavus Adolphus (London. 
1892); J. L. Stevens, History of Gustavus Adolphus (London, 1885); 
I. Mankell, Om Gustaf II. Adolfs politik (Stockholm, 1881); E. 
Bluemel, Gustav Adolf, Konig von Schweden (Eisleben, 1894); A. 
Rydfors, De diplomatiska forbindelserna mellan Sverige och England 
1624-1630 (Upsala, 1890). (R. N. B.) 

GUSTAVUS HI. (1746-1792), king of Sweden, was the eldest 
son of Adolphus Frederick, king of Sweden, and Louisa Ulrica of 
Prussia, sister of Frederick the Great, and was born on the 24th 
of January 1 746. Gustavus was educated under the care of two 
governors who were amongst the most eminent Swedish states- 
men of the day, Carl Gustaf Tessin and Carl Scheffer; but he 
owed most perhaps to the poet and historian Olof von Dalin. 
The interference of the state with his education, when he was 
quite a child, was, however, doubly harmful, as his parents 
taught him to despise the preceptors imposed upon him by the 
diet, and the atmosphere of intrigue and duplicity in which he 
grew up made him precociously experienced in the art of dissimu- 
lation. But even his most hostile teachers were amazed by the 
brilliance of his natural gifts, and, while still a boy, he possessed 
that charm of manner which was to make him so fascinating and 
so dangerous in later life, coupled with the strong dramatic 
instinct which won for him his honourable place in Swedish 
literature. On the whole, Gustavus cannot be said to have been 
well educated, but he read very widely; there was scarce a 
French author of his day with whose works he was not intimately 
acquainted; while his enthusiasm for the new French ideas of 
enlightenment was as sincere as, if more critical than, his 
mother's. On the 4th of November 1766, Gustavus married 
Sophia Magdalena, daughter of Frederick V.- of Denmark. The 
match was an unhappy one, owing partly to incompatibility of 
temper, but still more to the mischievous interference of the 
jealous queen-mother. 

Gustavus first intervened actively in politics in 1768, at the 
time of hisfather's interregnum, when he compelled the dominant 
Cap faction to summon an extraordinary diet from which he 
hoped for the reform of the constitution in a monarchical direction. 
But the victorious Hats refused to redeem the pledges which they 
had given before the elections. " That we should have lost the 



GUSTAVUS III. 



737 



constitutional battle does not distress us so much," wrote 
Gustavus, in the bitterness of his heart; "but what does dismay 
me is to see my poor nation so sunk in corruption as to place its 
own felicity in absolute anarchy." From the 4th of February to 
the 25th of March 1771, Gustavus was at Paris, where he carried 
both the court and the city by storm. The poets and the philo- 
sophers paid him enthusiastic homage, and all the distinguished 
women of the day testified to his superlative merits. With many 
of them he maintained a lifelong correspondence. But his visit 
to the French capital was no mere pleasure trip; it was also a 
political mission. Confidential agents from the Swedish court 
had already prepared the way for him, and the due de Choiseul, 
weary of Swedish anarchy, had resolved to discuss with him the 
best method of bringing about a revolution in Sweden. Before 
he departed, the French government undertook to pay the out- 
standing subsidies to Sweden unconditionally, at the rate of one 
and a half million livres annually; and the comte de Vergennes, 
one of the great names of French diplomacy, was transferred 
from Constantinople to Stockholm. On his way home Gustavus 
paid a short visit to his uncle, Frederick the Great, at Potsdam. 
Frederick bluntly informed his nephew that, in concert with 
Russia and Denmark, he had guaranteed the integrity of the 
existing Swedish constitution, and significantly advised the 
young monarch to play the part of mediator and abstain from 
violence. 

On his return to Sweden Gustavus made a sincere and earnest 
attempt to mediate between the Hats and Caps who were ruining 
the country between them (see SWEDEN: History). On the 2ist 
of June 1771 he opened his first parliament in a speech which 
awakened strange and deep emotions in all who heard it. It was 
the first time for more than a century that a Swedish king had 
addressed a Swedish diet from the throne in its native tongue. 
The orator laid especial stress on the necessity of the sacrifice of 
all party animosities to the common weal, and volunteered, as 
" the first citizen of a free people," to be the mediator between 
the contending factions. A composition committee was actually 
formed, but it proved illusory from the first, the patriotism of 
neither 'of the factions being equal to the puniest act of self- 
denial. The subsequent attempts of the dominant Caps still 
further to limit the prerogative, and reduce Gustavus to the 
condition of a roi faineant, induced him at last to consider the 
possibility of a revolution. Of its necessity there could be no 
doubt. Under the sway of the Cap faction, Sweden, already the 
vassal, could not fail to become the prey of Russia. She was 
on the point of being absorbed in that northern system, the 
invention of the Russian vice-chancellor, Count Nikita Panin, 
which that patient statesman had made it the ambition of his 
life to realize. Only a swift and sudden coup d'tlal could save the 
independence of a country isolated from the rest of Europe by a 
hostile league. At this juncture Gustavus was approached by 
Jakob Magnus Sprengtporten, a Finnish nobleman of determined 
character, who had incurred the enmity of the Caps, with the 
project of a revolution. He undertook to seize the fortress of 
Sveaborg by a coup de main, and, Finland once secured, Sprengt- 
porten proposed to embark for Sweden, meet the king and his 
friends near Stockholm, and surprise the capital by a night 
attack, when the estates were to be forced, at the point of the 
bayonet, to accept a new constitution from the untrammelled 
king. The plotters were at this juncture reinforced by an ex- 
ranger from Scania (Skane), Johan Kristoffer Toll, also a victim 
of Cap oppression. Toll proposed that a second revolt should 
break out in the province of Scania, to confuse the government 
still more, and undertook personally to secure the southern fortress 
of Kristianstad. After some debate, it was finally arranged 
that, a few days after the Finnish revolt had begun, Kristianstad 
should openly declare against the government. Prince Charles, 
the eldest of the king's brothers, was thereupon hastily to mobilize 
the garrisons of all the southern fortresses, for the ostensible 
purpose of crushing the revolt at Kristianstad; but on arriving 
before the fortress he was to make common cause with the rebels, 
and march upon the capital from the south, while Sprengtporten 
attacked it simultaneously from the east. On the 6th of August 
xn. 24 



1772 Toll succeeded, by sheer bluff, in winning the fortress of 
Kristianstad. On the i6th Sprengtporten succeeded in surprising 
Sveaborg. But contrary winds prevented him from crossing to 
Stockholm, and in the meanwhile events had occurred which made 
his presence there unnecessary. 

On the i6th of August the Cap leader, Ture Rudbeck, arrived 
at Stockholm with the news of the insurrection in the south, 
and Gustavus found himself isolated in the midst of enemies. 
Sprengtporten lay weather-bound in Finland, Toll was five 
hundred miles away, the Hat leaders were in hiding. Gustavus 
thereupon resolved to strike the decisive blow without waiting 
for the arrival of Sprengtporten. He acted with military 
promptitude. On the evening of the i8th all the officers whom 
he thought he could trust received secret instructions to assemble 
in the great square facing the arsenal on the following morning. 
At ten o'clock on the igth Gustavus mounted his horse and rode 
straight to the-arsenal. On the way his adherents joined him in 
little groups, as if by accident, so that by the time he reached his 
destination he had about two hundred officers in his suite. After 
parade he reconducted them to the guard-room of the palace 
and unfolded his plans to them. He then dictated a new oath of 
allegiance, and every one signed it without hesitation. It absolved 
them from their allegiance to the estates, and bound them solely 
to obey their lawful king, Gustavus III. Meanwhile the senate 
and the governor-general, Rudbeck, had been arrested and the 
fleet secured. Then Gustavus made a tour of the city and was 
everywhere received by enthusiastic crowds, who hailed him as a 
deliverer. On the evening of the 2oth heralds perambulated the 
streets proclaiming that the estates were to meet in the Rikssaal 
on the following day; every deputy absenting himself would be 
regarded as the enemy of his country and his king. On the zist, 
a few moments after the estates had assembled, the king in full 
regalia appeared, and taking his seat on the throne, delivered that 
famous philippic, one of the masterpieces of Swedish oratory, in 
which he reproached the estates for their unpatriotic venality 
and licence in the past. A new constitution was recited by the 
estates and accepted by them unanimously. The diet was then 
dissolved. 

Gustavus was inspired by a burning enthusiasm for the great- 
ness and welfare of Sweden, and worked in the same reformatory 
direction as the other contemporary sovereigns of the " age of 
enlightenment." He took an active part in every department of 
business, but relied far more on extra-official counsellors of his 
own choosing than upon the senate. The effort to remedy the 
frightful corruption which had been fostered by the Hats and 
Caps engaged a considerable share of his time and he even found 
it necessary to put the whole of a supreme court of justice (Cola 
Hofratt) on its trial. Measures were also taken to reform the 
administration and the whole course of judicial procedure, and 
torture as an instrument of legal investigation was abolished. 
In 1774 an ordinance providing for the liberty of the press was 
even issued. The national defences were at the same time 
developed on a " Great Power " scale, and the navy was so 
enlarged as to become one of the most formidable in Europe. 
The dilapidated finances were set in good order by the " currency 
realization ordinance " of 1777. Gustavus also introduced new- 
national economic principles. In 1775 free trade in corn was 
promoted and a number of oppressive export-tolls were abolished. 
The poor law was also amended, absolute religious liberty was 
proclaimed, and he even succeeded in inventing and popularizing 
a national costume which was in general use from 1778 till his 
death. His one great economic blunder was the attempt to make 
the sale of spirits a government monopoly, which was an obvious 
infringement upon the privileges of the estates. His foreign 
policy, on the other hand, was at first both wise and wary. 
Thus, when the king summoned the estates to assemble at 
Stockholm on the 3rd of September 1778, he could give a 
brilliant account of his six years' stewardship. Never was a 
parliament more obsequious or a king more gracious. " There 
was no room for a single No during the whole session." Yet, 
short as the session was, it was quite long enough to open the 
eyes of the deputies to the fact that their political supremacy had 



GUSTAVUS IV. GUSTAVUS V. 



departed. They had changed places with the king. He was now 
indeed their sovereign lord; and, for all his gentleness, the 
jealousy with which he guarded, lie vigour with which he 
enforced the prerogative, plainly showed that he meant to remain 
so. Even the few who were patriotic enough to acquiesce in the 
change by no means liked it. The diet of 1778 had been 
obsequious; the diet of 1786 was mutinous. The consequence 
was that nearly all the royal propositions were either rejected 
outright or so modified that Gustavus himself withdrew 
them. 

The diet of 1786 marks a turning-point in Gustavus's history. 
Henceforth we observe a determination on his part to rule with- 
out a parliament; a passage, cautious and gradual, yet un- 
flinching, from semi-constitutionalism to semi-absolutism. His 
opportunity came in 1788, when the political complications 
arising out of his war with Catherine II. of Russia enabled him 
by the Act of Unity and Security (on the I7th of February 1789) 
to override the opposition of the rebellious and grossly unpatriotic 
gentry, and, with the approbation of the three lower estates, 
establish a new and revolutionary constitution, in which, though 
the estates still held the power of the purse, the royal authority 
largely predominated. Throughout 1789 and 1790 Gustavus, in 
the national interests, gallantly conducted the unequal struggle 
with Russia, finally winning in the Svensksund (gth-ioth July) 
the most glorious naval victory ever gained by the Swedish arms, 
the Russians losing one-third of their fleet and 7000 men. A 
month later, on the I4th of August 1790, peace was signed 
between Russia and Sweden at Varala. Only eight months 
before, Catherine had haughtily declared that " the odious and 
revolting aggression " of the king of Sweden would be " for- 
given " only if he " testified his repentance " by agreeing to a 
peace granting a general and unlimited amnesty to all his rebels, 
and consenting to a guarantee by the Swedish diet (" as it would 
be imprudent to confide in his good faith alone ") for the obser- 
vance of peace in the future. The peace of Varala saved Sweden 
from any such humiliating concession, and iu October 1791 
Gustavus took the bold but by no means imprudent step of con- 
cluding an eight years' defensive alliance with the empress, who 
thereby bound herself to pay her new ally annual subsidies 
amounting to 300,000 roubles. 

Gustavus now aimed at forming a league of princes against the 
Jacobins, and every other consideration was subordinated 
thereto. His profound knowledge of popular assemblies enabled 
him, alone among contemporary sovereigns, accurately to gauge 
from the first the scope and bearing of the French Revolution. 
But he was hampered by poverty and the jealousy of the other 
European Powers, and, after showing once more his unrivalled 
mastery over masses of men at the brief Gefle diet (22nd of 
January-24th of February 1792), he fell a victim to a widespread 
aristocratic conspiracy. Shot in the back by Anckarstrom at a 
midnight masquerade at the Stockholm opera-house, on the i6th 
of March 1792, he expired on the 29th. 

Although he may be charged with many foibles and extrava- 
gances, Gustavus III. was indisputably one of the greatest 
sovereigns of the i8th century. Unfortunately his genius never 
had full scope, and his opportunity came too late. Gustavus was, 
moreover, a most distinguished author. He may be said to have 
created the Swedish theatre, and some of the best acting dramas 
in the literature are by his hand. His historical essays, notably 
the famous anonymous eulogy on Torstenson crowned by the 
Academy, are full of feeling and exquisite in style, his letters to 
his friends are delightful. Every branch of literature and art 
interested him, every poet and artist of his day found in him a 
most liberal and sympathetic protector. 

See R. N. Bain, Gustavus ITT. and his Contemporaries (London, 
1904); E. G. Geijer, Konung Gustaf III.'s efterlemnade papper 
(Upsala, 1843-1845); C. T. Odhner, Sveriees politiska historia under 
Konung Gustaf III.'s regering (Stockholm, 1885-1896); B. von 
Beskow, Om Gustaf III. sdsom Konung och mdnniska (Stockholm, 
1860-1861); O. Levertin, Gustaf III. som dramatisk forfattare 
(Stockholm, 1894) ; Gustaf III.'s href till G. M. Armfelt (Fr.) (Stock- 
holm, 1883); Y. K. Grot, Catharine II. and Gustavus III. (Russ.) 
(St Petersburg, 1884). (R. N. B.) 



GUSTAVUS IV. (1778-1837), king of Sweden, the son of 
Gustavus III. and Queen Sophia Magdalena, was born at Stock- 
holm on the ist of November 1778. Carefully educated under 
the direction of Nils von Rosenstein, he grew up serious and 
conscientious. In August 1 796 his uncle the regent Charles, duke 
of Sudermania, visited St Petersburg for the purpose of arranging 
a marriage between the young king and Catherine II. 's grand- 
daughter, the grand-duchess Alexandra. The betrothal was 
actually fixed for the 22nd of September, when the whole 
arrangement foundered on the obstinate refusal of Gustavus to 
allow his destined bride liberty of worship according to the rites 
of the Greek Orthodox Church a rebuff which undoubtedly 
accelerated the death of the Russian empress. Nobody seems to 
have even suspected at the time that serious mental derangement 
lay at the root of Gustavus's abnormal piety. On the contrary, 
there were many who prematurely congratulated themselves on 
the fact that Sweden had now no disturbing genius, but an 
economical, God-fearing, commonplace monarch to deal with. 
Gustavus's prompt dismissal of the' generally detested Gustaf 
Reuterholm added still further to his popularity. On the 3ist of 
October 1797 Gustavus married Frederica Dorothea, daughter of 
Charles Frederick, grand-duke of Baden, a marriage which might 
have led to a war with Russia but for the fanatical hatred of the 
French republic shared by the emperor Paul and Gustavus IV., 
which served as a bond of union between them. Indeed the 
king's horror of Jacobinism was morbid in its intensity, and drove 
him to adopt all sorts of reactionary measures and to postpone 
his coronation for some years, so as to avoid calling together a 
diet; but the disorder of the finances, caused partly by the 
continental war and partly by the almost total failure of the crops 
in 1798 and 1799, compelled him to summon the estates to 
Norrkoping in March 1800, and on the 3rd of April Gustavus was 
crowned. The notable change which now took place in Sweden's 
foreign policy and its fatal consequences to the country are else- 
where set forth (see SWEDEN, History). By the end of 1808 it was 
obvious to every thinking Swede that the king was insane. His 
violence had alienated his most faithful supporters, while his 
obstinate incompetence paralysed the national efforts. To 
remove a madman by force was the one remaining expedient; 
and this was successfully accomplished by a conspiracy of officers 
of the western army, headed by Adlersparre, the Anckarsvards, 
and Adlercreutz, who marched rapidly from Skane to Stockholm. 
On the I3th of March 1809 seven of the conspirators broke into 
the royal apartments in the palace unannounced, seized the king, 
and conducted him to the chateau of Gripsholm; Duke Charles 
was easily persuaded to accept the leadership of a provisional 
government, which was proclaimed the same day; and a diet, 
hastily summoned, solemnly approved of the revolution. On the 
29th of March Gustavus, in order to save the crown for his son, 
voluntarily abdicated; but on the loth of May the estates, 
dominated by the army, declared that not merely Gustavus but 
his whole family had forfeited the throne. On the sth of June 
the duke regent was proclaimed king under the title of Charles 
XIII., after accepting the new liberal constitution, which was 
ratified by the diet the same day. In December Gustavus and 
his family were transported to Germany. Gustavus now assumed 
the title of count of Gottorp, but subsequently called himself 
Colonel Gustafsson, under which pseudonym he wrote most of his 
works. He led, separated from his family, an erratic life for 
some years; was divorced from his consort in 1812; and finally 
settled at St Gall in Switzerland in great loneliness and indigence. 
He died on the 7th of February 1837, and, at the suggestion of 
King Oscar II. his body was brought to Sweden and interred in 
the Riddarholmskyrka. From him descend both the Baden and 
the Oldenburg princely houses on the female side. 

See H. G. Trolle-Wachtmeister, Anteckningar och minnen (Stock- 
holm, 1889); B. von Beskow, Lefnadsminnen (Stockholm, 1870); 
K. V. Key-Aberg, De diplomatiska forbindelserna mellan Sverige och 
Slorbrittannien under Gustaf IV.' s Krig emot NapoUon (Upsala, 1890) ; 
Colonel Gustafsson, La Journte du treize mars, &c. (St Gall, 1835) ; 
Memorial des Obersten Gustafsson (Leipzig, 1829). 

GUSTAVUS V. (1858- ), king of Sweden, son of Oscar II., 
king of Sweden and Norway, and Queen Sophia Wilhelmina, was 



GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS UNION GUTENBERG 



739 



born at Drottningholm on the i6th of June 1858. He entered the 
army, and was, like his father, a great traveller. As crown prince 
he held the title of duke of Warmland. He married in 1881 
Victoria (b. 1862), daughter of Frederick William Louis, grand 
duke of Baden, and of Louise, princess of Prussia. The duchess 
of Baden was the granddaughter of Sophia, princess of Sweden, 
and the marriage of the crown prince thus effected a union 
between the Bernadotte dynasty and the ancient Swedish royal 
house of Vasa. During the absence or illness of his father 
Gustavus repeatedly acted as regent, and was therefore already 
thoroughly versed in public affairs when he succeeded to the 
Swedish throne on the 8th of December 1907, the crown of 
Norway having been separated from that of Sweden in 1905. 
He took as his motto " With the people for the Fatherland." 

The crown prince, Oscar Frederick William Gustavus Adolphus, 
duke of Scania (b. 1882), married in 1905 Princess Margaret of 
Connaught (b. 1882), niece of King Edward VII. A son was 
born to them at Stockholm on the 22nd of April 1906, and another 
son in the following year. The king's two younger sons were 
William, duke of Sudermania (b. 1884), and Eric, duke of 
Westmanland (b. 1889). 

GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS UNION (GUSTAV-ADOLF-STIFTUNG, 
GUSTAV-ADOLF-VEREIN, EVANGEUSCHER VEREIN DER GUSTAV- 
ADOLF-STIFTUNG) , a society formed of members of the Evangelical 
Protestant churches of Germany, which has for its object the aid 
of feeble sister churches, especially in Roman Catholic countries. 
The project of forming such a society was first broached in con- 
nexion with the bicentennial celebration of the battle of Liitzen 
on the 6th of November 1832; a proposal to collect funds for a 
monument to Gustavus Adolphus having been agreed to, it was 
suggested by Superintendent Grossmann that the best memorial 
to the great champion of Protestantism, would be the formation 
of a union for propagating his ideas. For some years the society 
was limited in its area and its operations, being practically 
confined to Leipzig and Dresden, but at the Reformation festival 
in 1841 it received a new impulse through the energy and elo- 
quence of Karl Zimmermann (1803-1877), court preacher at 
Darmstadt, and in 1843 a general meeting was held at Frankfort- 
on-the-Main, where no fewer than twenty-nine branch associations 
belonging to all parts of Germany except Bavaria and Austria 
were represented. The want of a positive creed tended to make 
many of the stricter Protestant churchmen doubtful of the 
usefulness of the union, and the stricter Lutherans have always 
held aloof from it. On the other hand, its negative attitude in 
relation to Roman Catholicism secured for it the sympathy of 
the masses. At a general convention held in Berlin in September 
1846 a keen dispute arose about the admission of the Konigsberg 
delegate, Julius Rupp (1809-1884), who in 1845 had been 
deprived for publicly repudiating the Athanasian Creed and 
became one of the founders of the " Free Congregations "; and 
at one time it seemed likely that the society would be completely 
broken up. Amid the political revolutions of the year 1848 the 
whole movement fell into stagnation; but in 1849 another 
general convention (the seventh), held at Breslau, showed that, 
although the society had lost both in membership and income, 
it was still possessed of considerable vitality. From that date 
the Gustav-Adolf-Verein has been more definitely " evangelical " 
in its tone than formerly; and under the direction of Karl 
Zimmermann it greatly increased both in numbers and in wealth. 
It has built over 2000 churches and assisted with some two 
million pounds over 5000 different communities. Apart from its 
influence in maintaining Protestantism in hostile areas, there can 
be no doubt that the union has had a great effect in helping the 
various Protestant churches of Germany to realize the number 
and importance of their common interests. 

See K. Zimmermann, Geschichte des Gustav-Adolf-Vereins (Darm- 
stadt, 1877). 

GUSTROW, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the Nebel and the railway from 
Liibeck to Stettin, 20 m. S. of Rostock. Pop. (1873), 10,923; 
(1905) 17,163. The principal buildings are the castle, erected in 
the middle of the i6th century and now used as a workhouse; 



the cathedral, dating from the i3th century and restored in 
1868, containing many fine monuments and possessing a square 
tower 100 ft. high; the Pfarrkirche, with fine altar-paintings; 
the town hall (Rathaus), dating from the i6th century; the 
music hall, and the theatre. Among the educational establish- 
ments are the ducal gymnasium, which possesses a library of 
15,000 volumes, a modern and a commercial school. The town 
is one of the most prosperous in the duchy, and has machine 
works, foundries, tanneries, sawmills, breweries, distilleries, and 
manufactories of tobacco, glue, candles and soap. There is also 
a considerable trade in wool, corn, wood, butter and cattle, and 
an annual cattle show and horse races are held. 

Giistrow, capital of the Mecklenburg duchy of that name, or of 
the Wend district, was a place of some importance as early as the 
1 2th century, and in 1219 it became the residence of Henry 
Borwin II., prince of Mecklenburg, from whom it received 
Schwerin privileges. From 1316 to 1436 the town was the 
Residence of the princes of the Wends, and from 1 556 to 1695 of the 
dukes of Mecklenburg-Gustrow. In 1628 it was occupied by the 
imperial troops, and Wallenstein resided in it during part of the 
years 1628 and 1629. 

GUTENBERG, JOHANN (c. 1398-1468), German printer, is 
supposed to have been born c. 1398-1399 at Mainz of well-to-do 
parents, his father being Friele zum Gensfleisch and his mother 
Elsgen Wyrich (or, from her birthplace, zu Gutenberg, the name 
he adopted). He is assumed to be mentioned under the name of 
" Henchen " in a copy of a document of 1420, and again in a 
document of c. 1427-1428, but it is not stated where he then 
resided. On January 16, 1430, his mother arranged with the 
city of Mainz about an annuity belonging to him; but when, in 
the same year, some families who had been expelled a few years 
before were permitted to return to Mainz, Gutenberg appears not 
to have availed himself of the privilege, as he is described in the 
act of reconciliation (dated March 28) as " not being in Mainz." 
It is therefore assumed that the family had taken refuge in 
Strassburg, where Gutenberg was residing later. There he is 
said to have been in 1434, and to have seized and imprisoned the 
town clerk of Mainz for a debt due to him by the corporation of 
that city, releasing him, however, at the representations of the 
mayor and councillors of Strassburg, and relinquishing at the 
same time all claims to the money (310 Rhenish guilders = about 
2400 mark). 1 Between 1436 and 1439 certain documents 

1 It is difficult to know which of the Gutenberg documents can 
be trusted and which not. Schorbach, in his recent biography of 
Gutenberg, accepts and describes 27 of them (Festschrift, 1900, p. 
163 sqq.), 17 of which are known only from (not always accurate) 
copies or transcripts. Under ordinary circumstances history might 
be based on them. But it is certain that some so-called Gutenberg 
documents, not included in the above 27, are forgeries. Fr. J. 
Bodmann (1754-1820), for many years professor and librarian at 
Mainz, forged at least two; one (dated July 20, 1459) he even 
provided with four forged seals; the other (dated Strassburg, March 
24, 1424) purported to be an autograph letter of Gutenberg to a 
fictitious sister of his named Bertha. Of these two documents 
French and German texts were published about 1800-1802; the 
forger lived for twenty years afterwards but never undeceived the 
public. He enriched the Gutenberg literature with other fabrications. 
In fact Bodmann had trained himself for counterfeiting MSS. and 
documents; he openly boasted of his abilities in this respect, and 
used them, sometimes to amuse his friends who were searching for 
Gutenberg documents, sometimes for himself to fill up gaps in 
Gutenberg's life. (For two or three more specimens of his capacities 
see A. Wyss in Zeitschr. fur Altert. u. Gesch. Schlesiens, xv. 9 sqq.) 
To one of his friends (Professor Gotthelf Fischer, who preceded him 
as librarian of Mainz) one or two other fabrications may be ascribed. 
There are, moreover, serious misgivings as to documents said to have 
been discovered about 1740 (when the citizens of Strassburg claimed 
the honour of the invention for their city) by Jacob Wencker (the 
then archivist of Strassburg) and J. D. Schoepflin (professor and 
canon of St Thomas's at Strassburg). For instance, of the above 
document of 1434 no original has ever come to light ; while the draft 
of the transaction, alleged to have been written at the time in a 
register of contracts, and to have been found about 1740 by Wencker, 
has also disappeared with the register itself. The document (now 
only known from a copy said to toave been taken by Wencker from 
the draft) is upheld as genuine by Schorbach, who favours an in- 
vention of printing at Strassburg, but Bockenheimer, though 
supporting Gutenberg and Mainz, declares it to be a fiction (Guten- 
berg-Feier, Mainz, 1900, pp. 24-33). Again, suspicions are justified 



740 



GUTENBERG 



represent him as having been engaged there in some experiments 
requiring money, with Andreas Dritzehn, a fellow-citizen, who 
became not only security for him but hte partner to carry out 
Gutenberg's plan for polishing stones and the manufacture of 
looking-glasses, for which a lucrative sale was expected at the 
approaching pilgrimage of 1440 (subsequently postponed, accord- 
ing to the documents, although there is no evidence for this 
postponement) to Aix-la-Chapelle. Money was lent for this 
purpose by two other friends. In 1438 another partnership was 
arranged between Gutenberg, Andreas Dritzehn, and Andreas 
and Anton Heilmann, and that this had in view the art of 
printing has been inferred from the word " drucken " used by one 
of the witnesses in the law proceedings which soon after followed. 
An action was brought, after the death of Dritzehn, by his two 
brothers to force Gutenberg to accept them as partners in their 
brother's place, but the decision was in favour of the latter. In 
1441 Gutenberg became surety to the St Thomas Chapter at 
Strassburg for Johann Karle, who borrowed 100 guilders (about 
16) from the chapter, and on November 17, 1442, he himself 
borrowed 80 livres through Martin Brechter (or Brehter) from 
the same chapter. Of his whereabouts from the i2th of March 
1444 (when he paid a tax at Strassburg) to the ijth of October 
1448 nothing certain is known. But on the latter date we find 
him at Mainz, borrowing 1 50 gold guilders of his kinsman, Arnold 
Gelthus, against an annual interest of 75 gold guilders? We do 
not know whether the interest on this debt has ever been paid, but 
the debt itself appears never to have been paid off, as the contract 
of this loan was renewed (vidimiised) on August 23, 1503, for 
other parties. It is supposed that soon afterwards Gutenberg 
must have been able to show some convincing results of his work, 
for it appears that about 1450 Johann Fust (q.v.) advanced him 
800 guilders to promote it, on no security except that of 
" tools " still to be made. Fust seems also to have undertaken to 
advance him 300 guilders a year for expenses, wages, house-rent, 
parchment, paper, ink, &c., but he does not appear to have ever 
done so. If at any time they disagreed, Gutenberg was to return 
the 800 guilders, and the " tools " were to cease to be security. 
It is not known to what purpose Gutenberg devoted the money 
advanced to him. In the minutes of the law-suit of 1455 he 
himself says that he had to make his " tools " with it. But he 
is presumed to have begun a large folio Latin Bible, and to have 
printed during its progress some smaller books l and likewise the 
Letter of Indulgence (granted on the 12th of April 1451 by Pope 
Nicholas V. in aid of John II., king of Cyprus, against the Turks), 
of 31 lines, having the earliest printed date 1454, of which 
several copies are preserved in various European libraries. A 
copy of the 1455 issue of the same Indulgence is in the Rylands 
Library at Manchester (from the Althorp Library). 

It is not known whether any books were printed while this 
partnership between Gutenberg and Fust lasted. Trithemius 
(Ann. Hirsaug. ii. 421) says they first printed, from wooden 

with respect to the documents recording Gutenberg's lawsuit of 1439 
at Strassburg. Bockenheimer explains at great length (I.e. pp. 41-72) 
that they are forgeries. He even explains (ibid. pp. 97-107) that the 
so-called Helmasperger document of November 6, 1455, may be a 
fabrication of the Faust von Aschaffenburg family, who endeavoured 
to claim Johann Fust as their ancestor. There are also ( i ) a fragment 
of a fictitious " press," said to have been constructed by Gutenberg 
in 1441, and to have been discovered (!) at Mainz in 1856; (2) a 
forged imprint with the date 1458 in a copy of Pope Gregory's 
Dialogues, really printed at Strassburg about 1470; (3) a forged 
rubric in a copy of the Tractatus de celebratione missarum, from 
which it would appear that Johann Gutenberg and Johann Num- 
meister had presented it on June 19, 1463, to the Carthusian monastery 
near Mainz; (4) four forged copies of the Indulgence of 1455, in the 
Culemann Collection in the Kastner Museum at Hanover, &c. (see 
further, Hessels, " The so-called Gutenberg Documents," in The 
Library, 1909). 

1 Among these were perhaps (l) one or two editions of the work of 
Donatus, De octo partibus orationis, 27 lines to a page, of one of which 
two leaves, now in the Paris National Library, were discovered at 
Mainz in the original binding of an account book, one of them having, 
but in a later hand, the year 1451 (?) ; (2) the Turk-Kalendar for 
1455 (preserved in the Hof-Bibliothek at Munich) ; (3) the Cisianus 
(preserved in the Cambridge Univ. Libr.), and perhaps others now 
lost. 



blocks, a vocabulary called Catholicon, which cannot have been 
the Catholicon of Johannes de Janua, a folio of 748 pages in two 
columns of 66 lines each, printed in 1460, but was perhaps a 
small glossary now lost. 2 The Latin Bible of 42 lines, a folk) 
of 1282 printed pages, in two columns with spaces left for 
illuminated initials (so called because each column contains 
42 lines, and also known as the Mazarin Bible, because the 
first copy described wasfound in the library of Cardinal Mazarin), 
was finished before the isth of August 1456;* German biblio- 
graphers now claim this Bible for Gutenberg, but, according 
to bibliographical rules, it must be ascribed to Peter Schoffer. 
perhaps in partnership with Fust. It is in smaller type than 
the Bible of 36 lines, which latter is called either (a) the Bamberg 
Bible, because nearly all the known copies were found in the 
neighbourhood of Bamberg, or (b) Schelhorn's Bible, because 
J. G. Schelhorn was the first who described it in 1760, or (c) 
Pfisler's Bible, because its printing is ascribed to Albrecht 
Pfister of Bamberg, who used the same type for several small 
German books, the chief of which is Boner's Edelstein (1461, 410), 
88 leaves, with 85 woodcuts, a book of fables in German rhyme. 
Some bibliographers believe this 36-line Bible to have been 
begun, if not entirely printed, by Gutenberg during his partnership 
with Fust, as its type occurs in the 3i-line Letters of Indulgence 
of 1454, was used for the 27-line Donatus (of 1451?), and, 
finally, when found in Pfister's possession in 1461, appears to 
be old and worn, except the additional letters k, w, z required 
for German, which are clear and sharp like the types used in 
the Bible. Again, others profess to prove (Dziatzko, Gutenberg's 
friiheste Drucker praxis) that B 36 was a reprint of B 42 . 

Gutenberg's work, whatever it may have been, was not a 
commercial success, and in 1452 Fust had to come forward 
with another 800 guilders to prevent a collapse. But some time 
before November 1455 the latter demanded repayment of his 
advances (see the Helmasperger Notarial Document of November 
6, 1455, in Dziatzko's Beitragezur Gutenbergfrage, Berlin, 1889). 
and took legal proceedings against Gutenberg. We do not know 
the end of these proceedings, but if Gutenberg had prepared any 
printing materials it would seem that he was compelled to yield 
up the whole of them to Fust; that the latter removed them to 
his own house at Mainz, and there, with the assistance of Peter 
Schoffer, issued various books until the sack of the city in 1462 
by Adolphus II. caused a suspension of printing for three years, 
to be resumed again in 1465. 

We have no information as to Gutenberg's activity, and very 
little of his whereabouts, after his separation from Fust. In a 
document dated June 21, 1457, he appears as witness on behalf 
of one of his relatives, which shows that he was then still at 
Mainz. Entries in the registers of the St Thomas Church at 
Strassburg make it clear that the annual interest on the money 
which Gutenberg on the I7th of November 1442 (see above) had 
borrowed from the chapter of that church was regularly paid 
till the nth of November 1457, either by himself or by his 

2 Ulric Zell states, in the Cologne Chronicle of 1499, that Gutenberg 
and Fust printed a Bible in jarge type like that used in missals. It 
has been said that this description applies to the 42-line Bible, as its 
type is as large as that of most missals printed before 1500, and that 
the size now called missal type (double pica) was not used in missals 
until late in the l6th century. This is no doubt true of the smaller 
missals printed before 1500, some of which are in even smaller type 
than the 42-line Bible. But many of the large folio missals, as that 
printed at Mainz by Peter Schoffer in 1483, the Carthusian missal 
printed at Spires by Peter Drach about 1490, and the Dominican 
missal printed by Andrea de Torresanis at Venice in 1496, are in as 
large type as the 36-line Bible. Peter Schoffer (1425-1502) of 
Gernsheim, between Mainz and Mannheim, who was a copyist in 
Paris in 1449, and whom Fust called his servant (famulus), is said by 
Trithemius to have discovered an easier way of founding characters, 
whence Lambinet and others concluded that Schoffer invented the 
punch. Schoffer himself, in the colophon of the Psalter of 1457, a 
work which some suppose to have been planned and partly printed 
by Gutenberg, claims only the mode of printing rubrics and coloured 
capitals. 

3 The Leipzig copy of this Bible (which formerly belonged to Herr 
Klemm of Dresden) has at the end the MS. year 1453 in old Arabic 
numerals. But certain circumstances connected with this date make 
it look very suspicious. 



GUTERSLOH GUTHRIE 



surety, Martin Brechter. But the payment due on the latter 
date appears to have been delayed, as an entry in the register 
of that year shows that the chapter had incurred expenses in 
taking steps to have both Gutenberg and Brechter arrested. 
This time the difficulties seem to have been removed, but on and 
after the nth of November 1458 Gutenberg and Brechter 
remained in default. The chapter made various efforts, all 
recorded in their registers, to get their money, but in vain. 
Every year they recorded the arrears with the expenses to which 
they were put in their efforts to arrest the defaulters, till at last 
in 1474 (six years after Gutenberg's death) their names are no 
longer mentioned. 

Meantime Gutenberg appears to have been printing, as we 
learn from a document dated February 26, 1468, that a syndic 
of Mainz, Dr Conrad Homery (who had formerly been in the 
service of the elector Count Diet her of Ysenburg), had at one 
time supplied him, not with money, but with some formes, types, 
tools, implements and other things belonging to printing, which 
Gutenberg had left after his death, and which had, and still, 
belonged to him (Homery); this material had come into the 
hands of Adolf, the archbishop of Mainz, who handed or sent 
it back to Homery, the latter undertaking to use it in no other 
town but Mainz, nor to sell it to any person except a citizen of 
Mainz, even if a stranger should offer him a higher price for the 
things. This material has never yet been identified, so that we 
do not know what types Gutenberg may have had at his disposal; 
they could hardly have included the types of the Catholicon of 
1460, as is suggested, this work being probably executed by 
Heinrich Bechtermiinze (d. 1467), who afterwards removed to 
Eltville, orperhaps by Peter Schoffer, who, about 1470, advertises 
the book as his property (see K. Burger, Buchhandler-Anzeigen). 
It is uncertain whether Gutenberg remained in Mainz or removed 
to the neighbouring town of Eltville, where he may have been 
engaged for a while with the brothers Bechtermunze, who 
printed there for some time with the types of the 1460 Catholicon. 
On the 1 7th of January 1465 he accepted the post of salaried 
courtier from the archbishop Adolf, and in this capacity received 
annually a suit of livery together with a fixed allowance of corn 
and wine. Gutenberg seems to have died at Mainz at the 
beginning of 1468, and was, according to tradition, buried in 
the Franciscan church in that city. His relative Arnold Gelthus 
erected a monument to his memory near his supposed grave, 
and forty years afterwards Ivo Wittig set up a memorial tablet 
at the legal college at Mainz. No books bearing the name of 
Gutenberg as printer are known, nor is any genuine portrait 
of him known, those appearing upon medals, statues or engraved 
plates being all fictitious. 

In 1808 the firm of L. Rosenthal, at Munich, acquired a 
Missale speciale on paper, which Otto Hupp, in two treatises 
published in 1898 and 1902, asserts to have been printed by 
Gutenberg about 1450, seven years before the 1457 Psalter. 
Various German bibliographers, however, think that it could 
not have been printed before 1480, and, judging from the fac- 
similes published by Hupp, this date seems to be approximately 
correct. 

On the 24th of June 1900 the five-hundredth anniversary of 
Gutenberg's birth was celebrated in several German cities, 
notably in Mainz and Leipzig, and most of the recent literature 
on the invention of printing dates from that time. 

So we may note that in 1902 a vellum fragment of an Astro- 
nomical Kalendar was discovered by the librarian of Wiesbaden, 
Dr G. Zedler (Die dlteste Gutenbergtype, Mainz, 1902), apparently 
printed in the 36-line Bible type, and as the position of the sun, 
moon and other planets described in this document suits the 
years 1429, 1448 and 1467, he ascribes the printing of this 
Kalendar to the year 1447. A paper fragment of a poem in 
German, entitled Weltgericht, said to be printed in the 36-line 
Bible type, appears to have come into the possession of Herr 
Eduard Beck at Mainz in 1892, and was presented by him in 
1903 to the Gutenberg Museum in that city. Zedler published 
a facsimile of it in 1904 (for the Gutenberg Gesellschaft) , with a 
description, in which he places it before the 1447 Kalendar, 



c. 1444-1447. Moreover, fragments of two editions of Donatus 
different from that of 1451 (?) have recently been found; see 
Schwenke in Centralbl. fttr Bibliothekwesen (1908). 

The recent literature upon Gutenberg's life and work and early 
printing in general includes the following: A. von der Lindc, 
Geschichle und Erdichtung (Stuttgart, 1878); id. Geschichte der 
Buchdruckerkunst (Berlin, 1886); J. H. Hessels, Gutenberg, Was he 
the Inventor of Printing ? (London, 1882) ; id. Haarlem, the Birthplace 
of Printing, not Mentz (London, 1886); O. Hartwig, Festschrift zum 
funfhundertjdhrigen Geburtstag von Johann Gutenberg (Leipzig, 1900), 
which includes various treatises by Schenk zu Schweinsberg, K. 
Schorbach, &c. ; P. Schwenke, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des 
ersten Buchdrucks (Berlin, 1900) ; A. Borckel, Gutenberg, sein Leben, 
&c. (Giessen, 1897); id. Gutenberg und seine beriihmten Nachfolger 
im ersten Jahrhundert der Typographic (Frankfort, looo); F. 
Schneider, Mainz und seine Drucker (1900); G. Zed\er,Gutenberg- 
Forschungen (Leipzig, 1901); J. H. Hessels, The so-called Gutenberg 
Documents (London, 1910). For other works on the subject see 
TYPOGRAPHY. (J. H. H.) 

GUTERSLOH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Westphalia, n m. S.W. from Bielefeld by the railway to Dort- 
mund. Pop. (1905), 7375. It is a seat of silk and cotton in- 
dustries, and has a large trade in Westphalian hams and sausages. 
Printing, brewing and distilling are also carried on, and the 
town is famous for its rye-bread (Pumpernickel). Giiterslob has 
two Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue, 
a school- and other educational establishments. 

See Eickhoff, Geschichte der Stadt und Gemeinde Gutersloh 
(Giitersloh, 1904). 

GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES (1850- ), Scottish painter, and one 
of the leaders of the so-called Glasgow school of painters, was 
born at Greenock. Though in his youth he was influenced by 
John Pettie in London, and subsequently studied in Paris, his 
style, which is remarkable for grasp of character, breadth and 
spontaneity, is due to the lessons taught him by observation of 
nature, and to the example of Crawhall, by which he benefited in 
Lincolnshire in the early 'eighties of the last century. In his 
early works, such as " The Gipsy Fires are Burning, for Daylight 
is Past and Gone " (1882), and the " Funeral Service in the 
Highlands," he favoured a thick impasto, but with growing 
experience he used his colour with greater economy and reti- 
cence. Subsequently he devoted himself almost exclusively to 
portraiture. Sir James Guthrie, like so many of the Glasgow 
artists, achieved his first successes on the Continent, but soon 
found recognition in his native country. He was elected 
associate of the* Royal Scottish Academy in 1888, and full 
member in 1892, succeeded Sir George Reid as president of the 
Royal Scottish Academy in 1902, and was knighted in 1903. 
His painting " Schoolmates " is at the Ghent Gallery. Among 
his most successful portraits are those of his mother, Mr R. 
Garroway, Major Hotchkiss, Mrs Fergus, Professor Jack, and 
Mrs Watson. 

GUTHRIE, THOMAS (1803-1873), Scottish divine, was born 
at Brechin, Forfarshire, on the I2th of July 1803. He entered 
the university of Edinburgh at the early age of twelve, and 
continued to attend classes there for more than ten years. On 
the 2nd of February 1825 the presbytery of Brechin licensed him 
as a preacher in connexion with the Church of Scotland, and in 
1826 he was in Paris studying natural philosophy, chemistry, and 
comparative anatomy. For two years he acted as manager of 
his father's bank, and in 1830 was inducted to his first charge, 
Arbirlot, in Forfarshire, where he adopted a vivid dramatic style 
of preaching adapted to his congregation of peasants, farmers 
and weavers. In 1837 he became the colleague of John Sym in 
the pastorate of Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and at once 
attracted notice as a great pulpit orator. Towards the dose of 
1840 he became minister of St John's church, Victoria Street, 
Edinburgh. He declined invitations both from London and 
from India. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the move- 
ment which led to the Disruption of 1843; and his name is 
thenceforth associated with the Free Church, for which he 
collected 116,000 from July 1845 to June 1846 to provide 
manses for the seceding ministers. In 1844 he became a 
teetotaller. In 1847 he began the greatest work of his life by the 
publication of his first " Plea for Ragged Schools." This 



742 



GUTHRIE GUTS-MUTHS 



pamphlet elicited a beautiful and sympathetic letter from Lord 
Jeffrey. A Ragged School was opened on the Castle Hill, which 
has been the parent of many similar institutions elsewhere, 
though Guthrie's relation to the movement is best described as 
that of an apostle rather than a founder. He insisted on bringing 
up all the children in his school as Protestants; and he thus 
made his schools proselytizing as well as educational institutions. 
This interference with religious liberty led to some controversy; 
and ultimately those who differed from Guthrie founded the 
United Industrial School, giving combined secular and separate 
religious instruction. In April 1847 the degree of D.D. was 
conferred on Guthrie by the university of Edinburgh; and in 
1850 William Hanna (1808-1882), the biographer and son-in-law 
of Thomas Chalmers, was inducted as his colleague in Free St 
John's Church. 

In 1850 Guthrie published A Plea on behalf of Drunkards and 
against Drunkenness, which was followed by The Gospel in 
Ezekiel (1855); The City: its Sins and Sorrows (1857); Christ 
and the Inheritance of the Saints (1858) ; Seedtime and Harvest of 
Ragged Schools (1860), consisting of his three Pleas for Ragged 
Schools. These works had an enormous sale, and portions of 
them were translated into French and Dutch. His advocacy of 
temperance had much to do with securing the passing of the 
Forbes Mackenzie Act, which secured Sunday closing and 
shortened hours of sale for Scotland. Mr Gladstone specially 
quoted him in support of the Light Wines Bill (1860). In 1862 
he was moderator of the Free Church General Assembly; but he 
seldom took a prominent part in the business of the church 
courts. His remarkable oratorical talents, rich humour, genuine 
pathos and inimitable power of story-telling, enabled him to do 
good service to the total abstinence movement. He was one of 
the vice-presidents of the Evangelical Alliance. In 1864, his 
health being seriously impaired, he resigned public work as 
pastor of Free St John's (May 17), although his nominal 
connexion with the congregation ceased only with his death. 
Guthrie had occasionally contributed papers to Good Words, 
and, about the time of his retirement from the ministry, he 
became first editor of the Sunday Magazine, himself contribut- 
ing several series of papers which were afterwards published 
separately. In 1865 he was presented with 5000 as a mark of 
appreciation from the public. His closing years were spent 
mostly in retirement ; and after an illness of several months' dura- 
tion he died at St Leonards-on-Sea on the 24th of February 1873. 

In addition to the books mentioned above he published a number 
of books which had a remarkable circulation in England and America, 
such as Speaking to the Heart (1862) ; The Way to Life (1862) ; Man 
and the Gospel (1865) ; The Angel's Song (1865) ; The Parables (1866) ; 
Our Father's Business (1867); Out of Harness (1867); Early Piety 
(1868) ; Studies of Character from the Old Testament (1868-1870) ; 
Sundays Abroad (1871). 

See Autobiography of Thomas Guthrie, D.D., and Memoir, by his 
sons (2 vols., London, 1874-1875). 

GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY (1856- ), known by the 
pseudonym of F. Anstey, English novelist, was born in Kensing- 
ton, London, on the 8th of August 1856. He was educated at 
King's College, London, and at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and was 
called to the bar in 1880. But the popular success of his story 
Vice-Versa (1882) with its topsy-turvy substitution of a father 
for his schoolboy son, at once made his reputation as a humorist 
of an original type. He published in 1883 a serious novel, The 
Giant's Robe; but, in spite of its excellence, he discovered (and 
again in i SSpjwith The Pariah) that it was not as a serious novelist 
but as a humorist that the public insisted on regarding him. As 
such his reputation was further confirmed by The Black Poodle 
(1884), The Tinted Venus (1885), A Fallen Idol (1886), and other 
works. He became an important member of the staff of Punch, 
in which his " Voces populi " and his humorous parodies of a 
reciter's stock-piece (" Burglar Bill," &c.) represent his best 
work. In 1901 his successful farce The Man from Blankley's, 
based on a story which originally appeared in Punch, was first 
produced at the Prince of Wales's Theatre, in London. 

GUTHRIE, the capital of Oklahoma, U.S.A., and the county- 
seat of Logan county, extending on both sides of Cottonwood 



creek, and lying one mile south of the Cimarron river. Pop. 
(1890) 5333, (1900) 10,006, (1907) 11,652 (2871 negroes); (1910) 
11,654. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, 
the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas & 
Texas, the Fort Smith & Western, and the St Louis, El Reno 
& Western railways. The city is situated about 940 ft. above 
the sea, in a prairie region devoted largely to stock-raising and 
the cultivation of Indian corn, wheat, cotton and various fruits, 
particularly peaches. Guthrie is one of the headquarters of the 
Federal courts in the state, the other being Muskogee. The 
principal public buildings at Guthrie are the state Capitol, 
the Federal building, the City hall, the Carnegie library, the 
Methodist hospital and a large Masonic temple. Among the 
schools are St Joseph's Academy and a state school for the deaf 
and dumb. Guthrie has a considerable trade with the surround- 
ing country and has cotton gins, a cotton compress, and foundries 
and machine shops; among its manufactures are cotton-seed 
oil, cotton goods, flour, cereals, lumber, cigars, brooms and 
furniture. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was 
$1,200,662. The municipality owns and operates the water- 
works. The city was founded in 1889, when Oklahoma was 
opened for settlement; in 1890 it was made the capital of the 
Territory, and in 1907 when Oklahoma was made a state, it 
became 'the state capital. 

GUTHRUM (GODRUM) (d. 890), king of East Anglia, first 
appears in the English Annals in the year 875, when he is 
mentioned as one of three Danish kings who went with the host 
to Cambridge. He was probably engaged in the campaigns of 
the next three years, and after Alfred's victory at Edington in 
878, Guthrum met the king at Aller in Somersetshire and was 
baptized there under the name of ^Ethelstan. He stayed there 
for twelve days and was greatly honoured by his godfather 
Alfred. In 890 Guthrum-^Ethelstan died: he is then spoken 
of as " se norSerna cyning" (probably) "the Norwegian king," 
referring to the ultimate origin of his family, and we are told 
that he was the first (Scandinavian) to settle East Anglia. 
Guthrum is perhaps to be identified with Gormr ( = Guthrum) 
hinn heimski or hinn riki of the Scandinavian sagas, the foster- 
father of HorSaknutr, the father of Gorm the old. There is a 
treaty known as the peace of Alfred and Guthrum. 

GUTSCHMID, ALFRED, BARON VON (1835-1887), German 
historian and Orientalist, was born on the ist of July at Losch- 
witz (Dresden) . After holding chairs at Kiel ( 1 866) , Konigsberg 
(1873), an d Jena (1876), he was finally appointed professor 
of history at Tubingen, where he died on the 2nd of March 1887. 
He devoted himself to the study' of Eastern language and history 
in its pre-Greek and Hellenistic periods and contributed largely 
to the literature of the subject. 

WORKS. Uber die Fragmente des Pompeius Trogus (supple- 
mentary vol. of Jahrbiicher fur klass. Phil., 1857) ; Die makedonische 
Anagraphe (1864); Beitra.ee zur Gesch. des alien Orients (Leipzig, 
1858); Neue Beitrage zur Gesch. des alt. Or., vol. i., Die Assyriologie 
in Deutschland (Leipzig, 1876) ; Die Glaubwurdigkeit der armenischen 
Gesch. des Moses von Khpren (1877); Untersuchungen fiber die 
syrische Epitome des eusebischen Canones (1886); Untersuch. liber 
die Gesch. des Konigreichs Osraene (1887) ; Gesch. Irans (Alexander 
the Great to the fall of the Arsacidae) (Tubingen, 1887). He wrote 
on Persia and Phoenicia in the 9th edition of the Ency. Brit. A 
collection of minor works entitled Kleine Schriften was published by 
F. Riihl at Leipzig (1889-1894, 5 vols.), with complete list of his 
writings. See article by Rtihl in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, 
xlix. (1904). 

GUTS-MUTHS, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH (1750- 
1839), German teacher and the principal founder of the German 
school system of gymnastics, was born at Quedlinburg on the 9th 
of August 1759. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native 
town and at Halle University; and in 1785 he went to Schnep- 
fenthal, where he taught geography and gymnastics. His method 
of teaching gymnastics was expounded by him in variojis 
handbooks; and it was chiefly through them that gymnastics 
very soon came to occupy such an important position in the 
school system of Germany. He also did much to introduce a 
better method of instruction in geography. He died on the 
2ist of May 1839. 



GUTTA GUTTA PERCHA 



743 



His principal works are Gymnastik fur die Jugend (1793); Spiele 
zur Vbung and Erholung des Kdrpers und Geistes fur die Jugend 
(1796); Turnbuch (1817); Handbuch der Geographie (1810); and a 
number of books constituting a Bibliothek fur Pdaagogik, Schulwesen, 
und die gesammte pddagogische Literatur Deutschlands. He also con- 
tributed to the VoUstandtges Handbuch der neuesien Erdbeschreibung, 
and along with Jacob! published Deutsches Land und deutsches Vole, 
the first part, Deutsches Land, being written by him. 

GUTTA (Latin for " drop "), an architectural term given to 
the small frusta of conical or cylindrical form carved below 
the triglyph and under the regula of the entablature of the Doric 
Order. They are sometimes known as "trunnels," a corruption of 
"tree-nail," and resemble the wooden pins which in framed timber 
work or in joinery are employed to fasten together the pieces 
of wood; these are supposed to be derived from the original 
timber construction of the Doric temple, in which the pins, 
driven through the regula, secured the latter to the taenia, and, 
according to C. Chipiez and F. A. Choisy, passed through the 
taenia to hold the triglyphs in place. In the earliest examples 
of the Doric Order at Corinth and Selinus, the guttae are com- 
pletely isolated from the architrave, and in Temple C. at Selinus 
the guttae are 3 or 4 in. in front of it, as if to enable the pin to 
be driven in more easily. In later examples they are partly 
attached to the architrave. Similar guttae are carved under the 
mutules of the Doric cornice, representing the pins driven 
through the mutules to secure the rafters. In the temples at 
Bassae, Paestum and Selinus, instances have been found where 
the guttae had been carved separately and sunk into holes cut 
in the soffit of the mutules and the regula. Their constant 
employment in the Doric temples suggests that, although 
originally of constructive origin, they were subsequently 
employed as decorative features. 

GUTTA PERCHA, the name applied to the evaporated milky 
fluid or latex furnished by several trees chiefly found in the 
islands of the Malay Archipelago. The name is derived from 
two Malay words, getah meaning gum, and pertja being the name 
of the tree probably a Bassia from which the gum was (errone- 
ously) supposed to be obtained. 

Botanical Origin and Distribution. The actual tree is known 
to the Malays as taban, and the product as getah taban. The best 
gutta percha of Malaya is chiefly derived from two trees, and is 
known as getah taban merah (red) or getah taban sutra (silky). The 
trees in question, which belong to the natural order Sapotaceae, 
have now been definitely identified, the first as Dichopsis gutta 
(Bentham and Hooker), otherwise Isonandra gutta (Hooker) or 
Palaquium gutta (Burck), and the second as Dichopsis oblongifolia 
(Burck). Allied trees of the same genus and of the same natural 
order yield similar but usually inferior products. Among them 
may be mentioned species of Payena {getah soondie). 

Gutta percha trees often attain a height of 70 to 100 ft. and 
the trunk has a diameter of from 2 to 3 ft. They are stated to 
be mature when about thirty years old. The leaves of Dichopsis, 
which are obovate-lanceolate, with a distinct pointed apex, 
occur in clusters at the end of the branches, and are bright green 
and smooth on the upper surface but on the lower surface are 
yellowish-brown and covered with silky hairs. The leaves are 
usually about 6 in. long and about 2 in. wide at the centre. The 
flowers are white, and the seeds are contained in an ovoid berry 
about i in. long. 

The geographical distribution of the gutta percha tree is 
almost entirely confined to the Malay Peninsula and its immediate 
neighbourhood. It includes a region within 6 degrees north and 
south of the equator and 93-! 19 longitude, where the tem- 
perature ranges from 66 to 90 F. and the atmosphere is exceed- 
ingly moist. The trees may be grown from seeds or from cuttings. 
Some planting has taken place in Malaya, but little has so far 
been done to acclimatize the plant in other regions. Recent 
information seems to point to the possibility of growing the tree 
in Ceylon and on the west coast of Africa. 

Preparation of Gutla Percha. The gutta is furnished by the 
greyish milky fluid known as the latex, which is chiefly secreted 
in cylindrical vessels or cells situated in the cortex, that is, 
between the bark and the wood (or cambium). Latex also 



occurs in the leaves of the tree to the extent of about 9% of the 
dried leaves, and this may be removed from the powdered leaves 
by the use of appropriate solvents, but the process is not practic- 
able commercially. The latex flows slowly where an incision is 
made through the bark, but not nearly so freely, even in the 
rainy season, as the india-rubber latex. On this account the 
Malays usually fell the tree in order to collect the latex, which 
is done by chopping off the branches and removing circles of the 
bark, forming cylindrical channels about an inch wide at various 
points about a foot apart down the trunk. The latex exudes and 
fills these channels, from which it is removed and converted into 
gutta by boiling in open vessels over wood fires. The work is 
usually carried on in the wet season when the latex is more 
fluid and more abundant. Sometimes when the latex is thick 
water is added to it before boiling. 

The best results are said to be obtained from mature trees 
about thirty years old, which furnish about 2 to 3 ft of gutta. 
Older trees do not appear to yield larger amounts of gutta, 
whilst younger trees are said to furnish less and of inferior 
quality. The trees have been so extensively felled for the gutta 
that there has been a great diminution in the total number 
during recent years, which has not been compensated for by the 
new plantations which have been established. 

Uses of Gutta Percha. The Chinese and Malays appear to have 
been acquainted with the characteristic property of gutta percha 
of softening in warm water and of regaining its hardness when 
cold, but this plastic property seems to have been only utilized 
for ornamental purposes, the construction of walking-sticks and 
of knife handles and whips, &c. 

The brothers Tradescant brought samples of the curious 
material to Europe about the middle of (he i;th century. It 
was then regarded as a form of wood, to which the name of 
" mazer " wood was given on account of its employment in 
making mazers or goblets. A description of it is given in a book 
published by John Tradescant in 1656 entitled Musaeum Trades- 
cantianum or a Collection of Rarities preserved at South Lambeth 
near London. Many of the curiosities collected from all parts of 
the world by the Tradescants subsequently formed the nucleus of 
the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford which was opened in 1683, 
but the specimen of " mazer wood " no longer exists. 

In 1843 samples of the material were sent to London by Dr 
William Montgomerie of Singapore, and were exhibited at the 
Society of Arts, and in the same year Dr Jose d'Almeida sent 
samples to the Royal Asiatic Society. Gutta percha was also 
exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851. 

Dr Montgomerie's communication to the Society of Arts led 
to many experiments being made with the material. Casts of 
medals were successfully produced, and Sir William Siemens, in 
conjunction with Werner von Siemens, then made the first 
experiments with the material as an insulating covering for cable 
and telegraph wires, which led to the discovery of its important 
applications in this connexion and to a considerable commercial 
demand for the substance. 

The value of gutta percha depends chiefly on its quality, that 
is its richness in true gutta and freedom from resin and other 
impurities which interfere with its physical characters, and 
especially its insulating power or inability to conduct electricity. 

The chief use of gutta percha is now for electrical purposes. 
Other minor uses are in dentistry and as a means of taking 
impressions of medals, &c. It has also found application in 
the preparation of belting for machinery, as well as for the 
construction of the handles of knives and surgical instruments, 
whilst the inferior qualities are used for waterproofing. 

Commercial Production. The amount of gutta percha exported 
through Singapore from British and Dutch possessions in the 
East is subject to considerable fluctuation, depending chiefly on 
the demand for cable and telegraph construction. In 1886 the 
total export from Singapore was 40,411 cwt., of which Great 
Britain took 31,666 cwt.; in 1896 the export was 51,982 cwt. 
of which 29,722 cwt. came to Great Britain; while in 1905, 
42,088 cwt. were exported (19,517 cwt. to Great Britain). It 
has to be remembered that the official returns include not only 



744 



GUTTER GUTZKOW 



gutta percha of various grades of quality but also other inferior 
products sold under the name of gutta percha, some of which are 
referred to below under the head of substitutes. The value of 
gutta percha cannot therefore be correctly gauged from the 
value of the imports. In the ten years 1896-1906 the best 
qualities of gutta percha fetched from 45. to about 73. per Ib. 
Gutta percha, however, is used for few and special purposes, 
and there is no free market, the price being chiefly a matter 
of arrangement between the chief producers and consumers. 

Characters and Properties. Gutta percha appears in commerce in 
the form of blocks or cakes of a dirty greyish appearance, often 
exhibiting a reddish tinge, and just soft enough to be indented by the 
nail. It is subject to considerable adulteration, various materials, 
such as coco-nut oil, being added by the Malays to improve its appear- 
ance. The solid, which is fibrous in texture, hard and inelastic but 
not brittle at ordinary temperature, becomes plastic when immersed 
in hot water or if otherwise raised to a temperature of about 65 66 C. 
in the case of gutta of the first quality, the temperature of softening 
being dependent on the quality of the gutta employed. In this 
condition it can be drawn out into threads, but is still inelastic. On 
cooling again the gutta resumes its hardness without becoming brittle. 
In this respect gutta percha differs from india-rubber or caoutchouc, 
which does not become plastic and unlike gutta percha is elastic. 
This property of softening on heating and solidifying when cooled 
again, without change in its original properties, enables gutta percha 
to be worked into various forms, rolled into sheets or drawn into 
ropes. The specific gravity of the best gutta percha lies between 
0-96 and i. Gutta percha is not dissolved by most liquids, although 
some remove resinous constituents; the best solvents are oil of 
turpentine, coal-tar oil,<carbon bisulphide and chloroform, and light 
petroleum when hot. Gutta percha is not affected by alkaline 
solutions or by dilute acids. Strong sulphuric acid chars it when 
warm, and nitric acid effects complete oxidation. 

When exposed to air and light, gutta percha rapidly deteriorates, 
oxygen being absorbed, producing a brittle resinous material. 

Chemical Composition. Chemically, gutta percha is not a single 
substance but a mixture of several constituents. As the proportions 
of these constituents in the crude material are not constant, the 
properties of gutta percha are subject to variation. For electrical 
purposes it should have a high insulating power and dielectric strength 
and a low inductive capacity; the possession of these properties is 
influenced by the resinous constituents present. 

The principal constituent of the crudft material is the pure gutta, 
a hydrocarbon of the empirical formula Ci H 16 . It is therefore 
isomeric with the hydrocarbon of caoutchouc and with that of oil of 
turpentine. Accompanying thisareat least twooxygenated resinous 
constituents albane C 10 H 16 O and fluavil Ca^O which can be 
separated from the pure gutta by the use of solvents. Pure gutta is 
not dissolved by ether and light petroleum in the cold, whereas the 
resinous constituents are removed by these liquids. The true gutta 
exhibits in an enhanced degree the valuable properties of gutta 
percha, and the commercial value of the raw material is frequently 
determined by ascertaining the proportion of crue gutta present, the 
higher the proportion of this the more valuable is the gutta percha. 
The following are the results of analyses of gutta percha from trees 
of the genus Dichopsis or Palaquium : 





Gutta 
per cent. 


Resin 
per cent. 


Dichopsis (or Palaquium) oblongifolia 
gutta 
it ,, polyantha 
. ,. ,, pustulata . 
i, ,, Maingayi . 


88-8 
82-0 

49-3 

47-8 

24-4 


1 1 -2 

18-0 
50-7 
52-2 
75-6 



The hydrocarbon of gutta percha, gutta, is closely related in 
chemical constitution to caoutchouc. When distilled at a high 
temperature both are resolved into a mixture of two simpler hydro- 
carbons, isoprene (C 5 H 8 ) and caoutchoucine or dipentene (CioH,,), 
and the latter by further heatfng can be resolved into isoprene, a 
hydrocarbon of known constitution which has been produced 
synthetically and spontaneously reverts to caoutchouc. The precise 
relationship of isoprene to gutta has not been ascertained, but 
recently Harries has further elucidated the connexion between gutta 
and caoutchouc by showing that under the action of ozone both 
break up into laevulinic aldehyde and hydrogen peroxide, but differ 
in the proportions of these products they furnish. The two materials 
must therefore be regarded as very closely related in chemical 
constitution. Like caoutchouc, gutta percha is able to combine with 
sulphur, and this vulcanized product has found some commercial 
applications. 

Manufacture of Gutta Percha. Among the earliest patents taken 
out for the manufacture of gutta percha were those of Charles 
Hancock, the first of which is dated 1843. 

Before being used for technical purposes the raw gutta percha is 
cleaned by machinery whilst in the plastic state. The chopped or 



sliced material is washed by mechanical means in hot water and 
forced through ajsieve or strainer of fine wire gauze to remove dirt. 
It is then kneaded or " masticated " by machinery to remove the 
enclosed water, and is finally transferred whilst still hot and plastic 
to_the rolling-machine, from which it emerges in sheets of different 
thickness. Sometimes chemical treatment of the crude gutta percha 
is resorted to for the purpose of removing the resinous constituents 
by the action of alkaline solutions or of light petroleum. 

Substitutes for Gutta Percha. For some purposes natural and 
artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been employed. The 
similar products furnished by other plants than those which yield 
gutta percha are among the more important of the natural substitutes 
of which the material known as " balata " or " Surinam gutta 
percha, " is the most valuable. This is derived from a tree, Mimusops 
balata (bullet tree), belonging to the same natural order as gutta 
percha trees, viz. Sapotaceae. It is a large tree, growing to a height 
of 80 to 100 ft. or more, which occurs in the West Indies, in South 
America, and is especially abundant in Dutch and British Guiana. 
The latex which furnishes balata is secreted in the cortex between the 
bark and wood of the tree. As the latex flows freely the trees are 
tapped by making incisions in the same fashion as in india-rubber 
trees, and the balata is obtained by evaporating the milky fluid. 
Crude balata varies in composition. It usually contains nearly equal 
proportions of resin and true gutta. The latter appears to be 
identical with the chief constituent of gutta percha. The properties 
of balata correspond with its composition, and it may therefore be 
classed as an interior gutta percha. Balata fetches from is. 6d. to 
2s. 8d. per Ib. 

Among the inferior substitutes for gutta percha may be mentioned 
the evaporated latices derived from Butyrospermum Parkii (shea- 
butter tree of West Africa or karite of the Sudan), Calotropis gigantea 
(Madar tree of India), and Dyera costulata of Malaya and Borneo 
which furnishes the material known as " Pontianac." All these 
contain a small amount of gutta-like material associated with large 
quantities of resinous and other constituents. They fetch only a 
few pence per Ib, and are utilized for waterproofing purposes. 

Various artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been invented 
chiefly for use as insulating materials. These often consist of 
mixtures of bitumen with linseed and other oils, resins, &c., in some 
cases incorporated with inferior grades of gutta percha. 

For further information respecting gutta percha, and for figures of 
the trees, the following works may be consulted: Jumefie, Les 
Plantes d, caoutchouc et a gutta (Paris, Challamel, 1903); Obach 

Cantor Lectures on Gutta Percha," Journal of the Society of Arts 
I898- (W.R.D.) 

GUTTER (0. Fr. goutiere, mod. goultiere, from Lat. gutta, 
drop), in architecture, a horizontal channel or trough contrived 
to carry away the water from a flat or sloping roof to its discharge 
down a vertical pipe or through a spout or gargoyle; more 
specifically, but loosely, the similar channel at the side of a 
street, below the pavement. In Greek and Roman temples the 
cymatium of the cornice was the gutter, and the water was 
discharged through the mouths of lions, whose heads were 
carved on the same. Sometimes the cymatium was not carried 
along the flanks of a temple, in which case the rain fell off the 
lower edge of the roof tiles. In medieval work the gutter rested 
partly on the top of the wall and partly on corbel tables, and the 
water was discharged through gargoyles. Sometimes, however, 
a parapet or pierced balustrade was carried on the corbel table 
enclosing the gutter. In buildings of a more ordinary class the 
parapet is only a continuation of the wall below, and the gutter 
is set back and carried in a trough resting on the lower end of the 
roof timbers. The safest course is to have an eaves gutter 
which projects more or less in front of the wall and is secured to 
and carried by the rafters of the roof. In Renaissance archi- 
tecture generally the pierced balustrade of the Gothic and transi- 
tion work was replaced by a balustrade with vertical balusters. 
In France a compromise was effected, whereby instead of the 
horizontal coping of the ordinary balustrade a richly carved 
cresting was employed, of which the earliest example is in 
the first court of the Louvre by Pierre Lescot. This exists 
throughout the French Renaissance, and it is one of its chief 
characteristic features. 

GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND (1811-1878), German novelist 
and dramatist, was born on the I7th of March 1811 at Berlin, 
where his father held a clerkship in the war office. After leaving 
school he studied theology and philosophy at the university of 
his native town, and while still a student, began his literary 
career by the publication in 1831 of a periodical entitled Forum 
der Journattileratur. This brought him to the notice of Wolfgang 



GUTZLAFF GUY OF WARWICK 



745 



Menzel, who invited him to Stuttgart to assist in the editorship 
of the Liter aturUalt. At the same time he continued his uni- 
versity studies at Jena, Heidelberg and Munich. In 1832 he 
published anonymously at Hamburg Briefe eines Narren an 
eine Ndrrin, and in 1833 appeared at Stuttgart Maha-Guru, 
Geschichte eines Gotles, a fantastic and satirical romance. In 
1835 he went to Frankfort, where he founded the Deutsche 
Revue. In the same year appeared Watty, die Zweifierin, from 
the publication of which may be said to date the school of writers 
who, from their opposition to the literary, social and religious 
traditions of romanticism, received the name of " Young 
Germany." The work was directed specially against the 
institution of marriage and the belief in revelation; and what- 
ever interest it might have attracted from its own merits was 
enhanced by the action of the German federal diet, which 
condemned Gutzkow to three months' imprisonment, decreed 
the suppression of all he had written or might yet write, and 
prohibited him from exercising the functions of editor within 
the German confederation. During his term of imprisonment 
at Mannheim, Gutzkow employed himself in the composition 
of his treatise Zur PhUosophie der Geschichte (1836). On 
obtaining his freedom he returned to Frankfort, whence he 
went in 1837 to Hamburg. Here he inaugurated a new epoch 
of his literary activity by bringing out his tragedy Richard 
Savage (1839), which immediately made the round of all the 
German theatres. Of his numerous other plays the majority 
are now neglected; but a few have obtained an established 
place in the repertory of the German theatre especially the 
comedies Zopfund Sckwert (1844), Das Urbild des Tarluffe (1847), 
Der Konigsleutnant (1849) and the blank verse tragedy, Uriel 
Acosta (1847). In 1847 Gutzkow went to Dresden, where he 
succeeded Tieck as literary adviser to the court theatre. Mean- 
while he had not neglected the novel. Seraphine (1838) was 
followed by Blasedow und seine Sohne, a satire on the educational 
theories of the time. Between 1850 and 1852 appeared Die 
Ritter vom Geisle, which may be regarded as the starting-point 
for the modern German social novel. Der Zauberer von Rom is 
a powerful study of Roman Catholic life in southern Germany. 
The success of Die Ritter vom Geisle suggested to Gutzkow the 
establishment of a journal on the model of Dicken's Household 
Words, entitled Unterhaltungen am hiiuslichen Herd, which first 
appeared in 1852 and was continued till 1862. In 1864 he had an 
epileptic fit, and his productions show henceforth decided traces 
of failing powers. To this period belong the historical novels 
Hohenschwangau (1868) and Fritz Ellrodt (1872), Lebensbilder 
(1870-1872), consisting of autobiographic sketches, and Die 
Sohne Pestalozzis (1870), the plot of which is founded on the 
story of Kaspar Hauser. On account of a return of his nervous 
malady, Gutzkow in 1873 made a journey to Italy, and on his 
return took up his residence in the country near Heidelberg, 
whence he removed to Frankfort-on-Main, dying there on the 
i6th of December 1878. With the exception of one or two of his 
comedies, Gutzkow's writings have fallen into neglect. But he 
exerted a powerful influence on the opinions of modern Germany ; 
and his works will always be of interest as the mirror in which 
the intellectual and social struggles of his time are best reflected. 

An edition of Gutzkow's collected works appeared at Jena (1873- 
1876, new ed., 1879). E. Wolff has published critical editions of 
Gutzkow's Meislerdramen (1892) and Wally die Zweifierin (1905). 
His more important novels have been frequently reprinted. For 
Gutzkow's life see his various autobiographical writings such as 
Aus der Knabenzeit (1852), Ruckblicke auf mein Leben (1876), &c. 
For an estimate of his life and work see J. Proelss, Dasjunge Deutsch- 
land (1892); also H. H. Houben, Studien liber die Dramen Gutzkows 
(1898) and Gutzkow-Funde (1901). 

GUTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1803-1851), 
German missionary to China, was born at Pyritz in Pomerania 
on the 8th of July 1803. When still apprenticed to a saddler 
in Stettin, he made known his missionary inclinations to the 
king of Prussia, through whom he went to the Padagogium at 
Halle, and afterwards to the mission institute of Janike in Berlin. 
In 1826, under the auspices of the Netherlands Missionary 
Society, he went to Java, where he was able to learn Chinese. 



Leaving the society in 1828, he went to Singapore, and in August 
of the same year removed to Bangkok, where he translated the 
Bible into Siamese. In 1829 he married an English lady, who 
aided him in the preparation of a dictionary of Cochin Chinese, 
but she died in August 1831 before its completion. Shortly 
after her death he sailed to Macao in China, where, and subse- 
quently at Hong Kong, he worked at a translation of the Bible 
into Chinese, published a Chinese monthly magazine, and wrote 
in Chinese various books on subjects of useful knowledge. In 
1834 he published at London a Journal of Three Voyages along 
the Coast of China, in 1831, 1832 and 1833. He was appointed 
in 1835 joint Chinese secretary to the English commission, and 
during the opium war of 1840-42 and the negotiations connected 
with the peace that followed he rendered valuable service by 
his knowledge of the country and people. The Chinese author- 
ities refusing to permit foreigners to penetrate into the interior, 
Giitzlaff in 1844 founded an institute for training native mis- 
sionaries, which was so successful that during the first four years 
as many as forty-eight Chinese were sent out from it to work 
among their fellow-countrymen. He died at Hong Kong on 
the gth of August 1851. 

Gutzlaff also wrote A Sketch of Chinese History, Ancient and 
Modern (London, 1834), and a similar work published in German at 
Stuttgart in 1847; China Opened (1838); and the Life of Taow- 
Kwang (1851 ; German edition published at Leipzig in 1852). A 
complete collection of his Chinese writings is contained in the library 
at Munich. 

GUY OF WARWICK, English hero of romance. Guy, son of 
Siward or Seguard of Wallingford, by his prowess in foreign 
wars wins in marriage Felice (the Phyllis of the well-known 
ballad), daughter and heiress of Roalt, earl of Warwick. Soon 
after his marriage he is seized with remorse for the violence of 
his past life, and, by way of penance, leaves his wife and fortune 
to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. After years of absence 
he returns in time to deliver Winchester for King ^Ethelstan 
from the invading northern kings, Anelaph (Anlaf or Olaf) and 
Gonelaph, by slaying in single fight their champion the giant 
Colbrand. Local tradition fixes the duel at Hyde Mead near 
Winchester. Making his way to Warwick he becomes one of his 
wife's bedesmen, and presently retires to a hermitage in Arden, 
only revealing his identity at the approach of death. The 
versions of the Middle English romance of Guy which we possess 
are adaptations from the French, and are cast in the form of a 
roman d'aiientures, opening with a long recital of Guy's wars in 
Lombardy, Germany and Constantinople, and embellished with 
fights with dragons and surprising feats of arms. The kernel 
of the tradition evidently lies in the fight with Colbrand, which 
represents, or at least is symbolic 1 of an historical fact. The 
religious side of the legend finds parallels in the stories of St 
Eustachius and St Alexius, 2 and makes it probable that the 
Guy-legend, as we have it, has passed through monastic hands. 
Tradition seems to be at fault in putting Guy's adventures 
under jEthelstan. The Anlaf of the story is probably Olaf 
Tryggvason, who, with Sweyn of Denmark, harried the southern 
counties of England in 993 and pitched his winter quarters in 
Southampton. Winchester was saved, however, not by the 
valour of an English champion, but by the payment of money. 
This Olaf was not unnaturally confused with Anlaf Cuaran or 
Havelok (q.v.). 

The name Guy (perhaps a Norman form of A. S. tfg = war) 
may be fairly connected with the family of Wigod, lord of 
Wallingford under Edward the Confessor, and a Filicia, who 
belongs to the I2th century and was perhaps the Norman poet's 
patroness, occurs in the pedigree of the Ardens, descended from 
Thurkill of Warwick and his son Siward. Guy's Cliffe, near 
Warwick, where in the I4th century Richard de Beauchamp, earl 
of Warwick, erected a chantry, with a statue of the hero, does not 
correspond with the site of the hermitage as described in the 

'Some writers have supposed that the fight with Colbrand 
symbolizes the victory of Brunanburh. Anelaph and Gonelaph 
would then represent the cousins Anlaf Sihtricson and Anlaf 
Godfreyson (see HAVELOK). 

2 See the English legends in C. Horstmann, Altenglische Legenden. 
Neue Folge (Heilbronn, 1881). 



746 



GUY GUYON 



romance. The bulk of the legend is obviously fiction, even 
though it may be vaguely connected with the family history of 
the Ardens and the Wallingford family, but it was accepted as 
authentic fact in the chronicle of Pierre de Langtoft (Peter of 
Langtof t) written at the end of the iath century. The adventures 
of Reynbrun, son of Guy, and his tutor Heraud of Arden, who 
had also educated Guy, have much in common with his father's 
history, and form an interpolation sometimes treated as a separate 
romance. There is a certain connexion between Guy and Count 
Guido of Tours (fl. 800), and Alcuin's advice to the count is 
transferred to the English hero in the Speculum Gy of Warewyke 
(c. 1327), edited for the Early English Text Society by G. L. 
Morrill, 1898. 

The French romance (Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 3775) has not been 
printed, but is described by Emile Littre' in Hist. litt. de la France 
(xxii., 841-851, 1852). A French prose version was printed in 
Paris, 1525, and subsequently (see G. Brunei, Manuel du libraire, 
s.v. " Guy de Warvich "); the English metrical romance exists in 
four versions, dating from the early I4th century; the text was 
edited by J. Zupitza (1875-1876) for the E.E.T.S. from Cambridge 
University Lib. Paper MS. Ff. 2, 38, and again (3 pts. 1883-1891, 
extra series, Nos. 42, 49, 59), from the Auchinleck and Caius College 
MSS. The popularity of the legend is shown by the numerous 
versions in English: Guy of Warwick, translated from the Latin of 
Girardus Cornubiensis (fl. 1350) into English verse by John Lydgate 
between 1442 and 1468; Guy of Warwick, a poem (written in 1617 
and licensed, but not printed) by John Lane, the MS. of which (Brit. 
Mus.) contains a sonnet by John Milton, father of the poet; The 
Famous Historic of Guy, EarlofWarwick(c. i6o7),by Samuel Rowlands ; 
The Booke of the Moste Victorious Prince Guy of Warwicke (William 
Copland, no date) ; other editions by J. Cawood and C. Bates; chap- 
books and ballads of the I7th and i8th centuries: The Tragical 
History, Admirable Achievements and Curious Events of Guy, Earl of 
Warwick, a tragedy (1661) which may possjbly be identical with a 
play on the subject written by John Day and Thomas Dekker, and 
entered at Stationers' Hall on the 15th of January 1618/19; 
three verse fragments are printed by Hales and Furnivall in thejr 
edition of the Percy Folio MS. vol. ii. ; an early French MS. is 
described by J. A. Herbert (An Early MS. of Gui de Warwick, 
London, 1905). 

See also M. Weyrauch Die mittelengl. Fassungen der Sage von Guy 
(2 pts., Breslau, 1899 and 1901); J. Zupitza in Sitzungsber. d. phil.- 
hist. Kl. d. kgl. Akad. d. Wiss. (vol. Ixxiv., Vienna, 1874), and Zur 
Literaturgeschichte des Guy von Warwick (Vienna, 1873); a learned 
discussion of the whole subject by H. L. Ward, Catalogue of 
Romances (i. 471-501, 1883); and an article by S. L. Lee in the 
Dictionary of National Biography. 

GUY, THOMAS (1644-1724), founder of Guy's Hospital, 
London, was the son of a lighterman and coal-dealer at South- 
wark. After serving an apprenticeship of eight years with a 
bookseller, he in 1668 began business on his own account. He 
dealt largely in Bibles, which had for many years been poorly 
and incorrectly printed in England. These he at first imported 
from Holland, but subsequently obtained from the university 
of Oxford the privilege of printing. Thus, and by an extremely 
thrifty mode of life, and more particularly by investment in 
government securities, the subscription of these into the South 
Sea Company, and the subsequent sale of his stock in 1720, 
he became master of an immense fortune. He died unmarried 
on the 1 7th of December 1724. In 1707 he built three wards 
of St Thomas's Hospital, which institution he otherwise subse- 
quently benefited; and at a cost of 18,793, los . he erected 
Guy's Hospital, leaving for its endowment 219,499; he also 
endowed Christ's Hospital with 400 a year, and in 1678 endowed 
almshouses at Tamworth, his mother's birthplace, which was 
represented by him in parliament from 1695 to 1707. The 
residue of his estate, which went to distant relatives, amounted 
to about 80,000. 

See A True Copy of the Last Witt and Testament of Thomas Guy, Esq. 
(London, 1725); J. Noorthouck, A New Hist, of London, bk. iii. 
ch. i. p. 684 (1773); Nichols, Literary Anecdotes, iii. 599 (1812); 
Charles Knight, Shadows of the Old Booksellers, pp. 3-23 (1865) ; 
and A Biographical History of Guy's Hospital, by S. Wilkes and G. 
T. Bettany (1892). 

GUYON, JEANNE MARIE BOUVIER DE LA MOTHE 
(1648-1717), French quietist writer, was born at Montargis, 
where her family were persons of consequence, on the I3th of 
April 1648. If her somewhat hysterical autobiography may be 
trusted she was much neglected in her youth; most of her time 



was spent as a boarder in various convent schools. Here she 
went through all the religious experiences common to neurotic 
young women; these were turned in a definitely mystical 
direction by the duchesse de Bethune, daughter of the disgraced 
minister, Fouquet, who spent some years at Montargis after her 
father's fall. In 1664 Jeanne Marie was married to a rich invalid 
of the name of Guyon, many years her senior. Twelve years 
later he died, leaving his widow with three small children and 
a considerable fortune. All through her unhappy married life 
the mystical attraction had grown steadily in violence; it 
now attached itself to a certain Father Lacombe, a Barnabite 
monk of weak character and unstable intellect. In 1681 she 
left her family and joined him; for five years the two rambled 
about together in Savoy and the south-east of France, spreading 
their mystical ideas. At last they excited the suspicion of the 
authorities; in 1686 Lacombe was recalled to Paris, put under 
surveillance, and finally sent to the Bastille in the autumn of 
1687. He was presently transferred to the castle of Lourdes, 
where -he developed softening of the brain and died in 1715. 
Meanwhile Madame Guyon had been arrested in January 1688, 
and been shut up in a convent as a suspected heretic. Thence 
she was delivered in the following year by her old friend, the 
duchesse de Bethune, who had returned from exile to become a 
power in the devout court-circle presided over by Madame de 
Maintenon. Before long Madame Guyon herself was introduced 
into this pious assemblage. Its members were far from critical; 
they were intensely interested in religion; and even Madame 
Guyon's bitterest critics bear witness to her charm of manner, 
her imposing appearance, and the force and eloquence with 
which she explained her mystical ideas. So much was Madame 
de Maintenon impressed, that she often invited Madame Guyon 
to give lectures at her girls' school of St Cyr. But by far the 
greatest of her conquests was Fenelon, now a rising young 
director of consciences, much in favour with aristocratic ladies. 
Dissatisfied with the formalism of average Catholic piety, he 
was already thinking out a mystical theory of his own; and 
between 1689 and 1693 they corresponded regularly. But as 
soon as ugly reports about Lacombe began to spread, he broke 
off all connexion with her. Meanwhile the reports had reached 
the prudent ears of Madame de Maintenon. In May 1693 she 
asked Madame Guyon to go no more to St Cyr. In the hope of 
clearing her orthodoxy, Madame Guyon appealed to Bossuet, 
who decided that her books contained " much that was intoler- 
able, alike in form and matter." To this judgment Madame 
Guyon submitted, promised to " dogmatize no more," and 
disappeared into the country (1693). In the next year she again 
petitioned for an inquiry, and was eventually sent, half as a 
prisoner, half as a penitent, to Bossuet's cathedral town of 
Meaux. Here she spent the first half of 1695 ; but in the summer 
she escaped without his leave, bearing with her a certificate of 
orthodoxy signed by him. Bossuet regarded this flight as a 
gross act of disobedience; in the winter Madame Guyon was 
arrested and shut up in the Bastille. There she remained till 
1703. In that year she was liberated, on condition she went to 
live on her son's estate near Blois, under the eye of a stern bishop. 
Here the rest of her life was spent in charitable and pious 
exercises; she died on the 9th of June 1717. During these 
latter years her retreat at Blois became a regular place of 
pilgrimage for admirers, foreign quite as often as French. 
Indeed, she is one of the many prophetesses whose fame has 
stood highest out of their own country. French critics of all 
schools of thought have generally reckoned her an hysterical 
degenerate; in England and Germany she has as often roused 
enthusiastic admiration. 

AUTHORITIES. Vie de Madame Guyon, ecrite par ette-mime 
(really a compilation made from various fragments) (3 vols., Paris, ' 
1791). There is a life in English by T. C. Upham (New York, 1854) ; 
and an elaborate study by L. Guerrier (Pans, 1881). For a remark- 
able review of this latter work see Brunetiere, Nouvettes Etudes 
critiques, vol. ii. The complete edition of Madame Guyon's works, 
including the autobiography and five volumes of letters, runs to 
forty volumes (1767-1791) ; the most important works are published 
separately, Opuscules spirituels (2 vols., Paris, 1790). They have 



GUYON GUZMICS 



747 



been several times translated into English. See also the literature 
of the article on QUIETISM; and H. Delacroix, Etudes sur le 
mysticisme (Paris, 1908). (Sx C.) 

GUYON, RICHARD DEBAUFRE (1803-1856), British soldier, 
general in the Hungarian revolutionary army and Turkish pasha, 
was born at Walcot, near Bath, in 1803. After receiving a 
military education in England and in Austria he entered the 
Hungarian hussars in 1823, in which he served until after his 
marriage with a daughter of Baron Spleny, a general officer in 
the imperial service. At the outbreak of the Hungarian War in 
1848, he re-entered active service as an officer of the Hungarian 
Honveds, and he won great distinction in the action of Sukoro 
(September 29, 1848) and the battle of Schwechat (October 
30). He added to his reputation as a leader in various actions 
in the winter of 1848-1849, and after the battle of Kapolna was 
made a general officer. He served in important and sometimes 
independent commands to the end' of the war, after which he 
escaped to Turkey. In 1852 he entered the service of the sultan. 
He was made a pasha and lieutenant-general without being 
required to change his faith, and rendered distinguished service 
in the campaign against the Russians in Asia Minor (1854-55). 
General Guyon died of cholera at Scutari on the I2th of 
October 1856. 

See A. W. Kinglake, ThePatriot and the Hero General Guyon (1856). 

GUYOT, ARNOLD HENRY (1807-1884), Swiss-American 
geologist and geographer, was born at Boudevilliers, near 
Neuchatel, Switzerland, on the 28th of September 1807. He 
studied at the college of Neuchatel and in Germany, where 
he began a lifelong friendship with Louis Agassiz. He was 
professor of history and physical geography at the short-lived 
Neuchatel " Academy " from 1839 to 1848, when he removed, 
at Agassiz's instance, to the United States, settling in Cambridge, 
Massachusetts. For several years he was a lecturer for the 
Massachusetts State Board of Education, and he was professor 
of geology and physical geography at Princeton from 1854 until 
his death there on the 8th of February 1884. He ranked high 
as a geologist and meteorologist. As early as 1838, he undertook, 
at Agassiz's suggestion, the study of glaciers, and was the first 
to announce, in a paper submitted to the Geological Society of 
France, certain important observations relating to glacial motion 
and structure.. Among other things he noted the more rapid 
flow of the centre than of the sides, and the more rapid flow of 
the top than of the bottom of glaciers; described the laminated 
or " ribboned " structure of the glacial ice, and ascribed the 
movement of glaciers to a gradual molecular displacement 
rather than to a sliding of the ice mass as held by de Saussure. 
He subsequently collected important data concerning erratic 
boulders. His extensive meteorological observations in America 
led to the establishment of the United States Weather Bureau, 
and his Meteorological and Physical Tables (1852, revised ed. 
1884) were long standard. His graded series of text-books and 
wall-maps were important aids in the extension and populariza- 
tion of geological study in America. In addition to text-books, 
his principal publications were: Earth and Man, Lectures on 
Comparative Physical Geography in its Relation to the History 
of Mankind (translated by Professor C. C. Felton, 1849); A 
Memoir of Louis Agassiz (1883); and Creation, or the Biblical 
Cosmogony in the Light of Modern Science (1884). 

See James D. Dana's " Memoir " in the Biographical Memoirs of 
the National Academy of Science, vol. ii. (Washington, 1886). 

GUYOT, YVES (1843- ), French politician and economist, 
was born at Dinan on the 6th of September 1843. Educated at 
Rennes, he took up the profession of journalism, coming to 
Paris in 1867. He was for a short period editor-in-chief of 
L'Independant du midi of Nimes, but joined the staff of La 
Rappel on its foundation, and worked subsequently on other 
journals. He took an active part in municipal life, and waged a 
keen campaign against the prefecture of police, for which he 
suffered six months' imprisonment. He entered the chatnber of 
deputies in 1885 as representative of the first arrondissement of 
Paris and was rapporteur general of the budget of 1888. He 
became minister of public works under the premiership of P. E. 



Tirard in 1889, retaining his portfolio in the cabinet of C. L. de 
Freycinet until 1892. Although of strong liberal views, he lost 
his seat in the election of 1893 owing to his militant attitude 
against socialism. An uncompromising free-trader, he published 
La Comidie protectionniste (1905; Eng. trans. The Comedy of 
Protection); La Science economique (ist ed. 1881; 3rd ed. 1907); 
La Prostitution (1882); La Tyrannic socialiste (1893), all three 
translated into English; Les Conflits du travail et leur solution 
(1903); La Democratic individualisle (1907). 

GUYTON DE MORVEAU, LOUIS BERNARD, BARON (1737- 
1816), French chemist, was born on the 4th of January 1737, at 
Dijon, where his father was professor of civil law at the univer- 
sity. As a boy he showed remarkable aptitude for practical 
mechanics, but on leaving school he studied law in the university 
of Dijon, and in his twenty-fourth year became advocate-general 
in the parlement of Dijon. This office he held till 1782. Devot- 
ing his leisure to the study of chemistry, he published in 1772 his 
Digressions academiques, in which he set forth his views on 
phlogiston, crystallization, &c., and two years later he established 
in his native town courses of lectures on materia medica, 
mineralogy and chemistry. An essay on chemical nomenclature, 
which he published in the Journal de physique for May 1782, was 
ultimately developed with the aid of A. L. Lavoisier, C. L. 
Berthollet and A. F. Fourcroy, into the Milhode d'une nomen- 
clature chimique, published in 1787, the principles of which were 
speedily adopted by chemists throughout Europe. Constantly in 
communication with the leaders of the Lavoisierian school, he 
soon became a convert to the anti-phlogistic doctrine; and he 
published his reasons in the first volume of the section " Chymie, 
Pharmacie et Metallurgie " of the Encyclopedic methodique 
(1786), the chemical articles in which were written by him, as 
well as some of those in the second volume (1792). In 1794 he 
was appointed to superintend the construction of balloons for 
military purposes, being known as the author of some aeronautical 
experiments carried out at Dijon some ten years previously. 
In 1791 he became a member of the Legislative Assembly, and in 
the following year of the National Convention, to which he was 
re-elected in 1795, but he retired from political life in 1797. In 
1798 he acted as provisional director of the Polytechnic School, 
in the foundation of which he took an active part, and from 1800 
to 1814 he held the appointment of master of the mint. In 181 1 
he was made a baron of the French Empire. He died in Paris on 
the 2nd of January 1816. 

Besides being a diligent contributor to the scientific periodicals 
of the day, Guyton wrote Memoire sur I' education publique (1762); 
a satirical poem entitled Le Rat iconoclaste, ou le Jesuite croque 
(1763); Discours publics et eloges (1775-1782); Plaidoyers sur 
plusteurs questions de droit (1785); and TraM des moyens de dSsin- 
fecter I' air (1801), describing the disinfecting powers of chlorine, 
and of hydrochloric acid gas which he had successfully used at Dijon 
in 1773. With Hugues Maret (1726-1785) and Jean Francois 
Durande (d. 1794) he also published the Memens de chymie theorique 
et pratique (1776-1777). 

GUZMICS, IZID&R (1786-1839), Hungarian theologian, was 
born on the 7th of April 1 786 at Vamos-Csalad, in the county of 
Sopron. At Sopron (Oedenburg) he was instructed in the art 
of poetry by Paul Horvith. In October 1805 he entered the 
Benedictine order, but left it in August of the following year, 
only again to assume the monastic garb on the loth of November 
1 806. At the monastery of Pannonhegy he applied himself to the 
study of Greek under Farkas T6th and in 1812 he was sent to 
Pesth to study theology. Here he read the best German and 
Hungarian authors, and took part in the editorship of the 
Nemzeti (National) Plutarkus, and in the translation of Johann 
Hubner's Lexicon. On obtaining the degree of doctor of divinity 
in 1816, he returned to Pannonhegy, where he devoted himself to 
dogmatic theology and literature, and contributed largely to 
Hungarian periodicals. The most important of his theological 
works are: A kath. anyaszentegyhaznak hitbeli tanitasa (The 
Doctrinal Teaching of the Holy Catholic Church) , and A keresztfn- 
yeknek vallasbeli egyesiiUsokrol (On Religious Unity among 
Christians), both published at Pesth in 1822; also a Latin 
treatise entitled Theologia Christiana fundamentalis et theologia 
dogmalica (4 vols., Gyor, 1828-1829). His translation of 



74 8 



GWADAR GWALIOR 



Theocritus in hexameters was published in 1824. His versions of 
the Oedipus of Sophocles and of the Iphigenia of Euripides 
were rewarded by the Hungarian Academy, of which in 1838 he 
was elected honorary member. In 1832 he was appointed abbot 
of the wealthy Benedictine house at Bakonyb61, a village in the 
county of Veszprem. There he built an asylum for 150 children, 
and founded a school of harmony and singing. He died on the 
ist of September 1839. 

GWADAR, a port on the Makran coast of Baluchistan, about 
290 m. W. of Karachi. Pop. (1903), 4350. In the last half of the 
1 8th century it was handed over by the khan of Kalat to the 
sultan of Muscat, who still exercises sovereignty over the port, 
together with about 300 sq. m. of the adjoining country. It is 
a place of call for the steamers of the British India Navigation 
Company. 

GWALIOR, a native state of India, in the Central India 
agency, by far the largest of the numerous principalities com- 
prised in that area. It is the dominion of the Sindhia family. 
The state consists of two well-defined parts which may roughly 
be called the northern and the southern. The former is a compact 
mass of territory, bounded N. and N.W. by the Chambal river, 
which separates it from the British districts of Agra and 
Etawah, and the native states of Dholpur, Karauli and Jaipur 
of Rajputana; E. by the British districts of Jalaun, Jhansi, 
Lalitpur and Saugor; S. by the states of Bhopal, Tonk, Khil- 
chipur and Rajgarh; and W. by those of Jhalawar, Tonk and 
Kotah of Rajputana. The southern, or Malwa, portion is made 
up of detached or semi-detached districts, between which are 
interposed parts of other states, which again are mixed up with 
each other in bewildering intricacy. The two portions together 
have a total area of 25,041 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,933,001, showing 
a decrease of 13 % in the decade. 

The state may be naturally divided into plain, plateau and 
hilly country. The plain country extends from the Chambal 
river in the extreme southwards for about 80 m., with a maximum 
width from east to west of about 120 m. This plain, though 
broken in its southern portion by low hills, has generally an 
elevation of only a few hundred feet above sea-level. In the 
summer season the climate is very hot, the shade temperature 
rising frequently to 112 F., but in the winter months (from 
November to February inclusive) it is usually temperate and 
for short periods extremely cold. The average rainfall is 30 in., 
but the period 1891-1001 was a decade of low rainfall, and 
distress was caused by famine. South of this tract there is a 
gradual ascent to the Central India plateau, and at Sipri the 
general level is 1500 ft. above the sea. On this plateau lies the 
remainder of the state, with the exception of the small district 
of Amjhera in the extreme south. The elevation of this region 
gives it a moderate climate during the summer as compared 
with the plain country, while the winter is warmer and more 
equable. The average rainfall is 28 in. The remaining portion 
of the state, classed as hilly, comprises only the small district 
of Amjhera. This is known as the Bhil country, and lies among 
the Vindhya mountains with a mean elevation of about 1800 ft. 
The rainfall averages 23 in. In the two years 1899 and 1900 the 
monsoon was very weak, the result being a severe famine which 
caused great mortality among the Bhil population. Of these 
three natural divisions the plateau possesses the most fertile 
soil, generally of the kind known as " black cotton," but the 
low-lying plain has the densest population. The state is watered 
by numerous rivers. The Nerbudda, flowing west, forms the 
southern boundary. The greater part of the drainage is dis- 
charged into the Chambal, which forms the north-western and 
northern and eastern boundary. The Sind, with its tributaries 
the Kuwari, Asar and Sankh, flows through the northern division. 
The chief products are wheat, millets, pulses of various kinds, 
maize, rice, linseed and other oil-seeds; poppy, yielding the 
Malwa opium; sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, indigo, garlic, tur- 
meric and ginger. About 60 % of the population are employed 
in agricultural and only 15% in industrial occupations, the 
great majority of the latter being home workers. There is a 
leather factory at Morar; cotton-presses at Morena, Baghana 



and Ujjain; ginning factories at Agar, Nalkhera, Shajapur and 
Sonkach; and a cotton-mill at Ujjain. The cotton industry 
alone shows possibilities of considerable development, there being 
55,000 persons engaged in it at the time of the census of 1901. 

The population is composed of many elements, among which 
Brahmans and Rajputs are specially numerous. The prevailing 
religion is Hinduism, 84 % of the people being Hindus and only 
6% Mahommedans. The revenue of the state is about one 
million sterling; and large reserves have been accumulated, 
from which two millions were lent to the government of India 
in 1887, and later on another million for the construction of the 
Gwalior-Agra and Indore-Neemuch railways. The railways 
undertaken by the state are: (i) from Bina on the Indian 
Midland to Goona; (2) an extension of this line to Baran, 
opened in 1899; (3) from Bhopal to Ujjain; (4) two light 
railways, from Gwalior to Sipri and Gwalior to Bhind, which 
were opened by the viceroy in November 1899. On the same 
occasion the viceroy opened the Victoria College, founded to 
commemorate the Diamond Jubilee; and the Memorial Hospital, 
built in memory of the maharaja's father. British currency 
has been introduced instead of Chandori rupees, which were 
much depreciated. The state maintains three regiments of 
Imperial Service cavalry, two battalions of infantry and a 
transport corps. 

History. The Sindhia family, the rulers of the Gwalior state, 
belong to the Mahratta nation and originally came from the 
neighbourhood of Poona. Their first appearance in Central 
India was early in the i8th century in the person of Ranoji 
(d. 1745), a scion of an impoverished branch of the family, who 
began his career as the peshwa's slipper-carrier and rose by his 
military abilities to be commander of his bodyguard. In 1726, 
together with Malhar Rao Holkar, the founder of the house of 
Indore, he was authorized by the peshwa to collect tribute 
(chauth) in the Malwa districts. He established his headquarters 
at Ujjain, which thus became the first capital of Sindhia's 
dominions. 

Ranoji's son and successor, Jayapa Sindhia, was killed at 
Nagaur in 1759, and was in his turn succeeded by his son Jankoji 
Sindhia. But the real founder of the state of Gwalior was 
Mahadji Sindhia, a natural son of Ranoji, who, after narrowly 
escaping with his life from the terrible slaughter of Panipat in 
1761 (when Jankoji was killed), obtained with some difficulty 
from the peshwa a re-grant of his father's possessions in Central 
India (1769). During the struggle which followed the death 
of Madhu Rao Peshwa in 1772 Mahadji seized every occasion 
for extending his power and possessions. In 1775, however, 
when Raghuba Peshwa threw himself on the protection of the 
British, the reverses which Mahadji encountered at their hands 
Gwalior being taken by Major Popham in 1780 opened his 
eyes to their power. By the treaty of Salbai (1782) it was 
agreed that Mahadji should withdraw to Ujjain, and the British 
retire north of the Jumna. Mahadji, who undertook to open 
negotiations with the other belligerents, was recognized as an 
independent ruler, and a British resident was established at his 
court. Mahadji, aided by the British policy of neutrality, now 
set to work to establish his supremacy over Hindustan proper.- 
Realizing the superiority of European methods of warfare, he 
availed himself of the services of a Savoyard soldier of fortune, 
Benoit de Boigne, whose genius for military organization and 
command in the field was mainly instrumental in establishing 
the Mahratta power. Mahadji's disciplined troops made him 
invincible. In 1785 he re-established Shah Alam on the imperial 
throne at Delhi, and as his reward obtained for the peshwa the 
title of vaktt-ul-mutlak or vicegerent of the empire, contenting 
himself with that of his deputy. In 1788 he took advantage of 
the cruelties practised by Ghulam Kadir on Shah Alam, to 
occupy Delhi, where he established himself as the protector of 
the aged emperor. Though nominally a deputy of the peshwa he 
was now ruler of a vast territory, including the greater part of 
Central India and Hindustan proper, while his lieutenants 
exacted tribute from the chiefs of Rajputana. There can be no 
doubt that he looked with apprehension on the growing power of 



GWEEDORE 



749 



the British; but he wisely avoided any serious collision with 
them. 

Mahadji died in 1 794, and was succeeded by his adopted son, 
Daulat Rao Sindhia, a grandson of his brother Tukoji. When, 
during the period of unrest that followed the deaths of the 
peshwa, Madhu Rao II., in 1795 and of Tukoji Holkar in 1797, 
the Mahratta leaders fought over the question of supremacy, 
the peshwa, Baji Rao II., the titular head of the Mahratta 
confederation, fled from his capital and placed himself under 
British protection by the treaty of Bassein (December 31, 1802). 
This interposition of the British government was resented by 
the confederacy, and it brought on the Mahratta War of 1803. 
In the campaign that followed a combined Mahratta army, in 
which Daulat Rao's troops furnished the largest contingent, was 
defeated by General Arthur Wellesley at Assaye and Argaum 
in Central India; and Lord Lake routed Daulat Rao's European- 
trained battalions in Northern India at Agra, Aligarh and 
Laswari. Daulat Rao was then compelled to sign the treaty 
of Sarji Anjangaon (December 30, 1803), which stripped him of 
his territories between the Jumna and Ganges, the district of 
Broach in Gujarat and other lands in the south. By the same 
treaty he was deprived of the forts of Gwalior and Gohad; but 
these were restored by Lord Cornwallis in 1805, when the 
Chambal river was made the northern boundary of the state. 
By a treaty signed at Burhanpur in 1803 Daulat Rao further 
agreed to maintain a subsidiary force, to be paid out of the 
revenues of the territories ceded under the treaty of Sarji 
Anjangaon. When, however, in 1816 he was called upon to 
assist in the suppression of the Pindaris, though by the treaty of 
Gwalior (1817) he promised his co-operation, his conduct was so 
equivocal that in 1818 he was forced to sign a fresh treaty by 
which he ceded Ajmere and other lands. 

Daulat Rao died without issue in 1827, and his widow,Baiza Bai 
(d. 1862), adopted Mukut Rao, a boy of eleven belonging to a dis- 
tant branch of the family, who succeeded as Jankoji Rao Sindhia. 
His rule was weak; the state was distracted by interminable 
palace intrigues and military mutinies, and affairs went from 
bad to worse when, in 1843, Jankoji Rao, who left no heir, 
was succeeded by another boy, adopted by his widow, Tara Bai, 
under the name of Jayaji Rao Sindhia. The growth of turbulence 
and misrule now induced Lord Ellenborough to interpose, and 
a British force under Sir Hugh Gough advanced upon Gwalior 
(December 1843). The Mahratta troops were defeated simul- 
taneously at Maharajpur and Punniar (December 29), with the 
result that the Gwalior government signed a treaty ceding 
territory with revenue sufficient for the maintenance of a con- 
tingent force to be stationed at the capital, and limiting the 
future strength of the Gwalior army, while a council of regency 
was appointed during the minority to act under the resident's 
advice. In 1857 the Gwalior contingent joined the mutineers; 
but the maharaja himself remained loyal to the British, and fled 
from his capital until the place was retaken and his authority 
restored by Sir Hugh Rose (Lord Strathnairn) on the igth of 
June 1858. He was rewarded with the districts of Neemuch 
and Amjhera, but Gwalior fort was occupied by British troops 
and was only restored to his son in 1886 by Lord Dufferin. 
Jayaji Rao, who died in 1886, did much for the development of 
his state. He was created a G. C.S.I, in 1861, and subsequently 
became a counsellor of the empress, a G.C.B. and C.I.E. 

His son, the maharaja, Madhava Rao Sindhia, G. C.S.I., was 
born in 1877. During his minority the state was' administered 
for eight years by a council of regency. He was entrusted with 
ruling powers in 1894, and in all respects continued the reforming 
policy of the council, while paying personal attention to every 
department, being a keen soldier, an energetic administrator, and 
fully alive to the responsibilities attaching to his position. He 
was created an honorary aide-de-camp to the king-emperor and 
an honorary colonel in the British army. He went to China as 
orderly officer to General Gaselee in 1901, and provided the 
expedition with a hospital ship at his own expense, while his 
Imperial Service Transport Corps proved a useful auxiliary to the 
British army in the Chitral and Tirah expeditions. 



The CITY OF GWALIOR is 76 m. by rail S. of Agra, and had a 
population in 1901 of 119,433. This total includes the new town 
of Lashkar or " the Camp " which is the modern capital of the 
state and old Gwalior. The old town has a threefold interest: 
first as a very ancient seat of Jain worship; secondly for its 
example of palace architecture of the best Hindu period (1486- 
1516); and thirdly as an. historic fortress. There are several 
remarkable Hindu temples within the fort. One, known as the 
Sas Baku, is beautifully adorned with bas-reliefs. It was 
finished in A.D. 1093, and, though much dilapidated, still forms a 
most picturesque fragment. An older Jain temple has been used 
as a mosque. Another temple in the fortress of Gwalior is called 
the Teli-Mandir, or " Oilman's Temple." This building was 
originally dedicated to Vishnu, but afterwards converted to the 
worship of Siva. The most striking part of the Jain remains at 
Gwalior is a series of caves or rock-cut sculptures, excavated in 
the rock on all sides, and numbering nearly a hundred, great and 
small. Most of them are mere niches to contain statues, though 
some are cells that may have been originally intended for 
residences. One curious fact regarding them is that, according to 
inscriptions, they were all excavated within the short period of 
about thirty-three years, between 1441 and 1474. Some of the 
figures are of colossal size; one, for instance, is 57 ft. high, which 
is taller than any other in northern India. 

The palace built by Man Singh (1486-1516) forms the most 
interesting example of early Hindu work of its class in India. 
Another palace of even greater extent was added to this in 1516; 
both Jehangfr and Shah Jahan added palaces to these two the 
whole making a group of edifices unequalled for picturesqueness 
and interest by anything of their class in Central India. Among 
the apartments in the palace was the celebrated chamber, named 
the Baradari, supported on 12 columns^ and 45 ft. square, with a 
stone roof, forming one of the most beautiful palace-halls in the 
world. It was, besides, singularly interesting from the expedients 
to which the Hindu architect was forced to resort to imitate the 
vaults of the Moslems. Of the buildings, however, which so 
excited the admiration of the emperor Baber, probably little now 
remains. The fort of Gwalior, within which the above buildings 
are situated, stands on an isolated rock. The face is perpendicular 
and where the rock is naturally less precipitous it has been 
scarped. Its greatest length from north-east to south-west is a 
mile and a half, and the greatest breadth 900 yds. The rock 
attains its maximum height of 342 ft. at the northern end. A 
rampart, accessible by a steep road, and farther up by huge steps 
cut out of the rock, surrounds the fort. The citadel stands at the 
north-eastern corner of the enclosure, and presents a very 
picturesque appearance. The old town of Gwalior, which is of 
considerable size, but irregularly built, and extremely dirty, lies 
at the eastern base of the rock. It contains the tomb of Mahom- 
med Ghaus, erected during the early part of Akbar's reign. The 
fort of Gwalior was traditionally built by one Surya Sen, the raja 
of the neighbouring country. In 1196 Gwalior was captured by 
Mahommed Ghori; it then passed into the hands of several 
chiefs until in 1559 Akbar gained possession of it, and made it a 
state prison for captives of rank. On the dismemberment of the 
Delhi empire, Gwalior was seized by the Jat rana of Gohad. 
Subsequently it was garrisoned by Sindhia, from whom it was 
wrested in 1780 by the forces of the East India Company, and to 
whom it was finally restored by the British in 1886. The modern 
town contains the palace of the chief, a college, a high school, a 
girls' school, a service school to train officials, a law school, 
hospitals for men and for women, a museum, paper-mills, and a 
printing-press issuing a state gazette. 

GWALIOR RESIDENCY, an administrative unit in the Central 
India agency, comprises Gwalior state and eleven smaller states 
and estates. Its total area is 17,825 sq. m., and its population 
in 1901 was 2,187,612. Of the area, 17,020 sq. m. belong to 
Gwalior Slate, and the agency also includes the small states of 
Raghugarh, Khaniadhana, Paron, Garha, Umri and Bhadaura, 
with the Chhabra pargana of Tonk. 

GWEEDORE, a hamlet and tourist resort of Co. Donegal, 
Ireland, on the Londonderry & Lough Swilly & Letterkenny 



750 



GWILT GYANTSE 



railway. The river Clady, running past the village from the 
Nacung Loughs, affords salmon and trout fishing. The fine 
surrounding scenery culminates to the east in the wild mountain 
Errigal (2466 ft.) at the upper end of the loughs. The place owes 
its popularity as a resort to Lord George Hill (d. 1879), who also 
laboured for the amelioration of the conditions of the peasantry 
on his estate, and combated the Rundale system of minute 
repartition of property. In 1889, during the troubles which 
arose out of evictions, Gweedore was the headquarters of the 
Irish constabulary, when District Inspector Martin was openly 
murdered on attempting to arrest a priest on his way to Mass. 

GWILT, JOSEPH (1784-1863), English architect and writer, 
was the younger son of George Gwilt, architect surveyor to the 
county of Surrey, and was born at Southwark on the nth of 
January 1784. He was educated at St Paul's school, and after a 
short course of instruction in his father's office was in 1801 
admitted a student of the Royal Academy, where in the same 
year he gained the silver medal for his drawing of the tower and 
steeple of St Dunstan-in-the-East. In 1811 he published a 
Treatise on the Equilibrium of Arches, and in 1815 he was elected 
F.S.A. After a visit to Italy in 1816, he published in 1818 
Notitia architectonica italiana, or Concise N-otices of the Buildings 
and Architects of Italy. In 1825 he published an edition of Sir 
William Chambers's Treatise on Civil Architecture; and among 
his other principal contributions to the literature of his profession 
are a translation of the Architecture of Vitruvius (1826), a Treatise 
on the Rudiments of Architecture, Practical and Theoretical (1826), 
and his valuable Encyclopaedia of Architecture (1842), which was 
published with additions by Wyatt Papworth in 1867. In 
recognition of Gwilt's advocacy of the importance to architects of 
a knowledge of mathematics, he was in 1833 elected a member of 
the Royal Astronomical Society. He took a special interest in 
philology and music, and was the author of Rudiments of the 
Anglo-Saxon Tongue (1829), and of the article " Music " in the 
Encyclopaedia metropolitana. His principal works as a practical 
architect were Markree Castle near Sligo in Ireland, and St 
Thomas's church at Charlton in Kent. He died on the I4th of 
September 1863. 

GWYN, NELL [ELEANOR] (1650-1687), English actress, and 
mistress of Charles II., was born on the 2nd of February 
1650/1, probably in an alley off Drury Lane, London, although 
Hereford also claims to have been her birthplace. Her father, 
Thomas Gwyn, appears to have been a broken-down soldier of a 
family of Welsh origin. Of her mother little is known save that 
she lived for some time with her daughter, and that in 1679 she 
was drowned, apparently when intoxicated, in a pond at Chelsea. 
Nell Gwyn, who sold oranges in the precincts of Drury Lane 
Theatre, passed, at the age of fifteen, to the boards, through the 
influence of the actor Charles Hart and of Robert Duncan or 
Dungan, an officer of the guards who had interest with the 
management. Her first recorded appearance on the stage was in 
1665 as Cydaria, Montezuma's daughter, in Dryden's Indian 
Emperor, a serious part ill-suited to her. In the following year 
she was Lady Wealthy in the Hon. James Howard's comedy The 
English Monsieur. Pepys was delighted with the playing of 
" pretty, witty Nell," but when he saw her as Florimel in Dryden's 
Secret Love, or the Maiden Queen, he wrote " so great a per- 
formance of a comical part was never, I believe, in the world 
before " and, " so done by Nell her merry part as cannot be 
better done in nature " (Diary, March 25, 1667). Her success 
brought her other leading roles Bellario, in Beaumont and 
Fletcher's PhUaster; Flora, in Rhodes's Flora's Vagaries; 
Samira, in Sir Robert Howard's Surprisal; and she remained 
a member of the Drury Lane company until 1669, playing con- 
tinuously save for a brief absence in the summer of 1667 when she 
lived at Epsom as the mistress of Lord Buckhurst, afterwards 
6th earl of Dorset (<?..). Her last appearance was as Almahide 
to the Almanzor of Hart, in Dryden's The Conquest of Granada 
(1670), the production of which had been postponed some 
months for her return to the stage after the birth of her first 
son by the king. 

As an actress Nell Gwyn was largely indebted to Dryden, who 



seems to have made a special study of her airy, irresponsible 
personality, and who kept her supplied with parts which suited 
her. She excelled in the delivery of the risky prologues and 
epilogues which were the fashion, and the poet wrote for her 
some specially daring examples. It was, however, as the 
mistress of Charles II. that she endeared herself to the public. 
Partly, no doubt, her popularity was due to the disgust inspired 
by her rival, Louise de Keroualle, duchess of Portsmouth, and to- 
the fact that, while the Frenchwoman was a Catholic, she was a 
Protestant. But very largely it was the .result of exactly those 
personal qualities that appealed to the monarch himself. She 
was piquanle rather than pretty, short of stature, and her chief 
beauty was her reddish-brown hair. She was illiterate, and with 
difficulty scrawled an awkward E. G. at the bottom of her letters, 
written for her by others. But her frank recklessness, her 
generosity, her invariable good temper, her ready wit, her 
infectious high spirits and amazing indiscretions appealed 
irresistibly to a generation which welcomed in her the living 
antithesis of Puritanism. " A true child of the London streets," 
she never pretended to be superior to what she was, nor to inter- 
fere in matters outside the special sphere assigned her; she 
made no ministers, she appointed to no bishoprics, and for the 
high issues of international politics she had no concern. She 
never forgot her old friends, and, as far as is known, remained 
faithful to her royal lover from the beginning of their intimacy 
to his death, and, after his death, to his memory. 

Of her two sons by the king, the elder was created Baron 
Hedington and earl of Burford and subsequently duke of St 
Albans; the younger, James, Lord Beauclerk,, died in 1680, 
while still a boy. The king's death-bed request to his brother, 
" Let not poor Nelly starve," was faithfully carried out by 
James II., who paid her debts from the Secret Service fund, 
provided her with other moneys, and settled on her an estate 
with reversion to the duke of St Albans. But she did not long 
survive her lover's death. She died in November 1687, and was 
buried on the i7th, according to her own request, in the church 
of St Martin-in-the-Fields, her funeral sermon being preached by 
the vicar, Thomas Tenison, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, 
who said " much to her praise." Tradition credits the founda- 
tion of Chelsea Hospital to her influence over the king. 

See Peter Cunningham, The Story of Nell Gwyn, edited by Gordon 
Goodwin (1903) ; Waldron's edition of John Downes's Roscius 
Anglicanus (1789); Osmund Airy, Charles II. (1904); Pepys, Diary; 
Evelyn, Diary and Correspondence; Origin and Early History of the 
Royal Hospital at Chelsea, edited by Major-General G. Hutt (1872); 
Memoirs of the Life of Eleanor Gwinn (1752); Burnet, History of 
My Own Time, part i., edited by Osmund Airy (Oxford, 1897); 
Louise de KSroualle, Duchess of Portsmouth, by H. Forneron, trans- 
lated by Mrs Crawford (1887). 

GWYNIAD, the name given to a fish of the genus Coregonus or 
White fish (C. clupeoides), inhabiting the large lakes of North 
Wales and the north of England. At Ullswater it is known by the 
name of " Schelly," at Loch Lomond by that of " powen." It is 
tolerably abundant in Lake Bala, keeping to the deepest portion 
of the lake for the greater part of the year, but appearing in 
shoals near the shores at certain seasons. It is well flavoured, 
like all the species of Coregonus, but scarcely attains to the 
weight of a pound. The name gwyniad is a Welsh word, and 
signifies "shining"; and it is singular that a similar fish in 
British Columbia, also belonging to the family of Salmonoids, is 
called by the natives "quinnat," from the silvery lustre of its 
scales, the word having in their language the same meaning as 
the Welsh " gwyniad." 

GYANTSE, one of the large towns of Tibet. It lies S.E. of 
Shigatse, 130 m. from the Indian frontier and 145 m. from Lhasa. 
Its central position at the junction of the roads from India and 
Bhutan with those from Ladakh and Central Asia leading to 
Lhasa makes it a considerable distributing trade centre. Its 
market is the third largest in Tibet, coming after Lhasa and 
Shigatse, and is especially celebrated for its woollen cloth and 
carpet manufactures. Here caravans come from Ladakh, 
Nepal and upper Tibet, bringing gold, borax, salt, wool, musk 
and furs, to exchange for tea, tobacco, sugar, cotton goods. 



GYGES GYLLENSTJERNA 



broadcloth and hardware. The town is compactly built of stone 
houses, with wooden balconies facing the main street, whence 
narrow lanes strike off into uninviting slums, and contains a fort 
and monastery. In the British expedition of 1904 Gyantse 
formed the first objective of the advance, and the force was 
besieged here in the mission post of Changlo for some time. The 
Tibetans made a night attack on the post, and were beaten off 
with some difficulty, but subsequently the British attacked and 
stormed the fort or jong. Under the treaty of 1904 a British 
trade agent is stationed at Gyantse. 

GYGES, founder of the third or Mermnad dynasty of Lydian 
kings, he reigned 687-652 B.C. according to H. Gelzer, 690-657 
B.C. according to H. Winckler. The chronology of the Lydian 
kings given by Herodotus has been shown by the Assyrian 
inscriptions to be about twenty years in excess. Gyges was the 
son of Dascylus, who, when recalled from banishment in Cappa- 
docia by the Lydian king Sadyattes called Candaules " the 
Dog-strangler " (a title of the Lydian Hermes) by the Greeks 
sent his son back to Lydia instead of himself. Gyges soon became 
a favourite of Sadyattes and was despatched by him to fetch 
Tudo, the daughter of Arnossus of Mysia, whom the Lydian king 
wished to make his queen. On the way Gyges fell in love with 
Tudo, who complained to Sadyattes of his conduct. Forewarned 
that the king intended to punish him with death, Gyges assas- 
sinated Sadyattes in the night and seized the throne with the 
help of Arselis of Mylasa, the captain of the Carian bodyguard, 
whom he had won over to his cause. Civil war ensued, which 
was finally ended by an appeal to the oracle of Delphi and the 
confirmation of the right of Gyges to the crown by the Delphian 
god. Further to secure his title he married Tudo. Many legends 
were told among the Greeks about his rise to power. That 
found in Herodotus, which may be traced to the poet Archilochus 
of Pares, described how " Candaules " insisted upon showing 
Gyges his wife when unrobed, which so enraged her that she gave 
Gyges the choice of murdering her husband and making himself 
king, or of being put to death himself. Plato made Gyges a 
shepherd, who discovered a magic ring by means of which he 
murdered his master and won the affection of his wife (Hdt. i. 
8-14; Plato, Rep. 359; Justin i. 7; Cicero, De of. iii. 9)- 
Once established on the throne Gyges devoted himself to con- 
solidating his kingdom and making it a military power. The 
Troad was conquered, Colophon captured from the Greeks, 
Smyrna besieged and alliances entered into with Ephesus and 
Miletus. The Cimmerii, who had ravaged Asia Minor, were 
beaten back, and an embassy was sent to Assur-bani-pal at 
Nineveh (about 650 B.C.) in the hope of obtaining his help against 
the barbarians. The Assyrians, however, were otherwise 
engaged, and Gyges turned to Egypt, sending his faithful Carian 
troops along with Ionian mercenaries to assist Psammetichus in 
shaking off the Assyrian yoke (660 B.C.). A few years later he 
fell in battle against the Cimmerii under Dugdamme (called 
Lygdamis by Strabo i. 3. 21), who took the lower town of Sardis. 
Gyges was succeeded by his son Ardys. 

See Nicolaus Damascenus, quoting from the Lydian historian 
Xanthus, in C. Muller, Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, iii.; 
R. Schubert, Geschichte der Konige von Lydien (1884); M. G. 
Radet, La Lydie et le monde grec au temps de Mermnades (1892- 
1893); H. Gelzer, " Das Zeitalter des Gyges " (Rhein. Mus., 1875); 
H. Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen, i. (1893); Macan's edition 
of Herodotus. (A. H. S.) 

GYLIPPUS, a Spartan general of the 5th century B.C.; he 
was the son of Cleandridas, who had been expelled from Sparta 
for accepting Athenian bribes (446 B.C.) and had settled at Thurii. 
His mother was probably a helot, for Gylippus is said to have 
been, like Lysander and Callicratidas, a mothax (see HELOT). 
When Alcibiades urged the Spartans to send a general to lead the 
Syracusan resistance against the Athenian expedition, Gylippus 
was appointed, and his arrival was undoubtedly the turning point 
of thestruggle(4i4-4i3). Though at first his long hair, his thread- 
bare cloak and his staff furnished the subject of many a jest, and 
his harsh and overbearing manner caused grave discontent, 
yet the rapidity and decisiveness of his movements, won the 
sympathy and respect of the Syracusans. Diodorus (xiii. 28-32), 



probably following Timaeus, represents him as inducing the 
Syracusans to pass sentence of death on the captive Athenian 
generals, but we need have no hesitation in accepting the state- 
ment of Philistus (Plutarch, Nicias, 28), a Syracusan who 
himself took part in the defence, and Thucydides (vii. 86), that 
he tried, though without success, to save their lives, wishing to 
take them to Sparta as a signal proof of his success Gylippus 
fell, as his father had done, through avarice; entrusted by 
Lysander with an immense sum which he was to deliver to the 
ephors at Sparta, he could not resist the temptation to enrich 
himself and, on the discovery of his guilt, went into exile. 

Thucydides vi. 93. 104, vii. ; Plutarch, Nicias, 19, 21, 27, 28, 
Lysander, 16, 17; Diodorus xiii. 7, 8, 28-32; Polyaenus i. 39. 42). 
See SYRACUSE (for the siege operations), commentaries onThucydides 
and the Greek histories. 

GYLLEMBOURG-EHRENSVARD, THOHASINE CHRISTINE, 
BARONESS (1773-1856), Danish author, was born on the gth of 
November 1773, at Copenhagen. Her maiden name wasBuntzen. 
Her great beauty early attracted notice, and before she was 
seventeen she married the famous writer Peter Andreas Heiberg. 
To him she bore in the following year a son, afterwards illustrious 
as the poet and critic Johan Ludvig Heiberg. In 1800 her 
husband was exiled, and she obtained a divorce, marrying in 
December 1801 the Swedish Baron K. F. Ehrensvard, himself 
a political fugitive. Her second husband, who presently adopted 
the name of Gyllembourg, died in 1815. In 1822 she followed 
her son to Kiel, where he was appointed professor, and in 1825 
she returned with him to Copenhagen. In 1827 she first appeared 
as an author by publishing her romance of The Polonius Family 
in her son's newspaper Flyvende Post. In 1828 the same journal 
contained The Magic Ring, which was immediately followed 
by En Hverdags historic (An Everyday Story). The success of 
this anonymous work was so great that the author adopted 
until the end of her career the name of " The Author of An 
Everyday Story." In 1833-1834 she published three volumes 
of Old and New Novels. New Stories followed in 1835 and 1836. 
In 1839 appeared two novels, Montanus the Younger and Ricida; 
in 1840, One in All; in 1841, Near and Far; in 1843, A Corre- 
spondence; in 1844, The Cross Ways; in 1845, Two Generations. 
From 1849 to 1851 the Baroness Ehrensvard-Gyllembourg was 
engaged in bringing out a library edition of her collected works 
in twelve volumes. On the 2nd of July 1856 she died in her son's 
house at Copenhagen. Not until then did the secret of her 
authorship transpire; for throughout her life she had preserved 
the closest reticence on the subject even with her nearest friends. 
The style of Madame Ehrensvard-Gyllembourg is clear and 
sparkling; for English readers no closer analogy can be found 
than between her and Mrs Gaskell, and Cranford might well 
have been written by the witty Danish authoress. 

See J. L. Heiberg, Peter Andreas Heiberg og Thomasine Gyllembourg 
(Copenhagen, 1882), and L. Kornelius-Hybel, Nogle Bemaerkninger 
am P. A. Heiberg og Fru Gyllembourg (Copenhagen, 1883). 

GYLLENSTJERNA, JOHAN, COUNT (1635-1680), Swedish 
statesman, completed his studies at Upsala and then visited 
most of the European states and laid the foundations of that deep 
insight into international politics which afterwards distinguished 
him. On his return home he met King Charles X. in the Danish 
islands and was in close attendance upon him till the monarch's 
death in 1660. He began his political career at the diet which 
assembled in the autumn of the same year. An aristocrat by 
birth and inclination, he was nevertheless a true patriot and 
demanded the greatest sacrifices from his own order in the 
national interests. He was therefore one of those who laboured 
most zealously for the recovery of the crown lands. In the 
Upper House he was the spokesman of the gentry against the 
magnates, whose inordinate privileges he would have curtailed 
or abolished. His adversaries vainly endeavoured to gain him 
by favour, for as court-marshal and senator he was still more 
hostile to the dominant patricians who followed the adventurous 
policy of Magnus de la Gardie. Thus he opposed the French 
alliance which de la Gardie carried through in 1672, and con- 
sistently advocated economy in domestic and neutrality in 
foreign affairs. On the outbreak of the war in 1675 he was the 



752 



GYMKHANA GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM 



most loyal and energetic supporter of the young Charles XI., 
and finally his indispensable counsellor. Indeed, it may be said, 
that the political principles which he instilled into the youthful 
monarch were faithfully followed by Charles during the whole 
of his reign. In 1679 Gyllenstjerna was appointed the Swedish 
plenipotentiary at the peace congress of Lund. The alliance 
which he then concluded with Denmark bound the two northern 
realms together in a common foreign policy, and he sought 
besides to facilitate their harmonious co-operation by every 
means in his power. In 1680, after bringing home Charles XL's 
Danish bride from Copenhagen, he was appointed governor- 
general of Scania (Skane), but expired a few weeks later. 

See M. Hojer, Ofversigt af Sveriges yttre politik under dren 1676- 
1680 (Upsala, 1875). (R. N. B.) 

GYMKHANA, a display of miscellaneous sports, originally at 
the military stations of India. The word would seem to be 
a colloquial remodelling of the Hindustani gend-khana, ball- 
house or racquet-court, by substituting for gend the first syllable 
of the English word " gymnastics." The definition given in 
Yule's Glossary is as follows: " A place of public resort at a 
station, where the needful facilities for athletics and games 
. . . are provided." The name of the place was afterwards 
applied to the games themselves, and the word is now used almost 
exclusively in this sense. According to Yule the first use of it 
that can be traced was, on the authority of Major John Trotter, 
at Rurki in the year 1861, when a gymkhana was instituted 
there. Gymkhana sports were invented to relieve the monotony 
of Indian station life, and both officers and men from the ranks 
took part in them. The first meetings consisted of promiscuous 
horse and pony races at catch weights. To these were soon 
added a second variety, originally called the pagdl (funny races), 
the one generally known outside India, which consisted of 
miscellaneous races and competitions of all kinds, some serious 
and some amusing, on horseback, on foot and on bicycles. 
Among these may be mentioned the usual military sports; such 
as tent-pegging, lemon-cutting and obstacle racing; rickshaw 
racing; tilting at the ring, sack, pillion, hurdle, egg-and-spoon, 
blindfold, threading-the-needle and many other kinds of races 
depending upon the inventive powers of the committees in charge. 

GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM, terms signifying respec- 
tively a system of physical exercises practised either for recrea- 
tion or for the purpose of promoting the health and development 
of the body, and the building where such exercises are carried 
on. The gymnasium of the Greeks was originally the school 
where competitors in the public games received their training, 
and was so named from the circumstance that these competitors 
exercised naked (yvnvos). The gymnasium was a public in- 
stitution as distinguished from the palaestra, which was a 
private school where boys were trained in physical exercises, 
though the term palaestra is also often used for the part of a 
gymnasium specially devoted to wrestling and boxing. The 
athletic contests for which the gymnasium supplied the means 
of training and practice formed part of the social life of the 
Greeks from the earliest times. They were held in honour of 
heroes and gods; sometimes forming part of a periodic festival, 
sometimes of the funeral rites of a deceased chief. In course of 
time the Greeks grew more attached to such sports; their free 
active life, spent to a great extent in the open air, fostered the 
liking almost into a passion. The victor in any athletic contest, 
though he gained no money prize, was rewarded with the honour 
and respect of his fellow citizens; and a victory in the great 
religious festivals was counted an honour for the whole state. 
In these circumstances the training of competitors for the 
greater contests became a matter of public concern; and 
accordingly special buildings were provided by the state, and 
their management entrusted to public officials. The regulation 
of the gymnasium at Athens is attributed by Pausanias (i. 39. 3) 
to Theseus. Solon made several laws on the subject; but 
according to Galen it was reduced to a system in the time of 
Cleisthenes. Ten gymnasiarchs, one from each tribe, were 
appointed annually. These performed in rotation the duties 
of their office, which were to maintain and pay the persons who 



were training for public contests, to conduct the games at the 
great Athenian festivals, to exercise general supervision over 
the morals of the youths, and to adorn and keep up the gym- 
nasium. This office was one of the ordinary \eirovpyiai (public 
services), and great expense was entailed on the holders. Under 
them were ten sophronistae, whose duty was to watch the conduct 
of the youths at all times, and especially to be present at all 
their games. The practical teaching and selecting of the suitable 
exercises for each youth were in the hands of the paedotribae and 
gymnastae, the latter of whom also superintended the effect on the 
constitution of the pupils, and prescribed for them when they were 
unwell. The aleiptae oiled and rubbed dust on the bodies of the 
youths, acted as surgeons, and administered the drugs prescribed. 
According to Galen there was also a teacher of the various 
games of ball. The gymnasia built to suit these various purposes 
were large buildings, which contained not merely places for each 
kind of exercise, but also a stadium, baths, covered porticos for 
practice in bad weather, and outer porticos where the philosophers 
and men of letters read public lectures and held disputations. 

The gymnasium of the Greeks did not long remain an institu- 
tion exclusively devoted to athletic exercises. It soon began 
to be applied to other uses even more important. The develop- 
ment arose naturally through the recognition by the Greeks of 
the important place in education occupied by physical culture, 
and of the relation between exercise and health. The gymnasium 
accordingly became connected with education on the one hand 
and with medicine on the other. Due training of the body and 
maintenance of the health and strength of children were the 
chief part of earlier Greek education. Except the time devoted 
to letters and music, the education of boys was conducted in 
the gymnasia, where provision was made, as already mentioned, 
for their moral as well as their physical training. As they grew 
older, conversation and social intercourse took the place of the 
more systematic discipline. Philosophers and sophists assembled 
to talk and to lecture in the gymnasia, which thus became places 
of general resort for the purpose of all less systematic intellectual 
pursuits, as well as for physical exercises. In Athens there were 
three great public gymnasia Academy, Lyceum and Cynosarges 
each of which was consecrated to a special deity with whose 
statue it was adorned; and each was rendered famous by 
association with a celebrated school of philosophy. Plato's 
teaching in the Academy has given immortality to that gym- 
nasium; Aristotle conferred lustre on the Lyceum; and the 
Cynosarges was the resort of the Cynics. Plato when treating 
of education devotes much consideration to gymnastics (see 
especially Rep. iii. and various parts of Laws); and according 
to Plato it was the sophist Prodicus who first pointed out the 
connexion between gymnastics and health. Having found such 
exercises beneficial to his own weak health, he formulated a 
method which was adopted generally, and which was improved by 
Hippocrates. Galen lays the greatest stress on the proper use of 
gymnastics, and throughout ancient medical writers we find that 
special exercises are prescribed as the cure for special diseases. 

The Greek institution of the gymnasium never became popular 
with the Romans, who regarded the training of boys in gymnastics 
with contempt as conducive to idleness and immorality, and of 
little use from a military point of view; though at Sparta 
gymnastic training had been chiefly valued as encouraging 
warlike tastes and promoting the bodily strength needed for the 
use of weapons and the endurance of hardship. Among the 
Romans of the republic, the games in the Campus Martius, the 
duties of camp life, and the enforced marches and other hard- 
ships of actual warfare, served to take the place of the gymnastic 
exercises required by the Greeks. The first public gymnasium 
at Rome was built by Nero and another by Commodus. In the 
middle ages, though jousts and feats of horsemanship and field 
sports of various kinds were popular, the more systematic training 
of the body which the Greeks had associated with the gymnasium 
fell into neglect; while the therapeutic value of special exercises 
as understood by Hippocrates and Galen appears to have been 
lost sight of. Rousseau, in his mile, was the first in modern 
times to call attention to the injurious consequences of such 



GYMNOSOPHISTS 



753 



indifference, and he insisted on the importance of physical 
culture as an essential part of education. It was probably due 
in some measure to his influence that F. L. Jahn and his followers 
in Germany, encouraged by the Prussian minister Stein, estab- 
lished the Turnplatze, or gymnastic schools, which played an 
important part during the War of Liberation, and in the political 
agitations which followed the establishment of the German 
confederation by the Congress of Vienna. The educational 
reformers Pestalozzi and Froebel emphasized the need for 
systematic physical training in any complete scheme of education. 
The later development of the classical gymnasium (when it had 
become the school of intellectual culture rather than of ex- 
clusively physical exercise), and not the original idea, has been 
perpetuated in the modern use of the word in Germany, where 
the name " gymnasium " is given to the highest grade of second- 
ary school, and the association of the word with athleticism has 
been entirely abandoned. On the other hand, in England, 
France and elsewhere in Europe, as well as in America, the 
history of the word has been precisely the reverse; the con- 
nexion of the gymnasium with philosophy and mental culture 
has been dropped, and it indicates a building exclusively intended 
for the practice of physical exercises. But whereas the Greeks 
received training in the gymnasium for contests which are now 
designated as athletic sports (q.v.), gymnastics in the modern 
sense is a term restricted to such exercises as are usually practised 
indoors, with or without the aid of mechanical appliances, as 
distinguished from sports or games practised in the open air. 

It was not until near the end of the igth century that gym- 
nastics were recognized in England as anything more than a 
recreation; their value as a specifically therapeutic agent, or as 
an article in the curriculum of elementary schools, was not 
realized. More recently, however, educationists have urged with 
increasing insistence the need for systematic physical training, 
and their views received greater attention when evidence of 
deterioration in the physique of the people began to accumulate. 
During the first decade of the 2Oth century more than one com- 
mission reported to parliament in England in favour of more 
systematic and general physical training being encouraged or 
even made compulsory by public authority. Voluntary associa- 
tions were formed for encouraging such training and providing 
facilities for it. Gymnastics had already for several years been 
an essential part of the training of army recruits with exceedingly 
beneficial results, and gymnasia had been established at Alder- 
shot and other military centres. Physical exercises, although 
not compulsory, obtained a permanent place in the code for 
elementary schools in Great Britain; and much care has been 
taken to provide a syllabus of exercises adapted for the improve- 
ment of the physique of the children. These exercises are partly 
gymnastic and partly of the nature of drill ; they do not in most 
cases require the use of appliances, and are on that account 
known as " free movements," which numbers of children go 
through together, accompanied whenever possible by music. 
On the other hand at the larger public schools and universities 
there are elaborate gymnasia equipped with a great variety of 
apparatus, the skilful use of which demands assiduous practice; 
and this is encouraged by annual contests between teams of 
gymnasts representing rival institutions. 

The appliances vary to some extent in different gymnasia, 
some of the more complicated requiring a greater amount of 
space and involving a larger cost than is often practic- 
able. But where these considerations are negligible, 
apparatus, substantial uniformity is to be found in the equipment 
of gymnasia not designed for specifically medical 
purposes. The simplest, and in many respects the most generally 
useful, of all gymnastic apparatus is the dumb-bell. It was in 
use in England as early as the time of Elizabeth, and it has the 
advantage that it admits of being exactly proportioned to the 
individual strength of each learner, and can be adjusted in 
weight as his strength increases. The exercises that may be 
performed with the dumb-bell, combined with a few simple 
drill-like movements, give employment to all parts of the body 
and to both sides equally. Dumb-bell exercises, therefore, when 



arranged judiciously and with knowledge, are admirably suited 
for developing the physique, and are extensively employed in 
schools both for boys and girls. The bar-bell is merely a two- 
handed dumb-bell, and its use is similar in principle. The 
Indian club is also in use in most gymnasia; but the risk of 
overstraining the body by its unskilful handling makes it less 
generally popular than the dumb-bell. All these appliances 
may be, and often are, used either in ordinary schoolrooms or 
elsewhere outside the gymnasium. The usual fixed sorts of 
apparatus, the presence of which (or of some of them) in a building 
may be said to constitute it a gymnasium, are the following: a 
leaping-rope; a leaping-pole; a vaulting-horse; a horizontal 
bar, so mounted between two upright posts that its height from 
the ground may be adjusted as desired; parallel bars, used for 
exercises to develop the muscles of the trunk and arms; the 
trapeze consisting of a horizontal bar suspended by ropes at a 
height of 4 to 5 ft. from the ground; the bridge ladder; the 
plank; the inclined plane; the mast; swinging rings; the 
prepared wall; the horizontal beam. 

Before the end of the igth century the therapeutic value of 
gymnastics was fully realized by the medical profession; and a 
number of medical or surgical gymnasia came into existence, 
provided with specially devised apparatus for the treatment of 
different physical defects or weaknesses. The exercises practised 
in them are arranged upon scientific principles based on 
anatomical and physiological knowledge; and these principles 
have spread thence to influence largely the practice of gym- 
nastics in schools and in the army. A French medical writer 
enumerates seven distinct groups of maladies, each including a 
number of different complaints, for which gymnastic exercises 
are a recognized form of treatment; and there are many mal- 
formations of the human body, formerly believed to be incurable, 
which are capable of being greatly remedied if not entirely 
corrected by regular gymnastic exercises practised under medical 
direction. 

The value of gymnastics both for curing defects, and still more 
for promoting health and the development of normal physique, 
is recognized even more clearly on the continent of Europe than 
in Great Britain. In Germany the government not only controls 
the practice of gymnastics but makes it compulsory for every 
child and adult to undergo a prescribed amount of such 
physical training. In France also, physical training by gym- 
nastics is under state control; in Sweden, Denmark, Switzer- 
land, Italy, Russia, systems more or less distinct enjoy 
a wide popularity; and in Finland gymnastics are practised 
on lines that exhibit national peculiarities. The Finns intro- 
duce an exceptional degree of variety into their exercises as 
well as into the appliances devised to assist them; women are 
scarcely less expert than men in the performance of them; and 
the enthusiasm with which the system is supported produces 
the most beneficial results in the physique of the people. Inter- 
national gymnastic contests have become a feature of the revived 
Olympic Games (see ATHLETIC SPORTS), and in those held at 
Athens in 1906 a team of Danish ladies took part in the competi- 
tion and proved by their skilful performance that gymnastics 
may be practised with as much success by women as by men. 

The chief work on the ancient gymnastics is Krause, Gymnastik 
und Agonistik der Hellenen (1841); of more recent works mention 
may be made of Jager, Gymnastik der Hellenen (1881) ; L. Grasberger, 
Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen Altertum (1881); J. P. 
Mahaffy, Old Greek Education (1883); A. S. Wilkins, National 
Education in Greece (1873); E. Paz, Histoire de la gymnastique 
(1886) ; Wickenhagen, Antike und moderne Gymnastik (1891) ; Becker- 
G6I1, Charicles ii. ; Brugsma, Gymnasiorum apud Graecos descriplio 
(1855); Petersen, Das Gymnasium der Griechen (1858). See also 
N. Laisne', Gymnastique pratique (Paris, 1879); Collineau, La 
Gymnastique (Paris, 1884); L'Hygtkne a I'ecole (Paris, 1889); P. de 
Coubertin, La Gymnastique utuitaire (Paris, 1905); H. Nissen, 
Rational Home Gymnastics (Boston, 1903). (R. J. M.) 

GYMNOSOPHISTS (Lat. gymnosophistae, from Gr. yvnvos, 
o-o<t>io-Tr/s, " naked philosophers "), the name given by the 
Greeks to certain ancient Hindu philosophers who pursued 
asceticism to the point of regarding food and clothing as detri- 
mental to 'purity of thought. From the fact that they often 



754 



GYMNOSPERMS 



lived as hermits in forests, the Greeks also called them Hylobioi 
(cf. the Vana-prasthas in Sanskrit writings). Diogenes Laertius 
(ix. 6 1 and 63) refers to them, and asserts that Pyrrho of Elis, 
the founder of pure scepticism, came under their influence, and 
on his return to Elis imitated their habits of life, to what extent 
does not appear. Strabo (xv. 711, 714) divides them into 
Brahmans and Sarmans (or Shamans). See JAINS. 

GYMNOSPERMS, in Botany. The Gymnosperms, with the 
Angiosperms, constitute the existing groups of seed-bearing 
plants or Phanerogams: the importance of the seed as a dis- 
tinguishing feature in the plant kingdom may be emphasized 
by the use of the designation Spermophyta for these two groups, 
in contrast to the Pteridophyta and Bryophyta in which true 
seeds are unknown. Recent discoveries have, however, estab- 
lished the fact that there existed in the Palaeozoic era fern- 
like plants which produced true seeds of a highly specialized 
type; this group, for which Oliver and Scott proposed the term 
Pteridospermae in 1904, must also be included in the Sper- 
mophyta. Another instance of the production of seeds in an 
extinct plant which further reduces the importance of this 
character as a distinguishing feature is afforded by the Palaeozoic 
genus Lepidocarpon described by Scott in 1901; this lycopodia- 
ceous type possessed an integumented megaspore, to which 
the designation seed may be legitimately applied (see PALAEO- 
BOTANY: Palaeozoic). 

As the name Gymnosperm (Gr. 7u/w6s, naked, <nrepjua, seed) 
implies, one characteristic of this group is the absence of an ovary 
or closed chamber containing the ovules. It was the English 
botanist Robert Brown who first recognized this important 
distinguishing feature in conifers and cycads in 1825; he estab- 
lished the gymnospermy of these seed-bearing classes as distinct 
from the angiospermy of the monocotyledons and dicotyledons. 
As Sachs says in his history of botany, " no more important 
discovery was ever made in the domain of comparative mor- 
phology and systematic botany." As Coulter and Chamberlain 
express it, " the habitats of the Gymhosperms to-day indicate 
that they either are not at home in the more genial conditions 
affected by Angiosperms, or have not been able to maintain 
themselves in competition with this group of plants." 

These naked-seeded plants are of special interest on account 
of their great antiquity, which far exceeds that of the Angio- 
sperms, and as comprising different types which carry us back 
to the Palaeozoic era and to the forests of the coal period. The 
best known and by far the largest division of the Gymnosperms 
is that 'of the cone-bearing trees (pines, firs, cedars, larches, 
&c.), which play a prominent part in the vegetation of the present 
day, especially in the higher latitudes of the northern hemisphere; 
certain members of this class are of considerable antiquity, but 
the conifers as a whole are still vigorous and show but little 
sign of decadence. The division known as the Cycadophyta 
is represented by a few living genera of limited geographical 
range and by a large number of extinct types which in the 
Mesozoic era (see PALAEOBOTANY: Mesozoic) played a conspicuous 
part in the vegetation of the world. Among existing Cycado- 
phyta we find surviving types which, in their present isolation, 
their close resemblance to fossil forms, and in certain morpho- 
logical features, constitute links with the past that not only 
connect the present with former periods in the earth's history, 
but serve as sign-posts pointing the way back along one of the 
many lines which evolution has followed. 

It is needless to discuss at length the origin of the Gymno- 
sperms. The two views which find most .favour in regard to 
the Coniferales and Cycadophyta are: (i) that both have been 
derived from remote filicinean ancestors; (2) that the cycads 
are the descendants of a fern-like stock, while conifers have been 
evolved from lycopodiaceous ancestors. The line of descent 
of recent cycads is comparatively clear in so far as they have 
undoubted affinity with Palaeozoic plants which combined 
cycadean and filicinean features; but opinion is much more 
divided as to the nature of the phylum from which the conifers 
are derived. The Cordaitales (see PALAEOBOTANY: Palaeozoic) 
are represented by extinct forms only, which occupied a prominent 



III. 

IV. 

V. 



position in the Palaeozoic period; these plants exhibit certain 
features in common with the living Araucarias, and others which 
invite a comparison with the maidenhair tree (Ginkgo biloba), 
the solitary survivor of another class of Gymnosperms, the 
Ginkgoales (see PALAEOBOTANY: Mesozoic). The Gnetales are 
a class apart, including three living genera, of which we know 
next to nothing as regards their past history or line of descent. 
Although there are several morphological features in the three 
genera of Gnetales which might seem to bring them into line 
with the Angiosperms, it is usual to regard these resemblances 
as parallel developments along distinct lines rather than to 
interpret them as evidence of direct relationship. 

Gymnospermae. Trees or shrubs; leaves vary considerably in 
size and form. Flowers unisexual, except in a few cases (Gnetales) 
without a perianth. Monoecious or dioecious. Ovules naked, 
rarely without carpellary leaves, usually borne on carpophylls, 
which assume various forms. The single megaspore enclosed in the 
nucellus is filled with tissue (prothallus) before fertilization, and 
contains two or more archegonia, consisting usually of a large egg-cell 
and a small neck, rarely of an egg-cell only and no neck (Gnetum and 
Welwitschia). Microspore spherical or oval, with or without a 
bladder-like extension of the exine, containing a prothallus of two 
or more cells, one of which produces two non-motile or motile male 
cells. Cotyledons two or several. Secondary xylem and phloem 
produced by a single cambium, or by successive cambial zones; no 
true vessels (except in the Gnetales) in the wood, and no companion- 
cells in the phloem. 

I. Pteridospermae (see PALAEOBOTANY, PALAEOZOIC). 

II. Cycadophyta. 

A. Cycadales (recent and extinct). 

B. Bennettitales (see PALAEOBOTANY: Mesozoic). 
Cordaitales (see PALAEOBOTANY: Palaeozoic). 
Ginkgoales (recent and extinct). 

Coniferales. 

A. Taxaceae. 

B. Pinaceae. 

There is no doubt that the result of recent research and of work 
now in progress will be to modify considerably the grouping of the 
conifers. The family Araucarieae, represented by Araucaria and 
Agathis, should perhaps "be separated as a special class and a re- 
arrangement of other genera more in accord with a natural system of 
classification will soon be possible; but for the present its twofold 
subdivision may be retained. 
VI. Gnetales. 

A. Ephedroideae. 

B. Gnetqideae. 

C. Welwitschioideae (Tumboideae). 
CYCADOPHYTA. A. Cycadales. Stems tuberous or columnar, not 

infrequently branched, rarely epiphytic (Peruvian species of Zamia); 
fronds pinnate, bi-pinnate in the Australian genus Bowenia. Dioeci- 
ous; flowers in the form of cones, except the female flowers of Cycas, 
which consist of a rosette of leaMike carpels at the apex of the stem. 
Seeds albuminous, with one integument ; the single embryo, usually 
bearing two partially fused cotyledons, is attached to a long tangled 
suspenspr. Steins and roots increase in diameter by secondary 
thickening, the secondary wood being produced by one cambium or 
developed from successive cambium-rings. 

The cycads constitute a homogeneous group of a few living 
members confined to tropical and sub-tropical regions. As a fairly 
typical and well-known example of the Cyca- 
daceae, a species of the genus Cycas (e.g. C. 
circinalis, C. reooluta, &c.) is briefly de- 
scribed. The stout columnar stem may 
reach a height of 20 metres, and a diameter 
of half a metre; it remains either unbranched 
or divides near the summit into several short 
and thick branches, each branch terminating 
in a crown of long pinnate leaves. The sur- 
face of the stem is covered with rhomboidal 
areas, which represent the persistent bases 
of foliage- and scale- leaves. In some species 
of Cycas there is a well-defined alternation of 
transverse zones on the stem, consisting of 
larger areas representing foliage-leaf bases, 
and similar but smaller areas formed by the 
bases of scale-leaves (F and S, fig. i). The 
scale-leaves clothing the terminal bud are 
linear-lanceolate in form, and of a brown or 
yellow colour; they are pushed aside as the 
stem-axis elongates and becomes shrivelled, 
finally falling off, leaving projecting bases 
which are eventually cut off at a still lower 




FIG. i. Stem of 
Cycas. F, foliage- 
leaf bases; S, scale- 
leaf bases. 



level. Similarly, the dead fronds fall off .leaving a ragged petiole, which 
is afterwards separated from the stem by an absciss-layer a short 
distance above the base. In some species of Cycas the leaf-bases 
do not persist as a permanent covering to the stem, but the surface 



GYMNOSPERMS 



755 




FIG. 2. Cycas siamensis. 



is covered with a wrinkled bark, as in Cycas siamensis, which has a 
stem of unusual form (fig. 2). Small tuberous shoots, comparable on 
a large scale with the bulbils of Lycopodium Selago, are occasionally 
produced in the axils of some of the persistent leaf-bases; these are 
characteristic of sickly plants, and serve as a means of vegetative 
reproduction. In the genus Cycas the female flower is peculiar 
among cycads in consisting of a terminal crown of separate leaf-like 
carpels several inches in length ; the apical portion of each carpellary 
leaf may be broadly triangular in form, and deeply dissected on the 
margins into narrow woolly appendages like rudimentary pinnae. 

From the lower part of a 
carpel are produced several 
laterally placed ovules, 
which become bright red 
or orange on ripening; the 
bright fleshy seeds, which 
in some species are as large 
as a goose's egg, and the 
tawny spreading carpels 

Eroduce a pleasing com- 
ination of colour in the 
midst of the long dark-green 
fronds, which curve grace- 
fully upwards and outwards 
from the summit of the 
columnar stem. In Cycas 
the stem apex, after produc- 
ing a cluster of carpellary 
leaves, continues to elongate 
and produces more bud- 
scales, which are afterwards 
pushed aside as a fresh 
crown of fronds is developed. 
The young leaves of Cycas consist of a straight rachis bearing numer- 
ous linear pinnae, traversed by a single midrib; the pinnae are 
circinately coiled like the leaf of a fern (fig. 3). The male flower of 
Cycas conforms to the type of structure characteristic of the cycads, 
and consists of a long cone of numerous sporophylls bearing many 
oval pollen-sacs on their lower faces. The type described serves as a 
convenient representative of its class. There are eight other living 
genera, which may be classified as follows: 

Classification. A. Cycadeae. Characterized by (a) the alternation 
of scale- and foliage-leaves (fig. i) on the branched or unbranched 
stem; (6) the growth of the main stem through the female flower; 
(c) the presence of a prominent single vein in the linear pipnae; (d) 
the structure of the female flower, which is peculiar 
in not having the form of a cone, but consists of 
numerous independent carpels, each of which bears 
two or more lateral ovules. Represented by a single 
genus, Cycas. (Tropical Asia, Australia, &c.). 

B. Zamieae. The stem does not grow through 
the female flower; both male and female flowers 
are in the form of cones, (a) Stangerieae. 
Characterized by the fern-like venation of the 
pinnae, which have a prominent midrib, giving 
off at a wide angle simple or forked and 
occasionally anastomosing lateral veins. A single 
genus, Slangeria, confined to South Africa, (b) 
Euzamieae. The pinnae are traversed by several 
parallel veins. Bowenia, an Australian cycad, is 
peculiar in having bi-pinnate fronds (fig. 5). The 
various genera are distinguished from one another 
by the shape and manner of attachment of the 
pinnae, the form of the carpellary scales, and to 
some extent by anatomical characters. Encepha- 
lartos (South and Tropical Africa). Large cones; 
the carpellary scales terminate in a peltate distal 
expansion. Macrozamia (Australia). Similar to 
Encephalartos except in the presence of a spinous 
projection from the swollen distal end of the carpels. 
Zamia (South America, Florida, &c.). Stem short 
and often divided into several columnar branches. 
Each carpel terminates in a peltate head. Ceratp- 
zamia (Mexico). Similar in habit to Macrozamia, 
FIG. 3. Cycas. but distinguished by the presence of two horn-like 
Young Frond, spinous processes on the apex of the carpels. 
Microcycas (Cuba). Like Zamia, except that the 
ends of the stamens are flat, while the apices of the carpels are 
peltate. Dioon (Mexico) (fig. 4). Characterized by the woolly scale- 
leaves and carpels; the latter terminate in a thick laminar expan- 
sion of triangular form, bearing two placental cushions, on which 
the ovules are situated. Bowenia (Australia). Bi-pinnate fronds; 
stem short and tuberous (fig. 5). 

The stems of cycads are often described as unbranched; it is true 

that in comparison with conifers, in which the numerous branches, 

springing from the main stem, give a characteristic form 

to the tree, the tuberous o.r columnar stem of the Cyca- 

daceae constitutes a striking distinguishing feature. 

Branching, however, occurs not infrequently; m Cycas 

the tall stem often produces several candelabra-like arms; in Zamia 



the main axis may break up near the base into several cylindrical 
branches ; in species of Dioon (fig. 4) lateral branches are occasion- 
ally produced. The South African Encephalartos frequently produces 
several branches. Probably the oldest example of this genus in 
cultivation is in the Botanic 
Garden of Amsterdam, its 
age is considered by Pro- 
fessor de Vries to be about 
two thousand years: 
although an accurate deter- 
mination of age is impos- 
sible, there is no doubt that 
many cycads grow very 
slowly and are remarkable 
for longevity. The thick 
armour of petiole-bases en- 
veloping the stem is a 
characteristic Cycadean 
feature; in Cycas the alter- 
nation of scale-leaves and 
fronds is more clearly shown 
than in other cycads; in 

Encephalartos, Dioon &c From hotograph of . ^ in the Peradeniya 
the persistent scale - leaf Gardens, Ceylon, by Professor R. H. Yapp, 
bases are almost equal in 

size to those of the foliage- FIG. 4.. Dioon edule. 

leaves, and there is no 

regular alternation of zones sucn as characterizes some species of 
Cycas. Another type of stem is illustrated by Slangeria and Zamia, 
also by a few forms of Cycas, (fig. 2), in which the fronds fall off 





FIG. 5. Bowenia speclabilis: frond. 

completely, leaving a comparatively smooth stem. The Cyas type of 
frond, except as regards the presence of a midrib in each pinna, 
characterizes the cycads generally, except Bowenia and Stangeria. 
In the monotypic genus Bowenia the large 
fronds, borne singly on the short and thick 
stem, are bi-pinnate (fig. 5) ; the segments, 
which are broadly ovate or rhomboidal, 
have several forked spreading veins, and 
resemble the large pinnules of some species 
of Adiantum. In Stangeria, also a genus 
represented by one species (S. paradoxa of 
South Africa), the long and comparatively 
broad pinnae, with an entire or irregularly 
incised margin, are very fern-like, a cir- 
cumstance which led Kunze to describe the 
plant in 1835 as a species of the fern 
Lomaria. In rare cases the pinnae of cycads 
are lobed or branched: in Dioon spinu- 
losum (Central America) the margin of the 
segments bears numerous spinous pro- 
cesses; in some species of Encephalartos, 

e.g. E. horridus, the lamina is deeply lobed ; heteromera. A, part of 
and in a species of the Australian genus f roll( i ; B, single pinna. 
Macrozamia, M. heteromera, the narrow 

pinnae are dichotomously branched almost to the base (fig. 6), and re- 
semble the frond of some species of the fern Schizaea, or the fossil genus 
Baiera (Ginkgoales). An interesting species of Cycas, C.Micholitzti, has 
recently been described by Sir William Thiselton-Dyer from Annam, 
where it was collected by one of Messrs Sanders & Son's collectors, 
in which the pinnae instead of being of the usual simple type are 




FIG. 6. Macrozamia 



756 



GYMNOSPERMS 



dichptomously branched as in Macrozamia heteromera. In Cerato- 
zamia the broad petiole-base is characterized by the presence of two 
lateral spinous processes, suggesting stipular appendages, com- 
parable, on a reduced scale, with the large stipules of the Marattiaceae 
among Ferns. The vernation varies in different genera; in Cycas 
the rachis is straight and the pinnae circinately coiled (fig. 3) ; in 
Encephalartos, Dioon, &c., both rachis and segments are straight; in 
Zamia the rachis is bent or slightly coiled, bearing straight pinnae. 
The young leaves arise on the stem-apex as conical protuberances 
with winged borders, on which the pinnae appear as rounded humps, 
usually in basipetal order; the scale-leaves in their young condition 
resemble fronds, but the lamina remains undeveloped. A feature of 
interest in connexion with the phytogeny of cycads is the presence of 
long hairs clothing the scale-leaves, and forming a cap on the summit 
of the stem-apex or attached to the bases of petioles ; on some fossil 
cycadean plants these outgrowths have the form of scales, and are 
identical in structure with the ramenta (paleae)of the majority of ferns. 
The male flowers of cycads are constructed on a uniform plan, 
and in all cases consist of an axis bearing crowded, spirally dis- 
Flower. posed sporophylls. These are often wedge-shaped and 
angular; in some cases they consist of a short, thick 
stalk, terminating in a peltate expansion, or prolonged upwards in 
the form of a triangular lamina. The sporangia (pollen-sacs), which 
occur on the under-side of the stamens, are often arranged in more or 
less definite groups or sori, interspersed with hairs (paraphyses) ; 
dehiscence takes place along a line marked out by the occurrence of 
smaller and thinner-wallea cells bounded by larger and thicker- 
walled elements, which form a fairly prominent cap-like " annulus " 
near the apex of the sporangium, not unlike the annulus characteristic 
of the Schizaeaceae among ferns. The sporangia! wall, consisting 
of several layers of cells, encloses a cavity containing numerous oval 
spores (pollen-grains). In structure a cycadean sporangium recalls 
those of certain ferns (Marattiaceae, Osmundaceae and Schizaeaceae), 
but in the development of the spores there are certain peculiarities 
not met with among the Vascular Cryptogams. With the exception 
of Cycas, the female flowers are also in the form of cones, bearing 
numerous carpellary scales. In Cycas revoluta and C. circinalis each 
leaf-like carpel may produce several laterally attached ovules, but 
in C. Normanbyana the carpel is shorter and the ovules are reduced 
to two; this latter type brings us nearer to the carpels of Dioon, in 
which the flower has the form of a cone, and the distal end of the 
carpels is longer and more leaf-like than in the other genera of the 
Zamieae, which are characterized by shorter carpels with thick 
peltate heads bearing two ovules on the morphologically lower 
surface. The cones of cycads attain in some cases (e.g. Encephalartos) 
a considerable size, reaching a length of more than a foot. Cases have 
been recorded (by Thiselton-Dyer in Encephalartos and by Wieland 
in Zamia) in which the short carpellary cone-scales exhibit a foliace- 
ous form. It is interesting that no monstrous cycadean cone has 
been described in which ovuliferous and staminate appendages are 
borne on the same axis: in the Bennettitales (see PALAEOBOTANY : 
Mesozoic) flowers were produced bearing on the same axis both 
androecium and gynoecium. 

The pollen-grains when mature consist of three cells, two small 
and one large cell; the latter grows into the pollen-tube, as in the 
Coniferales, and from one of the small cells two large 
ciliated spermatozpids are eventually produced. A 
remarkable exception to this rule has recently been 
recorded by Caldwell, who found that in Microcycas 
Calocoma the body-cells may be eight or even ten in 
_ number and the sperm-cells twice as numerous. One of 
the most important discoveries made during the latter part of the 
I9th century was that by Ikeno, a Japanese botanist, who first 
demonstrated the existence of motile male cells in the genus Cycas. 
Similar spermatozoids were observed in some species of Zamia by 
H. J. Webber, and more recent work enables us to assume that all 
cycads produce ciliated male gametes. Before following the growth 
of the pollen-grain after pollination, we will briefly describe the 
structure of a cycadean ovule. An ovule consists of a conical nucellus 
surrounded by a single integument. At an early stage of develop- 
ment a large cell makes its appearance in the central region of the 
nucellus; this increases in size and eventually forms three cells; the 
lowest of these grows vigorously and constitutes the megaspore 
(embryo-sac) .which ultimately absorbs the greater part of the nucellus. 
The megaspore-nucleus divides repeatedly, and cells are produced 
from the peripheral region inwards, which eventually fill the spore- 
cavity with a homogeneous tissue (prothallus) ; some of the super- 
ficial cells at the micropylar end of the megaspore increase in size and 
divide by a tangential wall into two, an upper cell which gives rise 
to the short two-ccUed neck of the archegonium, and a lower cell 
which develops into a large egg-cell. Each megaspore may contain 
2 to 6 archegonia. During the growth of the ovum nourishment is 
supplied from the contents of the cells immediately surrounding the 
egg-cell, as in the development of the ovum of Pinus and other 
conifers. Meanwhile the tissue in the apical region of the nucellus 
has been undergoing disorganization, which results in the formation 
of a pollen-chamber (fig. 7, C) immediately above the mega- 
spore. Pollination in cycads has always been described as 
anemophilous, but according to recent observations by Pearson 
on South African species it seems probable that, at least in some 



Micro- 
spores 
ant 
mega- 
spores. 



cases, the pollen is conveyed to the ovules by animal agency. 
The pollen-grains find their way between the carpophylls, which at 
the time of pollination are slightly apart owing to the elongation of 
the internodes of the flower-axis, and pass into the pollen-chamber; 
the large cell of the pollen-grain grows out into a tube (Pt), which 
penetrates the nucellar tissue and often branches repeatedly; the 
pollen-grain itself, with the prothallus-cells, projects freely into the 
pollen-chamber (fig. 7). The nucleus of the outermost (second 
small cell (fig. 7, G) divides, and one of the daughter-nuclei passes 
out of the cell, and may enter the lowest (first) small cell. The 
outermost cell, by the division of the remaining nucleus, produces 
two large spermatozpids 
(fig. 8, a, a). In Micro- 
cycas 1 6 sperm-cells are 
produced. In the course 
of division two bodies ap- 
pear in the cytoplasm, 
and behave as centro- 
somes during the karyo- 
kinesis; they gradually 
become threadlike and 
coil round each daughter 
nucleus. This thread 
gives rise to a spiral cili- 
ated band lying in a de- 
pression on the body of 
each spermatozoid ; the 
large spermatozoids 
eventually escape from 
the pollen-tube, and are 
able to perform ciliary 
movements in the watery 




FIG. 7. 2 

tudinal section. (After Webber.) 
P, Prothallus. Pt, Pollen-tube. 
A, Archegonia. Pg, Pollen-grain. 
N, Nucellus. G, Generative cell 



jj C, Pollen-chamber. 



(second cell of 
pollen-tube). 



liquid which occurs 
tween the thin papery 
remnant of nucellar tissue 
and the archegonial necks. Before fertilization a neck-canal cell is 
formed by the division of the ovum-nucleus. After the body of a 
spermatozoid has coalesced with the egg-nucleus the latter divides 
repeatedly and forms a mass of tissue which grows more vigorously 
in the lower part of the fertilized ovum, and extends upwards 
towards the apex of the ovum as a peripheral layer of paren- 
chyma surrounding a central space. By further growth this 
tissue gives rise to a proembryo, which consists, at the micro- 
pylar end, of a sac ; the tissue at the chalazal end grows into a long 
and tangled suspensor, terminating to a mass of cells, which is 
eventually differentiated into a radicle, plumule and two cotyledons. 
In the ripe seed the integument assumes the form of a fleshy envelope, 
succeeded internally by a hard woody shell, internal to which is 
a thin papery membrane the apical portion of the nucellus which 
is easily dissected out as a conical cap covering the apex of the 
endosperm. A thorough examination of cyca- 
dean seeds has recently been made by Miss Stopes, 
more particularly with a view to a comparison of 
their vascular supply with that in Palaeozoic 
gymnospermous seeds (Flora, 1904). The first 
leaves borne on the seedling axis are often scale- 
like, and these are followed by two or more larger 
laminae, which foreshadow the pinnae of the adult 
frond. 

The anatomical structure of the vegetative 
organs of recent cycads is of special interest as 
affording important evidence of rela- . . 
tionship with extinct types, and with 
other groups of recent plants. Brongniart, who 
was the first to investigate in detail the anatomy 
of a cycadean stem, recognized an agreement, as 
regards the secondary wood, with Dicotyledons 
and Gymnosperms, rather than with Monoco- 
tyledons. He drew attention also to certain 
structural similarities between Cycas and Ginkgo. 
The main anatomical features of a cycad stem c 
may be summarized as follows: the centre is ' 
occupied by a large parenchymatous pith traversed 
by numerous secretory canals, and in some genera 
by cauline vascular bundles (e.g. Encephalartos - 
and Macrozamia). In addition to these cauline 
strands (confined to the stem and not connected 
with the leaves), collateral bundles are often met with in the 
pith, which form the vascular supply of terminal flowers borne at 
intervals on the apex of the stem. These latter bundles may be seen 
in sections of old stems to pursue a more or less horizontal course, 
passing outwards through the main woody cylinder. This lateral 
course is due to the more vigorous growth of the axillary branch 
formed near the base of each flower, which is a terminal structure, 
and, except in the female flower of Cycas, puts a limit to the 
apical growth of the stem. The vigorous lateral branch therefore 
continues the line of the main axis. The pith is encircled by a 
cylinder of secondary wood, consisting of single or multiple radial 
rows of tracheids separated by broad medullary rays composed of 
large parenchymatous cells; the tracheids bear numerous bordered 




p fi _ 
p_ ',', 
" 



, 

'- ' 



,-_ 



GYMNOSPERMS 



757 





FIG. 9. Macrozamia. 
Diagrammatic transverse 
section of part of Stem. 
(After Worsdell.) 
pd, Periderm in leaf-bases. 
It, Leaf-traces in cortex. 
ph, Phloem. 
x, Xylem. 

m, Medullary bundles. 
c, Cortical bundles. 



pits on the radial walls. The large medullary rays give to the wood 
a characteristic parenchymatous or lax appearance, which is in 
marked contrast to the more compact wood of a conifer. The 
protoxylem-elements are situated at the extreme inner edge of the 
secondary wood, and may occur as small groups of narrow, spirally- 
pitted elements scattered among the parenchyma which abuts on the 
main mass of wood. Short and reticulately-pitted tracheal cells, 
similar to tracheids, often occur in the circummedullary region of 
cycadean stems. In an old stem of Cycas, Encephalartos or Macro- 
zamia the secondary wood consists of 
several rather unevenly concentric 
zones, while in some other genera it 
forms a continuous mass as in coni- 
fers and normal dicotyledons. These 
concentric rings of secondary xylem 
and phloem (fig. 9) afford a character- 
istic cycadean feature. After the 
cambium has been active for some 
time producing secondary xylem and 
phloem, the latter consisting of sieve- 
tubes, phloem-parenchyma and fre- 
quently thick-walled fibres, a second 
cambium is developed in the peri- 
cycle ; this produces a second vascular 
zone, which is in turn followed by a 
third cambium, and so on, until several 
hollow cylinders are developed. It 
has been recently shown that several 
cambium-zones may remain in a state 
of activity, so that the formation of a 
new cambium does not necessarily 
mark a cessation of growth in the 
more internal meristematic rings. It 
occasionally happens that groups of 
xylem and phloem are developed 
internally to some of the vascular 
rings; these are characterized by an 
inverse orientation of the tissues, 
the xylem being centrifugal and the 
phloem centripetal in its development. 
The broad cortical region, which con- 
tains many secretory canals, is tra- 
versed by numerous vascular bundles (fig. 9, c) some of which pursue 
a more or less vertical course, and by frequent anastomoses with one 
another form a loose reticulum of vascular strands; others are leaf- 
traces on their way from the stele of the stem to the leaves. Most of 
these cortical bundles are collateral in structure, but in some the xylem 
and phloem are concentrically arranged; the secondary origm_of 
these bundles from procambium-strands was described by Mettenius 
in his classical paper of 1860. During the increase in thickness of a 
cycadean stem successive layers of cork-tissue are formed by phello- 
gens in the persistent bases of leaves (fig. 9, pd), which increase in size 
to adapt themselves to the growth of the vascular zones. The leaf- 
traces of cycads are remarkable both on account of their course and 
their anatomy. In a transverse section of a stem (fig. 9) one sees 
some vascular bundles following a horizontal or slightly oblique 

course in the cortex, stretch- 
ing. /-^ S~~\]r t ^ ing for a longer or shorter 
I / i'V f V ^^i, distance in a direction con- 
jl-J I* f \ centric with the woody 

B HI * \ i cylinder. From each leaf- 

* **&/ Y base two mam Bundles 

^f jl \ W /O spread right and left 

V \ 't '^- --. through the cortex of the 

r ^ \/ ' ^~ stem (fig. 9, It), and as they 

\^, y- ~^^> curve gradually towards the 

^J^ vascular ring they present 

the appearance of two 
rather flat ogee curves, 
usually spoken of as the 
leaf -trace girdles (fig. 9, It). 
The distal ends of these 
girdles give off several 
branches, which traverse 
the petiole and rachis as 
numerous collateral bundles. The complicated girdle-like course is 
characteristic of the leaf-traces of most recent cycads, but in some 
cases, e.g. in Zamia floridana, the traces are described by Wieland 
in his recent monograph on American fossil cycads (Carnegie Institu- 
tion Publications, 1906) as possessing a more direct course similar to 
that in Mesozoic genera. A leaf -trace, as it passes through the cortex, 
has a collateral structure, the protoxylem being situated at_the inner 
edge of the xylem ; when it reaches the leaf-base the position of the 
spiral tracheids is gradually altered, and the endarch arrangement 
(protoxylem internal) gives place to a mesarch structure (protoxylem 
more or less central and not on the edge of the xylem strand). In a 
bundle examined in the basal portion of a leaf the bulk of the xylem 
is found to be centrifugal in position, but internally to the protoxylem 
there is a group of centripetal tracheids; higher up in the petiole the 
xylem is mainly centripetal, the centrifugal wood being represented 





FIG. 10. Ginkgo biloba. Leaves. 




FIG. 1 1 . Ginkgo adiantoides. 
Fossil (Eocene) leaf from the 
Island of Mull. 



by a small arc of tracheids external to the protoxylem and separated 
from it by a few parenchymatous elements. Finally, in the pinnae of 
the frond the centrifugal xylem may disappear, the protoxylem being 
now exarch in position and abutting on the phloem. Similarly in 
the sporophylls of some cycads the bundles are endarch near the base 
and mesarch near the distal end of the stamen or carpel. The 
vascular system of cycadean seedlings presents some features worthy 
of note; centripetal xylem occurs in the cotyledonary bundles 
associated with transfusion-tracheids. The bundles from the 
cotyledons pursue a direct course to the stele of the main axis, and 
do not assume the girdle-form char- 
acteristic of the adult plant. This 
is of interest from the point of view 
of the comparison of recent cycads 
with extinct species (Bennettites), in 
which the leaf-traces follow a much 
more direct course than in modern 
cycads. The mesarch structure of 
the leaf-bundles is met with in a less 
pronounced form in the flower ped- 
uncles of some cycads. This fact is 
of importance as showing that the 
type of vascular structure, which 
characterized the stems of many 
Palaeozoic genera, has not entirely 

disappeared from the stems of modern cycads ; but the mesarch bundle 
is now confined to the leaves and peduncles. The roots of some cycads 
resemble the stems in producing several cambium- Roots. 
rings; they possess 2 to 8 protoxylem-groups, and are 
characterized by a broad pericyclic zone. A common phenomenon in 
cycads is the production of roots which grow upwards (apogeotropic), 
and appear as coralline branched structures above the level of the 
ground; some of the cortical cells of these roots are hypertrophied, 
and contain numerous filaments of blue-green Algae (Nostocaceae), 
which live as endoparasites in the cell-cavities. 

GINKGOALES. This class-designation has been recently proposed 
to give emphasis to the isolated position of the genus Ginkgo 
(Salisburia) among the Gymnosperms. Ginkgo biloba, the maiden- 
hair tree, has usually been placed by botanists in the Taxeae in the 
neighbourhood of the yew (Taxus), but the proposal by Eichler in 
1852 to institute a special family, the Salisburieae, indicated a 
recognition of the existence of special characteristics which dis- 
tinguish the genus from other members of the Coniferae. The 
discovery by the Japanese botanist Hirase of the development of 
ciliated spermatozoids in the pollen-tube of Ginkgo, in place of the 
non-motile male cells of typical conifers, served as a cogent argument 
in favour of separating the genus from the Coniferales and placing it 
in a class of its own. In 1712 Kaempfer published a drawing of a 
Japanese tree, which he described under the name Ginkgo; this term 
was adopted in 1771 by Linnaeus, who spoke of Kaempfer's plant as 
Ginkgo biloba. In 1797 
Smith proposed to use the 
name Salisburia adiantifolia 
in preference to the ' un- 
couth " genus Ginkgo and 
" incorrect " specific term 
biloba. Both names are still 
in common use. On account 
of the resemblance of the 
leaves to those of some 
species of Adiantum, the 
appellation maiden-hair tree 
has long been given to 
Ginkgo biloba. Ginkgo is of 
special interest on account 
of its isolated position among 
existing plants, its restricted 
geographical distribution, 
and its great antiquity (see 
PALAEOBOTANY : Mesozoic). 
This solitary survivor of an 
ancient stock is almost ex- 
tinct, but a few old and pre- 
sumably wild trees are re- 
corded by travellers in parts 
of China. Ginkgo is common 
as a sacred tree in the gardens 
of temples in the Far East, and often cultivated in North America and 
Europe. Ginkgo biloba, which may reach a height of over 30 metres, 
forms a tree of pyramidal shape with a smooth grey bark. The leaves 
(figs. 10 and n) have a long, slender petiole terminating in a fan- 
shaped lamina, which may be entire, divided by a median incision into 
two wedge-shaped lobes, or subdivided into several narrow segments. 
The venation is like that of many ferns, e.g. Adiantum; the lowest 
vein in each half of the lamina follows a course parallel to the edge, 
and gives off numerous branches, which fork repeatedly as they 
spread in a palmate manner towards the leaf margin. The foliage- 
leaves occur either scattered on long shoots of unlimited growth, or at 
the apex of short shoots (spurs), which may eventually elongate into 
long shoots. 




FIQ. 12. Ginkgo biloba. A, Male 
flower; B, C, single stamens; D, 
female flower. 



75 8 



GYMNOSPERMS 



The flowers are dioecious. The male flowers (fig. 12), borne in the 
axil of scale-leaves, consist of a stalked central axis bearing loosely 
P. disposed stamens; each stamen consists of a slender 

filament terminating in a small apical scale, which bears 
usually two, but not infrequently three or four pollen-sacs (fig. 12, C). 
The axis of the flower is a shoot bearing leaves in the form of stamens. 
A mature pollen-grain contains a prothallus of 3 to 5 cells (Fig. 13, 
Pg) ; the exine extends over two-thirds of the circumference, leaving 

a thin portion of the wall, 
which on collapsing pro- 
duces a longitudinal 
groove similar to the 
median depression on the 
pollen-grain of a cycad. 
The ordinary type of 
female flower has the form 
of a long, naked peduncle 
bearing a single ovule on 
either side of the apex 
(fig. 12), the base of each 
being enclosed by a small, 
collar-like rim, the nature 
of which has been vari- 
ously interpreted. A 
young ovule consists of a 
conical nucellus sur- 
rounded by a single in- 



Pg, Pollen-grain. 
Ex, Exine. 




? K!i:-,r ni " e * Sssysii'snfte 
j ^ssssu..,-^ vsr^ 

o, Archegonia. archegonia (fig. 13, a) are 

developed in the upper 
region of the megaspore, 
each consisting of a large 

egg-cell surmounted by two neck-cells and a canal-cell which is 
cut off shortly before fertilization. After the entrance of the pollen- 
grain the pollen-chamber becomes roofed over by a blunt pro- 
tuberance of nucellar tissue. The megaspore (embryo-sac) con- 
tinues to grow after pollination until the greater part of the nucellus 
is gradually destroyed; it also gives rise to a vertical outgrowth, 
which projects from the apex of the megaspore as a short, thick 
column (fig. 13, e) supporting the remains of the nucellar tissue 
which forms the roof of the pollen-chamber (fig. 13, c). Surround- 
ing the pitted wall of the ovum there is a definite layer of large 
cells, no doubt representing a tapetum, which, as in cycads and 
conifers, plays an important part in nourishing the growing egg-cell. 
The endosperm detached from a large Ginkgo ovule after fertilization 
bears a close resemblance to that of a cycad ; the apex is occupied by 
a depression, on the floor of which two small holes mark the position 
of the archegonia, and the outgrowth from the megaspore apex 
projects from the centre as a short peg. After pollination the pollen- 
tube grows into the nucellar tissue, as in cycads, and the pollen-grain 
itself (fig. 13, Pg) hangs down into the pollen-chamber ; two large 
spirally ciliated spermatozoids are produced, their manner of de- 
velopment agreeing very closely with that of the corresponding cells 
in Cycas and Zamia. After fertilization the ovum-nucleus divides 
and cell-formation proceeds rapidly, especially in the lower part of 
the ovum, in which the cotyledon and axis of the embryo are differ- 
entiated ; the long, tangled suspensor of the cycadean embryo is not 
found in Ginkgo. It is often stated that fertilization occurs after the 
ovules have fallen, but it has been demonstrated by Hirase that this 
occurs while the ovules are still attached to the tree. The ripe seed, 
which grows as large as a rather small plum, is enclosed by a thick, 
fleshy envelope covering a hard woody shell with two or rarely three 
longitudinal keels. A papery remnant of nucellus lines the inner face 
of the woody shell, and, as in cycadean seeds, the apical portion is 
readily separated as a cap covering the summit of the endosperm. 

The morphology of the female flowers has been variously inter- 
preted by botanists; the peduncle bearing the ovules has been 
described as homologous with the petiole of a foliage-leaf and as a 
shoot-structure, the collar-like envelope at the base of the ovules 
being referred to as a second integument or arillus, or as the repre- 
sentative of a carpel. The evidence afforded by normal and abnormal 
flowers appears to be in favour of the following interpretation : The 
peduncle is a shoot bearing two or more carpels. Each ovule is 
enclosed at the base by an envelope or collar homologous with the 
lamina of a leaf ; the fleshy and hard coats of the nucellus constitute 
a single integument. The stalk of an ovule, considerably reduced in 
normal flowers and much larger in some abnormal flowers, is homo- 
logous with a leaf-stalk, with which it agrees in the structure and 
number of vascular bundles. The facts on which this description is 
based are derived partly from anatomical evidence, and in part from 
an account given by a Japanese botanist, Fujii, of several abnormal 
female flowers; in some cases the collar at the base of an ovule, 
often described as an arillus, is found to pass gradually into the 
lamina of a leaf bearing marginal ovules (fig. 14, B). The occurrence 
of more than two ovules on one peduncle is by no means rare; a 




particularly striking example is described by Fujii, in which an 
unusually thick peduncle bearing several stalked ovules terminates 
in a scaly bud (fig. 14, A, b). The frequent occurrence of more than 
two pollen-sacs and the equally common occurrence of additional 
ovules have been regarded by some authors as evidence in favour of 
the view that ancestral types normally possessed a greater number 
of these organs than are usually found in the recent species. This 
view receives support from fossil evidence. Close to the 
apex of a shoot the vascular bundles of a leaf make their ' 
appearance as double strands, and the leaf-traces in the upper part 
of a shoot have the form of distinct bundles, which in the older part of 
the shoot form a continuous ring. Each double leaf-trace passes 
through four internodes 
before becoming a part of 
the stele; the double 
nature of the trace is a | 
characteristic feature. 
Secretory sacs occur 
abundantly in the leaf- 
lamina, where they appear 
as short lines between the 
veins; they are abundant 
also in the cortex and pith 
of the shoot, in the fleshy 
integument of the ovule, 
and elsewhere. The 
secondary wood of the 
shoot and root conforms 
in the main to the coni- 
ferous type; in the short 
shoots the greater breadth FIG. 14. Ginkgo. Abnormal female 
of the medullary rays in Flowers. A , Peduncle ; b, scaly bud ; 
the more internal part of B, leaf bearing marginal ovule. (After 
the xylem recalls the Fujii.) 
cycadean type'. The 

secondary phloem contains numerous thick-walled fibres, parenchy- 
matous cells, and large sieve-tubes with plates on the radial 
walls; swollen parenchymatous cells containing crystals are 
commonly met with in the cortex, pith and medullary-ray tissues. 
The wood consists of tracheids, with circular bordered pits on 
their radial walls, and in the late summer wood pits are un- 
usually abundant on the tangential walls. A point of anatomical 
interest is the occurrence in the vascular bundles of the cotyledons, 
scale-leaves, and elsewhere of a few centripetally developed tracheids, 
which give to the xylem-strands a mesarch structure such as char- 
acterizes the foliar bundles of cycads. The root is diarch in structure, 
but additional protoxylem-strands may be present at the base of the 
main root ; the pericycle consists of several layers of cells. 

This is not the place to discuss in detail the past history of Ginkgo 
(see PALAEOBOTANY : Mesozoic). Among Palaeozoic genera there are 
some which bear a close resemblance to the recent type in Geological 
the form of the leaves; and petrified Palaeozoic seeds, history. 
almost identical with those of the maidenhair tree, have 
been described from French and English localities. During the 
Triassic and Jurassic periods the genus Baiera no doubt a repre- 
sentative of the Ginkgoales was widely spread throughout Europe 
and in other regions; Ginkgo itself occurs abundantly in Mesozoic 
and Tertiary rocks, and was a common plant in the Arctic regions as 
elsewhere during the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous periods. Some 
unusually perfect Ginkgo leaves have been found in the Eocene leaf- 
beds between the lava-flows exposed in the cliffs of Mull (fig. n). 
From an evolutionary point of view, it is of interest to note the 
occurrence of filicinean and cycadean characters in the maidenhair tree. 
The leaves at once invite a comparison with ferns; the numerous 
long hairs which form a delicate woolly covering on young leaves recall 
the hairs of certain ferns, but agree more closely with the long 
filamentous hairs of recent cycads. The spermatozoids constitute 
the most striking link with both cycads and ferns. The structure of 
the seed, the presence of two neck-cells in the archegonia, the late 
development of the embryo, the partially-fused cotyledons and 
certain anatomical characters, are features common to Ginkgo and 
the cycads. The maidenhair tree is one of the most interesting 
survivals from the past; it represents a type which, in the Palaeozoic 
era, may have been merged into the extinct class Cordaitales. 
Through the succeeding ages the Ginkgoales were represented by 
numerous forms, which gradually became more restricted in their 
distribution and fewer in number during the Cretaceous and Tertiary 
periods, terminating at the present day in one solitary survivor. 

CONIFERALES. Trees and shrubs characterized by a copious 
branching of the stem and frequently by a regular pyramidal form. 
Leaves simple, small, linear or short and scale-Tike, usually persisting 
for more than one year. Flowers monoecious or dioecious, unisexual, 
without a perianth, often in the form of cones, but never terminal 
on the main stem. 

The plants usually included in the Coniferae constitute a less 
homogeneous class than the Cycadaceae. Some authors use the 
term Coniferae in a restricted sense as including those External 
genera which have the female flowers in the form of cones, features. 
the other genera, characterized by flowers of a different 
type, being placed in the Taxaceae, and often spoken of as Taxads. 



GYMNOSPERMS 



759 



In order to avoid confusion in the use of the term Coniferae, we may 
adopt as a class-designation the name Coniferales, including both the 
Coniferae using the term in a restricted sense and the Taxaceae. 
The most striking characteristic of the majority of the Coniferales is 
the regular manner of the monopodial branching and the pyramidal 
shape. Araucaria imbricata, the Monkey-puzzle tree, A. excelsa, the 
Norfolk Island pine, many pines and firs, cedars and other genera 
illustrate the pyramidal form. The mammoth redwood tree of 
California, Sequo ia (Wellingtonia) gigantea, which represents the tallest 
Gymnosperm, is a good example of the regular tapering main stem 
and narrow pyramidal form. The cypresses afford instances of tall 
and narrow trees similar in habit to Lombardy poplars. The common 
cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), as found wild in the mountains of 
Crete and Cyprus, is characterized by long and spreading branches, 
which give it a cedar-like habit. A pendulous or weeping habit is 
assumed by some conifers, e.g. Picea excelsa var. virgata represents 
a form in which the main branches attain a considerable horizontal 
extension, and trail themselves like snakes along the ground. Certain 
species of Pinus, the yews (Taxus) and some other genera grow as 
bushes, which in place of a main mast-like stem possess several 
repeatedly-branched leading shoots. The unfavourable conditions 
in Arctic regions have produced a dwarf form, in which the main 
shoots grow close to the ground. Artificially induced dwarfed plants 
of Pinus, Cupressus, Sciadopitys (umbrella pine) and other genera 
are commonly cultivated by the Japanese. The dying off of older 
branches and the vigorous growth of shoots nearer the apex of the 
stem produce a form of tree illustrated by the stone pine of the 
Mediterranean region (Pinus Pinea), which Turner has rendered 
familiar in his " Childe Harold's Pilgrimage " and other pictures of 
Italian scenery. Conifers are not infrequently seen in which a lateral 
branch has bent sharply upwards to take the place of the injured 
main trunk. An upward tendency of all the main lateral branches, 
known as fastigiation, is common in some species, producing well- 
marked varieties, e.g. Cephalotaxus pedunculate var. fastigiata; this 
fastigiate habit may arise as a sport on a tree with spreading branches. 
Another departure from the normal is that in which the juvenile or 
seedling form of shoot persists in the adult tree; the numerous 
coniferous plants known as species of Retinospora are examples of 
this. The name Retinospora, therefore, does not stand for a true 
genus, but denotes persistent young forms of Juniperus, Thuja, 
Cupressus, &c., in which the small scaly leaves of ordinary species are 
replaced by the slender, needle-like leaves, which stand out more or 
less at right angles from the branches. The flat branchlets of 
Cupressus, Thuja (arbor vitae), Thujopsis dolabrata (Japanese arbor 
vitae) are characteristic of certain types of conifers; in some cases 
the horizontal extension of the branches induces a dorsiventral 
structure. A characteristic feature of the genus Agathis (Dammara) 
the Kauri pine of New Zealand, is the deciduous habit of the 
branches; these become detached from the main trunk leaving a 
well-defined absciss-surface, which appears as a depressed circular 
scar on the stem. A new genus of conifers, Tavwania, has recently 
been described from the island of Formosa; it is said to agree in 
habit with the Japanese Cryptomeria, but the cones appear to have a 
structure which distinguishes them from those of any other genus. 

With a few exceptions conifers are evergreen, and retain the leaves 
for several years (10 years in Araucaria imbricata, 8 to 10 in Picea 
i .-, excelsa, 5 in Taxus baccata; in Pinus the needles usually 

fall in October of their third year). The larch (Larix) 
sheds its leaves in the autumn, in the Chinese larch (Pseudo- 
larix Kaempferi) the leaves turn a bright yellow colour before 
falling. In the swamp cypress (Taxodium distichum) the tree 
assumes a rich brown colour in the autumn, and sheds its leaves 
together with the branchlets which bear them; deciduous branches 
occur also in some other species, e.g. Sequoia sempervirens (redwood), 
Thuja occidentalis, &c. The leaves of conifers are characterized by 
their small size, e.g. the needle-form represented by Pinus, Cedrus, 
Larix, &c., the linear flat or angular leaves, appressed to the branches, 
of Thuja, Cupressus, Libocedrus, &c. The flat and comparatively 
broad leaves of Araucaria imbricata, A. Bidwillii, and some species 
of the southern genus Podocarpus are traversed by several parallel 
veins, as are also the still larger leaves of Agathis, which may reach a 
length of several inches. In addition to the foliage-leaves several 
genera also possess scale-leaves of various kinds, represented by bud- 
scales in Pinus, Picea, &c., which frequently persist for a time at the 
base of a young shoot which has pushed its way through the yielding 
cap of protecting scales, while in some conifers the bud-scales adhere 
together, and after being torn near the base are carried up by the 
growing axis as a thin brown cap. The cypresses, araucarias and 
some other genera have no true bud-scales; in some species, e.g. 
Araucaria Bidwillii, the occurrence of small foliage-leaves, which have 
functioned as bud-scales, at intervals on the shoots affords a measure 
of seasonal growth. The occurrence of long and short shoots is a 
characteristic feature of many conifers. In Pinus the needles occur 
in pairs, or in clusters of 3 or 5 at the apex of a small and incon- 
spicuous short shoot of limited growth (spur), which is enclosed at 
its base by a few scale-leaves, and borne on a branch of unlimited 
growth in the axil of a scale-leaf. In the Californian Pinus mono- 
phylla each spur bears usually one needle, but two are not un- 
common; it would seem that rudiments of two needles are always 
produced, but, as a rule, only one develops into a needle. In 



Sciadopitys similar spurs occur, each bearing a single needle, which 
in its grooved surface and in the possession of a double vascular 
bundle bears traces of an origin from two needle-leaves. A peculiarity 
of these leaves is the inverse orientation of the vascular tissue; each 
of the two veins has its phloem next the upper and the xylem towards 
the lower surface of the leaf; this unusual position of the xylem and 
phloem may be explained by regarding the needle of Sciadopitys as 
being composed of a pair of leaves borne on a short axillary shoot and 
fused by their margins (fig. 15, A). Long and short shoots occur also 
in Cedrus and Larix, but in these genera the spurs are longer and 
stouter, and are not shed with the leaves; this kind of short shoot, by 
accelerated apical growth, often passes into the conditio* of a long 
shoot on which the leaves are scattered and separated by com- 
paratively long internodes, instead of being crowded into tufts such as 
are borne on the ends of the spurs. In the geniis PhyUocladus (New 
Zealand, &c.) there are no green foliage-leaves, but in their place 
flattened branches (phylloclades) borne in the axils of small scale- 
leaves. The cotyledons are often two in number, but sometimes (e.g. 
Pinus) as many as fifteen; these leaves are usually succeeded by 
foliage-leaves in the form of delicate spreading needles, and these 
primordial leaves are followed, sooner or later, by the adult type 
of leaf, except in Retinosporas, which retain the juvenile foliage. 
In addition to the first foliage-leaves and the adult type of leaf, 
there are often produced leaves which are intermediate both in shape 
and structure between the seedling and adult foliage. Dimorphism 
or heterophylly is fairly common. One of the best known examples 
is the Chinese juniper (Juniperus chinensis), in which branches with 
spinous leaves, longer and more spreading than the ordinary adult 
leaf, are often found associated with the normal type of branch. In 
some cases, e.g. Sequoia sempervirens, the fertile branches bear leaves 
which are less spreading than those on the vegetative shoots. Certain 
species of the southern hemisphere genus Dacrydium afford particu- 
larly striking instances of heterophylly, e.g. D. Kirkii of New Zealand, 
in which some branches bear small and appressed leaves, while in 
others the leaves are much longer and more spreading. A well- 
known fossil conifer from Triassic strata Voltzia heterophylla also 
illustrates a marked dissimilarity in the leaves of the same shoot. 
The variation in leaf-form and the tendency of leaves to arrange 
themselves in various ways on different branches of the same plant 
are features which it is important to bear in mind in the identifica- 
tion of fossil conifers. In this connexion we may note the striking 
resemblance between some of the New Zealand Alpine Veronicas, 
e.g. Veronica Hectori, V.cupressoides,&c. (alsoPolycladuscupressinus, 
a Composite), and some of the cypresses and other conifers with 
small appressed leaves. The long linear leaves of some species of 
Podocarpus, in which the lamina is traversed by a single vein, recall 
the pinnae of Cycas; the branches of some Dacrydiums and other 
forms closely resemble those of lycopods; these superficial re- 
semblances, both between different genera of conifers and between 
conifers and other plants, coupled with the usual occurrence of fossil 
coniferous twigs without cones attached to them, render the deter- 
mination of extinct types a very unsatisfactory and frequently an 
impossible task. 

A typical male flower consists of a central axis bearing numerous 
spirally-arranged sporophylls (stamens), each of which consists of 
a slender stalk (filament) terminating distally in a more Fi ower s. 
or less prominent knob or triangular scale, and bearing 
two or more pollen-sacs (microsporangia) on its lower surface. The 
pollen-grains of some genera (e.g. Pinus) are furnished with bladder- 
like extensions of the outer wall, which serve as aids to wind -dispersal. 
The stamens of Araucaria and Agathis are peculiar in bearing several 
long and narrow free pollen-sacs; these may be compared with the 
sporangiophores of the horsetails (Equisetum) ; in Taxus (yew) the 
filament is attached to the centre of a large circular distal expansion, 
which bears several pollen-sacs on its under surface. In the conifers 
proper the female reproductive organs have the form of cones, which 
may be styled flowers or inflorescences according to different inter- 
pretations of their morphology. In the Taxaceae the flowers have 
a simpler structure. The female flowers of the Abietineae may be 
taken as representing a common type. A pine cone reaches maturity 
in two years; a single year suffices for the full development in Larix 
and several other genera. The axis of the cone bears numerous 
spirally disposed flat scales (cone-scales), each of which, if examined 
in a young cone, is found to be double, and to consist of a lower and 
an upper portion. The latter is a thin flat scale bearing a median 
ridge or keel (e.g. Abies), on each side of which is situated an inverted 
ovule, consisting of a nucellus surrounded by a single integument. 
As the cone grows in size and becomes woody the lower half of the 
cone-scale, which we may call the carpellary scale, may remain small, 
and is so far outgrown by the upper half (seminiferous scale) that it is 
hardly recognizable in the mature cone. In many species of Abies 
(e.g. Abies pectinata, &c.) the ripe cone differs from those of Pinus, 
Picea and Cedrus in the large size of the carpellary scales, which 
project as conspicuous thin appendages beyond the distal margins of 
the broader and more woody seminiferous scales; the long carpellary 
scale is a prominent feature also in the cone of the Douglas pine 
(Pseudotsuga Douglasii). The female flowers (cones) vary consider- 
ably in size; the largest are the more or less spherical cones of 
Araucaria a single cone of A. imbricata may produce as many as 
300 seeds, one seed to each fertile cone-scale and the long pendent 



760 



GYMNOSPERMS 



female 
/lower. 



cones, i to 2 ft. in length, of the sugar pine of California (Pinus 
Lambertw.no) and other species. Smaller cones, less than an inch 
long, occur in the larch, Athrotaxis (Tasmania), Fitzroya (Patagonia 
and Tasmania), &c. In the Taxodieae and Araucarieae the cones are 
similar in appearance to those of the Abietineae, but they differ in 
the fact that the scales appear to be single, even in the young con- 
dition ; each cone-scale in a genus of the Taxodiinae (Sequoia, &c.) 
bears several seeds, while in the Araucariinae (Araucaria and Agathis) 
each scale has one seed. The Cupressineae have cones composed of 
a few scales arranged in alternate whorls; each scale bears two or 
more seeds, and shows no external sign of being composed of two 
distinct pbrtions. In the junipers the scales become fleshy as the 
seeds ripen, and the individual scales fuse together in the form of 
a berry. The female flowers of the Taxaceae assume another form ; 
in Microcachrys (Tasmania) the reproductive structures are spirally 
disposed, and form small globular cones made up of red fleshy scales, 
to each of which is attached a single ovule enclosed by an integument 
and partially invested by an a rill us; in Dacrydium the carpellary 
leaves are very similar to the foliage leaves each bears one ovule 
with two integuments, the outer of which constitutes an arillus. 
Finally in the yew, as a type of the family Taxeae, the ovules occur 
singly at the apex of a lateral branch, enclosed when ripe by a con- 
spicuous red or yellow fleshy arillus, which serves as an attraction to 
animals, and thus aids in the dispersal of the seeds. 

It is important to draw attention to some structural features 
exhibited by certain cone-scales, in which there is no external sign 
indicative of the presence of a carpellary and a seminiferous 
Morpho- scale, j n Araucaria Cookii and some allied species each 
scale has a small pointed projection from its upper face 
near the distal end ; the scales of Cunninghamia (China) 
are characterized by a somewhat ragged membranous 
projection extending across the upper face between the seeds and the 
distal end of the scale; in the scales of Athrotaxis (Tasmania) a 
prominent rounded ridge occupies a corresponding position. These 
projections and ridges may be homologous with the seminiferous 
scale of the pines, firs, cedars, &c. The simplest interpretation of the 
cone of the Abietineae is that which regards it as a flower consisting 
of an axis bearing several open carpels, which in the adult cone may 
be very small or large and prominent, the scale bearing the ovules 
being regarded as a placental outgrowth from the flat and open carpel. 
In Araucaria the cone-scale is regarded as consisting of a flat carpel, 
of which the placenta has not grown out into the scale-like structure. 
The seminiferous scale of Pinus, &c., is also spoken of sometimes as a 
ligular outgrowth from the carpellary leaf. Robert Brown was the 
first to gjve a clear description of the morphology of the Abietineous 
cone in which carpels bear naked ovules ; he recognized gymnospermy 
as an important distinguishing feature in conifers as well as in 
cycads. Another view is to regard the cone as an inflorescence, 
each carpellary scale being a bract bearing in its axil a shoot the 
axis of which has not been developed; the seminiferous scale is 
believed to represent either a single leaf or a fused pair of leaves 
belonging to the partially suppressed axillary shoot. In 1869 van 
Tieghem laid stress on anatomical evidence as a key to the morphology 
of the cone-scales; he drew attention to the fact that the collateral 
vascular bundles of the seminiferous scale are inversely orientated as 
compared with those of the carpellary scale ; in the latter the xylem 
of each bundle is next the upper surface, while in the seminiferous 
scale the phloem occupies that position. The conclusion drawn from 
this was that the seminiferous scale (fig. 15,8, Sc) is the first and only 
leaf of an axillary shoot (b) borne on that side of the shoot, the axis 
of which is suppressed, opposite the subtending bract (fig. 15, A, B, C, 
Br). Another view is to apply to the seminiferous scale an explana- 
tion similar to that suggested by yon Mohl in the case of the double 
needle of Sciadopitys, and to consider the seed-bearing scale as being 
made up of a pair of leaves (fig. 15, A, a, a) of an axillary shoot (b) 
fused into one by their posterior margins (fig. 15, A). The latter view 
receives support from abnormal cones in which carpellary scales 
subtend axillary shoots, of which the first two leaves (fig. 15, C, / l , I 1 ) 
are often harder and browner than the others; ' forms have been 
described transitional between axillary shoots, in which the leaves are 
separate, and others in which two of the leaves are more or less 
completely fused. In a young cone the seminiferous scale appears as 
a hump of tissue at the base or in the axil of the carpellary scale, but 
Celakovsky, a strong supporter of the axillary-bud theory, attaches 
little or no importance to this kind of evidence, regarding the present 
manner of development as being merely an example of a short cut 
adopted in the course of evolution, and replacing the original pro- 
duction of a branch in the axil of each carpellary scale. Eichler, one 
of the chief supporters of the simpler view, does not recognize in the 
inverse orientation of the vascular bundles an argument in support 
of the axillary-bud theory, but points out that the seminiferous scale, 
being an outgrowth from the surface of the carpellary scale, would, 
like outgrowths from an ordinary leaf, naturally have its bundles 
inversely orientated. In such cone-scales as show little or no 
external indication of being double in origin, e.g. Araucaria (fig. 15, D) 
Sequoia, &c., there are always two sets of bundles; the upper set, 
having the phloem uppermost, as in the seminiferous scale of Abies 
or Pinus, are regarded as belonging to the outgrowth from the 
carpellary scale and specially developed to supply the ovules. 
Monstrous cones are fairly common; these in some instances lend 



support to the axillary-bud theory, and it has been said that this 
theory owes its existence to evidence furnished by abnormal cones. 
It is_ difficult to estimate the value of abnormalities as evidence 
bearing on morphological interpretation; the chief danger lies 
perhaps in attaching undue weight to them, but there is also a risk 
of minimizing their importance. Monstrosities at least demonstrate 
possible lines of development, but when the abnormal forms of growth 
in various directions are fairly evenly balanced, trustworthy de- 
ductions become difficult. The occurrence of buds in the axils of 
carpellary scales may, however, simply mean that buds, which are 




(C and D after Worsdell.) 

FIG. 15. Diagrammatic treatment of: 

A, Double needle of Sciadopitys (a, a, leaves; b, shoot ; Br, bract). 

B, seminiferous scale as leaf of axillary shoot (b, shoot ; Sc, semi- 

niferous scale ; Br, bract). 

C, seminiferous scale as fused pair of leaves (P, P, I 3 , first, second 

and third leaves; b, shoot; Br, bract), 

D, cone-scale of Araucaria (n, nucellus; i, integument; *, 

xylem). 

usually undeveloped in the axils of sporophylls, occasionally afford 
evidence of their existence. Some monstrous cones lend no support 
to the axillary-bud theory. In Larix the axis of the cone often 
continues its growth ; similarly in Cephalotaxus the cones are often 
proliferous. (In rare cases the proliferated portion produces male 
flowers in the leaf-axils.) In Larix the carpellary scale may become 
leafy, and the seminiferous scale may disappear. Androgynous 
cones may be produced, as in the cone of Pinus rigida (fig. 16), in 
which the lower part bears stamens and the upper portion carpellary 
and seminiferous scales. An interesting case has been figured by 
Masters, in which scales of a cone of Cupressus Lawsoniana bear 
ovules on the upper surface and stamens on the lower face. One 
argument that has been adduced in support of the axillary bud theory 
is derived from the Palaeozoic type Cordaites, in 
which each ovule occurs on an axis borne in the 
axil of a bract. The whole question is still un- 
solved, and perhaps insoluble. It may be that 
the interpretation of the female cone of the 
Abietineae as an inflorescence, which finds favour 
with many botanists, cannot be applied to the 
cones of Agathis and Araucaria. Without ex- 
pressing any decided opinion as to the morpho- 
logy of the double cone-scale of the Abietineae, 
preference may be felt in favour of regard- 
ing the cone-scale of the Araucarieae as a 
simple carpellary leaf bearing a single ovule. A 
discussion of this question may be found in a 
paper on the Araucarieae by Seward and Ford, 
published in the Transactions of the Royal Society 
of London (1906). Cordaites is an extinct type normal Lone ot 
which in certain respects resembles Ginkgo, cycads ft?**** 
and the Araucarieae, but its agreement with true (After Masters.) 
conifers is probably too remote to justify our attri- 
buting much weight to the bearing of the morphology of its 
female flowers on the interpretation of that of the Coniferae. The 
greater simplicity of the Eichler theory may prejudice us in its 
favour; but, on the other hand, the arguments advanced in favour 
of the axillary-bud theories are perhaps not sufficiently cogent to 
lead us to accept an explanation based chiefly on the uncertain 
evidence of monstrosities. 

A pollen-grain when first formed from its mother-cell consists of 
a single cell; in this condition it may be carried to the nucellus of 
the ovule (e.g. Taxus, Cupressus, &c.), or more usually . 
(Pinus, Larix, &c.) it reaches maturity before the dehis- mlcr0 ' 
cence of the microsporangium. The nucleus of the a a a mella . 
microspore divides and gives rise to a small cell within spores 
the large cell, a second small cell is then produced; this 
is the structure of the ripe pollen-grain in some conifers (Taxus, &c.). 
The large cell grows out as a pollen-tube; the second of the two 
small cells (body-cell) wanders into the tube, followed by the nucleus 
of the first small cell (stalk-cell). In Taxus the body-cell eventually 
divides into two, in which the products of division are of unequal size, 
the larger constituting the male generative cell, which fuses with the 
nucleus of the egg-cell. In Juniperus the products of division of the 




FIG. 16 Ab- 



GYMNOSPERMS 



761 



body-cell are equal, and both function as male generative cells. In 
the Abietineae cell-formation in the pollen-grain is carried farther. 
Three small cells occur inside the cavity of the microspore; two of 
them collapse and the third divides into two, forming a stalk-cell and 
a larger body-cell. The latter ultimately divides in the apex of the 
pollen-tube into two non-motile generative cells. Evidence has lately 
been adduced of the existence of numerous nuclei in the pollen-tubes 
of the Araucarieae, and it seems probable that in this as in several 
other respects this family is distinguished from other members of the 
Coniferales. The precise method of fertilization in the Scots Pine 
was followed by V. H. Blackman, who also succeeded in showing that 
the nuclei of the sporophyte generation contain twice as many 
chromosomes as the nuclei of the gametophyte. Other observers 
have in recent years demonstrated a similar relation in other genera 
between the number of chromosomes in the nuclei of the two genera- 
tions. The ovule is usually surrounded by one integument, which 
projects beyond the tip of the nucellus as a wide-open Ipbed funnel, 
which at the time of pollination folds inwards, and so assists in bring- 
ing the pollen-grains on to the nucellus. In some _ conifers (e.g. 
Taxus, Cephalotaxus, Dacrydium, &c.) the ordinary integument is 
partially enclosed by an arillus or second integument. It is held by 
some botanists (Celakovsky) that the seminiferous scale of the 
Abietineae is homologous with the arillus or second integument of the 
Taxaceae, but this view is too strained to gain general acceptance. 
In Araucaria and Saxegothaea the nucellus itself projects beyond the 
open micropyle and receives the pollen-grains direct. During the 
growth of the cell which forms the megaspore the greater part of the 
nucellus is absorbed, except the apical portion, which persists as a 
cone above the megaspore ; the partial disorganization of some of the 
cells in the centre of the nucellar cone forms an irregular cavity, which 
may be compared with the larger pollen-chamber of Ginkgo and the 
cycads. In each ovule one megaspore comes to maturity, but, 
exceptionally, two may be present (e.g. Pinus sylvestris). It has been 
shown by Lawson that in Sequoia sempervirens (Annals of Botany, 
1904) and by other workers in the genera that several megaspores 
may attain a fairly large size in one prothallus. The megaspore 
becomes filled with tissue (prothallus), and from some of the super- 
ficial cells archegonia are produced, usually three to five in number, 
but in rare cases ten to twenty or even sixty may be present. In the 
genus Sequoia there may be as many as sixty archegonia (Arnold! and 
Lawson) in one megaspore ; these occur either separately or in some 
parts of the prothallus they may form groups as in the Cupressineae ; 
they are scattered through the prothallus instead of being confined 
to the apical region as in the majority of conifers. Similarly in the 
Araucarieae and in Widdringtonia the archegonia are numerous and 
scattered and often sunk in the prothallus tissue. In Libocedrus 
decurrens (Cupressineae) Lawson describes the archegonia as varying 
in number from 6 to 2\(Annals oj 'Botany xxi.,i9O7). An archegonium 
consists of a large oval egg-cell surmounted by a short neck composed 
of one or more tiers of cells, six to eight cells in each tier. Before 
fertilization the nucleus of the egg-cell divides and cuts off a ventral 
canal-cell; this cell may represent a second egg-cell. The egg-cells 
of the archegonia may be in lateral contact (e.g. Cupressineae) or 
separated from one another by a few cells of the prothallus, each 
ovum being immediately surrounded by a layer of cells distinguished 
by their granular contents and large nuclei. During the develop- 
ment of the egg-cell, food material is transferred from these cells 
through the pitted wall of the ovum. The tissue at the apex of the 
megaspore grows slightly above the level of the archegonia, so that 
the latter come to Re in a shallow depression. In the process of 
fertilization the two male generative nuclei, accompanied by the 
pollen-tube nucleus and that of the stalk-cell, pass through an open 
pit at the apex of the pollen-tube into the protoplasm of the ovum. 
After fertilization the nucleus of the egg divides, the first stages of 
karyokinesis being apparent even before complete fusion of the male 
and female nuclei has occurred. The result of this is the production 
of four nuclei, which eventually take up a position at the bottom of 
the ovum and become separated from one another by vertical cell- 
walls; these nuclei divide again, and finally three tiers of cells are 
produced, four in each tier. In the Abietineae the cells of the middle 
tier elongate and push the lowest tier deeper into the endosperm; 
the cells of the bottom tier may remain in lateral contact and produce 
together one embryo, or they may separate (Pinus, Juniperus, &c.) 
and form four potential embryos. The ripe albuminous seed contains 
a single embryo with two or more cotyledons. The seeds of many 
conifers are provided with large thin wings, consisting in some genera 
(e.g. Pinus) of the upper cell-layers of the seminiferous scale, which 
have become detached and, in some cases, adhere loosely to the seed 
as a thin membrane ; the loose attachment may be of use to the seeds 
when they are blown against the branches of trees, in enabling them to 
fall away from the wing and drop to the ground. The seeds of some 
genera depend on animals for dispersal, the carpellary scale (Micro- 
cachrys) or the outer integument being brightly coloured and 
attractive. In some Abietineae (e.g. Pinus and Picea) in which the 
cone-scales persist for some time after the seeds are ripe the cones 
hang down and so facilitate the fall of the seeds; in Cedrus, Arau- 
caria and Abies the scales become detached and fall with the seeds, 
leaving the bare vertical axis of the cone on the tree. In all cases, 
except some species of Araucaria (sect. Colymbea) the germination is 
epigean. The seedling plants of some Conifers (e.g. Araucaria 



imbricata) are characterized by a carrot-shaped hypocotyl, which 
doubtless serves as a food-reservoir. 

The roots of many conifers possess a narrow band of primary 
xylem-tracheids with a group of narrow spiral protoxylem-elements 
at each end (diarch). A striking feature in the roots of 
several genera, excluding the Abietineae, is the occur- Anatomy. 
rence of thick and somewhat irregular bands of thickening on the 
cell-walls of the cortical layer next to the endodermis. These bands, 
which may serve to strengthen the central cylinder, have been com- 
pared with the netting surrounding the delicate wall of an inflated 
balloon. It is not always easy to distinguish a root from a stem; 
in some cases (e.g. Sequoia) the primary tetrarch structure is easily 
identified in the centre of an old root, but in other cases the primary 
elements are very difficult to recognize. The sudden termination of 
the secondary tracheids against the pith-cells may afford evidence 
of root-structure as distinct from stem-structure, in which the radial 
rows of secondary tracheids pass into the irregularly-arraneed 
primary elements next the pith. The annual rings in a root are often 
less clearly marked than in the stem, and the xylem-elements are 
frequently larger and thinner. The primary vascular bundles in a 
young conifer stem are collateral, and, like those of a Dicotyledon, 
they are arranged in a circle round a central pith and enclosed by a 
common endodermis. It is in the nature of the secondary xyfem that 
the Coniferales are most readily distinguished from the Dicotyledons 
and Cycadaceae; the wood is homogeneous in structure, consisting 
almost entirely of tracheids with circular or polygonal bordered 
pits on the radial walls, more particularly in the late summer wood. 
In many genera xylem-parenchyma is present, but never in great 
abundance. A few Dicotyledons, e.g. Drimys (Magnoliaceae) closely 
resemble conifers in the homogeneous character of the wood, but in 
most cases the presence of large spring vessels, wood-fibres and 
abundant parenchyma affords an obvious distinguishing feature. 

The abundance of petrified coniferous wood in rocks of various 
ages has led many botanists to investigate the structure of modern 
genera with a view to determining how far anatomical characters 
may be used as evidence of generic distinctions. There are a few 
well-marked types of wood which serve as convenient standards of 
comparison, but these cannot be used except in a few cases to dis- 
tinguish individual genera. The genus Pinus serves as an illustration 
of wood of a distinct type characterized by the absence of xylem- 
parenchyma, except such as is associated with the numerous resin- 
canals that occur abundantly in the wood, cortex and medullary 
rays; the medullary rays are composed of parenchyma and of 
horizontal tracheids with irregular ingrowths from their walls. In 
a radial section of a pine stem each ray is seen to consist in the 
median part of a few rows of parenchymatous cells with large oval 
simple pits in their walls, accompanied above and below by horizontal 
tracheids with bordered pits. The pits in the radial walls of the 
ordinary xylem-tracheids occur in a single row or in a double row, 
of which the pits are not in contact, and those of the two rows are 
placed on the same level. The medullary rays usually consist of a 
single tier of cells, but in the Pinus type of wood broader medullary 
rays also occur and are traversed by horizontal resin-canals. In the 
wood of Cypressus, Cedrus, Abies and several other genera, parenchy- 
matous cells occur in association with the xylem-tracheids and take 
the place of the resin-canals of other types. In the Araucarian type 
of wood (Araucaria and Agathis) the bordered pits, which occur in 
two or three rows on the radial walls of the tracheids, are in mutual 
contact and polygonal in shape, the pits of the different rows are 
alternate and not on the same level ; in this type of wood the annual 
rings are often much less distinct than in Cupressus, Pinus and other 
genera. In Taxus, Torreya (California and theFar East) and Cephalo- 
taxus the absence of resin-canals and the presence of spiral thickening- 
bands on the tracheids constitute well-marked characteristics. An 
examination of the wood of branches, stems and roots of the 
same species or individual usually reveals a fairly wide variation in 
some of the characters, such as the abundance and size of the 
medullary rays, the size and arrangement of pits, the presence of 
wood-parenchyma characters to which undue importance has often 
been attached in systematic anatomical work. The phloem consists 
of sieve-tubes, with pitted areas on the lateral as well as on the 
inclined terminal walls, phloem-parenchyma and, in some genera, 
fibres. In the Abietineae the phloem consists of parenchyma and 
sieve-tubes only, but in most other forms tangential rows of fibres 
occur in regular alternation with the parenchyma and sieve-tubes. 
The characteristic companion-cells of Angiosperms are represented by 
phloem-parenchyma cells with albuminous contents; other paren- 
chymatous elements of the bast contain starch or crystals of calcium 
oxalate. When tracheids occur in the medullary rays of the xylem 
these are replaced in the phloem-region by irregular parenchymatous 
cells known as albuminous cells. Resin-canals, which occur abund- 
antly in the xylem, phloem or cortex, are not found in the wood 
of the yew. Cephalotaxus (Taxeae) is also peculiar in having resin- 
canals in the pith (cf. Ginkgo). One form of Cephalotaxus is 
characterized by the presence of short tracheids in the pith, in shape 
like ordinary parenchyma, but in the possession of bordered pits and 
lignified walls agreeing with ordinary xylem-tracheids; it is probable 
that these short tracheids serve as reservoirs for storing rather than 
for conducting water. The vascular bundle entering the stem from a 
leaf with a single vein passes by a more or less direct course into the 



762 



GYMNOSPERMS 



central cylinder of the stem, and does not assume the girdle-like form 
characteristic of the cycadean leaf-trace. In species of which the 
leaves have more than one vein (e.g. Araucaria imbricata, &c.) the 
leaf-trace leaves the stele of the stem as a single bundle which spJits 
up into several strands in its course through the cortex. In the wood 
of some conifers, e.g. Araucaria, the leaf-traces persist for a consider- 
able time, perhaps indefinitely, and may be seen in tangential 
sections of the wood of old stems. The leaf-trace in the Coniferales 
is simple in its course through the stem, differing in this respect from 
the double leaf-trace of Ginkgo. A detailed account of the ana- 
tomical characters of conifers has been published by Professor 
D. P. Penhallow of Montreal and Dr. Gothan of Berlin which 
will be found useful for diagnostic purposes. The characters of 
leaves most useful for diagnostic purposes are the position of the 
stomata, the presence and arrangement of resin-canals, the structure 
of the mesophyll and vascular bundles. The presence of hypodermal 
fibres is another feature worthy of note, but the occurrence of these 
elements is too closely connected with external conditions to be of 
much systematic value. A pine needle grown in continuous light 
differs from one grown under ordinary conditions in the absence of 
hypodermal fibres, in the absence of the characteristic infoldings of 
the mesophyll cell-walls, in the smaller size of the resin-canals, &c. 
The endodermis in Pinus, Picea and many other genera is usually 
a well-defined layer of cells enclosing the vascular bundles, and 
separated from them by a tissue consisting in part of ordinary par- 
enchyma and to some extent of isodiametric tracheids; but this 
tissue, usually spoken of as the pericycle, is in direct continuity with 
other stem-tissues as well as the pericycle. The occurrence of short 
tracheids in close proximity to the veins is a characteristic of conifer- 
pus leaves; these elements assume two distinct forms (i) the short 
isodiametric tracheids (transfusion-tracheids) closely associated with 
the veins; (2) longer tracheids extending across the mesophyll at 
right angles to the veins, and no doubt functioning as representatives 
of lateral veins. It has been suggested that transfusion-tracheids 
represent, in part at least, the centripetal xylem, which forms a 
distinctive feature of cycadean leaf -bundles; these short tracheids 
form conspicuous groups laterally attached to the veins in Cunning- 
hamia, abundantly represented in a similar position in the leaves of 
Sequoia, and scattered through the so-called pericycle in Pinus, 
Picea, &c. It is of interest to note the occurrence of precisely similar 
elements in the mesophyll of Lepidodendron leaves. An anatomical 
peculiarity in the veins of Pinus and several other genera is the con- 
tinuity of the medullary rays, which extend as continuous plates from 
one end of the leaf to the other. The mesophyll of Pinus and Cedrus 
is characterized by its homogeneous character and by the presence 
of infoldings of the cell-walls. In many leaves, e.g. Abies, Tsuga, 
Larix, &c., the mesophyll is heterogeneous, consisting of palisade and 
spongy parenchyma. In the leaves of Araucaria imbricata, in which 
palisade-tissue occurs in both the upper and lower part of the 
mesophyll, the resin-canals are placed between the veins; in some 
species of Podocarpus (sect. Nageia) a canal occurs below each vein ; 
in Tsuga, Torreya, Cephalotaxus, Sequoia, &c., a single canal occurs 
below the midrib; in Larix, Abies, &c., two canals run through the 
leaf parallel to the margins. The stomata are frequently arranged in 
rows, their position being marked by two white bands of wax on the 
leaf-surface. 

The chief home of the Coniferales is in the northern hemisphere, 
where certain species occasionally extend into the Arctic circle 
Dlstrlbu- ant ' P 6 " 611 " 21 ' 6 beyond the northern limit of dicotyledon- 
ous trees. Wide areas are often exclusively occupied by 
conifers, which give the landscape a sombre aspect, 
suggesting a comparison with the forest vegetation of the Coal 
period. South of the tree-limit a belt of conifers stretches across 
north Europe, Siberia and Canada. In northern Europe this belt 
is characterized by such species as Picea excelsa (spruce), which 
extends south to the mountains of the Mediterranean region ; Pinus 
sylvestris (Scottish fir), reaching from the far north to western Spain, 
Persia and Asia Minor; Juniperus communis, &c. In north Siberia 
Pinus Cembra (Cembra or Arolla Pine) has a wide range; also Abies 
6i>;a(Siberian silver fir), Larix sibirica and Juniperus Sabina(sa.v'm). 
In the North American area Picea alba, P. nigra, Larix americana, 
Abies balsamea (balsam fir), Tsuga canadensis (hemlock spruce), 
Pinus Strobus (Weymouth pine), Thuja occidentalis (white cedar), 
Taxus canadensis are characteristic species. In the Mediterranean 
region occur Cupressus sempervirens, Pinus Pinea (stone pine), 
species of juniper, Cedrus atlantica, C. Libani, Callitris quadrivalvis, 
Pinus montana, &c. Several conifers of economic importance are 
abundant on the Atlantic side of North America Juniperus virginia- 
na (red cedar, used in the manufacture of lead pencils, and extending 
as far south as Florida), Taxpdium distichum (swamp cypress), 
Pinus rigida (pitch pine), P. mitis (yellow pine), P. taeda,P. palustris, 
&c. On the west side of the American continent conifers play a still 
more striking r61e ; among them are Chamaecyparis nutkaensis, 
Picea sitchensis, Libocedrus decurrens, Pseudotsuga Douglasii (Douglas 
fir), Sequoia sempervirens, S. gigantea (the only two surviving species 
of this generic type are now confined to a few localities in California, 
but were formerly widely spread in Europe and elsewhere), Pinus 
Coulteri, P. Lambertiana, &c. Farther south, a few representatives 
of such genera as Abies, Cupressus, Pinus and juniper are found in 
the Mexican Highlands, tropical America and the West Indies. In 



the far East conifers are richly represented; among them occur 
Pinus densiflora,Cryptpmeria japonica, Cephalotaxus, species of A bies, 
Larix, Thujopsis, Sciadopitys verticillata, Pseudolarix Kaempferi, 
&c. In the Himalaya occur Cedrus deodara, Taxus, species of 
Cupressus, Pinus excelsa, Abies Webbiana, &c. The continent of 
Africa is singularly poor in conifers. Cedrus atlantica, a variety of 
Abies Pinsapo, Juniperus thurifera, Callitris quadrivalvis, occur in 
the north-west region, which may be regarded as the southern limit 
of the Mediterranean region. The greater part of Africa north of the 
equator is without any representatives of the conifers; Juniperus 
procera flourishes in Somaliland and on the mountains of Abyssinia; 
a species of Podocarpus occurs on the Cameroon mountains, and 
P. milaniiana is widely distributed in east tropical Africa. Widdring- 
tonia Whytei, a species closely allied to W. juniperoides of the Cedar- 
berg mountains of Cape Colony,is recorded from Nyassaland and from 
N.E. Rhodesia; while a third species, W. cupressoides, occurs in 
Cape Colony. Podocarpus elongata and P. Thunbergii (yellow wood) 
form the principal timber trees in the belt of forest which stretches 
from the coast mountains of Cape Colony to the north-east of the 
Transvaal. Libocedrus tetragona, Fitzroya patagonica, Araucaria 
brasiliensis, A. imbricata, Saxegothaea and others are met with in 
the Andes and other regions in South America. Atkrotaxis and 
Microcachrys are characteristic Australian types. Phyllocladus 
occurs also in New Zealand, and species of Dacrydium, Araucaria, 
Agathis and Podocarpus are represented in Australia, New Zealand 
and the Malay regions. 

GNETALES. These are trees or shrubs with simple leaves. The 
flowers are dioecious, rarely monoecious, provided with one or two 
perianths. The wood is characterized by the presence of vessels in 
addition to tracheids. There are no resin-canals. The three existing 
genera, usually spoken of as members of the Gnetales, differ from one 
another more than is consistent with their inclusion in a single 
family ; we may therefore better express their diverse characters by 
regarding them as types of three separate families (i ) Ephedroideae, 

Smus Ephedra; (2) Welwitschioideae, genus Welw ttschia ; (3) 
netoideae, genus Gnetum. Our knowledge of the Gnetales leaves 
much to be desired, but such facts as we possess would seem to 
indicate that this group is of special importance as foreshadowing, 
more than any other Gymnosperms, the Angiospermous type. In 
the more heterogeneous structure of the wood and in the possession 
of true vessels the Gnetales agree closely with the higher flowering 
plants. It is of interest to note that the leaves of Gnetum, while 
typically Dicotyledonous in appearance, possess a Gymnospermous 
character in the continuous and plate-like medullary rays of their 
vascular bundles. The presence of a perianth is a feature suggestive 
of an approach to the floral structure of Angiosperms ; the prolonga- 
tion of the integument furnishes the flowers with a substitute for a 
stigma and style. The genus Ephedra, with its prothallus and arche- 
gonia, which are similar to those of other Gymnosperms, may be 
safely regarded as the most primitive of the Gnetales. I n Welwitschia 
also the megaspore is filled with prothallus-tissue, but single egg-cells 
take the place of archegonia. In certain species of Gnetum described 
by Karsten the megaspore contains a peripheral layer of protoplasm, 
in which scattered nuclei represent the female reproductive cells; 
in Gnetum Gnemon a similar state of things exists in the upper half 
of the megaspore, while the lower half agrees with the megaspore of 
Welwitschia in being full of prothallus-tissue, which serves merely as 
a reservoir of food. Lotsy has described the occurrence of special 
cells at the apex of the prothallus of Gnetum Gnemon, which he regards 
as imperfect archegonia (fig. 17, C, a) ; he suggests they may represent 
vestigial structures pointing back to some ancestral form beyond the 
limits of the present group. The Gnetales probably had a separate 
origin from the other Gymnosperms; they carry us nearer to the 
Angiosperms, but we have as yet no satisfactory evidence that they 
represent a stage in the direct line of Angipspermic evolution. It is 
not improbable that the three genera of this ancient phylum survive 
as types of a blindly-ending branch of the Gymnosperms; but be 
that as it may, it is in the Gnetales more than in any other Gymno- 
sperms that we find features which help us to obtain a dim prospect 
of the lines along which the Angiosperms may have been evolved. 

Ephedra. This genus is the only member of the Gnetales repre- 
sented in Europe. Its species, which are characteristic of warm 
temperate latitudes, are usually much-branched shrubs. The finer 
branches are green, and bear a close resemblance to the stems of 
Equisetum and to the slender twigs of Casuarina; the surface of the 
long internodes is marked by fine longitudinal ribs, and at the nodes 
are borne pairs of inconspicuous scale-leaves. The flowers are small, 
and borne on axillary shoots. A single male flower consists of an 
axis enclosed at the base by an inconspicuous perianth formed of two 
concrescent leaves and terminating in two, or as many as eight, 
shortly stalked or sessile anthers. The female flower is enveloped in 
a closely fitting sac-like investment, which must be regarded as a 
perianth ; within this is an orthotropous ovule surrounded by a single 
integument prolonged upwards as a beak-like micropyle. The flower 
may be described as a bud bearing a pair of leaves which become 
fused and constitute a perianth, the apex of the shoot forming an 
ovule. In function the perianth may be compared with a unilocular 
ovary containing a single ovule; the projecting integument, wh'ich 
at the time of pollination secretes a drop of liquid, serves the same 
purpose as the style and stigma of an angiosperm. The megaspore 



GYMNOSPERMS 



763 



is filled with tissue as in typical Gymnosperms, and from some of the 
superficial cells 3 to 5 archegonia are developed, characterized by 
long multicellular necks. The archegonia are separated from one 
another, as in Pinus, by some of the prothallus-tissue, and the cells 
next the egg-cells (tapetal layer) contribute food-material to their 
development. After fertilization, some of the uppermost bracts 
below each flower become red and fleshy ; the perianth develops into 
a woody shell, while the integument remains membranous. In some 
species of Ephedra, e.g. E. altissima, the fertilized eggs grow into 
tubular proembryos, from the tip of each of which embryos begin to 
be developed, but one only comes to maturity. In Ephedra helvetica, 
as described by Jaccard, no proembryo or suspensor is formed; but 
the most vigorous fertilized egg, after undergoing several divisions, 
becomes attached to a tissue, termed the columella, which serves the 
purpose of a primary suspensor ; the columella appears to be formed 
by the lignification of certain cells in the central region of the em- 
bryo-sac. At a later stage some of the cells in the upper (micropylar) 
end of the embryo divide and undergo considerable elongation, 
serving the purpose of a secondary suspensor. The secondary wood 
of Ephedra consists of tracheids, vessels and parenchyma; the 
vessels are characterized by their wide lumen and by the large simple 
or slightly-bordered pits on their oblique end-walls. 

Gnetum. This genus is represented by several species, most of 
which are climbing plants, both in tropical America and in warm 
regions of the Old World. The leaves, which are borne in pairs at 
the tumid nodes, are oval in form and have a Dicotyledonous type 
of venation. The male and female inflorescences have the form of 
simple or paniculate spikes. The spike of an inflorescence bears 
whorls of flowers at each node in the axils of concrescent bracts 
accompanied by numerous sterile hairs (paraphyses) ; in a male 
inflorescence numerous flowers occur at each node, while in a female 
inflorescence the number of flowers at each node is much smaller. 
A male flower consists of a single angular perianth, through the open 
apex of which the flower-axis projects as a slender column terminating 
in two anthers. The female flowers, which are more complex in 




FIG. 17. Gnetum Gnemon. (After Lotsy.) 

A, Female Flower. o, Imperfect Archegonia. 

n, Nucellus. e. Partially developed Megaspore. 

$c, Pollen-chamber. F, Fertile half. 

i, Integument. 5, Sterile half. 

p', Inner Perianth. pt, Pollen-tube. 

p". Outer Perianth. z, Zygote. 

B, C, Megaspore. z', Prothallus. 

-structure, are of two types, complete and incomplete; the latter 
occur in association with male flowers in a male inflorescence. A 
complete female flower consists of a nucellus (fig. 17, A, n) , surrounded 
by a single integument (fig. 17, A, *), prolonged upwards as a narrow 
tube and succeeded by an inner and an outer perianth (fig. 17, A, 
p' and p"). The whole flower may be looked upon as an adventitious 
bud bearing two pairs of leaves; each pair becomes concrescent and 
forms a perianth, the apex of the shoot being converted into an 
prthotropous ovule. The incomplete female flowers are character- 
ized by the almost complete suppression of the inner perianth. 
Several embryo-sacs (megaspores) are present in the nucellus of a 
young ovule, but one only attains full size, the smaller and partially 
developed megaspores (fig. 17,8 and C, e) being usually found in close 
association with the surviving and fully-grown megaspore. In 
Gnetum Gnemon, as described by Lotsy, a mature embryo-sac con- 
tains in the upper part a large central vacuole and a peripheral layer 
of protoplasm, including several nuclei, which take the place of the 
archegonia of Ephedra; the lower part of the embryo-sac, separated 
from the upper by a constriction, is full of parenchyma. The upper 
part of the megaspore may be spoken of as the fertile half (fig. 17, B 
and C, F), and the lower part, which serves only as food-reservoir 
for the growing embryo, may be termed the sterile half (fig. 17,6 and 
C, S). (Coulter, Bot. Gazette, xlvi., 1908, regards this tissue as belong- 
ing to the nucellus.) At the time of pollination the long tubular 



integument secretes a drop of fluid at its apex, which holds the 
pollen-grains, brought by the wind, or possibly to some extent by 
insect agency, and by evaporation these are drawn on to the top of 
the nucellus, where partial disorganization of the cells has given rise 
to an irregular pollen-chamber (fig. 17, A, pc). The pollen-tube, 
containing two generative and one vegetative nucleus, pierces the 
wall of the megaspore and then becomes swollen (fig. 17, B and C, 
pt) ; finally the two generative nuclei pass out of the tube and fuse 
with two of the nuclei in the fertile half of the megaspore. As the 
result of fertilization, the fertilized nuclei of the megaspore become 
surrounded by a cell-wall, and constitute zygotes, which may attach 
themselves either to the wall of the megaspore or to the end of a 
pollen-tube (fig. 17, C,z and z') ; they then grow into long tubes or 
proembryos, which make their way towards the prothallus (C, z'), 
and eventually embryos are formed from the ends of the proembryo 
tubes. One embryo only comes to maturity. The embryo of 
Gnetum forms an out-growth from the hypocotyl, which serves as a 
feeder and draws nourishment from the prothallus. The fleshy outer 
portion of the seed is formed from the outer perianth, the woody 
shell being derived from the inner perianth. The climbing species 
of Gnetum are characterized by the production of several concentric 
cylinders of secondary wood and bast, the additional cambium-rings 
being products of the pericycle, as in Cycas and Macrozamia. The 
structure of the wood agrees in the main with that of Ephedra. 

Welwitschia (Tumboa). This is by far the most remarkable 
member of the Gnetales, both as regards habit and the form of its 
flowers. In a supplement to the systematic work of Engler and 
Prantl the well-known name Welwitschia, instituted by Hooker in 
1864 in honour of Welwitsch, the discoverer of the plant, is super- 
seded by that of Tumboa, originally suggested by Welwitsch. The 
genus is confined to certain localities in Damaraland and adjoining 
territory on the west coast of tropical South Africa. A well-grown 
plant projects less than a foot above the surface of the ground; the 
stem, which may have a circumference of more than 12 ft., terminates 
in a depressed crown resembling a circular table with a median groove 
across the centre and prominent broad ridges concentric with the 
margin. The thick tuberous stem becomes rapidly narrower, and 
passes gradually downwards into a tap-root. A pair of small strap- 
shaped leaves succeed the two cotyledons of the seedling, and persist 
as the only leaves during the life of the plant ; they retain the power 
of growth in their basal portion, which is sunk in a narrow groove near 
the edge of the crown, and the tough lamina, 6 ft. in length, becomes 
split into narrow strap-shaped or thong-like strips which trail on the 
ground. Numerous circular pits occur on the concentric ridges of the 
depressed and wrinkled crown, marking the position of former 
inflorescences borne in the leaf-axil at different stages in the growth 
of the plant. An inflorescence has the form of a dichotomously- 
branched cyme bearing small erect cones; those containing the 
female flowers attain the size of a fir-cone, and are scarlet in colour. 
Each cone consists of an axis, on which numerous broad and thin 
bracts are arranged in regular rows ; in the axil of each bract occurs 
a single flower; a male flower is enclosed by two opposite pairs of 
leaves, forming a perianth surrounding a central sterile ovule en- 
circled by a ring of stamens united below, but free distally as short 
filaments, each of which terminates in a trilocular anther. The 
integument of the sterile ovule is prolonged above the nucellus as a 
spirally-twisted tube expanded at its apex into a flat stigma-like 
organ. A complete and functional female flower consists of a single 
ovule with two integuments, the inner of which is prolonged into a 
narrow tubular micropyle, like that in the flower of Gnetum. The 
megaspore of Welwitschia is filled with a prothallus-tissue before 
fertilization, and some of the prothallus-cells function as egg-cells; 
these grow upwards as long tubes into the apical region of the 
nucellus, where they come into contact with the pollen-tubes. 
After the egg-cells have been fertilized by the non-motile male cells 
they grow into tubular proembryos, producing terminal embryos. 
The stem is traversed by numerous collateral bundles, which have a 
limited growth, and are constantly replaced by new bundles de- 
veloped from strands of secondary meristem. One of the best- 
known anatomical characteristics of the genus is the occurrence of 
numerous spindle-shaped or branched fibres with enormously- 
thickened walls studded with crystals of calcium oxalate. Additional 
information has been published by Professor Pearson of Cape Town 
based on material collected in Damaraland in 1904 and 1906-1907. 
In 1906 he gave an account of the early stages of development of the 
male and female organs and, among other interesting statements in 
regard to the general biology of Welwitschia, he expressed the 
opinion that, as Hooker suspected, the ovules are pollinated by 
insect-agency. In a later paper Pearson considerably extended our 
knowledge of the reproduction and gametophyte of this genus. 

AUTHORITIES. General: Bentham and Hooker, Genera Plan- 
tarum (London, 1862-1883); Engler and Prantl, Die naturlichen 
Pflanzenfamilien (Leipzig, 1889 and 1897); Strasburger, Die 
Coniferen und Gnetaceen (Jena, 1872); Die Angiospermen und die 
Gymnospermen (Jena, 1879); Histologische Beitrdge, iv. (Jena, 1892); 
Coulter and Chamberlain, Morphology of Spermatophytes (New York, 
1901); Rendle, The Classification of Flowering Plants, vol. i. (Cam- 
bridge, 1904); "The Origin of Gymnosperms" (A discussion at 
the Linnean Society; New Phytologist, vol. v., 1906). Cycadales: 
Mettenius, " Beitrage zur Anatomic der Cycadeen," Abh. k. sachs. 



7 6 4 



GYMNOSTOMACEAE GYNAECOLOGY 



Ges. Wiss. (1860); Treub, " Recherches sur les Cycadees," Ann, 
Bot. Jard. Builenzorg, ii. (1884) ; Solms-Laubach, " Die Sprossfolge 
der Stangeria, &c.," Bot. Zeit. xlviii. (1806) ; Worsdell, " Anatomy 
of Macrozamia," Ann. Bot. x. (1896) (also papers by the same 
author, Ann.Bot., 1898, Trans. Linn. Soc. v., 1900) ; Scott, " The Ana- 
tomical Characters presented by the Peduncle of Cycadaceae," Ann. 
Bot. xi. (1897) ; Lang, " Studies in the Development and Morphology 
of Cycadean Sporangia, No. I./' Ann. Bot. xi. (1897) ; No. II., Ann. 




xii. (1898); Wieland, " American Fossil Cycads," Carnegie Institu 
tion Publication (1906); Stopes, "Beitrage zur Kenntnis der 
Fortpflanzungsorgane der Cycadeen," Flora (1904); Caldwell, 
" Microcycas Calocoma," Bot. Gaz. xliv., 1907 (also papers on 
this and other Cycads in the Bot. Gaz., 1907-1909); Matte, Re- 
cherches sur I'appareil libero-ligneux des Cycadacees (Caen, 1904). 
Ginkgoales; Hirase, "Etudes sur la fecondation, &c., de Ginkgo 
biloba," Journ. Coll. Sci. Japan, xii. (1898); Seward and Gowan, 
" Ginkgo biloba," Ann. Bot. xiv. (1900) (with bibliography) ; Ikeno, 
" Contribution a 1'dtude de la fdcondation chez le Ginkgo biloba," 
Ann. Set. Nat. xiii. (1901); Sprecher, Le Ginkgo biloba (Geneva, 
1907). Coniferales: " Report of the Conifer Conference " (1891) 
Journ. R. Hort. Soc. xiv. (1892); Beissner, Handbuch der Nadelholz- 
kunde (Berlin, 1891); Masters, "Comparative Morphology of the 
Coniferae," Journ. Linn. Soc. xxvii. (1891); ibid. (1896), &c. ; 
Penhallo w, " The Generic Characters of the North American Taxaceae 
and Coniferae," Proc. and Trans. R. Soc. Canada, ii. (1896) ; Black- 
man, " Fertilization in Pinus sylvestris," Phil. Trans. (1898) (with 
bibliography) ; Worsdell, " Structure of the Female Flowers in 
Conifers, Ann. Bot. xiv. (1900) (with bibliography); ibid. (1899); 
Veitch, Manual of the Coniferae (London, 1900); Penhallow, 
" Anatomy of North American Coniferales," American Naturalist 
(1904); Engler and Pilger, Das Pflanzenreich, Taxaceae (1903); 
Seward and Ford, " The Araucarieae, recent and extinct," Phil. 
Trans. R. Soc. (1906) (with bibliography) ; Lawson, " Sequoia 
sempervirens," Annals of Botany (1904); Robertson, " Torreya 
California," New Phytologist (1904); Coker, " Gametophyte and 
Embryo of Taxodium," Bot. Gazette (1903); E. C. Jeffrey, "The 
Comparative Anatomy and Phylogeny of the Coniferales, part i. 
The Genus Sequoia," Mem. Boston Nat. Hist. Soc. v. No. 10 (1903) ; 
Gothan, " Zur Anatomic lebender und fossiler Gymnospermen- 
H6lzer,"X. Preuss. Geol. Landes. (Berlin, 1905) (for more recent papers, 
seeAnn.Bot.,NewPhytologist,andBot.Gazette, 1906-1909). Gnetales: 
Hooker, " On Welwitschia mirabilis," Trans. Linn. Soc. xxiy. (1864) ; 
Bower, " Germination, &c., in Gnetum," Journ. Mic. Sci. xxii. (1882) ; 
ibid. (1881); Jaccard, " Recherches embryologiques sur I'Ephedra 
helvetica," piss. Inaue. Lausanne (1894); Karsten, " Zur Entwicke- 
lungsgeschichte der Gattung Gnetum," Cohn's Beitrage, vi. (1803); 
Lotsy, " Contributions totheLife-Historyof thegenusGnetum.'Mnn. 
Bot. Jard. Buitenzorg, xvi. (1899); Land, " Ephedra trifurca," Bot. 
Gazette (1904); Pearson, " Some observations on Welwitschia mira- 
bilis," Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (1906) ; Pearson, " Further Observations 
on Welwitschia," Phil. Trans. R. Soc. vol. 200 (1909). (A. C. SE.) 

GYMNOSTOMACEAE, an order of Ciliate Infusoria (q.v.), 
characterized by a closed mouth, which only opens to swallow 
food actively, and body cilia forming a general or partial invest- 
ment (rarely represented by a girdle of membranellae), but not 
differentiated in different regions. With the Aspirotrochaceae 
(q.v.) it formed the Holotricha of Stein. 

GYMPIE, a mining town of March county, Queensland, 
Australia, 107 m. N. of Brisbane, and 61 m. S. of Maryborough 
by rail. Pop. (1901) 11,959. Numerous gold mines are worked 
in the district, which also abounds in copper, silver, antimony, 
cinnabar, bismuth, and nickel. Extensive undeveloped coal-beds 
lie 40 m. N. at Miva. Gympie became a municipality in 1880. 

GYNAECEUM (Gr. ywaiKtiov, from 711^17, woman), that part 
in a Greek house which was specially reserved for the women, 
in contradistinction to the " andron," the men's quarters; 
in the larger houses there was an open court with peristyles 
round, and as a rule all the rooms were on the same level; in 
smaller houses the servants were placed in an upper storey, 
and this seems to have been the case to a certain extent in the 
Homeric house of the Odyssey. " Gynaeconitis " is the term 
given by Procopius to the space reserved for women in the 
Eastern Church, and this separation of the sexes was maintained 
in the early Christian churches where there were separate 
entrances and accommodation for the men and women, the latter 
being placed in the triforium gallery, or, in its absence, either 
on one side of the church, the men being on the other, or occasion- 
ally in the aisles, the nave being occupied by the men. 

GYNAECOLOGY (from Gr. yvvri, yvvaiKof, a woman, and 



Xo*yos, discourse), the name given to that branch of medicine 
which concerns the pathology and treatment of affections 
peculiar to the female sex. 

Gynaecology may be said to be one of the most ancient 
branches of medicine. The papyrus of Ebers, which is one of 
the oldest known works on medicine and dates from 1550 B.C., 
contains references to diseases of women, and it is recorded that 
specialism in this branch was known amongst Egyptian medical 
practitioners. The Vedas contain a list of therapeutic agents 
used in the treatment of gynaecological diseases. The treatises 
on gynaecology formerly attributed to Hippocrates (460 B.C.) 
are now said to be spurious, but the wording of the famous 
oath shows that he was at least familiar with the use of gynaeco- 
logical instruments. Diocles Carystius, of the Alexandrian 
school (4th century B.C.), practised this branch, and Praxagoras 
of Cos, who lived shortly after, opened the abdomen by 
laparotomy. While the Alexandrine school represented Greek 
medicine, Greeks began to practise in Rome, and in the first 
years of the Christian era gynaecologists were much in demand 
(Haser). A speculum for gynaecological purposes has been 
found in the ruins of Pompeii, and votive offerings of anatomical 
parts found in the temples show that various gynaecological 
malformations were known to the ancients. Writers who have 
treated of this branch are Celsus (50 B.C.-A.D. 7) and Soranus 
of Ephesus (A.D. 98-138), who refers in his works to the fact 
that the Roman midwives frequently called to their aid practi- 
tioners who made a special study of diseases of women. These 
midwives attended the simpler gynaecological ailments. This 
was no innovation, as in Athens, as mentioned by Hyginus, 
we find one Agnodice, a midwife, disguising herself in man's 
attire so that she might attend lectures on medicine and diseases 
of women. After instruction she practised as a gynaecologist. 
This being contrary to Athenian law she was prosecuted, but 
was saved by the wives of some of the chief men testifying on 
her behalf. Besides Agnodice we have Sotira, who wrote a 
work on menstruation which is preserved in the library at 
Florence, while Aspasia is mentioned by Aetius as the author 
of several chapters of his work. It is evident that during the 
Roman period much of the gynaecological work was in the 
hands of women. Martial alludes to the " feminae medicae " 
in his epigram on Leda. These women must not be confounded 
with the midwives who on monuments are always described as 
" obstetrices." Galen devotes the sixth chapter of his work 
De locis affectis to gynaecological ailments. During the 
Byzantine period may be mentioned the work of Oribasius 
(A.D. 325) and Moschion (2nd century A.D.) who wrote a book 
in Latin for the use of matrons and midwives ignorant of Greek. 

In modern times James Parsons (1705-1770) published his 
Elenchusgynaicopathologicusetobstetricarius,a.ndin 1755 Charles 
Perry published his Mechanical account and explication of the 
hysterical passion and of all other nervous disorders incident to 
the sex, with an appendix on cancers. In the early part of the 
1 9th century fresh interest in diseases of women awakened. 
Joseph Recamier (1774-1852) by his writings and teachings 
advocated the use of the speculum and sound. This was followed 
in 1840 by the writings of Simpson in England and Huguier in 
France. In 1845 John Hughes Bennett published his great work 
on inflammation of the uterus, and in 1850 Tilt published his 
book on ovarian inflammation. The credit of being the first to 
perform the operation of ovariotomy is now credited to McDowell 
of Kentucky in 1809, and to Robert Lawson Tait (1845-1899) 
in 1883 the first operation for ruptured ectopic gestation. 

Menstruation. Normal menstruation comprises the escape of from 
4 to 6 oz. of blood together with mucus from the uterus at intervals 
of twenty-eight days (more or less). The flow begins at the age of 
puberty, the average age of which in England is between fourteen 
and sixteen years. It ceases between forty-five and fifty years of 
age, and this is called the menopause or climacteric period, commonly 
spoken of as " the change of life." Both the age of puberty and that 
of the menopause may supervene earlier or later according to local 
conditions. At both times the menstrual flow may be replaced by 
haemorrhage from distant organs (epistaxis, haematemesis, hae- 
moptysis) ; this is called vicarious menstruation. Menstruation is 
usually but not necessarily coincident with ovulation. The usual 



GYNAECOLOGY 



765 



disorders of menstruation are: (i) amenorrhoea (absence of flow), 
(2) dysmenorrhoea (painful flow), (3) menorrhagia (excessive flow), 
(4) melrorrhagia (excessive and irregular flow). Amenorrhoea may 
arise from physiological causes, such as pregnancy, lactation, the 
menopause; constitutional causes, such as phthisis, anaemia and 
chlorosis, febrile disorders, some chronic intoxications, such as 
morphinomania, and some forms of cerebral disease; local causes, 
which include malformations or absence of one or more of the genital 
parts, such as absence of ovaries, uterus or vagina, atresia of vagina, 
imperforate cervix, disease of the ovaries, or sometimes imperforate 
hymen. The treatment of amenorrhoea must be directed towards the 
cause. In anaemia and phthisis menstruation often returns after 
improvement in the general condition, with good food and good 
sanitary conditions, an outdoor life and the administration of iron 
or other tonics. In local conditions of imperforate hymen, imperfor- 
ate cervix or ovarian disease, surgical interference is necessary. 
Amenorrhoea is permanent when due to absence of the genital parts. 
The causes of dysmenorrhoea are classified as follows: (i) ovarian, 
due to disease of the ovaries or Fallopian tubes; (2) obstructive, 
due to some obstacle to the flow, as stenosis, flexions and mal- 
positions of the uterus, or malformations; (3) congestive, due to 
subinvolution, chronic inflammation of the uterus or its lining 
membrane, fibroid growths and polypi of the uterus, cardiac or 
hepatic disease; (4) neuralgic; (5) membranous. The foremost 
place in the treatment of dysmenorrhoea must be given to aperients 
and purgatives administered a day or two before the period is ex- 
pected. By this means congestion is reduced. Hot baths are useful, 
and various drugs such as hyoscyanus, cannabis indica, phenalgin, 
ammonol or phenacetin have been prescribed. Medicinal treatment 
is, however, only palliative, and flexions and malpositions of the 
uterus must be corrected, stenosis treated by dilatation, fibroid 
growths if present removed, and endometritis when present treated 
by local applications or curetting according to its severity. Menor- 
rhagia signifies excessive bleeding at the menstrual periods. Consti- 
tutional causes are purpura, haemophilia, excessive food and alcoholic 
drinks and warm climates; while local causes are congestion and 
displacements of the uterus, endometritis, subinvolution, retention 
of the products of conception, new growths in the uterus such as 
mucous and fibroid polypi, malignant growths, tubo-ovarian inflam- 
mation and some ovarian tumours. Metrorrhagia is a discharge of 
blood from the uterus, independent of menstruation. It always 
arises from disease of the uterus or its appendages. Local causes are 
polypi, retention of the products of conception, extra uterine gesta- 
tion, haemorrhages in connexion 'with pregnancy, and new growths 
in the uterus. In the treatment of both menorrhagia and metror- 
rhagia the local condition must be carefully ascertained. When 
pregnancy has been excluded, and constitutional causes treated, 
efforts should be made to relieve congestion. Uterine haemostatics, 
as ergot, ergotin, tincture of hydrastis or hamamelis, are of use, 
together with rest in bed. Fibroid polypi and other new growths 
must be removed. Irregular bleeding in women over forty years of 
age is frequently a sign of early malignant disease, and should on no 
account be neglected. 

Diseases of the External Genital Organs. The vulva comprises 
several organs and structures grouped together for convenience of 
description (see REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM), The affections to which 
these structures are liable may be classified as follows: (i) Injuries 
to the vulva, either accidental or occurring during parturition; 
these are generally rupture of the perinaeum. (2) Vulvitis. Simple 
vulvitis is due to want of cleanliness, or irritating discharges, and in 
children may result from threadworms. The symptoms are heat, 
itching and throbbing, and the parts are red and swollen. The 
treatment consists of rest, thorough cleanliness and fomentations. 
Infective vulvitis is nearly always due to gonorrhoea. The symptoms 
are the same as in simple vulvitis, with the addition of mucopurulent 
yellow discharge and scalding pain on micturition; if neglected, 
extension of the disease may result. The treatment consists of rest 
in bed, warm medicated baths several times a day or fomentations 
of boracic acid. The parts must be kept thoroughly clean and 
discharges swabbed away. Diphtheritic vulvitis occasionally occurs, 
and erysipelas of the vulva may follow wounds, but since the use of 
antiseptics is rarely seen. (3) Vascular disturbances may occur in 
the vulva, including varix, haematoma, oedema and gangrene; the 
treatment is the same as for the same disease in other parts. (4) The 
vulva is likely to be affected by a number of cutaneous affections, 
the most important being erythema, eczema, herpes, lichen, tubercle, 
elephantiasis, vulvitis prunginosa, syphilis and kraurosis. These 
affections present the same characters as in other parts of the body. 
Kraurosis vulvae, first described by LawsonTait in 1875, is an atrophic 
change accompanied by pain and a yellowish discharge; the cause 
is unknown. Pruritis vulvae is due to parasites, or to irritating 
discharges, as leucorrhoea, and is frequent in diabetic subjects. The 
hymen may be occasionally imperforate and require incision. Cysts 
and painful carunculae may occur on the clitoris. Any part of the 
vulva may be the seat of new growths, simple or malignant. 

Diseases of the Vagina. (i) Malformations. The vagina may be 
absent in whole or in part or may present a septum. Stenosis of 
the vagina may be a barrier to menstruation. (2) Displacements of 
the vagina ; (a) cystocele, which is a hernia of the bladder into the 
vagina; (b) rectocele, a hernia of the rectum into the vagina. The 



cause of these conditions is relaxation of the tissues due to parturition. 
The palliative treatment consists in keeping up the parts by the 
insertion of a pessary; when this fails operative interference is 
called for. (3) Fistulae may form between the vagina and bladder or 
vagina and rectum; they are generally caused by injuries during 
parturition or the late stages of carcinoma. Persistent fistulae 
require operative treatment. The vagina normally secretes a thin 
opalescent acid fluid derived from the lymph serum and the shedding 
of squamous epithelium. This fluid normally contains the vagina 
bacillus. In pathological conditions of the vagina this secretion 
undergoes changes. For practical purposes three varieties of 
vaginitis may be described: (a) simple catarrhal vaginitis is due to 
the same causes as simple vulvitis, and occasionally in children is 
important from a medico-legal aspect when it is complicated by 
vulvitis. The symptoms are heat and discomfort with copious 
mucopurulent discharge. The only treatment required is rest, with 
vaginal douches of warm unirritating lotions such as boracic acid or 
subacetate of lead. (6) Gonorrhoea! vaginitis is most common in 
adults. The patient complains of pain and burning, pain on passing 
water and discharge which is generally green or yellow. The results 
of untreated gonorrhoeal vaginitis are serious and far-reaching. 
The disease may spread up the genital passages, causing endometritis, 
salpingitis and septic peritonitis, or may extend into the bladder, 
causing cystitis. Strict rest should be enjoined, douches of carbolic 
acid (i in 40) or of perchloride of mercury (i in 2000) should be 
ordered morning and evening, the vagina being packed with tam- 
pons of iodoform gauze. Saline purgatives and alkaline diuretics 
should be given, (c) Chronic vaginitis (leucorrhoea or " the whites") 
may follow acute conditions and persist indefinitely. The vagina is 
rarely the seat of tumours, but cysts are common. 

Diseases of the Uterus. The uterus undergoes important changes 
during life, chiefly at puberty and at the menopause. At puberty it 
assumes the pear shape characteristic of the mature uterus. At the 
menopause it shares in the general atrophy of the reproductive 
organs. It is subject to various disorders and misplacements. 
(a) Displacements of the Uterus. The normal position of the uterus, 
when the bladder is empty, is that of anteversion. We have there- 
fore to consider the following conditions as pathological: ante- 
flexion, retroflexion, retroversion, inversion, prolapse and pro- 
cidentia. Slight anteflexion or bending forwards is normal; when 
exaggerated it gives rise to dysmenorrhoea, sterility and reflex 
nervous phenomena. This condition is usually congenital and is 
often associated with under-development of the uterus, from which 
the sterility results. The treatment is by dilatation of the canal or 
by a plastic operation. Retroflexion is a bending over of the uterus 
backwards, and occurs as a complication of retroversion (or dis- 
placement backwards). The causes are (i) any cause tending to 
make the fundus or upper part of the uterus extra heavy, such as 
tumours or congestion, (2) loss of tone of the uterine walls, (3) ad- 
hesions formed after cellulitis, (3) violent muscular efforts, (4) 
weakening of the uterine supports from parturition. The symptoms 
are dysmenorrhoea, pain on defaecation and constipation from the 
pressure of the fundus on the rectum ; the patient is often sterile. 
The treatment is the replacing of the uterus in position, where it can 
be kept by the insertion of a pessary; failing this, operative treat- 
ment may be required. Retroversion when pathological is rarer 
than retroflexion. It may be the result of injury or is associated with 
pregnancy or a fibroid. The symptoms are those of retroflexion with 
feeling of pain and weight in the pelvis and desire to micturate 
followed by retention of urine due to the pressure of the cervix 
against the base of the bladder. The uterus must be skilfully re- 
placed in position ; when pessaries fail to keep it there the operation 
of hysteropexy gives excellent results. 

Inversion occurs when the uterus is turned inside out. It is only 
possible when the cavity is dilated, either after pregnancy or by a 
polypus. The greater number of cases follow delivery and are 
acute. Chronic inversions are generally due to the weight of a 
polypus. The symptoms are menorrhagia, metrorrhagia and bladder 
troubles; on examination a tumour-like mass occupies the vagina. 
Reduction of the condition is often difficult, particularly when the 
condition has lasted for a long time. The tumour which has caused 
the inversion must be excised. Prolapse and procidentia are different 
degrees of the same variety of displacement. When the uterus lies 
in the vagina it is spoken of as prolapse, when it protrudes through 
the vulva it is procidentia. The causes are directly due to increased 
intra-abdominal pressure, increased weight of the uterus by fibroids, 
violent straining, chronic cough and weakening of the supporting 
structures of the pelvic floor, such as laceration of the vagina and 
perinaeum. Traction on the uterus from below (as a cervical tumour) 
may be a cause; advanced age, laborious occupations and frequent 
pregnancies are indirect causes. The symptoms are a " bearing 
down " feeling, pain and fatigue in walking, trouble with micturition 
and defaecation. The condition is generally obvious on examination. 
As a rule the uterus is easy to replace in position. A rubber ring 
pessary wilj often serve to keep it there. If the perinaeum is very 
much torn it may be necessary to repair it. Various operations for 
retaining the uterus in position are described, (ft) Enlargements of 
the Uterus (hypertrophy or hyperplasia). This condition may some- 
times involve the uterus as a whole or may be most marked in thi- 
body or in the cervix. It follows chronic congestion or inflammatory 



7 66 



GYNAECOLOGY 



prolapse, or any condition interfering with the circulation. The 
symptoms comprise local discomfort and sometimes dysmenorrhoea, 
leucorrhoea or menorrhagia. When the elongation occurs in the 
cervical portion the only possible treatment is amputation of the 
cervix. Atrophy of the uterus is normal after the menopause. It 
may follow the removal of the tubes and ovaries. Some consti- 
tutional diseases produce the same result, as tuberculosis, chlorosis, 
chronic morphinism and certain diseases of the central nervous 
system. 

(c) Injuries and Diseases resultant from Pregnancy. The most 
frequent of these injuries is laceration of the cervix uteri, which is 
frequent in precipitate labour. Once the cervix is torn the raw 
surfaces become covered by granulations and later by cicatricial 
tissue, but as a rule they do not unite. The torn lips may become 
unhealthy, and the congestion and oedema spread to the body of the 
uterus. A lacerated cervix does not usually give rise to symptoms; 
these depend on the accompanying endometritis, and include 
leucorrhoea, aching and a feeling of weight. Lacerations are to be 
felt digitally. As lacerations predispose to abortion the operation of 
trachelorraphy or repair of the cervix is indicated. Perforation of 
the uterus may occur from the use of the sound in diseased conditions 
of the uterine walls. Superinvolution means premature atrophy 
following parturition. Subinvolution is a condition in which the 
uterus fails to return to its normal size and remains enlarged. 
Retention of the products of conception may cause irregular 
haemorrhages and may lead to a diagnosis of tumour. The uterus 
should be carefully explored. 

(a") Inflammations Acute and Chronic. The mucous membrane 
lining the cervical canal and body of the uterus is called the en- 
dometrium. Acute inflammation or endometritis may attack it. 
The chief causes are sepsis following labour or abortion, extension of 
a gonorrhoeal vaginitis, or gangrene or infection of a uterine myoma. 
The puerperal endometritis following labour is an avoidable disease 
due to lack of scrupulous aseptic precautions. 

Gonorrhoeal endometritis is an acute form associated with copious 
purulent discharge and well-marked constitutional disturbance. 
The temperature ranges from 99 to 105 F., associated with pelvic 
pain, and rigors are not uncommon. The tendency is to recovery 
with more or less protracted convalescence. The most serious com- 
plications are extension of the disease and later sterility. Rest in 
bed and intrauterine irrigation, followed by the introduction of 
iodpform pencils into the uterine cavity, should be resorted to, 
while pain is relieved by hot fomentations and sitz baths. Chronic 
endometritis may be the sequela of the acute form, or may be septic 
in origin, or the result of chronic congestion, acute retroflection or 
subinvolution following delivery or abortion. The varieties are 
glandular, interstitial, haemorrhagic and senile. The symptoms are 
disturbance of the menstrual function, headache, pain and pelvic 
discomfort, and more or less profuse thick leucorrnoeal discharge. 
The treatment consists in attention to the general health, with suit- 
able laxatives and local injections, and in obstinate cases curettage 
is the most effectual measure. The disease is frequently associated 
with adenomatous disease of the cervix, formerly called erosion. 
In this disease there is a new formation of glandular elements, which 
enlarge and multiply, forming a soft velvety areola dotted with pink 
spots. This was formerly erroneously termed ulceration. The 
cause is unknown. It occurs in virgins as well as in mothers, but 
it often accompanies lacerations of the cervix. The symptoms are 
indefinite pain and leucorrhoea. The condition is visible on inspec- 
tion with a speculum. The treatment is swabbing with iodized 
phenol or curettage. The body of the uterus may also be the seat of 
adenomatous disease. Tuberculosis may attack the uterus; this 
usually forms part of a general tuberculosis. 

(e) New Growths in the Uterus. The uterus is the most common 
seat of new growths. From the researches of von Gurlt, compiled 
from the Vienna Hospital Reports, embracing 15,880 cases of tumour, 
females exceed males In the proportion of seven to three, and of this 
|arge majority uterine growths account for 25 % . When we consider 
its periodic monthly engorgements and the alternate hypertrophy 
and involution it undergoes in connexion with pregnancy, we can 
anticipate the special proneness of the uterus to new growths. 
Tumours of the uterus are divided into benign and malignant. 
The benign tumouVs known as fibroids or myomata are very common. 
They are stated by Bayle to occur in 20 % of women over 35 years of 
age, but happily in a great number of cases they are small and give 
rise to no symptoms. They are definitely associated with the period 
of sexual activity and occur more frequently in married women than 
in single, in the proportion of two to one (Winckel). It is doubtful if 
they ever originate after the menopause. Indeed if uncomplicated 
by changes in them they share in the general atrophy of the sexual 
organs which then takes place. They are divided according to their 
position in the tissues into intramural, subserous and submucous 
(the last when it has a pedicle forms a polypus), or as to the part of 
the uterus in which they develop into fibroids of the cervix and 
fibroids of the body. Intramural and submucous fibroids give 
rise to haemorrhage. The menses may be so increased that the 
patient is scarcely ever free from haemorrhage. The pressure of the 
growth may cause dysmenorrhoea, or pressure on the bladder and 
rectum may cause dysuria, retention or rectal tenesmus. The 
uterus may be displaced by the weight of the tumour. Secondary 



changes take place in fibroids, such as mucous degeneration, fatty 
metamorphosis, calcification, septic infection (sloughing fibroid) and 
malignant (sarcomatous) degeneration. 

The modes in which fibroids imperil life are haemorrhage (the 
commonest of all), septic infection, which is one of the most danger- 



urinary obstruction. When fibroids are compli- 
cated by pregnancy, impaction and consequent abortion may take 
place, or a cervical myoma may offer a mechanical obstacle to 
delivery or lead to serious post partem haemorrhage. In the treat- 
ment of fibroids various drugs (ergot, hamamelis, hydrastis cana- 
densis) may be tried to control the haemorrhage, and repose and the 
injection of hot water (120 F.) are sometimes successful, together 
with electrical treatment. Surgical measures are needed, however, in 
severe recurrent haemorrhage, intestinal obstruction, sloughing and 
the co-existence of pregnancy. An endeavour must be made if 
possible to enucleate the fibroid, or hysterectomy (removal of the 
uterus) may be required. The operation of removal of the ovaries 
to precipitate the menopause has fallen into disuse. 

(f) Malignant Disease of the Uterus. The varieties of malignant 
disease met with in the uterus are sarcoma, carcinoma and chorion- 
epithelioma malignum. Sarcomata may occur in the body and in the 
neck. They occur at an earlier age than carcinomata. Marked 
enlargement and haemorrhage are the symptoms. The differential 
diagnosis is microscopic. Extirpation of the uterus is the only 
chance of prolonging life. The age at which women are most subject 
to carcinoma (cancer) of the uterus is towards the decline of sexual 
life. Of 3385 collected cases of cancer of the uterus 1169 occurred 
between 40 and 50, and 856 between 50 and 60. In contradistinction 
to fibroid tumours it frequently arises after the menopause. It may 
be divided into cancer of the body and cancer of the neck (cervix). 
Cancer of the neck of the uterus is almost exclusively confined to 
women who have been pregnant (Bland-Sutton). Predisposing causes 
may be injuries during delivery. The symptoms which induce women 
to seek medical aid are haemorrhage, foetid discharge, and later pain 
and cachexia. An unfortunate belief amongst the public that the 
menopause is associated with irregular bleeding and offensive dis- 
charges has prevented many women from seeking medical advice 
until too late. It cannot be too widely understood that cancer of 
the cervix is in its early stages a purely local disease, and if removed 
in this stage usually results in cure. So important is the recognition 
of this fact in the saving of human life that at the meeting of the 
British Medical Association in April 1909 the council issued for 
publication a special appeal to medical practitioners, midwives and 
nurses, and directed it to be published in British and colonial medical 
and nursing journals. It will be useful to quote here a part of the 
appeal directed to midwives and nurses: Cancer may occur at 
any age and in a woman who looks quite well, and who may have no 
pain, no wasting, no foul discharge and no profuse bleeding. To 
wait for pain, wasting, foul discharge or profuse bleeding is to throw 
away the chance of successful treatment. The early symptoms of 
cancer of the womb are: (i) bleeding which occurs after the change 
of life, (2) bleeding after sexual intercourse or after a vaginal douche, 
(3) bleeding, slight or abundant, even in young women, if occurring 
between the usual monthly periods, and especially when accompanied 
by a bad-smelling or watery blood-tinged discharge, (4) thin watery 
discharge occurring at any age." On examination the cervix 
presents certain characteristic signs, though these may be modified 
according to the variety of cancer present. Hard nodules or definite 
loss of substance, extreme friability and bleeding after slight manipu- 
lation, are suspicious. Epithelial cancer of the cervix may assume 
a proliferating ulcerative type, forming the well-known " cauliflower" 
excrescence. The treatment of cancer of the cervix is free removal 
at the earliest possible moment. Cancer of the body of the uterus 
is rare before the 45th year. It is most frequent at or subsequent to 
the menopause. The majority of the patients are nulliparae (Bland- 
Sutton). The signs are fitful haemorrhages after the menopause, 
followed by profuse and offensive discharges. The uterus on ex- 
amination often feels enlarged. The diagnosis being made, hyster- 
ectomy (removal of the uterus) is the only treatment. Cancer of the 
body of the uterus may complicate fibroids. Chorion-epithelioma 
malignum (deciduoma) was first described in 1889 by Sanger and 
Pfeiffer. It is a malignant disease presenting microscopic characters 
resembling decidual tissue. It occurs in connexion with recent 
pregnancy, and particularly with the variety of abortion termed 
hydatid mole. In many cases it destroys life with a rapidity un- 
equalled by any other kind of growth. It quickly ulcerates and 
infiltrates the uterine tissues, forming metastatic growths in the lung 
and vagina. Clinically it is recognized by the occurrence after 
pregnancy of violent haemorrhages, progressive cachexia and fever 
with rigors. Recent suggestions have been made as to chorion- 
epithelioma being the result of pathological changes in the lutein 
tissue of the ovary. The growth is usually primary in the uterus, 
but may be so in the Fallopian tubes and in the vagina. A few cases 
have been recorded unconnected with pregnancy. The virulence of 
chorion-epithelioma varies, but in the present state of our knowledge 
immediate removal of the primary growth along with the affected 
organ is the only treatment. 

Diseases of the Fallopian Tubes. The Fallopian tubes or oviducts 



GYONGYOSI GYOR 



767 



are liable to inflammatory affections, tuberculosis, sarcomata, 
cancer, chorion-epithelioma and tubal pregnancy. Salpingitis 
(inflammation of the oviducts) is nearly always secondary to septic 
infection of the genital tract. The chief causes are septic endome- 
tritis following labour or abortion, gangrene of a myoma, gonorrhoea, 
tuberculosis and cancer of the uterus; it sometimes follows the 
specific fevers. When the pus escapes from the tubes into the coelom 
it sets up pelvic peritonitis. When the inflammation is adjacent to 
the ostium it leads to the matting together of the tubal fimbriae and 
glues them to an adjacent organ. This seals the ostium. The 
occluded tube may now have an accumulation of pus in it (pyosal- 
pinx). When in consequence of the sealing of the ostium the tube 
becomes distended with serous fluid it is termed hydrosalpinx. 
Haematosalpinx is a term applied to the non-gravid tube distended 
with blood; later the tubes may become sclerosed. Acute septic 
salpingitis is ushered in by a rigor, the temperature rising to 103, 
104 F., with severe pain and constitutional disturbance. The 
symptoms may become merged in those of general peritonitis. In 
chronic disease there is a history of puerperal trouble followed by 
sterility, with excessive and painful menstruation. Acute salpingitis 
requires absolute rest, opium suppositories and hot fomentations. 
With urgent symptoms removal of the inflamed adnexa must be 
resorted to. Chronic salpingitis often renders a woman an invalid. 
Permanent relief can only be afforded by surgical intervention. 
Tuberculous salpingitis is usually secondary to other tuberculous 
infections. The Fallopian tubes may be the seat of malignant 
disease. This is rarely primary. By far the most important of the 
conditions of the Fallopian tubes is tubal pregnancy (or ectopic 
gestation). It is now known that fertilization of the human ovum 
by the spermatozoon may take place even when the ovum is in its 
follicle in the ovary, for opsperms have been found in the ovary and 
Fallopian tubes as well as in the uterus. Belief in ovarian pregnancy 
is of old standing, and had been regarded as possible but unproved, 
no case of an early embryo in its membranes in the sac of an ovary 
being forthcoming, until the remarkable case published by Dr 
Catherine van Tussenboek of Amsterdam in 1899 (Bland-Sutton). 
Tubal pregnancy is most frequent in the left tube; it sometimes 
complicates uterine pregnancy; rarely both tubes are pregnant. 
When the oosperm lodges in the ampulla or isthmus it is called tubal 
gestation ; when it is retained in the portion traversing the uterine 
wall it is called tubo-uterine gestation. Wherever the fertilized ovum 
remains and implants its vilTi the tube becomes turgid and swollen, 
and the abdominal ostium gradually closes. The ovum in this 
situation is liable to apoplexy, forming tubal mole. When the 
abdominal ostium remains pervious the ovum may escape into the 
coelomic cavity (tubal abortion); death from shock and haemorr- 
hage intathe abdominal cavity may result. When neither of these 
occurrences has taken place the ovum continues to grow inside the 
tube, the rupture of the distended tube usually taking place between 
the sixth and the tenth week. The rupture of the tube may be 
intraperitoneal or extraperitoneal. The danger is death from 
haemorrhage occurring during the rupture, or adhesions may form, 
the retained blood forming a haematocele. The ovum may be de- 
stroyed or may continue to develop. In rare cases rupture may not 
occur, the tube bulging into the peritoneal cavity; and the foetus 
may break through the membranes and lie free among the intestines, 
where it may die, becoming encysted or calcified. The tubal placenta 
possesses foetal structures, the true decidua forming in the uterus. 
The signs suggestive of tubal pregnancy before rupture are missed 
periods, pelvic pains and the presence of an enlarged tube. When 
rupture takes place it is attended in both varieties with sudden and 
severe pain and more or less marked collapse, and a tumour may or 
may not be felt according to the situation of the rupture. There is a 
general " feeling of something having given way." If diagnosed 
before rupture, the sac must be removed by abdominal section. In 
intraperitoneal rupture immediate operation affords the only chance 
of saving life. In extraperitoneal rupture the foetus may occasion- 
ally remain alive until full term and be rescued by abdominal section, 
if the condition is recognized, or a false labour may take place, 
accompanied by death of the foetus. 

Diseases of the Ovcries and Parmarium. The ovaries undergo 
striking changes at puberty, and again at the menopause, after which 
there is a gradual shrinkage. One or both may be absent or mal- 
formed, or they are subject to displacements, being either un- 
descended, contained in a hernia or prolapsed. Either of these 
conditions, if a source of pain, may necessitate their removal. The 
ovary is also subject to haemorrhage or apoplexy. Acute inflam- 
mations (oophorites) are constantly associated with salpingitis or 
other septic conditions of the genital tract or with an attack of 
mumps. The relation of oophoritis to mumps is at present unknown. 
Acute oophoritis may culminate in abscess but more usually 
adhesions are formed. The surgical treatment is that of pyosalpinx. 
Chronic inflammation may follow acute or be consequent on pelvic 
cellulitis. Its constant features are more or less pain followed by 
sterility. The ovary may be the seat of tuberculosis, which is 
generally secondary to other lesions. Suppuration and abscess of 
the ovary also occur. Perioophoritis, or chronic inflammation in 
the neighbourhood, may also involve the gland. The cause of 
cirrhosis of the ovaries is unknown, though it may be associated with 
cirrhotic liver. The change is met with in women between 20 and 



40 years of age, the ovaries being in a shrunken, hard, wrinkled con- 
dition. Under ovarian neuralgia are grouped indefinite painful 
symptoms occurring frequently in neurotic and alcoholic subjects, 
and often worse during menstruation. The treatment, whether local 
or operative, is usually unsatisfactory. The ovary is frequently the 
seat of tumours, dermoidsand cysts. Cysts may be simple, unilocular 
or multilocular, and may attain an enormous size. The largest on 
record was removed by Dr Elizabeth Reifsnyder of Shanghai, and 
contained loo litres of fluid, and the patient recovered. The opera- 
tion is termed ovariotomy. Dermoid cysts containing skin, bones, 
teeth and hair, are of frequent growth in the ovary, and nave attained 
the weight of from 20 to 40 kilogrammes. In one case a girl weighed 
27 kilogrammes and her tumour 44 kilogrammes (Keen). Papillo- 
matous cysts also occur in the ovary. Parovarian and Gartnerian 
cysts are found, and adenomata form 20% of all ovarian cysts. 
Occasionally the tunic of peritoneum surrounding the ovary becomes 
distended with serous fluid. This is termed ovarian hydrocele. 
Ovarian fibroids occur, and malignant disease (sarcoma and carcin- 
oma) is fairly frequent, sarcoma being the most usual ovarian tumour 
occurring before puberty. Carcinoma of the ovary is rarely primary, 
but it is a common situation for secondary cancer to that of the 
breast, gall-bladder or gastro-intestinal tract. The treatment of all 
rapidly-growing tumours of the ovary is removal. 

Diseases of the Pelvic Peritoneum and Connective Tissue. Women 
are excessively liable to peritoneal infections, (i) Septic infection 
often follows acute salpingitis and may give rise to pelvic peritonitis 
(perimetritis), which may be adhesive, serous or purulent. It may 
follow the rupture of ovarian or dermoid cysts, rupture of the 
uterus, extra uterine pregnancy or extension from pyosalpinx. The 
symptoms are severe pain, fever, 103 F. and higher, marked consti- 
tutional disturbances, vomiting, restlessness, even delirium. The 
abdomen is fixed and tympanitic. Its results are the formation of 
adhesions causing abnormal positions of the organs, or chronic 
peritonitis may follow. The treatment is rest in bed, opium, hot 
stupes to the abdomen and quinine. (2) Epithelial infections take 
place in the peritoneum in connexion with other malignant growths. 
(3) Hydroperitoneum, a collection of free fluid in the abdominal 
cavity, may be due to tumours of the abdominal viscera or to 
tuberculosis of the peritoneum. (4) Pelvic cellulitis (parametritis) 
signifies the inflammation of the connective tissue between the folds 
of the broaa ligament (mesometrium). The general causes are septic 
changes following abortion, delivery at term (especially instrumental 
delivery), following operations on the uterus or safpingitis. The 
symptoms are chill followed by severe intrapelvic pain and tension, 
fever 100 to 102 F. There may be nausea and vomiting, diarrhoea, 
rectal tenseness and dysuria. If consequent on parturition the 
lochia cease or become offensive. On examination there is tender- 
ness and swelling in one flank and the uterus becomes fixed and 
immovable in the exudate as if embedded in plaster of Paris. The 
illness may go to resolution if treated by rest, opium, hot stupes or 
icebags and glycerine tampons, or may go on to suppuration forming 
pelvic abscess, which signifies a collection of pus between the layers 
of the broad ligament. The pus in a pelvic abscess may point and 
escape through the walls of the vagina, rectum or bladder. It 
occasionally points in the groin. If the pus can be localized an 
incision should be made and the abscess drained. The tumours 
which arise in the broad ligament are haematocele, solid tumours (as 
myomata, lipomata and sarcomata), and echinnococcus colonies 
(hydatids). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Albutt, Playfair and Eden, System of Gynae- 
cology (1906); McNaughton Jones, Manual of Diseases of Women 
(1904); Bland-Sutton and Giles, Diseases of Women (1906); C. 
Lockyer, " Lutein Cysts in association with Chorio-Epithelioma," 
Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (January, 1905) ; W. Stewart 
McKay, History of Ancient Gynaecology; Hart and Barbour, Diseases 
of Women; Howard Kelly, Operative Gynaecology. (H. L. H.) 

GY6NGYOSI, ISTVAN [STEPHEN] (1620-1704), Hungarian 
poet, was born of poor but noble parents in 1620. His abilities 
early attracted the notice of Count Ferencz Wessel6nyi, who in 
1 640 appointed him to a post of confidence in Fiilek castle . Here 
he remained till 1653, when he married and became an assessor 
of the judicial board. In 1681 he was elected as a representative 
of his county at the diet held at Soprony (Oedenburg). From 
1686 to 1693, and again from 1700 to his death in 1704, he was 
deputy lord-lieutenant of the county of Gomor. Of his literary 
works the most famous is the epic poem Murdnyi Venus (Caschau, 
1664), in honour of his benefactor's wife Maria Szecsi, the heroine 
of Murany. Among his later productions the best known are 
Rozsa-Kossorti, or Rose-Wreath (1690), Kemeny-Jdnos (1693), 
Cupidd (1695), Palinodia (1695) and Chariklia (1700). 

The earliest edition of his collected poetical works is by Dugonics 
(Pressburg and Pest, 1796); the best modern selection is that of 
Toldy, entitled Gyongyosi Istvdn vdlogatott potiai munkdi (Select 
poetical works of Stephen Gyongyosi, 2 vols., 1864-1865). 

GYOR (Ger. Raab), a town of Hungary, capital of a county of 
the same name, 88 m. W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1000) 



7 68 



GYP GYPSUM 



27,758. It is situated at the confluence of the Raab with the 
Danube, and is composed of the inner town and three suburbs. 
Gyor is a well-built town, and is the seat of a Roman Catholic 
bishop. Amongst its principal buildings are the cathedral, 
dating from the iath century, and rebuilt in 1630-1654; the 
bishop's 'palace; the town hall; the Roman Catholic seminary 
for priests and several churches. There are manufactures of 
cloth, machinery and tobacco, and an active trade in grain and 
horses. Twenty miles by rail W.S.W. of the town is situated 
Csorna, a village with a Premonstratensian abbey, whose archives 
contain numerous valuable historical documents. 

Gyor is one of the oldest towns in Hungary and occupies the 
site of the Roman Arabona. It was already a place of some 
importance in the loth century, and its bishopric was created 
in the nth century. It was a strongly fortified town which 
resisted successfully the attacks of the Turks, into whose hands 
it fell by treachery in 1594, but they retained possession of it 
only for four years. Montecucculi made Gyor a first-class 
fortress, and it remained so until 1783, when it was abandoned. 
At the beginning of the igth century, the fortifications were 
re-erected, but were easily taken by the French in 1809, and 
were again stormed by the Austrians on the 28th of June 1849. 

About n m. S.E. of Gyor on a spur of the Bakony Forest 
lies the famous Benedictine abbey of Pannonhalma (Ger. St 
Martinsberg; Lat. Mons Sancti Martini), one of the oldest and 
wealthiest abbeys of Hungary. It was founded by King St 
Stephen, and the original deed from 1001 is preserved in the 
archives of the abbey. The present building is a block of 
palaces, containing a beautiful church, some of its parts dating 
from the izth century, and lies on a hill 1200 ft. high. The 
church has a tower 130 ft. high. In the convent there are a 
seminary for priests, a normal school, a gymnasium and a 
library of 120,000 vols. The chief abbot has the' rank of a 
bishop, and is a member of the Upper House of the Hungarian 
parliament, while in spiritual matters he is subordinate immedi- 
ately to the Roman curia. 

GYP, the pen name of SIBYLLE GABRIELLE MARIE ANTOINETTE 
RIQUETI DE MIRABEAU, Comtesse de Martel de Janville (1850- 
) French writer, who was born at the chateau of Koetsal in 
the Morbihan. Her father, who was the grandson of the vicomte 
de Mirabeau and great-nephew of the orator, served in the Papal 
Zouaves, and died during the campaign of 1860. Her mother, 
the comtesse de Mirabeau, in addition to some graver composi- 
tions, contributed to the Figaro and the Vie parisienne, under 
various pseudonyms, papers in the manner successfully developed 
by her daughter. Under the pseudonym of " Gyp " Madame 
de Martel, who was married in 1869, sent to the Vie parisienne, 
and later to the Revue des deux mondes, a large number of social 
sketches and dialogues, afterwards reprinted in volumes. Her 
later work includes stories of a more formal sort, essentially 
differing but little from the shorter studies. The following list 
includes some of the best known of Madame de Martel's publica- 
tions, nearly seventy in number: Petit Bob (1882); Autour du 
manage (1883); Ce que femme veut (1883); Le Monde a 
cott (1884); Sans wiles (1885); Autour du divorce (1886); 
Dans le train (1886); Mademoiselle Loulou (1888); Bob au salon 
(1888-1889); L' Education d'un prince (1890); Passionelte 
(1891); Ohe! la grande vie (1891); Une flection a Tigre-sur-mer 
(1890), an account of " Gyp's " experiences in support of a 
Boulangist candidate; Manage civil (1892); Ces bans docteurs 
(1892); Du haul en has (1893); Manage de chiffon (1894); 
Leurs ames (1895); Le Cceur dAriane (1895); Le Bonheur de 
Ginette (1896); Totote (1897); Lune de miel (1898); Israel 
(1898); L'Entrevue (1899); Le Pays des champs (1900); Trap de 
chic (1900); Le Friquet (1901); La Fee (1902); Un Manage chic 
(1003); Un Menage dernier cri (1903); Maman (1904); Le 
Cceur de Pierrette (1905). From the first " Gyp," writing of a 
society to which she belonged, displayed all the qualities which 
have given her a distinct, if not pre-eminent, position among 
writers of her class. Those qualities included an intense faculty 
of observation, much skill in innuendo, a mordant wit combined 
with some breadth of humour, and a singular power of animating 



ordinary dialogues without destroying the appearance of reality. 
Her Parisian types of the spoiled child, of the precocious school- 
girl, of the young bride, and of various masculine figures in the 
gay world, have become almost classical, and may probably 
survive as faithful pictures of luxurious manners in the igth 
century. Some later productions, inspired by a violent anti- 
Semitic and Nationalist bias, deserve little consideration. An 
earlier attempt to dramatize Autour du mariage was a failure, 
not owing to the audacities which it shares with most of its 
author's works, but from lack of cohesion and incident. More 
successful was Mademoiselle Eve (1895), but indeed " Gyp's " 
successes are all achieved without a trace of dramatic faculty. 
In 1901 Madame de Martel furnished a sensational incident in the 
Nationalist campaign during the municipal elections in Paris. 
She was said to have been the victim of a kidnapping outrage 
or piece of horseplay provoked by her political attitude, but 
though a most circumstantial account of the outrages committed 
on her and of her adventurous escape was published, the affair 
was never clearly explained or verified. 

GYPSUM, a common mineral consisting of hydrous calcium 
sulphate, named from the Gr. -yii^os, a word used by Theo- 
phrastus to denote not only the raw mineral but also the pro- 
duct of its calcination, which was employed in ancient times, as 
it still is, as a plaster. When crystallized, gypsum is often called 
selenite, the creXTjwrijs of Dioscorides, so named from (reX^it/. 
" the moon," probably in allusion to the soft moon-like reflection 
of light from some of its faces, or, according to a legend, because 
it is found at night when the moon is on the increase. The 
granular, marble-like gypsum is termed alabaster (q.v.). 

Gypsum crystallizes in the monoclinic system, the habit of the 
crystals being usually either prismatic or tabular; in the latter 
case the broad planes are parallel to the faces of the clinopinacoid. 
The crystals may become lenticular by curvature of certain 
faces. In the characteristic type represented in fig. i, / repre- 
sents the prism, I the hemi-pyramid and P the clinopinacoid. 
Twins are common, as in 
fig. 2, forming in some cases 
arrow-headed and swallow- 
tailed crystals. Cleavage is 
perfect parallel to the clino- 
pinacoid, yielding thin plates, 
often diamond-shaped, with 
pearly lustre; these flakes 
are usually flexible, but may 
be brittle, as in the gypsum 
of Montmartre. Two other 
cleavages are recognized, but 
they are imperfect. Crystals 
of gypsum, when occurring 

in clay, may enclose much muddy matter; in other cases a 
large proportion of sand may be mechanically entangled in 
the crystals without serious disturbance of form; whilst 
certain crystals occasionally enclose cavities with liquid and 
an air-bubble. Gypsum not infrequently becomes fibrous. 
This variety occurs in veins, often running through gypseous 
marls, with the fibres disposed at right angles to the direction 
of the vein. Such gypsum when cut and polished has a pearly 
opalescence, or satiny sheen, whence it is called satin-spar (q.v.). 

Gypsum is so soft as to be scratched even by the finger-nail 
(H= 1-5 to 2). Its specific gravity is about 2-3. The mineral is 
slightly soluble in water, one part of gypsum being soluble, 
according to G. K. Cameron, in 372 parts of pure water at 26 C. 
Waters percolating through gypseous strata, like the Keuper 
marls, dissolve the calcium sulphate and thus become per- 
manently hard or " selenitic." Such water has special value for 
brewing pale ale, and the water used by the Burton breweries is 
of this character; hence the artificial dissolving of gypsum in 
water for brewing purposes is known as " burtonization." 
Deposits of gypsum are formed in boilers using selenitic water. 

Pure gypsum is colourless or white, but it is often tinted, 
especially in the alabaster variety, grey, yellow or pink. Gypsum 
crystallizes with two molecules of water, equal to about 21 % by 




FIG. 2. 



GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT 



769 



weight, and consequently has the formula CaSO 4 -2H 2 O. By 
exposure to strong heat all the water may be expelled, and the 
substance then has the composition of anhydrite (q.v.). When 
the calcination, however, is conducted at such a temperature 
that only about 75% of the water is lost, it yields a white 
pulverulent substance, known as " plaster of Paris," which may 
readily be caused to recombine with water, forming a hard 
cement. The gypsum quarries of Montmartre, in the north of 
Paris, were worked in Tertiary strata, rich in fossils. Gypsum is 
largely quarried in England for conversion into plaster of Paris, 
whence it is sometimes known as " plaster stone," and since 
much is sent to the Staffordshire potteries for making moulds it 
is also termed " potter's stone." The chief workings are in the 
Keuper marls near Newark in Nottinghamshire, Fauld in 
Staffordshire and Chellaston in Derbyshire. It is also worked in 
Permian beds in Cumberland and Westmorland, and in Purbeck 
strata near Battle in Sussex. 

Gypsum frequently occurs in association with rock-salt, having 
been deposited in shallow basins of salt water. Much of the 
calcium in sea- water exists as sulphate; and on evaporation of a 
drop of sea-water under the microscope this sulphate is deposited 
as acicular crystals of gypsum. In salt-lagoons the deposition 
of the gypsum is probably effected in most cases by means of 
micro-organisms. Waters containing sulphuretted hydrogen, on 
exposure to the air in the presence of limestone, may yield gypsum 
by the formation of sulphuric acid and its interaction with the 
calcium carbonate. In volcanic districts gypsum is produced by 
the action of sulphuric acid, resulting from the oxidation of 
sulphurous vapours, on lime-bearing minerals, like labradorite 
and augite, in the volcanic rocks: hence gypsum is common 
around solfataras. Again, by the oxidation of iron-pyrites 
and the action of the resulting sulphuric acid on limestone or 
on shells, gypsum may be formed; whence its origin in most 
clays. Gypsum is also formed in some cases by the hydration of 
anhydrite, the change being accompanied by an increase of 
volume to thfe extent of about 60%. Conversely gypsum may, 
under certain conditions, be dehydrated or reduced to anhydrite. 

Some of the largest known crystals of selenite have been found 
in southern Utah, where they occur in huge geodes, or crystal- 
lined cavities, in deposits from the old salt-lakes. Fine crystals, 
sometimes curiously bent, occur in the Permian rocks of Fried- 
richroda, near Gotha, where there is a grotto called the Marien- 
glashohle, close to Rheinhardsbrunn. Many of the best localities 
for selenite are in the New Red Sandstone formation (Trias and 
Permian), notably the salt-mines of Hall and Hallein, near 
Salzburg, and of Bex in Switzerland. Excellent crystals, usually 
of a brownish colour arranged in groups, are often found in the 
brine-chambers and the launders used in salt-works. Selenite 
also occurs in fine crystals in the sulphur-bearing marls of 
Girgenti and other Sicilian localities; whilst in Britain very bold 
crystals are yielded by the Kimeridge clay of Shotover Hill near 
Oxford. Twisted crystals and rosettes of gypsum found in the 
Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, have been called " oulopholites " 
(oCXos, " woolly "; <o)Xe6s, " cave ''). 

In addition to the use of gypsum in cement-making, the 
mineral finds application as an agricultural agent in dressing 
land, and it has also been used in the manufacture of porcelain 
and glass. Formerly it was employed, in the form of thin 
cleavage-plates, for glazing windows, and seems to have been, 
with mica, called lapis specttlaris. It is still known in Germany 
as Marienglas and Fraueneis. Delicate cleavage-plates of 
gypsum are used in microscopic petrography for the deter- 
mination of certain optical constants in the rock-forming 
minerals. (F. W. R.*) 

GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT. These are scientific models 
or instruments designed to illustrate experimentally the 
dynamics of a rotating body such as the spinning-top, hoop and 
bicycle, and also the precession of the equinox and the rotation of 
the earth. 

The gyroscope (Gr. yvpos, ring, ffKoirtlv, to see) may be dis- 
tinguished from the gyrostat (yvpos, and oremioSs, stationary) 
as an instrument in which the rotating wheel or disk is mounted 

xn. 25 



in gimbals so that the principal axis of rotation always passes 
through a fixed point (fig. i). It can be made to imitate the 
motion of a spinning-top of which the point is placed in a smooth 
agate cup as in Maxwell's dynamical top (figs. 2, 3). (Collected 
Works, i. 248.) A bicycle wheel, with a prolongation of the 
axle placed in a cup, can also be made to serve (fig. 4). 

The gyrostat is an instrument designed by Lord Kelvin 
(Natural Philosophy, 345) to illustrate the more corn- 





Fig, i. Fig. 2. 

plicated state of motion of a spinning body when free to wander 
about on a horizontal plane, like a top spun on the pavement, or 
a hoop or bicycle on the road. It consists essentially of a massive 
fly-wheel concealed in a metal casing, and its behaviour on a 
table, or with various modes of suspension or support, described 
in Thomson and Tait, Natural Philosophy, serves to illustrate 
the curious reversal of the ordinary laws of statical equilibrium 
due to the gyrostatic domination of the interior invisible fly- 
wheel, when rotated rapidly (fig. 5). 

The toy shown in figs. 6 and 7, which can be bought for a 
shilling, is acting as a gyro- 
scope in fig. 6 and a gyrostat 
in fig. 7. 

The gyroscope, as repre- 
sented in figs. 2 and 3 by Max- 
well's dynamical top, is pro- 
vided with screws by which 
the centre of gravity can be 
brought into coincidence with 
the point of support. It can 





Fig. 3- 



Fig. 4. 



then be used to illustrate Poinsot's theory of the motion of a 
body under no force, the gyroscope being made kinetically 
unsymmetrical by a setting of the screws. The discussion of 
this movement is required for Jacobi's theorems on the allied 
motion of a top and of a body under no force (Poinsot, Thiorie 
nomelle de la rotation des corps, Paris, 1857; Jacobi, Werke, ii. 
Note B, p. 476). 

To imitate the movement of the top the centre of gravity is 
displaced from the point of support so as to give a preponderance. 
When the motion takes place in the neighbourhood of the down- 
ward vertical, the bicycle wheel can be made to serve again 



770 



GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT 



mounted as in fig. 8 by a stalk in the prolongation of the axle, 
suspended from a universal joint at O; it can then be spun by 
hand and projected in any manner. 

The first practical application of the gyroscopic principle was 
invented and carried out (1744) by Serson, with a spinning top 





FIG. 6. 




FIG. 5. 



FIG. 7. 



M 



with a polished upper plane surface for giving an artificial 
horizon at sea, undisturbed by the motion of the ship, when the 
real horizon was obscured. The instrument has been perfected 
by Admiral Georges Ernest Fleuriais (fig. 9), and is interesting 

theoretically as 
showing the cor- 
rection required 
practically for the 
rotation of the 
earth. Gilbert's 
barogyroscope is 
devised for the 
same purpose of 
showing the earth's 
-rotation; a de- 
It, scription of it, and 
of the latest form 
employed by Foppl, 
is given in the 
Ency. d. math. 
Wiss., 1904, with 
bibliographical 
references in the 
article "Mechanics 
of Physical Appar- 
atus." The rota- 
tion of the fly-wheel is maintained here by an electric motor, as 
devised by G.M. Hopkins, and described in the Scientific American, 
1878. To demonstrate the rotation of the earth by the constancy 
in direction oi the axis of a gyroscope is a suggestion that has often 
been made; by E. Sang in 1836, and 
others. The experiment was first 
carried out with success by Foucault in 
_ 1851, by a simple pendulum swung in 

G. H \ the dome of the Pantheon, Paris, and 
jvJ^L-i j it has been repeated frequently 
I / (Mimoires sur le pendule, 1885). 

A gyroscopic fly-wheel will pre- 
serve its original direction in space 
only when left absolutely free in all directions, as required 
in the experiments above. If employed in steering, as of a 
torpedo, the gyroscope must act through the intermediary of a 
light relay; but if direct-acting, the reaction will cause pre- 
cession of the axis, and the original direction is lost. 

The gyrostatic principle, in which one degree of freedom is 
suppressed in the axis, is useful for imparting steadiness and 




FIG. 8. 




stability in a moving body; it is employed by Schlick to mitigate 
the rolling of a ship and to maintain the upright position of 
Brennan's monorail car. 

Lastly, as an application of gyroscopic theory, a stretched 
chain of fly-wheels in rotation was employed by Kelvin as a 
mechanical model of the rotary polarization of light in an electro- 
magnetic field; the apparatus may be constructed of bicycle 
wheels connected by short links, and suspended vertically. 
Theory of the Symmetrical Top. 

I. The physical constants of a given symmetrical top, expressed 
in C.G.S. units, which are employed in the subsequent formulae, 
are denoted by M, h, C and A. M is the weight in grammes (g) 
as given by the number of gramme weights which equilibrate the 
top when weighed in a balance; h is the distance OG in centimetres 
(cm.) between G the centre of gravity and O the point of support, 
and Mh may be called the preponderance in g.-cm. ; MA and M 
can be measured by a spring balance holding up in a horizontal 
position the axis OC in fig. 8 suspended at O. Then gMh (dyne-cm, 
or ergs) is the moment of gravity about O when the axis OG is 
horizontal, gMA sin 6 being the moment when the axis OG makes 
an angle with the vertical, and g = 98i (cm./s 2 ) on the average; 
C is the moment of inertia of the top about OG, and A about any 
axis through O at right angles to OG, both measured in g-cm. 1 . 

To measure A experimentally, swing the top freely about O in 
small plane oscillation, and determine the length, / cm., of the 
equivalent simple pendulum; then 

(i) / = A/Mft, A = MW. 

Next make the top, or this simple pendulum, perform small 
conical revolutions, nearly coincident with the downward vertical 
position of equilibrium, and measure n, the mean angular velocity 
of the conical pendulum in radians / second; and T its period in 
seconds ; then 



and /=n/2T is the number of revolutions per second, called the 
frequency,'f = 2v/n is the period of a revolution, in seconds. 

2. In the popular explanation of the steady movement of the 
top at a constant inclination to the vertical, depending on the com- 
position of angular velocity, such as given in Perry's stettljv 
Spinning Tops, or Worthington's Dynamics of Rotation, j ,</ ot 
it is asserted that the moment of gravity is always fj, etopw 
generating an angular velocity about an axis OB per- 
pendicular to the vertical plane COC' through the axis of the top 
OC'; and this angular velocity, compounded with the resultant 
angular velocity about an axis OI, nearly coincident with OC', 
causes the axes OI and OC' to keep taking up a new position by 
moving at right angles to the plane COC', at a constant precessional 
angular velocity, say n rad./sec., round the vertical OC (fig. 4). 

If, however, the axis OC' is prevented from taking up this pre- 
cessional velocity, the top at once falls down; thence all the in- 
genious attempts for instance, in the swinging cabin of the Bessemer 
ship to utilise the gyroscope as a mechanical directive agency 
have always resulted in failure (Engineer, October 1874), unless 
restricted to actuate a light relay, which guides the mechanism, as 
in steering a torpedo. 

An experimental verification can be carried out with the gyro- 
scope in fig. i ; so long as the vertical spindle is free to rotate in 
its socket, the rapidly rotating wheel will resist the impulse of 
tapping on the gimbal by moving to one side; but when the pinch 
screw prevents the rotation of the vertical spindle in the massive 
j pedestal, this resistance to the tapping at once disappears, provided 
j the friction of the table prevents the movement of the pedestal; 
and if the wheel has any preponderance, it falls down. 

Familiar instances of the same principles are observable in the 
movement of a hoop, or in the steering of a bicycle; it is essential 
that the handle of the bicycle should be free to rotate to secure 
the stability of the movement. 

The bicycle wheel, employed as a spinning top, in fig. 4, can also 
be held by the stalk, and will thus, when rotated rapidly, convey 
a distinct muscular impression of resistance to change of direction, 
if brandished. 

3 A demonstration, depending on the elementary principles of 
dynamics, of the exact conditions required for the Bhmeattry 
axis OC' of a spinning top to spin steadily at a constant rf 

. .. . r f 1 /~v/~ * * L 1_ *" QGUlQaStrO* 

inclination 8 to the vertical OC, is given here before pro- aoa /^ e 
ceeding to the more complicated question of the general ma auioa 
motion, when 8, the inclination of the axis, is varying 0/J<eacfjr 
by nutation. motion. 

It is a fundamental principle in dynamics that if OH is 
a vector representing to scale the angular momentum of a system, 
and if Oh is the vector representing the axis of the impressed couple 
or torque, then OH will vary so that the velocity of H is represented 
to scale by the impressed couple Oh, and if the top is moving freely 
about O, Oh is at right angles to the vertical plane COC', and 



(0 



sin 6. 



GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT 



771 



In the case of the steady motion of the top, the vector OH lies 
in the vertical plane COC', in OK suppose (fig. 4), and has a com- 
ponent OC=G about the vertical and a component OC' = G', sup- 
pose, about the axis OC; and G' = CR, if R denotes the angular 
velocity of the top with which it is spun about OC'. 

If M denotes the constant precessional angular velocity of the 
vertical plane COC', the components of angular velocity and momen- 
tum about OA are n sin and AM sin 0, OA being perpendicular 
to OC' in the plane COC'; so that the vector OK has the com- 
ponents 

(2) OC'=G',andC'K=AMsin0, 

and the horizontal component 

(3) CK = OC' sin - C'K cos 

= G' sin A/n sin cos 0. 

The velocity of K being equal to the impressed couple Oh, 
and dropping the factor sin 0, 

the condition for steady motion. 

Solving this as a quadratic in /i, the roots AI, MJ are given by 

(6) in, & 

and the minimum value of G' = CR for real values of n. is given by 



for a smaller value of R the top cannot spin steadily at the inclina- 
tion to the upward vertical. 

Interpreted geometrically in fig. 4 

(9) ' *" KM.KN=A 2 2 , 

so that K lies on a hyperbola with OC, OC' as asymptotes. 
4. Suppose the top or gyroscope, instead of moving freely about 
the point O, is held m a ring or frame which is com- 
""" pelled to rotate about the vertical axis OC with con- 

straiaea s t an t angular velocity H; then if N denotes the couple 
motion of e ' e i e t ^L c 

the ro- reaction of the frame keeping the top from falling, 
sco e acting in the plane COC', equation (4) 3 becomes modified 
into 



(1) gMAsin0-N=A..CK=sin0 

(2) N=sin0 (Aju 2 cos0 G . 

= A sin cos B(ji HI) (jt m) ; 



-A/i 2 cos0), 



and hence, as it increases through M and HI, the sign of N can be 
determined, positive or negative, according as the tendency of the 
axis is to fall or rise. 

When G' = CR is large, ^ is large, and 

(3) m^gMh/G' = An 2 /CR, 

the same for all inclinations, and this is the precession observed in 
the spinning top and centrifugal machine of fig. ic. This is true 

accurately when the axis OC' is 

^^. ^5 horizontal, and then it agrees with 

^ the result of the popular explanation 
of 2. 

If the axis of the top OC' is point- 
ing upward, the precession is in the 
same direction as the rotation, and 
an increase of p from m makes N 
negative, and the top rises; con- 
versely a decrease of the procession /* 
causes the axis to fall (Perry, Spinning 
Tops, p. 48). 

If the axis points downward, as in 
the centrifugal machine with upper 
support, the precession is in the oppo- 
site direction to the rotation, and to 
make the axis approach the vertical 
position the precession must be re- 
duced. 

This is effected automatically in the 
Weston centrifugal machine (fig. 10) 
used for the separation of water and 




FIG. 10. 



Centri- 
fugal 
machine. 



molasses, by the friction of the indiarubber cushions above the 

support; or else the spindle is produced downwards below the 
drum a short distance, and turns in a hole in a weight 
resting on the bottom of the case, which weight is dragged 
round until the spindle is upright ; this second arrangement 
is more effective when a liquid is treated in the drum, and 

wave action is set up (The Centrifugal Machine, C. A. Matthey). 
Similar considerations apply to the stability of the whirling 

bowl in a cream-separating machine. 
We can write equation (l) 

(4) N = (An 5 sin 0-0.CK= (A'n'-KM.KN) sin0/A, 
so that N is negative or positive, and the axis tends to rise or fall 
according as K moves to the inside or outside of the hyperbola of free 
motion. Thus a tap on the axis tending to hurry the precession is 



equivalent to an impulse couple giving an increase to C'K, and will 
make K move to the interior of the hyperbola and cause the axis to 
rise ; the steering of a bicycle may be explained in this way ; but Ki 
will move to the exterior of the hyperbola, and so the axis will fall 
in this second more violent motion. 

Friction on the point of the top may be supposed to act like a tap 
in the direction opposite to the precession; and so the axis of a top 
spun violently rises at first and up to the vertical position, but falls 
away again as the motion dies out. Friction considered as acting in 
retarding the rotation may be compared to an impulse couple tending 
to reduce OC', and so make K and Ki both move to the exterior of the 
hyperbola, and the axis falls in both cases. The axis may rise or fall 
according to the direction of the frictional couple, depending on the 
shape of the point; an analytical treatment of the varying motion is 
very intractable ; a memoir by E. G. Gallop may be consulted in the 
Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., 1903. 

The earth behaves in precession like a large spinning top, of which 
the axis describes a circle round the pole of the ecliptic of mean 
angular radius 0, about 23$ , in a period of 26,000 years, so that 
R/M= 26000X365; and the mean couple producing precession is 

(5) CRji sin = CR 1 sin 23^/26000 X365, 

one 12 millionth part of JCR 2 , the rotation energy of the earth. 

5. If the preponderance is absent, by making the C.G coincide 
with O, and if A/t is insensible compared with G', 

(1) N= -G'it sm9, 

the formula which suffices to explain most gyroscopic action. 

Thus a carriage running round a curve experiences, in consequence 
of the rotation of the wheels, an increase of pressure Z on the outer 
track, and a diminution Z on the inner, giving a couple, 
if a is the gauge, Qyro- 

(2) Za = GV, scopfc 
tending to help the centrifugal force to upset the train; ^ih^.y 
and if c is the radius of the curve, b of the wheels, C their W b ee ls 
moment of inertia, and v the velocity of the train, 

(3) M=/c. G' = C/6, 

(4) Z=C s /o6c(dynes), 

so that Z is the fraction C/Ma6 of the centrifugal force Mi?/c, or the 
fraction C/Mh of its transference of weight, with h the height of the 
centre of gravity of the carriage above the road. A Brennan carriage 
on a monorail would lean over to the inside of the curve at an angle a, 
given by 

(6) tan a = G'nlgMh = G'v/gUnc. 

The gyroscopic action of a dynamo, turbine, and other rotating 
machinery on a steamer, paddle or screw, due to its rolling and pitch- 
ing, can be evaluated in a similar elementary manner (Worthington, 
Dynamics of Rotation) , and Schlick's gyroscopic apparatus is intended 
to mitigate the oscillation. 

6. If the axis OC in fig. 4 is inclined at an angle a to the vertical, 
the equation (2) 4 becomes 

(1) N = sin 6 (AM*COS -G'/i) +gM fc sin (o -0). 
Suppose, for instance, that OC is parallel to the earth's axis, 

and that the frame is fixed in the meridian ; then a is the co-latitude, 
and it is the angular velocity of the earth, the square of which may 
be neglected ; so that, putting N = o, a = E, 

(2) gMAsinE-G'/isin (a-E)=o, 



/ \ r 

(3) tan E 

This is the theory of Gilbert's barogyroscope, described in Appell's 
Mecanique rationnelle, ii. 387: it consists essentially of a rapidly 
rotated fly-wheel, mounted on knife-edges by an axis 
perpendicular to its axis of rotation and pointing east and rfle **"> 
west; spun with considerable angular momentum G', w rosc P e - 
and provided with a slight preponderance MA, it should tilt to an 
angle E with the vertical, and thus demonstrate experimentally the 
rotation of the earth. 

In Foucault's gyroscope (Comptes rendus, 1852; Perry, p. 105) 
the preponderance is made zero, and the axis points to 
the pole, when free to move in the meridian. Foucault'* 

Generally, if constrained to move in any other plane, sy" >sc P e - 
the axis seeks the position nearest to the polar axis, like a dipping 
needle with respect to the magnetic pole. (.4 gyrostatic working 
model of the magnetic compass, by Sir W. Thomson. British Associa- 
tion Report, Montreal, 1884. A. S. Chessin, St Louis Academy 
of Science, January 1902.) 

A spinning top with a polished upper plane surface will provide 
an artificial horizon at sea, when the real horizon is obscured. 
The first instrument of this kind was constructed by 
Serson, and is described in the Gentleman's Magazine, sc l >lc 
vol. xxiv., 1754; also by Segner in his Specimen theoriae ho "* oa - 
turbinum (Halae, 1755). The inventor was sent to sea by the Ad- 
miralty tO ( test his instrument, but he was lost in the wreck of the 
" Victory," 1744. A copy of the Serson top, from the royal collection, 
is now in the Museum of King's College, London. Troughton's 
Nautical Top (1819) is intended for the same purpose. 

The instrument is in favour with French navigators, perfected by 



772 



GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT 



Admiral Fleuriais (fig. o) ; but it must be noticed that the horizon l 
given by the top is inclined to the true horizon at the angle E given 
by equation (3) above; and if IH is the precessional angular velocity 
as given by (3) 4, and T = 2jr//i, its period in seconds, 

Ut . Tcoslat - Tcoslat 
(4) tanE-tcosUt jqgj-.orE ^, 

if E is expressed in minutes, taking it = 2*786400; thus making 
the true latitude E nautical miles to the south of that given by 
the top (Revue maritime, 1890; Comptes rendus, 1896). 

This can be seen by elementary consideration of the theory above, 
for the velocity of the vector OC'cf the top due to the rotation of the 
earth is 

(5) 



M-OC' cos lat=gMfc sin E 
sin E = cos lat, E 



= /i.OC' sin E, 
T cos lat 



P / r-x 



in which-8ir can be replaced by 25, in practice; so that the Fleuriais 
gyroscopic horizon is an illustration of the influence of the rotation of 

the earth and of the need for its 
allowance. 

7. In the ordinary treatment of 
the general theory of the gyro- 
scope, the motion is 

rcferred . to two sets f 
rectangular axes; the 

one Ox, Oy, Oz fixed 
in space, with Oz vertically up- 
ward; and the other OX, OY, 
OZ fixed in the rotating wheel 
with OZ in the axis of figure 
OC. 

The relative position of the two 
sets of axes is given by means of 
Euler's unsymmetrical angles 8, 
turning of the axes Ox, Oy, Oz 




FIG. 11. 



<t>, \fr, such that the successive ium... 6 --. ., ... _~, ~.,, -- 
through the angles (i.) ^ about Oz, (ii.) 9 about OE, (iii.) <t> about 
OZ, brings them into coincidence with OX, OY, OZ, as shown in 
fig. it, representing the concave side of a spherical surface. 
The component angular velocities about OD, OE, OZ are 

(1) ^ sin 8, 6, <t>+4> cos 9; 

so that, denoting the components about OX, OY, OZ by P, Q, R, 

(2) P = cos <t>+y> sin 9 sin <t>, 

sin #+$ sin 6 cos <t>, 



Q = 
R = 



The first integral of (11) gives 



J A 'sin 7 + i AM* sin 7 sin 2 sin' 



(17) 

-A/* 2 cos 7 sin 9 cos sin <t>+(Kn+gMh) sin sin *-H = 
and putting tan (Ir + fo) =z, this reduces to 



'O, 



(18) 



*-.vz 



where Z is a quadratic in z 2 , so that z is a Jacobian elliptic function 
of t, and we have 

(19) tan (iir+J<<>) =C(tn, dn, nc, or cn)n/, 
according as the ring ZC performs complete revolutions, or oscillates 
about a sidelong position of equilibrium, or oscillates about the 
stable position of equilibrium <t> =*= i T - 

Suppose Oz is parallel to the earth's axis, and it is the diurnal 
rotation, the square of which may be neglected, then if Gilbert's 
barogyroscope of 6 has the knife-edges turned in azimuth to make 
an angle /3 with E. and W., so that OZ lies in the horizon at an 
angle E./S.N., we must put 7 = ^, cos 9 = sin a sin /3; and putting 
$ = %* 5 +E, where 5 denotes the angle between Zz and the vertical 
plane Zf through the zenith f , 

(20) sin 9 cos 8= cos a, sin sin S = sin a cos /3; 

so that equations (9) and (10) for relative equilibrium reduce to 

(21) gMh sin E = KQ = Kfi sin 9 cos <j> = Kit sin 6 sin (i E), 
and will change (3) 6 into 

T, K/i sin a cos 



Consider, for instance, the motion of a fly-wheel of preponderance 
Mft, and equatoreal moment of inertia A, of which the axis OC is 
held in a light ring ZCX at a constant angle 7 with OZ, while OZ is 
held by another ring zZ, which constrains it to move round the 
vertical Oz at a constant inclination with constant angular velocity 
H, so that 

(3) 6 = 0, ^=M; 

(4) P = Msin0sin*, Q=/u sin cos*, R=*+MCOS0. 

With CXF a quadrant, the components of angular velocity and 
momentum about OF, OY, are 

(5) P cos 7-R sin 7, Q, and A(P cos 7-R sin 7), AQ, 

so that, denoting the components of angular momentum of the 
fly-wheel about OC, OX, OY, OZ by K or G', h, fa, h,, 

(6) hi = A(P cos 7 - R sin 7) cos 7 + K sin 7, 

(7) ht" AQ, 

(8) h,= -A(P cos 7 R sin 7) sin 7+K cos 7; 
and the dynamical equation 

(o) -^ - hiQ +AaP = N, 

at 

with K constant, and with preponderance downward 

(10) N=gMA cos zY sin 7 = gM& sin 7 sin cos <t>, 

reduces to 

(n) A.-T$ sin 7+Aji 2 sin 7 sin 2 sin 4> cos * 

+Apf cos 7 sin cos cos <j> (K^+gMfc) sin cos = o. 
The position of relative equilibrium is given by 

Kji+gMfc A^ 2 cos 7 cos 

(12) cos4>=o, and! n*= A M 2 sin 7 sin 9 

For small values of it the equation becomes 

(13) A-^j sin 7 (Kit+gMh) sin 9 cos <t>=O, 

so that <t> = $v' gives the position of stable equilibrium, and the period 
of a small oscillation is 2jrV|A sin 7/(K/u+gM/i) sin 9). 

In the general case, denoting the periods of vibration about 
* = Jir, Jir, and the sidelong position of equilibrium by 2tr/(ni, ite, or 
n 3 ), we shall find 

(14) ni 2 = A s '" 9 i gMfe+K/j-A/i 2 cos (7-9)}, 

Asm7' 

(15) s 2 = T^r:.|-M/(-KM+AM 2 cos (7+9)), 



(16) 



; sin 0. 



a multiplication of (3) 6 by cos ft (Gilbert, Comptes rendus, 1882). 
Changing the sign of K or h and E and denoting the revolu- 
tions/second of the gyroscope wheel by F, then in the preceding 
notation, T denoting the period of vibration as a simple pendulum, 
T, Kit sin a cos ft F sin a cos ff 

(23) nt --gMh-Kit cos 0^86400 A/TC-F cos o' 

so that the gyroscope would reverse if it were possible to make 
F cos a> 86400 A/TC (Foppl, Munch. Ber., 1904). 

A gyroscopic pendulum is made by the addition to it of a fly- 
wheel, balanced and mounted, as in Gilbert's barogyroscope, in a 
ring movable about an axis fixed in the pendulum, in the vertical 
plane of motion. 

As the pendulum falls away to an angle with the upward vertical, 
and the axis of the fly-wheel makes an angle <t> with the vertical plane 
of motion, the three components of angular momentum are 

(24) hi = K cos *, hz A9+K sin *, hz = A*, 

where ha is the component about the axis of the ring and K of the 
fly-wheel about its axis; and if L, M', N denote the components of 
the couple of reaction of the ring, L may be ignored, while N is zero, 
with P=o, Q=0,-R-=o, so that 

(25) M' = ftj . =A#+K( cos <f>, 

(26) o = ha hid = A<fe K9 cos <#>. 

For the motion of the pendulum, including the fly-wheel, 

(27) MK^^gMH sinfl-M' 

= gMH sin A9 K* cos <f>. 

If and <t> remain small, 

(28) A* = K0', A* = K (0 a) , 

(29) (MK 2 +A)0+(K 2 /A) (9-o)-gMH0 = O; 

so that the upright position will be stable if K 2 >gMHA, or the 
rotation energy of the wheel greater than JA/C times the energy 
acquired by the pendulum in falling between the vertical and 
horizontal position; and the vibration will synchronize with a simple 
pendulum of length 

(30) (MK"+A)/[(K 2 /gA)-MH]. 

This gyroscopic pendulum may be supposed to represent a ship 
among waves, or a carriage on a monorail, and so affords an explana- 
tion of the gyroscopic action essential in the apparatus of Schlick 
and Brennan. 

8. Careful scrutiny shows that the steady motion of a 
top is not steady absolutely ; it reveals a small nutation General 
superposed, so that a complete investigation requires motion of 
a return to the equations of unsteady motion, and for the the top. 
small oscillation to consider them in a penultimate form. 

In the general motion of the top the vector OH of resultant angular 
momentum is no longer compelled to lie in the vertical plane COC' 
(fig. 4), but since the axis Oh of the gravity couple is always hori- 
zontal, H will describe a curve in a fixed horizontal plane through C. 
The vector OC of angular momentum about the axis will be constant 
in length, but vary in direction; and OK will be the component 
angular momentum in the vertical plane COC', if the planes through 
C and C' perpendicular to the lines OC and OC' intersect in the line 
KH ; and if KH is the component angular momentum perpendicular 
to the plane COC', the resultant angular momentum OH has the 
three components OC', C'K, KH, represented in Euler's angles by 

(1) KH =Ade/dt, C'K = A sin edf/dl, OC'=G'. 
Drawing KM vertical and KN parallel to OC', then 

(2) KM = A.d\l//dt, KN=CR A cos8d\l//dt=(C . 
so that in the spherical top, with C = A, K.N = Ad<t>/dt. 



GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT 



773 



The velocity of H is in the direction KH perpendicular to the plane 
COC', and equal to gMh sin or An 2 sin 0, so that if a point in the 
axis OC' at a distance An 2 from O is projected on the horizontal plane 
through C in the point P on CK, the curve described by P, turned 
forwards through a right angle, will be the hodograph of H ; this is 
expressed by 

(3) Asin<*+J' r)l = '" -' -'"' d 



where />*"' is the vector CH ; and so the curve described by P and 
the motion of the axis of the top is derived from the curve described 
by H by a differentiation. 

Resolving the velocity of H in the direction CH, 

(4) d.CH/<fr = An 2 sin 9 sin KCH=An"sin9 KH/CH, 

(5) d . tCW/dt = AWsin ede/dt. 
and integrating 

(6) iCH* = AME-cos 9), 

(7) iOH 2 = A 2 n 2 (F-cos 0), 

(8) *C'H 2 = AW(D-cos 0), 
where D, E, F are constants, connected by 

(9) F 
Then 

(10) 

(n) OK'sin 2 0=CC' 2 =G 2 -2GG' cos 0+G", 

(12) A 2 sin 2 0(d0/d/) 2 = 2A 2 n 2 (F-cos0) sin J 9-G J +2GG'cos0-G' ! ; 
and putting cos 0=z, 



(13) 



= 2n 2 (F-z) (i-z 2 ) - 



= 2n 2 (E-z) (i-z 2 ) - (G' - Gz) 2 /A 2 
= 2 2 (D-z) (i-z 2 ) - (G - G'z) 2 /A 2 , 
=2n 1 Z suppose. 

Denoting the roots of Z = o by Zi, 22, z 3 , we shall have them arranged 
in the order 

(14) Zi>I>Z2>Z>Z 3 >-I. 

(15) (<Zz/*) 2 = 2n 2 (zi-z) fe-z) (z-z,). 



(16) 



nt= P< 



an elliptic integral of the first kind, which with 
(17) w = W A v /5LL3 >(i s =1 |^ i 

can be expressed, when normalized by the factor V (zr-Zt)/2, by the 
inverse elliptic function in the form 



(18) 



mt 



= f< 
J 



z 3 V [4 



(zz-z) (z-Zs)] 



(19) z-z=(z2-z 3 )sn 2 n/, Zj - z 



(20) 



Z 2 -Z 3 

- Z 3 )cn 2 m<, 



Z!-Z 3 



i - z = (zi - z i )dn 2 mt 



Interpreted dynamically, the axis of the top keeps time with the 
beats of a simple pendulum of length 

(21) L=//i( Zl -Z 3 ), 

suspended from a point at a height j( z i+z 3 )/ above O, in such a 
manner that a point on the pedulum at a distance 

(22) , i(zr-z,)/=/VL 

from the point of suspension moves so as to be always at the same 
level as the centre of oscillation of the top. 

The polar co-ordinates of H are denoted by p, *r in the horizontal 
plane through C ; and, resolving the velocity of H perpendicular to 
CH, 

(23) pd^ldt = An 2 sin0cosKCH. 

(24) p 2 <M<fr = An 2 sin0.CK 

= An 2 (G'-Gcos0) 
t^\ _ 1 ('G'-Gzdt_ C (G'-Gz)/2A dz 

~*J E-z ~K -J 7, E^ -- 7(^27 

an elliptic integral, of the third kind, with pole at z = E; and then 
(26) r-<A = KCH=tan-'KH/CH 

V( 2 Z) 






(G'-Gz)/An' 



G'-Gcostf 
which determines <!/. 

Otherwise, from the geometry of fig. 4, 

(27) C'Ksin0 = OC-OC'cos0, 

(28) A sin 2 8dt/dt = G-G' cos 6, 



the sum of two elliptic integrals of the third kind, with pole at z = I ; 
and the relation in (25) (26) shows the addition of these two integrals 
into a single integral, with pole at z = E. 

The motion of a sphere, rolling and spinning in the interior of a 
spherical bowl, or on the top of a sphere, is found to be of the same 
character as the motion of the axis of a spinning top about a fixed 
point. 



The curve described by H can be identified as a Poinsot herpolhode, 
that is, the curve traced out by rolling a quadric surface with centre 
fixed at O on the horizontal plane through C; and Darboux has 
shown also that a deformable hyperboloi a made of the generating 
lines, with O and H at opposite ends of a diameter and one generator 
fixed in OC, can be moved so as to describe the curve H ; the tangent 
plane of the hyperboloid at H being normal to the curve of H ; and 
then the other generator through O will coincide in the movement with 
OC', the axis of the top; thus the Poinsot herpolhode curve H is also 
the trace made by rolling a line of curvature on an ellipsoid confocal 
to the hyperboloid of one sheet, on the plane through C. 

Kirchhoff's Kinetic Analogue asserts also that the curve of H is 
the projection of a tortuous elastica, and that the spherical curve of 
C' is a hodograph of the elastica described with constant velocity. 

Writing the equation of the focal ellipse of the Darboux hyper- 
boloid through H, enlarged to double scale so that O is the centre, 

(30) **/a 2 +y 2 /{P +z 2 /o = i , 

with a 2 +X, ff-\-\, X denoting the squares of the semiaxes of a con- 
focal ellipsoid, and X changed into M and v for a confocal hyper- 
boloid of one sheet and of two sheets. 

(31) X>O>M> (P>v> o 2 , 

then in the deformation of the hyperboloid, X and v remain constant 
at H ; and utilizing the theorems of solid geometry on confocal 
quadrics, the magnitudes may be chosen so that 

(32) 
(33) 
(34) 
(35) 

(36) P1 2 <0<P2 2 <P 2 <P3 2 , 

(37) F = z,+z 2 +z 3 , 

(38) \-2ft + v = k t z, \-r = k*, 

(39) feir'-T 5 - B =i ? 

with z=cos 0, denoting the angle between the generating lines 
through H ; and with OC =5, OC' =*', the length k has been chosen 
so that in the preceding equations 

(40) Slk = G/2An, S'lk = G'/2A ; 

and S, 8', k may replace G, G', 2A ; then 

<4'> i^ 

while from (33-39) 

(42) 



2Z 



*-A) (p-v) 



which verifies that KH is the perpendicular from O on the tangent 
plane of the hyperboloid at H, and so proves Darboux's theorem. 

Planes through O perpendicular to the generating lines cut off a 
constant length HQ = 5, HQ'=5', so the line of curvature described 
by H in the deformation of the hyperboloid, the intersection of the 
fixed confocal ellipsoid X and hyperboloid of two sheets v, rolls on a 
horizontal plane through C and at the same time on a plane through 
C' perpendicular to OC'. 

Produce the generating line HQ to meet the principal planes of the 
confocal system in V, T, P; these will also be fixed points on the 
generator; and putting 

(43) (HV, HT, HP,)/HQ = D/(A, B, C,) 
then 

(44) A 2 +Bj*+Cz 2 = D 2 

is a quadric surface with the squares of the semiaxes given bv 
HV.HQ, HT.HQ, HP.HQ, and with HQ the normal line at H, and 
so touching the horizontal plane through C; and the direction 
cosines of the normal being 

(45) */HV, y/HT, z/HP, 

(46) AV+B 2 y 2 +C 2 z 2 = D 2 S 2 , 

the line of curvature, called the polhode curve by Poinsot, being the 
intersection of the quadric surface (44) with the ellipsoid (46). 

There is a second surface associated with (44), which rolls on the 
plane through C', corresponding to the other generating line HQ' 
through H, so that the same line of curvature rolls on two planes at a 
constant distance from O, 5 and 6'; and the motion of the top is 
made up of the combination. This completes the statement of 
Jacobi's theorem (Werke, ii. 480) that the motion of a top can be 
resolved into two movements of a body under no force. 

Conversely, starting with Poinsot's polhode and herpolhode given 
in (44) (46), the normal plane is drawn at H, cutting the principal 
axes of the rolling quadric in X, Y, Z ; and then 

(47) . a 2 -bi = *.OX, ^+^ = y.OY, M=z.OZ, 

this determines the deformable hyperboloid of which one generator 
through H is a normal to the plane through C; and the other 
generator is inclined at an angle 6, the inclination of the axis of the 
top, while the normal plane or the parallel plane through O revolves 
with angular velocity dt/r/dt. 

The curvature is useful in drawing a curve of H; the diameter of 
curvature D is given by 



774 



GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT 



i a^ n-dp*_lk*sln i O JD_ i* 2 

dp ~S-S'cos6' ~J~KM. KN' 

The curvature is zero and H passes through a point of inflexion when 
C' comes into the horizontal plane through C; \f> will then be 
stationary and the curve described by C' will be looped. 

In a state of steady motion, z oscillates between two limits Z2 and z> 
which are close together; so putting Z2 = zs the coefficient of z in Z is 
y = , (OMcos9+ON) (OM+ONcosfl) 
rt OM.ON 

_OM 2 +ON? . _OM 2 +ON 2 

~ OM.ON c ' Zl ~20M.ON p 

OM^OM.ONcosO+ON 2 MN 2 

OM.ON ' OM .ON' 

With Zj=z>, =o, K = Jir; and the number of beats per second of 
the axis is 

MN n 



/ N 

(49) 



m_n 



V(OM.ON)2ir' 



beating time with a pendulum of length 



The wheel making R/2T revolutions per second, 

, , beats/second MN 5__C MN 

rovr,liitinn/aprf>nH ~ ,1 (ClM OM1 R ~A' CJC~" 



revolutions/second V (OM.ON) R 
from (8) (9) 3 ; and the apsidal angle is 

>_A M .n, ON .2V (OM.ON). 

~ m 



_ M .n, 
*w ~Kn 



ON 



V (OM.ON) MN ~MN" 

and the height of the equivalent conical pendulum X is given by 
(56) $ . S _QM_KC_OL 



if OR drawn at right angles to OK cuts KC' in R, and RL is drawn 
horizontal to cut the vertical CO in L; thus if OC' represents / to 
scale, then OL will represent X. 

9. The gyroscope motion in fig. 4 comes to a stop when the rim of 
the wheel touches the ground ; and to realize the motion when the 
axis is inclined at a greater angle with the upward vertical, the stalk 
is pivoted in fig. 8 in a lug screwed to the axle of a bicycle hub, 
fastened vertically in a bracket bolted to a beam. The wheel can 
now be spun by hand, and projected in any manner so as to produce 
a desired gyroscopic motion, undulating, looped, or with cusps if the 
stalk of the wheel is dropped from rest. 

As the principal part of the motion takes place now in the neigh- 
bourhood of the lowest position, it is convenient to measure the angle 
8 from the downward vertical, and to change the sign of z and G. 

Equation (18) 8 must be changed to 



(0 



mt 



-/ /Zs-Si- r* 
\ 2 ' J, 



V(4Z) ' 

(2) Z = (z-F) (i-z 2 HG*-2GG'z-|-G' 2 )/2A 2 n 2 

= (z-D) (i-z 2 )-(G-G'z) ! /2A 2 2 
= (z-E) (i-z 2 )-(G'-Gz) 2 /2A 2 n 2 
(23 z) (z Zz) (z Zi), 

(3) i>z 3 >z>zj>-l,D,E>Zi, 

(4) Zi-t-zs+zs = F = D-G' 2 /2 A 2 n 2 = E-G 2 /2A'n J , 
and expressed by the inverse elliptic function 



-' fe=L=cn-' /--* = dn-' fc*L, 

\Zj-Zj \Z3-Zj \Zj-Zl 



(5) 

(6) 

Equation (25) and (29) 8 is changed to 

,, j CG'-Gz dt ! CG'-GE dt Gt 

(7) 




i+z A' 
while f and 25 change places in (26). 

The Jacobian elliptic parameter of the third elliptic integral in (7) 
can be given by v, where 



where / is a real fraction, 
(10) 




, 

Zj-Zl Zz-l Zj-Zl 

with respect to the comodulus <c'. 

Then, with e = E, and 

(12) 2Z E =-|(G'-GE)/A) 2 , 

if II denotes the apsidal angle of Q, and T the time of a single beat 
of the axle, up or down, 



GT 




(13) 



in accordance with the theory of the complete elliptic integral of the 
third kind. 

Interpreted geometrically on the deformable hyperboloia, flattened 
in the plane of the focal ellipse, if OQ is the perpendicular from the 
centre on the tangent HP, AOQ=am/K', and the eccentric angle of 
P, measured from the minor axis, is am(i-/)K', the eccentricity of 
the focal ellipse being the comodulus '. 

A point L is taken in QP such that 

(14) QL/OA=zn/K', 

(15) QV.QT, QP = OA(zs,zc,zd)/K'; 
and with 

(16) mT = K, m/n= V(z3-Zi)/2=OA/fe, 

(17) GT_ G . * 

(18) 

By choosing for / a simple rational fraction, such as i, J, }, i, 
. . . an ajgebraical case of motion can be constructed (Annals of 
Mathematics, 1904). 

Thus with G'-GE=o, we have E=ZI or Zj, never z>; f=o or I; 
and P is at A or B on the focal ellipse ; and then 
(19) S> 

(20) 

(21) sin0exp (^+0'=t'V[(-Z2-Z3)(z-Zi)]+V[(z3-z) 

G -,= G ' - 




(22) sin e exp(^+^)=iV[(-Zi-Z3)(z-z 2 )]+V[(z3-z)(z-Zi)], 

G _p_ G' 
2 An 



f-z 

\ . 



2 2 An n 

Thus Zj = o in (22) makes G'=o; so that if the stalk is held put 
horizontally and projected with angular velocity 2p about the vertical 
axis OC without giving any spin to the wheel, the resulting motion 
of the stalk is like that of a spherical pendulum, and given by 

(23) sin 



.J U\rfg 



=f sinoV (sec acos0)+V[(sec a +cos0)(cosa-cos0)], 
if the axis falls in the lowest position to an angle o with the down- 
ward vertical. 

With ZB=O in (21) and Zj = - cos ft, and changing to the upward 
vertical measurement, the motion is given by 

(24) sin e*' =e"'V J l 8[V(i-cos /3cos 9) +V (cos ft cos0-cos ! 0)], 
and the axis rises from the horizontal position to a series of cusps; 
and the mean precessional motion is the same as in steady motion 
with the same rotation and the axis horizontal. 

The special case of /= J may be stated here; it is found that 

a 

(26) p 2 =a 2 (/<-* ! ), 

(27) iXsin0exp(^-p/)t = (L-i+ K -*)Jll^|LE) 



(28). 
so that p =o and the motion is made algebraical by taking L = K 1 "*)- 

The stereoscopic diagram of fig. 12 drawn by T. I. Dewar shows 
these curves for = if, f, and J (cusps). 

10. So far the motion of the axis OC' of the top has alone been 
considered ; for the specification of any point of the body, Euler's 
third angle </> must be introduced, representing the angular displace- 
ment of the wheel with respect to the stalk. This is given by 

<> * 



d(*4). 




(-*+ 



G'+G 
A(i+cos0)' 

G'-G 



(2) 



A(i-cos0)' 

It will simplify the formulas by cancelling a secular term if we 
make C = A, and the top is then called a spherical top; OH becomes 
the axis of instantaneous angular velocity, as well as of resultant 
angular momentum. 

When this secular term is restored in the general case, the axis 
OI of angular velocity is obtained by producing Q'H to I, making 

,.s HI _A-C HI _A-C 
TVIJ 7"*~' (V| A~' 



GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT 



775 



and then the four vector components OC', C'K, KH, HI give a re- 
sultant vector OI, representing the angular velocity w, such that 

(4) OI/Q'I=WR. 

The point I is then fixed on the generating line Q'H of the de- 
formable hyperboloid, and the other generator through I will cut 
the fixed generator OC of the opposite system in a fixed point O', 




FIG. 12. 

such that IO' is of constant length, and may be joined up by a link, 
which constrains I to move on a sphere. 
In the spherical top then, 

+G dt .. rG'-G dt 



depending on the two elliptic integrals of the third kind, with pole 
at 3 ==F i; and measuring 9 from the downward vertical, their 
elliptic parameters are : 



(7) 
(8) 



_. bi Zi _. fl 2j , , ll Zj 

n \n r" cn \h r =d n \h 7. 

\ I--i \l-Zl \I-Zl 



= dn~ 



. 

Z-*t 



Then if p' = K+(l /')K' is the parameter corresponding to 
2 = D, we find 

(10) /-/-/!, /=/+/., 

(11) = !+, '=! 1>|. 

The most symmetrical treatment of the motion of any point fixed 
in the top will be found in Klein and Sommerfeld, Theorie des 
Kreisels, to which the reader is referred for details; four new 
functions, o, /}, y, 8, are introduced, defined in terms of Euler's 




<t>, by 



o = cos i 9 exp 
= sin i 9 exp i 
7= sin $0 exp 
9 exp 



*+*)*, 



-*-*)*. 



Next Klein takes two functions or co-ordinates X and A, defined by 

(16) X =*2=I,, 

rz xyi 

and A the same function of X, Y, Z, so that *, A play the part of 
stereographic representations of the same point (x, y, z) or (X, Y, Z) 
on a sphere of radius r, with respect to poles in which the sphere 
is intersected by Oz and OZ. 

These new functions are shown to be connected by the bilinear 
relation 



in accordance with the annexed scheme of transformation of co- 
ordinates 





3 


H 


Z 


$ 


o 2 


^ 


2 00 


n 


7' 


^ 


2-yS 


r 


07 


(35 


05+07 



where 

(18) {= *+y*', i,= -*+y, f=-, 
H=X+Y, H = -X+Y, Z=-Z; 

and thus the motion in space of any point fixed in the body defined 
by A is determined completely by means of a, ft, y, i; and in the 
case of the symmetrical top these functions are elliptic transcendants, 
to which Klein has given the name of multiplicative elliptic functions ; 
and 

(19) 08 = cos 2 \6, 0y= sin 2 \6, 
aS 07 = 1, o-H37=cos0, 

V( 4o07*)= sin 9; 
while, for the motion of a point on the axis, putting A = O, or oo , 

(20) X = (}/& = i tan \6e1ii, or X = 0/7 = * cot i9e*, 
and 

(21) o0 = i* sin 9e*, 07 = $' sin 9e*, 

giving orthogonal projections on the planes GKH, CHK; and 



the vectorial equation in the plane GKH of the herpolhode of H 
for a spherical top. . 

When /i and /j in (9) are rational fractions, these multiplicative 
elliptic functions can be replaced by algebraical functions, qualified 
by factors which are exponentiaj functions of the time /; a series 
of quasi-algebraical cases of motion can thus be constructed, which 
become purely algebraical when the exponential factors are can- 
celled by a suitable arrangement of the constants. 

Thus, for example, with /=o, /' = i, /i = i, / = }, as in (24) 9, 
where P and P' are at A and B on the focal ellipse, we have for the 
spherical top 

(23) (i +cos 9) exp (4>+t-qt)i 

= V (sec0-cos9) V (cos0 cos9)+'(V sec 0+Vcos/3) Vcos9, 
(i cos 9) exp (<t>ifrq't)i 

= V (sec0 cos 9) V (cos cos9) +'(V sec V cos 0) V cos9, 
q, q' =nV (2 sec 0) =nV (2 cos 0) ; 
and thence a, 0, 7, i can be inferred. 

The physical constants of a given symmetrical top have been 
denoted in i by M, h, A, C, and/, n, T; to specify a given state of 
general motion we have G, G' or CR, D, E, or F, which may be 
called the dynamical constants; or , v, w, t>i, vt, or/, f, f\, /, the 
analytical constants; or the geometrical constants, such as a, 0, 
8, 8', k of a given articulated hyperboloid. 

There is thus a triply infinite series of a state of motion; the 
choice of a typical state can be made geometrically on the hyper- 
boloid, flattened in the plane of the local ellipse, of which is the 
ratio of the semiaxes a and 0, and am(l f) K is the eccentric angle 
from the minor axis of the point of contact P of the generator HQ, 
so that two analytical constants are settled thereby ; and the point 
H may be taken arbitrarily on the tangent line PQ, and HQ' is then 
the other tangent of the focal ellipse; in which case 9 ( and it are 
the angles between the tangents HO, HQ', and between the focal 
distances HS, HS', and *' will be HS.HSV while HQ, HQ' are 8, 5'. 



(24) 
(25) 



776 



GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT 



As H is moved along the tangent line HQ, a series of states of 
motion can be determined, and drawn with accuracy. 

n. Equation (5) 3 with slight modification will serve with the 
same notation for the steady rolling motion at a constant inclination 
a to the vertical of a body of revolution, such as a disk, hoop, wheel, 
cask, wine-glass, plate, dish, bowl, spinning top, gyrostat, or bicycle, 
on a horizontal plane, or a surface of revolution, as a coin in a 
conical lamp-shade. 

The point O is now the intersection of the axis GC' with the 
vertical through the centre B of the horizontal circle described by 
the centre of gravity, and through the centre M of the horizontal 
circle described by P, the point of contact (fig. 13). Collected into 

a particle at G, the 

_, i ' L R body swings round 

the vertical OB as 
a conical pendu- 
lum, of height AB 
or GL equal to 
g/V' = X, and GA 
would be the di- 
rection of the 
thread, of tension 
gM(GA/GL) dynes. 
The reaction with 
the plane at P will 
be an equal parallel 
force ; and its 
moment round G 
will provide the 
couple which 
causes the velocity 
of the vector of 
angular momen- 
tum appropriate 
to the steady 
motion; and this 
moment will be 




M 



FIG. 13. 



gM.Gm dyne-cm, or ergs, if the reaction at P cuts GB in m. 

Draw GR perpendicular to GK to meet the horizontal AL in R, and 
draw RQC'K perpendicular to the axis Gz, and KC perpendicular 

toLG. 

The velocity' of the vector GK of angular momentum is n times 
the horizontal component, and 

(1) horizontal component /A/j sin o = KC/KC', 
so that 

(2) gM.GOT = AM 2 sina(KC/KC'), 



General 
motion of 
a gyrostat 
rolling Ott 
a plane. 



/ \ /*_ "V' 

^> , M KIT ji 2 sin _ 

The instantaneous axis of rotation of the case of a gyrostat would be 
OP ; drawing GI parallel to OP, and KK' parallel to OG, making 
tan K'GC' = (A/C) tan IGC'i ; then if GK represents the resultant 
angular momentum, K'K will represent the part of it due to the 
rotation of the fly-wheel. Thus in the figure for the body rolling 
as a solid, with the fly-wheel clamped, the points m and Q move 
to the other side of G. The gyrostat may be supposed swung round 
the vertical at the end of a thread PA fastened at A' where POT 
produced cuts the vertical AB, and again at the point where it 
crosses the axis GO. The discussion of the small oscillation super- 
posed on the state of steady motion requisite for stability is given 
in the next paragraph. 

12. In the theoretical discussion of the general motion 
of a gyrostat rolling on a horizontal plane the safe and 
shortest plan apparently is to write down the most general 
equations of motion, and afterwards to introduce any 
special condition. 

Drawing through G the centre of gravity any three 
rectangular axes G*, Gy, Gz, the notation employed is 
u, v, w, the components of linear velocity of G; 
p, q, r, the components of angular velocity about the axes, 
hi, hi, ha, the components of angular momentum; 
. 0i, 02, 0's, the components of angular velocity of the co-ordinate 

axes; 

the co-ordinates of the point of contact with the hori- 
zontal plane; 

the components of the reaction of the plane; 
the direction cosines of the downward vertical. 
:The geometrical equations, expressing that the point of contact is 
at rest on the plane, are 

(i) ury+qz=o, 

2) vpz+rxo, 

w-qx+py=o. 
he dynamical equations are 
(4) du/dt- ' 

(5) dv/dt 

(6) . . dw/dt6iu+8iv = gy+Z/M, 

and 

i (8) : . dh,/dt-elhl+elhl = zX~xZ', 



x, y, z, 

X,Y,Z, 
a, 



In the special case of the gyrostat where the surface is of revolu- 
tion round Gz, and the body is kinetically symmetrical about Gz, 
we take Gy horizontal and Gz* through the point of contact so that 
y = o; and denoting the angle between Gz and the downward 
vertical by (fig. 13) 

(10) a = sin0, = o, y cos9. 

The components of angular momentum are 

(n) hi=Ap, hi = Aq, h^ = Cr+K, 

where A, C denote the moment of inertia about Gx, Gz, and K is 
the angular momentum of a fly-wheel fixed in the interior with its 
axis parallel to Gz; K is taken as constant during the motion. 

The axis Gz being fixed in the body, 

(12) Bi=p, 02 = q=d6/ 
With y = o, (i), (2), (3) reduce to 

(13) u= qz, v pzrx, w = qx; 

and, denoting the radius of curvature of the meridian curve of the 
rolling surface by p, 

(14) ^ = pcos0^=-gpcos0, ^=-psin0^ = gp sin-0; 
so that 



(16) -j=-fz-4-x+pqp sine +qrp sin 0, 

The dynamical equations (4) ... (9) can now be reduced to 

"V" tin 

(18) -jg= jz-p*z cot 0+2 2 (x-p sin e)+prx cot -g sin 0, 

('9) ra 
(20) I 
(21) 

(22) 



-P cos S)+P t z-prx-g cos 6, 



-zY=A?-A.pq cot 



-zX-*Z=j 



Eliminating Y between (19) and (23), 



e-ph,, 

r d 



(A) (yf+x 1 \-xz-^ px(x+zcotOpsin0)+rxpcosO=o. 
Eliminating Y between (19) and (21) 



pqz(x+z cot 8p sine) +qrzp cos0 = o, 



+pz(x+z cot p sin 0) rzp cos =o. 

In the special case of a gyrostat rolling on the sharp edge of a 
circle passing through G, 2 = 0, p = o, (A) and (B) reduce to 
C , _\dr t i , j\dh, 



CM* 2 



h, d. 
" 



(27) 

W r W- ul -"~A(M* J +C)" 
a differential equation of a hypergeometric series, of the form of 
Legendre's zonal harmonic of fractional order n, given by 

(29) w(n+i)=CM*VA(M* 2 +C). 

For a sharp point, *=o, p = o, and the previous equations are 
obtained of a spinning top. 

The elimination of X and Z between (18) (20) (22), expressed 
symbolically as 

.(30) (22)-z(l8)+*(20)=0, 

gives 



+g 2 p(* cos 08 sin 0) prx(x+z cot 0) g(x cos0 z sin 0) =o, 

and this combined with (A) and (B) will lead to an equation the 
integral of which is the equation of energy. 

13. The equations (A) (B) (C) are intractable in this general form ; 
but the restricted case may be considered when the axis moves in 
steady motion at a constant inclination a to the vertical; and the 
stability is secured if a small nutation of the axis can be superposed. 

It is convenient to put p = fisin0, so that Q is the angular 
velocity of the plane Gz* about the vertical ; (A) (B) (C) become 



GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT 



777 



(A*) 



-Qx(x sin 9 - 2z cos 6 - p sin 2 9) +rxp cos 6 =o, 



(H+*) si 



* ta +z 2 ) 



+Qz sin 0(x-p sin 0) - rzp cos 9 =o, 

h, . 

cos 0-z sin 6) - JJrjsin 
M 

sin cos e+ffxz sin 2 



-Qr*(* sin 0+z cos 0)-g(* cos 0-z sin 0) =o. 
The steady motion and nutation superposed may be expressed by 

(1) = a+L, sin = sin a+L cos a, cos 0=cos a-L sin a, 
Q=/i+N, r = R+Q, 

where L, N, Q are small terms, involving a factor "'', to express 
the periodic nature of the nutation; and then if a, c denote the 
mean value of *, z, at the point of contact 

(2) 3C = a+Lp cos a, z=c-Lp sin a, 

(3) * sin 0+z cos = o sin a+c cos a+L(o cos a-c sin a), 

(4) x cos 0-z sin = a cos a-c sin a-L(a sin a+c cos a-p). 
Substituting these values in (C*) with dq/dt = -d?0/dP = n 1 L, 

and ignoring products of the small terms, such as L 2 , LN, . . . 

(sin o+L cos a) 

(A \ 

j^ +c 2 -2Lpc sin a) (sin a cos a+L cos aj 

+ Ou 2 +2/iN) [ac-Lp(a sin a-c sin a)] (sin 2 a+L sin 2a) 
-G"+N)(R+Q)(a+Lpcosa)[asina+ccosa+L(acosa-csina)] 
-g(a cos a-c sin a)+gL(a sin a+c cos a-p) =o, 
which is equivalent to 

, - CR+K_. , ,/A , ,\ . 

(5) -M -ft} sin a+M 2 (j3 +C 2 J sin a cos a 

+/a' ac sin 2 a-^Ra(a sin a+c cos a)-g(a cos a-c sin a) =o, 
the condition of steady motion ; and 

(6) DL+EQ+FN=o, 
where 

(7) D = (^+a s +c 2 ) *-M CI ^' K cos a - 2p. 2 pc sin 2 a cos a 

/A \ 
+M ( M ' c ) cos a-M 2 p(a sin a-c cos a) sin 2 a 

+/< 2 <zc sin 2a-/iRp cos a(a sin a+c cos a) 
-p.Ra(a cos a-c sin a)+g(a sin a+c cos a-p), 

C 

ITJ sin a-M<z(a sin a+c cos a), 



(8) 
(9) 



F=- 



CR+K . 





/A , ,\ 
+2ju I ^j +c 2 1 sin a cos 



+2iiac sin 2 a-Ra(a sin a+c cos a). 
With the same approximation (A*) and (B*) are equivalent to 
\ Q N 

:1 = or. sm n-*- -na(a sin o+2c cos a-p sin 2 a) 

+ Rop cos a=o, 



(A**) 

(B**) 

" v" / 

+HC sin a (a-p sin a)-Rcp cos a=o. 

The elimination of L, Q, N will lead to an equation for the deter- 
mination of n 2 , and n 2 must be positive for the motion to be stable. 

If b is the radius of the horizontal circle described by G in steady 
motion round the centre B, 

and drawing GL vertically upward of length X =g/M 2 , the height of the 
equivalent conical pendulum, the steady motion condition may be 
written 

(ll) (CR+K)p. sin a-ji 2 sin a cos a=-gM(a cos a-c sin a) 

+M(/i 2 c sin a-pRa) (a sin a+c cos a) 
= gM[6X- 1 (o sin a+c cos a) -a cos a+c sin a] 
= gM. PT, 

LG produced cuts the plane in T. 

Interpreted dynamically, the left-hand side of this equation 
represents the velocity of the vector of angular momentum about 
G, so that the right-hand side represents the moment of the applied 
force about G, in this case the reaction of the plane, which is parallel 
to GA, and equal to gM.GA/GL; and so the angle AGL must be 
less than the angle of friction, or slipping will take place. 

Spinning upright, with a = o, a = o, we find F=o, Q = o, and 

(12) 
(13) 
(14) 




Thus for a top spinning upright on a rounded point, with K=o, 
the stability requires that 

(15) R>2*'V{g(c-p))/(fe 2 +cp), 

where k, k' are the radii of gyration about the axis Gz, and a per- 
pendicular axis at a distance c from G ; this reduces to the preceding 
case of 3 (7) when p = o. 

Generally, with a = o, but ao, the condition (A) and (B) becomes 



so that, eliminating Q/L, 



the condition when a coin or platter is rolling nearly flat on the table. 
Rolling along in a straight path, with a = Jir, c = O, /i = O, E = O; 
ftfiu 



N/L = (CR+K)/A, 
D=( A i + o2 )' jJ +(a-p) 
F=- CR + K -Ra'. 



(19) 



(20) 



(21) 

Thus with K=o, and rolling with velocity V = Ra, stability 
requires 

(22) 





or n* ^ y must have acquired velocity greater than attained by 
rolling down a plane through a vertical height ^(o-p)A/C. 

On a sharp edge, with p=o, a thin uniform disk or a thin rine 
requires 

(23) V 2 /2g>a/6oro/8. 

The gyrostat can hold itself upright on the plane without advance 
when R = o, provided 

(24) K 2 /AM-g(a-p) is positive. 

For the stability of the monorail carriage of 5 (6), ignoring the 
rotary inertia of the wheels by putting C=o, and replacing K by G' 
the theory above would require 

(25) \ 

For further theory and experiments consult Routh, Advanced 
Rigid Dynamics, chap, v., and Thomson and Tait, Natural Philo* 
sophy, 345; also Bourlet, Traite des bicycles (analysed in Appell, 
Mecanique rationnelle, ii. 297, and Carvallo, Journal de I'ecole poly- 
technique, 1900); Whipple, Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, vol 
xxx., for mathematical theories of the bicycle, and other bodies. 

14. Lord Kelvin has studied theoretically and experi- 
mentally the vibration of a chain of stretched gyrostats &">*<*& 
(Proc. London Math. Soc., 1875; J- Perry, Spinning Tops, ct>ala - 
for a diagram). Suppose each gyrostat to be equivalent dynamically 
to a fly-wheel of axial length 2a, and that each connecting link is a 
light cord or steel wire of length 2l, stretched to a tension T. 

Denote by x, y the components of the slight displacement from the 
central straight line of the centre of a fly-wheel ; and let p, q, I denote 
the direction cosines of the axis of a fly-wheel, and r, s, I the direction 
cosines of a link, distinguishing the different bodies by a suffix. 

Then with the previous notation and to the order of approximation 
required, 

to be employed in the dynamical equations 



in which 9 3 &i and 8 3 h 3 can be omitted. 
For the kth fly-wheel 



(5) A 

and for the motion of translation 

(6) Mxt = T^.-rO , Mjfc 
while the geometrical relations are 

(7) xi^i-xt = a(p t+ i+pi, 



Putting 
(9) 



* +yi -- w, p +qi = a, r +si = a, 



GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT 



these three pairs of equations may be replaced by the three equations 



) =o, 



) =o, 



For a vibration of circular polarization assume a solution 

(13) Wk, Si, " t = (L, P, Q) exp (nt+kc)i, 

so that c/n is the time-lag between the vibration of one fly-wheel 
and the next; and the wave velocity is 

(14) U=2(a+/)/c. 
Then 

(15) P(-A 2 +Kn+2Ta)-QTa(<~ + i)=o, , 

(16) -LMn-QT (e-i )=o, 

(17) L(e ci -i)-Pa(e ci + i) 
leading, on elimination of L, P, Q, to 

, . (2 Ta + Kn-An') (i- 

cos c = 



(19) 



. 
2 sin'Jc 



Mn 2Ta(a+/)+K/-An 8 i 
T 2Ta+fcn-A+Mn'a'- 



With K=O, A = o, this reduces to Lagrange's condition in the 
vibration of a string of beads. 
Putting 
(20) p = M/2(a+/), 



(21) 
(22) 



= K/2(a-M), 
a=A/2(a+/), 



equation (19) can be written 
(24 (sin (a+/)n/U|* 

= (a+lYn> p ~ 



sin (a-H)/U \ 



the mass per unit length of the 

chain, 
thegyrostatic angular momentum 

per unit length, 
the transverse moment of inertia 

per unit length, 



Ta+Knl-ari'l 

Ta+(a-K)-an 2 (a-M) +pn*a 2 (a-M)' 

t 2 ) (i+l/a)+pn*a(a+/) 



In a continuous chain of such gyrostatic links, with a and / in- 
finitesimal, 



for the vibration of helical nature like circular polarization. 

Changing the sign of n for circular polarization in the opposite 
direction 

( 27 ) V=^-\ I-- , Kn+an * , ? 
(27 > 7( T-(n+ora 2 )//a \ 

In this way a mechanical model is obtained of the action of a mag- 
netized medium on polarized light, K representing the equivalent of 
the magnetic field, while a may be ignored as insensible (I. Larmor, 
Proc. Land. Math. Soc., 1890; Aether and Matter, Appendix E). 

We notice that U l in (26) can be positive, and the gyrostatic 
chain stable, even when T is negative, and the chain is supporting 
a thrust, provided <tn is large enough, and the thrust does not 
exceed 

(28) (w-an')(i+//a); | 

while U' 1 in (27) will not be positive and the straight chain will be 
unstable unless the tension exceeds 

(29) Oc+an 2 ) (i-H/a). 

15. Gyrostat suspended by a Thread. In the discussion of the 
small vibration of a single gyrostat fly-wheel about the vertical 
position when suspended by a single thread of length 2/ = ft, the 
suffix k can be omitted in the preceding equations of 14, and we 
can write 

A8-Kart-|-TaS-Ta,r=o, 



(i) 

(2) 
(3) 



Mi+T<r = o, with T=gM, 



Assuming a periodic solution of these equations 

(4) v>, #, <r = (L, P, Q) exp nti, 
and eliminating L, P, Q, we obtain 

(5) (-Aw'+Kn+gMa) (g-n ! ft)-gMnV=o, 

and the frequency of a vibration in double beats per second is 
n/2ir, where n is a root of this quartic equation. 

For upright spinning on a smooth horizontal plane, take 6 = so and 
change the sign of a, then 

(6) An*-Kn+gMa=o, 
so that the stability requires 

(7) K'> 4 gAMo. 

Here A denotes the moment of inertia about a diametral axis 
through the centre of gravity; when the point of the fly-wheel is 
held in a small smooth cup, b =o, and the condition becomes 

(8) (A + Ma 2 )n l -Kn-|-gMa = o, 
requiring for stability, as before in 3, 

(9) K'>4g(A+Ma')Ma.> 

For upright spinning inside a spherical surface of radius b, the 



sign of a must be changed to obtain the condition at the lowest 
point, as in the gyroscopic horizon of Fleuriais. 

For a gyrostat spinning upright on the summit of a sphere of 
radius ft, the signs of a and ft must be changed in (5), or else the 
sign of g, which amounts to the same thing. 

Denoting the components of horizontal displacement of the point 
of the fly-wheel by |, ij, then 

(10) ftr = , bs = ii, ft<r = |+'7i = X (suppose), 
(n) w = a0+X. 

If the point is forced to take the motion ({, TJ, f) by components 
of force X, Y, Z, the equations of motion become 
-Ag+K?>= Yo-Zag, 

A+K= - Xa+Zap, 
+Yt, Mtf-g)=Z; 

= Maf, 

(A+Ma J )3-K3ft'-f-gMotS+MaX = Mafcf. 

Thus if the point of the gyrostat is made to take the periodic 
motion given by X = R exp nti, f =o, the forced vibration of the axis 
is given by ZJ=P exp nti, where 

(17) P|-(A+Ma'V-r-K+gMo)-RMn'a=o; 

and so the effect may be investigated on the Fleuriais gyroscopic 
horizon of the motion of the ship. 

Suppose the motion X is due to the suspension of the gyrostat from 
a point on the axis of a second gyrostat suspended from a fixed point. 

Distinguishing the second gyrostat by a suffix, then X = 6oi, if ft 
denotes the distance between the points of suspension of the two 
gyrostats; and the motion of the second gyrostat influenced by the 
reaction of the first, is given by 

(i 8) ( 




= -g(M;A,+Mft)t3i-M&(aSM-X); 
so that, in the small vibration, 

(19) ^ | -(Ai+M 1 A,)n'-r-Kin-|-g(M 1 A 1 +M6) | =Mn'ft(oP+R), 

(20) Rl-(A I +M 1 fe 1 +M&*)n J +K,n+g(M 1 A 1 +M&)HPMn s aft s =o. 
Eliminating the ratio of P to R, we obtain 

(21) |-(A+Ma s )n 2 +Kn+gMa) 
X ( -(Ai+M 1 Ai s +M6) J + 

a quartic for n, giving the frequency n/2ir of a fundamental vibration. 

Change the sign of g for the case of the gyrostats spinning upright, 
one on the top of the other, and so realize the gyrostat on the top of a 
gyrostat described by Maxwell. 

In the gyrostatic chain of 14, the tension T may change to a 
limited pressure, and U a may still be positive, and the motion 
stable; and so a motion is realized .of a number of spinning tops, 
superposed in a column. 

16. The Flexure Joint. In Lord Kelvin's experiment the gyrostats 
are joined up by equal light rods and short lengths of elastic wire 
with rigid attachment to the rod and case of a gyrostat, so as to keep 
the system still, and free from entanglement and twisting due to 
pivot friction of the fly-wheels. 

When this gyrostatic chain is made to revolve with angular 
velocity n in relative equilibrium as a plane polygon passing through 
Oz the axis of rotation, each gyrostatic case moves as if its axis 
produced was attached to Oz by a flexure joint. The instantaneous 
axis of resultant angular velocity bisects the angle -ir-6, if the axis 
of the case makes an angle 6 with Oz, and, the components of 
angular velocity being n about Oz, and -n about the axis, the re- 
sultant angular velocity is 2n cos i(ir-0)=2 sin J0; and the com- 
ponents of this angular velocity are 

(1) -2n sin J9 sin $9= -n(i^cos 0), along the axis, and 

(2) 2n sin \S cos J9 = n sin 6, perpendicular to the axis of the 
case. The flexure joint behaves like a pair of equal bevel wheels 
engaging. 

The component angular momentum in the direction O* is therefore 

(3) L= -An sin 9 cos 9 - Cn(i-cos 9) sin 0+K sin 0, 
and L is therefore the couple acting on the gyrostat. 

If a denotes the angle which a connecting link makes with Oz, and 
T denotes the constant component of the tension of a link parallel to 
Oz, the couple acting is 

(4) Ta cos 9*(tan ot+i+tan o)-2Ta sin 0t, 
which is to be equated to Ln, so that 

(5) - An'sin 9* cos 9t-Cn(i-cos 0k) sin 9t+Kn sin 

-Ta cos 0t(tan oj^i+tan at) +2Ta sin 0t = o. 
In addition 

(6) Mn 2 *i+T(tan on-i-tan o t ) =o, 
with the geometrical relation 

(7) *n.i-x t -a(sin 0t+i+ sin B k )-2l sin an-i =0. 

When the polygon is nearly coincident with Oz, these equations 
can be replaced by 



GYTHIUM GYULA-FEHERVAR 



779 



at) =o, 



o, 



and the rest of the solution proceeds as before in 14, putting 

(u) x t ,9*,at = (L, P, Q)expc. 

A half wave length of the curve of gyrostats is covered when 
ck = T, so that r/c is the number of gyrostats in a half wave, which is 
therefore of wave length 2r(a+l)/c. 

A plane polarized wave is given when exp cki is replaced by 
exp (nt+ck)i, and a wave circularly polarized when w, nr, a of 14 
replace this x, 8, a. 

Gyroscopic Pendulum. The elastic flexure joint is useful for 
supporting a rod, carrying a fly-wheel, like a gyroscopic pendulum. 

Expressed by Euler s angles, 0, <t>, t, the kinetic energy is 

(12) T = ^\(+sin J 0^) + iC'(i-cos0) a ^ + JC(+*cos0) 1 , 
where A refers to rod and gyroscope about the transverse axis at the 
point of support, C' refers to rod about its axis of length, and C refers 
to the revolving fly-wheel. 

The elimination of i between the equation of conservation of 
angular momentum about the vertical, viz. 

(13) A sin*0^-C'(i -cose) cos0^+C(<+^cos0) cos0 = G, a con- 
stant, and the equation of energy, viz. 

(14) T gMAcos0 = H, a constant, with 8 measured from the 
downward vertical, and 

(15) <+icos0 = R, a constant, will lead to an equation for 
d8/dt, or dz/dt, in terms of cos or z, the integral of which is of hyper- 
elliptic character, except when A = C'. 

In the suspension of fig. 8, the motion given by < is suppressed in 
the stalk, and for the fly-wheel 4> gives the rubbing angular velocity 
of the wheel on the stalk ; the equations are now 

(16) T = JA(*+sinVfliP)-HC' cos' 0^+JCR 2 = H+gMA cos 0, 

(17) A sin^+C' cos ! 0^+CR cos = G, 

and the motion is again of hyperelliptic character, except when 
A = C', or C' = o. To realize a motion given completely by the elliptic 
function, the suspension of the stalk must be made by a smooth ball 
and socket, or else a Hooke universal joint. 

Finally, there is the case of the general motion of a top with a 
spherical rounded point on a smooth plane, in which the centre of 
gravity may be supposed to rise and fall in a vertical line. Here 

(18) T = i(A+MA 2 sin 2 0)0 ! +iAsin ! 0.A 2 +iCR z = H-gMAcos0, 
with measured from the upward vertical, and 

(19) Asin a 0^+CRcos0 = G, 

where A now refers to a transverse axis through the centre of gravity. 
The elimination of pleads to an equation for z, = cos 0, of the form 



(20) 



ldz\* 
(dt) - 



i z) (zi z) fa z) 



with the arrangement 

(21) z,, z 4 >/>zj>z>z s > -/>z; 

so that the motion is hyperelliptic. 

AUTHORITIES. In addition to the references in the text the follow- 
ing will be found useful: Ast. Notices, vol. i. ; Comptes rendus, 
Sept. 1852; Paper by Professor Magnus translated in Taylor's 
Foreign Scientific Memoirs, n.s., pt. 3, p. 210; Ast. Notices, xiii. 
221-248; Theory of Foucault's Gyroscope Experiments, by the 
Rev. Baden Powell, F.R.S. ; Ast. Notices, vol. xv. ; articles by 
Major J. G. Barnard in Silliman's Journal, 2nd ser., vols. xxiv. 
and xxv. ; E. Hunt on " Rotatory Motion, 1 ' Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow, 
vol. iv. ; J. Clerk Maxwell, " On a Dynamical Top," Trans. R.S.E. 
vol. xxi. ; Phil. Mag. 4th ser. vols. 7, 13, 14; Proc. Royal Irish 
Academy, vol. viii. ; Sir William Thomson on Gyrostat," Nature, 
xv. 297; G. T. Walker, "The Motion of a Celt," Quar. Jour. 
Math., 1896; G. T. Walker, Math. Ency. iv. I, xi. i; Gallop, Proc. 
Comb. Phil. Soc. xii. 82, pt. 2, 1903, " Rise of a Top "; Price's 
Infinitesimal Calculus, vol. iv. ; Worms, The Earth and its Mechanism ; 
Routh, Rigid Dynamics; A. G. Webster, Dynamics (1904); H. 
Crabtree, Spinning Tops and Gyroscopic Motion (1909). For a com- 
plete list of the mathematical works on the subject of the Gyroscope 
and Gyrostat from the outset, Professor Cayley's Report to the 
British Association (1862) on the Progress of Dynamics should be con- 
sulted. Modern authors will be found cited in Klein and Sommerfeld, 
Theorie des Kreisels (1897), and in the Encyclopddie der mathe- 
matischen Wissenschaften. (G. G.) 

GYTHIUM, the harbour and arsenal of Sparta, from which it 
was some 30 m. distant. The town lay at the N.W. extremity of 
the Laconian Gulf, in a small but fertile plain at the mouth of the 
Gythius. Its reputed founders were Heracles and Apollo, who 
frequently appear on its coins: the former of these names may 



point to the influence of Phoenician traders, who, we know, 
visited the Laconian shores at a very early period. In classical 
times it was a community of perioeci, politically dependent on 
Sparta, though doubtless with a municipal life of its own. In 
455 B.C., during the first Peloponnesian War, it was burned 
by the Athenian admiral Tolmides. In 370 B.C. Epaminondas 
besieged it unsuccessfully for three days. Its fortifications were 
strengthened by the tyrant Nabis, but in 105 B.C. it was invested 
and taken by Titus and Lucius Quintius Flamininus, and, 
though recovered by Nabis two or three years later, was re- 
captured immediately after his murder (192 B.C.) by Philopoemen 
and Aulus Atilius and remained in the Achaean League until its 
dissolution in 146 B.C. Subsequently it formed the most im- 
portant of the Eleutherolaconian towns, a group of twenty-four, 
later eighteen, communities leagued together to maintain their 
autonomy against Sparta and declared free by Augustus. The 
highest officer of the confederacy was the general (aTpaniyfa), 
who was assisted by a treasurer (raidas), while the chief 
magistrates of the several communities bore the title of ephors 



Pausanias (iii. 21 f.) has left us a description of the town as it 
existed in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the agora, the Acropolis, 
the island of Cranae (Marathonisi) where Paris celebrated his 
nuptials with Helen, the Migonium or precinct of Aphrodite 
Migonitis (occupied by the modern town of Marathonisi or 
Gythium), and the hill Larysium (Koumaro) rising above it. 
The numerous remains extant, of which the theatre and the 
buildings partially submerged by the sea are the most note- 
worthy, all belong to the Roman period. 

The modern town is a busy and flourishing port with a good 
harbour protected by Cranae, now connected by a mole with the 
mainland: it is the Capital of the prefecture (co/i6s) of AaKuvtKri 
with a population in 1907 of 61,522. 

See G. Weber, De Gytheo et Lacedaemoniorum rebus navalibus 
(Heidelberg, 1833); W. M. Leake, Travels in the Morea, i. 244 foil.; 
E. Curtius, Peloponnesps, ii. 267 foil. Inscriptions: Le Bas-Foucart, 
Voyage archeologique, ii. Nos. 238-248 f. ; Collitz-Bechtel, Sammlune 
d. griech. Dialekt-Inschriften, iii. Nos. 4562-4573; British School 
Annual, x. 179 foil. Excavations: 'A. ZKIOJ, npoxrucd TJJS 'Apx- 
'Erai/xiai, 1891, 69 foil. (M. N. T.) 

GYULA-FEHfiRVAR (Ger. Karlsburg), a town of Hungary, in 
Transylvania, in the county of Als6-Feher, 73 m. S. of Kolozsvar 
by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,507. It is situated on the right bank of 
the Maros, on the outskirts of the Transylvanian Erzgebirge or 
Ore Mountains, and consists of the upper town, or citadel, and 
the lower town. Gyula-Fehervar is the seat of a Roman Catholic 
bishop, and has a fine Roman Catholic cathedral, built in the 
nth century in Romanesque style, and rebuilt in 1443 by 
John Hunyady in Gothic style. It contains among other tombs 
that of John Hunyady. Near the cathedral is the episcopal 
palace, and in the same part of the town is the Batthyaneum, 
founded by Bishop Count Batthyany in 1794. It contains a 
valuable library with many incunabula and old manuscripts, 
amongst which is one of the Nibelungenlied, an astronomical 
observatory, a collection of antiquities, and a mineral collection. 
Gyula-Fehe'rvar carries on an active trade in cereals, wine and 
cattle. 

Gyula-Fehdrvar occupies the site of the Roman colony A pulum. 
Many Roman relics found here, and in the vicinity, are preserved 
in the museum of the town. The bishopric was founded in the 
nth century by King Ladislaus I. (1078-1095). In the i6th 
century, when Transylvania separated from Hungary, the town 
became the residence of the Transylvanian princes. From this 
period dates the castle, and also the buildings of the university, 
founded by Gabriel Bethlen, and now used as barracks. After 
the reversion of Transylvania in 1713 to the Habsburg monarchy 
the actual strong fortress was built in 1716-1735 by the emperor 
Charles VI., whence the German name of the town. 



y8o 



H HAAKON 



HThe eighth symbol in the Phoenician alphabet, as in its 
descendants, has altered less in the course of ages than 
most alphabetic symbols. From the beginning of 
Phoenician records it has consisted of two uprights 
connected by transverse bars, at first either two or three in 
number. The uprights are rarely perpendicular and the cross 
bars are not so precisely arranged as they are in early Greek and 
Latin inscriptions. In these the symbol takes the form of two 
rectangles o out f which the ordinary H develops by the 
omission of the cross bars at top and bottom. It is very excep- 
tional for this letter to have more than three cross bars, though 
as many as five are occasionally found in N.W. Greece. Within 
the same inscription the appearance of the letter often varies 
considerably as regards the space between and the length of 
the uprights. When only one bar is found it regularly crosses 
the uprights about the middle. In a few cases the rectangle 
is closed at top and bottom but has no middle cross bar D. 
The Phoenician name for the letter was Heth (Het). According 
to Semitic scholars it had two values, (i) a glottal spirant, a very 
strong h, (2) an unvoiced velar spirant like the German ch in ach. 
The Greeks borrowed it with the value of the ordinary aspirate 
and with the name ffra. Very early in their history, however, 
most of the Greeks of Asia Minor lost the aspirate altogether, 
and having then no further use for the symbol with this value 
they adopted it to represent the long e-sound, which was not 
originally distinguished by a different symbol from the short 
sound (see E). With this value its name has always been ijra 
in Greek. The alphabet of the Asiatic Greeks was gradually 
adopted elsewhere. In official documents at Athens H repre- 
sented the rough breathing or aspirate ' till 403 B.C.; henceforth 
it was used for 77. The Western Greeks, however, from whom the 
Romans obtained their alphabet, retained their aspirate longer 
than those of Asia Minor, and hence the symbol came to the 
Romans with the value not of a long vowel but of the aspirate, 
which it still preserves. The Greek aspirate was itself the first 
or left-hand half of this letter H , while the smooth breathing ' 
was the right-hand portion -I. At Tarentura H is found for 
H in inscriptions. The Roman aspirate was, however, a very 
slight sound which in some words where it was etymologically 
correct disappeared at an early date. Thus the cognate words 
of kindred languages show that the Lat. anser " goose " ought 
to begin with h, but nowhere is it so found. In none of the 
Romance languages is there any trace of initial or medial h, 
which shows that vulgar Latin had ceased to have the aspirate 
by 240 B.C. The Roman grammarians were guided to its 
presence by the Sabine forms where/ occurred; as the Sabines 
said fasena (sand), it was recognised that the Roman form ought 
to be harena, and so for haedus (goat), hordeum (barley), &c. 
Between vowels h was lost very early, for ne-hemo (no man) is 
throughout the literature nemo, bi-himus (two winters old) 
bimus. In the Ciceronian age greater attention was paid to 
reproducing the Greek aspirates in borrowed words, and this 
led to absurd mistakes in Latin words, mistakes which were 
satirized by Catullus in his epigram (84) upon Arrius, who said 
chommoda for commoda and hinsidias for insidias. In Umbrian 
h was often lost, and also used without etymological value to 
mark length, as in comohota ( = Lat. commola), a practice to 
which there are some doubtful parallels in Latin. 

In English the history of h is very similar to that in Latin. 
While the parts above the glottis are in position to produce a 
vowel, an aspirate is produced without vibration of the vocal 
.chords, sometimes, like the pronunciation of Arrius, with con- 
siderable effort as a reaction against the tendency to " drop the 
h's." Though h survives in Scotland, Ireland and America as 
well as in the speech of cultivated persons, the sound in most of 
the vulgar dialects is entirely lost. Where it is not ordinarily 
lost, it disappears in unaccented syllables, as " Give it 'im " and 
the like. Where it is lost, conscious attempts to restore it on 



the part of uneducated speakers lead to absurd misplacements 
of h and to its restoration in Romance words when it never was 
pronounced, as humble (now recognized as standard English), 
humour and even honour. (P. Gi.) 

HAAG, CARL (1820- ), a naturalized British painter, 
court painter to the duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was born 
in Bavaria, and was trained in the academies at Nuremburg 
and Munich. He practised first as an illustrator and as a painter, 
in oil, of portraits and architectural subjects; but after he 
settled in England, in 1847, he devoted himself to water colours, 
and was elected associate of the Royal Society of Painters in 
Water Colours in 1850 and member in 1853. He travelled 
much, especially in the East, and made a considerable reputation 
by his firmly drawn and carefully elaborated paintings of 
Eastern subjects. Towards the end of his professional career 
Carl Haag quitted England and returned to Germany. 

See A History of the " Old Water-Colour " Society, now the Royal 
Society of Painters in Water Colours, by John Lewis Roget (2 vols., 
London, 1891). 

HAAKON (Old Norse Hdkon), the name of several kings of 
Norway, of whom the most important are the following: 

HAAKON I., surnamed " the Good " (d. 961), was the youngest 
son of Harald Haarfager. He was fostered by King Aethelstan 
of England, who brought him up in the Christian religion, and on 
the news of his father's death in 933 provided him with ships and 
men for an expedition against his half-brother Erik, who had 
been proclaimed king. On his arrival in Norway Haakon gained 
the support of the landowners by promising to give up the rights 
of taxation claimed by his father over inherited real property. 
Erik fled, and was killed a few years later in England. His sons 
allied themselves with the Danes, but were invariably defeated 
by Haakon, who was successful in everything he undertook 
except in his attempt to introduce Christianity, which aroused 
an opposition he did not feel strong enough to face. He was 
killed at the battle of Fitje in 961, after a final victory over 
Erik's sons. So entirely did even his immediate circle ignore his 
religion that a court skald composed a poem on his death repre- 
senting his welcome by the heathen gods into Valhalla. 

HAAKON IV., surnamed " the Old " (1204-1263), was declared 
to be the son of Haakon III., who died shortly before the former's 
birth in 1204. A year later the child was placed under the 
protection of King Inge, after whose death in 1217 he was chosen 
king; though until 1223 the church refused to recognize him, 
on the ground of illegitimacy, and the Pope's dispensation for 
his coronation was not gained until much later. In the earlier 
part of his reign much of the royal power was in the hands of 
Earl Skule, who intrigued against the king until 1239, when he 
proceeded to open hostility and was put to death. From this 
time onward Haakon's reign was marked by more peace and 
prosperity than Norway had known for many years, until in 
1263 a dispute with the Scottish king concerning the Hebrides, 
a Norwegian possession, induced Haakon to undertake an 
expedition to the west of Scotland. A division of his army 
seems to have repulsed a large Scottish force at Largs (though 
the later Scottish accounts claim this battle as a victory), and, 
having won back the Norwegian possessions in Scotland, Haakon 
was wintering in the Orkneys, when he was taken ill and died 
on the isth of December 1263. A great part of his fleet had been 
scattered and destroyed by storms. The most important event 
in his reign was the voluntary submission of the Icelandic 
commonwealth. Worn out by internal strife fostered by 
Haakon's emissaries, the Icelandic chiefs acknowledged the 
Norwegian king as overlord in 1 262. Their example was followed 
by the colony of Greenland. 

HAAKON VII. (1872- ), the second son of Frederick VIII., 
king of Denmark, was born on the 3rd of August 1872, and was 
usually known as Prince Charles of Denmark. When in 1905 
Norway decided to separate herself from Sweden the Norwegians 



HAARLEM HAARLEM LAKE 



781 



offered their crown to Charles, who accepted it and took the name 
of Haakon VII., being crowned at Trondhjem in June 1906. 
The king married Maud, youngest daughter of Edward VII., 
king of Great Britain, their son, Prince Olav, being born in 1903. 
HAARLEM, a town of Holland in the province of North 
Holland, on the Spaarne, having a junction station 1 1 m. by 
rail W. of Amsterdam. It is connected by electric and steam 
tramways with Zandvoort, Leiden, Amsterdam and Alkmaar. 
Pop. (1900) 65,189. Haarlem is the seat of the governor of the 
province of North Holland, and of a Roman Catholic and a 
Jansenist bishopric. In appearance it is a typical Dutch town, 
with numerous narrow canals and quaintly gabled houses. Of 
the ancient city gates the Spaarnewouder or Amsterdam gate 
alone remains. Gardens and promenades have taken the place 
of the old ramparts, and on the south the city is bounded by the 
Frederiks and the Flora parks, between which runs the fine 
avenue called the Dreef, leading to the Haarlemmer Hout or 
wood. In the Frederiks Park is a pump-room supplied with 
a powerful chalybeate water from a spring, the Wilhelmina- 
bron, in the Haarlemmer Polder not far distant, and in connexion 
with this there is an orthopaedic institution adjoining. In the 
great market place in the centre of the city are gathered together 
the larger number of the most interesting buildings, including 
the quaint old Fleshers' Hall, built by Lieven de Key in 1603, 
and now containing the archives; the town hall; the old 
Stadsdoelen, where the burgesses met in arms; the Groote Kerk, 
or Great Church; and the statue erected in 1856 to Laurenz 
Janszoon Koster, the printer. The Great Church, dedicated to 
St Bavo, with a lofty tower (255 ft.), is one of the most famous 
in Holland, and dates from the end of the isth and the beginning 
of the i6th centuries. Its great length (460 ft.) and the height 
and steepness of its vaulted cedar- wood roof (1538) are very 
impressive. The choir-stalls and screen (1510) are finely carved, 
and of further interest are the ancient pulpit sounding-board 
(1432), some old stained glass, and the small models of ships, 
copies dating from 1638 of yet earlier models originally presented 
by the Dutch-Swedish Trading Company. T.he church organ 
was long considered the largest and finest in existence. It was 
constructed by Christian Muller in 1738, and has 4 keyboards, 
64 registers and 5000 pipes, the largest of which is 15 in. in 
diameter and 32 ft. long. Among the monuments in the church 
are those of the poet Willem Bilderdyk (d. 1831) and the engineer 
Frederik Willem Conrad (d. 1808), who designed the sea-sluices 
at Katwyk. In the belfry are the damiaatjes, small bells pre- 
sented to the town, according to tradition, by William I., count 
of Holland (d. 1222), the crusader. The town hall was originally 
a palace of the counts of Holland, begun in the i2th century, 
and some old 13th-century beams still remain; but the building 
was remodelled in the beginning of the 1 7th century. It contains 
a collection of antiquities (including some beautiful goblets) 
and a picture gallery which, though small, is celebrated for its 
fine collection of paintings by Frans Hals. The town library 
contains several incunabula and an interesting collection of early 
Dutch literature. At the head of the scientific institutions of 
Haarlem may be placed the Dutch Society of Sciences (Hol- 
landsche Maatschappij van Wetenschappen), founded in 1752, 
which possesses valuable collections in botany, natural history 
and geology. Teyler's Stichting (i.e. foundation), enlarged in 
modern times, was instituted by the will of Pieter Teyler van 
derHulst (d. 1778), a wealthy merchant, for the study of theology, 
natural science and art, and has lecture-theatres, a large library, 
and a museum containing a physical and a geological cabinet, as 
well as a collection of paintings, including many modern pictures, 
and a valuable collection of drawings and engravings by old 
masters. The Dutch Society for the Promotion of Industry 
(Nederlaandsche Maatschappij ter Bevordering van Nijverheid), 
founded in 1777, has its seat in the Pavilion Welgelegen, a villa 
on the south side of the Frederiks Park, built by the Amsterdam 
banker John Hope in 1778, and afterwards acquired by Louis 
Bonaparte, king of Holland. The colonial museum and the 
museum of industrial art were established in this villa by the 
society in 1871 and 1877 respectively. Besides these there 



are a museum of ecclesiastical antiquities, chiefly relating to 
the bishopric of Haarlem ; the old weigh-house (1598) and the 
orphanage for girls (1608), originally an almshouse for old men, 
both built by the architect Lieven de Key of Ghent. 

The staple industries of Haarlem have been greatly modified 
in the course of time. Cloth weaving and brewing, which once 
flourished exceedingly, declined in the beginning of the i6th 
century. A century later, silk, lace and damask weaving were 
introduced by French refugees, and became very important 
industries. But about the close of the i8th century this remark- 
able prosperity had also come to an end, and it was not till after 
the Belgian revolution of 1830-1831 that Haarlem began to 
develop the manufactures in which it is now chiefly engaged. 
Cotton manufacture, dyeing, printing, bleaching, brewing, 
type-founding, and the manufacture of tram and railway carriages 
are among the more important of its industries. One of the 
printing establishments has the reputation of being the oldest 
in the Netherlands, and publishes the oldest Dutch paper, De 
Opragte Haarlemmer Courant. Market-gardening, especially 
horticulture, is extensively practised in the vicinity, so that 
Haarlem is the seat of a large trade in Dutch bulbs, especially 
hyacinths, tulips, fritillaries, spiraeas and japonicas. 

Haarlem, which was a prosperous place in the middle of the 
1 2th century, received its first town charter from William II., 
count of Holland and king of the Romans, in 1245. It played 
a considerable part in the wars of Holland with the Frisians. 
In 1492 it was captured by the insurgent peasants of North 
Holland, was re-taken by the duke of Saxony, the imperial 
stadholder, and deprived of its privileges. In 1572 Haarlem 
joined the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain, but on the 
I3th of July 1573, after a seven months' siege, was forced to 
surrender to Alva's son Frederick, who exacted terrible vengeance. 
In 1577 it was again captured by William of Orange and perman- 
ently incorporated in the United Netherlands. 

See Karl Hegel, Stadte und Gilden (Leipzig, 1891) ; Allan, Geschie- 
denis en beschrijving van Haarlem (Haarlem, 1871-1888). 

HAARLEM LAKE (Dutch Harlemmer Meer), a commune of 
the province of North Holland, constituted by the law of the 
i6th of July 1855. It has an area of about 46,000 acres, and 
its population increased from 7237 in 1860 to 16,621 in 1900. 
As its name indicates, the commune was formerly a lake, which 
is said to have been a relic of a northern arm of the Rhine which 
passed through the district in the time of the Romans. In 1531 
the Haarlemmer Meer had an area of 6430 acres, and in its 
vicinity were three smaller sheets of water the Leidsche Meer 
or Leiden Lake, the Spiering Meer, and the Oude Meer or Old 
Lake, with a united area of about 7600 acres. The four lakes 
were formed into one by successive inundations, whole villages 
disappearing in the process, and by 1647 the new Haarlem Lake 
had an area of about 37,000 acres, which a century later had 
increased to over 42,000 acres. As early as 1643 J an Adriaans- 
zoon Leegh water proposed to endike and drain the lake; and 
similar schemes, among which those of Nikolaas Samuel Cruquius 
in 1742 and of Baron van Lijnden van Hemmen in 1820 are 
worthy of special mention, were brought forward from time to 
time. But it was not till a furious hurricane in November 1836 
drove the waters as far as the gates of Amsterdam, and another 
on Christmas Day sent them in the opposite direction to sub- 
merge the streets of Leiden, that the mind of the nation was 
seriously turned to the matter. In August 1837 the king ap- 
pointed a royal commission of inquiry; the scheme proposed 
by the commission received the sanction of the Second Chamber 
in March 1839, and in the following May the work was begun. 
A canal was first dug round the lake for the reception of the water 
and the accommodation of the great traffic which had previously 
been carried on. This canal was 38 m. in length, 123-146 ft. 
wide, and 8 ft. deep, and the earth which was taken out of it 
was used to build a dike from 30 to 54 yds. broad containing 
the lake. The area enclosed by the canal was rather more than 
70 sq. m., and the average depth of the lake 13 ft. ij in., and as 
the water had no natural outfall it was calculated that probably 
1000 million tons would have to be raised by mechanical means. 



7 8 2 



HAASE, F. HABAKKUK 



This amount was 200 million tons in excess of that actually 
discharged. Pumping by steam-engines began in 1848, and the 
lake was dry by the ist of July 1852. At the first sale of the 
highest lands along the banks on the i6th of August 1853, about 
28 per acre was 'paid; but the average price afterwards was 
less. The whole area of 42,096 acres recovered from the waters 
brought in 9,400,000 florins, or about 780,000, exactly covering 
the cost of the enterprise; so that the actual cost to the nation 
was only the amount of the interest on the capital, or about 
368,000. The soil is of various kinds, loam, clay, sand and 
peat; most of it is sufficiently fertile, though in the lower 
portions there are barren patches where the scanty vegetation 
is covered with an ochreous deposit. Mineral springs occur 
containing a very high percentage (3-245 grams per litre) of 
common salt; and in 1893 a company was formed for working 
them. Corn, seeds, cattle, butter and cheese are the principal 
produce. The roads which traverse the commune are bordered 
by pleasant-looking farm-houses built after the various styles 
of Holland, Friesland or Brabant. Hoofddorp, Venneperdorp 
or Nieuw Vennep, Abbenes and the vicinities of the pumping- 
stations are the spots where the population has clustered most 
thickly. The first church was built in 1855; in 1877 there were 
seven. In 1854 the city of Leiden laid claim to the possession of 
the new territory, but the courts decided in favour of the nation. 

HAASE, FRIEDRICH (1827- ), German actor, was born on 
the ist of November 1827, in Berlin, the son of a valet to King 
Frederick William IV., who became his godfather. He was 
educated for the stage under Ludwig Tieck and made his first 
appearance in 1846 in Weimar, afterwards acting at Prague 
(1840-1851) and Karlsruhe (1852-1855). From 1860 to 1866 
he played in St Petersburg, then was manager of the court 
theatre in Coburg, and in 1869 (and again in 1882-1883) visited 
the United States. He was manager of the Stadt Theater in 
Leipzig from 1870 to 1876, when he removed to Berlin, where he 
devoted his energies to the foundation and management of the 
Deutsches Theater. He finally retired from the stage in 1898. 
Haase's aristocratic appearance and elegant manner fitted him 
specially to play high comedy parts. His chief r61es were those 
of Rocheferrier in the Partie Piquet', Richelieu; Savigny in 
Derfeiner Diplomat, and der Fiirst in Der geheime Agent. He 
is the author of Ungeschminkle Briefe and Was ich erlebte 1846- 
1898 (Berlin, 1898). 

See Simon, Friedrich Haase (Berlin, 1898). 

HAASE, FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB (1808-1867), German 
classical scholar, was born at Magdeburg on the 4th of January 
1808. Having studied at Halle, Greifswald and Berlin, he 
obtained in 1834 an appointment at Schulpforta, from which 
he was suspended and sentenced to six years' imprisonment for 
identifying himself with the Burschenschaften (students' associa- 
tions). Having been released after serving one year of his 
sentence, he visited Paris, and on his return in 1840 he was 
appointed professor at Breslau, where he remained till his 
death on the i6th of August 1867. He was undoubtedly 
one of the most successful teachers of his day in Germany, and 
exercised great influence upon all his pupils. 

He edited several classic authors: Xenophon (AaKeSaifiovluv 
voXiTda, 1833); Thucydides (1840); Velleius Paterculus (1858); 
Seneca the philosopher (and ed., 1872, not yet superseded); and 
Tacitus (1855), the introduction to which is a masterpiece of Latinity. 
His Vorlesungen uber lateinische Sprachwissenschaft was published 
after his death by F. A. Eckstein and H. Peter (1874-1880). See 
C. Bursian, Geschichte der klassischenPhilologieinDeutschland (1883) ; 
G. Fickert, Friderici Haasii memoria (1868), with a list of works; 
T. Oelsner in Rubezahl (Schlesische Pravinzialblattcr), vii. Heft 3 
(Breslau, 1868). 

HAAST, SIR JOHANN FRANZ JULIUS VON (1824-1887), 
German, and British geologist, was born at Bonn on the ist of 
May 1824. He received his early education partly in that town 
and partly in Cologne, and then entered the university at Bonn, 
where he made a special study of geology and mineralogy. In 
1858 he started for New Zealand to report on the suitability 
of the colony for German emigrants. He then became acquainted 
with Dr von Hochstetter, and rendered assistance to him in the 
preliminary geological survey which von Hochstetter had under- 



taken. Afterwards Dr Haast accepted offers from the govern- 
ments of Nelson and Canterbury to investigate the geology of 
those districts, and the results of his detailed labours greatly 
enriched our knowledge with regard to the rocky structure, 
the glacial phenomena and the economic products. He dis- 
covered gold and coal in Nelson, and he carried on important 
researches with reference to the occurrence of Dinornis and other 
extinct wingless birds (Moas). His Geology of the Provinces of 
Canterbury and Westland, N.Z., was published in 1879. He 
was the founder of the Canterbury museum at Christchurch, 
of which he became director, and which he endeavoured to 
render the finest collection in the southern hemisphere. He 
was surveyor-general of Canterbury from 1861 to 1871, and 
professor of geology at Canterbury College. He was elected 
F.R.S. in 1867; and he was knighted for his services at the 
time of the colonial exhibition in London in 1887. He died at 
Wellington, N.Z., on the isth of August 1887. 

HABABS (Az-HiBBEHs), a nomadic pastoral people of Hamitic 
stock, living in the coast region north-west of Massawa. Physic- 
ally they are Beja, by language and traditions Abyssinians. 
They were Christians until the I9th century, but are now 
Mahommedans. Their sole wealth consists in cattle. 

HABAKKUK, the name borne by the eighth book of the Old 
Testament " Minor Prophets." It occurs twice in the book 
itself (i. i, iii. i) in titles, but nowhere else in the Old Testament. 
The meaning of the name is uncertain. If Hebrew, it might be 
derived from the root pan (to embrace) as an intensive term 
of affection. It has also been connected more plausibly with 
an Assyrian plant name, ftambakulfu (Delitzsch, Assyrisches 
Handworterbuch, p. 281). The Septuagint has 'A/i/3aw>i>/i. Of 
the person designated, no more is known than may be inferred 
from the writing which bears his name. Various legends are 
connected with him, of which the best known is given in the 
Apocryphal story of "Bel and the Dragon" (v. 33-39); but 
none of these has any historic value. 1 

The book itself falls into three obvious parts, viz. (i) a dialogue 
between the prophet and God (i. 2-ii. 4); (2). a series of five 
woes pronounced on wickedness (ii. 5-ii. 20); (3) a poem 
describing the triumphant manifestation of God (iii.). There is 
considerable difficulty in regard to the interpretation of (i), on 
which that of (2) will turn; while (3) forms an independent 
section, to be considered separately. 

In the dialogue, the prophet cries to God against continued 
violence and injustice, though it is not clear whether this is done 
within or to Israel (i. 2-4). The divine answer declares that God 
raises up the Chaldaeans, whose formidable resources are invincible 
(i. 5-11). The prophet thereupon calls God's attention to the 
tyranny which He apparently allows to triumph, and declares 
his purpose to wait till an answer is given to his complaint 
(i. 1 2-ii. 2). God answers by demanding patience, and by 
declaring that the righteous shall live by his faithfulness (ii. 3-4). 

The interpretation of this dialogue which first suggests itself 
is that the prophet is referring to wickedness within the nation, 
which is to be punished by the Chaldaeans as a divine instrument; 
in the process, the tyranny of the instrument itself calls for 
punishment, which the prophet is bidden to await in patient 
fidelity. On this view of the dialogue, the subsequent woes will 
be pronounced against the Chaldaeans, and the date assigned to 
the prophecy will be about 600 B.C., i.e. soon after the battle of 
Carchemish (605 B.C.), when the Chaldaean victory over Egypt 
inaugurated a period of Chaldaean supremacy which lasted till 
the Chaldaeans themselves were overthrown by Cyrus in 538 B.C. 
Grave objections, however, confront this interpretation, as is 
admitted even by such recent defenders of it as Davidson and 
Driver. Is it likely that a prophet would begin a complaint 
against Chaldaean tyranny (admittedly central in the prophecy) 
by complaining of that wickedness of his fellow-countrymen which 
seems partly to justify it? Are not the terms of reference in 

1 These legends are collected in Hastings, D. B. vol. ii. p. 272. 
He is the watchman of Is. xxi. 6 (cf. Hab. ii. i); the son of the 
Shunammite (2 Kings iv. 16); and is miraculously lifted by his hair 
to carry his own dinner to Daniel in the lions' den (supra). 



HABAKKUK 



783 



i. 2 f. and i. 12 f. too similar for the supposition that two 
distinct, even contradictory, complaints are being made (cf. 
" wicked " and " righteous " in i. 4 and i. 13, interchanged 
in regard to Israel, on above theory)? And if i. 5-11 is a genuine 
prophecy of the raising up of the Chaldaeans, whence comes that 
long experience of their rule required to explain the detailed 
denunciation of their tyranny? To meet the last objection, 
Davidson supposes i. 5-11 to be really a reference to the past, 
prophetic in form only, and brings down the whole section to a 
later period of Chaldaean rule, " hardly, one would think, before 
the deportation of the people under Jehoiachin in 597 " (p. 49). 
Driver prefers to bisect the dialogue by supposing i. 2-11 to 
be written at an earlier period than i. 12 f. (p. 57). The other 
objections, however, remain, and have provoked a variety of 
theories from Old Testament scholars, of which three call for 
special notice. (i)The first of these, represented by Giesebrecht, 1 
Nowack and Wellhausen, refers i. 2-4 to Chaldaean oppression of 
Israel, the same subject being continued in i. 12 f. Obviously, 
the reference to the Chaldaeans as a divine instrument could not 
then stand in its present place, and it is accordingly regarded as 
a misplaced earlier prophecy. This is the minimum of critical 
procedure required to do justice to the facts. (2) Budde, followed 
by Cornill, also regards i. 2-4 as referring to the oppression of 
Israel by a foreign tyrant, whom, however, he holds to be Assyria. 
He also removes i. 5-11 from its present place, but makes it 
part of the divine answer, following ii. 4. On this view, the 
Chaldaeans are the divine instrument for punishing the tyranny 
of the Assyrians, to whom the following woes will therefore refer. 
The date would fall between Josiah's reformation (621) and his 
death (609). This is a plausible and even attractive theory; 
its weakness seems to lie in the absence of any positive evidence 
in the prophecy itself, as is illustrated by the fact that even 
G. A. Smith, who follows it, suggests " Egypt from 608-605 " 
as an alternative to Assyria (p. 124). (3) Marti (1904) abandons 
the attempt to explain the prophecy as a unity, and analyses 
it into three elements, viz. (a) The original prophecy by 
Habakkuk, consisting of i. 5-!, 14 f., belonging to the year 605, 
and representing the emergent power of the Chaldaeans as a 
divine scourge of the faithless people; (b) Woes against the 
Chaldaeans, presupposing not only tyrannous rule over many 
peoples, but the beginning of their decline and fall, and therefore 
of date about 540 B.C. (ii. 5-19); (c) A psalm of post-exilic origin, 
whose fragments, i. 2-4, 12 a, 13, ii. 1-4, have been incorporated 
into the present text from the margins on which they were 
written, its subject being the suffering of the righteous. Each 
of these three theories 2 encounters difficulties of detail; none 
can be said to have secured a dominant position. The great 
variety of views amongst competent critics is significant of the 
difficulty of the problem, which can hardly be regarded as yet 
solved; this divergence of opinion perhaps points to the im- 
possibility of maintaining the unity of chs. i. and ii., and throws 
the balance of probability towards some such analysis as that 
of Marti, which is therefore accepted in the present article. 

In regard to the poem which forms the third and closing 
chapter of the present book of Habakkuk, there is much more 
general agreement. Its most striking characteristic lies in 
the superscription (" A prayer of Habakkuk the prophet, set 
to Shigionoth "), the subscription (" For the chief musician, on 
my stringed instruments "), and the insertion of the musical 
term " Selah " in three places (v. 3, 9, 13). These liturgical 
notes make extremely probable the supposition that the poem 
has been taken from some collection like that of our present 
book of Psalms, probably on the ground of the authorship 
asserted by the superscription there attached to it. It cannot, 
however, be said that the poem itself supports this assertion, 

1 Followed by Peake in The Problem of Suffering, pp. 4 f., 151 f., 
to whose appendix (A) reference may be made for further details 
of recent criticism. 



and 

332. Stevenson ( The Expositor, 1902) 
for those who regard ch. i. as a unity, 
sections, 2-4 + 12-13, and 5-11+14-17. 



clearly 
He sees two independent 



which carries no more intrinsic weight than the Davidic titles 
of the Psalms. The poem begins with a prayer that God will 
renew the historic manifestation of the exodus, which inaugurated 
the national history and faith; a thunderstorm moving up from 
the south is then described, in which God is revealed (3-7); 
it is asked whether this manifestation, whose course is further 
described, is against nature only (8-n); the answer is given that 
it is for the salvation of Israel against its wicked foes (12-15); 
the poet describes the effect in terror upon himself (16) and 
declares his confidence in God, even in utter agricultural adversity 
(17-19). As Wellhausen says (p. 171): "The poet appears to 
believe that in the very act of describing enthusiastically the 
ancient deed of deliverance, he brings home to us the new; we 
are left sometimes in doubt whether he speaks of the past to 
suggest the new by analogy, or whether he is concerned directly 
with the future, and simply paints it with the colours of the past." 
In any case, there is nothing in this fine poem to connect it with 
the conception of the Chaldaeans as a divine instrument. It is the 
nation that speaks through the poet (cf. v. 14), but at what 
period of its post-exilic history we have no means of inferring. 

Our estimate of the theological teaching of this book will 
naturally be influenced by the particular critical theory which 
is adopted. The reduction of the book to four originally inde- 
pendent sections requires that the point of each be stated 
separately. When this is done, it will, however, be found that 
there is a broad unity of subject, and of natural development 
in its treatment, such as to some extent justifies the instinct or 
the judgment of those who were instrumental in effecting the 
combination of the separate parts, (i) The poem (iii.), though 
possibly latest in date, 3 claims first consideration, because it 
avowedly moves in the circle of primitive ideas, and supplicates 
a divine intervention, a direct and immediate manifestation 
of the transcendent God. He is conceived as controlling or 
overcoming the forces of nature; and though an earlier 
mythology has supplied some of the ideas, yet, as with the 
opening chapters of Genesis, they are transfigured by the moral 
purpose which animates them, the purpose to subdue all things 
that could frustrate the destiny of God's anointed (v. 13). The 
closing verses strike that deep note of absolute dependence on 
God, which is the glory of the religion of the Old Testament 
and its chief contribution to the spirit of the Gospels. (2) The 
prophecy of the Chaldaeans as the instruments of the divine 
purpose involves a different, yet related, conception of the divine 
providence. The philosophy of history, by which Hebrew 
prophets could read a deep moral significance ' into national 
disaster and turn the flank of resistless attack, became one of 
the most important elements in the nation's faith. If the world- 
powers were hard as flint in their dealings with Israel, the people 
of God were steeled to such moral endurance that each clash of 
their successive onsets kindled some new flame of devotion. 
Through the Chaldaeans God worked a work which required 
centuries of life and literature to disclose its fulness (i. 5). (3) 
When we turn from this view of the Chaldaeans to the denuncia- 
tion of their tyranny in " taunt songs " (ii. 5-20), we have simply 
a practical application of the doctrine of divine government. 
God being what He is, at once moral and all-powerful, the 
immoral life is doomed to overthrow, whether the immorality 
consist in grasping rapacity, proud self-aggrandizement, cruel 
exaction, exulting triumph or senseless idolatry. (4) Yet, 
because the doom so often tarries, there arises the problem of 
the suffering of the innocent and the upright. How can God 
look down with tolerance that seems favour on so much that 
conflicts with His declared will and character ? This is the great 
problem of Israel, finding its supreme expression for all time in 
the book of Job (q.v.). In that book the solution of the problem 
of innocent suffering lies hidden from the sufferer, even to the 
end, for he is not admitted with the reader to the secret of the 
prologue; it is the practical solution of faithfulness resting on 
faith which is offered to us. So here, with the principle of ii. 4, 
" the righteous shall live by his faithfulness." The different 
application of these words in the New Testament to " faith " 

Earlier, however, than Ps. Ixxvii. 17-20, which is drawn from it. 



7 8 4 



HABDALA HABEAS CORPUS 



is well known (Rom. i. 17; Gal. iii. n; Heb. x. 38) though the 
difference is apt to be exaggerated by those who forget how much 
of the element of *)*$: lies in Paul's conception of v'urrn. 
In G. A. Smith's words, " as Paul's adaptation, ' the just shall 
live by faith,' has become the motto of evangelical Christianity, 
so we may say that Habakkuk's original of it has been the motto 
and the fame of Judaism: ' the righteous shall live by his 
faithfulness.' " 

The Hebrew text of this impressive and varied book is unfor- 
tunately corrupt in many places; even so cautious a critic as Driver 
accepts or favourably notices eighteen textual emendations in the 
three chapters, and suspects the text in at least seven other cases. 
For the interpretation of the book in detail, the English reader will 
find Driver's commentary (1906) the most useful. 

References to earlier literature will be found in the following note- 
worthy studies of recent date: Davidson, " Nahum, Habakkuk 
and Zephaniah," in Cambridge Bible (1896); Nowack, Die kleinen 
Propheten (Hdkr.) (1897) ; Wellhausen, Die kleinen Propheten 3 
(1898); G. A. Smith, "The Book of the Twelve Prophets," in 
The Expositor's Bible, vol. ii. (1898) ; Driver, article " Habakkuk " 
in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, vol. ii. pp. 269-272 (1900); 
Budde, article " Habakkuk " in Ency. Biblica, vol. ii., c. 1921-1928 
(1901); Stevenson, "The Interpretation of Habakkuk," in The 
Expositor (1902), pp. 388-401; Peake, The Problem of Suffering in 
the Old Testament (1904), pp. 4-11 and app. A, " Recent Criticism of 
Habakkuk"; Marti, Dodekapropheton (K. H. C.) (1904); Driver, 
" Minor Prophets," vol. ii., in Century Bible (1906); Duhm, Das 
Buck Habakkuk (Text, Ubersetzung und Erklarung), 1906 (regards 
the book as a unity belonging to the time of Alexander the Great). 
Max L. Margolis discusses the anonymous Greek version of Habakku k 
iii. in a volume of Old Test, and Semitic Studies: in Memory of 
William Rainey Harper (Chicago, 1908). (H. W. R.*) 

HABDALA (lit. " separation "), a Hebrew term chiefly 
appropriated to ceremonies at the conclusion of Sabbath and 
festivals, marking the separation between times sacred and 
secular. On the Saturday night the ceremony consists of three 
items: (a) benediction over a cup of wine (common to many 
other Jewish functions); (&) benediction over a lighted taper, 
of which possibly the origin is utilitarian, as no light might be 
kindled on the Sabbath day, but the rite may be symbolical; 
and (c) benediction over a box of sweet-smelling spices. The 
origin of the latter has been traced to the bowl of burning spice 
which in Talmudic times was introduced after each meal. But 
here too symbolic ideas must be taken into account. Both the 
light and the spices would readily fit into the conception of the 
Sabbath " Over-soul " of the mystics. (I. A.) 

HABEAS CORPUS, in English law, a writ issued out of the 
High Court of Justice commanding the person to whom it is 
directed to bring the body of a person in his custody before that 
or some other court for a specified purpose. 

There are various forms of the writ, of which the most famous 
is that known as habeas corpus ad subjiciendum, the well-estab- 
lished remedy for violation of personal liberty. From the earliest 
records of the English law no free man could be detained in 
custody except on a criminal charge or conviction or for a civil 
debt. That right is expressed in the Great Charter in the 
words: " Nullus liber homo capiatur vel imprisonetur aut 
dissaisietur aut utlagetur, aut exuletur aut aliquo modo destruatur 
nee super eum ibimus nee super eum miltemus, nisi per legate 
judicium parium suorum, tiel per legem lerrae." 1 The writ is a 
remedial mandatory writ of right existing by the common law, 
i.e. it is one of the extraordinary remedies such as mandamus, 
certiorari and prohibitions, which the superior courts may grant. 
While " of right," it is not " of course," and is granted only on 
application to the High Court or a judge thereof, supported by a 
sworn statement of facts setting up at least a probable case of 
illegal confinement. It is addressed to the person in whose 
custody another is detained, and commands him to bring his 
prisoner before the court immediately after the receipt of 
the writ, together with the day and cause of his being taken and 
detained, to undergo and receive (ad subjiciendum et recipiendum) 
whatsoever the court awarding the writ " may consider of 
concerning him in that behalf." 

It is often stated that the writ is founded on the article of 
the Great Charter already quoted; but there are extant instances 
1 See Hallam, Const. Hist. vol. i., c. vii. (l2th ed.) p. 384. 



of the issue of writs of habeas corpus before the charter. Other 
writs having somewhat similar effect were in use at an early 
date, e.g. the writ de odio et atid, used as early as the izth century 
to prevent imprisonment on vexatious appeals of felony, and the 
writ of mainprise (de manucaptione),long obsolete if not abolished 
in England but which it was attempted to use in India so late 
as 1870. In the case of imprisonment on accusation of crime the 
writ issued from the court of king's bench (or from the chancery), 
and on its return the court judged of the legality of the imprison- 
ment, and discharged the prisoner or admitted him to bail or 
remanded him to his former custody according to the result of 
the examination. 

By the time of Charles I. the writ was fully established as the 
appropriate process for checking illegal imprisonment by inferior 
courts or by public officials. But it acquired its full and present 
constitutional importance by legislation. 

In Darnel's case (1627) the judges held that the command 
of the king was a sufficient answer to a writ of habeas corpus. 
The House of Commons thereupon passed resolutions to the 
contrary, and after a conference with the House of Lords the 
measure known as the Petition of Right was passed (1627,3 Car. I. 
c. i.) which, inter alia, recited (s. 5) that, contrary to the Great 
Charter and the good laws and statutes of the realm, divers of 
the king's subjects had of late been imprisoned without any 
cause shown, and when they were brought up on habeas corpus ad 
subjiciendum, and no cause was shown other than the special 
command of the king signified by the privy council, were never- 
theless remanded to prison, and enacted " that no freeman in 
any such manner as is before mentioned be imprisoned or 
detained." The Petition of Right was disregarded in Selden's 
case (1629), when it was successfully returned to a habeas corpus 
that Selden and others were committed by the king's special 
command " for notable contempts against the king and his 
government and for stirring up sedition against him." 2 This 
led to legislation in 1640 by which, after abolishing the Star 
Chamber, the right to a habeas corpus was given to test the 
legality of commitments by command or warrant of the king or 
the privy council. 3 

The reign of Charles II. was marked by further progress 
towards securing the freedom of the subject from wrongful 
imprisonment. Lord Clarendon was impeached, inter alia, 
for causing many persons to be imprisoned against law and to 
be conveyed in custody to places outside England. In 1668 
a writ of habeas corpus was issued to test the legality of an 
imprisonment in Jersey. Though the authority of the courts 
had been strengthened by the Petition of Right and the act of 
1640, it was still rendered insufficient by reason of the insecurity 
of judicial tenure, the fact that only the chancellor (a political 
as well as a legal officer) and the court of king's bench had 
undoubted right to issue the writ, and the inability or hesitation 
of the competent judges to issue the writ except during the legal 
term, which did not cover more than half the year. A series of 
bills was passed through the Commons between 1668 and 1675, 
only to be rejected by the other House. In Jenkes's case (1676) 
Lord Chancellor Nottingham refused to issue the writ in vacation 
in a case in which a man had been committed by the king in 
council for a speech at Guildhall, and could get neither bail nor 
trial. In 1679, but rather in consequence of Lord Clarendon's 
arbitrary proceedings 4 than of Jenkes's case, a fresh bill was 
introduced which passed both Houses (it is said the upper House 
by the counting of one stout peer as ten) and became the famous 
Habeas Corpus Act of 1679 (31 Car. II. c. 2). The passing of 
the act was largely due to the experience and energy of Lord 
Shaftesbury, after whom it was for some time called. The act, 
while a most important landmark in the constitutional history 
of England, in no sense creates any right to personal freedom, 
but is essentially a procedure act for improving the legal mechan- 
ism by means of which that acknowledged right may be enforced. 6 

2 Hallam, Const. Hist. vol. ii., c. viii. (i2th ed.) p. 2. 

' Ibid. c. ix. (I2th ed.) p. 98. 

4 Ibid. vol. iii., c. xiii. (l2th ed.) p. 12. 

' Dicey, Law of the Constitution (6th ed.), p. 217. 



HABEAS CORPUS 



785 



It declares no principles and defines no rights, but is for practical 
purposes worth a hundred articles guaranteeing constitutional 
liberty. 1 

In the manner characteristic of English legislation the act 
is limited to the particular grievances immediately in view and 
is limited to imprisonment for criminal or supposed criminal 
matters, leaving untouched imprisonment on civil process or by 
private persons. It recites that great delays have been used by 
sheriffs and gaolers in making returns of writs of habeas corpus 
directed to them; and for the prevention thereof, and the more 
speedy relief of all persons imprisoned for criminal or supposed 
criminal matters, it enacts in substance as follows: (i) When a 
writ of habeas corpus is directed to a sheriff or other person in 
charge of a prisoner, he must within 3, 10 or 20 days, according 
to the distance of the place of commitment, bring the body of his 
prisoner to the court, with the true cause of his detainer or 
imprisonment unless the commitment was for treason or felony 
plainly expressed in the warrant of commitment. (2) If any 
person be committed for any crime unless for treason or felony 
plainly expressed in the warrant it shall be lawful for such 
person or persons (other than persons convicted or in execution 
by legal process) in lime of vacation, to appeal to the lord chan- 
cellor as a judge, who shall issue a habeas corpus returnable 
immediately, and on the return thereof shall discharge the 
prisoner on giving security for his appearance before the proper 
court unless the party so committed is detained upon a legal 
process or under a justice's warrant for a non-bailable offence. 
Persons neglecting for two terms to pray for a habeas corpus 
shall have none in vacation. (3) Persons set at large on habeas 
corpus shall not be recommitted for the same offence unless by 
the legal order and process of the court having cognizance of 
the case. (4) A person committed to prison for treason or felony 
shall, if he requires it, in the first week of the next term or the 
first day of the next session of oyer and terminer, be indicted 
in that term or session or else admitted to bail, unless it appears 
on affidavit that the witnesses for the crown are not ready; 
and if he is not indicted and tried in the second term or session 
after commitment, or if after trial he is acquitted, he shall be 
discharged from imprisonment. (5) No inhabitant of England 
(except persons contracting, or, after conviction for felony, 
electing to be transported) shall be sent prisoner to Scotland, 
Ireland, Jersey, &c., or any place beyond the seas. Stringent 
penalties are provided for offences against the act. A judge 
delaying habeas corpus forfeits 500 to the party aggrieved. 
Illegal imprisonment beyond seas renders the offender liable in 
an action by the injured party to treble costs and damages to 
the extent of not less than 500, besides subjecting him to the 
penalties of praemunire and to other disabilities. " The great 
rank of those who were likely to offend against this part of the 
statute was," says Hallam, " the cause of this unusual severity." 
Indeed as early as 1591 the judges had complained of the 
difficulty of enforcing the writ in the case of imprisonment at 
the instance of magnates of the realm. The effect of the act 
was to impose upon the judges under severe sanction the duty 
of protecting personal liberty in the case of criminal charges 
and of securing speedy trial upon such charges when legally 
framed; and the improvement of their tenure of office at the 
revolution, coupled with the veto put by the Bill of Rights on 
excessive bail, gave the judicature the independence and authority 
necessary to enable them to keep the executive within the law 
and to restrain administrative development of the scope or 
penalties of the criminal law; and this power of the judiciary to 
control the executive, coupled with the limitations on the right 
to set up " act of state " as an excuse for infringing individual 
liberty is the special characteristic of English constitutional 
law. 

It is to be observed that neither at common law nor under the 
act of 1679 was the writ the appropriate remedy in the case of a 
person convicted either on indictment or summarily. It properly 
applied to persons detained before or without trial or sentence; 
and for convicted persons the proper remedy was by writs of 
1 Dicey, Law of the Constitution (6th ed.), p. 195. 



error or cerliorari to which a writ of habeas corpus might be used 
as ancillary. 

As regards persons imprisoned for debt or on civil process the 
writ was available at common law to test the legality of the 
detention: but the practice in these cases is unaffected by the 
act of 1679, and is of no present interest, since imprisonment 
on civil process is almost abolished. As regards persons in 
private custody, e.g. persons not sui juris detained by those not 
entitled to their guardianship or lunatics, or persons kidnapped, 
habeas corpus ad subjiciendum seems not to have been the 
ordinary common law remedy. The appropriate writ for such 
cases was that known as de homine replegiando. The use of this 
writ in most if not all criminal cases was forbidden in 1553; but 
it was used in the I7th century in a case of kidnapping (Designy's 
case, 1682), and against Lord Grey for abducting his wife's 
sister (1682), and in the earl of Banbury's case to recover his 
wife (i 704). The latest recorded instance of its use is Trebilcock's 
case (1736), in which a ward sought to free himself from the 
custody of his guardian. 

Since that date the habeas corpus ad subjiciendum has been used 
in cases of illegal detention in private custody. In 1 7 58 questions 
arose as to its application to persons in naval or military custody, 
including pressed men, which led to the introduction of a bill 
in parliament and to the consultation by the House of Lords of 
the judges (see Wilmot's Opinions, p. 77). In the same year the 
writ was used to release the wife of Earl Ferrers from his custody 
and maltreatment, and was unsuccessfully applied for by John 
Wilkes to get back his wife, who was separated from him by 
mutual agreement. But perhaps the most interesting instances 
of that period are the case of the negro Somerset (1771), who was 
released from a claim to hold him as a slave in England: and 
that of the Hottentot Venus (1810), where an alien woman on 
exhibition in England was brought before the court by Zachary 
Macaulay in order to ascertain whether she was detained against 
her will. 

The experience of the i8th century disclosed defects in the 
procedure for obtaining liberty in cases not covered by the act 
of 1679. But it was not till 1816 that further legislation was 
passed for more effectually securing the liberty of the subject. 
The act of 1816 (56 Geo. III. c. 100), does not touch cases covered 
by the act of 1679. It enacts (i) that a writ of habeas corpus 
shall be issued in vacation time in favour of a person restrained 
of his liberty otherwise than for some criminal or supposed 
criminal matter (except persons imprisoned for debt or by civil 
process); (2) that though the return to the writ be good and 
sufficient in law, the judge shall examine into the truth of the 
facts set forth in such return, and if they appear doubtful the 
prisoner shall be bailed; (3) that the writ shall run to any port, 
harbour, road, creek or bay on the coast of England, although 
not within the body of any county. The last clause was intended 
to meet doubts on the applicability of habeas corptts in cases of 
illegal detention on board ship, which had been raised owing to 
a case of detention on a foreign ship in an English port. 

It will appear from the foregoing statement that the issue 
and enforcement of the writ rests on the common law as 
strengthened by the acts of 1627, 1640, 1679 and 1816, and subject 
also to the regulations as to procedure contained in the Crown 
Office Rules, 1906. The effect of the statutes is to keep the courts 
always open for the issue of the writ. It is available to put an 
end to all forms of illegal detention in public or private custody. 
In the case of the Canadian prisoners (1839) it was used to obtain 
the release of persons sentenced in Canada for participating in 
the rebellion of 1837, who were being conveyed throughout 
England in custody on their way to imprisonment in another 
part of the empire, and it is matter of frequent experience for 
the courts to review the legality of commitments under the 
Extradition Acts and the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881, of fugitives 
from the justice of a foreign state or parts of the king's dominions 
outside the British Islands. 

In times of public danger it has occasionally been thought 
necessary to " suspend " the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 by special 
and temporary legislation. This was done in 1794 (by an act 



786 



HABERDASHER 



annually renewed until 1801) and again in 1817, as to persons 
arrested and detained by his majesty for conspiring against his 
person and government. The same course was adopted in 
Ireland in 1866 during a Fenian rising. It has been the practice 
to make such acts annual and to follow their expiration by an 
act of indemnity. In cases where martial law exists the use of the 
writ is ex hypothesi suspended during conditions amounting to a 
state of war within the realm or the British possession affected 
(e.g. the Cape Colony and Natal during the South African War), 
and it would seem that the acts of courts martial during the 
period are not the subject of review by the ordinary courts. 
The so-called " suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act " bears a 
certain similarity to what is called in Europe " suspending the 
constitutional guarantees " or " proclaiming a state of siege," 
but " is not in reality more than suspension of one particular 
remedy for the protection of personal freedom." 

There are various other forms of the writ according to the purpose 
for which it is granted. Thus habeas corpus ad respondendum is used 
to bring up a prisoner confined by the process of an inferior court 
in order to charge him in another proceeding (civil or criminal) in 
the superior court or some other court. As regards civil proceedings, 
this form of the writ is now rarely used, owing to the abolition of 
arrest on mesne process and the restriction of imprisonment for debt, 
or in execution of a civil judgment. The right to issue the writ 
depends on the common law, supplemented by an act of 1802. It 
is occasionally used for the purpose of bringing a person in custody 
for debt or on a criminal charge before a criminal court to be charged 
in respect of a criminal proceeding: but the same result may be 
obtained by means of an order of a secretary of state, made under 
s. _!! of the Prison Act 1898, or by the written order of a court of 
criminal jurisdiction before which he is required to take his trial on 
indictment (Criminal Law Amendment Act 30 & 31 Viet. c. 35, s. 
10). 

Other forms are ad satisfaciendum; ad faciendum, et recipiendum, 
to remove intoa superior court proceedings under which thedcfendant 
is in custody: ad testificandum, where a prisoner is required as a 
witness, issued under an act of 1804 (s. n), which is in practice 
replaced by orders under s. II of the Prison Act 1898 (supra) or the 
order of a judge under s. 9 of the Criminal Procedure Act 1853: 
and ad deliberandum et recipias, to authorize the transfer from one 
custody to another for purposes of trial, which is in practice super- 
seded by the provisions of the Prison Acts 1865, 1871 and 1898, 
and the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1867 (supra). 

The above forms are now of little or no importance; but the 
procedure for obtaining them and the forms of writ are included in 
the Crown Office Rules 1906. 

Ireland. The common law of Ireland as to the writs of habeas 
corpus is the same as that in England. The writ has in past times 
been issued from the English court of king's bench into Ireland; 
but does not now so issue. The acts of 1803 and 1816 already 
mentioned apply to Ireland. The Petition of Right is not in terms 
applicable to Ireland. The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 does not apply 
to Ireland; but its equivalent is supplied by an act of 1781-1782 
of the Irish parliament (21 & 22 Geo. III. c. n). Sec. 16 contains a 
provision empowering the chief governor and privy council of Ireland 
by a proclamation under the great seal of Ireland to suspend the act 
during such time only as there shall be an actual invasion or rebellion 
in Ireland; and it is enacted that during the currency of the pro- 
clamation no judge or justices shall bail or try any person charged 
with being concerned in the rebellion or invasion without an order 
from the lord lieutenant or lord deputy and senior of the privy 
council. In Ireland by an act of 1881 the Irish executive was given 
an absolute power of arbitrary and preventive arrest on suspicion of 
treason or of an act tending to interfere with the maintenance of 
law and order: but the warrant of arrest was made conclusive. 
This act continued by annual renewals until 1906, when it expired. 

Scotland. The writ of habeas corpus is unknown to Scots law, nor 
will it issue from English courts into Scotland. Under a Scots act 
of 1701 (c. 6) provision is made for preventing wrongous imprison- 
ment and against undue delay in trials. It was applied to treason 
felony in 18^8. The right to speedy trial is now regulated by s. 43 
of the Criminal Procedure Scotland Act 1887. These enactments 
are as to Scotland equivalent to the English Act of 1679. Under the 
Court of Exchequer Scotland Act 1856 (19 & 20 V. c. 56) provision 
is made for bringing before the court of session persons and proceed- 
ings before inferior courts and public officers which is analogous 
to the powers to issue habeas corpus in such cases out of the English 
court of exchequer (now the revenue side of the king's bench 
division). 

British Possessions. The act of $679 expressly applies to Wales, 
Berwick-on-Tweed, Jersey and Guernsey, and the act of 1816 also 
extends to the Isle of Man. Trie court of king's bench has also issued 
the writ to the king's foreign dominions beyond seas, e.g. to St 
Helena, and so late as 1861 to Canada (Anderson's case 1861, 30 
L.J.Q.B. 129). In consequence of the last decision it was provided 



by the Habeas Corpus Act 1862 that no writ of habeas corpus should 
issue out of England by authority of any court or judge " into any 
colony or foreign dominion of the crown where the crown has a law- 
fully established court of justice having authority to grant or issue 
the writ and to ensure its due execution in the 'colony' or do- 
minion " (25 & 26 V. c. 20). The expression " foreign dominion " 
js meant to apply to places outside the British Islands, and does not 
include the Isle of Man or the Channel Islands (see re Brown [1864] 
33 L.J.Q.B. 193.). 

In Australasia and Canada and in most if not all the British 
possessions whose law is based on the common law, the power to 
issue and enforce the writ is possessed and is freely exercised by 
colonial courts, under the charters or statutes creating and regulating 
the courts. The writ is freely resorted to in Canada, and in 1905, 
1906, two appeals came to the privy council from the dominion, one 
with reference to an extradition case, the other with respect to the 
right to expel aliens. 

Under the Roman-Dutch law as applied in British Guiana the 
writ was unknown and no similar process existed (2nd report of 
West Indian law commissioners). But by the Supreme Court 
Ordinance of 1893 that court possesses (inter alia) all the authorities, 
powers and functions belonging to or incident to a superior court of 
record in England, which appears to include the power to issue the 
writ of habeas corpus. Under the Roman-Dutch law as applied to 
South Africa free persons appear to have a right to release under a 
writ de libero homine exhibendo, which closely resembles the writ of 
habeas corpus, and the procedure described as " manifestation " 
used in the kingdom of Aragon (Hallam, Middle Ages, vol. ii., c. iv.). 
The writ of habeas corpus has not been formally adopted or the 
Habeas Corpus Acts formally extended to South Africa ; but in the 
Cape Colony, under the charter of justice and colonial legislation, 
the supreme court on petition grants a remedy equivalent to that 
obtained in England by writ of habeas corpus; and the remedy is 
sometimes so described (Koke v. Balie, 1879, 9 Buchanan, 45, 64, 
arising out of a rising in Griqualand). During and after the South 
African War of 1899-1902 many attempts were made by this pro- 
cedure to challenge or review the sentences of courts martial; see 
re Fourie (1900), 18 Cape Rep. 8. 

The laws of Ceylon being derived from the Roman-Dutch law, the 
writ of habeas corpus is not indigenous: but, under s. 49 of the 
Supreme Court Ordinance 1889, the court or a judge has power to 
grant and issue " mandates in the nature of writs of habeas corpus." 
The chartered high courts in India have power to issue and enforce 
the writ of habeas corpus. The earliest record of its use was in 1775, 
when it was directed to Warren Hastings. It has been used to test 
the question whether Roman Catholic religious orders could enter 
India, and in 1870 an attempt was made thereby to challenge the 
validity of a warrant in the nature of a lettre de cachet issued by the 
viceroy (Ind. L. Rep. 6 Bengal, 392, 456, 498), and it has also been 
applied to settle controversies between Hindus and missionaries as 
to the custody of a young convert (R. v. Vaughan, 1870, 5 Bengal, 
418), and between a Mahommedan husband and his mother-in-law 
as to the custody of a girl-wife (Khatija Bibi, 1870, 5 Bengal, 557). 

United States. Before the Declaration of Independence some 
of the North American colonies had adopted the act of 1679; 
and the federal and the other state legislatures of the United 
States have founded their procedure on that act. The common 
law as to the writ of habeas corpus has been inherited from 
England, and has been generally made to apply to commitments 
and detentions of all kinds. Difficult questions, unknown to 
English law, have arisen from the peculiar features of the 
American state-system. Thus the constitution provides that 
" the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended 
unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety 
may require it "; and it has been the subject of much dispute 
whether the power of suspension under this provision is vested 
in the president or the congress. The weight of opinion seems 
to lean to the latter alternative. Again, conflicts have arisen 
between the courts of individual states and the courts of the 
union. It seems that a state court has no right to issue a habeas 
corpus for the discharge of a person held under the authority 
of the federal government. On the other hand, the courts of the 
union issue the writ only in those cases in which the power is 
expressly conferred on them by the constitution. 

AUTHORITIES. Paterson, Liberty of the Subject (1877); Short 
and Mellor, Crown Practice (1890); American: Church on Habeas 
Corpus (2nd ed. 1893). (W. F. C.) 

HABERDASHER, a name for a tradesman who sells by retail 
small articles used in the making or wearing of dress, such as 
sewing cottons or silks, tapes, buttons, pins and needles and the 
like. The sale of such articles is not generally carried on alone, 
and a " haberdashery counter " usually forms a department of 



HABINGTON HABSBURG, HOUSE OF 



787 



drapers' shops. The word, found in Chaucer, and even earlier 
(1311), is of obscure origin; the suggestion that it is connected 
with an Icelandic haprtask, " haversack," is, according to the 
New English Dictionary, impossible. Hapertas occurs in an early 
Anglo-French customs list, which includes articles such as were 
sold by haberdashers, but this word may itself have been a 
misspelling of " haberdash." The obscurity of origin has left 
room for many conjectures such as that of Minsheu that " haber- 
dasher " was perhaps merely a corruption of the German Habt 
ihr das? " Have you that?" or Habe das, Herr, " Have that, sir," 
used descriptively for a general dealer in miscellaneous wares. 
The Haberdashers' Company is one of the greater Livery 
Companies of the City of London. Originally a branch of the 
mercers, the fraternity took over the selling of " small wares," 
which included not only articles similar to those sold as " haber- 
dashery " now, but such things as gloves, daggers, glass, pens, 
lanterns, mousetraps and the like. They were thus on this side 
connected with the Milliners. On the other hand there was 
early a fusion with the old gild of the " Hurers," or cap makers, 
and the hatters, and by the reign of Henry VII. the amalgama- 
tion was complete. There were long recognized two branches of 
the haberdashers, the haberdashers of " small wares," and the 
haberdashers of hats (see further LIVERY COMPANIES). The 
haberdashers are named, side by side with the capellarii, in 
the White Book (Liber Albus) of the city of London (see Muni- 
menta Gildhallae Londiniensis, ed. H. T. Riley, Rolls Series, 
12, 1859-1862), and a haberdasher forms one of the company of 
pilgrims in the Canterbury Tales (Prologue, 361). 

HABINGTON, WILLIAM (1605-1654), English poet, was born 
at Hendlip Hall, Worcestershire, on the 4th of November 1605. 
He belonged to a well-known Catholic family. His father, 
Thomas Habington (1560-1647), an antiquary and historical 
scholar, had been implicated in the plots on behalf of Mary 
queen of Scots; his uncle, Edward Habington, was hanged in 
1586 on the charge of conspiring against Elizabeth in connexion 
with Anthony Babington; while to his mother, Mary Habington, 
was attributed the revelation of the Gunpowder Plot. The poet 
was sent to the college at St Omer, but, pressure being brought 
to bear on him to induce him to become a Jesuit, he removed to 
Paris. He married about 1632 Lucy, second daughter of Sir 
William Herbert, first Baron Powys. This lady he had addressed 
in the volume of lyrical poems arranged in two parts and entitled 
Castara, published anonymously in 1634. In 1635 appeared a 
second edition enlarged by three prose characters, fourteen new 
lyrics and eight touching elegies on his friend and kinsman, 
George Talbot. The third edition (1640) contains a third part 
consisting of a prose character of " A Holy Man " and twenty- 
two devotional poems. Habington's lyrics are full of the far- 
fetched " conceits " which were fashionable at court, but his 
verse is quite free from the prevailing looseness of morals. 
Indeed his reiterated praises of Castara's virtue grow wearisome. 
He is at his best in his reflective poems on the uncertainty of 
human life and kindred topics. He also wrote a Historic of 
Edward the Fourth (1640), based on notes provided by his father; 
a tragi-comedy, The Queene of Arragon (1640), published without 
his consent by his kinsman, the earl of Pembroke, and revived 
at the Restoration; and six essays on events in modern history, 
Observations upon History (1641). Anthony a Wood insinuated 
that during the Commonwealth the poet " did run with the times, 
and was not unknown to Oliver the usurper." He died on the 
3Oth of November 1654. 

The works of Habington have not been collected. The Queene of 
Arragon was reprinted in Dodsley's"Old Plays," vol.ix.(l825) ; Castara 
was edited by Charles Elton (1812), and by E. Arber with a compact 
and comprehensive introduction (1870) for his " English Reprints." 

HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, 
to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; 
in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit), 
condition of body or mind, especially one that has become 
permanent or settled by custom or persistent repetition, hence 
custom, usage. In botany and zoology the term is used both 
in the above sense of instinctive action of animals and tendencies 



of plants, and also of the manner of growth or external appear- 
ance of a plant or animal. From the use of the word for external 
appearances comes its use for fashion in dress, and hence as a 
term for a lady's riding dress and for the particular form of 
garment adopted by the members of a religious order, like 
" cowl " applied as the mark of a monk or nun. 

HABITAT (a French word derived from habiter, Lat. habilare, 
to dwell), in botany and zoology, the term for the locality in 
which a particular species of plants or animals thrives. 

HABSBURG, or HAPSBURG, the name of the famous family 
from which have sprung the dukes and archdukes of Austria 
from 1282, kings of Hungary and Bohemia from 1526, and 
emperors of Austria from 1 804. They were also Roman emperors 
and German kings from 1438 to 1806, and kings of Spain from 
1516 to 1700, while the minor dignities held by them at different 
times are too numerous to mention. 

The name Habsburg, a variant of an older form, Habichtsburg 
(hawk's castle), was taken from the castle of Habsburg, which 
was situated on the river Aar not far from its junction with the 
Rhine. The castle was built about 1020 by Werner, bishop of 
Strassburg, and his brother, Radbot, the founder of the abbey 
of Muri. These men were grandsons of a certain Guntram, who, 
according to some authorities, is identical with a Count Guntram 
who flourished during the reign of the emperor Otto the Great, 
and whose ancestry can be traced back to the time of the Mero- 
vingian kings. This conjecture, however, is extremely pro- 
blematical. Among Radbot's sons was one Werner, and Werner 
and his son Otto were called counts of Habsburg, Otto being 
probably made landgrave of upper Alsace late in the nth or 
early in the i2th century. At all events Otto's son Werner 
(d. 1167), and the latter's son Albert (d. 1199), held this dignity, 
and both landgraves increased the area of the Habsburg lands. 
Albert became count of Zurich and protector of the monastery 
of Sackingen, and obtained lands in the cantons of Unterwalden 
and Lucerne; his son Rudolph, having assisted Frederick of 
Hohenstaufen, afterwards the emperor Frederick II., against 
the emperor Otto IV., received the county of Aargau. Both 
counts largely increased their possessions in the districts now 
known as Switzerland and Alsace, and Rudolph held an influential 
place among the Swabian nobility. After his death in 1232 his 
two sons, Albert and Rudolph, divided his lands and founded 
the lines of Habsburg-Habsburg and Habsburg-Laufenburg. 
Rudolph's descendants, counts of Habsburg-Laufenburg, were 
soon divided into two branches, one of which became extinct 
in 1408 and the other seven years later. Before this date, 
however, Laufenburg and some other districts had been sold to 
the senior branch 'of the family, who thus managed to retain 
the greater part of the Habsburg lands. 

Rudolph's brother Albert (d. 1239), landgrave of Alsace, 
married Hedwig of Kyburg (d. 1260), and from this union there 
was born in 1218 Rudolph, the founder of the greatness of the 
house of Habsburg, and the first of the family to ascend the 
German throne. Through his mother he inherited a large part 
of the lands of the extinct family of Zahringen; he added in 
other ways to his possessions, and was chosen German king in 
September 1 273. Acting vigorously in his new office, he defeated 
and killed his most formidable adversary, Ottakar II., king of 
Bohemia, in 1278, and in December 1282 he invested his sons, 
Albert and Rudolph, with the duchies of Austria and Styria, 
which with other lands had been taken from Ottakar. This 
was an event of supreme moment in the history of the Habsburgs, 
and was the first and most important stage in the process of 
transferring the centre of their authority from western to eastern 
Europe, from the Rhine to the Danube. On Rudolph's death 
in July 1291 the German crown passed for a time away from the 
Habsburgs, but in July 1298 it was secured by his son, Albert, 
whose reign, however, was short and uneventful. But before 
1308, the year of Albert's death, the long and troubled connexion 
of the Habsburgs with Bohemia had already begun. In 1306 
Wenceslas III., the last Bohemian king of the Pfemyslide 
dynasty, was murdered. Seizing the opportunity and declaring 
that the vacant kingdom was an imperial fief, King Albert 



7 88 



HABSBURG, HOUSE OF 



bestowed it upon his eldest son, Rudolph, and married this prince 
to Elizabeth, widow of Wenceslas II. and stepmother of 
Wenceslas III. But Rudolph diedin 1307, and his father's at tempt 
to keep the country in his own hands was ended by his murder 
in 1308. 

Albert's successor as German king was Henry of Luxemburg 
(the emperor Henry VII.), and this election may be said to 
initiate the long rivalry between the houses of Habsburg and 
Luxemburg. But the immediate enemy of the Habsburgs 
was not a Luxemburg but a Wittelsbach. Without making any 
definite partition, Albert's five remaining sons spent their time 
in governing their lands until 1314, when one of them, Frederick 
called the Fair, forsook this comparatively uneventful occupation 
and was chosen by a minority of the electors German king in 
succession to Henry VII. At the same time the Wittelsbach 
duke of Bavaria, Louis, known to history as the emperor Louis 
the Bavarian, was also chosen. War was inevitable, and the 
battle of Muhldorf, fought in September 1322, sealed the fate 
of Frederick. Louis was victorious: his rival went into an 
honourable captivity, and the rising Habsburg sun underwent a 
temporary eclipse. 

For more than a century after Frederick's death in 1330 the 
Habsburgs were exiles from the German throne. But they were 
not inactive. In 1335 his two surviving brothers, Albert and 
Otto, inherited Carinthia and part of Carniola by right of their 
mother, Elizabeth; in 1363 Albert's son Rudolph received 
Tirol; and during the same century part of Istria, Trieste and 
other districts were acquired. All King Albert's six sons had 
died without leaving male issue save Otto, whose family became 
extinct in 1344, and Albert, the ancestor of all the later Habs- 
burgs. Of Albert's four sons two also left no male heirs, but 
the remaining two, Albert III. and Leopold III., were responsible 
for a division of the family which is of some importance. By 
virtue of a partition made upon their brother Rudolph's death 
in 1365 Albert and his descendants ruled over Austria, while 
Leopold and his sons took Styria, Carinthia and Tirol, Alsace 
remaining undivided as heretofore. 

Towards the middle of the I5th century the German throne 
had been occupied for nearly a hundred years by members of 
the Luxemburg family. The reigning emperor Sigismund, who 
was also king of Hungary and Bohemia, was without sons, and 
his daughter Elizabeth was the wife of Albert of Habsburg, the 
grandson and heir of Duke Albert III., who had died in 1395. 
Sigismund died in December 1437, leaving his two kingdoms to 
his son-in-law, who was crowned king of Hungary in January 

1438 and king of Bohemia in the following June. Albert was 
also chosen and crowned German king in succession to Sigismund, 
thus beginning the long and uninterrupted connexion of his 
family with the imperial throne, a connexion which lasted until 
the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. He did not, 
however, enjoy his new dignities for long, as he died in October 

1439 while engaged in a struggle with the Turks. Albert left 
no sons, but soon after his death one was born to him, called 
Ladislaus, who became duke of Austria and king of Hungary and 
Bohemia. Under the guardianship of his kinsman, the emperor 
Frederick III., the young prince's reign was a troubled one, and 
when he died unmarried in 1457 his branch of the family became 
extinct, and Hungary and Bohemia passed away from the 
Habsburgs, who managed, however, to retain Austria. 

Leopold III., duke of Carinthia and Styria, who was killed 
in 1386 at the battle of Sempach, had four sons, of whom two 
only, Frederick and Ernest, left male issue. Frederick and 
his only son, Sigismund, confined their attention mainly to Tirol 
and Alsace, leaving the larger destinies of the family in the hands 
of Ernest of Carinthia and Styria (d. 1424) and his sons, Frederick 
and Albert and after the death of King Ladislaus in 1457 these 
two princes and their cousin Sigismund were the only repre- 
sentatives of the Habsburgs. In February 1440 Frederick of 
Styria was chosen German king in succession to his kinsman 
Albert. He was a weak and incompetent ruler, but a stronger 
and abler man might have shrunk from the task of administering 
his heterogeneous and unruly realm. Although very important 



in the history of the house of Habsburg, Frederick's long reign 
was a period of misfortune, and the motto which he assumed, 
A.E.I. O.U. (Austriae est imperare orbi universe), seemed at the 
time a particularly foolish boast. He acted as guardian both 
to Ladislaus of Hungary, Bohemia and Austria, and to Sigismund 
of Tirol, and in all these countries his difficulties were increased 
by the hostility of his brother Albert. Having disgusted the 
Tirolese he gave up the guardianship of their prince in 1446, 
while in Hungary and Bohemia he did absolutely nothing to 
establish the authority of his ward; in 1452 the Austrians 
besieged him in Vienna Neustadt and compelled him to surrender 
the person of Ladislaus, thus ending even his nominal authority. 
When the young king died in 1457 the Habsburgs lost Hungary 
and Bohemia, but they retained Austria, which, after some 
disputing, Frederick and Albert divided between themselves, 
the former taking lower and the latter upper Austria. This 
arrangement was of short duration. In 1461 Albert made war 
upon his brother and forced him to resign lower Austria, which, 
however, he recovered after Albert's death in December 1463. 
Still more unfortunate was the German king in Switzerland. For 
many years the Swiss had chafed under the rule of the Habs- 
burgs; during the reign of Rudolph I. they had shown signs of 
resentment as the kingly power increased; and the struggle which 
had been carried on for nearly two centuries had been almost 
uniformly in their favour. It was marked by the victory of 
Morgarten over Duke Leopold I. in 1315, and by that of Sempach 
over Leopold III. in 1386, by the conquest of Aargau at the 
instigation of the emperor Sigismund early in the isth century, 
and by the final struggle for freedom against Frederick III. and 
Sigismund of Tirol. Taking advantage of some dissensions 
among the Swiss, the king saw an opportunity to recover his 
lost lands, and in 1443 war broke out. But his allies, the men 
of Zurich, were defeated, and when in August 1444 some French 
mercenaries, who had advanced to his aid, suffered the same 
fate at St Jakob, he was compelled to give up the struggle. A 
few years later Sigismund became involved in a war with the 
same formidable foemen; he too was worsted, and the " Per- 
petual Peace " of 1474 ended the rule of the Habsburgs in 
Switzerland. This humiliation was the second great step in 
the process of removing the Habsburgs from western to eastern 
Europe. In 1453, just after his coronation as emperor at Rome, 
Frederick legalized the use of the title archduke, which had been 
claimed spasmodically by the Habsburgs since 1361. This title 
is now peculiar to the house of Habsburg. 

The reverses suffered by the Habsburgs during the reign of 
Frederick III. were many and serious, but an improvement 
was at hand. The emperor died in August 1 493 , and was followed 
on the imperial throne by his son Maximilian I., perhaps the 
most versatile and interesting member of the family. Before 
his father's death Maximilian had been chosen German king, 
or king of the Romans, and had begun to repair the fortunes of 
his house. He had married Mary, daughter and heiress of 
Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy; he had driven the Hun- 
garians from Vienna and the Austrian archduchies, which 
Frederick had, perforce, allowed them to occupy; and he had 
received Tirol on the abdication of Sigismund in 1490. True 
it is that upon Mary's death in 1482 part of her inheritance, the 
rich and prosperous Netherlands, held that her husband's 
authority was at an end, while another part, the two Burgundies 
and Artois, had been seized by the king of France; nevertheless, 
after a protracted struggle the German king secured almost the 
whole of Charles the Bold's lands for his son, the archduke 
Philip, the duchy of Burgundy alone remaining in the power of 
France after the conclusion of the peace of Senlis in 1493. 
Maximilian completed his work by adding a piece of Bavaria, 
Gorz and then Gradiska to the Habsburg lands. 

After Sigismund's death in 1496 Maximilian and Philip were 
the only living male members of the family. Philip married 
Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and died 
in 1506 leaving two sons, Charles and Ferdinand. Charles 
succeeded his father in the Netherlands; he followed one grand- 
father, Ferdinand, as king of Spain in 1516, and when the other, 



HABSBURG, HOUSE OF 



789 



Maximilian, died in 1519 he became the emperor Charles V., 
and succeeded to all the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs. 
But provision had to be made for Ferdinand, and in 1521 this 
prince was given the Austrian archduchies, Austria, Styria, 
Carinthia and Carniola; in the same year he married Anne, 
daughter of Wladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, and 
when his childless brother-in-law, King Louis, was killed at the 
battle of Mohacs in August 1526 he claimed the two kingdoms, 
both by right of his wife and by treaty. After a little trouble 
Bohemia passed under his rule, but Hungary was more recal- 
citrant. A long war took place between Ferdinand and John 
Zapolya, who was also crowned king of Hungary, but in 1538 a 
treaty was made and the country was divided, the Habsburg 
prince receiving the western and smaller portion. However, he 
was soon confronted with a more formidable foe, and he spent 
a large part of his subsequent life in defending his lands from the 
attacks of the Turks. 

The Habsburgs had now reached the summit of their power. 
The prestige which belonged to Charles as head of the Holy 
Roman Empire was backed by the wealth and commerce of the 
Netherlands and of Spain, and by the riches of the Spanish 
colonies in America. In Italy he ruled over Sardinia, Naples 
and Sicily, which had passed to him with Spain, and the duchy 
of Milan, which he had annexed in 1535; to the Netherlands 
he had added Friesland, the bishopric of Utrecht, Groningen 
and Gelderland, and he still possessed Franche-Comte and the 
fragments of the Habsburg lands in Alsace and the neighbour- 
hood. Add to this Ferdinand's inheritance, the Austrian arch- 
duchies and Tirol, Bohemia with her dependent provinces, and 
a strip of Hungary, and the two brothers had under their sway 
a part of Europe the extent of which was great, but the wealth 
and importance of which were immeasurably greater. Able 
to scorn the rivalry of the other princely houses of Germany, the 
Habsburgs saw in the kings of the house of Valois the only 
foemen worthy of their regard. 

When Charles V. abdicated he was succeeded as emperor, not 
by his son Philip, but by his brother Ferdinand. Philip became 
king of Spain, ruling also the Netherlands, Franche-Comte, 
Naples, Sicily, Milan and Sardinia, and the family was definitely 
divided into the Spanish and Austrian branches. For Spain and 
the Spanish Habsburgs the I7th century was a period of loss and 
decay, the seeds of which were sown during the reign of Philip II. 
The northern provinces of the Netherlands were lost practically 
in 1609 and definitely by the treaty of Westphalia in 1648; 
Roussillon and Artois were annexed to France by the treaty of 
the Pyrenees in 1659, while Franche-Comte and a number of 
towns in the Spanish Netherlands suffered a similar fate by 
the treaty of Nijmwegen in 1678. Finally Charles II., the last 
Habsburg king of Spain, died childless in November 1700, and 
his lands were the prize of the War of the Spanish Succession. 
The Austrian Habsburgs fought long and valiantly for the 
kingdom of their kinsman, but Louis XIV. was too strong for 
them, and by the peace of Rastatt Spain passed from the 
Habsburgs to the Bourbons. However, the Austrian branch of 
the family received in 1714 the Italian possessions of Charles II., 
except Sicily, which was given to the duke of Savoy, and also 
the southern Netherlands, which are thus often referred to as 
the Austrian Netherlands; and retained the duchy of Mantua, 
which it had seized in 1708. 

Ferdinand I., the founder of the line of the Austrian Habs- 
burgs, arranged a division of his lands among his three sons before 
his death in 1564. The eldest, Maximilian II., received Austria, 
Bohemia and Hungary, and succeeded his father as emperor; 
he married Maria, a daughter of Charles V., and though 
he had a large family his male line became extinct in 1619. 
The younger sons were Ferdinand, ruler of Tirol, and Charles, 
archduke of Styria. The emperor Maximilian II. left five sons, 
two of whom, Rudolph and Matthias, succeeded in turn to the 
imperial throne, but, as all the brothers were without male 
issue, the family was early in the I7th century threatened with 
a serious crisis. Rudolph died in 1612, the reigning emperor 
Matthias was old and ill, and the question of the succession to 



the Empire, to the kingdoms of Huhgary and Bohemia, and to 
the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs became acute. Turning 
to the collateral branches of the family, the sons of the archduke 
Ferdinand were debarred from the succession owing to their 
father's morganatic marriage with Philippine Welser, and the 
only hope of the house was in the sons of Charles of Styria. 
To prevent the Habsburg monarchy from falling to pieces the 
emperor's two surviving brothers renounced their rights, and 
it was decided that Ferdinand, a son of Charles of Styria, should 
succeed his cousin Matthias. The difficulties which impeded 
the completion of this scheme were gradually overcome, and 
the result was that when Matthias died in 1619 the whole of 
the lands of the Austrian Habsburgs was united under the rule 
of the emperor Ferdinand II. Tirol, indeed, a few years later 
was separated from the rest of the monarchy and given to the 
emperor's brother, the archduke Leopold, but this separation 
was ended when Leopold's son died in 1665. 

The arbitrary measures which followed Ferdinand's acquisition 
of the Bohemian crown contributed to the outbreak of the 
Thirty Years' War, but in a short time the Bohemians were 
subdued, and in 1627, following a precedent set in 1547, the 
emperor declared the throne hereditary in the house of Habsburg. 
The treaty of Westphalia which ended this war took compara- 
tively little from the Habsburgs, though they ceded Alsace to 
France; but the Empire was greatly weakened, and its ruler was 
more than ever compelled to make his hereditary lands in the 
east of Europe the base of his authority, finding that he derived 
more strength from his position as archduke of Austria than 
from that of emperor. Ferdinand III. succeeded his father 
Ferdinand II., and during the long reign of the former's son, 
Leopold I., the Austrian, like the Spanish, Habsburgs were on 
the defensive against the aggressive policy of Louis XIV., and 
in addition they had to withstand the assaults of the Turks. 
In two ways they sought to strengthen their position. The 
unity of the Austrian lands was strictly maintained, and several 
marriages kept up a close and friendly connexion with Spain. 
A series of victories over the sultan during the later part of the 
1 7th century rolled back the tide of the Turkish advance, and 
the peace of Karlowitz made in 1699 gave nearly the whole of 
Hungary to the Habsburgs. Against France Austria was less suc- 
cessful, and a number of humiliations culminated in 1714 in the 
failure to secure Spain, to which reference has already been made. 
The hostility of Austria and France, or rather of Habsburg 
and Bourbon, outlived the War of the Spanish Succession. In 
1717 Spain conquered Sardinia, which was soon exchanged by 
Austria for Sicily; other struggles and other groupings of the 
European powers followed, and in 1735, by the treaty of Vienna, 
Austria gave up Naples and Sicily and received the duchies of 
Parma and Piacenza. These surrenders were doubtless inevit- 
able, but they shook the position of the house of Habsburg in 
Italy. However, a domestic crisis was approaching which threw 
Italian affairs into the shade. Charles VI., who had succeeded 
his brother, Joseph I., as emperor in 1711, was without sons, and 
his prime object in life was to secure the succession of his elder 
daughter, Maria Theresa, to the whole of his lands and dignities. 
But in 1713, four years before the birth of Maria Theresa, he had 
first issued the famous Pragmatic Sanction, which declared that 
the Habsburg monarchy was indivisible and that in default of 
male heirs a female could succeed to it. Then after the death of 
his only son and the birth of Maria Theresa the emperor bent 
all his energies to securing the acceptance of the Pragmatic 
Sanction. Promulgated anew in 1724, it was formally accepted 
by the estates of the different Habsburg lands; in 1731 it was 
guaranteed by the imperial diet. By subordinating every other 
interest to this, Charles at length procured the assent of the 
various powers of Europe to the proposed arrangement; he 
married the young princess to Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, 
afterwards grand-duke of Tuscany, and when he died on the 
20th of October 1740 he appeared to have realized his great 
ambition. With the emperor's death the house of Habsburg, 
strictly speaking, became extinct, its place being taken by the 
house of Habsburg-Lorraine, which sprang from the union of 



790 



HABSBURG, HOUSE OF 





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HABSBURG, HOUSE OF 



791 



Maria Theresa and Francis Stephen; and it is interesting to note 
that the present Habsburgs are only descended in the female 
line from Rudolph I. and Maximilian I. 

Immediately after the death of Charles the Pragmatic Sanction 
was forgotten. A crowd of claimants called for various parts of 
the Habsburg lands; Frederick the Great, talking less but acting 
more, invaded and conquered Silesia, and it seemed likely that 
the dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy would at no long 
interval follow the extinction of the Habsburg race. A Wittels- 
bach prince, Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, the emperor 
Charles VII., and not Francis Stephen, was chosen emperor in 
January 1742, and by the treaty of Breslau, made later in the 
same year, nearly all Silesia was formally surrendered to Prussia. 
But the worst was now over, and when in 1748 the peace of 
Aix-la-Chapelle, which practically confirmed the treaty of 
Breslau, had cleared away the dust of war, Maria Theresa and 
her consort were found to occupy a strong position in Europe. 
In the first place, in September 1745, Francis had been chosen 
emperor; then the imperial pair ruled Hungary and Bohemia, 
although the latter kingdom was shorn of Silesia; in spite of 
French conquests the Austrian Netherlands remained in their 
hands; and in Italy Francis had added Tuscany to his wife's 
heritage, although Parma and Piacenza had been surrendered 
to Spain and part of Milan to the king of Sardinia. The diplo- 
matic volte-face and the futile attempts of Maria Theresa to 
recover Silesia which followed this treaty belong to the general 
history of Europe. 

The emperor Francis I. died in 1765 and was succeeded by his 
son Joseph II., an ambitious and able prince, whose aim was 
to restore the Habsburgs and the Empire to their former great 
positions in Europe, and whose pride did not prevent him from 
learning from Frederick the Great, the despoiler of his house. 
His projects, however, including one of uniting Bavaria with 
Austria, which was especially cherished, failed completely, and 
when he died in February 1790 he left his lands in a state of 
turbulence which reflected the general condition of Europe. 
The Netherlands had risen against the Austrians, and in January 
1790 had declared themselves independent; Hungary, angered 
by Joseph's despotic measures, was in revolt, and the other parts 
of the monarchy were hardly more contented. But the i8th 
century saw a few successes for the Habsburgs. In 1 7 1 8 a success- 
ful war with Turkey was ended by the peace of Passarowitz, 
which advanced the Austrian boundary very considerably to the 
east, and although by the treaty of Belgrade, signed twenty-one 
years later, a large part of this territory was surrendered, yet a 
residuum, the banate of Temesvar, was permanently incor- 
porated with Hungary. The struggle over the succession to 
Bavaria, which was concluded in 1779 by the treaty of Teschen, 
was responsible for adding Innviertel, or the quarter of the 
Inn, to Austria; the first partition of Poland brought eastern 
Galicia and Lodomeria, and in 1777 the sultan ceded Bukovina. 
Joseph II. was followed by his brother, Leopold II., who restored 
the Austrian authority in the Netherlands, and the latter by his 
son Francis II., who resigned the crown of the Holy Roman 
Empire in August 1806, having two years before taken the title 
of emperor of Austria as Francis I. 

Before the abdication of the emperor Francis in 1806 Austria 
had met and suffered from the fury of revolutionary France, 
but the cessions of territory made by her at the treaties of 
Campo Formio (1797), of Luneville (1801) and of Pressburg 
(1805) were of no enduring importance. This, however, cannot 
be said for the treaties of Paris and of Vienna, which in 1814 
and 1815 arranged the map of Europe upon the conclusion of 
the Napoleonic wars. These were highly favourable to the 
Habsburgs. In eastern and central Europe Austria regained 
her former position, the lands ceded to Bavaria and also eastern 
Galicia, which had been in the hands of Russia since 1809, being 
restored; she gave up the Austrian Netherlands, soon to be 
known as Belgium, to the new kingdom of the Netherlands, 
and acquiesced in the arrangement which had taken from her 
the Breisgau and the remnant of the Habsburg lands upon the 
Rhine. In return for these losses Austria became the dominant 



power in Italy. A mass of northern Italy, including her former 
possessions in Milan and the neighbourhood, and also the lands 
recently forming the republic of Venice, was made into the 
kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, and this owned the emperor of 
Austria as king. Across the Adriatic Dalmatia was added to 
the Habsburg monarchy, the population of which, it has been 
estimated, was increased at this time by over four millions. 

The illiberal and oppressive character of the Austrian rule 
in Italy made it very unpopular; it was hardly less so in Hungary 
and Bohemia, and the advent of the year 1848 found the subject 
kingdoms eager to throw off the Habsburg yoke. The whole 
monarchy was quickly in a state of revolution, in the midst of 
which the emperor Ferdinand, who had succeeded his father 
Francis in 1835, abdicated, and his place was taken by his 
young nephew Francis Joseph. The position of the Habsburj 
monarchy now seemed desperate. But it was strong in its 
immemorial tradition, which was enough to make the efforts of 
the Frankfort parliament to establish German unity under 
Prussian hegemony abortive; it was strong also in the general 
loyalty to the throne of the imperial army; and its counsels were 
directed by statesmen who knew well how to exploit in the 
interests of the central power the national rivalries within the 
monarchy. With the crushing of the Hungarian revolt by the 
emperor Nicholas I. of Russia in 1849 the monarchy was freed 
from the most formidable of its internal troubles; in 1850 the 
convention of Olmiitz restored its influence in Germany. 

Though the status quo was thus outwardly re-established, the 
revolutions of 1848 had really unchained forces which made its 
maintenance impossible. In Germany Prussia was steadily pre- 
paring for the inevitable struggle with Austria for the mastery; 
in France Napoleon III. was preparing to pose as the champion 
of the oppressed nationalities which had once more settled down 
sullenly under the Habsburg yoke. The alliance of the French 
emperor and the king of Sardinia, and the Italian war of 1859 
ended in the loss of Lombardy to the Habsburgs. Seven years 
later the crushing defeat of Koniggratz not only ended their long 
rule in Italy, based on the tradition of the medieval empire, by 
leading to the cession of Venetia to the new Italian kingdom, 
but led to their final exclusion from the German confederation, 
soon to become, under the headship of Prussia, the German 
empire. 

By the loss of the predominance in Germany conceded to it 
by the treaties of Vienna, and by the shifting of its " centre 
of gravity " eastward, the Habsburg monarchy, however, 
perhaps gained more than it lost. One necessary result, indeed, 
was the composition (Ausgleich) with Hungary in 1867, by which 
the latter became an independent state (Francis Joseph being 
crowned king at Pest in June 1867) bound to the rest of the 
monarchy only by the machinery necessary for the carrying out 
of a common policy in matters of common interest. This at 
least restored the loyalty of the Hungarians to the Habsburg 
dynasty; it is too soon yet to say that it secured permanently 
the essential unity of the Habsburg monarchy. By the system 
of the Dual Monarchy the rest of the Austrian emperor's 
dominions (Cis-Leithan) were consolidated under a single central 
government, the history of which has been mainly that of the 
rival races within the empire struggling for political predomin- 
ance. Since the development of the constitution has been 
consistently in a democratic direction and the Slavs are in a 
great majority, the tendency has been for the German element 
strong in its social status and tradition of predominance to 
be swamped by what it regards as an inferior race; and a con- 
siderable number of Austrian " Germans " have learned to look 
not to their Habsburg rulers, but to the power of the German 
empire for political salvation. The tendency eastwards of the 
monarchy was increased when in 1878 the congress of Berlin 
placed Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian rule. Old 
ambitions were now revived at the expense of the Ottoman 
empire, the goal of which was the port of Salonica; and not the 
least menacing aspect of the question of the near East has been 
that the rivalry of Italy and the Habsburg monarchy has been 
transferred to the Balkan peninsula. Yet, in spite of internal 



792 

dissensions arising out of questions fundamentally insoluble, and 
in spite of the constant threat of external complications that may 
lead to war, the Habsburg monarchy as the result of the changes 
in the igth and 2oth centuries is seemingly stronger than ever. 
The shadow of universal claims to empire and sonorous but 
empty titles have vanished, but so have the manifold rivalries 
and entanglements which accompanied the Habsburg rule in 
Italy and the Netherlands and Habsburg preponderance in 
Germany. The monarchy is stronger because its sphere is more 
defined; because as preserving the pax Romano, among the 
jostling races of eastern Europe, it is more than ever recognized 
as an essential element in the maintenance of European peace, 
and is recognized as necessary and beneficial even by the 
ambitious and restless nationalities that chafe under its rule. 

A few words must be said about the cadet branches of the 
Habsburg family. When, in 1 765, Francis I. died and Joseph II. 
became emperor, the grand-duchy of Tuscany passed by special 
arrangement not to Joseph, but to his younger brother Leopold. 
Then in 1791, after Leopold had succeeded Joseph as emperor, 
he handed over the grand-duchy to his second son, Ferdinand 
(1769-1824). In 1801 this prince was deposed by Napoleon and 
Tuscany was seized by France. Restored to the Habsburgs in 
the person of Ferdinand in 1814, it remained under his rule, and 
then under that of his son Leopold (1797-1870), until the rising 
of 1859, when the Austrians were driven out and the grand-duchy 
was added to the kingdom of Sardinia. A similar fate attended 
the duchy of Modena, which had passed to the Habsburgs 
through the marriage of its heiress Mary Beatrice of Este (d. 1829) 
with the archduke Ferdinand (1754-1806), brother of the 
emperor Leopold II. From 1814 to 1846 this duchy was governed 
by Ferdinand's son, Duke Francis IV., and from 1846 to 1859 
by his grandson, Francis V. This family became extinct on the 
death of Francis V. in 1875. 

In addition to his successor Francis II., and to Ferdinand, 
grand-duke of Tuscany, the emperor Leopold II. had eight sons, 
five of whom, including the archduke John (1782-1859), who 
saw a good deal of service during the Napoleonic Wars and was 
chosen regent (Reichsverweser) of Germany in 1848, have now 
no living male descendants. Thus the existing branches of the 
family are descended from Leopold's five other sons. The 
descendants of Leopold, the dispossessed grand-duke of Tuscany, 
were in 1909 represented by his son, Ferdinand (b. 1835), who 
still claimed the title of grand-duke of Tuscany, and his son and 
grandsons; by the numerous descendants of the archduke 
Charles Salvator (1839-1892); and by the archduke Louis 
Salvator (b. 1847), a great traveller and a voluminous writer. 
The grand-duke's fourth son was the archduke John Nepomuck 
Salvator, who, after serving in the Austrian army, resigned all 
his rights and titles and under the name of Johann Orth took 
command of a sailing vessel. He is supposed to have been 
drowned off the coast of South America in 1891, but reports of 
his continued existence were circulated from time to time after 
that date. Of the emperor Leopold's other sons the archduke 
Charles, perhaps the most distinguished soldier of the family, 
left four sons, including Albert, duke of Teschen (1817-1895), 
who inherited some of his father's military ability. Charles's 
family was in 1909 represented by his grandsons, the sons of the 
archduke Charles Ferdinand (1818-1874). The archduke Joseph 
(1776-1847), palatine of Hungary, was represented by a grandson, 
Joseph Augustus (b. 1872), and the archduke Rainer (1783- 
1853), viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia, by a son Rainer (b. 1827), 
and by several grandsons. 

The eldest and reigning branch of the family was in 1909 
represented by the emperor Francis Joseph, whose father was 
the archduke Francis Charles (1802-1878) , and whose grandfather 
was the emperor Francis II. Francis Joseph's only son Rudolph 
died in 1889; consequently the heir to the Habsburg monarchy 
was the emperor's nephew Francis Ferdinand (b. 1863), the 
eldest of the three sons of his brother Charles Louis (1833-1896). 
In 1875 Francis Ferdinand inherited the wealth of the Este 
family and took the title of archduke of Austria-Este; in 1900 
he contracted a morganatic marriage with Sophia, countess of 



HACHETTE, J. N. P. 



Chotek, renouncing for his sons the succession to the monarchy. 
Thus after Francis Ferdinand this would pass to the sons of his 
brother, the archduke Otto (1865-1906). One of the emperor's 
three brothers was Maximilian, emperor of Mexico from 1863 
to 1867. 

With the exception of Charles V. the Habsburgs have produced 
no statesmen of great ability, while several members' of the 
family have displayed marked traces of insanity. Nevertheless 
they secured, and for over 350 years they kept, the first place 
among the potentates of Europe; a dignity in origin and theory 
elective becoming in practice hereditary in their house. This 
position they owe to some extent to the tenacity with which 
they have clung to the various lands and dignities which have 
passed into their possession, but they owe it much more to a 
series of fortunate marriages and opportune deaths. The union 
of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, of Philip the Handsome 
and Joanna of Spain, of Ferdinand and Anna of Hungary and 
Bohemia; the death of Ottakar of Bohemia, of John, the only 
son of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, of Louis of Hungary and 
Bohemia these are the corner-stones upon which the Habsburg 
monarchy has been built. 

For the origin and early history of the Habsburgs see G. de Roo, 
Annales rerum ab Austriacis Habsburgicae gentis principibus a 
Rudolpho I. usque ad Carolum V. gestarum (Innsbruck, 1592, fol.); 
M. Herrgott, Genealogia diplomatica augustae gentis Habsburgicae 
(Vienna, 17371738); E. M. Furst von Lichnowsky, Geschichte des 
Hauses Habsburg (Vienna, 1836-1844); A. Schulte, Geschichte der 
Habsburger in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten (Innsbruck, 1887); 
T. von Liebenau, Die Anfdnge des Hauses Habsburg (Vienna, 1883); 
W. Merz, Die Habsburg (Aarau, 1896); W. Gisi, per Ursprung der 
Hduser Zahringen und Habsburg (1888) ; and F. Weihrich, Stammtafel 
zur Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg (Vienna, 1893). For the history 
of the Habsburg monarchy see Langl, Die Habsburg und die denk- 
wurdigen Stdtten ihrer Umgebung (Vienna, 1895) ; and E. A. Freeman, 
Historical Geography of Europe (1881). Two English books on the 
subject are J. Gilbart-Smith, The Cradle of the Hapsburgs (1907); 
and A. R. and E. Colquhoun, The Whirlpool of Europe, Austria- 
Hungary and the Hapsburgs (1906). (A. W. H.*) 

HACHETTE, JEAN NICOLAS PIERRE (1769-1834), French 
mathematician, was born at Mezieres, where his father was a 
bookseller, on the 6th of May 1769. For his early education 
he proceeded first to the college of Charleville, and afterwards 
to that of Reims, in 1788 he returned to Mezieres, where he 
was attached to the school of engineering as draughtsman to 
the professors of physics and chemistry. In 1793 he became 
professor of hydrography at Collioure and Port-Vendre. While 
there he sent several papers, in which some questions of naviga- 
tion were treated geometrically, to Gaspard Monge, at that time 
minister of marine, through whose influence he obtained an 
appointment in Paris. Towards the close of 1794, when the 
Ecole Polytechnique was established, he was appointed along 
with Monge over the department of descriptive geometry. 
There he instructed some of the ablest Frenchmen of the day, 
among them S. D. Poisson, F. Arago and A. Fresnel. Accom- 
panying Guyton de Morveau in his expedition, earlier in the 
year, he was present at the battle of Fleurus, and entered 
Brussels with the French army. In 1816, on the accession of 
Louis XVIII., he was expelled from his chair by government. 
He retained, however, till his death the office of professor in the 
faculty of sciences in the Ecole Normale, to which he had been 
appointed in 1810. The necessary royal assent was in 1823 
refused to the election of Hachette to the Academic des Sciences, 
and it was not till 1831, after the Revolution, that he obtained 
that honour. He died at Paris on the i6th of January 1834. 
Hachette was held in high esteem for his private worth, as well 
as for his scientific attainments and great public services. His 
labours were chiefly in the field of descriptive geometry, with its 
application to the arts and mechanical engineering. It was left 
to him to develop the geometry of Monge, and to him also is due 
in great measure the rapid advancement which France made soon 
after the establishment of the Ecole Polytechnique in the 
construction of machinery . 

Hachette's principal works are his Deux Supplements a la Geometrie 
descriptive de Monge (1811 and 1818); Elements de geometrie a 
trois dimensions (1817); Collection des epures de geometrie, &c. 



HACHETTE, JEANNE HACKETT, H. B. 



793 



(1795 and 1817); Applications de geometrie descriptive (1817); 
Traite de geometrie descriptive, &c. (182?); Traite eUmentaire des 
machines (1811); Correspondance sur I'Ecole Poly technique (1804- 
1815). He also contributed many valuable papers to the leading 
scientific journals of his time. 

For a list of Hachette's writings see the Catalogue of Scientific 
Papers of the Royal Society of London ; also F. Arago, CEuvres (1855) ; 
and Silvestre, Notice sur J. N. P. Hachette (Bruxelles, 1836). 

HACHETTE, JEANNE, French heroine. Jeanne Lain6, or 
Fourquet, called Jeanne Hachette, was born about 1454. We 
have no precise information about her family or origin. She is 
known solely for her act of heroism which on the 27th of June 
1472 saved Beauvais when it was on the point of being taken 
by the troops of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. The town 
was defended by only 300 men-at-arms, commanded by Louis de 
Balagny. The Burgundians were making an assault, and one of 
their number had actually planted a flag upon the battlements, 
when Jeanne, axe in hand, flung herself upon him, hurled him 
into the moat, tore down the flag, and revived the drooping 
courage of the garrison. In gratitude for this heroic deed, 
Louis XI. instituted a procession in Beauvais called the Proces- 
sion of the Assault, and married Jeanne to her chosen lover 
Colin Pilon, loading them with favours. 

See Georges Vallat, Jeanne Hachette (Abbeville, 1898). 

HACHETTE, LOUIS CHRISTOPHE FRANQOIS (1800-1864), 
French publisher, was born at Rethel in the Ardennes on the 
5th of May 1800. After studying three years at a normal school 
with the view of becoming a teacher, he was in 1822 on political 
grounds expelled from the seminary. He then studied law, but 
in 1826 he established in Paris a publishing business for the issue 
of works adapted to improve the system of school instruction, 
or to promote the general culture of the community. He 
published manuals in various departments of knowledge, dic- 
tionaries of modern and ancient languages, educational journals, 
and French, Latin and Greek classics annotated with great 
care by the most eminent authorities. Subsequently to 1850 he, 
in conjunction with other partners, published a cheap railway 
library, scientific and miscellaneous libraries, an illustrated 
library for the young, libraries of ancient literature, of modern 
foreign literature, and of modern foreign romance, a series of 
guide-books and a series of dictionaries of universal reference. 
In 1855 he also founded Le Journal pour tous, a publication with 
a circulation of 1 50,000 weekly. Hachette also manifested great 
interest in the formation of mutual friendly societies among the 
working classes, in the establishment of benevolent institutions, 
and in other questions relating to the amelioration of the poor, 
on which subjects he wrote various pamphlets; and he lent the 
weight of his influence towards a just settlement of the question 
of international literary copyright. He died on the 3ist of 
July 1864. 

HACHURE (French for " hatching "), the term for the con- 
ventional lines used in hill or mountain shading upon a map 
(q.v.) to indicate the slope of the surface, the depth of shading 
being greatest where the slope is steepest. The method is less 
accurate than that of contour lines, but gives an indication of 
the trend and extent of a range or mountain system, especially 
upon small-scale maps. 

HACIENDA (O. Span, facienda, from the Latin, meaning 
" things to be done "), a Spanish term for a landed estate. 
It is commonly applied in Spanish America to a country estate, 
on which stock-raising, manufacturing or mining may be cairied 
on, usually with a dwelling-house for the owner's residence upon 
it. It is thus used loosely for a country house. 

HACKBERRY, a name given to the fruit of Celtis occidentalis, 
belonging to the natural botanical order Ulmaceae, to which 
also belongs the elm ( Ulmus). It is also known under the name 
of "sugar-berry," " beaver- wood " and "nettle-tree." The 
hackberry tree is of middle size, attaining from 60 to 80 ft. in 
height (though sometimes reaching 130 ft.), and with the aspect 
of an elm. The leaves are ovate in shape, with a very long taper 
point, rounded and usually very oblique at the base, usually 
glabrous above and soft-pubescent beneath. The soft filmy 
.flowers appear early in the spring before the expansion of the 



leaves. The fruit is oblong, about half to three-quarters of an 
inch long, of a reddish or yellowish colour when young, turning 
to a dark purple in autumn. This tree is distributed through 
the deep shady forests bordering river banks from Canada 
(where it is very rare) to the southern states. The fruit has a 
sweetish and slightly astringent taste, and is largely eaten in the 
United States. The seeds contain an oil like that of almonds. 
The bark is tough and fibrous like hemp, and the wood is heavy, 
soft, fragile and coarse-grained, and is used for making fences 
and furniture. The root has been used as a dye for linens. 

HACKENSACK, a town and the county-seat of Bergen county, 
New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Hackensack river, 13 m. N. of Jersey 
City. Pop. ( 1 890) , 6004 ; ( 1 900) , 9443 , of whom 2009 were foreign- 
born and 515 were negroes; (1905) 11,098; (1910) 14,050. It is 
served by the New York, Susquehanna & Western, and the New 
Jersey & New York railways, both being controlled by the Erie 
Company; and indirectly by the West Shore (at Bogota, \ m. 
S.E.). Electric lines connect Hackensack with Newark, Passaic 
and Paterson, and with New York ferries. The town extends 
from the low bank of the river W. to the top of a ridge, about 
40 ft. higher up, from which there are good views to the S. and 
E. Hackensack is principally a residential town, though there 
are a number of manufacturing establishments in and near it. 
Silk and silk goods and wall-paper are the principal manu- 
factures. In 1905 the value of the town's factory product was 
$1,488,358, an increase of 90-3% since 1900. -There are an 
historic mansion-house and an interesting old Dutch church, 
both erected during the i8th century; and a monument marks 
the grave of General Enoch Poor (1736-1780), an officer in the 
War of Independence, who was born at Andover, Mass., entered 
the Continental Army from New Hampshire, and took part in 
the campaign against Burgoyne, in the battle of Monmouth 
and in General Sullivan's expedition against the Iroquois. 
Hackensack was settled by the Dutch about 1640, and was named 
after the Hackensack Indians, a division of the Unami Dela- 
wares, who lived in the valleys of the Hackensack and Passaic 
rivers, and whose best-known chief was Oritany, a friend of the 
whites. Hackensack is coextensive with the township of New 
Barbadoes, first incorporated with considerably larger territory 
in 1693. 

HACKET, JOHN (i 592-1670) , bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, 
was born in London and educated at Westminster and Trinity 
College, Cambridge. On taking his degree he was elected a 
fellow of his college, and soon afterwards wrote the comedy of 
Loigla (London, 1648), which was twice performed before James 
I. He was ordained in 1618, and through the influence of John 
Williams (1582-1650) became rector in 1621 of Stoke Hammond, 
Bucks, and Kirkby Underwood, Lincolnshire. In 1623 he was 
chaplain to James, and in 1624 Williams presented him to the 
livings of St Andrew's, Holborn, and Cheam, Surrey. When the 
so-called, " root-and-branch bill " was before parliament in 
1641, Hacket was selected to plead in the House of Commons 
for the continuance of cathedral establishments. In 1645 his 
living of St Andrew's was sequestered, but he was allowed to 
retain the rectory of Cheam. On the accession of Charles II. his 
fortunes improved; he frequently preached before the king, 
and in 1661 was consecrated bishop of Lichfield and Coventry. 
His best-known book is the excellent biography of his patron, 
Archbishop Williams, entitled Scrinia reserata: a Memorial 
offered to the great Deserving! of John Williams, D.D. (London, 

1693)- 

HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH (1808-1875), American biblical 
scholar, was born in Salisbury, Massachusetts, on the 27th of 
December 1808. He was educated at Phillips-Andover Academy, 
at Amherst College, where he graduated as valedictorian in 1830, 
and at Andover Theological Seminary, where he graduated in 
1834. He was adjunct professor of Latin and Greek Languages 
and Literature at Brown University in 1835-1838 and professor 
of Hebrew Literature there in 1838-1839, was ordained to the 
Baptist ministry in 1839 he had become a Baptist at Andover 
as the result of preparing a paper on baptism in the New Testa- 
ment and the Fathers and in 1839-1868 he was professor of 



HACKETT, J. H. HADAD 



794 

Biblical literature and interpretation in Newton Theological 
Institution where his most important work was the introduction 
of the modern German methods of Biblical criticism, which he had 
learned from Moses Stuart at Andover and with which he made 
himself more familiar in Germany (especially under Tholuck at 
Halle) in 1841. He travelled in Egypt and Palestine in 1852, 
and in 1858-1859 in Greece, becoming proficient in modern 
Greek. From 1870 until his death in Rochester, New York, 
on the znd of November 1875, he was professor of Biblical 
literature and New Testament exegesis in the Rochester Theo- 
logical Seminary. He was a great teacher but a greater critical 
and exegetical scholar. 

He wrote Christian Memorials of the War (1864); an English 
version of Winer's Grammar of the Chaldee Language (1844) ; Exercises 
in Hebrew Grammar (1847); and various articles on the Semitic 
language and literature in periodicals; but his best-known work was 
in general commentary on the Bible and translation, and in the special 
text study of the New Testament. Under these two headings fall : 
Illustrations of Scripture; suggested by a Tour through the Holy Land 
(1855); the American revision, with Ezra Abbot, of Smith's Diction- 
ary of the Bible, to the British edition of which he had contributed 
about thirty articles; Commentary on the Original Text of the Acts 
of the Apostles (1852; 2nd edition, 1858), for many years the best 
English commentary; Notes on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul 
to Philemon, and a Revised Version of Philemon, both published in 
1860; the English versions, in Schaff's edition of Lange's Com- 
mentaries, of Van Oosterzee's Philemon and Braune's Philippians; 
and for the American Bible Union Version of the Bible he translated 
the books of Ruth and Judges, and aided T. J. Conant in editorial 
revision ; and he was one of the American translators for the English 
Bible revision. 

See Memorials of Horatio Balch Hackett (Rochester, N.Y., 1876), 
edited by G. H. Whittemore. 

HACKETT, JAMES HENRY (1800-1871), American actor, 
was born in New York. After an unsuccessful entry into busi- 
ness, in 1826 he wert on the stage, where he soon established 
a reputation as a player of eccentric character parts. As Falstaff 
he was no less successful in England than in America. At various 
times he went into management, and he was the author of Notes 
and Comments on Shakespeare (1863). 

His son, JAMES KETELTAS HACKETT (1860- ), born at 
Wolfe Island, Ontario, and educated at the College of the City 
of New York, also became an actor. He came into prominence 
at the Lyceum in Daniel Frohman's company, and afterwards 
had considerable success in romantic parts. As a manager he 
stood outside the American syndicate of theatres, and organized 
several companies to play throughout the United States. In 
1897 he married Mary Mannering, the Anglo-American actress. 

HACKLANDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON (1816-1877), 
German novelist and dramatist, was born at Burtscheid near 
Aix-la-Chapelle on the ist of November 1816. Having served 
an apprenticeship in a commercial house, he entered the Prussian 
artillery, but, disappointed at not finding advancement, returned 
to business. A soldier's life had a fascination for him, and he 
made his debut as an author with Bilder aus dem Soldatenleben 
im Frieden (1841). After a journey to the east, he was appointed 
secretary to the crown prince of Wurttemberg, whom he accom- 
panied on his travels. Wachtstubenabenteuer, a continuation of 
his first work, appeared in 1845, and it was followed by Bilder 
aus dem Soldatenleben im Kriege (1840-1850). As a result of a 
tour in Spain in 1854, appeared Ein Winter in Spanien (1855). 
In 1857 he founded, in conjunction with Edmund von Zoller, the 
illustrated weekly, Uber Land und Meer. In 1859 Hacklander 
was appointed director of royal parks and public gardens at 
Stuttgart, and in this post did much towards the embellishment 
of the city. In 1859 he was attached to the headquarters staff 
of the Austrian army during the Italian war; in 1861 he was 
raised to an hereditary knighthood in Austria; in 1864 he retired 
into private life, and died on the 6th of July 1877. Hacklander's 
literary talent is confined within narrow limits. There is much 
in his works of lively, adventurous and even romantic description, 
but the character-drawing is feeble and superficial. 

Hacklander was a voluminous writer; the most complete edition 
of his works is the third, published at Stuttgart in 1876, in 60 volumes. 
There is also a good selection in 20 volumes (1881). Among his novels, 
Namenlose Geschichten (1851); Eugen Stillfried (1852); Krieg und 



Frieden (1859), and the comedies Der geheime Agent (1850) and 
Magnetische Kuren (1851) may be specially mentioned. His auto- 
biography appeared in 1878 under the title, Der Roman meines Lebens 
(2 vols.). See H. Morning, Erinnerungen an P. W. Hacklander 
(1878). 

HACKNEY, a north-eastern metropolitan borough of London, 
England, bounded W. by Stoke Newington and Islington, and 
S. by Shoreditch, Bethnal Green and Poplar, and extending N. 
and E. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901), 
219,272. It is a poor and populous district, in which the main 
thoroughfares are Kingsland Road, continued N. as Stoke 
Newington Road and Stamford Hill; Mare Street, continued 
N.W. as Clapton Road to join Stamtord Hill; and Lea Bridge 
Road running N.E. towards Walthamstow and Low Leyton. 
The borough includes the districts of Clapton in the north, 
Homerton in the east, and Dalston and part of Kingsland in 
the west. On the east lies the open flat valley of the Lea, which 
flows in several branches, and is bordered, immediately outside 
the confines of the borough, by the extensive reservoirs of the 
East London water-works. In these low lands lie the Hackney 
Marshes (338 acres; among several so-called marshes in the Lea 
valley), and the borough also contains part of Victoria Park 
and a number of open spaces collectively called the Hackney 
Commons, including Mill Fields, Hackney Downs, London Fields, 
&c. The total area of open spaces exceeds 500 acres. The 
tower of the ancient parish church of St Augustine, with the 
chapel of the Rowe family, still stands, and is the only historic 
building of importance. Among institutions are the German 
hospital, Dalston, Metropolitan hospital, Kingsland Road, and 
Eastern Fever hospital, Homerton; and the Hackney polytechnic 
institute, with which is incorporated the Sir John Cass institute. 
Cass (1666-1718), a merchant of the city of London, also a 
member of parliament and sheriff, bequeathed 1000 for the 
foundation of a free school; in 1732 the bequest was increased 
in accordance with an unfinished codicil to his will; and the 
income provided from it is now about 6000, some 250 boys and 
girls being educated. The parliamentary borough of Hackney 
comprises north, central and south divisions, each returning one 
member; and the northern division includes the metropolitan 
borough of Stoke Newington. The metropolitan borough of 
Hackney includes part of the Hornsey parliamentary division of 
Middlesex. The borough council consists of a mayor, 10 alder- 
men and 60 councillors. Area, 3288-9 acres. 

In the I3th century the name appears as Hackenaye or 
Hacquenye, but no certain derivation is advanced. Roman 
and other remains have been found in Hackney Marshes. In 
1290 the bishop of London was lord of the manor, which was 
so held until 1550, when it was granted to Thomas, Lord 
Wentworth. In 1697 it came into the hands of the Tyssen family. 
Extensive property in the parish also belonged to the priory 
of the Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem at Clerken- 
well. From the i6th to the early igth century there were many 
fine residences in Hackney. The neighbourhood of Hackney 
had at one time an evil reputation as the haunt of highwaymen. 

HACKNEY (from Fr. haquenee, Lat. equus, an ambling horse 
or mare, especially for ladies to ride; the English " hack " is 
simply an abbreviation), originally a riding-horse. At the 
present day, however, the hackney (as opposed to a thorough- 
bred) is bred for driving as well as riding (see HORSE: Breeds). 
From the hiring-out of hackneys, the word came to be associated 
with employment for hire (so " a hack," as a general term for 
" drudge. "), especially in combination, e.g. hackney-chair, 
hackney-coach, hackney-boat. The hackney-coach, a coach 
with four wheels and two horses, was a form of hired public 
conveyance (see CARRIAGE). 

HADAD, the name of a Syrian deity, is met with in the Old 
Testament as the name of several human persons; it also occurs 
in compound forms like Benhadad and Hadadezer. The divinity 
primarily denoted by it is the storm-god who was known also 
as Ramman, Bir and Dadda. The Syrian kings of Damascus 
seem to have habitually assumed the title of Benhadad, or son 
of Hadad (three of this name are mentioned in Scripture), just 
as a series of Egyptian monarchs are known to have been 



HADDINGTON, EARLS OF HADDINGTON 



795 



accustomed to call themselves sons of Amon-Ra. The word 
Hadadrimmon, for which the inferior reading Hadarrimmon is 
found in some MSS. in the phrase " the mourning of (or at) 
Hadadrimmon " (Zech. xii. n), has been a subject of much 
discussion. According to Jerome and all the older Christian 
interpreters, the mourning for something that occurred at a 
place called Hadadrimmon (Maximianopolis) in the valley of 
Megiddo is meant, the event alluded to being generally held to 
be the death of Josiah (or, as in the Targum, the death of Ahab 
at the hands of Hadadrimmon); but more recently the opinion 
has been gaining ground that Hadadrimmon is merely another 
name for Adonis (?..) or Tammuz, the allusion being to the 
mournings by which the Adonis festivals were usually accom- 
panied (Hitzig on Zech. xii. n, Isa. xvii. 8; Movers, Phonizier, i. 
196). T. K. Cheyne (Encyd. Bibl. s.v.) points out that the 
Septuagint reads simply Rimmon, and argues that this may be 
a corruption of Migdon (Megiddo), in itself a corruption of 
Tammuz-Adon. He would render the verse, " In that day 
.there shall be a great mourning in Jerusalem, as the mourning 
of the women who weep for Tammuz-Adon " (Adon means lord). 

HADDINGTON, EARL OF, a Scottish title bestowed in 1627 
upon Thomas Hamilton, earl of Melrose (1563-1637). Thomas, 
who was a member of the great family of Hamilton, being a son 
of Thomas Hamilton of Priestfield, was a lawyer who became a 
lord of session as Lord Drumcairn in 1592. He was on very 
friendly terms with James VI., his legal talents being useful to 
the king, and he was one of the eight men who, called the Oc- 
tavians, were appointed to manage the finances of Scotland in 
1596. Having also become king's advocate in 1596, Hamilton 
was entrusted with a large share in the government of his country 
when James went to London in 1603; in 1612 he was appointed 
secretary of state for Scotland, and in 1613 he was created Lord 
Binning and Byres. In 1616 he became lord president of the 
court of session, and three years later was created earl of Melrose, 
a title which he exchanged in 1627 for that of earl of Haddington. 
After the death of James I. the earl resigned his offices of president 
of the court of session and secretary of state, but he served 
Charles I. as lord privy seal. He died on the 29th of May 1637. 
Haddington, who was both scholarly and wealthy, left a large 
and valuable collection of papers, which is now in the Advocates' 
library at Edinburgh. James referred familiarly to his friend 
as Tarn o' the Cowgate, his Edinburgh residence being in this 
street. 

The earl's eldest son THOMAS, the 2nd earl (1600-1640), was 
a covenanter and a soldier, being killed by an explosion at Dun- 
glass castle on the 3Oth of August 1640. His sons, THOMAS (d. 
1645) and JOHN (d. 1669), became respectively the 3rd and 
4th earls of Haddington, and John's grandson THOMAS (1679- 
1735) succeeded his father CHARLES (c. 1650-1685), as 6th earl 
in 1685, although he was not the eldest but the second son. 
This curious circumstance arose from the fact that when Charles 
married Margaret (d. 1700), the heiress of the earldom of Rothes, 
it was agreed that the two earldoms should be left separate; 
thus the eldest son John became earl of Rothes while Thomas 
became earl of Haddington. Thomas was a supporter of George 
I. during the rising of 1715, and was a representative peer for 
Scotland from 1716 to 1734. He died on the 28th of November 

1735- 

The 6th earl was a writer, but in this direction his elder son, 
CHARLES, Lord Binning (1697-1732), is perhaps more celebrated. 
After fighting by his father's side at Sheriffmuir in 1715 and 
serving as member of parliament for St Germans, Binning died 
at Naples on the 27th of December 1732. His eldest son, THOMAS 
(c. 1720-1794), became the 7th earl in 1735, and the latter's 
grandson THOMAS (1780-1858) became the 9th earl in 1828. 
The 9th earl had been a member of parliament from 1802 to 
1827, when he was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron 
Melros of Tyninghame, a title which became extinct upon his 
death. In 1834 he became lord-lieutenant of Ireland under 
Sir Robert Peel, leaving office in the following year, and in Peel's 
second administration (1841-1846) he served as first lord of the 
admiralty and then as lord privy seal. When he died without 



sons on the ist of December 1858 the earldom passed to his 
kinsman, GEORGE BAILLIE (1802-1870), a descendant of the 
6th earl. This nobleman took the name of Baillie-Hamilton, 
and his son GEORGE (b. 1827) became nth earl of Haddington 
in 1870. 

See State Papers of Thomas, Earl of Melrose, published by the 
Abbotsford Club in 1837, and Sir W. Fraser, Memorials of the Earls 
of Haddington (1889). 

HADDINGTON, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and 
county town of Haddingtonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 3993. 
It is situated on the Tyne, 18 m. E. of Edinburgh by the North 
British railway, being the terminus of a branch line from Long- 
niddry Junction. Five bridges cross the river, on the right bank 
of which lies the old and somewhat decayed suburb of Nungate, 
interesting as having contained the Giffordgate, where John 
Knox was born, and where also are the ruins of the pre-Reforma- 
tion chapel of St Martin. The principal building in the town is 
St Mary's church, a cruciform Decorated edifice in red sandstone, 
probably dating from the i3th century. It is 210 ft. long, 
and is surmounted by a square tower 90 ft. high. The nave, 
restored in 1892, is used as the parish church, but the choir and 
transepts are roofless, though otherwise kept in repair. In a 
vault is a fine monument in alabaster, consisting of the re- 
cumbent figures of John, Lord Maitland of Thirlestane (1545- 
1595), chancellor of Scotland, and his wife. The laudatory 
sonnet composed by James VI. is inscribed on the tomb. In the 
same vault John, duke of Lauderdale (1616-1682), is buried. 
In the choir is the tombstone which Carlyle erected over the grave 
of his wife, Jane Baillie Welsh (1801-1866), a native of the town. 
Other public edifices include the county buildings in the Tudor 
style, in front of which stands the monument to George, 8th 
marquess of Tweeddale (1787-1876), who was such an expert 
and enthusiastic coachman that he once drove the mail from 
London to Haddington without taking rest; the corn exchange, 
next to that of Edinburgh the largest in Scotland; the town 
house, with a spire 150 ft. high, in front of which is a monument 
to John Home, the author of Douglas; the district asylum to 
the north of the burgh; the western district hospital; the 
Tenterfield home for children; the free library and the Knox 
Memorial Institute. This last-named building was erected in 
1879 to replace the old and famous grammar school, where John 
Knox, William Dunbar, John Major and possibly George 
Buchanan and Sir David Lindsay were educated. John Brown 
(1722-1787), a once celebrated dissenting divine, author of the 
Self-Interpreting Bible, ministered in the burgh for 36 years 
and is buried there; his son John the theologian (1754-1832), 
and his grandson Samuel (1817-1856), the chemist, noted 
for his inquiries into the atomic theory, were natives. Samuel 
Smiles (1812-1904), author of Character, Self-Help 'and other 
works, was also born there, and Edward Irving was for years 
mathematical master in the grammar school. In Hardgate 
Street is " Bothwell Castle," the town house of the earl of Both- 
well, where Mary Queen of Scots rested on her way to Dunbar. 
The ancient market cross has been restored. The leading 
industries are the making of agricultural implements, manu- 
factures of woollens and sacking, brewing, tanning and coach- 
building, besides corn mills and engineering works. 

The burgh is the retail centre for a large district, and its grain 
markets, once the largest in Scotland, are still of considerable 
importance. Haddington was created a royal burgh by David I. 
It also received charters from Robert Bruce, Robert II. and 
James VI. In 1139 it was given as a dowry to Ada, daughter 
of William de Warenne, earl of Surrey, on her marriage to Prince 
Henry, the only son of David I. It was occasionally the residence 
of royalty, and Alexander II. was born there in 1198. Lying in 
the direct road of the English invaders, the town was often 
ravaged. It was burned by King John in 1216 and by Henry 
III. in 1244. Fortified in 1548 by Lord Grey of Wilton, the 
English commander, it was besieged next year by the Scots and 
French, who forced the garrison to withdraw. So much slaughter 
had gone on during that period of storm and stress that it was 
long impossible to excavate in any direction without coming 



79 6 



HADDINGTONSHIRE 



on human remains. The town has suffered much periodically 
from floods. One of the most memorable of these occurred on 
the 4th of October 1775, when the Tyne rose 8 ft. 9 in. above its 
bed and inundated a great part of the burgh. An inscription in 
the centre of the town records the event and marks the point to 

which the water rose. 

There are many interesting places within a few miles of Haddington. 
Five miles E. is Whittingehame House, and 5 m. N.E. is the thriving 
village of East Linton (pop. 919). About 2 \ m. N. lies Athelstaneford 
(locally, Eishinford), so named from the victory of Hungus, king of 
the Picts, in the 8th century over the Northumbrian Athelstane. 
On a hill near Drem, 3 J m. N. by W., are traces of a Romano-British 
settlement, and the remains of the priest's house of the Knights 
Templars, to whom the barony once belonged. On the coast is the 
pretty village of Aberlady on a fine bay, and in the neighbourhood 
are some of the finest golf links in Scotland, such as Luff ness, Gullane, 
Archerfield and Muirfield. On Gosford Bay is Gosford House, an 
1 8th-century mansion, the seat of the earl of Wemyss. At Gladsmuir, 
33 m. W. of Haddington, alleged by some to have been the birthplace 
of George Heriot, Principal Robertson was minister and wrote most 
of his History of Scotland. Of the old seat of the Douglases at 
Longniddry few traces remain, and in the chapel, now in ruins, at 
the eastern end of the village, John Knox is said to have preached oc- 
casionally. At Gifford,4m.totheS., John Witherspoon (1722-1794), 
president of the College of New Jersey (Princeton) , and Charles Nisbet 
(1736-1804), president Of Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, 
were born. A little to the south of Gifford are Yester House, a seat 
of the marquess of Tweeddale, finely situated in a park of old trees, 
and the ruins of Yester Castle. The cavern locally known as Hob- 
goblin Hall is described in Marmion, and is associated with all 
kinds of manifestations of the black art. Lennoxlove, ij m. to the 
S., a seat of Lord Blantyre, was originally called Lethington, and 
for a few centuries was associated with the Maitlands. Amisfield, 
adjoining Haddington on the N.E., is another seat of the earl of 
Wemyss. 

HADDINGTONSHIRE, or EAST LOTHIAN, a south-eastern 
county of Scotland, bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, N.E. by 
the North Sea, E., S.E. and S. by Berwickshire, and S.W. and 
W. by Edinburghshire. It covers an area of 171,011 acres, or 
267 sq. m. Its sea-coast measures 41 m. The Bass Rock and 
Fidra Isle belong to the shire, and there are numerous rocks and 
reefs off the shore, especially between Dunbar and Gullane Bay. 
Broadly speaking, the northern half of the shire slopes gently 
to the coast, and the southern half is hilly. Several of the peaks 
of the Lammermuirs exceed 1500 ft., and the more level tract 
is broken by Traprain Law (724) in the parish of Prestonkirk, 
North Berwick Law (612), and Garleton Hill (590) to the north 
of the county town. The only important river is the Tyne, which 
rises to the south-east of Borthwick in Mid-Lothian, and, taking 
a generally north-easterly direction, reaches the sea just beyond 
the park of Tynninghame House, after a course of 28 m., for the 
first 7 m. of which it belongs to its parent shire. It is noted for 
a very fine variety of trout, and salmon are sometimes taken 
below the linn at East Linton. The Whiteadder rises in the 
parish of Whittingehame, but, flowing towards the south-east, 
leaves the shire and at last joins the Tweed near Berwick. There 
are no natural lakes, but in the parish of Stenton is found 
Pressmennan Loch, an artificial sheet of water of somewhat 
serpentine shape, about 2 m. in length, with a width of some 
400 yds., which was constructed in 1819 by damming up the 
ravine in which it lies. The banks are wooded and picturesque, 
and the water abounds with trout. 

Geology. The higher ground in the south, including the Lammer- 
muir Hills, is formed by shales, greywackes and grits of Ordovician 
and Silurian age; a narrow belt of the former lying on the north- 
western side of the latter, the strike being S.W. to N.E. The granitic 
mass of Priestlaw and other felsitic rocks have been intruded into 
these strata. The lower Old Red Sandstone has not been observed 
in this county, but the younger sandstones and conglomerates fill 
up ancient depressions in the Silurian and Ordovician, such as that 
running northward from Oldhamstocks towards Dunbar and the 
valley of Lauderdale. A faulted-in tract of the same formation, 
about I m. in breadth, runs westward from Dunbar to near Gifford. 
Carboniferous rocks form the remainder of the county. The Calci- 
ferous Sandstone series, shales, thin limestones and sandstones, is 
exposed on the south-eastern coast ; but between Gifford and North 
Berwick and from Aberlady to Dunbar it is represented by a great 
thickness of volcanic rocks consisting of tuffs and coarse breccias 
in the lower beds, and of porphyritic and andesitic lavas above. 
These rocks are well exposed on the coast, in the Garleton Hills 
and Traprain Law ; the latter and North Berwick Law are volcanic 



necks or vents. The Carboniferous Limestone series which succeeds 
the Calciferous Sandstone consists of a middle group of sandstones, 
shales, coals and ironstones, with a limestone group above and 
below. The coal-field is synclinal in structure, Port Seton being 
about the centre; it contains ten seams of coal, and the area covered 
by it is some 30 sq. m. Glacial boulder clay lies over much of the 
lower ground, and ridges of gravel and sand flank the hills and form 
extensive sheets. Traces of old raised sea-beaches are found at 
several points along the coast. At North Berwick, Tynninghame and 
elsewhere there are stretches of blown sand. Limestone is worked 
at many places, and hematite was formerly obtained from the 
Garleton Hills. 

Climate and Agriculture. Though the county is exposed to 
the full sweep of the east wind during March, April and May, 
the climate is on the whole mild and equable. The rainfall is 
far below the average of Great Britain, the mean for the year 
being 25 in., highest in midsummer and lowest in spring. The 
average temperature for the year is 47 -5 F., for January 38 
and for July 59. Throughout nearly the whole of the igth 
century East Lothian agriculture was held to be the best in 
Scotland, not so much in consequence of the natural fertility 
of the soil as because of the enterprise of the cultivators, several 
of whom, like George Hope of Fenton Barns (1811-1876), 
brought scientific farming almost to perfection. Mechanical 
appliances were adopted with exceptional alacrity, and indeed 
some that afterwards came into general use were first employed 
in Haddington. Drill sowing of turnips dates from 1734. The 
threshing machine was introduced by Andrew Meikle (1719- 
1811) in 1787, the steam plough in 1862, and the reaping machine 
soon after its invention, while tile draining was first extensively 
used in the county. East Lothian is famous for the richness of 
its grain and green crops, the size of its holdings (average 200 
acres) and the good housing of its labourers. The soils vary. 
Much of the Lammermuirs is necessarily unproductive, though 
the lower slopes are cultivated, a considerable tract of the land 
being very good. In the centre of the shire occurs a belt of 
tenacious yellow clay on a tilly subsoil which is not adapted for 
agriculture. Along the coast the soil is sandy, but farther inland 
it is composed of rich loam and is very fertile. The land about 
Dunbar is the most productive, yielding a potato the "Dunbar 
red " which is highly esteemed in the markets. Of the grain 
crops oats and barley are the principal, and their acreage is 
almost a constant, but wheat, after a prolonged decline, has 
experienced a revival. Turnips and potatoes are cultivated 
extensively, and with marked success, and constitute nearly 
all the green crops raised. Although pasture-land is below the 
average, live-stock are reared profitably. About one-sixteenth 
of the total area is under wood. 

Other Industries. Fisheries are conducted from Dunbar, 
North Berwick, Port Seton and Prestonpans, the catch consisting 
chiefly of cod, haddock, whiting and shellfish. Fireclay as well 
as limestone is worked, and there are some stone quarries, but 
the manufactures are mainly agricultural implements, pottery, 
woollens, artificial manures, feeding-stuffs and salt, besides 
brewing. Coal of a very fair quality is extensively worked at 
Tranent, Ormiston, Macmerry and near Prestonpans, the coal- 
field having an area of about 30 sq. m. Limestone is found 
throughout the greater part of the shire. A vein of hematite 
of a peculiarly fine character was discovered in 1866 at Garleton 
Hill, and wrought for some years. Ironstone has been mined 
at Macmerry. 

The North British Company possess the sole running powers 
in the county, through which is laid their main line to Berwick 
and the south. Branches are sent off at Drem to North Berwick, 
at Longniddry to Haddington and also to Gullane, at Smeaton 
(in Mid-Lothian) to Macmerry, and at Ormiston to Gifford. 

Population and Government. The population was 37,377 
in 1891, and 38,665 in 1901, when 459 persons spoke Gaelic and 
English, and 7 spoke Gaelic only. The chief towns are Dunbar 
(pop. in 1901, 3581), Haddington (3993), North Berwick (2899), 
Prestonpans (2614) and Tranent (2584). The county, which 
returns one member to Parliament, forms part of the sheriffdom 
of the Lothians and Peebles, and there is a resident sheriff- 
substitute at Haddington, who sits also at Dunbar, Tranent 



HADDOCK HADEN, SIR F. S. 



797 



and North Berwick. The shire is under school-board jurisdiction, 
and besides high schools at Haddington and North Berwick, 
some of the elementary schools earn grants for higher educa- 
tion. The county council spends a proportion of the " residue " 
grant in supporting short courses of instruction in technical 
subjects (chiefly agriculture), in experiments in the feeding of 
cattle and the growing of crops, and in defraying the travelling 
expenses of technical students. 

History. Of the Celts, who were probably the earliest in- 
habitants, traces are found in a few place names and circular 
camps (in the parishes of Garvald and Whittinghame) and hill 
forts (in the parish of Bolton). After the Roman occupation, 
of which few traces remain, the district formed part of the Saxon 
kingdom of Northumbria until 1018, when it was joined to 
Scotland by Malcolm II. It was comparatively prosperous till 
the wars of Bruce and Baliol, but from that period down to the 
union of the kingdoms it suffered from its nearness to the Border 
and from civil strife. The last battles fought in the county 
were those of Dunbar (1650) and Prestonpans (1745). 

See J. Miller, History of Haddington (1844); D. Croal, Sketches of 
East Lothian (Haddington, 1873) ; John Martine, Reminiscences of 
the County of Haddington (Haddington, 1890, 1894); Dr Wallace 
James, Writs and Charters of Haddington (Haddington, 1898). 

HADDOCK (Gadus aeglefinus) , a fish which differs from the 
cod in having the mental barbel very short, the first anal fin 
with 22 to 25 rays, instead of 17 to 20, and the lateral line dark 
instead of whitish; it has a large blackish spot above each 
pectoral fin associated in legend with the marks of St Peter's 
finger and thumb, the haddock being supposed to be the fish 
from whose mouth he took the tribute-money. It attains to a 
weight of 15 ft. and is one of the most valuable food fishes of 
Europe, both fresh and smoked, the " finnan haddie " of Scotland 
being famous. It is common round the British and Irish coasts, 
and generally distributed along the shores of the North Sea, 
extending across the Atlantic to the coast of North America. 

HADDON HALL, one of the most famous ancient mansions in 
England. It lies on the left bank of the river Wye, 2 m. S.E. of 
Bakewell in Derbyshire. It is not now used as a residence, but 
the fabric is maintained in order. The building is of stone and 
oblong in form, and encloses two quadrangles separated by the 
great banqueting-hall and adjoining chambers. The greater part 
is of two storeys, and surmounted by battlements. To the south 
and south-east lie terraced gardens, and the south front of the 
eastern quadrangle is occupied by the splendid ball-room or 
long gallery. At the south-west corner of the mansion is the 
chapel; at the north-east the Peveril tower. The periods of 
building represented are as follows. Norman work appears in 
the chapel (which also served as a church for the neighbouring 
villagers), also in certain fundamental parts of the fabric, notably 
the Peveril tower. There are Early English and later additions 
to the chapel; the banqueting-hall, with the great kitchen 
adjacent to it, and part of the Peveril tower are of the i4th 
century. The eastern range of rooms, including the state-room, 
are of the isth century; the western and north-western parts 
were built shortly after 1500. The ball-room is of early 17th- 
century construction, and the terraces and gardens were laid 
out at this time. A large number of interesting contemporary 
fittings are preserved, especially in the banqueting-hall and 
kitchen; and many of the rooms are adorned with tapestries 
of the 1 6th and I7th centuries, some of which came from the 
famous works at Mortlake in Surrey. 

A Roman altar was found and is preserved here, but no trace 
of Roman inhabitants has been discovered. Haddon was a 
manor which before the Conquest and at the time of the Domes- 
day Survey belonged to the king, but was granted by William 
the Conqueror to William Peverel, whose son, another William 
Peverel, forfeited it for treason on the accession of Henry II. 
Before that time, however, the manor of Haddon had been 
granted to the family of Avenell, who continued to hold it 
until one William Avenell died without male issue and his 
property was divided between his two daughters and heirs, one 
of whom married Richard Vernon, whose successors acquired 



the other half of the manor in the reign of Edward III. Sir 
George Vernon, who died in 1561, was known as the " King of 
the Peak " on account of his hospitality. His daughter Dorothy 
married John Manners, second son of the earl of Rutland, who 
is said to have lived for some time in the woods round Haddon 
Hall, disguised as a gamekeeper, until he persuaded Dorothy 
to elope with him. On Sir George's death without male issue 
Haddon passed to John Manners and Dorothy, who lived in the 
Hall. Their grandson John Manners succeeded to the title of 
earl of Rutland in 1641, and the duke of Rutland is still lord of 
the manor. 

See Victoria County History, Derbyshire; S. Rayner, History and 
Antiquities of Haddon Hall (1836-1837); Haddon Hall, History and 
Antiquities of Haddon Hall (1867); G. le Blanc Smith, Haddon, the 
Manor, the Hall, its Lords and Traditions (London, 1906). 

HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR (1818-1910), English 
surgeon and etcher, was born in London on the i6th of September 
1818, his father, Charles Thomas Haden, being a well-known 
doctor and amateur of music. He was educated at University 
College school and University College, London, and also studied 
at the Sorbonne, Paris, where he took his degree in 1840. He was 
admitted as a member of the College of Surgeons in London in 
1842. Besides his many-sided activities in the scientific world, 
during a busy and distinguished career as a surgeon, he followed 
the art of original etching with such vigour that he became not 
only the foremost British exponent of that art but was the 
principal cause of its revival in England. By his strenuous 
efforts and perseverance, aided by the secretarial ability of Sir 
W. R. Drake, he founded the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers 
and Engravers. As president he ruled the destinies of that 
society with a strong hand from its first beginnings in 1880. In 
1843-1844, with his friends Duval, Le Cannes and Col. Guibout, 
he had travelled in Italy and made his first sketches from nature. 
Haden attended no art school and had no art teachers, but in 
1845, 1846, 1847 and 1 848 he studied portfolios of prints belonging 
to an old second-hand dealer named Love, who had a shop in 
Bunhill Row, the old Quaker quarter of London. These port- 
folios he would carry home, and arranging the prints in chrono- 
logical order, he studied the works of the great original engravers, 
Diirer, Lucas van Leyden and Rembrandt. These studies, 
besides influencing his original work, led to his important mono- 
graph on the etched work of Rembrandt. By lecture and book, 
and with the aid of the memorable exhibition at the Burlington 
Fine Arts Club in 1877, he endeavoured to give a just idea of 
Rembrandt's work, separating the true from the false, and giving 
altogether a nobler idea of the master's mind by taking away from 
the list of his works many dull and unseemly plates that had long 
been included in the lists. His reasons are founded upon the 
results of a study of the master's works in chronological order, 
and are clearly expressed in his monograph, The Etched Work of 
Rembrandt critically reconsidered, privately printed in 1877, 
and in The Etched Work of Rembrandt True and False (1895). 
Notwithstanding all this study of the old masters of his art, 
Haden 's own plates are perhaps more individual than any artist's, 
and are particularly noticeable for a fine original treatment of 
landscape subjects, free and open in line, clear and well divided 
in mass, and full of a noble and dignified style of his own. Even 
when working from a picture his personality dominates the plate, 
as for example in the large plate he etched after J. M. W. Turner's 
" Calais Pier," which is a classical example of what interpretative 
work can do in black and white. Of his original plates, more 
than 250 in number, one of the most notable was the large 
" Breaking up of the Agamemnon." An early plate, rare and 
most beautiful, is " Thames Fisherman." " Mytton Hall " is 
broad in treatment, and a fine rendering of a shady avenue of 
yew trees leading to an old manor-house in sunlight. " Sub 
Tegmine " was etched in Greenwich Park in 1859; and " Early 
Morning Richmond," full of the poetry and freshness of the 
hour, was done, the artist has said, actually at sunrise. One of 
the rarest and most beautiful of his plates is " A By-Road in 
Tipperary "; " Combe Bottom " is another; and " Shere Mill 
Pond " (both the small study and the larger plate), " Sunset in 



HADENDOA HADLEY, A. T. 



Ireland," " Penton Hook," " Grim Spain " and " Evening 
Fishing, Longparish," are also notable examples of his genius. 
A catalogue of his works was begun by Sir William Drake and 
completed by Mr N. Harrington (1880). During later years 
Haden began to practise the sister art of mezzotint engraving, 
with a measure of the same success that he had already achieved 
in pure etching and in dry-point. Some of his mezzotints are: 
" An Early Riser," a stag seen through the morning mists, 
" Grayling Fishing " and " A Salmon Pool on the Spey." He 
also produced some remarkable drawings of trees and park-like 
country in charcoal. 

Other books by Haden not already mentioned are Etudes a 
I'eau forte (Paris, 1865); About Etching (London, 1878-1879); 
The Art of the Painter-Etcher (London, 1890); The Relative 
Claims of Etching and Engraving to rank as Fine Arts and to 
be represented in the Royal Academy (London, 1883); Address 
to Students of Winchester School of Art (Winchester, 1888); 
Cremation: a Pamphlet (London, 1875); and The Disposal of 
the Dead, a Plea for Legislation (London, 1888). As the last 
two indicate, he was an ardent champion of a system of " earth 
to earth " burial. 

Among numerous distinctions he received the Grand Prix, 
Paris, in 1889 and 1900, and was made a member of the Institut 
de France, Academic des Beaux-Arts and Societe des Artistes 
Francais. He was knighted in 1894, and died on the ist of 
June 1910. He married in 1847 a sister of the artist J. A. M. 
Whistler; and his elder son, Francis Seymour Haden (b. 1850), 
had a distinguished career as a member of the government in Natal 
from 1881 to 1893, being made a C.M.G. in 1890. (C.H.*) 

HADENDOA (from Beja Hada, chief, and endowa, people), a 
nomad tribe of Africans of " Hamitic " origin. They inhabit 
that part of the eastern Sudan extending from the Abyssinian 
frontier northward nearly to Suakin. They belong to the Beja 
people, of which, with the Bisharin and the Ababda, they are 
the modern representatives. They are a pastoral people, ruled 
by a hereditary chief who is directly responsible to the (Anglo- 
Egyptian) Sudan government. Although the official capital of 
the Hadendoa country is Miktinab, the town of Fillik on an 
affluent of the Atbara is really their headquarters. A third of 
the total population is settled in the Suakin country. Osman 
Digna, one of the best-known chiefs during the Madhia, was a 
Hadendoa, and the tribe contributed some of the fiercest of the 
dervish warriors in the wars of 1883-98. So determined were 
they in their opposition to the Anglo-Egyptian forces that the 
name Hadendoa grew to be nearly synonymous with " rebel." 
But this was the result of Egyptian misgovernment rather than 
religious enthusiasm; for the Hadendoa are true Beja, and 
Mahommedans only in name. Their elaborate hairdressing 
gained them the name of " Fuzzy-wuzzies " among the British 
troops. They earned an unenviable reputation during the wars 
by their hideous mutilations of the dead on the battlefields. 
After the reconquest of the Egyptian Sudan (1896-98) the 
Hadendoa accepted the new order without demur. 

See Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 
1905) ; Sir F. R. Wingate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (London, 
1891); G. Sergi, Africa: Anthropology of the Hamitic Race (1897); 
A. H. Keane, Ethnology of the Egyptian Sudan (1884). 

HADERSLEBEN (Dan. Haderslev), a town of Germany, in 
the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, 31 m. N. from 
Flensburg. Pop. (1905) 9289. It lies in a pleasant valley on the 
Hadersleben fjord, which is about 9 m. in length, and com- 
municates with the Little Belt, and at the junction of the 
main line of railway from Woyens with three vicinal lines. The 
principal buildings are the beautiful church of St Mary, dating 
from the i3th century, the theological seminary established in 
1870, the gymnasium and the hospital. The industries include 
iron-founding, tanning, and the manufacture of machines, 
tobacco and gloves. The harbour is only accessible to small 
vessels. 

Hadersleben is first mentioned in 1228, and received municipal 
rights from Duke Waldemar II. in 1 292. It suffered considerably 
during the wars between Schleswig and Holstein in the isth 



century. In November 1864 it passed with Schleswig to Prussia. 
Two Danish kings, Frederick II. and Frederick III., were born 
at Hadersleben. 

See A. Sach, Der Ur sprung der Stadt Hadersleben (Hadersleben, 
1892). 

HADING, JANE (1859- ), French actress, whose real name 
was Jeanne Alfredine Trefouret, was born on the 25th of 
November 1859 at Marseilles, where her father was an actor at 
the Gymnase. She was trained at the local Conservatoire and 
was engaged in 1873 for the theatre at Algiers, and afterwards 
for the Khedivial theatre at Cairo, where she played, in turn, 
coquette, soubrette and ingenue parts. Expectations had been 
raised by her voice, and when she returned to Marseilles she sang 
in operetta, besides acting in Ruy Bias. Her Paris debut was 
in La Chaste Suzanne at the Palais Royal, and she was again 
heard in operetta at the Renaissance. In 1883 she had a great 
success at the Gymnase in Le Mattre de forges. In 1884 she 
married Victor Koning (1842-1894), the manager of that theatre, 
but divorced him in 1887. In 1888 she toured America with 
Coquelin, and on her return helped to give success to Lavedan's 
Prince d'Aurec, at the Vaudeville. Her reputation as one of the 
leading actresses of the day was now established not only in 
France but in America and England. Her later repertoire 
included Le Demi-monde, Capus's La Chatelaine, Maurice 
Donnay's Retour de Jerusalem, La Princesse Georges by Dumas 
fils, and Emile Bergerat's Plus que reine. 

HADLEIGH, a market town in the Sudbury parliamentary 
division of Suffolk, England; 70 m. N.E. from London, the 
terminus of a branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of 
urban district (1901), 3245. It lies pleasantly in a well-wooded 
country on the small river Brett, a tributary of the Stour. The 
church of St Mary is of good Perpendicular work, with Early 
English tower and Decorated spire. The Rectory Tower, a 
turreted gate-house of brick, dates from c. 1495. The gild-hall 
is a Tudor building, and there are other examples of this period. 
There are a town-hall and corn exchange, and an industry in the 
manufacture of matting and in malting. Hadleigh was one of 
the towns in which the woollen industry was started by Flemings, 
and survived until the i8th century. Among the rectors of 
Hadleigh several notable names appear, such as Rowland Taylor, 
the martyr, who was burned at the stake outside the town in 
1555, and Hugh James Rose, during whose tenancy of the rectory 
an initiatory meeting of the leaders of the Oxford Movement, 
took pkce here in 1833. 

Hadleigh, called by the Saxons Heapde-leag, appears in 
Domesday Book as Hetlega. About 885 jEthelflaed, lady of the 
Mercians, with the consent of ^Ethelred her husband, gave 
Hadleigh to Christ Church, Canterbury. The dean and chapter 
of Canterbury have held possession of it ever since the Dissolution. 
In the 1 7th century Hadleigh was famous for the manufacture 
of cloth, and in 1618 was sufficiently important to receive 
incorporation. It was constituted a free borough under the title 
of the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of Hadleigh. In 1635, in 
a list of the corporate towns of Suffolk to be assessed for ship 
money, Hadleigh is named as third in importance. In 1636, 
owing to a serious visitation of the plague, 200 families were 
thrown out of work, and in 1687 so much had its importance 
declined that it was deprived of its charter. An unsuccessful 
attempt to recover it was made in 1701. There is evidence of 
the existence of a market here as early as the I3th century. 
James I., in his charter of incorporation, granted fairs on Monday 
and Tuesday in Whitsun week, and confirmed an ancient fair 
at Michaelmas and a market on Monday. 

HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING (1856- ), American poli- 
tical economist and educationist, president of Yale University, 
was born in New Haven, Connecticut, on the 23rd of April 
1856. He was the son of James Hadley, the philologist, from 
whom, as from his mother whose brother, Alexander Catlin 
Twining (1801-1884), w &s an astronomer and authority on con- 
stitutional law he inherited unusual mathematical ability. 
He graduated at Yale in 1876 as valedictorian, having taken 
prizes in English, classics and astronomy; studied political 



HADLEY, J. HADRAMUT 



science at Yale (1876-1877) and at Berlin (1878-1879); was 
a tutor at Yale in 1870-1883, instructor in political science in 
1883-1886, professor of political science in 1886-1891, professor 
of political economy in 1891-1899, and dean of the Graduate 
School in 1892-1895; and in 1899 became president of Yale 
University the first layman to hold that office. He was 
commissioner of the Connecticut bureau of labour statistics 
in 1885-1887. As an economist he first became widely known 
through his investigation of the railway question and his study 
of railway rates, which antedated the popular excitement as to 
rebates. His Railroad Transportation, Us History and Laws 
(1885) became a standard work, and appeared in Russian (1886) 
and French (1887); he testified as an expert on transportation 
before the Senate committee which drew up the Interstate 
Commerce Law; and wrote on railways and transportation for 
the Ninth and Tenth Editions (of which he was one of the 
editors) of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica, for Lalor's Cyclopaedia 
of Political Science, Political Economy, and Political History of 
the United States (3 vols., 1881-1884), for The American Railway 
(1888), and for The Railroad Gazette in 1884-1891, and for other 
periodicals. His idea of the broad scope of economic science, 
especially of the place of ethics in relation to political economy 
and business, is expressed in his writings and public addresses. 
In 1907-1908 he was Theodore Roosevelt professor of American 
History and Institutions in the university of Berlin. 

Among his other publications are: Economics: an Account of the 
Relations between Private Property and Public Welfare (1896); The 
Education of the American Citizen (1901); The Relations between 
Freedom and Responsibility in the Evolution of Democratic Government 
(1903, in Yale Lectures on the Responsibilities of Citizenship); 
Baccalaureate Addresses (1907) ; and Standards of Public Morality 
(1907), being the Kennedy Lectures for 1906. 

HADLEY, JAMES (1821-1872), American scholar, was born 
on the 3oth of March 1821 in Fairfield, Herkimer county, New 
York, where his father was professor of chemistry in Fairfield 
Medical College. At the age of nine an accident lamed him for 
life. He graduated from Yale in 1842, having entered the 
Junior class in 1840; studied in the Theological Department of 
Yale, and in 1844-1845 was a tutor in Middlebury College. 
He was tutor at Yale in 1845-1848, assistant professor of Greek 
in 1848-1851, and professor of Greek, succeeding President 
Woolsey, from 1851 until his death in Hew Haven on the i4th 
of November 1872. As an undergraduate he showed himself an 
able mathematician, but the influence of Edward Elbridge 
Salisbury, under whom Hadley and W. D. Whitney studied 
Sanskrit together, turned his attention toward the study of 
language. He knew Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic, 
Armenian, several Celtic languages and the languages of modern 
Europe; but he published little, and his scholarship found scant 
outlet in the college class-room. His most original written work 
was an essay on Greek accent, published in a German version 
in Curtius's Sludien zur griechischen und laleinischen Grammatik. 
Hadley's Greek Grammar (1860; revised by Frederic de Forest 
Allen, 1884) was based on Curtius's Schulgrammaiik (1852, 1855, 
1857, 1859), and long held its place in American schools. Hadley 
was a member of the American Committee for the revision of the 
New Testament, was president of the American Oriental Society 
(1871-1872), and contributed to Webster's dictionary an essay 
on the History of the English Language. In 1873 were published 
his Introduction to Roman Law (edited by T. D. Woolsey) and 
his Essays, Philological and Critical (edited by W. D. Whitney). 

See the memorial by Noah Porter in The New Englander, vol. 
xxxii. (Jan. 1873), pp. 35-55; and the sketch by his son, A. T. 
Hadley, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, 
vol. v. (1905), pp. 247-254. 

HADLEY, a township of Hampshire county, Massachusetts, 
U.S.A., on the Connecticut river, about 20 m. N. of Springfield, 
served by the Boston & Maine railway. Pop. (1900), 1789; 
(1905, state census), 1895 > ( I 9 I ) J 999- Area, about 20 sq. m. 
The principal villages are Hadley (or Hadley Center) and North 
Hadley. The level country along the river is well adapted to 
tobacco culture, and the villages are engaged in the manufacture 
of tobacco and brooms. Hadley was settled in 1659 by members 



799 

of the churches in Hartford and Wethersfield, Connecticut, who 
were styled " Strict Congregationalists " and withdrew from these 
Connecticut congregations because of ecclesiastical and doctrinal 
laxity there. At first the town was called Norwottuck, but within 
a year or two it was named after Hadleigh in England, and was 
incorporated under this name in 1661. Hopkins Academy (1815) 
developed from Hopkins school, founded here in 1664. The 
English regicides Edward Whalley and his son-in-law William 
Goffe found a refuge at Hadley from 1664 apparently until 
their deaths, and there is a tradition that Goffe or Whalley in 
1675 led the people in repelling an Indian attack. From 1675 
to 1713 Hadley, being in almost constant danger of attack from 
the Indians, was protected by a palisade enclosure and by 
stockades around the meeting-house. From Hadley, Hatfield 
was set apart in 1670, South Hadley in 1753, and Amherst in 

1759- 

See Alice M. Walker, Historic Hadley (New York, 1906) ; and 
Sylvester Judd, History of Hadley (Northampton, 1863; new ed., 
1905)- 

HADRAMUT, a district on the south coast of Arabia, bounded 
W. by Yemen, E. by Oman and N. by the Dahna desert. The 
modern Arabs restrict the name to the coast between Balhaf 
and Sihut, and the valley of the Wadi Hadramut in the interior; 
in its wider and commonly accepted signification it includes also 
the Mahra and Gara coasts extending eastwards to Mirbat; 
thus defined, its limits are between 14 and 18 N. and 47 30' 
to 55 E., with a total length of 550 m. and a breadth of 150 m. 

The coastal plain is narrow, rarely exceeding 10 m. in width, 
and in places the hills extend to the seashore. The principal ports 
are MukalU and Shihr, both considerable towns, and Kusair and 
Raida, small fishing villages; inland there are a few villages near 
the foot of the hills, with a limited area of cultivation irrigated by 
springs or wells in the hill torrent beds. Behind the littoral plain a 
range of mountains, or rather a high plateau, falling steeply to the 
south and more gently to the north, extends continuously from the 
Yemen highlands on the west to the mouth of the Hadramut valley, 
from which a similar range extends with hardly a break to the border 
of Oman. Its crest-line is generally some 30 m. from the coast, and 
its average height between 4000 and 5000 ft. A number of wadis or 
ravines cutting deeply into the plateau run northward to the main 
Wadi Hadramut, a broad valley lying nearly east and west, with a 
total length from its extreme western heads on the Yemen highlands 
to its mouth near Sihut of over 500 m. Beyond the valley and 
steadily encroaching on it lies the great desert extending for 300 m. 
to the borders of Nejd. The most westerly village in the main valley 
is Shabwa, in ancient days the capital, but now almost buried by 
the advancing desert. Lower down the first large villages are Henan 
and Ajlania, near which the wadis 'Amd, Duwan and el 'Ain unite, 
forming the W. Kasr. In the W. Duwan and its branches are the 
villages of Haura, el Hajren, Kaidun and al Khureba. Below Haura 
for some 60 m. there is a succession of villages with fields, gardens 
and date groves; several tributaries join on either side, among which 
the W. bin Ali and W. Adim from the south contain numerous 
villages. The principal towns are Shibam, al Ghurfa, Saiyun, 
Tariba, el Ghuraf, Tarim, formerly the chief place, 'Ainat and el 
Kasm. Below the last-named place there is little cultivation or 
settled population. The shrines of Kabr Salih and Kabr Hud are 
looked on as specially sacred, and are visited by numbers of pilgrims. 
The former, which is in the Wadi Ser about 20 m. N.W. of Shibam, 
was explored by Theodore Bent in 1894; the tomb itself is of no 
interest, but in the neighbourhood there are extensive ruins with 
Himyaritic inscriptions on the stones. Kabr Hud is in the main 
valley some distance east of Kasm; not far from it is Bir Borhut, 
a natural grotto, where fumes of burning sulphur issue from a number 
of volcanic vents; al-Masudi mentions it in the loth century as an 
active volcano. Except after heavy rain, there is no running water 
in the Hadramut valley, the cultivation therefore depends on 
artificial irrigation from wells. The principal crops are wheat, 
millet, indigo, dates and tobacco; this latter, known as Hamumi 
tobacco, is of excellent quality. 

Hadramut has preserved its name from the earliest times; 
it occurs in Genesis as Hazarmaveth and Hadoram, sons of 
Joktan;and the old Greek geographers mention Adramytta and 
Chadramotites in their accounts of the frankincense country. 
The numerous ruins discovered in the W. Duw5.n and Adim, as 
well as in the main valley, are evidences of its former prosperity 
and civilization. 

The people, known as Hadrami (plural Hadarim), belong 
generally to the south Arabian stock, claiming descent from 
Ya'rab bin Kahtan. There is, however, a large number of 



8oo 



HADRIA HADRIAN 



Seyyids or descendants of the Prophet, and of townsmen of 
northern origin, besides a considerable class of African or mixed 
descent. Van den Berg estimates the total population of 
Hadramut (excluding the Mahra and Gara) at 1 50,000, of which 
he locates 50,000 in the valley between Shibam and Tarim, 
25,000 in the W. Duwan and its tributaries, and 25,000 in 
Mukalla, Shihr and the coast villages, leaving 50,000 for the non- 
agricultural population scattered over the rest of the country, 
probably an excessive estimate. 

The Seyyids, descendants of Hosain, grandson of Mahomet, 
form a numerous and highly respected aristocracy. They are 
divided into families, the chiefs of which are known as Munsibs, 
who are looked on as the religious leaders of the people, and 
are even in some cases venerated as saints. Among the leading 
families are the Sheikh Abu Bakr of Ainat, the el-Aidrus of Shihr 
and the Sakkaf of Saiyun. They do not bear arms, nor occupy 
themselves in trade or manual labour or even agriculture; 
though owning a large proportion of the land, they employ 
slaves or hired labourers to cultivate it. As compared with the 
other classes, they are well educated, and are strict in their 
observance of religious duties, and owing to the respect due to 
their descent, they exercise a strong influence both in temporal 
and spiritual affairs. 

The tribesmen, as in Arabia generally, are the predominant 
class in the population; all the adults carry arms; some of the 
tribes have settled towns and villages, others lead a nomadic life, 
keeping, however, within the territory which is recognized as 
belonging to the tribe. They are divided into sections or families, 
each headed by a chief or abu (lit. father), while the head of the 
tribe is called the mukaddam or sultan; the authority of the 
chief depends largely on his personality: he is the leader in 
peace and in war, but the tribesmen are not his subjects; he 
can only rule with their support. The most powerful tribe at 
present in Hadramut is the Kaiti, a branch of the Yafa tribe 
whose settlements lie farther west. Originally invited by the 
Seyyids to protect the settled districts from the attacks of 
marauding tribes, they have established themselves as practically 
the rulers of the country, and now possess the coast district with 
the towns of Shihr and Mukalla, as well as Haura, Hajren and 
Shibam in the interior. The head of the family has accumulated 
great wealth, and risen to the highest position in the service of 
the nizam of Hyderabad in India, as Jamadar, or commander 
of an Arab levy composed of his tribesmen, numbers of whom go 
abroad to seek their fortune. The Kathiri tribe was formerly 
the most powerful; they occupy the towns of Saiyun, Tarim 
and el-Ghuraf in the richest part of the main Hadramut valley. 
The chiefs of both the Kaiti and Kathiri are in political relations 
with the British government, through the resident at Aden (q.v.). 
The 'Amudi in the W. Duwan, and the Nahdi, Awamir and 
Tamimi in the main valley, are the principal tribes possessing 
permanent villages; the Saiban, Hamumi and Manahil occupy 
the mountains between the main valley and coast. 

The townsmen are the free inhabitants of the towns and 
villages as distinguished from the Seyyids and the tribesmen: 
they do not carry arms, but are the working members of the 
community, merchants, artificers, cultivators and servants, 
and are entirely dependent on the tribes and chiefs under whose 
protection they live. The servile class contains a large African 
element, brought over formerly when the slave trade flourished 
on this coast; as in all Mahommedan countries they are well 
treated, and often rise to positions of trust. 

As already mentioned, a large number of Arabs from Hadramut 
go abroad; the Kaiti tribesmen take service in India in the 
irregular troops of Hyderabad; emigration on a large scale has 
also gone on, to the Dutch colonies in Java and Sumatra, since 
the beginning of the ipth century. According to the census of 
1885, quoted by Van den Berg in his Report published by the 
government of the Dutch East Indies in 1886, the number of 
Arabs in those colonies actually born in Arabia was 2500, while 
those born in the colonies exceeded 20,000; nearly all of the 
former are from the towns in the Hadramut valley between 
Shibam and Tarim. Mukalla and Shihr have a considerable 



trade with the Red Sea and Persian Gulf ports, as well as with 
the ports of Aden, Dhafar and Muscat; a large share of this is 
in the hands of Parsee and other British Indian traders who 
have established themselves in the Hadramut ports. The 
principal imports are wheat, rice, sugar, piece goods and hard- 
ware. The exports are small; the chief items are honey, tobacco 
and sharks' fins. In the towns in the interior the principal 
industries are weaving and dyeing. 

The Mahra country adjoins the Hadramut proper, and extends 
along the coast from Sihut eastwards to the east of Kamar Bay, 
where the Gara coast begins and stretches to Mirbat. The sultan of 
the Mahra, to whom Sokotra also belongs, lives at Kishin, a poor 
village consisting of a few scattered houses about 30 m. west of Ras 
Fartak. Sihut is a similar village 20 m. farther west. The mountains 
rise to a height of 4000 ft. within a short distance of the coast, 
covered in places with trees, among which are the myrrh- and 
frankincense-bearing shrubs. These gums, for which the coast was 
celebrated in ancient days, are still produced ; the best quality is 
obtained in the Gara country, on the northern slope of the mountains. 
Dhafar and the mountains behind it were visited and surveyed by 
Mr Bent's party in 1894. There are several thriving villages on the 
coast, of which el-Hafa is the principal port of export for frankin- 
cense; 9000 cwt. is exported annually to Bombay. 

Ruins of Sabaean buildings were found by J. T. Bent in the neigh- 
bourhood of Dhafar, and a remarkable cove or small harbour was 
discovered at Khor Rori, which he identified with the ancient port 
of Moscha. 

AUTHORITIES. L. Van den Berg, Le Hadramut et les colonies 
arabes (Batavia, 1885); L. Hirsch, Reise in Sudarabien (Leiden, 
!897); J- T. Bent, Southern Arabia (London, 1895); A. von Wrede, 
Reise in Hadhramut (Brunswick, 1870) ; H. J. Carter, Trans. Bombay 
As. Soc. (1845), 47-51 ; Journal R.G.S. (1837). (R. A. W.) 

HADRIA [mod. Atri (q.v.)], perhaps the original terminal 
point of the Via Caecilia, Italy. It belonged to the Praetutii. 
It became a colony of Rome in 290 B.C. and remained faithful 
to Rome. The coins which it issued (probably during the Punic 
Wars), are remarkable. The crypt of the cathedral of the 
modern town was originally a large Roman cistern; another 
forms the foundation of the ducal palace; and in the eastern 
portion of the town there is a complicated system of underground 
passages for collecting and storing water. 

See Notizie degli scavi (1902), 3. (T. As.) 

HADRIAN (PUBLIUS AELIUS HADRIANUS), Roman emperor 
A.D. 117-138, was born on the 24th of January A.D. 76, at 
Italica in Hispania Baetica (according to others, at Rome), 
where his ancestors, originally from Hadria in Picenum, had 
been settled since the time of the Scipios. On his father's death 
in 85 or 86 he was placed under the guardianship of two fellow- 
countrymen, his kinsman Ulpius Trajanus (afterwards the 
emperor Trajan), and Caelius Attianus (afterwards prefect of 
the praetorian guard). He spent the next five years at Rome, 
but at the age of fifteen he returned to his native place and 
entered upon a military career. He was soon, however, recalled 
to Rome by Trajan, and appointed to the offices of decemvir 
stlitibus judicandis, praefectus feriarum Latinarum, and sevir 
lurmae equitum Romanorum. About 95 he was military tribune 
in lower Moesia. In 97 he was sent to upper Germany to convey 
the congratulations of the army to Trajan on his adoption by 
Nerva; and, in January of the following year, he hastened to 
announce the death of Nerva to Trajan at Cologne. Trajan, 
who had been set against Hadrian by reports of his extravagance, 
soon took him into favour again, chiefly owing to the goodwill 
of the empress Plotina, who brought about the marriage of 
Hadrian with (Vibia) Sabina, Trajan's great-niece. In 101 
Hadrian was quaestor, in 105 tribune of the people, in 106 
praetor. He served with distinction in both Dacian campaigns; 
in the second Trajan presented him with a valuable ring which 
he himself had received from Nerva, a token of regard which 
seemed to designate Hadrian as his successor. In 107 Hadrian 
was legatus praetorius of lower Pannonia, in 108 consul suffeclus, 
in 112 archon at Athens, legatus in the Parthian campaign (113- 
117), in 117 consul designatus for the following year, in ngconsul 
for the third and last time only for four months. When Trajan, 
owing to a severe illness, decided to return home from the East, 
he left Hadrian in command of the army and governor of Syria. 
On the gth of August 117, Hadrian, at Antioch, was informed 



HADRIAN 



801 



of his adoption by Trajan, and, on the nth, of the death of the 
latter at Selinus in Cilicia. According to Dio Cassius (Ixix. i) 
the adoption was entirely fictitious, the work of Plotina and 
Attianus, by whom Trajan's death was concealed for a few days 
in order to facilitate the elevation of Hadrian. Whichever may 
have been the truth, his succession was confirmed by the army 
and the senate. He hastened to propitiate the former by a 
donative of twice the usual amount, and excused his hasty 
acceptance of the throne to the senate by alleging the impatient 
zeal of the soldiers and the necessity of an imperator for the 
welfare of the state. 

Hadrian's first important act was to abandon as untenable 
the conquests of Trajan beyond the Euphrates (Assyria, Meso- 
potamia and Armenia), a recurrence to the traditional policy 
of Augustus. The provinces were unsettled, the barbarians 
on the borders restless and menacing, and Hadrian wisely judged 
that the old limits of Augustus afforded the most defensible 
frontier. Mesopotamia and Assyria were given back to the 
Parthians, and the Armenians were allowed a king of their own. 
From Antioch Hadrian set out for Dacia to punish the Roxolani, 
who, incensed by a reduction of the tribute hitherto paid them, 
had invaded the Danubian provinces. An arrangement was 
patched up, and while Hadrian was still in Dacia he received 
news of a conspiracy against his life. Four citizens of consular 
rank were accused of being concerned in it, and were put to death 
by order of the senate before he could interfere. Hurrying back 
to Rome, Hadrian endeavoured to remove the unfavourable 
impression produced by the whole affair and to gain the goodwill 
of senate and people. He threw the responsibility for the 
executions upon the prefect of the praetorian guard, and swore 
that he would never punish a senator without the assent of the 
entire body, to which he expressed the utmost deference and 
consideration. Large sums of money and games and shows 
were provided for the people, and, in addition, all the arrears 
of taxation for the last fifteen years (about 10,000,000) were 
cancelled and the bonds burnt in the Forum of Trajan. Trajan's 
scheme for the " alimentation " of poor children was carried out 
upon a larger scale under the superintendence of a special official 
called praefectus alimentorum. 

The record of Hadrian's journeys 1 through all parts of the 
empire forms the chief authority for the events of his life down 
to his final settlement in the capital during his last years. They 
can only be briefly touched upon here. His first great journey 
probably lasted from 121 to 1 26. After traversing Gaul he visited 
the Germanic provinces on the Rhine, and crossed over to 
Britain (spring, 122), where he built the great rampart from 
the Tyne to the Solway, which bears his name (see BRITAIN: 
Roman). He returned through Gaul into Spain, and then 
proceeded to Mauretania, where he suppressed an insurrection. 
A war with the Parthians was averted by a personal interview 
with their king (123). From the Parthian frontier he travelled 
through Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean to Athens 
(autumn, 125), where he introduced various political and com- 
mercial changes, was initiated at the Eleusinia, and presided 
at the celebration of the greater Dionysia. After visiting Central 
Greece and Peloponnesus, he returned by way of Sicily to Rome 
(end of 126). The next year was spent at Rome, and, after a 
visit to Africa, he set out on his second great journey (September 
128). He travelled by way of Athens, where he completed and 
dedicated the buildings (see ATHENS) begun during his first 
visit, chief of which was the Olympieum or temple of Olympian 
Zeus, on which occasion Hadrian himself assumed the name of 
Olympius. In the spring of 129 he visited Asia Minor and Syria, 
where he invited the kings and princes of the East to a meeting 
(probably at Samosata). Having passed the winter at Antioch, 
he set out for the south (spring, 130). He ordered Jerusalem 
to be rebuilt (see JERUSALEM) under the name of Aelia Capitolina, 
and made his way through Arabia to Egypt, where he restored 

1 The chronology of Hadrian's journeys indeed, of the whole 
reign is confused and obscure. In the above the article by von 
Rohden in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencydopiidie has been followed. 
Weber's (see Bibliog.) is the most important discussion. 

XII. 26 



the tomb of Pompey at Pelusium with great magnificence. 
After a short stay at Alexandria he took an excursion up the 
Nile, during which he lost his favourite Antinous. On the 2ist 
of November 130, Hadrian (or at any rate his wife Sabina) 
heard the music which issued at sunrise from the statue of 
Memnon at Thebes (see MEMNON). From Egypt Hadrian 
returned through Syria to Europe (his movements are obscure), 
but was obliged to hurry back to Palestine (spring, 133) to give 
his personal attention (this is denied by some historians) to the 
revolt of the Jews, which had broken out (autumn, 131, or 
spring, 132) after he had left Syria. The founding of a Roman 
colony on the site of Jerusalem (Dio Cass. Lxix. 12) and the 
prohibition of circumcision (Spartianus, Hadrianus, 14) are said 
to have been the causes of the war, but authorities differ con- 
siderably as to this and as to the measures which followed the 
revolt (see art. JEWS; also E. Schurer, Hist, of the Jewish People, 
Eng. tr., div. i, vol. ii. p. 288; and S. Krauss in Jewish Encyc. 
s.ii. " Hadrian "), which lasted till 135. Leaving the conduct 
of affairs in the hands of his most capable general, Julius Severus, 
in the spring of 134 Hadrian returned to Rome. The remaining 
years of his life were spent partly in the capital, partly in his 
villa at Tibur. His health now began to fail, and it became 
necessary for him to choose a successor, as he had no 
children of his own. Against the advice of his relatives and 
friends he adopted L. Ceionius Commodus under the name of 
L. Aelius Caesar, who was in a feeble state of health and 
died on the ist of January 138, before he had an opportunity 
of proving his capabilities. Hadrian then adopted Arrius 
Antoninus (see ANTONINUS Pius) on condition that he should 
adopt M. Annius Verus (afterwards the emperor Marcus Aurelius) 
and the son of L. Aelius Caesar, L. Ceionius Commodus (after- 
wards the emperor Commodus). Hadrian died at Baiae on the 
loth of July 138. 

He was without doubt one of the most capable emperors 
who ever occupied the throne, and devoted his great and varied 
talents to the interests of the state. One of his chief objects was 
the abolition of distinctions between the provinces and the 
mother country, finally carried out by Caracalla, while at the 
same time he did not neglect reforms that were urgently called 
for in Italy. Provincial governors were kept under strict super- 
vision; extortion was practically unheard of; the jus Latii was 
bestowed upon several communities; special officials were 
instituted for the control of the finances; and the emperor's 
interest in provincial affairs was shown by his personal assumption 
of various municipal offices. New towns were founded and old 
ones restored; new streets were laid out, and aqueducts, temples 
and magnificent buildings constructed. In Italy itself the ad- 
ministration of justice and the finances required special attention. 
Four legati juridici (or simply jtmdici) of consular rank were 
appointed for Italy, who took over certain important judicial 
functions formerly exercised by local magistrates (cases of 
fideicommissa, the nomination of guardians). The judicial 
council (consiliarii Augusti, later called consistorium) , composed 
of persons of the highest rank (especially jurists), became a 
permanent body of advisers, although merely consultative. 
Roman law owes much to Hadrian, who instructed Salvius 
Julianus to draw up an edictum perpetuum, to a great extent the 
basis of Justinian's Corpus juris (see M. Schanz, Geschichte der 
romischen Literatur, iii. p". 167). In the administration of 
finance, in addition to the remission of arrears already mentioned, 
a revision of claims was ordered to be made every fifteen years, 
thereby anticipating the " indictions " (see CALENDAR; CHRON- 
OLOGY). Direct collection of taxes by imperial procurators was 
substituted for the system of farming, and a special official 
(adiiocatus fisci) was instituted to look after the interests of the 
imperial treasury. The gift of " coronary gold " (aurum coro- 
narium), presented to the emperor on certain occasions, was 
entirely remitted in the case of Italy, and partly in the case of the 
provinces. The administration of the postal service throughout 
ihe empire was taken over by the state, and municipal officials 
were relieved from the burden of maintaining the imperial posts. 
Humane regulations as to the treatment of slaves were strictly 



802 



HADRIAN'S WALL HADRUMETUM 



enforced; the master was forbidden to put his slave to death, 
but was obliged to bring him before a court of justice; if he 
ill-treated him it was a penal offence. The sale of slaves (male 
and female) for immoral and gladiatorial purposes was forbidden; 
the custom of putting all the household to death when their 
master was murdered was modified. The public baths were kept 
under strict supervision; the toga was ordered to be worn in 
public by senators and equites on solemn occasions; extravagant 
banquets were prohibited; rules were made to prevent the 
congestion of traffic in the streets. In military matters Hadrian 
was a strict disciplinarian, but his generosity and readiness to 
share their hardships endeared him to the soldiers. He effected 
a material and moral improvement in the conditions of service 
and mode of life, but in other respects he does not appear to 
have introduced any important military reforms. During his 
reign an advance was made in the direction of creating an organ- 
ized body of servants at the disposal of the emperor by the 
appointment of equites to important administrative posts, 
without their having performed the milUiae equestres (see 
EQUITES). Among these posts were various procuratorships 
(chief of which was that of the imperial fisc), and the offices ab 
epislulis, a rationibus and a libellis (secretary, accountant, 
receiver of petitions). The prefect of the praetorian guard was 
now the most important person in the state next to the emperor, 
and subsequently became a supreme judge of appeal. Among the 
magnificent buildings erected by Hadrian mention may be made 
of the following: In the capital, the temple of Venus and Roma; 
his splendid mausoleum, which formed the groundwork of the 
castle of St Angelo; the pantheon of Agrippa; the Basilica 
Neptuni; at Tibur the great villa 8 m. in extent, a kind of epi- 
tome of the world, with miniatures of the most celebrated places 
in the provinces. Athens, however, was the favourite site of 
his architectural labours; here he built the temple of Olympian 
Zeus, the Panhellenion, the Pantheon, the library, a gymnasium 
and a temple of Hera. 

Hadrian was fond of the society of learned men poets, 
scholars, rhetoricians and philosophers whom he alternately 
humoured and ridiculed. In painting, sculpture and music he 
considered himself the equal of specialists. The architect 
Apollodorus of Damascus owed his banishment and death to his 
outspoken criticism of the emperor's plans. The sophist 
Favorinus was more politic; when reproached for yielding too 
readily to the emperor in some grammatical discussion, he replied 
that it was unwise to contradict the master of thirty legions. 
The Athenaeum (q.v.) owed its foundation to Hadrian. He was 
a man of considerable intellectual attainments, of prodigious 
memory, master of both Latin and Greek, and wrote prose and 
verse with equal facility. His taste, however, was curious; he 
preferred Cato the elder, Ennius and Caelius Antipater to Cicero, 
Virgil and Sallust. the obscure poet Antimachus to Homer and 
Plato. As a writer he displayed great versatility. He composed 
an autobiography, published under the name of his freedman 
Phlegon; wrote speeches, fragments of two of which are preserved 
in inscriptions (a panegyric on his mother-in-law Matidia, and 
an address to the soldiers at Lambaesis in Africa). In imitation 
of Antimachus he wrote a work called Catachannae, probably a 
kind of miscellanea. The Latin and Greek anthologies contain 
about a dozen epigrams under his name. The letter of Hadrian 
to the consul Servianus (in Vopiscus, Vita Saturnini, 8) is no 
longer considered genuine. Hadrian's celebrated dying address 
to his soul may here be quoted: 

" Animula vagula, blandula, 
Hospes comesque corporis, 
Quae nunc abibis in loca 
Pallidula, rigida, nudula; 
Nee, ut soles, dabis iocos?" 

The character of Hadrian exhibits a mass of contradictions, 
well summed up by Spartianus (14. 1 1). He was grave and gay, 
affable and dignified, cruel and gentle, mean and generous, eager 
for fame yet not vain, impulsive and cautious, secretive and open. 
He hated eminent qualities in others, but gathered round him the 
most distinguished men of the state; at one time affectionate 



towards his friends, at another he mistrusted and put them to 
death. In fact, he was only consistent in his inconsistency 
(semper in omnibus varius). Although he endeavoured to win 
the popular favour, he was more feared than loved. A man of 
unnatural passions and grossly superstitious, he was an ardent 
lover of nature. But, with all his faults, he devoted himself so 
indefatigably to the service of the state, that the period of his 
reign could be characterized as a " golden age." 

The chief ancient authorities for the reign of Hadrian are: the 
life by Aelius Spartianus in the Scriptores historiae Augustae (see 
AUGUSTAN HISTORY and bibliography); the epitome of Dio Cassius 
(Ixix.) by Xiphilinus; Aurelius Victor, Epit. 14, probably based on 
Marius Maximus; Eutropius viii. 6; Zonaras xi. 23; Suidas, s.v. 
'ASpiapAs: and numerous inscriptions and coins. The autobio- 
graphy was used by both Dio Cassius and Marius Maximus. Modern 
authorities : C. Merivale, Hist, of the Romans under the Empire, ch. 
Ixvi. ; H. Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, i. 2, p. 602 
(1883); J. B. Bury, The Student's Roman Empire (1893), where a 
concise table of the journeys is given; P. von Rohden, s.v. " Aelius " 
(No. 64) in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, i. i (1894); J. Dttrr, 
Die Reisen des Kaisers Hadrian (1881) ; F. Gregorovius, The Emperor 
Hadrian (Eng. tr. by Mary E. Robinson, 1898); A. Hausrath, 
Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte, iii. (1874); W. Schurz, De muta- 
tionibus in imperio ordinando ab imp. Hadr. factis, i. (Bonn, 1883); 
J. Plew, Quellenuntersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrian 
(Strassburg, 1890); O. T. Schulz, " Leben des Kaisers Hadrian," 
Quellenanalysen [of Spartianus' Vita] (1904); E. Kornemann, 
Kaiser Hadrian und der letzte grosse Historiker von Rom (1905); 
W. Weber, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrianus 
(1908) ; H. F. Hitzig, Die Stellung Kaiser Hadrians in der romischen 
Rechtsgeschichte (1892); C. Schultess, Bauten des Kaisers Hadrian 
(1898); G. Doublet, Notes sur les ceuvres litteraires de Vempereur 
Hadrien (Toulouse, 1893); J. B. Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, ii. I, 
476 seq.; Sir W. M. Ramsay, Church in the Roman Empire, pp. 320 
seq.; V. Schultze, in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie, vii. 315; 
histories of Roman literature by Teuffel-Schwabe and Schanz. On 
Aelius Caesar, see Glass. Quart., 1908, i. (T. K.; J. H. F.) 

HADRIAN'S WALL, the name usually given to the remains of 
the Roman fortifications which defended the northern frontier of 
the Roman province of Britain, between the Tyneand the Solway. 
The works consisted of (i) a continuous defensive rampart with a 
ditch in front and a road behind; (2) various forts, blockhouses 
and towers along the rampart; and (3) an earthwork to the south 
of it, generally called the Vallum, of uncertain use. The defensive 
wall was probably first erected by Hadrian about A.D. 122 as a 
turf wall, and rebuilt in stone by Septimius Severus about A.D. 
208. See further BRITAIN: Roman. 

HADRUMETUM, a town of ancient Africa on the southern 
extremity of the sinus Neapolitans (mod. Gulf of Hammamet) 
on the east coast of Tunisia. The site is partly occupied by the 
modern town of Susa (<?..). The form of the name Hadru- 
metum varied much in antiquity; the Greeks called it 'A5pi>/xp, 
'A5pi>/ttjros, 'ASpa/umjj, 'A5pa/iijros : the Romans Adrumetum, 
Adrimetum, Hadrumetum, Hadrymetum, &c. ; inscriptions and 
coins gave Hadrumelum. The town was originally a Phoenician 
colony founded by Tynans long before Carthage (Sallust, 
Jug. 19). It became subject to Carthage, but lost none of its 
prosperity. Often mentioned during the Punic Wars, it was 
captured by Agathocles in 310, and was the refuge of Hannibal 
and the remnants of his army after the battle of Zama in 202. 
During the last Punic War it gave assistance to the Romans; 
after the fall of Carthage in 146 it received an accession of 
territory and the title of civilas libera (Appian, Punica, xciv. ; 
C.I.L. i. p. 84). Caesar landed there in 46 B.C. on his way to 
the victory of Thapsus (De bello Afric. iii.; Suetonius, Div. 
Jul. lix.). 

In the organization of the African provinces Hadrumetum 
became a capital of the province of Byzacena. Its harbour was 
extremely busy and the surrounding country unusually fertile. 
Trajan made it a Latin colony under the title of Colonia 
Concordia Ulpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera Hadrumetina; a 
dedication to the emperor Gordian the Good, found by M. 
Cagnat at Susa in 1883 gives these titles to the town, and at 
the same time identifies it with Susa. Quarrels arose between 
Hadrumetum and its neighbour Thysdrus in connexion with 
the temple of Minerva situated on the borders of their respective 
territories (Frontinus, Gr0m<z<j,ed.Lachmannus,p.57) jVespasian 



HAECKEL 



803 



when pro-consul of Africa had to repress a sedition among its 
inhabitants (Suetonius, Vesp. iv.; Tissot, Pastes de la prov. 
d'Afrigue, p. 66) ; it was the birthplace of the emperor Albinus. 
At this period the metropolis of Byzacena was after Carthage 
the most important town in Roman Africa. It was the seat of a 
bishopric, and its bishops are mentioned at the councils of 258, 
348, 393 and even later. Destroyed by the Vandals in 434 it was 
rebuilt by Justinian and renamed Justinianopolis (Procop. De 
aedif. vi. 6). The Arabic invasion at the end of the 7th century 
destroyed the Byzantine towns, and the place became the haunt 
of pirates, protected by the Kasbah (citadel); it was built on 
the substructions of the Punic, Roman and Byzantine acropolis, 
and is used by the French for military purposes. The Arabic 
geographer Bakri gave a description of the chief Roman 
buildings which were standing in his time (Bakri, Descr. de 
I'Afrique, tr. by de Slane, p. 83 et seq.). The modern town of 
Susa, despite its commercial prosperity, occupies only a third of 
the old site. 

In 1863 the French engineer, A. Daux, discovered the jetties 
and the moles of the commercial harbour, and the line of the 
military harbour (Cothon); both harbours, which were mainly 
artificial, are entirely silted up. There remains a fragment of 
the fortifications of the Punic town, which had a total length 
of 6410 metres, and remains of the substructions of the Byzantine 
acropolis, of the circus, the theatre, the water cisterns, and of 
other buildings, notably the interesting Byzantine basilica 
which is now used as an Arab cafe (Kahwat-el-Kubba). In the 
ruins there have been found numerous columns of Punic in- 
scriptions, Roman inscriptions and mosaic, among which is one 
representing Virgil seated, holding the Aeneid in his hand; 
another represents the Cretan labyrinth with Theseus and the 
Minotaur (Heron de Villefosse, Revue de I'Afrique franQaise, 
v., December 1887, pp. 384 and 394; Comptes rendus de I'Acad. 
deslnscr.et Belles-Lettres, 1892, p. 318; other mosaics, ibid., 
1896, p. 578; Revue archeol., 1897). In 1904 Dr Carton and the 
abbe Leynaud discovered huge Christian catacombs with several 
miles of subterranean galleries to which access is obtained by a 
small vaulted chamber. In these catacombs we find numerous 
sarcophagi and inscriptions painted or engraved of the Roman 
and Byzantine periods (Comptes rendus de I'Acad. des Inscr. et 
Belles-Lettres, 1904-1907; Carton and Leynaud, Les Catacombes 
d'Hadrumete, Susa, 1905). We can recognize also the Punic and 
Pagan-Roman cemeteries (C. R. de I'Acad. des Inscr. et Belles- 
Leltres, 1887; Bull, archeol. du Comile, 1885, p. 149; 1903, 
p. 157). The town had no Punic coins, but under the Roman 
domination there were coins from the time of the Republic. 
These are of bronze and bear the name of the city in abbrevia- 
tions, HADR or HADRVM accompanying the head of Neptune 
or the Sun. We find also the names of local duumvirs. Under 
Augustus the coins have on the obverse the imperial effigy, and 
on the reverse the names and often the effigies of the pro-consuls 
who governed the province, P. Quintilius Varus, L. Volusius 
Saturninus and Q. Fabius Maximus Africanus. After Augustus 
the mint was finally closed. 

AUTHORITIES. A. Daux, Recherches sur I'origine et I' emplacement 
des emporia pheniciens dans le Zeugis et le Byzacium (Paris, 1869); 
Ch. Tissot, Geographic comparee de la province romaine d'Afrigue, ii. 
p. 149; Cagnat, Explorations archeol. en Tunisie (2nd and 3rd fasc., 
1885); Lud. Mtiller, Numismatique de I'Afrique ancienne, ii. p. 51; 
M. Palat, in the Bulletin arch, du Comile des travaux historiques 
(1885), pp. 121 and 150; Revue archtologique (1884 and 1897) ; Bulletin 
des antiquites africaines (1884 and 1885); Bulletin de la Societe 
archeplogique de Sousse (first published in 1903) ; Atlas archeol. de 
Tunisie (4th fascicule, with the plan of Hadrumetum). (E. B.*) . 

HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH (1834- ), German biologist, 
was born at Potsdam on the i6th of February 1834. He studied 
medicine and science at Wurzburg, Berlin and Vienna, having 
for his masters such men as Johannes Miiller, R. Virchow and 
R. A. Kolliker, and in 1857 graduated at Berlin as M.D. and 
M.Ch. At the wish of his father he began to practise as a doctor 
in that city, but his patients were few in number, one reason 
being that he did not wish them to be many, and after a short 
time he turned to more congenial pursuits. In 1861, at the 



instance of Carl Gegenbaur, he became Privatdozent at Jena; 
in the succeeding year he was chosen extraordinary professor 
of comparative anatomy and director of the Zoological Institute 
in the same university; in 1865 he was appointed to a chair 
of zoology which was specially established for his benefit. This 
last position he retained for 43 years, in spite of repeated invita- 
tions to migrate to more important centres, such as Strassburg 
or Vienna, and at Jena he spent his life, with the exception of 
the time he devoted to travelling in various parts of the world, 
whence in every case he brought back a rich zoological harvest. 
As a field naturalist Haeckel displayed extraordinary power 
and industry. Among his monographs may be mentioned those 
on Radiolaria (1862), Siphonophora (1869), Monera (1870), and 
Calcareous Sponges (1872), as well as several Challenger reports, 
viz. Deep-Sea Medusae (1881), Siphonophora (1888), Deep-Sea 
Keratosa (1889) and Radiolaria (1887), the last beingaccompanied 
by 140 plates and enumerating over four thousand new species. 
This output of systematic and descriptive work would alone have 
constituted a good life's work, but Haeckel in addition wrote 
copiously on biological theory. It happened that just when he 
was beginning his scientific career Darwin's Origin of Species 
was published (1859), and such was the influence it exercised 
over him that he became the apostle of Darwinism in Germany. 
He was, indeed, the first German biologist to give a whole- 
hearted adherence to the doctrine of organic evolution and to 
treat it as the cardinal conception of modern biology. It was he 
who first brought it prominently before the notice of German men 
of science in his first mempir on the Radiolaria, which was com- 
pletely pervaded with its spirit, and later at the congress of 
naturalists at Stettin in 1863. Darwin himself has placed on 
record the conviction that Haeckel's enthusiastic propagandism 
of the doctrine was the chief factor of its. success in Germany. 
His book on General Morphology (1866), published when he was 
only thirty-two years old, was called by Huxley a suggestive 
attempt to work out the practical application of evolution to 
its final results; and if it does not take rank as a classic, it will 
at least stand out as a landmark in the history of biological 
doctrine in the igth century. Although it contains a statement 
of most of the views with which Haeckel's name is associated, 
it did not attract much attention on its first appearance, and 
accordingly its author rewrote much of its substance in a more 
popular style and published it a year or two later as the Natural 
History of Creation (Natiirliche Schopfungsgeschichte), which was 
far more successful. In it he divided morphology into two 
sections tectology, the science of organic individuality; and 
promorphology, which aims at establishing a crystallography of 
organic forms. Among other matters, he laid particular stress 
on the " fundamental biogenetic law " that ontogeny re- 
capitulates phylogeny, that the individual organism in its 
development is to a great extent an epitome of the form-modifica- 
tions undergone by the successive ancestors of the species in the 
course of their historic evolution. His well-known " gastraea " 
theory is an outcome of this generalization. He divided the 
whole animal creation into two categories the Protozoa or 
unicellular animals, and the Metazoa or multicellular animals, 
and he pointed out that while the former remain single-celled 
throughout their existence, the latter are only so at the beginning, 
and are subsequently built up of innumerable cells, the single 
primitive egg-cell (ovum) being transformed by cleavage into a 
globular mass of cells (morula), which first becomes a hollow 
vesicle and then changes into the gastrula. The simplest multi- 
cellular animal he conceived to resemble this gastrula with its 
two primary layers, ectoderm and endoderm, and the earliest 
hypothetical form of this kind, from which the higher animals 
might be supposed to be actually descended, he called the 
" gastraea." This theory was first put forward in the memoir 
on the calcareous sponges, which in its sub-title was described as 
an attempt at an analytical solution of the problem of the origin 
of species, and was subsequently elaborated in various Studies 
on the Gastraea Theory (1873-1884). Haeckel, again, was the 
first to attempt to draw up a genealogical tree (Stammbaum) 
exhibiting the relationship between the various orders of animals 



8 04 



HAEMATITE HAEMATOCELE 



with regard both to one another and their common origin. His 
earliest attempt in the General Morphology was succeeded by 
many others, and his efforts in this direction may perhaps be 
held to culminate in the paper he read before the fourth Inter- 
national Zoological Congress, held at Cambridge in 1898, when 
he traced the descent of the human race in twenty-six stages 
from organisms like the still-existing Monera, simple structureless 
masses of protoplasm, and the unicellular Protista, through the 
chimpanzees and the Pithecanthropus ereclus, of which a few fossil 
bones were discovered in Java in 1894, and which he held to be 
undoubtedly an intermediate form connecting primitive man 
with the anthropoid apes. 

Nt content with the study of the doctrine of evolution in its 
zoological aspects, Haeckel also applied it to some of the oldest 
problems of philosophy and religion. What he termed the in- 
tegration of his views on these subjects he published under the 
title of Die Weltriitsel (1899), which in 1901 appeared in English 
as The Riddle of the Universe. In this book, adopting an un- 
compromising monistic attitude, he asserted the essential unity 
of organic and inorganic nature. According to his " carbon- 
theory," which has been far from achieving general acceptance, 
the chemico-physical properties of carbon in its complex albu- 
minoid compounds are the sole and the mechanical cause of the 
specific phenomena of movement which distinguish organic from 
inorganic substances, and the first development of living proto- 
plasm, as seen in the Monera, arises from such nitrogenous 
carbon-compounds by a process of spontaneous generation. 
Psychology he regarded as merely a branch of physiology, and 
psychical activity as a group of vital phenomena which depend 
solely on physiological actions and material changes taking place 
in the protoplasm of the organism in which it is manifested. 
Every living cell has psychic properties, and the psychic life 
of multicellular organisms is the sum-total of the psychic 
functions of the cells of which they are composed. Moreover, 
just as the highest animals have been evolved from the simplest 
forms of life, so the highest faculties of the human mind have been 
evolved from the soul of the brute-beasts, and more remotely 
from the simple cell-soul of the unicellular Protozoa. As a 
consequence of these views Haeckel was led to deny the im- 
mortality of the soul, the freedom of the will, and the existence 
of a personal God. 

Haeckel's literary output was enormous, and at the time of the 
celebration of his sixtieth birthday at Jena in 1894 he had 
produced 42 works with 13,000 pages, besides numerous scientific 
memoirs. In addition to the works already mentioned, he 
wrote Freie Wissenschaft und freie Lehre (1877) in reply to a 
speech in which Virchow objected to the teaching of the doctrine 
of evolution in schools, on the ground that it was an unproved 
hypothesis; Die systematische Phylo genie (1894), which has been 
pronounced his best book; Anthropogenic (1874, 5th and enlarged 
edition 1903), dealing with the evolution of man; Uber unsere 
gegenwdrlige Kenntnis iiom Ursprung des Menschen (1898, 
translated into English as The Last Link, 1898); Der Kampf 
um den Entwickelungsgedanken (1905, English version, Last 
Words on Evolution, 1906); Die Lebenswunder (1904), a supple- 
ment to the Riddle of the Universe; books of travel, such as 
Indische Reisebriefe (1882) and Aus Insulinde (1901), the fruits 
of journeys to Ceylon and to Java; Kunstformen der Natur 
(1904), with plates representing beautiful marine animal forms; 
and Wanderbilder (1905), reproductions of his oil-paintings and 
water-colour landscapes. 

There are biographies by W. Bolsche (Dresden, 1900, translated 
into English by Joseph McCabe, with additions, London, 1906) and 
by Breitenbach (Odenkirchen, 1904). See also Walther May, Ernst 
Haeckel; Versuch einer Chronik seines Lebens und Werkens (Leipzig, 
1909). 

HAEMATITE, or HEMATITE, a mineral consisting of ferric 
oxide (Fe2Os), named from the Greek word 'ulna, " blood," in 
allusion to its typical colour, whence it is called also red iron ore. 
When crystallized, however, haematite often presents a dark 
colour, even iron-black; but on scratching the surface, the 
powder of the streak shows the colour of dried blood. Haematite 
crystallizes in the rhombohedral system, and is isomorphous 




FIG. i. 



with corundum (AlsOs). The habit of the crystals may be 

rhombohedral, pyramidal or tabular, rarely prismatic. In fig. i 

the crystal, from Elba, shows a combination of the fundamental 

rhombohedron (R), an obtuse rhom- 

bohedron (s), and the hexagonal bi- 

pyramid (n). Fig. 2 is a tabular 

crystal in which the basal pinacoid 

(o) predominates. Haematite has no 

distinct cleavage, but may show, in 

consequence of a lamellar structure, 

a tendency to parting along certain 

planes. 

Crystallized haematite, such as 
that from the iron-mines of Elba, presents a steel-grey or iron- 
black colour, with a brilliant metallic lustre, sometimes beauti- 
fully iridescent. The splendent surface has suggested for this 
mineral such names as specular iron ore, looking-glass ore, and 
iron glance (jer oligisle of French writers). The hardness of the 
crystallized haematite is about 6, and the specific gravity 5-2. 
The so-called " iron roses " (Eisenrosen) of Switzerland are 
rosette-like aggregates of hexagonal 
tabular crystals, from fissures in the 
gneissose rocks of the Alps. Specular 
iron ore occurs in the form of brilliant 
metallic scales on many lavas, as at 




FIG. 2. 



Vesuvius and Etna, in the Auvergne and the Eifel, and notably 
in the Island of Ascension, where the mineral forms beautiful 
tabular crystals. It seems to be a sublimation-product formed 
in volcanoes by the interaction of the vapour of ferric chloride 
and steam. 

Specular haematite forms a constituent of certain schistose 
rocks, such as the Brazilian itabirite. In the Marquette district 
of Michigan (Lake Superior) schistose specular ore occurs in 
important deposits, associated with a jasper rock, in which the 
ore alternates with bands of red quartzite. Micaceous iron ore 
consists of delicate steel-grey scales of specular haematite, 
unctuous to the touch, used as a lubricant and also as a pigment. 
It is worked in Devonshire under the name of shining ore. Very 
thin laminae of haematite, blood-red by transmitted light, 
occur as microscopic enclosures in certain minerals, such as 
carnallite and sun-stone, to which they impart colour and lustre. 

Much haematite occurs in a compact or massive form, often 
mammillary, and presenting on fracture a fibrous structure. 
The reniform masses are known as kidney ore. Such red ore is 
generally neither so dense nor so hard as the crystals. It often 
passes into an earthy form, termed soft red ore, and when mixed 
with more or less clay constitutes red ochre, ruddle or reddle 
(Ger. Roiel). 

The hard haematite is occasionally cut and polished as an 
ornamental stone, and certain kinds have been made into beads 
simulating black pearls. It was worked by the Assyrians for 
their engraved cylinder-seals, and was used by the gnostics for 
amulets. Some of the native tribes in the Congo basin employ 
it as a material for axes. The hard fibrous ore of Cumberland 
is known as pencil ore, and is employed for the burnishers used 
by bookbinders and others. Santiago de Compostela in Spain 
furnishes a considerable supply of haematite burnishers. 

Haematite is an important ore of iron (q.v.), and is extensively 
worked in Elba, Spain (Bilbao), Scandinavia, the Lake Superior 
region and elsewhere. In England valuable deposits occur in 
the Carboniferous Limestone of west Cumberland (Whitehaven 
district) and north Lancashire (Ulverston district). The hard 
ore is siliceous, and fine crystallized specimens occur in associa- 
tion with smoky quartz. The ore is remarkably free from 
phosphorus, and is consequently valued for the production of pig- 
iron to be converted into Bessemer steel. (F. W. R.*) 

HAEMATOCELE (Gr. alpa, blood, and 107X7?, tumour), the 
medical term for a localized collection of blood in the tunica 
vaginalis or cord. It is usually the result of a sudden blow or 
severe strain, but may arise from disease. At first it forms a 
smooth, fluctuating, opaque swelling, but later becomes hard 
and firm. In chronic cases the walls of the tunica vaginalis 



HAEMOPHILIA HAEMORRHOIDS 



805 



undergo changes. The treatment of a case seen soon after the 
injury is directed towards keeping the patient at rest, elevating 
the parts, and applying an evaporating lotion or ice-bag. In 
chronic cases it may be necessary to lay open the cavity and 
remove the coagulum. 

HAEMOPHILIA, the medical term for a condition of the 
vascular system, often running in families, the members of which 
are known as " bleeders," characterized by a disposition towards 
bleeding, whether with or without the provocation of an injury 
to the tissue. When this bleeding is spontaneous it comes from 
the mucous membranes, especially from the nose, but also from 
the mouth, bowel and bronchial tubes. Slight bruises are apt 
to be followed by extravasations of blood into the tissues; the 
swollen joints (knee especially) of a bleeder are probably due, 
in the first instance, to the escape of blood into the joint cavity 
or synovial membrane. It is always from the .smallest vessels 
that the blood escapes, and may do so in such quantities as to 
cause death in a few hours. 

HAEMORRHAGE (Gr. at/ja, blood, and fayvvvat., to burst), 
a general term for any escape of blood from a blood-vessel (see 
BLOOD). It commonly results from injury, as the tearing or 
cutting of a blood-vessel, but certain forms result from disease, 
as in scurvy and purpura. The chief varieties of haemorrhage 
are arterial, venous and capillary. Bleeding from an artery is 
of a bright red colour, and escapes from the end of the vessel 
nearest the heart in jets synchronous with the heart's beat. 
Bleeding from a vein is of a darker colour; the flow is steady, 
and the bleeding is from the distal end of the vessel. Capillary 
bleeding is a general oozing from a raw surface. By extravasation 
of blood is meant the pouring out of blood into the areolar tissues, 
which become boggy. This is termed a bruise or ecchymosis. 
Epistaxis is a term given to bleeding from the nose. Haemal- 
emesis is vomiting of blood, the colour of which may be altered 
by digestion, as is also the case in melaena, or passage of blood 
with the faeces, in which the blood becomes dark and tarry- 
looking from the action of the intestinal fluids. Haemoptysis 
denotes an escape of blood from the air-passages, which is usually 
bright red and frothy from admixture with air. Haematuria 
means passage of blood with the urine. 

Cessation of bleeding may take place from natural or from 
artificial means. Natural arrest of haemorrhage arises from 
(i) the coagulation of the blood itself, (2) the diminution of the 
heart's action as in fainting, (3) changes taking place in the cut 
vessel causing its retraction and contraction. In the surgical 
treatment of haemorrhage minor means of arresting bleeding 
are: cold, which is most valuable in general oozing and local 
extravasations; very hot water, 130 to 160 F., a powerful 
haemostatic; position, such as elevation of the limb, valuable 
in bleeding from the extremities; styptics or astringents, 
applied locally, as perchloride of iron, tannic acid and others, 
the most valuable being suprarenal extract. In arresting 
haemorrhage temporarily the chief thing is to press directly 
on the bleeding part. The pressure to be effectual need not be 
severe, but must be accurately applied. If the bleeding point 
cannot be reached, the pressure should be applied to the main 
.artery between the bleeding point and the heart. In small 
blood-vessels pressure will be sufficient to arrest haemorrhage 
permanently. In large vessels it is usual to pass a ligature round 
the vessel and tie it with a reef-knot. Apply the ligature, if 
possible, at the bleeding point, tying both ends of the cut vessel. 
If this cannot be done, the main artery of the limb must be 
exposed by dissection at the most accessible point between the 
wound and the heart, and there ligatured. 

Haemorrhage has been classified as (i) primary, occurring 
at the time of the injury; (2) reactionary, or within twenty-four 
hours of the accident, during the stage of reaction; (3) secondary, 
occurring at a later period and caused by faulty application of a 
ligature or septic condition of the wound. In severe haemor- 
rhage, as from the division of a large artery, the patient may 
collapse and death ensue from syncope. In this case stimulants 
and strychnine may be given, but they should be avoided until 
it is certain the bleeding has been properly controlled, as they 



tend to increase it. Transfusion of blood directly from the vein 
of a healthy person to the blood-vessels of the patient, and 
infusion of saline solution into a vein, may be practised (see 
SHOCK). In a congenital condition known as haemophylia (q.v.) 
it is difficult to stop the flow of blood. 

The surgical procedure for the treatment of an open wound 
is (i) arrest of haemorrhage; (2) cleansing of the wound and 
removal of any foreign bodies; (3) careful apposition of its 
edges and surfaces the edges being best brought in contact 
by sutures of aseptic silk or catgut, the surfaces by carefully 
applied pressure; (4) free drainage, if necessary, to prevent 
accumulation either of blood or serous effusion; (5) avoidance 
of sepsis; (6) perfect rest of the part. These methods of treat- 
ment require to be modified for wounds in special situations and 
for those in which there is much contusion and laceration. When 
a special poison has entered the wound at the time of its infliction 
or at some subsequent date, it is necessary to provide against 
septic conditions of the wound itself and blood-poisoning of the 
general circulation. 

HAEMORRHOIDS, or HEMORRHOIDS (from Gr. al^a, blood, 
and ptiv, to flow), commonly called piles, swellings formed by the 
dilatation of veins of the lowest part of the bowel, or of those 
just outside the margin of its aperture. The former, internal 
piles, are covered by mucous membrane; the latter, external piles, 
are just beneath the skin. As the veins of the lining of the bowel 
become dilated they form definite bulgings within the bowel, 
and, at last increasing in size, escape through the anus when a 
motion is being passed. Growing still larger, they may come 
down spontaneously when the individual is standing or walking, 
and they are apt to be a grave source of pain or annoyance. 
Eventually they may remain constantly protruded nevertheless, 
they are still internal piles because they arise from the interior 
of the bowel. Though a pile is sometimes solitary, there are 
usually several of them. They are apt to become inflamed, and 
the inflammation is associated with heat, pain, discharge and 
general uneasiness; ulceration and bleeding are also common 
symptoms, hence the term " bleeding piles." The external pile 
is covered by the thin dark-coloured skin of the anal margin. 
Severe pressure upon the large abdominal veins may retard the 
upward flow of blood to the heart and so give rise to piles; 
this is apt to happen in the case of disease of the liver, malignant 
and other tumours, and pregnancy. General weakness of the 
constitution or of the blood-vessels and habitual constipation 
may be predisposing causes of piles. The exciting cause may be 
vigorous straining at stool or exposure to damp, as from sitting 
on the wet ground. Piles are often only a symptom, and in their 
treatment this fact should be kept in view; if the cause is 
removed the piles may disappear. But in some cases it may 
be impossible to remove the cause, as when a widely-spreading 
cancerous growth of the rectum, or of the interior of the pelvis 
or" abdomen, is blocking the upward flow of blood in the veins. 
Sometimes when a pile has been protruded, as during defaecation, 
it is tightly grasped by spasmodic contraction of the circular 
muscular fibres which guard the outlet of the bowel, and it then 
becomes swollen, engorged and extremely painful; the strangu- 
lation may be so severe that the blood in the vessels coagulates 
and the pile mortifies. This, indeed, is nature's attempt at 
curing a pile, but it is distressing, and, as a rule, it is not entirely 
successful. 

The palliative treatment of piles consists in obtaining a daily 
and easy action of the bowels, in rest, cold bathing, astringent 
injections, lotions and ointments. The radical treatment consists 
in their removal by operation , but this should not be contemplated 
until palliative treatment has failed. The operation consists in 
drawing the pile well down, and strangling the vessels entering 
and leaving its base, either by a strong ligature tightly applied, 
by crushing, or by cautery. Before dealing with the pile the anus 
is vigorously dilated in order that the pile may be dealt with with 
greater precision, and also that the temporary paralysis of the 
sphincter muscle, which follows the stretching, may prevent the 
occurrence of painful and spasmodic contractions subsequently. 
The ligatures by which the base of the piles are strangulated 



8o6 



HAEMOSPORIDIA 



slough off with the pile in about ten days, and in about ten days 
more the individual is, as a rule, well enough to return to his 
work. If, for one reason or another, no operation is % to be under- 
taken, and the piles are troublesome, relief may be afforded by 
warm sponging and by sitz-baths, the pile being gently dried 
afterwards by a piece of soft linen, smeared with vaseline, 
and carefully returned into the bowel. Under surgical advice, 
cocaine or morphia may be brought in contact with the tender 
parts, either in the form of lotion, suppository or ointment. 
In operating upon internal piles it is undesirable to remove all the 
external piles around the anus, lest the contraction of the 
circumferential scar should cause permanent narrowing of the 
orifice. If, as often happens, blood clots in the vein of an external 
pile, the small, hard, tender swelling may be treated with anodyne 
fomentations, or it may be rendered insensitive by the ether 
spray and opened by a small incision, the clot being turned 
out. (E. O.*) 

HAEMOSPORIDIA, in zoology, an order of Ectospora, which 
although comparatively few in number and very inconspicuous 
in size and appearance, have of late years probably attracted 
greater attention and been more generally studied than any 
other Sporozoa; the reason being that they include the organ- 
isms well known as malarial parasites. In spite, however, of 
much and careful recent research to a certain extent, rather, 
as a result of it it remains the case that the Haemosporidia are, 
in some respects, the group of the Ectospora about which our 
knowledge is, for the time being, in the most unsatisfactory 
condition. Such important questions, indeed, as the scope and 
boundaries of the group, its exact origin and affinities, the rank 
and interclassification of the forms admittedly included in it, 
are answered quite differently by different workers. For example, 
one well-known Sporozoan authority (M. Liihe) has recently 
united the two groups, Haemosporidia and Haemoflagellates, 
bodily into one, while others (e.g. Novy and McNeal) deny 
that there is any connexion whatever between " Cytozoa " and 
Trypanosomes. Again, the inclusion or exclusion of forms like 
Piroplasma and Halteridium is also the subject of much discus- 
sion. The present writer accepts here the view that the Haemo- 
sporidia are derived from Haemoflagellates which have developed 
a gregariniform (Sporozoan) phase at the expense, largely or 
entirely, of the flagelliform one. The not inconsiderable differ- 
ences met with among different types are capable of explanation 
on the ground that certain forms have advanced farther than 
others along this particular line of evolution. In other words, 
it is most probable that the Haemosporidia are to be regarded 
as comprising various parasites which represent different stages 
intermediate between, on the one side, a Flagellate, and on the 
other, a typical chlamydospore-forming Ectosporan parasite. 
While, however, it is easy enough sharply to separate off all 
Haemosporidia from other Ectospora, it is a very difficult matter 
to define their limits on the former side. Two principal criteria 
which a doubtful haemal parasite might 'very well be required 
to satisfy in order to be considered as a Haemosporidian rather 
than a Haemoflagellate are (a) the occurrence of schizogony 
during the " corpuscular " phase in the Vertebrate host, and (b) 
the formation of many germs (" sporozoites ") from the zygote; 
so long as these conditions were complied with, the present 
writer, at all events, would not feel he was countenancing any 
protozoological heresy in allowing for the possibility of a Flagel- 
late (perhaps trypaniform) phase or features being present at 
some period or other in the life-cycle. 1 To render this article 
complete, however, one or two well-known parasites, hitherto 
referred to this order, must also be mentioned, which, judged 
by the above (arbitrary) standard, are, it may be, on the Haemo- 
flagellate side of the dividing line (e.g. Halteridium, according to 
Schaudinn). 

The chief characters which distinguish the Haemosporidia 
from other Ectospora are the following. They are invariably 
blood parasites, and for part or all of the trophic period come into 
intimate relation with the cellular elements in the blood. There 

1 Compare, for example, the flagellated granules of certain 
Coccidia, which point unmistakably to a Flagellate ancestry. 



is always an alternation of hosts and of generations, an In- 
vertebrate being the definitive host, in which sexual conjugation 
is undergone and which is to be regarded as the primary one, 
a Vertebrate being the intermediate or secondary one. The 
zygote or sporont is at first capable of movement and known as 
an ook.inete. No resistant spores (chlamydospores) are formed, 
the ultimate germs or sporozoites always being free in the oocyst 
and not enclosed by sporocysts. 

To Sir E. Ray Lankester is due the honour of discovering 
the first Haemosporidian, a discovery which did not take place 
until after most of the other kinds of Sporozoa were known. 
In 1871 this author described the parasite of the frog, which he 
later termed Drepanidium ranarum. The next discovery was 
the great and far-reaching one of Laveran, who in 1883 described 
all the characteristic phases of the malarial parasite which are 
met with in human blood. While regarding the organism as the 
cause of the disease, Laveran did not at once recognize its animal 
and Sporozoan nature, but considered it rather as a vegetable, 
and termed it Oscillaria malariae. As in the case of the Trypano- 
somes, we owe to Danilewsky (1885-1889) the first serious 
attempts to study the comparative anatomy and life-history of 
these parasites, from a zoological point of view. Danilewsky 
first named them Haemosporidia, and distinguished between 
Haemocytozoa and Leucocytozoa. To the brilliant researches of 
R. Ross and Grassi in the closing years of the igth century is 
due the realization of the essential part played by the gnat or 
mosquito in the life-cycle and transmission of the parasites; 
and to MacCallum belongs the credit of first observing the true 
sexual conjugation, in the case of a Halteridium. Since then, 
thanks to the labours of Argutinsky and Schaudinn, our know- 
ledge of the malarial parasites has steadily increased. Until 
quite recently, however, very little was known about the Haemo- 
sporidia of cold-blooded Vertebrates ; but in 1903 Siegel and 
Schaudinn demonstrated that the same role is performed in 
their case by a leech or a tick, and since then many new forms 
have been described. 

The Haemosporidia are widely distributed and of very general 
occurrence among the chief classes of Vertebrates. Among In- 
vertebrates they are apparently limited to blood- Q^^. 
sucking insects, ticks and leeches. 1 As already stated, reace: 
the universal habitat of the parasites in the Vertebrate habitat; 
is the blood; as a result, of course, they are to be met ^ctsoa 
with in the capillaries of practically all the important 
organs of the body; and it is to be noted that while certain 
phases (e.g. growing trophozoites, mature gametocytes) are found 
in the peripheral circulation, others (e.g. schizogonous " rosettes," 
young gametocytes) occur in the internal organs, liver, kidneys, 
&c., where the circulation is sluggish. The relation of the para- 
sites to the blood-cells varies greatly. Most attack, probably 
exclusively, the red blood corpuscles (haematids); a few, how- 
ever, select the leucocytes, and are therefore known as Leuco- 
cytozoa. In the case of Mammalian and Avian forms (malarial 
parasites) Schaudinn and Argutinsky have shown that the 
trophic and schizogonic phases are not really endoglobular but 
closely attached to the corpuscle, hollowing out a depression 
or space into which they nestle; the gametocytes, on the, 
other hand, are actually intercellular. Forms parasitic in cold- 
blooded Vertebrates, on the contrary, are always, so far as is 
known, endoglobular when in relation with the corpuscles; and 
the same is apparently the case with the Mammalian parasite, 
Piroplasma. Although in no instance so far described is the 
parasite actually intranuclear (as certain Coccidia are), in one or 
two cases (e.g. Karyolysus of lizards and certain species of 
Haemogregarina) it reacts markedly upon the nucleus and soon 
causes its disintegration. While many Haemosporidia (e.g. 
malarial parasites, with the exception of Halteridium) remain in 
connexion with the same corpuscle throughout the whole period 
of growth and schizogony, the new generation of merozoites 
first being set free from the broken-down cell, others (the Haemo- 

1 A possible exception is a doubtful species of Haemogregarina, 
which has been described from the walls of the blood-vessels of an 
Annelid. 



HAEMOSPORIDIA 



807 



gregarines, broadly speaking, and also Halteridium) leave 
one corpuscle after a short time, wander about free in the 
plasma, and then seek out another; and this may be repeated 
until the parasite is ready for schizogony, which generally occurs 
in the corpuscle. 

As in the case of Trypanosomes (q.v.), normally that is to say, 
when in an accustomed, tolerant host, and under natural con- 
ditions Haemosporidia are non-pathogenic and do not give 
rise to any ill-effects in the animals harbouring them. When, 
however, the parasites gain an entry into the blood of man or 
other unadapted animals,' they produce, as is well known, 
harmful and often very serious effects. There are three recog- 
nized types of malarial fever, each caused by a distinct form and 
characterized by the mode of manifestation. Two, the so-called 
benign fevers, are intermittent; namely, tertian and quartan 
fever, in which the fever recurs every second and third day 
respectively. This is due to the fact that schizogony takes 
different lengths of time in the two cases, 48 hours in the one, 
72 in the other; the height of the fever-period coincides with the 
break-down of the corpuscle at the completion of the process, and 
the liberation of great numbers of merozoites in the blood. 
The third type is the dangerous aestivo-autumnal or pernicious 
malaria, in which the fever is irregular or continuous during long 
periods. 

A very general symptom is anaemia, which is sometimes 
present to a marked extent, when it may lead to a fatal termina- 
tion. This is the result of the very considerable destruction of 
the blood-corpuscles which takes place, the haemoglobin of which 
fs absorbed by the parasites as nutriment. A universal feature 
connected with this mode of nutrition is the production, in the 
cytoplasm of the parasite, of a brown pigment, termed melanin; 
this does not represent reserve material, but is an excreted bye- 
product derived from the haemoglobin. These pigment-grains 
are at length liberated into the blood-stream and become de- 
posited in the various organs, spleen, liver, kidneys, brain, 
causing pronounced pigmentation. 

Another type of fever, more acute and more generally fatal, is 
that produced by forms belonging to the genus Piroplasma, in 
cattle, dogs, horses and other domestic animals in different 
regions of the globe; and recently Wilson and Chowning have 
stated that the " spotted fever of the Rockies " is a human 
piroplasmosis caused by P. hominis. The disease of cattle is 
known variously as Texas-fever, Tristeza, Red-water, Southern 
cattle-fever, &c. In this type of illness the endogenous multipli- 
cation of the parasites is very great and rapid, and brings about 
an enormous diminution in the number of healthy red blood 
corpuscles. Their sudden destruction results in the liberation of 
large quantities of haemoglobin in the plasma, which turns 
deep-red in colour; and hence haemoglobinuria, which occurs 
only rarely in malaria, is a constant symptom in piroplasmosis. 

The parasite of pernicious malaria, here termed Laverania 
malariae, will serve very well as a type of the general life-cycle 
(fig. i). Slight differences shown by the other malarial parasites 
(Plasmodium) will be mentioned in passing, but the 
oftheHto- ma * n divergences which other Haemosporidian types 
history. exhibit are best considered separately. With the bite 
of an infected mosquito, the minute sickle-like sporo- 
zoites are injected into the blood. They rapidly penetrate into 
the blood corpuscles, in which they appear as small irregular, 
more or less amoeboid trophozoites. A vacuole next arises in 
the cytoplasm, which increases greatly in size, and gives rise to 
the well-known, much discussed ring-form of the parasite, in 
which it resembles a signet-ring, the nucleus forming a little 
thickening to one side. Some authorities (e.g. Argutinsky) have 
regarded this structure as being really a greatly distended 
vesicular nucleus, and, to a large extent, indeed, an artifact, 
resulting from imperfect fixation; but Schaudinn considers it is 
a true vacuole, and explains it on the ground of the rapid nutrition 

1 For an interesting account of the biological relations between 
parasites and their hosts, and the penalty Man pays for his roving 
propensities, the reader should see Lankester's article in the Quarterly 
Review, July 1904. 



and growth. Later on this vacuole disappears, and the grains 
of pigment make their appearance. The trophozoite is now 
large and full-grown, and has become rounded and ready for 
schizogony. The nucleus of the schizont divides several times 
(more or less directly, by simple or multiple fission) to form a 
number of daughter-nuclei, which take up a regular position 
near the periphery. Around these the cytoplasm becomes seg- 
mented, giving rise to the well-known corps en rosace. Eventu- 
ally the merozoites, in the form of little round uninuclear bodies, 
are liberated from the now broken-down corpuscle, leaving behind 
a certain amount of residual cytoplasm containing the pigment 
grains. Besides the difference in the time taken by the complete 
process of schizogony in the various species (see above), there are 
distinctions in the composition of the rosettes. Thus, in Lave- 
rania, the number of merozoites formed is very variable; in 
Plasmodiumvivax (the tertian parasite) there are only few (9 to 1 2) 
merozoites, but in P. malariae (the quartan form) they are more 
numerous, from 12 to 24. The liberated merozoites proceed to 
infect fresh blood corpuscles and a new endogenous cycle is 
started. 

After asexual multiplication has gone on for some time, sexual 
forms become developed. According to Schaudinn, the stimulus 
which determines the production of gametocytes instead of 
schizonts is the reaction of the host (at the height of a 
fever period) upon the parasites. A young trophozoite which 
is becoming a gametocyte is distinguished from one which 
gives rise to a schizont by its much slower rate of growth, 
and the absence of any vacuoles in its cytoplasm. The 
gametocytes themselves are characterized by their peculiar 
shape, like that of a sausage, whence they are very generally 
known as " crescents." Male and female gametocytes are 
distinguished (roughly) by the arrangement of the pigment- 
grains; in the former, they are fairly evenly scattered throughout 
the cytoplasm, but in the megagametocytes the pigment tends 
to be aggregated centrally, around the nucleus. As they become 
full-grown and mature, however, the gametocytes lose their 
crescentic form and assume that of an oval, and finally of a 
sphere. At the same time, they are set free from the remains 
of the blood corpuscle. The spherical stage is practically the 
limit of development in the Vertebrate host, although, sometimes, 
the nucleus of the microgametocyte may proceed to division. 
The " crescents " of the pernicious parasite afford a very 
important diagnostic difference from the gametocytes of both 
species of Plasmodium, which have the ordinary, rounded shape 
of the schizonts. In the case of the latter, points such as their 
slower growth, their less amoeboid character, and their size 
furnish the means of distinction. 

When a gnat or mosquito sucks blood, all phases of the parasite 
in the peripheral circulation at that point may succeed in passing 
into the insect. If this occurs all trophic and schizogonic 
phases are forthwith digested, and the survival of the sexual 
phases depends entirely upon whether the insect is a gnat or 
mosquito. Only in the latter case can further development of 
the gametocytes go on; in other words, only the genus Anopheles, 
and not the genus Culex, furnishes specific hosts for the malarial 
parasites. This is a biological fact of considerable importance 
in connexion with the prophylactic measures against malaria. 
In the stomach of an Anopheles, the gametocytes quickly 
proceed to gamete-formation. The nucleus of the microgameto- 
cyte divides up, and the daughter-nuclei pass to the periphery. 
The surface of the body grows out into long, whip-like processes, 
of which there are usually 6 to 8 (probably the typical number 
is 8); each is very motile, in this respect strongly resembling 
a flagellum. This phase may also develop in drawn blood, 
which has, of course, become suddenly cooled by the exposure; 
and it seems evident that it is the change in temperature, from 
the warm to the cold-blooded host, which brings about the 
development of the actual sexual elements. Earlier observers 
regarded the phase just described as representing another 
parasite altogether, of a Flagellate nature whence the well- 
known term, Polymilus-form; and even more recent workers, 
such as Labbe who connected it with the malarial parasite, 



8o8 



HAEMOSPORIDIA 




From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology. 

FIG. I. Diagram of the complete life-cycle of the parasite of pernicious malaria, 
Laverania malariae, Gr. et Fel. The stages on the upper side of the dotted line are 
those found in human blood ; below the dotted line are seen the phases through which 
the parasite passes in the intermediate host, the mosquito. Plan and arrangement 
chiefly after Neveu-Lemaire ; details of the figures founded on those of Grassi, 
Schaudinn (Leuckart's Zoologische Wandtafeln), Ross and others. 



I.-V. and 6-10 show the schizogony. 
VI.-XII., The sexual generation. 
XIII., The motile zygote. 
XIV.-XIX., Sporogony. 
I. -III., Young amoebulae in blood- 
corpuscles. 
IV., Older, actively amoeboid tropho- 

zoite. 
V-, Still older, less amoeboid tropho- 

zoite. 

6, Mature schizont. 

7, Schizont, with nucleus dividing 
up. 

8, Young rosette stage. 

9, Fully formed rosette stage. 

10, Merozoites free in the blood by 
breaking down of the corpuscle. 

VI., Young indifferent gametocyte. 

VII., a, Male crescent. 

VII., b, Female crescent. 

VIII., aandi, The gametocytes becom- 

( ing oval. 



IX., a and 6, Spherical gametocytes; 
in the male (IX. a) the nucleus has 
divided up. 

X., a and 6, Formation of gametes; 
in the male (X. o) the so-called 
flagella or male gametes (fl) are 
thrown out, one of them is seen 
detached; in the female (X. b) a 
portion of the nucleus has been 
expelled. 

XL, A male gamete penetrating a 
female gamete at a cone of re- 
ception formed near the nucleus. 

XII., Zygote with two pronuclei in 
proximity. 

XIII., Zygote in the motile stage 
(vermicule or ookinete). 

XIV., Encysted zygote (oocyst). 

XV., Commencing multiplication of the 
nuclei in the oocyst. 

XVI., Oocyst with numerous sporo- 
blasts. 



failed to appreciate its true significance, and con- 
sidered it rather as a degeneration-appearance. 
The micro-gametes soon liberate themselves from 
the residual cytoplasm of the parent and swim 
away in search of a megagamete; each is a very 
slender, wavy filament, composed largely of chrom- 
atic substance. The finer details of structure of 
the microgamete of a malarial parasite cannot be 
said, however, to be thoroughly known, and it is 
by no means impossible that its structure is really 
trypaniform, as, according to Schaudinn's great 
work, is the case with the merozoites and 
sporozoites. 

The megagametocyte becomes a megagamete 
directly after a process of maturation, which 
consists in the expulsion of a certain amount of 
nuclear substance. The actual conjugation is quite 
similar to the process in Coccidia, and the resulting 
zygote perfectly homologous. In the present case, 
however, the zygote does not at once secrete an 
oocyst, with a thick resistant wall; on the contrary, 
it changes its shape, and becomes markedly gre- 
gariniform and active, and is known for this 
reason as an ookinete. The ookinete passes through 
the epithelial layer of the stomach, the thinner and 
more pointed end leading the way, and comes to 
rest in the connective tissue forming the outer layer 
of the stomach-wall (fig. 2). Here it becomes 
rounded and cyst-like, and grows considerably; 
for only a thin, delicate cyst-membrane is secreted, 
which does not impede the absorption of nutriment. 
Meanwhile, the nucleus has divided into several. 




From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology. 

FIG. 2. Stomach of a mosquito, 
with cysts of Haemosporidia. (After 
Ross.) 

oes, Oesophagus. Ml, Malpighian 
st, Stomach. tubules. 

cy, Cysts. int, Intestine. 

around each of which the cytoplasm becomes seg- 
mented. Each of these segments (" blastophores," 
" zoidophores ") is entirely comparable to a sporo- 
blast in the Coccidian oocyst, the chief difference 
Hseing that it never forms a spore; moreover the 
segments or sporoblasts in the oocyst of a malarial 
parasite are irregular in shape and do not become 
completely separated from one another, but 
remain connected by thin cytoplasmic strands. 
Repeated multiplication of the sporoblast-nuclei 
next takes place, with the result that a great 
number of little nuclei are found all round the 
periphery. A corresponding number of fine cyto- 
plasmic processes grow out from the surface, each 
carrying a nucleus with it, and in this manner a 

XVII., Commencing for- XIX., Free sporozoites, 

mat ion of sporo- showing their changes 

zoites. of form. 

XVI 1 1., Full-grown oocyst n, Nucleus of the parasite. 

crammed with ripe p, Melanin pigment. 

sporozoites; on one fl, " Flagella.' 

side the cyst has burst sp. bl., Sporoblasts. 

and the sporozoites r. n.. Residual nuclei. 

are escaping. r. p.. Residual protoplasm. 



HAEMOSPORIDIA 



809 



huge number of slender, slightly sickle-shaped germs or sporo- 
zoites (" blasts," " zoids," &c.) are formed. Each oocyst may 
contain from hundreds to thousands of sporozoites. 

When the sporogony (which lasts about 10 days) is completed, 
the oocyst ruptures and the sporozoites are set free into the 
body-cavity, leaving behind a large quantity of residual cyto- 
plasm, including pigment grains, &c. The sporozoites are 
carried about by the blood-stream; ultimately, however, 
apparently by virtue of some chemotactic attraction, they 
practically all collect in the salivary glands, filling the secretory 
cells and also invading the ducts. When the mosquito next 
bites a man, numbers of them are injected, together with the 
minute drop of saliva, into his blood, where they begin a fresh 
endogenous cycle. 

There is only one other point with regard to the life-history 
that need be mentioned. With the lapse of time all trophic and 
schizogonic (asexual) phases of the parasite in the blood die off. 
But it has long been known that malarial patients, apparently 
quite cured, may suddenly exhibit all the symptoms again, 
without having incurred a fresh infection. Schaudinn has 
investigated the cause of this recurrence, and finds that it is 
due to the power of the megagametocytes, which are very 
resistant and long-lived, to undergo a kind of parthenogenesis 
under favourable conditions and give rise to the ordinary asexual 
schizonts, which in turn can repopulate the host with all the other 
phases. Microgametocytes, on the other hand, die off in time 
if they cannot pass into a mosquito. 

Various types of form are to be met with among the Haemo- 
sporidia. In one, characteristic of most (though not of absolutely 
all) parasites of warm-blooded Vertebrates, the tropho- 
zoites are of irregular amoeboid shape; hence this section 
is generally known as the Haemamoebidae. In another 
type, characteristic of the parasites of cold-blooded 
Vertebrates, the body possesses a definite, vermiform, i.e. 
cycle where gregariniform shape, which is retained during the intra- 
knowa corpuscular as well as during the free condition; this 
section comprises the Haemogregarinidae. Allied to this 
latter type of form are the trophozoites of Piroplasma, which are 
normally pear-shaped ; they differ, however, in being very minute, 
and, moreover, exhibit considerable polymorphism, rod-like (so- 
called bacillary) and ring-forms being of common occurrence. It is 
important to note that in a certain species of Haemogregarina (fig. 3) 



Compara- 
tive Mor- 
phology; 
variations 
la the life- 



bodies. Schaudinn was the first to notice this character, in Piro- 
plasma canis, and his observation has since been confirmed by Ltihe. 1 
Moreover, Brumpt has also noticed nuclear dimorphism in the 
ookinete of a species of Haemogregarina in a leech (as the Inverte- 
brate host) a highly important observation. 

As regards the life-history, the endogenous (schizogonous) cycle 
is known in many cases. Sometimes schizogony takes the primitive 
form of simple binary (probably) longitudinal fission; this is the 
case in Piroplasma (fig. 4) and also in Haemogregarina bigemina just 
referred to. From this result the pairs of individuals ("twins")' 
so often found in the corpuscles. In addition, however, at any rate 
in Piroplasma, it is probable that multiple division (more allied to 
ordinary schizogony) also takes place; such is the case, according 
to Laveran, in P. equi, and the occurrence at times of four parasites 
in a corpuscle, arranged in a cruciform manner, is most likely to be 
thus explained. Labb<5 has described schizogony in Halteridium 




From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology. 

FIG. 4. Development and schizogony of Piroplasma bigeminum 
in the blood-corpuscles of the ox. (After Laveran and Nicolle.) 



g, n, i, j, Various forms of the 
twin parasite. 

k and /, Doubly infected cor- 
puscles. 




the parasite 
the blood- 



From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology. 

FIG. 3. Haemogregarina bigemina, Laveran, from the blood of blennies. 
(After Laveran, magnified about 1800 diameters.) 

which assume the form of 
the free parasite, as seen in 
d, e and /. 

N, Nucleus of the blood - cor- 
puscle. 

n. Nucleus of the parasite. The 
outline of the blood-corpuscle 
is indicated by a thick black 
line. 



a, The form of 
found free 
plasma. 

Parasite within a blood-cor- 
puscle, preparing for division ; 
the nucleus has already 
divided. 

The parasite has divided into 
two rounded corpuscles, 



b, 



f, 



the young trophozoites markedly resemble Piroplasma in their 
pyriform appearance ; and a further point of agreement between the 
two forms is mentioned below. Lastly there is the Avian genus 
Halteridium, the trophozoites of which are characteristically bean- 
shaped or reniform. True Haemogregarines also differ in other slight 
points from ' ' Haemamoebae." Thus the young endoglobular tropho- 
zoite does not exhibit a ring (vacuolar) phase; and the cytoplasm 
never contains, at any period, the characteristic melanin pigment 
above noted. In some species of Haemogregarina the parasite, while 
intracorpuscular, becomes surrounded by a delicate membrane, 
the cytocyst; on entering upon an active, " free " period, the 
cytocyst is ruptured and left behind with the remains of the corpuscle. 
A very interesting cytological feature is the occurrence, in one or 
two Haemosporidia, of nuclear dimorphism, i.e. of a larger and 
smaller chromatic body, probably comparable to the trophic and 
kinetic nuclei of a Trypanosome, or of the " Leishman-Donovan " 



a, Youngest form. 

6, Slightly older. 

c and d, Division of the nucleus. 
e and/, Division of the body of 
the parasite. 

danilewskyi as taking place in a rather peculiar manner; the parasite 
becomes much drawn-out and halter-like, and the actual division is 
restricted to its two ends, two clumps of merozoites being formed, 
at first connected by a narrow strand of unused cytoplasm, which 
subsequently disappears. Some doubt, however, attaches to this 
account, as no one else appears to have seen the process. For the 
rest, schizogony takes place more or less in the customary way, 
allowing for variations in the mode of arrangement of the merozoites. 
It remains to be noted that in Karyolysus lacertarum, according to 
Labb6, two kinds of schizont are developed, which give rise, respec- 
tively, to micromerozoites and megamerozoites', in either case 
enclosed in a delicate cytocyst. This probably corresponds to 
an early sexual differentiation (such as is found among certain 
Coccidia (g.f.), the micromerozoites producing eventually micro- 
gametocytes, the others megagametocytes. 

It has now been recognized for some time that the sexual 
(exogenous) part of the life-cycle of all the Haemamoebidae takes 
place in an Invertebrate (Insectan) host, and is fundamentally 
similar to that above described in those cases where it has 
been followed. In contradistinction to the malarial parasites, 
this host, in the Avian forms (Haemoproteus and Halteridium)? 
is a species of Culex and not of Anopheles; in other words, 
gamete-formation, conjugation and subsequent sporozoite- 
formation in these cases will only go on in the former. On 
the other hand, in the case of the Haemogregarines, it was 
thought until quite lately that the entire life-history, including 
conjugation and sporogony, went on in the Vertebrate host; 
and only in 1902 Hintze described what purported to be the 
complete life-history of Lankesterella (Drepanidium) ranarum 
undergone in the frog. This view was rendered obsolete by 
the work of Siegel and Schaudinn, who demonstrated the 
occurrence of an alternation of hosts and of generations 
in the case of Haemogregarina stepanovi, parasitic in a 
tortoise, and in Karyolysus lacertarum; . the Invertebrate 
hosts, in which, in both cases, the sexual process is undergone, 
being respectively a leech (Placobdella) and a tick (Ixodes). With 
this discovery the main distinction (as supposed) between the 
Haemosporidia of warm and of cold-blooded Vertebrates vanished. 
It was further acknowledged by Schaudinn (under whom Hintze 

1 This does away with one of the principal reasons on account of 
which some authorities consider Piroplasma (Leishmania) donovani 
as quite distinct from other Piroplasmata (see TRYPANOSOMES). 

* It must not be forgotten that one species of Halteridium (H. 
[Trypanomorpha] noctuae) is said to have well-marked trypaniform 
phases in its life-cycle; these are preferably considered under 
Trypanosomes (g.t>.), and therefore, to avoid repetition, are only 
thus alluded to here. Whether H. danilewskyi also becomes trypani- 
form in certain phases, and how far it really agrees with the criteria 
of a Haemosporidian above postulated, are matters which are not 
yet definitely known. 



8io 



HAEMOSPORIDIA 



had worked) that the latter had been misled by Coccidian cysts and 
spores, which he took for those of Lankesterella. The gametogony 
and sporogony of Haemogregarina stepanovi in the leech agree in 
essential particulars with the process above described. The micro- 
gametes are extremely minute, and the sporozoites, which are 
developed in the salivary glands, where the motile ookinetes finally 
come to rest, are extremely " spirochaetiform " the full 
significance of this latter fact being, perhaps, not 
appreciated. 

Christophers recently described some remarkable 
phases which he regarded as belonging to the cycle of 
Haemogregarina gerbilli (one of the few Mammalian 
Haemogregarines known) in a louse (Haematopinus). 
In a private communication, however, the author 
states that he has probably mistaken phases in the 
development of an ordinary gregarine parasite in 
the louse for part of the life-cycle of this Haemo- 
gregarine. 

The Mammalian parasite Piroplasma is the one about 
whose life-history our knowledge is most vague. 
Besides the typical and generally occurring forms, 
others have also been observed in the blood, but it 



have been mentioned above. Some authorities would include 
Laverania in the genus Plasmodium, as differing only specifically 
from the other two forms. It has, moreover, been suggested by 
Sergent that all three are merely different phases of the same parasite, 
predominating at different seasons; this idea cannot be regarded, 
however, as in any way proved so far. From what is known of the 




From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology. 

FIG. 5. Haemoproteus danilewskyi, Kruse (parasite of various'birds). 



a, b, c and / from the chaffinch ; 
Young trophozoite in a blood- 
corpuscle. 
6 and c, Older trophozoite. 



X about 



is doubtful how far these are to be looked upon as <j an( j e \ Sporulation. 

normal; for instance, Bowhill and Le Doux have 

described, in various species, a phase in which a long, 

slender pseudopodial-like outgrowth is present, with a 

swelling at the distal end. It is, moreover, quite 

uncertain which are the sexual forms, comparable to 

gametocytes. Doflein regards large pear-shaped forms as such 

(megagametocytes?), which become spherical when maturing; 

and Nocard and Motas have figured amoeboid, irregular forms, 

with the nucleus fragmented and possessing flagella-like processes 

(possibly microgametes ?). The Invertebrate host is well known to 

be, in the case of all species, a tick; thus bovine piroplasmosis 

(P. bigeminum) in America is conveyed by Rhipicephalus annulalus 

(Boophilus bovis), canine piroplasmosis (P. canis) in South Africa 

by Haemaphysalis leachi (and perhaps Dermacentor reticulalus), 



Precocious sporulation with few 
merozoites. 
Sporulation of a full-grown 



d and e from the lark." (After Labbe.) 
schizont, with numerous mero- 
zoites. 

Gametocyte. 

Nucleus of blood-corpuscle. 
n, Nucleus of parasite. 
p. Pigment. 
mz, Merozoites. 
r.p. Residual protoplasm. 



and so on. The manner in which the infection is transmitted by 
the tick varies greatly. In some cases (e.g. P. bigeminum and P. 
canis) only the generation subsequent to that which receives the 
infection (by feeding on an infected ox) can transmit it back again 
to another ox; in other words, true hereditary infection of the ova 
in the mother-tick is found to occur. The actual period in the life of 
the daughter-tick at which it can convey the infection apparently 
varies. On the other hand, in the case of East African coast-fever, 
Theiler found that hereditary infection does not occur, the same 
generation transmitting the parasite (P. parvum) at different periods 
of life. Little is certainly known regarding the phases of the parasite 
which are passed through in the tick. Lignieres has observed a kind 
of multiple fission in the stomach, several very minute bodies, 
consisting mostly of chromatin, being formed, which may serve for 
endogenous reproduction. Koch has published an account of certain 
curious forms of P. bigeminum, in which the body is produced into 
many stiff, ray-like processes, giving the appearance of a star; 
according to him fusion of such forms takes place, and the resulting 
zygote becomes rounded, perhaps transitional to the pear-shaped 
forms. 

The classification and nomenclature of the Haemosporidia are 
in a very unsettled condition. For an account of the various systems 
Classifies- ano - modifications hitherto adopted, the article of Minchin 
tlon. t* 6 un der SPOROZOA : Bibliography) should be consulted. 

With the realization that the life-history in the case of the 
" Haemamoebae " and the Haemogregarines is fundamentally 
similar in type, the chief reason for grouping them as distinct sub- 
orders has disappeared. It is most convenient to regard them as 
separate, but closely allied families, the Plasmodidae (" Haem- 
amoebidae ") and the Haemogregarinidae. The Piroplasmata, on the 
other hand, constitute another family, which is better placed in a 
distinct section or sub-order. In addition there are, as already 
noted, two or three genera whose systematic position must be con- 
sidered as quite uncertain. One is the well-known Halteridium of 
Labbe, parasitic in various birds ; the type-species is H. danilewskyi 
(Gr. and Fel.). Another is the much-debated parasite of white 
blood-corpuscles (leucocytes), originally described in birds by 
Danilewsky under the name of Leucocytozoon, a form of which has 
been recently observed in Mammals. 

In conclusion, the chief members of the above-mentioned families 
may be enumerated. 

Fam. Plasmodidae (" Haemamoebidae "). 

Genus Laverania, Gr. and Fel. (syn. Haemamoenas, Ross), for L. 
malariae, Gr. and Fel. (synn. L. s. Plasmodium, s. " Haemamoeba," 
&c., praecox s. immaculatum, &c.), the parasite of pernicious malaria. 
Genus Plasmodium, March, and Celli (syn. " Haemamoeba ") for 
P. vivax and P. malariae, the tertian and quartan parasite, respec- 
tively. There is also a form known in apes, P. kochi. Genus Haemo- 
proteus, Kruse (syn. Proleosoma), for H. danilewskyi (syn. Proteosoma 
grassi, Plasmodium praecox, &c.), parasitic in numerous birds. 
Recently, another form has been described, from reptiles, which 
Castellani and Willey have termed Haemocystidium simondi. 

Remarks. The distinguishing characters of the malarial parasites 



morphology and mode of manifestation of these forms, the differences 
between Laverania and the two soecies of Plasmodium are consider- 
ably more pronounced than those between P. vivax and P. malariae; 
if the latter are to be considered as distinct species, the first-named 
is probably generically distinct. Liihe, it may be noted, in his recent 
comprehensive account of the Haematozoa, also takes this view. 
Lastly, whatever be the correct solution of the above problem, 
there is certainly not sufficient justification for including the Avian 
genus Haemoproteus, as also only a species of Plasmodium, which is 
done by some. Its different Vertebrate habitat, and also the fact 
that its Insectan definitive host is Culex and not Anopheles, differ- 
entiate it sharply from Laverania and Plasmodium. 

Fam. Haemogregarinidae. The different genera are characterized 




a, 



{.. & h. 

From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology. 

FIG. 6. Haemogregarina stepanovi, Danilewsky (par. Emys and 
Cistudo), phases of the schizogony. (a-e and j after Laveran; f-i 
after Borner.) Xiooo to 1200 diameters. 

which the parasite grows 
into the U" sna ped Haemo- 
gregarine without increase of 
body-mass. 

j, Commencement of sporula- 
tion; the nucleus has divided 
into eight nuclei, and the 
body of the parasite is 
beginning to divide up into 
as many merozoites within a 
blood-corpuscle. 

N, Nucleus of the blood-cor- 
puscle. 
n, Nucleus of the parasite. 



Blood-corpuscle with young 
trophozoite. 

6, Older trophozoite. 

c, Full-grown trophozoite, ready 
to leave the corpuscle. 

d and e, Trophozoites free in the 
blood-plasma, showing 
changes of form. 

f-i, Trophozoites, still within the 
blood-corpuscle (not drawn), 
showing the structure of the 
nucleus, the coarse chroma- 
toid granules in the proto- 
plasm and the manner in 



chiefly by their size relative to the blood-corpuscles, and their dis- 
position in the latter. Here, again, it has been suggested to unite 
the various types all in one genus, Haemogregarina, but this seems at 
least premature when it is remembered how little is known in most 
cases of the life-cycle, which may prove to exhibit important 
divergences. 

Genus Haemogregarina, Danilewsky (syn. Danilewskya, Labb6). 



HAETZER 



811 



The body of the parasite exceeds the blood-corpuscle in length, 
when adult, and is bent upon itself, like a. (J. A very great number 
of species are known, mostly from reptiles and fishes; among them 
may be mentioned H. stepanovi (fig. 6), from Entys and Cisludo, 
whose sexual-cycle in a leech has been worked out by Siegel (see 
above), H. delagei, from Raja, H. bigemina, from blennies, and H. 
simondi, from soles. Recently one or two Mammalian forms have 
been observed, H. gerbilli, from an Indian rat (Gerbillus), and H. 
jaculi, from the jerboa. 

Genus LankestereUa, Labb6 (syn. Drepanidium, Lankester). The 
parasite is not more than three-quarters the length of the corpuscle. 
L. ranarum from Rana is the type-species ; another, recently described 
by Fantham, is L. tritonis, from the newt. 

Genus Karyolysus, Labb6. The parasite does not exceed the cor- 
puscle in length; the forms included in this genus, moreover, 





From Lankcster's Treatise on Zoology. 

FIG. 7. Karyolysus lacertarum (Danil.), in the blood-corpuscles of 
Lacerta muralis, showing the effects of the parasite upon the nucleus 
of the corpuscle. In c and d the nucleus is broken up. N, Nucleus 
of the corpuscle; n, nucleus of the parasite, seen as a number of 
masses of chromatin, not enclosed by a distinct membrane. (After 
Marceau.) 

although not actually intranuclear, have a marked karyolytic and 
disintegrating action upon the nucleus of the corpuscle. The type- 
species is the well-known K. lacertarum, of lizards; another is K. 
(Haemogregarina) viperini, from Tropidonotus. 

In the section of the Piroplasmata there is only the genus Piro- 
plasma, Patton (synn. Babesia, Starcovici, Pyrosoma, Smith and 
Kilborne), the principal species of which are as follows: P. bi- 
geminum, the cause of Texas cattle-fever, tick-fever (Kinder- malaria) 
of South Africa, and P. bovis, causing haemoglobinuria of cattle in 
Southern Europe ; there is some uncertainty as to whether these two 
are really distinct; P. canis, P. ovis and P. equi associated, respec- 
tively, with those animals. Lately, a very small form, P. parvum, 
has been described by Theiler in Rhodesia, which causes East- 
African coast-fever; and another, P. muris, has been observed in 
white rats by Fantham. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. (The older literature is enumerated in most 
treatises on Sporozoa see bibliography under SPOROZOA). P. 
Argutinsky, " Malariastudien," Arch. mikr. Anal. 59, p. 315, pis. 
18-21 (1901), and op. cit. 61, p. 331, pi. 18 (1902); A. Balfour, 
" Haemogregarine of Mammals," J. Trap. Med. 8, p. 241, 8 figs. 
(!95); C. A. Bentley, " Leucocytozoan of the Dog, B.M.J. 
09O5). ii PP- 988 and 1078; N. Berestneff, " Cber einen neuen 
Blutparasiten der indischen Frosche," Arch. Protistenk. 2, p. 343, 
pi. 8 (1903); " Uber das 'Leucocytozoan' danilewskyi," op. cit. 3, 
p. 376, pi. 15 (1904); A. Billet, "Contribution a 1'etude du palu- 
disme et de son h^matozoaire en Algerie," Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 16, 
p. 186 (1902) ; (Notes on various Haemogregarines), C. R. Soc. Biol. 
56, pp. 482, 484, 607 and 741 (1904); C. Borner, " Untersuchungen 
iiber Hamosporidien," Zeitschr. uriss. Zool. 69, p. 398, I pi. (1901); 
T. Bowhill, Equine piroplasmosis," &c., f. Hyg. 5, p. 7, pis. 1-3 
(1995) ; Bowhill and C. le Doux, " Contribution to the Study of 
' Piroplasmosis canis,' " op. cit. 4, p. 217, pi. n (1904); E. Brumpt 
and C. Lebailly, " Description de quelques nouvelles especes de 
trypanosomes et d'h^mogregarines," &c., C. R. Ac. Set. 139, p. 613 
(1904) ; A. Castellani and A. Willey, " Observations on the Haema- 
tozoa of Vertebrates in Ceylon," Spolia Zeylan. 2, p. 78, I pi. (1904), 



29. P- 2 57. '7 fig 3 - (1905); "Piroplasma muris," &c., Q. J. Micr. 
Sci. 50, p. 493, pi. 28 (1906) ; C. Graham-Smith, " A new Form of 
Parasite found in the Red Blood-Corpuscles of Moles," J. Hyg. 5, 
P- 453. pis- '3 an d 14 (1905) ; R. Hintze, " Lebensweise und Ent- 
wickelung von Lankesterella minima," Zool. Jahrb. Anal. 15, p. 693, 
pi. 36 (1902) ; S. James, " On a Parasite found in the White Blood- 
Corpuscles of Dogs," Sci. Mem. India, 14, 12 pp. I pi. (1905) ; 
R. Koch, " Vorlaufige Mitteilungen iiber die Ergebnisse einer 
Forschungsreise nach Ostafrika," Deutsch. med. Wochenschr., 1905, 
p. 1865, 24 figs.; A. Labb<j, " Recherches sur les parasites endo- 
globulaires du sang des vert4br4s," Arch. zool. exp. (3) ii. p. 55, 
10 pis. (1894); A. Laveran, "Sur quelques hfimogregarines des 
ophidiens," C. R. Ac. Sci. 135, p. 1036, 13 figs. (1902); "Sur une 
Haemamoeba d'une m^sange (Parus major)," C. R. Soc. Biol. 54, 
p. U2I, 10 figs. (1902); " Sur la piroplasmose bovine bacilliforme," 
C. R. Ac. Sci. 138, p. 648, 18 figs. (1903); " Contribution i I'e'tude 
de Haemamoeba ziemanni," C. R. Soc. Biol. 55, p. 620, 7 figs. (1903); 



" Sur une h6mogregarine des gerboises," C. R. Ac. Sci. 141, p. 295, 
9 figs. (1905); (On different Haemogregarines) C. R. Soc. Biol. 59, 
pp. 175, 176, with figs. (1905); " Haemocytozoa. Essai de classifica- 
tion," Bull. Inst. Pasteur, 3, p. 809 (1905); Laveran and F. Mesnil, 
"Sur les h^matozoaires des poissons marins," C. R. Ac. Sci. 135, 
P- 5^7 (1902) ; " Sur quelques protozoaires parasites d'une tortue 
d'Asie," i.e. p. 609, 14 figs. (1902); Laveran and Negre, " Sur un 
protozoaire parasite de Hyalomma aegyptium," C. R, Soc. Biol. 58, 
p. 964, 6 figs. (1905); (for various earlier papers by these authors, 
reference should be made to the C. R. Ac. Sci. and C. R. Soc. Biol. 
for previous years); C. Lebailly (On Piscine Haemogregarines) 
C. R. Ac. Sci. 139, p. 576 (1904), and C. R. Soc. Biol. 59, p. 304 
('905); J- Lignieres, " Sur k ' Tristeza,' " Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 15, 
p. 121, pi. 6 (1901); "La Piroplasmose bovine; nouvelles re- 
cherches, &c., Arch, parasit. 7, p. 398, pi. 4 (1903); M. Luhe, "Die 
im Blute schmarotzenden Protozoen," in Mense's Handbuch der 
Tropenkrankheiten (Leipzig, 1906), 3, I ; F. Marceau, " Note sur le 
Karyolysus lacertarum, Arch, parasitol. 4, p. 135, 46 figs. (1901); 
W. MacCallum, " On the Haematozoan Infection of Birds," /. Exp. 
Med. 3, p. 117, pi. 12 (1898); G. Mauser, " Die Malaria perniciosa," 
Centrbl. Bakter. (i) 32, Orig. p. 695, 3 pis. (1902); C. Nicolle (On 
various Reptilian Haemogregarines), C. R. Soc. Biol. 56, pp. 330, 
608 and 912, with figs. (1904); Nicolle and C. Comte, " Sur le role 
. . . de Hyalomma . . . dans 1'infection h6mogr6garinienne," op. 
cit. 58, p. 1045 (1905); Norcard and Motas, " Contribution a I'e'tude 
de la piroplasmose canine," Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 16, p. 256, pis. 5 
and 6 (1902); G. Nuttall and G. Graham-Smith, Canine piro- 
plasmosis," J. Hygiene, p. 237, pi. 9 (1905); F. Schaudinn, 'Der 
Generationswechsel der Coccidien und Hamosporidien," Zool. 
Centrbl. 6, p. 675 (1899); " Studien iiber krankheitserregende 
Protozoen II. Plasmodium vivax," Arb. Kais. Gesundheitsamte, 19, 
p. 169, pis. 4-6 (1902); E. and E. Sergent (On different Haemo- 
gregarines), C. R. Soc. Biol. 56, pp. 130, 132 (1904), op. cit. 58, pp. 
56, 57, 670 (1905); I. Siegel, "Die geschlechtliche Entwickelung 
von Haemogregarina, &c., Arch. Protistenk. 2, p. 339, 7 figs. (1903) ; 
P. L. Simond, " Contribution a 1'etude des ndmatozoaires endo- 
globulaires des reptiles," Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 15, p. 319, I pi. (1901); 
T. Smith and F. Kilborne, " Investigations into the Nature, Causation 
and Prevention of Texas Cattle Fever," Rep. Bureau Animal In- 
dustry, U.S.A., 9 and 10, p. 177, pis. (1893); A. Theiler, "The 
Piroplasma bigeminum of the Immune Ox," /. Army Med. Corps, 3, 
pp. 469, 599, i pi. (1904); J. Vassal, "Sur une he'matozoaire 




(H. M. Wo.) 

HAETZER, or HETZER, LUDWIG (d. 1529), Swiss divine, 
was born in Switzerland, at Bischofszell, in Thurgau. He 
studied at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and began his career in a 
chaplaincy at Wadenswil, on the Lake of Zurich. At this time 
his attachment to the old faith was tempered by a mystical turn, 
and by a devotion to the prophetical writings of the Old Testa- 
ment, which he studied in the original. By 1523 we find him 
in Zurich, where he published, at first anonymously and in 
Latin (Judicium Dei), later with his name and in German 
(Sept. 24, 1523), a small tract against the religious use of images, 
and bearing the motto attached to all his subsequent works, 
" O Got erlosz die (or dein) Gefangnen " (" O God, set the 
prisoners free "). An attempt to give effect to the teaching of 
this (frequently reprinted) tract was followed by a public religious 
disputation, of which Haetzer drew up the official account. 
In 1524 he brought out a tract on the conversion of the Jews, 
and published a German version of Johann Bugenhagen's 
brief exposition of the epistles of St Paul (Ephesians to Hebrews) ; 
in the dedication (dated Zurich, June 29, 1524) he undertakes 
to translate Bugenhagen's comment on the Psalter. He then 
went to Augsburg, bearing Zwingli's introduction to Johann 
Frosch. Here he came for a time under the influence of Urbanus 
Regius, and was for a short time the guest of Georg Regel. 
Returning to Zurich, he was in intercourse with leading Ana- 
baptists (though his own position was simply the disuse of infant 
baptism) till their expulsion in January 1525. Again resorting 
to Augsburg, and resuming work as corrector of the press for 
his printer Silvan Ottmar, he pushed his views to the extreme 
of rejecting all sacraments, reaching something like the mystical 
standpoint of the early Quakers. He was expelled from Augs- 
burg in the autumn of 1525, and made his way through Constance 
to Basel, where Oecolampadius received him kindly. He trans- ( 
lated into German the first treatise of Oecolampadius on the 
Lord's Supper (in which the words of institution are taken 
figuratively), and proceeding to Zurich in November, published 



8l2 



HAFIZ 



his version there in February 1526, with a preface disclaiming 
connexion with the Anabaptists. His relations with Zwingli 
were difficult; returning to Basel he published (July 18, 1526) 
his translation of Malachi, with Oecolampadius's exposition, 
and with a preface reflecting on Zwingli. This he followed by 
a version of Isaiah xxxvi.-xxxvii. He next went to Strassburg, 
and was received by Wolfgang Capito. At Strassburg in the 
late autumn of 1526 he fell in with Hans Dengk or Denck, who 
collaborated with him in the production of his opus magnum, 
the translation of the Hebrew Prophets, Alle Propheten nach 
hebraischer Sprach verluetscht. The preface is dated Worms, 
3 April 1527; and there are editions, Worms, 13 April 1527, 
folio; Augsburg, 22 June 1527, folio; Worms, 7 Sept. 1527, 
16; and Augsburg, 1528, folio. It was the first Protestant 
version of the prophets in German, preceding Luther's by five 
years, and highly spoken of by him. Haetzer and Denck now 
entered on a propagandist mission from place to place, with 
some success, but of short duration. Denck died at Basel in 
November 1527. Haetzer was arrested at Constance in the 
summer of 1528. After long imprisonment and many examina- 
tions he was condemned on the 3rd of February 1529 to die by 
the sword, and the sentence was executed on the following day. 
His demeanour on the scaffold impressed impartial witnesses, 
Hans Zwick and Thomas Blaurer, who speak warmly of his 
fervour and courage. The Dutch Baptist Martyrology describes 
him as " a servant of Jesus Christ." The Moravian Chronicle 
says " he was condemned for the sake of divine truth." His 
papers included an unpublished treatise against the essential 
deity of Christ, which was suppressed by Zwingli; the only 
extant evidence of his anti-trinitarian views being contained 
in eight quaint lines of German verse preserved in Sebastian 
Frank's Chronica. The discovery of his heterodox Christology 
(which has led modern Unitarians to regard him as their proto- 
martyr) was followed by charges of loose living, never heard of 
in his lifetime, and destitute of evidence or probability. 

See Breitinger, " Anecdota quaedam de L. H." in Museum Hel- 
veticum (1746), parts 21 and 23; Wallace, Antitrinitarian Biography 
(1850); Dutch Martyrology (Hanserd Knollys Society) (1856); Th. 
Keim, in Hauck's Realencyklopddie (1899). (A. Go.*) 

HAFIZ. Shams-ud-din Mahommed, better known by his 
takhallus or nom de plume of Hafiz, was one of the most 
celebrated writers of Persian lyrical poetry. He was born at 
Shiraz, the capital of Fars, in the early part of the 8th century 
of the Mahommedan era, that is to say, in the i4th of our own. 
The exact date of his birth is uncertain, but he attained a ripe 
old age and died in 791 A.H. (A.D. 1388). This is the* date 
given in the chronogram which is engraved on his tomb, although 
several Persian biographers give a different year. Very little 
is actually known about his life, which appears to have been 
passed in retirement in Shiraz, of which he always speaks in 
terms of affectionate admiration. He was a subject of the 
Muzaffar princes, who ruled in Shiraz, Yazd, Rinnan and Ispahan, 
until the dynasty was overthrown by Timur (Tamerlane). Of 
these princes his especial patrons were Shah Shuja' and Shah 
Mansur. He early devoted himself to the study of poetry and 
theology, and also became learned in mystic philosophy, which 
he studied under Shaik Mahmud 'Attar, chief of an order of 
dervishes. Hafiz afterwards enrolled himself in the same order 
and became a professor of Koranic exegesis in a college which 
his friend and patron Haji Kiwam-ud-din, the vizier, specially 
founded for him. This was probably the reason of his adopting 
the sobriquet of Hafiz (" one who remembers "), which is technic- 
ally applied to any person who has learned the Koran by heart. 
The restraints of an ascetic life seem to have been very little to 
Hafiz's taste, and his loose conduct and wine-bibbing propensities 
drew upon him the severe censure of his monastic colleagues. 
In revenge he satirizes them unmercifully in his verses, and seldom 
loses an opportunity of alluding to their hypocrisy. Hafiz's 
fame as a poet was soon rapidly spread throughout the Mahom- 
medan world, and several powerful monarchs sent him presents 
and pressing invitations to visit them. Amongst others he was 
invited by Mahmud Shah Bahmani, who reigned in the south 



of India. After crossing the Indus and passing through Lahore 
he reached Hurmuz, and embarked on board a vessel sent for 
him by the Indian prince. He seems, however, to have been a 
bad sailor, and, having invented an excuse for being put ashore, 
made the best of his way back to Shiraz. Some biographies 
narrate a story of an interview between Hafiz and the invader 
Timur. The latter sent for him and asked angrily, " Art thou 
he who was so bold as to offer my two great cities Samarkand 
and Bokhara for the black mole on thy mistress's cheek?" 
alluding to a well-known verse in one of his odes. " Yes, sire," 
replied Hafiz, " and it is by such acts of generosity that I have 
brought myself to such a state of destitution that I have 
now to solicit your bounty." Timur was so pleased at his ready 
wit that he dismissed the poet with a handsome present. Un- 
fortunately for the truth of this story Timur did not capture 
Shiraz till A.D. 1393, while the latest date that can be assigned 
to Hafiz's death is 1391. Of his private life little or nothing is 
known. One of his poems is said to record the death of his wife, 
another that of a favourite unmarried son, and several others 
speak of his love for a girl called Shakh i Nabat, " Sugar-cane 
branch," and this is almost all of his personal history that can 
be gathered from his writings. He was, like most Persians, 
a Shi'ite by religion, believing in the transmission of the office 
of Imam (head of the Moslem Church) in the family of Ali, 
cousin of the prophet, and rejecting the Hadith (traditional say- 
ings) of Mahomet, which form the Sunna or supplementary code 
of Mahommedan ceremonial law. One of his odes which contains 
a verse in praise of Ali is engraved on the poet's tomb, but is 
omitted by Sudi, the Turkish editor and commentator, who 
was himself a rigid Sunnite. Hafiz's heretical opinions and 
dissipated life caused difficulties to be raised by the ecclesiastical 
authorities on his death as to his interment in consecrated 
ground. The question was at length settled by Hafiz's own 
works, which had then already begun to be used, as they are now 
throughout the East, for the purposes of divination, in the same 
manner as Virgil was employed in the middle ages for the divina- 
tion called Sortes Virgllianae. Opening the book at random 
after pronouncing the customary formula asking for inspiration, 
the objectors hit upon the following verse " Turn not away 
thy foot from the bier of Hafiz, for though immersed in sin, he 
will be admitted into Paradise." He was accordingly buried 
in the centre of a small cemetery at Shiraz, now included in an 
enclosure called the Hafiziyeh. 

His principal work is the Diwan, that is, a collection of short 
odes or sonnets called gkazals, and consisting of from five to 
sixteen baits or couplets each, all the couplets in each ode having 
the same rhyme in the last hemistich, and the last couplet always 
introducing the poet's own nom de plume. The whole of these 
are arranged in alphabetical order, an arrangement which 
certainly facilitates reference but makes it absolutely impossible 
to ascertain their chronological order, and therefore detracts 
from their value as a means of throwing light upon the growth 
and development of his genius or the incidents of his career. 
They are often held together by a very slender thread of con- 
tinuous thought, and few editions agree exactly in the order of 
the couplets. Still, a careful study of them, especially from the 
point of view indicated by the Sufiistic system of philosophy, 
will always show that a single idea does run throughout the 
whole. The nature of these poems has been the subject of much 
discussion in the West, some scholars seeing in their anacreontic 
utterances nothing but sensuality and materialism, while others, 
following the Oriental school, maintain that they are wholly 
and entirely mystic and philosophic. Something between the two 
would probably be nearer the truth. It must be remembered 
that Hafiz was a professed dervish and Sufi, and that his ghazals 
were in all probability published from a takia, and arranged 
with at least a view to Sufiistic interpretation. At the same 
time it is ridiculous to suppose that the glowing imagery, the 
gorgeous and often tender descriptions of njftural beauties, the 
fervent love passages, and the roystering drinking songs were 
composed in cool blood or with deliberate ascetic purpose. The 
beauty of Hafiz's poetry is that it is natural. It is the outcome 



HAG HAGENAU 



813 



of a fervent soul and a lofty genius delighting in nature and 
enjoying life; and it is the poet's misfortune that he lived in an 
age and amongst a people where rigid conventionality demanded 
that his free and spontaneous thoughts should be recast in an 
artificial mould. 

Besides the Diwan, Hafiz wrote a number of other poems; the 
Leipzig edition of his works contains 573 ghazals (forming theDiwan), 
42 kH'as or fragments, 69 ruba'iyat or tetrastics, 6 masnaviyat or 
poems in rhyming couplets, 2 kasaid, idylls or panegyrics, and I 
mukhammes or poem in five-line strophes. Other editions contain 
several tarji'-band or poems with a refrain. The whole Diwan was 
translated into English prose by H. Wilberforce Clarke in 1891, 
with introduction and exhaustive commentary and bibliography; 
a few rhyming versions of single poems by Sir William Jones, J. 
Nott, J. Hindley, Falconer, &c., are to be found scattered through 
the pages of the Oriental Miscellany and other periodicals, and a fine 
edition containing a verse rendering of the principal poems by H. 
Bicknell appearedin 1875. Other selections by S. Robinson (1875), 
A. Rogers (1889), J.H. M'Carthy (1893), and Gertrude L. Bell (1897). 
The principal German versions are by von Hammer Purgstall (1812), 
which gave the first impulse to Goethe's Westostlicher Diwan ; a 
rhyming and rhythmical translation of a large portion of Hafiz's 
works by Vincenz von Rosenzweig of Vienna (Vienna, 1858), which 
contains also the Persian text and notes; Der Diwan des Schems- 
eddln Muhammed Hafis, by G. H. F. Nesselmann (Berlin, 1865), in 
which the rhyming system of the original is imitated. Besides these, 
the reader may consult d'Herbelot, Bibliothkque orientals, article 
" Hafiz "; Sir William Ouseley's Oriental Collections (1797-1798); 
A Specimen of Persian Poetry, or Odes of Hafiz, by John Richardson 
(London, 1802); Biographical Notices of Persian Poets, by Sir Gore 
Ouseley (Oriental Translation Fund, 1846); and an excellent article 
by Professor E. B. Cowell in Macmillan's Magazine (No. 177, July 
1874); J. A. Vullers, Vitae poetarum Persicorum (1839, translated 
from Daulatshah) ; S. Robinson, Persian Poetry for English Readers 
(1883). The best edition of the text is perhaps that edited by Her- 
mann Brockhaus of Leipzig (1854-1856), which is based on the re- 
cension of the Turkish editor Sudi, and contains his commentary 
in Turkish on the first eighty ghazals. See also H. Eth6 in Grundriss 
der iranischen Philologie, ii. (Strassburg, 1896); P. Horn, Geschichte 
der persischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1901). (E. H. P.) 

HAG. (i) (Probably a shortened form of the 0. Eng. hcegtesse, 
hegtes, cognate with Ger. Hexe, witch, Dutch hecse), a word 
common during the i6th and I7th centuries for a female demon 
or evil spirit, and so particularly applied to such supernatural 
beings as the harpies and fairies of classical mythology, and also 
to witches. In modern usage the word is generally used of a 
hideous old woman whose repulsive exterior is accompanied by 
malice or wickedness. The name is also used of an eel-like 
parasitic fish, Myxine glutinosa, allied to the lamprey. 

(2) A word common in Scottish and northern English dialects 
for an enclosed piece of wood, a copse. This is the same word 
as " hedge " (see HEDGES) and " haw." " Hag " also means " to 
cut," and is used in Scotland of an extent of woodland marked 
out for felling, and of a quantity of felled wood. This word 
is also used of a cutting in the peat of a " moss " or " bog," 
and hence applied to the small plots of firm ground or heather 
in a bog; it is common in the form " moss-hags." 

HAGEDORN, FRIEDRICH VON (1708-1754), German poet, 
was born on the 23rd of April 1 708 at Hamburg, where his father, 
a man of scientific and literary taste, was Danish minister. 
He was educated at the gymnasium of Hamburg, and later 
(1726) became a student of law at Jena. Returning to Hamburg 
in 1729, he obtained the appointment of unpaid private secretary 
to the Danish ambassador in London, where he lived till 1731. 
Hagedorn's return to Hamburg was followed by a period of great 
poverty and hardship, but in 1733 he was appointed secretary 
to the so-called " English Court " (Englischer Hof) in Hamburg, 
a trading company founded in the I3th century. He shortly 
afterwards married, and from this time had sufficient leisure 
to pursue his literary occupations till his death on the 28th of 
October 1754. Hagedorn is the first German poet who bears 
unmistakable testimony to the nation's recovery from the 
devastation wrought by the Thirty Years' War. He is eminently 
a social poet. His light and graceful love-songs and anacreontics, 
with their undisguised joie de vivre, introduced a new note into 
the German lyric; his fables and tales in verse are hardly inferior 
in form and in delicate persiflage to those of his master La 
Fontaine, and his moralizing poetry re-echoes the philosophy 



of Horace. He exerted a dominant influence on the German 
lyric until late in the i8th century. 

The first collection of Hagedorn's poems was published at Ham- 
burg shortly after his return from Jena in 1729, under the title 
Versuch einiger Gedichte (reprinted by A. Sauer, Heilbronn, 1883). 
In 1738 appeared Versuch in poetischen Fabeln und Erzdhlungen; 
in 1742 a collection of his lyric poems, under the title Sammlung 
neuer Oden und Lieder; and his Moralische Gedichte in 1750. A 
collection of his entire works was published at Hamburg after his 
death in 1757. The best is J. J. Eschenburg's edition (5 vols., 
Hamburg, 1800). Selections of his poetry with an excellent intro- 
duction in F. Muncker's Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische 
Lyriker (Stuttgart, 1894). See also H. Schuster, F. von Hagedorn 
und seine Bedeutung fur die deutsche Literatur (Leipzig, 1882); W. 
Eigenbrodt, Hagedorn und die Erzahlung in Reimversen (Berlin, 
1884). 

HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER (1780-1856), 
German philologist, chiefly distinguished for his researches in 
Old German literature, was born at Schmiedeberg in Branden- 
burg on the ipth of February 1780. After studying law at 
the university of Halle, he obtained a legal appointment in the 
state service at Berlin, but in 1806 resigned this office in order 
to devote himself exclusively to letters. In 1 8 1 o he was appointed 
professor extraordinarius of German literature in the university 
of Berlin; in the following year he was transferred in a similar 
capacity to Breslau, and in 1821 returned to Berlin as professor 
ordinarius. He died at Berlin on the nth of June 1856. 
Although von der Hagen's critical work is now entirely out of 
date, the chief merit of awakening an interest in old German 
poetry belongs to him. 

His principal publications are the Nibelungenlied, of which he 
issued four editions, the first in 1810 and the last in 1842; the 
Minnesinger (Leipzig, 1838-1856, 4 vols. in 5 parts); Lieder der 
altern Edda (Berlin, 1812); Gottfried von Strassburg (Berlin, 1823); 
a collection of Old German tales under the title Gesamtabenteuer 
(Stuttgart, 1850, 3 vols.) and Das Heldenbuch (Leipzig, 1855). He 
also published Ober die altesten Darstellungen der Faustsage (Berlin, 
1844); and from 1835 he edited Das neue Jahrbuch der Berlinischen 
Gesellschaft fur deutsche Sprache und Altertumskunde. His corre- 
spondence with C. G. Heyne and G. F. Benecke was published by 
K. Dziatzko (Leipzig, 1893). 

HAGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Westphalia. Pop. (1905), 77, 498. It lies amid well-wooded hills 
at the confluence of the Ennepe with the Volme, 15 m. N.E. 
of Elberfeld, on the main line to Brunswick and Berlin, and at 
the junction of important lines of railway, connecting it with the 
principal towns of the Westphalian iron district. It has five 
Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, an Old Catholic 
church, a synagogue, a gymnasium, realgymnasium, and a 
technical school with special classes for machine-building. There 
are also a museum, a theatre, and a prettily arranged municipal 
park. Hagen is one of the most flourishing commercial towns 
in Westphalia, and possesses extensive iron and steel works, 
large cotton print works, woollen and cotton factories, manu- 
factures of leather, paper, tobacco, and iron and steel wares, 
breweries and distilleries. There are large limestone quarries 
in the vicinity and also an alabaster quarry. 

HAGENAU, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of 
Alsace-Lorraine, situated in the middle of the Hagenau Forest, 
on the Moder, and on the railway from Strassburg to Weissen- 
burg, 10 m. N.N.E. of the former city. Pop. (1905), 18,500. It 
has two Evangelical and two ancient Catholic churches (one 
dating from the I2th, the other from the I3th century), a 
gymnasium, a public library, a hospital, and a theatre. The 
principal industries are wool and cotton spinning, and the 
manufacture of porcelain, earthen ware, boots, soap, oil, sparkling 
wines and beer. There is also considerable trade in hops and 
vegetables. Hagenau is an important military centre and has 
a large garrison, including three artillery battalions. 

Hagenau dates from the beginning of the I2th century, and 
owes its origin to the erection of a hunting lodge by the dukes 
of Swabia. The emperor Frederick I. surrounded it with walls 
and gave it town rights in 1 1 54. On the site of the hunting lodge 
he founded an imperial palace, in which were preserved the 
jewelled imperial crown, sceptre, imperial globe, and sword of 
Charlemagne. Subsequently it became the seat of the Landvogl 



HAGENBACH HAGGAI 



of Hagenau, the imperial advocatus in Lower Alsace. Richard 
of Cornwall, king of the Romans, made it an imperial city in 
1257. In 1648 it came into the possession of France, and in 
1673 Louis XIV. caused the fortifications to be razed. In 1675 
it was captured by imperial troops, but in 1677 it was retaken 
by the French and nearly all destroyed by fire. In 1871 it fell, 
with the rest of Alsace-Lorraine, into the possession of Germany. 

HAGENBACH, KARL RUDOLF (1801-1874), German church 
historian, was born on the 4th of March 1801 at Basel, where his 
father was a practising physician. His preliminary education was 
received at a Pestalozzian school, and afterwards at the gym- 
nasium, whence in due course he passed to the newly reorganized 
local university. He early devoted himself to theological studies 
and the service of the church, while at the' same time cherishing 
and developing broad " humanistic " tendencies which found 
expression in many ways and especially in an enthusiastic 
admiration for the writings of Herder. The years 1820-1823 
were spent first at Bonn, where G. C. F. Liicke (1791-1855) 
exerted a powerful influence on his thought, and afterwards at 
Berlin, where Schleiermacher and Neander became his masters. 
Returning in 1823 to Basel, where W. M. L. de Wette had re- 
cently been appointed to a theological chair, he distinguished 
himself greatly by his trial-dissertation, Observationes historico- 
hermeneulicae circa Origenis methodum inter pretendae sacrae 
Scripturae; in 1824 he became professor extraordinarius, and 
in 1829 professor ordinarius of theology. Apart from his 
academic labours in connexion with the history of dogma and 
of the church, he lived a life of great and varied usefulness as a 
theologian, a preacher and a citizen; and at his "jubilee" 
in 1873, not only the university and town of Basel but also the 
various churches of Switzerland united to do him honour. He 
died at Basel on the 7th of June 1874. 

Hagenbach was a voluminous author in many departments, 
but he is specially distinguished as a writer on church history. 
Though neither so learned and condensed as the contributions 
of Gieseler, nor so original and profound as those of Neander, 
his lectures are clear, attractive and free from narrow sectarian 
prejudice. In dogmatics, while avowedly a champion of the 
" mediation theology " (Vermittelungstheologie), based upon the 
fundamental conceptions of Herder and Schleiermacher, he was 
much less revolutionary than were many others of his school. 
He sought to maintain the old confessional documents, and to 
make the objective prevail over the purely subjective manner 
of viewing theological questions. But he himself was aware 
that in the endeavour to do so he was not always successful, 
and that his delineations of Christian dogma often betrayed a 
vacillating and uncertain hand. 

His works include Tabellarische Ubersicht der Dogmengeschichte 
(1828) ; Encyclopadie u. Methodolpgie der theol. Wissenschaften (1833) ; 
Vorlesungen uber Wesen u. Geschichte der Reformation u. des Protestan- 
tismus (1834-1843); Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte (1840-1841, 5th 
ed., 1867; English transl., 1850); Vorlesungen uber die Geschichte 
der alien Kirche (1853-1855) ; Vorlesungen uber die Kirchengeschichte 
des. Mittelalters (1860-1861); Grundlinien der Homiletik u. Liturgik 
(1863); biographies of Johannes Oecolampadius (1482-1564) and 
Oswald Myconius (1488-1552) and a Geschichte der theol. Schule 
Basels (1860); his Predigten (1858-1875), two volumes of poems 
entitled Luther u. seine Zeit (1838), and Gedichte (1846). The 
lectures on church history under the general title Vorlesungen uber 
die Kirchengeschichte von der altesten Zeit bis zum igten Jahrhundert 
were reissued in seven volumes (1868-1872). 

See especially the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie. 

HAGENBECK, CARL (1844- ), wild-animal collector and 
dealer, was born at Hamburg in 1844. In 1848 his father 
purchased some seals and a Polar bear brought to Hamburg 
by a whaler, and subsequently acquired many other wild animals. 
At the age of twenty-one Carl Hagenbeck was given the whole 
collection, and before long had greatly extended the business, 
so that in 1873 he had to erect large buildings in Hamburg to 
house his animals. In 1875 he began to exhibit a collection of 
the representative animals of many countries, accompanied by 
troupes of the natives of the respective countries, throughout 
all the large cities of Europe. The educational value of these 
exhibitions was officially recognized by the French government, 



which in 1891 awarded Hagenbeck the diploma of the Academy. 
Most of the wild animals exhibited in music-halls and other 
popular places of entertainment throughout the world have 
come from Hagenbeck's collection at Stellingen, near Hamburg. 

HAGERSTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Washington 
county, Maryland, U.S.A., near Antietam Creek, about 86 m. 
by rail W.N.W. from Baltimore. Pop. (1890), 10,118; (1900), 
13,591, of whom 1277 were negroes; (1910, census), 16,507. 
Hagerstown is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Western 
Maryland, the Norfolk & Western, and the Cumberland Valley 
railways, and by an interurban electric line. It lies in a fertile 
valley overlooked by South Mountain to the E. and North 
Mountain, more distant, to the W. The city is the seat of Kee 
Mar College (1852; non-sectarian) for women. Hagerstown 
is a business centre for the surrounding agricultural district, 
has good water power, and as a manufacturing centre ranked 
third in the state in 1905, its factory products being valued in 
that year at $3,026,901, an increase of 66-3% over their value 
in 1900. Among the manufactures are flour, shirts, hosiery, 
gloves, bicycles, automobiles, agricultural implements, print 
paper, fertilizers, sash, doors and blinds, furniture, carriages, 
spokes and wheels. The municipality owns and operates its 
electric lighting plant. Hagerstown was laid out as a town in 
1762 by Captain Jonathan Hager (who had received a patent 
to 200 acres here from Lord Baltimore in 1739), and was incor- 
porated in 1791. It was an important station on the old National 
(or Cumberland) Road. General R. E. Lee concentrated his 
forces at Hagerstown before the battle of Gettysburg. 

HAG-FISH, GLUTINOUS HAG, or BORER (Myxine), a marine 
fish which forms with the lampreys one of the lowest orders of 
vertebrates (Cyclostomata). Similar in form to a lamprey, it is 
usually found within the body of dead cod or haddock, on the 
flesh of which it feeds after having buried itself in the abdomen. 
When caught, it secretes a thick glutinous slime in such quantity 
that it is commonly believed to have the power of converting 
water into glue. It is found in the North Atlantic and other 
temperate seas of the globe, being taken in some localities in 
large numbers, e.g. off the east coast of Scotland and the west 
coast of California (see CYCLOSTOMATA). 

HAGGADA, or 'AGADA (literally "narrative"), includes the 
more homiletic elements of rabbinic teaching. It is not logically 
distinguishable from the halakha (<?..), for the latter or forensic 
element makes up with the haggada the Midrash (<?..), but, 
being more popular than the halakha, is often itself styled the 
Midrash. It may be described as the poetical and ethical element 
as contrasted with the legal element in the Talmud (?..), but 
the two elements are always closely connected. From one point 
of view the haggada, amplifying and developing the contents 
of Hebrew scripture in response to a popular religious need, may 
be termed a rabbinical commentary on the Old Testament, 
containing traditional stories and legends, sometimes amusing, 
sometimes trivial, and often beautiful. The haggada abounds 
in parables. The haggadic passages of the Talmud were collected 
in the Eye of Jacob, a very popular compilation completed by 
Jakob ibn Habib in the i6th century. 

HAGGAI, in the Bible, the tenth in order of the " minor 
prophets," whose writings are preserved in the Old Testament. 
The name Haggai (-sn, Gr. 'Ayyaios, whence Aggeus in the Eng- 
lish version of the Apocrypha) perhaps means " born on the 
feast day," " festive." But Wellhausen 1 is probably right in 
taking the word as a contraction for Hagariah (" Yahweh hath 
girded "), just as Zaccai (Zacchaeus) is known to be a contraction 
of Zechariah. 

The book of Haggai contains four short prophecies delivered 
between the first day of the sixth month and the twenty-fourth 
day of the ninth month that is, between September and 
December of the second year of Darius the king. The king in 
question must be Darius Hystaspis (521-485 B.C.). The language 
of the prophet in ii. 3 suggests the probability that he was himself 
one of those whose memories reached across the seventy years 
of the captivity, and that his prophetic work began in extreme 
1 In Bleek's Einleitung, 4th ed., p. 434- 



HAGGAI 



815 



old age. This supposition agrees well with the shortness of the 
period covered by his book, and with the fact that Zechariah, 
who began to prophesy in the same autumn and was associated 
with Haggai's labours (Ezra v. i), afterwards appears as the 
leading prophet in Jerusalem (Zech. vii. 1-4). We know nothing 
further of the personal history of Haggai from the Bible. Later 
traditions may be read in Carpzov'slntroductio, pars 3, cap. xvi. 
Epiphanius (Vitae prophctarum) says that he came up from 
Babylon while still young, prophesied the return, witnessed the 
building of the temple and received an honoured burial near 
the priests. Haggai's name is mentioned in the titles of several 
psalms in the Septuagint (Psalms cxxxvii., cxlv.-cxlviii.) [and 
other versions, but these titles are without value, and moreover 
vary in MSS. Eusebius did not find them in the Hexaplar 
Septuagint. 1 

In his first prophecy (i. i-n) Haggai addresses Zerubbabel 
and Joshua, rebuking the people for leaving the temple unbuilt 
while they are busy in providing panelled houses for themselves. 
The prevalent famine and distress are due to Yahweh's indigna- 
tion at such remissness. Let them build the house, and Yahweh 
will take pleasure in it and acknowledge the honour paid to Him. 
The rebuke took effect, and the people began to work at the 
temple, strengthened by the prophet's assurance that the Lord 
was with them (i. 12-15). In a second prophecy (ii. 1-9) delivered 
in the following month, Haggai forbids the people to be dis- 
heartened by the apparent meanness of the new temple. The 
silver and gold are the Lord's. He will soon shake all nations 
and their choicest gifts will be brought to adorn His house. 
Its glory shall be greater than that of the former temple, and in 
this place He will give peace. A third prophecy (ii. 10-19) 
contains a promise, enforced by a figure drawn from the priestly 
ritual, that God will remove famine and bless the land from the 
day of the foundation of the temple onwards. Finally, in ii. 
20-23, Zerubbabel is assured of God's special love and protection 
in the impending catastrophe of kingdoms and nations to which 
the prophet had formerly pointed as preceding the glorification 
of God's house on Zion. In thus looking forward to a shaking 
of all nations Haggai agrees with earlier prophecies, especially 
Isa. xxiv.-xxvii., while his picture of the glory and peace of the 
new Zion and its temple is drawn from the great anonymous 
prophet who penned Isa. Ix and Ixvi. The characteristic 
features of the book are the importance assigned to the person- 
ality of Zerubbabel, who, though a living contemporary, is 
marked out as the Messiah; and the almost sacramental 
significance attached to the temple. The hopes fixed on Zerub- 
babel, the chosen of the Lord, dear to Him as His signet ring 
(cf. Jer. xxii. 24), are a last echo in Old Testament prophecy 
of the theocratic importance of the house of David. In the book 
of Zechariah Zerubbabel has already fallen into the background 
and the high priest is the leading figure of the Judean com- 
munity. 2 The stem of David is superseded by the house of 
Zadok, the kingship has yielded to the priesthood, and the 
extinction of national hopes gives new importance to that strict 
organization of the hierarchy for which Ezekiel had prepared 
the way by his sentence of disfranchisement against the non- 
Zadokite priests. 

The indifference of the Jews to the desolate conditions of their 
sanctuary opens up a problem of some difficulty. It is strange 
that neither Haggai nor his contemporary Zechariah mentions 
or implies any return of exiles from Babylon, and the suggestion 
has accordingly been made that the return under Cyrus described 
in Ezra i.-iv. is unhistorical, and that the community addressed 
by Haggai consisted of the remnant that had been left in 
Jerusalem and its neighbourhood after the majority had gone 
into exile or fled to Egypt (Jer. xliii.). Such a remnant, amongst 
whom might be members of the priestly and royal families, 
would gather strength and boldness as the troubles of Babylon 

'See the note on Ps. cxlv. i in Field's Hexapla; Kbhler, Weis- 
sagunten Haggai's, 32 ; Wright, Zechariah and his Prophecies, xix. 

1 After the foundation of the temple Zerubbabel disappears from 
history and lives only in legend, which continued to busy itself with 
his story, as we see from the apocryphal book of Esdras (cf. Deren- 
bourg, Hist, de la Palestine, chap. i.). 



increased and her vigilance was relaxed, and might receive from 
Babylon and other lands both refugees and some account at 
least of the writings of Ezekiel and the Second Isaiah. Stimulated 
by such causes and obtaining formal permission from the Persian 
government, they would arise as a new Israel and enter on a 
new phase of national life and divine revelation. 

In spite, however, of the plausibility of this theory, it seems 
preferable to adhere to the story of Ezra i.-iv. Apart from the 
weighty objections that the Edomites would have frustrated such 
a recrudescence of the remnant Jews as has been described, it 
must be remembered that the main stream of Jewish life and 
thought had been diverted to Babylon. Thence, when the 
opportunity came under Cyrus, some 50,000 Jews, the spiritual 
heirs of the best elements of the old Israel, returned to found the 
new community. With them were all the resources, and the 
only people they found at Jerusalem were hostile gentiles and 
Samaritans. Full of enthusiasm, they set about rebuilding 
the temple and realizing the glowing promises about the 
prosperity and dominance of Zion that had fallen from the lips 
of the Second Isaiah (xlix. 14-26, xlv. 14). Bitter disappoint- 
ment, however, soon overcame them, the Samaritans were 
strong enough to thwart and hinder their temple-building, and 
it seemed as though the divine favour was withdrawn. Apathy 
took the place of enthusiasm, and sordid worries succeeded to 
high hopes. " The like collapse has often been experienced in 
history when bands of religious men, going forth, as they thought, 
to freedom and the immediate erection of a holy commonwealth, 
have found their unity wrecked and their enthusiasm dissipated 
by a few inclement seasons on a barren and hostile shore." 3 

From this torpor they were roused by tidings which might well 
be interpreted as the restoration of divine favour. Away in the 
East Cyrus had been succeeded in 529 B.C. by Cambyses, who had 
annexed Egypt and on whose death in 522 a Magian impostor, 
Gaumata, had seized the throne. The fraud was short-lived, 
and Darius I. became king and the founder of a new dynasty. 
These events shook the whole Persian empire; Babylon and 
other subject states rose in revolt, and to the Jews it seemed that 
Persia was tottering and that the Messianic era was nigh. It 
was therefore natural that Haggai and Zechariah should urge 
the speedy building of the temple, in order that the great king 
might be fittingly received. 

It is sometimes levied as a reproach against Haggai that he 
makes no direct reference to moral duties. But it is hardly fair 
to contrast his practical counsel with the more ethical and 
spiritual teaching of the earlier Hebrew prophets. One thing 
was needful the temple. " Without a sanctuary Yahweh would 
have seemed a foreigner to Israel. The Jews would have thought 
that He had returned to Sinai, the holy mountain; and that they 
were deprived of the temporal blessings which were the gifts of a 
God who literally dwelt in the midst of his people." Haggai 
argued that material prosperity was conditioned by zeal in 
worship; the prevailing distress was an indication of divine anger 
due to the people's religious apathy. Haggai's reproofs touched 
the conscience of the Jews, and the book of Zechariah enables 
us in some measure to follow the course of a religious revival 
which, starting with the restoration of the temple, did not confine 
itself to matters of ceremony and ritual worship. On the other 
hand, Haggai's treatment of his theme, practical and effective 
as it was for the purpose in hand, moves on a far lower level than 
the aspirations of the prophet who wrote the closing chapters 
of Isaiah. To the latter the material temple is no more than a 
detail in the picture of a work of restoration eminently ideal 
and spiritual, and he expressly warns his hearers against attaching 
intrinsic importance to it (Isa. Ixvi. i). To Haggai the temple 
appears so essential that he teaches that while it lay waste, the 
people and all their works and offerings were unclean (Hag. ii. 14). 
In this he betrays his affinity with Ezekiel, who taught that it 
is by the possession of the sanctuary that Israel is sanctified 
(Ezek. xxxvii. 28). In truth the new movement of religious 
thought and feeling which started from the fall of the Hebrew 
state took two distinct lines, of which Ezekiel and the anonymous 
1 G. A. Smith, Minor Prophets, ii. 235. 



8i6 



HAGGARD HAGIOLOGY 



authors of Isa. xl.-lxvi. are the respective representatives. 
While the latter developed their great picture of Israel the 
mediatorial nation, the systematic and priestly mind of Ezekiel 
had shaped a more material conception of the religious vocation 
of Israel in that picture of the new theocracy where the temple 
and its ritual occupy the largest place, with a sanctity which is 
set in express contrast to the older conception of the holiness of 
the city of Jerusalem (cf. Ezek. xliii. 7 seq. with Jer. xxxi. 40, 
Isa. iv. 5), and with a supreme significance for the religious life of 
the people which is expressed in the figure of the living waters 
issuing from under the threshold of the house (Ezek. xlvii.). It was 
the conception of Ezekiel which permanently influenced the citizens 
of the new Jerusalem, and took final shape in the institutions of 
Ezra. To this consummation, with its necessary accompaniment 
in the extinction of prophecy, the book of Haggai already points. 

AUTHORITIES. The elaborate and valuable German commentary 
of A. Kohler (Erlangen, 1860) forms the first part of his work on 
the Nachexilische Propheten. Reinke's Commentary (Miinster, 1868) 
is the work of a scholarly Roman Catholic. Haggai has generally 
been treated in works on all the prophets, as by Ewald (2nd ed., 
1868; Eng. trans., vol. iii., 1878); or along with the other minor 
prophets, as by Hitzig (3rd ed., by H. Steiner, Leipzig, 1881), Keil 
(1866, 3rd ed., 1888, Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1868), and Pusey 
(1875), S. R. Driver (1906), W. Nowack (2nd ed., 1905), K. Marti 
(1904), J. Wellhausen (3rd ed., 1898); or with the other post-exile 
prophets, as by Kohler, Pressel (Gotha, 1870), Dods (1879) and others. 
The older literature will be found in books of introduction or in 
Rosenmuller's Scholia. The learned commentary of Marckius may 
be specially mentioned. On the place of Haggai in the history of 
Old Testament prophecy, see Duhm, Theologie der Propheten (Bonn, 
!875); A. B. Davidson, The Theology of the Old Testament (1904); 
A. F. Kirkpatrick, The Doctrine of the Prophets; G. A. Smith, The 
Book of the Twelve Prophets, vol. 2 (1903) ; Tony Andree, Le Prophets 
Aggee; Ed. Meyer, Entstehung des Judentums (1896). 

(W. R. S.; A. J. G.) 

HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER (1856- ), English novelist, 
was born at Bradenham Hall, Norfolk, on the 22nd of June 1856. 
When he was nineteen he went to South Africa as secretary to 
Sir Henry Bulwer, governor of Natal. At the time of the first 
annexation of the Transvaal (1877), he was on the staff of the 
special commissioner, Sir Theophilus Shepstone; and he sub- 
sequently became a master of the high court of the Transvaal. 
He married in 1879 a Norfolk heiress, Miss Margitson, but 
returned to the Transvaal in time to witness its surrender to the 
Boers and the overthrow of the policy of his former chief. 
He returned to England and read for the bar, but soon took to 
literary work; he published Cetywayo and his White Neighbours 
(1882), written in defence of Sir T. Shepstone's policy. This was 
followed by the novels Dawn (1884), The Witch's Head (1885), 
which contains an account of the British defeat at Isandhlwana; 
and in 1886 King Solomon's Mines, suggested by the Zimbabwe 
ruins, which first made him popular. She (1887), another 
fantastic African story, was also very successful, a sequel, Ayesha, 
or the Return of She, being published in 1905. The scene of Jess 
(1887) and of Allan Quatermain (1888) was also laid in Africa. 
In 1895 he unsuccessfully contested the East Norfolk parlia- 
mentary division in the Unionist interest; he showed great 
interest in rural and agricultural questions, being a practical 
gardener and farmer on his estate in Norfolk. In his Rural 
England (2 vols., 1902) he exposed the evils of depopulation in 
country districts. In 1905 he was commissioned by the colonial 
office to inquire into the Salvation Army settlements at Fort 
Romie, S. California, and Fort Amity, Colorado, with a view to 
the establishment of similar colonies in South Africa. His 
report on the subject was first published as a blue book, and 
afterwards, in an enlarged form, as The Poor and the Land (1905), 
with suggestions for a scheme of national land settlement in 
Great Britain itself. 

His other books include Mai-ma's Revenge (1888), Mr Meeson's Witt 
(1888), Colonel Quaritch, V.C. (1888), Cleopatra (1889), Eric Brighteyes 
(1891), The World's Desire (1890), a romance of Helen of Troy, 
written with Mr Andrew Lang; Nada the Lily (1892), Montezuma's 
Daughter (1894), The People of the Mist (1894), Joan Haste (1895), 
Heart of the World (1896), Dr Therne (1898), A Farmer's Year (1899), 
The New South Africa (1900), Lysbeth, A Tale of the Dutch (1901), 
Stella Fregelius (1903), A Gardener's Year (1905), A Farmer's Year 
(1899, revised ed., 1906), The Way of the Spirit (1906). 



HAGGIS, a dish consisting of a calf's, sheep's or other animal's 
heart, liver and lungs, and also sometimes of the smaller 
intestines, boiled in the stomach of the animal with seasoning 
of pepper, salt, onions, &c., chopped fine with suet and oatmeal. 
It is considered peculiarly a Scottish dish, but was common in 
England till the i8th century. The derivation of the word is 
obscure. The Fr. hachis, English " hash," is of later appearance 
than " haggis." It may be connected with a verb " to hag," 
meaning to cut in small pieces, and would then be cognate- 
ultimately with " hash." 

HAGIOLOGY (from Gr. a7w, saint, Xd-yos, discourse), that 
branch of the historical sciences which is concerned with the 
lives of the saints. If hagiology be considered merely in the 
sense in which the term has come to be understood in the later 
stages of its development, i.e. the critical study of hagiographic 
remains, there would be no such science before the i7th century. 
But the bases of hagiology may fairly be said to have been laid 
at the time when hagiographic documents, hitherto dispersed, 
were first brought together into collections. The oldest collection 
of this kind, the avvayuyri ru>v apxauov (laprvpuiiv of Eusebius, 
to which the author refers in several passages in his writings 
(Hist. Eccl., v. proem 2; v. 20, 5), and which has left more than 
one trace in Christian literature, is unfortunately lost in its 
entirety. The Martyrs of Palestine, as also the writings of 
Theodoret, Palladius and others, on the origins of the monastic 
life, and, similarly, the Dialogues of St Gregory (Pope Gregory I.), 
belong to the category of sources rather than to that of hagiologic 
collections. The In gloria martyrum and In gloria confessorum 
of Gregory of Tours are valuable for the sources used in their 
compilation. The most important collections are those which 
comprise the Acts of the Martyrs and the lives of saints, arranged 
in the order of the calendar. In the Greek Church these are 
called menologies (from Gr. pi\v, month, X6yos, discourse), and 
their existence can be traced back with certainty to the gth 
century (Theodore of Studium, Epist. i. 2). One of them, the 
menology of Metaphrastes, compiled in the second half of the 
loth century, enjoyed a universal vogue (see SYMEON META- 
PHRASTES) . The corresponding works in the Western Church are 
the passionaries or legendaries, varieties of which are dispersed 
in libraries and have not been studied collectively. They 
generally draw from a common source, the Roman legendary, 
and the lives of the local saints, i.e. those specially honoured in 
a church, a province or a country. One of the best known is 
the Austrian legendary (De magno legendario Austriaco in the 
Analecla Bollandiana, xvii. 24-264). From the menologies 
and legendaries various compilations were made: in the Greek 
Church, the Synaxaria (see SYNAXARIUM); in the Western 
Church, abridgments and extracts such as the Speculum historiale 
of Vincent de Beauvais; the Legenda aurea of Jacobus de 
Voragine; the Sanclorale of Bernard Guy [ d. 1331] (see L. 
Delisle, Notice sur les manuscrits de Bernard Guy, Paris, 1879); 
the Sanclilogium of John of Tynemouth (c. 1366), utilized by 
John Capgrave, and published in 1516 under the name of Nova 
legenda Angliae (new edition by C. Horstman, Oxford, 1901); 
and the Catalogus sanctorum of Petrus de Natalibus (c. 1375), 
published at Vicenza in 1493, and many times reprinted. The 
Sancluarium of B. Mombritius, published at Milan about 1480, 
is particularly valuable because it gives a faithful reproduction 
of the ancient texts according to the manuscripts. One of the 
most zealous collectors of lives of saints was John Gielemans of 
Brabant (d. 1487), whose work is of great value (Bollandists, 
De codicibus hagiographicis lohannis Gielemans, Brussels, 1895), 
and with him must be associated Anton Geens, or Gentius, of 
Groenendael, who died in 1543 (Analecta Bollandiana, vi. 31-34). 

Hagiology entered on a new development with the publication 
of the Sanctorum priscorum patrum vilae (Venice and Rome, 
1551-1560) of Aloysius Lipomanus (Lippomano), bishop of 
Verona. As a result of the co-operation of humanist scholars 
a great number of Greek hagiographic texts became for the first 
time accessible to the West in a Latin translation. The 
Carthusian, Laurentius Surius, carried on the work of Lippomano, 
completed it, and arranged the materials strictly in the order 



HAGIOSCOPE HAGUE, THE 



817 



of the calendar (De probalis sanctorum historiis, Cologne, 1570- 
i57S)- What prevents the work of Surius from being regarded 
as an improvement upon Lippomano's is that Surius thought 
it necessary to retouch the style of those documents which 
appeared to him badly written, without troubling himself about 
the consequent loss of their documentary value. 

The actual founder of hagiologic criticism was the Flemish 
Jesuit, Heribert Rosweyde (d. 1629), who, besides his important 
works on the martyrologies (see MARTYROLOGY), published the 
celebrated collection of the Vitae patrum (Antwerp, 1615), a 
veritable masterpiece for the time at which it appeared. It was 
he, too, who conceived the plan of a great collection of lives of 
saints, compiled from the manuscripts and augmented with 
notes, from which resulted the collection of the Ada sanctorum 
(see BOLLANDISTS). This last enterprise gave rise to others of 
a similar character but less extensive in scope. 

Dom T.' Ruinart collected the best Acia of the martyrs in his 
Acta martyrum sincera (Paris, 1689). The various religious orders 
collected the Acta of their saints, often increasing the lists beyond 
measure. The best publication of this kind, the Acta sanctorum 
ordinis S. Benedicti (Paris, 1668-1701) of d'Achery and Mabillon, 
does not entirely escape this reproach. Countries, provinces and 
dioceses also had their special hagiographic collections, conceived 
according to various plans and executed with more or less historical 
sense. Of these, the most important collections are those of O. 
Caietanus, Vitae sanctorum Siculorum (Palermo, 1657); G. A. 
Lobineau, Vie des saints de Bretagne (Rennes, 1725); and J. H. 
Ghesqutere, Acta sanctorum Belgii (Brussels and Tongerloo, 1783- 
1794). The principal lives of the German saints are published in the 
Monumenta Gertnaniae, and a special section of the Scriptores rerum 
Merovingicarum is devoted to the lives of the saints. For Scotland 
and Ireland mention must be made of T. Messingham's Florilegium 
insulae sanctorum (Paris, 1624); I. Colgan's Acta sanctorum veteris 
et maioris Scptiae seu Hiberniae (Louvain, 1645-1647) ; John 
Pinkerton's Vitae antiquae sanctorum . . . (London, 1789, of which 
a revised and enlarged edition was published byW. M.Metcalfe at 
Paisley in 1889, under the title of Lives of the Scottish Saints) ; W. J. 
Rees's Lives of the Camera-British Saints (Llandovery, 1853); Acta 
sanctorum Hiberniae (Edinburgh, 1888); Whitley Stokes's Lives 
of Saints from the Book of Lismore (Oxford, 1890) ; and J. O'Hanlon's 
Lives of the Irish Saints (Dublin, 1875-1904). Towards the I3th 
century vernacular collections of lives of saints bejjan to increase. 
This literature is more interesting from the linguistic than from 
the hagiologic point of view, and comes rather within the domain 
of the philologist. 

. The hagiography of the Eastern and the Greek church also has 
been the subject of important publications. The Greek texts are 
very much scattered. Of them, however, may be mentioned J. B. 
Malou's " Symeonis Metaphrastae opera omnia " (Patrologia Graeca, 
114, 115, 116) and Theophilos loannu, M^rj^eia a.yio\o-yui& (Venice, 
1884). For Syriac, there are S. E. Assemani's Acta sanctorum 
martyrum orientalium (Rome, 1748) and P. Bedjan's Acta martyrum 
et sanctorum (Paris, 1890-1897); for Armenian, the acts of 
martyrs and lives of saints, published in two volumes by the 
Mechitharist community of Venice in 1874; f r Coptic, Hyvernat's 
Les Actes des martyrs de I'Ugypte (Paris, 1886); for Ethiopian, K. 
Conti Rossini's Scriptores Aethiopici, vitae sanctorum (Paris, 1904 
seq.) ; and for Georgian, Sabinin's Paradise of the Georgian Church 
(St Petersburg, 1882). 

In addition to the principal collections must be mentioned the 
innumerable works in which the hagiographic texts have been sub- 
jected to detailed critical study. 

To realize the present state of hagiology, the Bibliotheca hagio- 
graphica, both Latin and Greek, published by the Bollandists, and 
the Bulletin hagiographique, which appears in each number of the 
Analecta Bollandiana (see BOLLANDISTS), must be consulted. Thanks 
to the combined efforts of a great number of scholars, the classi- 
fication of the hagiographic texts has in recent years made notable 
progress. The criticism of the sources, the study of literary styles, 
and the knowledge of local history now render it easier to discrimi- 
nate in this literature between what is really historical and what is 
merely the invention of the genius of the people or of the imagina- 
tion of pious writers (see H. Delehaye, Les Legendes hagiographiques, 
and ed., pp. 121-141, Brussels, 1906). " Though the lives of saints," 
says a recent historian, " are filled with miracles and incredible 
stories, they form a rich mine of information concerning the life and 
customs of the people. Some of them are ' memorials of the best 
men of the time written by the best scholars of the time,' " (C. Gross, 
The Sources and Literature of English History, p. 34, London, 1900). 

(H.DE.) 

HAGIOSCOPE (from Gr. 07105, holy, and aKmtiv, to see), 
in architecture, an opening through the wall of a church in an 
oblique direction, to enable the worshippers in the transepts or 
other parts of the church, from which the altar was not visible, 



to see the elevation of the Host. As a rule these hagioscopes, 
or " squints " as they are sometimes called, are found on one or 
both sides of the chancel arch. In some cases a series of openings 
has been cut in the walls in an oblique line to enable a person 
standing in the porch (as in Bridgewater church, Somerset) to 
see the altar; in this case and in other instances such openings 
were sometimes provided for an attendant, who had to ring the 
Sanctus bell when the Host was elevated. Though rarely met 
with on the continent of Europe, there are occasions where they 
are found, so as to enable a monk in one of the vestries to follow 
the service and communicate with the bell-ringers. 

HAGONOY, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, 
Philippine Islands, on Manila Bay and on the W. branch and the 
delta of the Pampanga Grande river, about 25m. N. W. of Manila. 
Pop. (1903), 21,304. Hagonoy is situated in a rich agricultural 
region, producing rice, Indian corn, sugar and a little coffee. 
Alcohol is made in considerable quantities from the fermented 
juice of the nipa palm, which grows in the neighbouring swamps, 
and from the leaves of which the nipa thatch is manufactured. 
There is good fishing. The women of the town are very skilful in 
weaving the native fabrics. The language is Tagalog. Hagonoy 
was founded in 1581. 

HAGUE, THE (in Dutch, 's Gravenhage, or, abbreviated, den 
Haag; in Fr. La Haye; and in Late Lat. Haga Comitis), 
the chief town of the province of South Holland, about 2^ m. 
from the sea, with a junction station 95 m. by rail S.W. by S. 
of Leiden. Steam tramways connect it with the seaside villages 
of Scheveningen, Kykduin and 's Gravenzande, as well as with 
Delft, Wassenaar and Leiden, and it is situated on a branch of 
the main canal from Rotterdam to Amsterdam. Pop. (1900), 
212,211. The Hague is the chief town of the province, the usual 
residence of the court and diplomatic bodies, and the seat of 
the government, the states-general, the high council of the 
Netherlands, the council of state, the chamber of accounts and 
various other administrative bodies. The characteristics of the 
town are quite in keeping with its political position; it is as 
handsome as it is fashionable, and was rightly described by de 
Amicis in his Olanda as half Dutch, half French. The Hague has 
grown very largely in modern times, especially on its western 
side, which is situated on the higher and more sandy soil, the 
south-eastern half of the town comprising the poorer and the 
business quarters. The main features in a plan of the town are 
its fine streets and houses and extensive avenues and well- 
planted squares; while, as a city, the neighbourhood of an 
attractive seaside resort, combined with the advantages and 
importance of a large town, and the possession of beautiful and 
wooded surroundings, give it a distinction all its own. 

The medieval-looking group of government buildings situated 
in the Binnenhof (or "inner court"), their backs reflected in the 
pretty sheet of water called the Vyver, represent both historically 
and topographically the centre of the Hague. On the opposite 
side of the Vyver lies the parallelogram formed by the fine 
houses and magnificent avenue of trees of the Lange Voorhout, 
the Kneuterdyk and the Vyverburg, representing the fashionable 
kernel of the city. Close by lies the entrance to the Haagsche 
Bosch, or the wood, on one side of which is situated the deer- 
park, and a little beyond on the other the zoological gardens 
(1862). Away from the Lange Voorhout the fine Park Straat 
stretches to the " 1813 Plein " or square, in the centre of which 
rises the large monument (1869) by Jaquet commemorating the 
jubilee of the restoration of Dutch independence in 1813. Beyond 
this is the Alexander Veld, used as a military drill ground, and 
close by is the entrance to the beautiful road called the Scheven- 
ingensche Weg, which leads through the " little woods " to 
Scheveningen. Parallel to the Park Straat is the busy Noord- 
einde, in which is situated the royal palace. The palace was 
purchased by the States in 1595, rebuilt by the stadtholder 
William III., and extended by King William I. in the beginning 
of the igth century. In front of the building is an equestrian 
statue of William I. of Orange by Count Nieuerkerke (1845), 
and behind are the gardens and extensive stables. The Binnen- 
hof, which has been already mentioned, was once surrounded by 



8i8 



HAHN 



a moat, and is still entered through ancient gateways. The 
oldest portion was founded in 1249 by William II., count of 
Holland, whose son, Florens V., enlarged it and made it his 
residence. Several centuries later the stadtholders also lived 
here. The fine old hall of the knights, built by Florens, and now 
containing the archives of the home office, is the historic chamber 
in which the states of the Netherlands abjured their allegiance to 
Philip II. of Spain, and in front of which the grey-headed states- 
man Johan van Oldenbarneveldt was executed in 1619. Close 
by on the one side are the courts of justice, and on the other 
the first and second chambers of the states-general, containing 
some richly painted ceilings and the portraits of various stadt- 
holders. Government offices occupy the remainder of the build- 
ings, and in the middle of the court is a fountain surmounted by 
a statuette of William II., count of Holland (1227-1256). In the 
adjoining Buitenhof, or " outer court," is a statue of King 
William II. (d. 1849), and the old Gevangen Poort, or prison gate 
(restored 1875), consisting of a tower and gateway. It was 
here that the brothers Cornelis and Jan de Witt were killed by 
the mob in 1672. On the opposite side of the Binnenhof is the 
busy square called the Plein, where all the tram-lines meet. 
Round about it are the buildings of the ministry of justice and 
other government buildings, including one to contain the state 
archives, the large club-house of the Witte Societeit, and the 
Mauritshuis. The Mauritshuis was built in 1633-1644 by Count 
John Maurice of Nassau, governor of Brazil, and contains the 
famous picture gallery of the Hague. The nucleus of this collec- 
tion was formed by the princes of Orange, notably by the 
stadtholder William V. (1748-1806). King William I. did much 
to restore the losses caused by the removal of many of the 
pictures during the French occupation. Other artistic collections 
in the Hague are the municipal museum (Gernsente Museum) , con- 
taining paintings by both ancient and modern Dutch artists, and 
some antiquities; the fine collection of pictures in the Steengracht 
gallery, belonging to Jonkheer Steengracht; the museum 
Meermanno-Westreenianum, named after Count Meermann and 
Baron Westreenen (d. 1850), containing some interesting MSS. 
and specimens of early typography and other curiosities; and 
the Mesdag Museum, containing the collection of the painter 
H. W. Mesdag (b. 1831) presented by him to the state. The 
royal library (1798) contains upwards of 500,000 volumes, 
including some early illuminated MSS., a valuable collection of 
coins and medals and some fine antique gems. In addition 
to the royal palace already mentioned, there are the palaces of 
the queen-dowager, of the prince of Orange (founded about 1720 
by Count Unico of Wassenaar Twiekels) and of the prince von 
Wied, dating from 1825, and containing some good early Dutch 
and Flemish masters. There are numerous churches of various 
denominations in the Hague as well as an English church, a 
Russian chapel and two synagogues, one of which is Portuguese. 
The Groote Kerk of St James (isth and i6th centuries) hasafine 
vaulted interior, and contains some old stained glass, a carved 
wooden pulpit (1550), a large organ and interesting sepulchral 
monuments, and some escutcheons of the knights of the Golden 
Fleece, placed here after the chapter of 1456. The Nieuwe Kerk, 
or new church (first half I7th century), contains the tombs of 
the brothers De Witt and of the philosopher Spinoza. Spinoza 
is further commemorated by a monument in front of the house 
in which he died in 1677. The picturesque town hall (built in 
1565 and restored and enlarged in 1882) contains a historical 
picture gallery. The principal other buildings are the provincial 
government offices, the royal school of music, the college of art, 
the large building (1874) of the society for arts and sciences, the 
ethnographical institute of the Netherlands Indies with fine 
library, the theatres, civil and military hospitals, orphanage, 
lunatic asylum and other charitable institutions; the fine 
modern railway station (1892), the cavalry and artillery and 
the infantry barracks, and the cannon foundry. The chief 
industries of the town are iron casting, copper and lead smelting, 
cannon founding, the manufacture of furniture and carriages, 
liqueur distilling, lithographing and printing. 
The Hague wood has been described as the city's finest 



ornament. It is composed chiefly of oaks and alders and magnifi- 
cent avenues of gigantic beech-trees. Together with the Haarlem 
wood it is thought to be a remnant of the immense forest which 
once extended along the coast. At the end of one of the avenues 
which penetrates into it from the town is the large summer club- 
house of the Witte Societeit, under whose auspices concerts are 
given here in summer. Farther into the wood are some pretty 
little lakes, and the famous royal villa called the Huis ten Bosch, 
or " house in the wood." This villa was built by Pieter Post for 
the Princess Amelia of Solms, in memory of her husband the 
stadtholder, Frederick Henry of Orange (d. 1647), and wings 
were added to it by Prince William IV. in 1748. The chief room 
is the Orange Saloon, an octagonal hall 50 ft. high, covered with 
paintings by Dutch and Flemish artists, chiefly of incidents in 
the life of Prince Frederick. In this room the International 
Peace Conference had its sittings in the summer of 1899. The 
collections in the Chinese and Japanese rooms, and the grisailles 
in the dining-room painted by Jacobus de Wit (1695-1754), 
are also noteworthy. 

The history of the Hague is in some respects singular. In 
the I3th century it was no more than a hunting-lodge of the counts 
of Holland, and though Count Floris V. (b. 1254-1296) made it 
his residence and it thus became the seat of the supreme court of 
justice of Holland and the centre of the administration, and 
from the time of William of Orange onward the meeting-place of 
the states-general, it only received the status of a town, from 
King Louis Bonaparte, early in the igth century. 

In the latter part of the i7th and the first half of the i8th 
century the Hague was the centre of European diplomacy. 
Among the many treaties and conventions signed here may be 
mentioned the treaty of the Triple Alliance (January 23, 1688) 
between England, Sweden and the Netherlands; the concert of 
the Hague (March 31, 1710) between the Emperor, England and 
Holland, for the maintenance of the neutrality of the Swedish 
provinces in Germany during the war of the northern powers 
against Sweden; the Triple Alliance (January 4, 1717) between 
France, England and Holland for the guarantee of the treaty of 
Utrecht; the treaty of peace (Feb. 17, 1717) between Spain, Savoy 
and Austria, by which the first-named acceded to the principles 
of the Triple Alliance; the treaty of peace between Holland and 
France (May 16, 1795); the first " Hague Convention," the out- 
come of the " peace conference " assembled on the initiative pf the 
emperor Nicholas II. of Russia (July 27, 1899), and the series of 
conventions, the results of the second peace conference (June 1 5- 
October 18, 1907). The international court of arbitration or 
Hague Tribunal was established in 1899 (see EUROPE: History; 
ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL). The Palace of Peace designed 
to be completed in 1913 as the seat of the tribunal, on the Sche- 
veningen avenue, is by a French architect, L. M. Cordonnier, and 
A. Carnegie contributed 300,000 towards its cost. 

HAHN, AUGUST (1792-1863), German Protestant theologian, 
was born on the 27th of March 1792 at Grossosterhausen near 
Eisleben, and studied theology at the university of Leipzig. 
In 1819 he was nominated professor extraordinarius of theology 
and pastor of Altstadt in Konigsberg, and in 1820 received a 
superintendency in that city. In 1822 he became professor 
ordinarius. In 1826 he removed as professor of theology to 
Leipzig, where, hitherto distinguished only as editor of Bar- 
desanes, Marcion (Martian's Evangelium in seiner urspriinglichen 
Geslalt, 1823), and Ephraem Syrus, and the joint editor of a 
Syrische Chrestomathie (1824), he came into great prominence as 
the author of a treatise, De rationalisms qui dicitur vera indole et 
qua cum naturalismo contineatur ratione (1827), and also of an 
O/ene Erkldrung an die Evangelische Kirche zundchst in Sachsen 
u. Preussen (1827), in which, as a member of the school of E. W. 
Hengstenberg, he endeavoured to convince the rationalists 
that it was their duty voluntarily and at once to withdraw from 
the national church. In 1833 Hahn's pamphlet against K. G. 
Bretschneider (Uber die Lage des Christenthums in unserer Zeit, 
1832) having attracted the notice of Friedrich Wilhelm III., he 
was called to Breslau as theological professor and consistorial 
councillor, and in 1843 became " general superintendent " of 



HAHNEMANN HAIDA 



819 



the province of Silesia. He died at Breslau on the I3th of May 
1863. Though uncompromising in his " supra-naturalism," he 
did not altogether satisfy the men of his own school by his own 
doctrinal system. The first edition of his Lehrbuch des christ- 
lichen Glaubens (1828) was freely characterized as lacking in 
consistency and as detracting from the strength of the old 
positions in many important points. Many of these defects, 
however, he is considered to have remedied in his second edition 
(1857). Among his other works are his edition of the Hebrew 
Bible (1833), his BiUiothek der Symlole und Glaubensregeln 
der apostolisch-katholischen Kirche (1842; 2nd ed. 1877) and 
Predigten (1852). 

His eldest son, HEINRICH AUGUST HAHN (1821-1861), after 
studying theology at Breslau and Berlin, became successively 
Privaldozent at Breslau (1845), professor ad interim (1846) at 
Konigsberg on the death of Heinrich Havernick, professor 
extraordinarius (1851) and professor ordinarius (1860) at Greifs- 
wald. Amongst his published works were a commentary on 
the Book of Job (1850), a translation of the Song of Songs (1852), 
an exposition of Isaiah xl.-lxvi. (1857) and a commentary on the 
Book of Ecclesiastes (1860). 

See the articles in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, and the 
Allgemeine deutsche Biographic. 

HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1755- 
1843), German physician and founder of " homoeopathy," was 
born at Meissen in Saxony on the toth of April 1755. He was 
educated at the " elector's school " of Meissen, and studied 
medicine at Leipzig and Vienna, taking the degree of M.D. at 
Erlangen in 1779. After practising in various places, he settled 
in Dresden in 1784, and thence removed to Leipzig in 1789. In 
the following year, while translating W. Cullen's Materia medica 
into German, he was struck by the fact that the symptoms pro- 
duced by quinine on the healthy body were similar to those of 
the disordered states it was used to cure. He had previously felt 
dissatisfied with the state of the science of medicine, and this 
observation led him to assert the truth of the " law of similars," 
similia similibus curanlur or curentur i.e. diseases are cured 
(or should be treated) by those drugs which produce symptoms 
similar to them in the healthy. He promulgated his new 
principle in a paper published in 1796 in C. W. Huf eland's 
Journal, and four years later, convinced that drugs in much 
smaller doses than were generally employed effectually exerted 
their curative powers, he advanced his doctrine of their potenti- 
zation or dynamization. In 1810 he published his chief work, 
Organon der rationellen Heilkunde, containing an exposition of his 
system, which he called homoeopathy (q.ii.), and in the following 
years appeared the six volumes of his Reine Arzneimittellehre, 
which detailed the symptoms produced by "proving" a large 
number of drugs, i.e. by systematically administering them to 
healthy subjects. In 1821 the hostility of established interests, 
and especially of the apothecaries, whose services were not 
required under his system, forced him to leave Leipzig, and at 
the invitation of the grand-duke of Anhalt-Cothen he went 
to live at Cothen. Fourteen years later he removed to Paris, 
where he practised with great success until his death on the 
2nd of July 1843. Statues were erected to his memory at 
Leipzig in 1851 and at Cothen in 1855. He also wrote, in 
addition to the works already mentioned, Fragmenta de viribus 
medicamentorum positivis (1805) and Die chronischen Kr ankheiten 
(1828-1830). 

> See the article HOMOEOPATHY ; also Albrecht, Hahnemann's Leben 
und Werken (Leipzig, 1875); Bradford, Hahnemann's Life and 
Letters (Philadelphia, 1895). 

HAHN-HAHN, IDA, COUNTESS VON (1805-1880), German 
author, was born at Tressow, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on 
the 22nd of June 1805, daughter of Graf (Count) Karl Friedrich 
von Hahn (1782-1857), well known for his enthusiasm for the 
stage, upon which he squandered a large portion of his fortune. 
She married in 1826 her wealthy cousin Count Adolf von Hahn- 
Hahn. With him she had an extremely unhappy life, and in 
1829 her husband's irregularities led to a divorce. The countess 
travelled, produced some volumes of poetry indicating true 



lyrical feeling, and in 1838 appeared as a novelist with Aus der 
Gesellschafl, a title which, proving equally applicable to her 
subsequent novels, was retained as that of a series, the book 
originally so entitled being renamed Ida Schonholm. For 
several years the countess continued to produce novels bearing a 
certain subjective resemblance to those of George Sand, but less 
hostile to social institutions, and dealing almost exclusively 
with aristocratic society. The author's patrician affectations 
at length drew upon her the merciless ridicule of Fanny Lewald 
in a parody of her style entitled Diogena (1847), and this and the 
revolution of 1848 together seem to have co-operated in inducing 
her to embrace the Roman Catholic religion in 1850. She 
justified her step in a polemical work entitled Von Babylon nach 
Jerusalem (1851), which elicited a vigorous reply from H. Abeken. 
In 1852 she retired into a convent at Angers, which she, however, 
soon left, taking up her residence at Mainz where she founded a 
nunnery, in which she lived without joining the order, and 
continued her literary labours. For many years her novels were 
the most popular works of fiction in aristocratic circles; many 
of her later publications, however, passed unnoticed as mere 
party manifestoes. Her earlier works do not deserve the neglect 
into which they have fallen. If their sentimentalism is some- 
times wearisome, it is grounded on genuine feeling and expressed 
with passionate eloquence. Ulrich and Grafin Faustine, both 
published in 1841, mark the culmination of her power; but 
Sigismund Forster (1843), Cecil (1844), Sibylle (1846) and Maria 
Regina (1860) also obtained considerable popularity. She died 
at Mainz on the i2th of January 1880. 

Her collected works, Gesammelte Werke, with an introduction by 
O. von Schaching, were published in two series, 45 volumes in all 
(Regensburg, 1903-1904). See H. Keiter, Grafin Hahn-Hahn 
(Wiirzburg, undated); P. Haffner, Grafin Ida Hahn-Hahn, eine 
psychologische Studie (Frankfort, 1880); A. Jacoby, Ida Grafin 
Hahn-Hahn (Mainz, 1894). 

HAI (939-1038), Jewish Talmudical scholar, was born in 939. 
He was educated by his father Sherira, gaon of Pombeditha 
(Pumbedita), whom he afterwards assisted in his work. They 
were cast into prison for a short time by the caliph Qadir, and 
subsequently on Sherira's death Hai was appointed gaon in 
his place (998). This office he held till his death on the 28th of 
March 1038. He is famous chiefly for his answers to problems 
of ritual and civil law. He composed important treatises on 
Talmudic law and the Mishnah; many poems are also attributed 
to him on doubtful authority. In his responsa he laid stress on 
custom and tradition provided no infringement of the law 
were involved, and was essentially conservative in theology. 
He had considerable knowledge not only of religious movements 
within the Jewish body, but also of Mahommedan fheology and 
controversial method, and frequently consulted theologians of 
other beliefs. 

See Steinschneider, Hebr. Vbersetz. p. 910, and article in Jewish 
Encyclopedia, vi. 153. 

HAIBAK, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The 
valley of Haibak, which is 3100 ft. above sea level, is fertile and 
richly cultivated. The town, which is famed in Persian legend, 
consists now of only a couple of streets, containing many Hindu 
shops and a small garrison. The inhabitants call themselves 
Jagatais, a Turki race, though now generally mixed with Tajiks 
and speaking Persian. In the neighbourhood of Haibak are 
some very typical Buddhist ruins. Haibak derives its import- 
ance from its position on the main line of communication between 
Kabul and Afghan Turkestan. 

HAIDA, a tribe of North American Indians of Skittagetan 
stock. They still occupy their original home, the Queen Char- 
lotte islands, British Columbia. They are skilful seamen, 
making long fishing expeditions in cedarwood canoes. They 
are noted for their carving and basket-work. They formerly 
made raids on the coast tribes. Slavery was hereditary, the 
slaves being prisoners of war. The population, some 7000 in 
the middle of the igth century, is now reduced to a few hundreds. 

See Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907). For 
" Haida Texts and Myths," see Bull.2g Smithsonian Institution Bureau 
Amer. Ethnol. (1905). 



820 



HAIDINGER HAILES 



HAIDINGER, WILHELM KARL, RITTER VON (1795-1871), 
Austrian mineralogist, geologist and physicist, was born at Vienna 
on the sth of February 1795. His father, Karl Haidinger, 
contributed largely to the development of mineralogical science 
in the latter half of the i8th century. Having studied at the 
normal school of St Anne, and attended classes at the university, 
Wilhelm, at the age of seventeen, joined Professor F. Mohs at 
Gratz, and five years later accompanied the professor to Freiberg 
on the transfer of his labours to the mining academy of that 
town. 

In 1822 Haidinger visited France and England with Count 
Breunner, and, journeying northward, took up his abode in 
Edinburgh. He translated into English, with additions of his 
own, Mohs's Grundriss der Mineralogie, published at Edinburgh 
in three volumes under the title Treatise on Mineralogy (1825). 
After a tour in northern Europe, including the Scandinavian 
mining districts, he undertook the scientific direction of the 
porcelain works at Elbogen, belonging to his brothers. In 1840 
he was appointed counsellor of mines (Bergrat) at Vienna in the 
place of Professor Mohs, a post which included the charge of the 
imperial cabinet of minerals. He devoted himself to the re- 
arrangement and enrichment of the collections, and the museum 
became the first in Europe. Shortly after (1843) Haidinger 
commenced a series of lectures on mineralogy, which was given 
to the world under the title Handbuch der bestimmenden Minera- 
logie (Vienna, 1845; tables, 1846). On the establishment of the 
imperial geological institute, he was chosen director (1849); 
and this important position he occupied for seventeen years. 
He was elected a member of the imperial board of agriculture and 
mines, and a member of the imperial academy of sciences of 
Vienna. He organized the society of the Freunde der Natur- 
wissenschaften. As a physicist Haidinger ranked high, and he 
was one of the most active promoters of scientific progress in 
Austria. He was the discoverer of the interesting optical 
appearances which have been called after him " Haidinger's 
brushes." Knighted in 1865, the following year he retired to his 
estate at Dornbach near Vienna, where he died on the igth of 
March 1871. 

In addition to the works already named, Haidinger published 
Anfangsgriinde der Mineralogie (Leipzig, 1829) ; Geognostische Vber- 
sichtskarte der osterreich. Monarchic (Vienna, 1847); Bemerkungen 
uber die Anordnung der kleinsten Theilchen in Christallen (Vienna, 
1853); Inlerferenzlinien am Glimmer (Vienna, 1855); Vergleichun- 
gen von Augit und Amphibol (Vienna, 1855). He also edited the 
Nalurwissenschajtliche Abhandlungen (Vienna, 1847); the Berichte 
uber die Mittheilungen von Freunden der Naturwissenschaften 
in Wien (Vienna, 1847-1851); and the Jahrbuch of the Vienna K. 
K. Geologische Reichsanstalt (1850), &c. Some of his papers will 
be found in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 
(vol. x.) and of the Wernerian Society (1822-1823), Edinburgh 
Phil. Journal, Brewster's Journal of Science, and Poggendorff's 
Annalen. (H. B. Wo.) 

HAIDUK (also written Hayduk, Heiditc, Heyduke and Hey- 
duque), a term which appears originally to have meant " robber " 
or " brigand," a sense it retains in Servia and some other parts 
of the Balkan Peninsula. It is probably derived from the 
Turkish haidud, " marauder," but its origin is not absolutely 
certain. Most of the European races with which the Turks came 
into close contact during the 1 5th and i6th centuries seem to have 
adopted it as a loan-word, and it appears in Magyar as hajdu 
(plural hajduk), in Serbo-Croatian, Rumanian, Polish and Cech 
as hajduk, in Bulgarian as hajdutin and in Greek as y_mvrovrri3. 
By the beginning of the i7th century its use had spread north 
and west as far as Sweden and Great Britain. In Hungary it 
was applied to a class of mercenary foot-soldiers of Magyar stock. 
In 1605 these haiduks were rewarded for their fidelity to the 
Protestant party (see HUNGARY: History) with titles of nobility 
and territorial rights over a district situated on the left bank 
of the river Theiss, known thenceforward as the Haiduk region. 
This was enlarged in 1876 and converted into the county of 
Hajdu (Ger. Hajduken). Hajd'U is also a common prefix in 
Hungarian place-names, e.g. Hajdu-Szoboszlo, Hajdu-Namas. 
In Austria-Hungary, Germany, Poland, Sweden and some other 
countries, haiduk came to mean an attendant in a court of law, 



or a male servant, dressed in Hungarian semi-military costume. 
It is also occasionally used as a synonym for " footman " or 
" lackey." 

HAIFA, a town of Palestine at the foot of Mt. Carmel, on the 
south of the Bay of Acre. It represents the classical Sycaminum, 
but the present town is entirely modern. It has developed since 
about 1890 into an important port, and is connected by railway 
with Damascus. The population is estimated at 12,000 (Mos- 
lems 6000, Christians 4000, Jews 1500, Germans 500; the last 
belong for the greater part to the Unitarian sect of the 
" Templars," who have colonies also at Jaffa and Jerusalem). 
The exports (grain and oil) were valued at 178,738 in 1900. 
Much of the trade that formerly went to Acre has been attracted 
to Haifa. This port is the best natural harbour on the Palestine 
coast. 

HAIK (an Arabic word, from hak, to weave), a piece of cloth, 
usually of coarse hand-woven wool, worn by Arabs, Moors and 
other Mahommedan peoples. It is generally 6 to 65 yds. long, 
and about 2 broad. It is either striped or plain, and is 
worn equally by both sexes, usually as an outer covering; but 
it is often the only garment of the poorer classes. By women the 
" haik " is arranged to cover the head and, in the presence of 
men, is held so as to conceal the face. A thin " haik " of silk, 
like a veil, is used by brides at their marriage. 

HAIL (O. Eng. haegl and hagol, 1 cf . the cognate Teutonic hagel, 
as in German, Dutch, Swedish, &c. ; the Gr. KdxXTj, pebble, is 
probably allied), the name for rounded masses or single pellets 
of ice falling from the clouds in a shower. True hail has a con- 
centric structure caused by the frozen particles of moisture first 
descending into a warm cloud, whence they are carried upwards 
on an ascending current of heated air into a cold stratum where 
the fresh coating of water vapour deposited in the cloud is frozen. 
The hailstone descends again, receives a fresh coating, is carried 
up once more, refrozen, and again descends. Thus the hailstone 
grows until the current is no longer strong enough to support it 
when it falls to the ground. At times masses of hail are frozen 
together, and a very sudden cooling will sometimes result in the 
formation of ragged masses of ice that fall with disastrous 
results. Hail must be distinguished from the frozen snow, 
" soft-hail " or " graupel," that often falls at the rear of a spring 
cyclone, since true hail is almost entirely a summer phenomenon, 
and falls most frequently in thunderstorms which are produced 
under the conditions that are favourable to the formation of 
hail, i.e. great heat, a still atmosphere, the production of strong 
local convection currents in consequence, and the passage of 
a cold upper drift. 

HAILES, DAVID DALRYMPLE, LORD (1726-1792), Scottish 
lawyer and historian, was born at Edinburgh on the 28th of 
October 1726. His father, Sir James Dalrymple, Bart., of 
Hailes, in the county of Haddington, auditor-general of the 
exchequer of Scotland, was a grandson of James, first Viscount 
Stair; and his mother, Lady Christian Hamilton, was a daughter 
of Thomas, 6th earl of Haddington. David was the eldest of 
sixteen children. He was educated at Eton, and studied law at 
Utrecht, being intended for the Scottish bar, to which he was 
admitted shortly after his return to Scotland in 1748. As a 
pleader he attained neither high distinction nor very extensive 
practice, but he rapidly established a well-deserved reputation 
for sound knowledge, unwearied application and strict probity; 
and in 1766 he was elevated to the bench, when he assumed the 
title of Lord Hailes. Ten years later he was appointed a lord of 
justiciary. He died on the 2gth of November 1792. He was 
twice married, and had a daughter by each wife. The baronetcy 
to which he had succeeded passed to the son of his brother John, 
provost of Edinburgh. Another brother was Alexander 
Dalrymple (1737-1808), the first admiralty hydrographer, who 
distinguished himself in the East India Company's service and 
as a geographer. Lord Hailes's younger daughter married Sir 

1 " Hail," a call of greeting or salutation, a shout to attract 
attention, must, of course, be distinguished. This word represents 
the Old Norwegian heill, prosperity, cognate with O. Eng. hal, 
whence " hale," " whole," and heel, whence " health," " heal. 



HAILSHAM HAINAN 



821 



James Fergusson; and their grandson, Sir Charles Dalrymple, 
ist Bart. (cr. 1887), M.P. for Bute from 1868 to 1885, afterwards 
came into Lord Hailes's estate and took his family name. 

Lord Hailes's most important contribution to literature was 
the Annals of Scotland, of which the first volume, " From the 
accession of Malcolm III., surnamed Canmore, to the accession of 
Robert I.," appeared in 1776, and the second, " From the acces- 
sion of Robert I., surnamed Bruce, to the accession of the house 
of Stewart," in 1779. It is, as Dr Johnson justly described this 
work at the time of its appearance, a " Dictionary " of carefully 
sifted facts, which tells all that is wanted and all that is known, 
but without any laboured splendour of language or affected 
subtlety of conjecture. The other works of Lord Hailes include 
Historical Memoirs concerning the Provincial Councils of the 
Scottish Clergy (1769); An Examination of some of the Arguments 
for the High Antiquity of Regiam Majeslatem (1769); three 
volumes entitled Remains of Christian Antiquity (" Account of 
the Martyrs of Smyrna and Lyons in the Second Century," 
1776; " The Trials of Justin Martyr, Cyprian, &c.," 1778; 
" The History of the Martyrs of Palestine, translated from 
Eusebius," 1780); Disquisitions concerning the Antiquities of the 
Christian (Church (1783); and editions or translations of portions 
of Lactantius, Tertullian and Minucius Felix. In 1786 he pub- 
lished An Inquiry into the Secondary Causes which Mr Gibbon 
has assigned for the Rapid Growth of Christianity (Dutch transla- 
tion, Utrecht, 1793), one of the most respectable of the very 
many replies which were made to the famous isth and i6th 
chapters of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 

A " Memoir " of Lord Hailes is prefixed to the 1808 reprint of his 
Inquiry into the Secondary Causes. 

HAILSHAM, a market-town in the Eastbourne parliamentary 
division of Sussex, England, 54 m. S.S.E. from London by the 
London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901), 4197. 
The church of St Mary is Perpendicular. The picturesque 
Augustinian priory of Michelham lies 2 m. W. by the Cuckmere 
river; it is altered into a dwelling house, but retains a gate- 
house, crypt and other portions of Early English date. There 
was also a Premonstratensian house at Otham, 3 m. S., but the 
remains are scanty. Hailsham has a considerable agricultural 
trade, and manufactures of rope and matting are carried on. 

HAINAN, or, as it is usually called in Chinese, K'iung-chow-fu, 
a large island belonging to the Chinese province of Kwang-tung, 
and situated between the Chinese Sea and the Gulf of Tong-king 
from 20 8' to 17 52' N., and from 108 32' to 111 15' E. It 
measures 160 m. from N.E. to S.W., and the average breadth 
is about 90 m. The area is estimated at from 1 200 to 1400 sq. 
m., or two-thirds the size of Sicily. From the peninsula of Lei- 
chow on the north it is separated by the straits of Hainan, 
which have a breadth of 15 or 20 m. 

With the exception of a considerable area in the north, and 
broad tracts on the north-east and north-west sides, the whole 
island is occupied by jungle-covered mountains, with rich valleys 
between. The central range bears the name of Li-mou shan or 
Wu-tchi shan (the Five-Finger Mountain), and attains a height 
of 6000 or 7000 ft. Its praises are celebrated in a glowing ode 
by Ch'iu, a native poet. The island appears to be well watered, 
and some of its rivers are not without importance as possible 
highways of commerce; but the details of its hydrography are 
very partially ascertained. A navigable channel extends in an 
irregular curve from the bay of Hoi-how (Hai-K'ow) in the north 
to Tan-chow on the west coast. Being exposed to the winter 
monsoon, the northern parts of the island enjoy much the same 
sort of temperate climate as the neighbouring provinces of the 
mainland, but in the southern parts, protected from the monsoon 
by the mountain ranges, the climate is almost or entirely tropical. 
Snow falls so rarely that its appearance in 1684 is reported in 
the native chronicles as a remarkable event. Earthquakes are a 
much more familiar phenomenon, having occurred, according to 
the same authority, in 1523, 1526, 1605, 1652, 1677, 1681, 1684, 
1702, 1704, 1725, 1742, 1816, 1817 and 1822. Excellent timber 
of various kinds eagle-wood, rose-wood, liquidambar, &c. 
is one of the principal products of the island, and has even 



been specially transported to Peking for imperial purposes. The 
coco palm flourishes freely even in the north, and is to be found 
growing in clumps with the Pinus sinensis. Rice, cotton, sugar, 
indigo, cinnamon, betel-nuts, sweet potatoes, ground-nuts and 
tobacco are all cultivated in varying quantities. The aboriginal 
inhabitants collect a kind of tea called t'ien ch'a, or celestial tea, 
which looks like the leaves of a wild camellia, and has an earthy 
taste when infused. Lead, silver, copper and iron occur in the 
Shi-lu shan or " stone-green-hill "; the silver at least was worked 
till 1850. Gold and lapis lazuli are found in other parts of the 
island. 

The ordinary cattle of Hainan are apparently a cross between 
the little yellow cow of south China and the zebu of India. 
Buffaloes are common, and in the neighbourhood of Nanlu at 
least they are frequently albinos. Horses are numerous but small. 
Hogs and deer are both common wild animals, and of the latter 
there are three species, Cervus Eldi, Cervus hippelaphus and 
Cervus vaginalis. Among the birds, of which 172 species are 
described by Mr Swinhoe in his paper in The Ibis (1870), there are 
eagles, notably a new species Spilornis Rutherfordi, buzzards, 
harriers, kites, owls, goatsuckers and woodpeckers. The Upupa 
ceylonensis is familiar to the natives as the " bird of the Li 
matrons," and the Palaeornis javanica as the " sugar-cane bird." 

Hainan forms a fu or department of the province of Kwang- 
tung, though strictly it is only a portion of the island that is 
under Chinese administration, the remainder being still occupied 
by unsubjugated aborigines. The department contains three 
chow and ten hien districts. K'iung-chow-hien, in which the 
capital is situated; Ting-an-hien, the only inland district; 
Wen-ch'ang-hien, in the north-east of the island; Hui-t'ung- 
hien, Lo-hui-hien, Ling-shu-hien, Wan-chow, Yai-chow (the 
southmost of all), Kan-en-hien Ch'ang-hwa-hien, Tan-chow, 
Lin-kao-hien and Ch'eng-mai-hien. The capital K'iung-chow-fu 
is situated in the north about 10 li (or 3 m.) from the coast on 
the river. It is a well-built compact city, and its temples and 
examination halls are in good preservation. Carved articles in 
coco-nuts and scented woods are its principal industrial product. 
In 1630 it was made the seat of a Roman Catholic mission by 
Benoit de Mathos, a Portuguese Jesuit, and the old cemetery 
still contains about 113 Christian graves. The port of K'iung- 
chow-fu at the mouth of the river, which is nearly dry at low 
water, is called simply Hoi-how, or in the court dialect Hai-K'ow, 
i.e. seaport. The two towns are united by a good road, along 
which a large traffic is maintained partly by coolie porters but 
more frequently by means of wheel-barrows, which serve the 
purpose of cabs and tarts. The value of the trade of the port 
has risen from 670,600 in 1899 to 719,333 in 1904. In the same 
year 424 vessels, representing a tonnage of 312,554, visited the 
port. This trade is almost entirely with the British colony of 
Hong-Kong, with which the port is connected by small coasting 
steamers, but since 1893 it has had regular steamboat com- 
munication with Haiphong in Tongking. The population of 
K'iung-chow, including its shipping port of Hoi-how, is estimated 
at 52,000. The number of foreign residents in 1900 was about 
30, most of them officials or missionaries. 

The inhabitants of Hainan may be divided into three classes, 
the Chinese immigrants, the civilized aborigines or Shu-li and 
the wild aborigines or Sheng-li. The Chinese were for the most 
part originally from Kwang-si and the neighbouring provinces, 
and they speak a peculiar dialect, of which a detailed account by 
Mr Swinhoe was given in The Phoenix, a Monthly Magazine for 
China, 6*c. (1870). The Shu-li as described by Mr Taintor are 
almost of the same stature as the Chinese, but have a more 
decided copper colour, higher cheek-bones and more angular 
features, while their eyes are not oblique. Their hair is long, 
straight and black, and their beards, if they have any, are very 
scanty. They till the soil and bring rice, fuel, timber, grass-cloth, 
&c., to the Chinese markets. The Sheng-li or Li proper, called 
also La, Le or Lauy, are probably connected with the Laos of 
Siam and the Lolos of China. Though not gratuitously aggres- 
sive, they are highly intractable, and have given great trouble 
to the Chinese authorities. Among themselves they carry on 



822 



HAINAU HAINICHEN 



deadly feuds, and revenge is a duty and an inheritance. Though 
they are mainly dependent on the chase for food, their weapons 
are still the spear and the bow, the latter being made of wood and 
strung with bamboo. In marriage no avoidance of similarity 
of name is required. The bride's face is tattooed according to a 
pattern furnished by the bridegroom. Their funeral mourning 
consists of abstaining from drink and eating raw beef, and they 
use a wooden log for a coffin. When sick they sacrifice oxen. 
In the spring-time there is a festival in which the men and 
women from neighbouring settlements move about in gay 
clothing hand in hand and singing songs. The whole population 
of the island is estimated at about i\ millions. At its first 
conquest 23,000 families were introduced from the mainland. 
In 1300 the Chinese authorities assign 166,257 inhabitants; in 
1370, 291,000; in 1617, 250,524; and in 1835, 1,350,000. 

It was in in B.C. that Lu-Po-Teh, general of the emperor Wu- 
ti, first made the island of Hainan subject to the Chinese, who 
divided it into the two prefectures, Tan-urh or Drooping Ear 
in the south, so-called from the long ears of the native " king," 
and Chu-yai or Pearl Shore in the north. During the decadence 
of the elder branch of the Han dynasty the Chinese supremacy 
was weakened, but in A.D. 43 the natives were led by the success 
of Ma-yuan in Tong-king to make a new tender of their allegiance. 
About this time the whole island took the name of Chu-yai. In 
A.D. 627 the name of K'iung-chow came into use. On its con- 
quest by the generals of Kublai Khan in 1278 the island was 
incorporated with the western part of the province of Kwang- 
tung in a new satrapy, Hai-peh Hai-nan Tao, i.e. the circuit north 
of the sea and south of the sea. It was thus that Hai-nan-Tao, 
or district south of the sea or strait, came into use as the name of 
the island, which, however, has borne the official title of K'iung- 
chow-fu, probably derived from the Kiung shan or Jade Moun- 
tains, ever since 1370, the date of its erection into a department 
of Kwang-tung. For a long time Hainan was the refuge of the 
turbulent classes of China and the place of deportation for 
i delinquent officials. It was there, for example, that Su-She or 
Su-Tung-po was banished in 1097. ' From the isth to the ipth 
century pirates made the intercourse with the mainland danger- 
ous, and in the I7th they were considered so formidable that 
merchants were allowed to convey their goods only across the 
narrow Hainan Strait. Since 1863 the presence of English men- 
of-war has put an end to this evil. According to the treaty of 
Tientsin, the capital K'iung-chow and the harbour Hoi-how 
(Hai-Kow) were opened to European commerce; but it was not 
till 1876 that advantage was taken of the permission. 

HAINAU (officially HAYNAU), a town" of Germany, in the 
Prussian province of Silesia, on the Schnelle Deichsa and the 
railway from Breslau to Dresden, 1 2 m. N. W. of Liegnitz. Pop. 
10,500. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, 
manufactories of gloves, patent leather, paper, metal ware 
and artificial manures, and a considerable trade in cereals. Near 
Hainau the Prussian cavalry under Blucher inflicted a defeat on 
the French rearguard on the 26th of May 1813. 

HAINAUT (Flem. Henegouwen, Ger. Hennegau), a province 
of Belgium formed out of the ancient county of Hainaut. Modern 
Hainaut is famous as containing the chief coal and iron mines 
of Belgium. There are about 150,000 men and women employed 
in the mines, and about as many more in the iron and steel works 
of the province. About 1880 these numbers were not more than 
half their present totals. The principal towns of Hainaut are 
Mons, the capital, Charleroi, Tournai, Jumet and La Louviere. 
The province is watered by both the Scheldt and the Sambre, 
and is connected with Flanders by the Charleroi-Ghent canal. 
The area of the province is computed at 930,405 acres or 
1453 sq. m. In 1904 the population was 1,192,967, showing an 
average of 821 per square mile. 

Under the successors of Clovis Hainaut formed part, first 
of the kingdom of Metz, and then of that of Lotharingia. It 
afterwards became part of the duchy of Lorraine. The first to 
bear the title of count of Hainaut was Reginar " Long-Neck " 
(c. 875), who, later on, made himself master of the duchy of 
Lorraine and died in 916. His eldest son inherited Lower 



Lorraine, the younger, Reginar II., the countship of Hainaut, 
which remained in the male line of his descendants, all named 
Reginar, until the death of Reginar V. in 1036. His heiress, 
Richildis, married en secondes noces Baldwin VI. of Flanders, 
and, by him, became the ancestress of the Baldwin (VI. of 
Hainaut) who in 1204 was raised by the Crusaders to the empire 
of Constantinople. The emperor Baldwin's elder daughter 
Jeanne brought the countship of Hainaut to her husbands 
Ferdinand of Portugal (d. 1233) and Thomas of Savoy (d. 1259). 
On her death in 1244, however, it passed to her sister Margaret, 
on whose death in 1279 it was inherited by her grandson, 
John of Avesnes, count of Holland (d. 1304). The countship of 
Hainaut remained united with that of Holland during the I4th 
and isth centuries. It was under the counts William I. " the 
Good " (1304-1337), whose daughter Philippa married Edward 
III. of England, and William II. (1337-1345) that the communes 
of Hainaut attained great political importance. Margaret, who 
succeeded her brother William II. in 1345, by her marriage 
with the emperor Louis IV. brought Hainaut with the rest of 
her dominions to the house of Wittelsbach. Finally, early in 
the isth century, the countess Jacqueline was dispossessed by 
Philip the Good of Burgundy, and Hainaut henceforward shared 
the fate of the rest of the Netherlands. 

AUTHORITIES. The Chronicon Hanoniense or Chronica Honnoniae 
of Giselbert of Mpns (d. 1223-1225), chancellor of Count Baldwin V., 
covering the period between 1040 and 1195, is published in Pertz, 
Monum. Germ. (Hanover, 1840, &c.). The Chronicon Hanoniense, 
ascribed to Baldwin, count of Avesnes (d. 1289), and written between 
1278 and 1281, was published under the title Hist, genealogica 
comitum Hannoniae, &c., at Antwerp (1691 and 1693) and Brussels 
(1722). The Annals of Jacques de Guise (b. 1334; d. 1399) were 
published by de Fortia d'Urban under the title, Histoire de Hai- 
nault par Jacques de Guyse, in 19 vols. (Paris, 1826-1838); C. 
Delacourt, " Bibliographic de 1'hist. du Hainaut," in the Annales 
du cercle archeologique de Mons, vol. v. (Mons, 1864) ; T. Bernier, 
Diet, geograph. historique, &c., de Hainault (Mons, 1891). See also 
Ulysse Chevalier, Repertoire des sources s.v. 

HAINBUR6, or HAIMBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower 
Austria, 38 m. E.S.E of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 5134. 
It is situated on the Danube, only 25 m. from the Hungarian 
frontier, and since the fire of 1827 Hainburg has been much 
improved, being now a handsomely built town. It has one of 
the largest tobacco manufactories in Austria, employing about 
2000 hands, and a large needle factory. It occupies part of the 
site of the old Celtic town Carnuntum (q.v.). It is still surrounded 
by ancient walls, and has a gate guarded by two old towers. 
There are numerous Roman remains, among which may be 
mentioned the altar and tower at the town-house, on the latter 
of which is a statue, said to be of Attila. A Roman aqueduct 
is still used to bring water to the town. On the neighbouring 
Hainberg is an old castle, built of Roman remains, which appears 
in German tradition under the name of Heimburc; it was wrested 
from the Hungarians in 1042 by the emperor Henry III. At the 
foot of the same hill is a castle of the 1 2th century, where Ottakar 
of Bohemia was married to Margaret of Austria in 1252; earlier 
it was the residence of the dukes of Babenberg. Outside the 
town, on an island in the Danube, is the ruined castle of Rothel- 
stein or Rothenstein, held by the Knights Templars. Hainburg 
was besieged by the Hungarians in 1477, was captured by 
Matthias Corvinus in 1482, and was sacked and its inhabitants 
massacred by the Turks in 1683. 

HAINICHEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 
on the Kleine Striegis, 15 m. N.E. of Chemnitz, on the rail- 
way to Rosswein. Pop. (1905), 7752. It has two Evangelical 
churches, a park, and commercial and technical schools. 
Hainichen is a place of considerable industry. Its chief manu- 
facture is that of flannels, baize, and similar fabrics; indeed 
it may be called the centre of this industry in Germany. The 
special whiteness and excellence of the flannel made in Hainichen 
are due to the peculiar nature of the water used in the manu- 
facture. There are also large dye-works and bleaching estab- 
lishments. Hainichen is the birthplace of Gellert, to whose 
memory a bronze statue was erected in the market-place in 1865. 
The Gellert institution for the poor was erected in 1815. 



HAI-PHONG HAIR 



823 



HAI-PHONG, a seaport of Tongking, French Indo-China, on 
the Cua-Cam, a branch of the Song-koi (Red river) delta. The 
population numbers between 21,000 and 22,000, of whom 12,500 
are Annamese, 7500 Chinese (attracted by the rice trade of the 
port) and 1200 Europeans. It is situated about 20 m. from the 
Gulf of Tongking and 58 m. E. by S. of Hanoi, with which it 
communicates by river and canal and by railway. It is the 
second commercial port of French Indo-China, is a naval station, 
and has government and private ship-building yards. The 
harbour is accessible at all times to vessels drawing 19 to 20 ft., 
but is obstructed by a bar. Hai-phong is the seat of a resident 
who performs the functions of mayor, and the residency is the 
chief building of the town. A civil tribunal, a tribunal of com- 
merce and a branch of the Bank of Indo-China are also among 
its institutions. It is the headquarters of the river steamboat 
service (Messageries fluviales) of Tongking, which plies as far 
as Lao-kay on the Song-koi, to the other chief towns of Tongking 
and northern Annam, and also to Hong-kong. Cotton-spinning 
and the manufacture of cement are carried on. 

HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages), the general 
term for the characteristic outgrowth of the epidermis forming 
the coat of mammals. The word is also applied by analogy to 
the filamentous outgrowths from the body of insects, &c., plants, 
and metaphoi'cally to anything of like appearance. 

For anatomy, &c. of animal hair see SKIN AND EXOSKELETON; 
FIBRES and allied articles; FUR, and LEATHER. 

Anthropology. The human hair has an important place 
among the physical criteria of race. While its general structure 
and quantity vary comparatively little, its length in individuals 
and relatively in the two sexes, its form, its colour, its general 
. consistency and the appearance under the microscope of its 
transverse section show persistent differences in the various races. 
It is the persistence of these differences and specially in regard 
to its colour and texture, which has given to hair its ethnological 
importance. So obvious a racial differentiation had naturally 
long ago attracted the attention of anthropologists. But it was 
not until the igth century that microscopic examination showed 
the profound difference in structure between the hair character- 
istic of the great divisions of mankind. It was in 1863 that Dr 
Pruner-Bey read a paper before the Paris Anthropological 
Society entitled " On the Human Hair as a Race Character, 
examined by aid of the Microscope." This address established 
the importance of hair as a racial criterion. He demonstrated 
that the structure of the hair is threefold: 

(i) Short and crisp, generally termed " woolly," elliptical or 
kidney-shaped in section, with no distinguishable medulla or 
pith. Its colour is almost always jet black, and it is character- 
istic of all the black races except the Australians and aborigines 
of India. This type of hair has two varieties. When the hairs 
are relatively long and the spiral of the curls large, the head has 
the appearance of being completely covered, as with some of 
the Melanesian races and most of the negroes. Haeckel has 
called this " eriocomous " or " woolly " proper. In some negroid 
peoples, however, such as the Hottentots and Bushmen, the hair 
grows in very short curls with narrow spirals and forms little 
tufts separated by spaces which appear bare. The head looks as 
if it were dotted over with pepper-seed, and thus this hair has 
gained the name of " peppercorn-growth." Haeckel has called it 
" lophocomous " or " crested." Most negroes have this type of 
hair in childhood and, even when fully grown, signs of it around 
the temples. The space between each tuft is not bald, as was at 
one time generally assumed. The hair grows uniformly over 
the head, as in all races. 

2. Straight, lank, long and coarse, round or nearly so in section, 
with the medulla or pith easily distinguishable, and almost 
without exception black. This is the hair of the yellow races, 
the Chinese, Mongols and Indians of the Americas. 

3. Wavy and curly, or smooth and silky, oval in section, with 
medullary tube but no pith. This is the hair of Europeans, 
and is mainly fair, though black, brown, red or towy varieties 
are found. 

There is a fourth type of hair describable as " frizzy." It is 



easily distinguishable from the Asiatic and European types, but 
not from the negroid wool. It is always thick and black, and 
is characteristic of the Australians, Nubians, and certain of the 
Mulattos. Generally hair curls in proportion to its flatness. 
The rounder it is the stiffer and lanker. These extremes are 
respectively represented by the Papuans and the Japanese. 
Of all hair the woolly type is found to be the most persistent, as 
in the case of the Brazilian Cafusos, negro and native hybrids. 
Quatrefages quotes the case of a triple hybrid, " half negro, 
quarter Cherokee, quarter English," who had short crisp furry- 
looking hair. 

Wavy types of hair vary most in colour: almost the deepest 
hue of black being found side by side with the most flaxen and 
towy. Colour varies less in the lank type, and scarcely at all 
in the woolly. The only important exception to the uniform 
blackness of the negroid wool is to be found among the Wochuas, 
a tribe of African pigmies whose hair is described by Wilhelm 
Junker (Travels in Africa, iii. p. 82) as " of a dark, rusty brown 
hue." Fair hair in all its shades is frequent among the popula- 
tions of northern Europe, but much rarer in the south. According 
to Dr John Beddoe there are sixteen blonds out of every hundred 
Scotch, thirteen out of every hundred English, and two only out 
of a hundred Italians. The percentage of brown hair is 75% 
among Spaniards, 39 among French and 16 only in Scandinavia. 
Among the straight-haired races fair hair is far rarer; it is, 
however, found among the western Finns. Among those races 
with frizzy hair, red is almost as common as among those with 
wavy hair. Red hair, however, is an individual anomaly associ- 
ated ordinarily with freckles. There are no red-haired races. 

A certain correlation appears to exist between the nature of 
hair and its absolute or relative length in the two sexes. Thus 
straight hair is the longest (Chinese, Red Indians), while woolly 
is shortest. Wavy hair holds an intermediate position. In the 
two extremes the difference of length in man and woman is 
scarcely noticeable. In some lank-haired races, men's tresses 
are as long as women's, e.g. the Chinese pigtail, and the hair of 
Redskins which grows to the length sometimes of upwards of 
9 ft. In the frizzy-haired peoples, men and women have equally 
short growths. Bushwomen, the female Hottentot and negresses 
have hair no longer than men's. It is only in the wavy, and now 
and again in the frizzy types, that the difference In the sexes is 
marked. Among European men the length rarely exceeds 12 to 
16 in., while with women the mean length is between 25 and 
30 in. and in some cases has been known to reach 6 ft. or more. 

The growth of hair on the body corresponds in general with 
that on the head. The hairiest races are the Australians and 
Tasmanians, whose heads are veritable mops in the thickness 
and unkempt luxuriance of the locks. Next to them are the 
Todas, and other hill-tribesmen of India, and the Hairy Ainu 
of Japan. Traces, too, of the markedly hairy race, now extinct, 
supposed to be the ancestor of Toda and Ainu alike, are to be 
found here and there in Europe, especially among the Russian 
peasantry. The least hairy peoples are the yellow races, the 
men often scarcely having rudimentary beards, e.g. Indians of 
America and the Mongols. Negroid peoples may be said to be 
intermediate, but usually incline to hairlessness. The wavy- 
haired populations hold also an intermediate position, but 
somewhat incline to hairiness. Among negroes especially no 
rule can be formulated. Bare types such as the Bushmen and 
western negroes are found contiguous to hairy types such as the 
inhabitants of Ashantee. Neither is there any rule as to baldness. 
From statistics taken in America it would seem that it is ten times 
less frequent among negroes than among whites between the ages 
of thirty-three and forty-five years, and thirty times less between 
twenty-one and thirty-two years. Among Mulattos it is more 
frequent than among negroes but less than among whites. It 
is rarer among Redskins than among negroes. The lanugo or 
downy hairs, with which the human foetus is covered for some 
time before birth and which is mostly shed in the womb, and the 
minute hairs which cover nearly every part of the adult human 
body, may be regarded as rudimentary remains of a complete 
hairy covering in the ancestors of mankind. The Pliocene, or 



824 



HAIR-TAILHAITI 



at all events Miocene precursor of man, was a furred creature. 
The discovery of Egyptian mummies six thousand years old or 
more has proved that this physical criterion remains unchanged, 
and that it is to-day what it was so many scores of centuries 
back. Perhaps, then, the primary divisions of mankind were 
distinguished by hair the same in texture and colour as that which 
characterizes to-day the great ethnical groups. The wavy type 
bridges the gulf between the lank and woolly types, all in turn 
derived from a common hair-covered being. In this connexion 
it is worth mention, as pointed out by P. Topinard, that though 
the regions occupied by the negroid races are the habitat of the 
anthropoid apes, the hair of the latter is real hair, not wool. 
Further in the eastern section of the dark domain, while the 
Papuan is still black and dolichocephalic, his presumed pro- 
genitor, the orang-utan, is brachycephalic with decidedly red 
hair. Thus the white races are seen to come nearest the higher 
apes in this respect, yellow next, and black farthest removed. 

No test has proved, on repeated examination, to be a safer 
one of racial purity than the quality of hair, and Pruner-Bey goes 
so far as to suggest that " a single hair presenting the average 
form characteristic of the race might serve to define it." At any 
rate a hair of an individual bears the stamp of his origin. 

See Dr Pruner-Bey in Memoires de la societe d'anthropologie, ii. 
P. A. Brown, Classification of Mankind by the Hair; P. Topinard, 
L'Homme dans la nature (1891), chap. vi. 

Commerce. Hair enters into a considerable variety of manu- 
factures. Bristles are the stout elastic hairs obtained from the backs 
of certain breeds of pigs. The finest qualities, and the greatest 
quantities as well, are obtained from Russia, where a variety of pig 
is reared principally on account of its bristles. The best and most 
costly bristles are used by shoemakers, secondary qualities being 
employed for toilet and clothes-brushes, while inferior qualities are 
worked up into the commoner kinds of brushes used by painters and 
for many mechanical purposes. For artists' use and for decorative 
painting, brushes or pencils of hair from the sable, camel, badger, 
polecat, &c., are prepared. The hair of various animals which is 
too short for spinning into yarn is utilized for the manufacture of 
felt. For this use the hair of rabbits, hares, beavers and of several 
other rodents is largely employed, especially in France, in making 
the finer qualities of felt hats. Cow hair, obtained from tanneries, 
is used in the preparation of roofing felts, and felt for covering 
boilers or steam-pipes, and for other similar purposes. It is also 
largely used by plasterers for binding the mortar of the walls and 
roofs of houses; and it is to some extent being woven up into coarse 
friezes, horse-cloths, railway rugs and inferior blankets. The tail 
hair of oxen is also of value for stuffing cushions and other up- 
holstery work, for which purpose, as well as for making the official 
wigs of law officers, barristers, &c, the tail and body hair of the yak 
or Tibet ox is also sometimes imported into Europe. The tail and 
mane hair of horses is in great demand for various purposes. The 
long tail hair is especially valuable for weaving into hair-cloth, mane 
hair and the short tail hair being, on the other hand, principally 
prepared and curled for stuffing the chairs, sofas and couches which 
are covered with the cloth manufactured from the long hair. The 
horse hair used in Great Britain is principally obtained from South 
America, Germany and Russia, and its sorting, cleaning and work- 
ing up into the various manufactures dependent on the material 
are industries of some importance. In addition to the purposes 
already alluded to, horse hair is woven into crinoline for ladies' 
bonnets, plaited into fishing lines, woven into bags for oil and cider 
pressers, and into straining cloths for brewers, &c., and for numerous 
other minor uses. The manufactures which arise in connexion with 
human hair are more peculiar than important, although occasionally 
fashions arise which cause a large demand for human hair. The 
fluctuations of such fashions determine the value of hair; but at all 
times long tresses are of considerable value. Grey, light, pale and 
auburn hair are distinguished as extra colours, and command much 
higher prices than the common shades. The light-coloured hair is 
chiefly obtained in Germany and Austria, and the south of France 
is the principal source of the darker shades. In the south of France 
the cultivation and sale of heads of hair by peasant girls is a common 
practice; and hawkers attend fairs for the special purpose of engag- 
ing in this traffic. Hair 5 and even 6 ft. long is sometimes obtained. 
Scarcely any of the " raw material " is obtained in the United King- 
dom except in the form of ladies' " combings." Bleaching of hair 
by means of peroxide of hydrogen is extensively practised, with the 
view of obtaining a supply of golden locks, or of preparing white 
hair for mixing to match grey shades; but in neither case is the 
result very successful. Human hair is worked up into a great 
variety of wigs, scalps, artificial fronts, frizzets and curls, all for 
supplementing the scanty or failing resources of nature. The plait- 
ing of human hair into articles of jewellery, watch-guards, &c., forms 
a distinct branch of trade. 



HAIR-TAIL ( Trichiurus) , a marine fish belonging to the 
Acanthopterygii scombriformes , with a long band-like body 
terminating in a thread-like tail, and with strong prominent 
teeth in both jaws. Several species are known, of which one, 
common in the tropical Atlantic, not rarely reaches the British 
Islands. 

HAITI [HAITI, HAYTI, SAN DOMINGO, or HISPANIOLA], an 
island in the West Indies. It lies almost in the centre of the 
chain and, with the exception of Cuba, is the largest of the group. 
Its greatest length between Cape Engano on the east and Cape 
des Irois on the west is 407 m., and its greatest breadth between 
Cape Beata on the south and Cape Isabella on the north 160 m. 
The area is 28,000 sq. m., being rather less than that of Ireland. 
From Cuba, 70 m. W.N.W., and from Jamaica, 130 m. W.S.W., 
it is separated by the Windward Passage; and from Porto Rico, 
60 m. E., by the Mona Passage. It lies between 17 37' and 
20 o' N. and 68 20' and 74 28' W. From the west coast 
project two peninsulas. The south-western, of which Cape 
Tiburon forms the extremity, is the larger. It is 150 m. long 
and its width varies from 20 to 40 m. Columbus landed at Mole 
St Nicholas at the point of the north-western peninsula, which 
is 50 m. long, with an average breadth of 40 m. Between these 
lies the Gulf of Gonaive, a triangular bay, at the apex of which 
stands the city of Port-au-Prince. The island of Gonaive, 
opposite the city at a distance of 27 m., divides the entrance to 



Lonifitude West 72*of Greenwich 

* 



HAITI 

Scale, 1 18.000,000 

English Miles 

o 20 AO (x> Up ipo 



<&**** 4 



* 

'rs^r-, 




Caribbean 



Port-au-Prince into two fine channels, and forms an excellent 
harbour, 200 sq. m. in extent, the coral reefs along the coast 
being its only defect. On the north-east coast is the magnificent 
Bay of Samana, formed by the peninsula of that name, a 
mountain range projecting into the sea; its mouth is protected 
by a coral reef stretching 8jm. from the south coast. There is 
however, a good passage for ships, and within lies a safe and 
beautiful expanse of water 300 sq. m. in extent. Beyond Samana, 
with the exception of the poor harbour of Santo Domingo, there 
are no inlets on the east and south coasts until the Bays of Ocoa 
and Neyba are reached. The south coast of the Tiburon peninsula 
has good harbours at Jacmel, Bainet, Aquin and Les Cayes or 
Aux Cayes. The only inlets of any importance between Aux 
Cayes and Port-au-Prince are Jeremie and the Bay of Baraderes. 
The coast line is estimated at 1250 m. 

Haiti is essentially a mountainous island. Steep escarpments, 
leading to the rugged uplands of the interior, reach almost every- 
where down to the shores, leaving only here and there a few strips 
of beach. There are three fairly distinct mountain ranges, the 
northern, central and southern, with parallel axes from E. to W. ; 
while extensive and fertile plains lie between them. The northern 
range usually called the Sierra de Monti Cristi, extends from Cape 
Samana on the east to Cape Fragata on the west. It has a mean 
elevation of 3000 ft., culminating in the Loma Diego Campo (3855 
ft.), near the centre of the range. The central range runs from 
Cape Engano to Cape St Nicholas, some 400 m. in an oblique direction 
from E. to W. Towards the centre of the island it broadens and 
forms two distinct chains; the northern, the Sierra del Cibao, con- 
stituting the backbone of Haiti ; the southern curving first S.W., 
then N.W., and reaching the sea near St Marc. In addition to these 
there are a number of secondary crests, difficult to trace to the back- 
bone of the system, since the loftiest peaks are usually on some 
lateral ridge. Such for instance is Loma Tina (10,300 ft.) the highest 



HAITI 



825 



elevation on the island, which rises as a spur N.W. of the city of 
Santo Domingo. In the Sierra del Cibao, the highest summit is the 
Pico del Yaqui (9700 ft.)- The southern range runs from the Bay of 
Neyba due W. to Cape Tiburon. Its highest points are La Selle 
(8900 ft.) and La Hotte (7400 ft.). The plain of Seybo or Los Llanos 
is the largest of the Haitian plains. It stretches eastwards from 
the river Ozama for 95 m. and has an average width of 16 m. It is 
perfectly level, abundantly watered, and admirably adapted for the 
rearing of cattle. But perhaps the grandest is the Vega Real, or 
Royal Plain, as it was called by Columbus, which lies between the 
Cibao and Monti Cristi ranges. It stretches from Samana Bay to 
Manzanillo Bay, a distance of 140 m., but is interrupted in the centre 
by a range of hills in which rise the rivers which drain it. The 
northern part of this plain, however, is usually known as the Valley 
of Santiago. Most of the large valleys are in a state of nature, in 
part savanna, in part wooded, and all very fertile. 

There are four large rivers. The Yaqui, rising in the Pico del Yaqui, 
falls, after a tortuous north-westerly course through the valley of 
Santiago, into Manzanillo Bay ; its mouth is obstructed by shallows, 
and it is navigable only for canoes. The Neyba, or South Yaqui, 
also rises in the Pico del Yaqui and flows S. into the Bay of Neyba. 
In the mountains within a few miles from the sources of these rivers, 
rise the Yuna and the Artibonite. The Yuna drains the Vega Real, 
flows into Samana Bay, and is navigable by light-draught vessels 
for some distance from its mouth. The Artibonite flows through 
the valley of its name into the Gulf of Gonaive. Of the smaller 
rivers the Ozama, on which the city of Santo Domingo stands, is the 
most important. The greatest lake is that of Enriquillo or Xaragua, 
at a height of 300 ft. above sea-level. It is 27 m. long by 8 m. 
broad and very deep. Though 25 m. from the sea its waters are salt, 
and the Haitian negroes call it Etang Sal6. After heavy rains it 
occasionally forms a continuous sheet of water with another lake 
called Azuey, or Etang Saumatrc, which is 16 m. long by 4 m. 
broad ; on these occasions the united lake has a total length of 60 m. 
and is larger than the Lake of Geneva. Farther S. is the Icoten 
de Limon, 5 m. long by 2 m. broad, a fresh-water lake with no visible 
outlet. Smaller lakes are Rincon and Miragoane. There are no 
active volcanoes, but earthquakes are not infrequent. 

Geology. The geology of Haiti is still very imperfectly known, 
and large tracts of the island have never been examined by a geolo- 
gist. It is possible that the schists that have been observed in some 
parts of the island may be of Pre-cretaceous age, but the oldest 
rocks in which fossils have yet been found belong to the Cretaceous 
System, and the geological sequence is very similar to that of 
Jamaica. Excluding the schists of doubtful age, the series begins 
with sandstones and conglomerates, containing pebbles of syenite, 
granite, diorite, &c. ; and these are overlaid by marls, clays and 
limestones containing Hippurites. Then follows a series of sand- 
stones, clays and limestones with occasional seams of Ugnite, 
evidently of shallow-water origin. These are referred by R. T." Hill to 
the Eocene, and they are succeeded by chalky beds which were laid 
down in a deeper sea and which probably correspond with the Mont- 
pelier beds of Jamaica (Oligocene) . Finally, there are limestones and 
marls composed largely of corals and molluscs, which are probably 
of very late Tertiary or Post-tertiary age. Until, however, the 
island has been more thoroughly examined, the correlation of the 
various Tertiary and Post-tertiary deposits must remain doubtful. 
Some of the beds which Hill has placed in the Eocene have been 
referred by earlier writers to the Miocene. Tippenhauer describes 
extensive eruptions of basalt of Post-pliocene age. 

Fauna and Flora. The fauna is not extensive. The agouti is the 
largest wild mammal. Birds are few, excepting water-fowl and 
pigeons. Snakes abound, though few are venomous. Lizards are 
numerous, and insects swarm in the low parts, with tarantulas, 
scorpions and centipedes. Caymans are found in the lakes and 
rivers, and the waters teem with fish and other sea food. Wild cattle, 
hogs and dogs, descendants of those brought from Europe, roam at 
large on the plains and in the forests. The wild hogs furnish much 
sport to the natives, who hunt them with dogs trained for the 
purpose. 

In richness and variety of vegetable products Haiti is not excelled 
by any other country in the world. All tropical plants and trees 
grow in perfection, and nearly all the vegetables and fruits of tem- 
perate climates may be successfully cultivated in the highlands. 
Among indigenous products are cotton, rice, maize, tobacco, cocoa, 
ginger, native indigo (indigo marron or sauyage), arrowroot, manioc 
or cassava, pimento, banana, plantain, pine-apple, artichoke, yam 
and sweet potato. Among the important plants and fruits are sugar- 
cane, coffee, indigo (called indigo franc, to distinguish it from the 
native), melons, cabbage, lucerne, guinea grass and the breadfruit, 
mango, caimite, orange, almond, apple, grape, mulberry and fig. 
Most of the imported fruits have degenerated from want of care, 
but the mango, now spread over nearly the whole island, has become 
almost a necessary article of food; the bread-fruit has likewise 
become common, but is not so much esteemed. Haiti is also rich 
in woods, especially in cabinet and dye woods; among the former are 
mahogany, mancnineel, satinwood, rosewood, cinnamon wood 
(Canella alba), yellow acoma (Sideroxylon mastichodendron) and 
gri-gri; and among the latter are Brazil wood, logwood, fustic and 
sassafras On the mountains are extensive forests of pine and a 



species of oak; and in various parts occur the locust, ironwood, 
cypress or Bermuda cedar, palmetto and many kinds of palms. 

Climate. Owing to the great diversity of its relief Haiti presents 
a wider range of climate than any other part of the Antilles. The 
yearly rainfall is abundant, averaging about 120 in., but the wet 
and dry seasons are clearly divided. At Port-au-Prince the rainy 
season lasts from April to October, but varies in other parts of the 
island, so that there is never a season when rain is general. The 
mountain districts are constantly bathed in dense mists and heavy 
dews, while other districts are almost rainless. Owing to its sheltered 
position the heat at Port-au-Prince is greater than elsewhere. In 
summer the temperature there ranges between 80 and 95 F. and 
in winter between 70 and 80 F. Even in the highlands the mercury 
never falls below 45 F. Hurricanes are not so frequent as in the 
Windward Isles, but violent gales often occur. The prevailing winds 
are from the east. 

The Republic of Haili. Haiti is divided into two parts, the 
negro republic of Haiti owning the western third of the island, 
while the remainder belongs to Santo Domingo (q.v.) or the 
Dominican Republic. Between these two governments there 
exists the strongest political antipathy. 

Although but a small state, with an area of only 10,204 sc l- m - 
the republic of Haiti is, in many respects, one of the most 
interesting communities in the world, as it is the earliest and 
most successful example of a state peopled, and governed on a 
constitutional model, by negroes. At its head is a president 
assisted by two chambers, the members of which are elected 
and hold office under a constitution of 1889. This constitution, 
thoroughly republican in form, is French in origin, as are also 
the laws, language, traditions and customs of Haiti. In practice, 
however, the government resolves itself into a military despotism, 
the power being concentrated in the hands of the president. 
The Haitians seem to possess everything that a progressive 
and civilized nation can desire, but corruption is spread through 
every portion and branch of the government. Justice is venal, 
and the police are brutal and inefficient. Since 1869 the Roman 
Catholic has been the state religion, but all classes of society 
seem to be permeated with a thinly disguised adherence to the 
horrid rites of Voodoo (q.v.), although this has been strenuously 
denied. The country is divided into 5 departemenls, 23 arron- 
dissemenls and 67 communes. Each department and arrondisse- 
ment is governed by a general in the army. The army numbers 
about 7000 men, and the navy consists of a few small vessels. 
Elementary education is free, and there are some 400 primary 
schools; secondary education is mainly in the hands of the 
church. The Sisters of Charity and the Christian Brothers have 
schools at Port-au-Prince, where there is also a lyceum, a medical 
and a law school. The children of the wealthier classes are 
usually sent to France for their education. The unit of money 
is the gourde, the nominal value of which is the same as the 
American dollar, but it is subject to great fluctuations. The 
revenue is almost entirely derived from customs, paid both on 
imports and exports. There being a lack of capital and enter- 
prise, the excessive customs dues produce a very depressed con- 
dition of trade. Imports are consequently confined to bare 
necessaries, the cheapest sorts of dry and fancy goods, matches, 
flour, salt beef and pork, codfish, lard, butter and similar pro- 
visions. The exports are coffee, cocoa, logwood, cotton, gum, 
honey, tobacco and sugar. The island is one of the most fertile 
in the world, and if it had an enlightened and stable government, 
an energetic people, and a little capital, its agricultural possi- 
bilities would seem to be endless. Communications are bad; 
the roads constructed during the French occupation have 
degenerated into mere bridle tracks. There is a coast service 
of steamers, maintained since 1863, and 26 ports are regularly 
visited every ten days. Foreign communication is excellent, 
more foreign steamships visiting this island than any other in 
the West Indies. A railway from Port-au-Prince runs through 
the Plain of Cul de Sac for 28 m. to Manrieville on the Etang 
Saumatre, another runs from Cap Haitien to La Grande Riviere, 
15 m. distant. 

The people are almost entirely pure-blooded negroes, the 
mulattoes, who form about 10% of the population, being a 
rapidly diminishing and much-hated class. The negroes are a 
kindly, hospitable people, but ignorant and lazy. They have 



826 



HAITI 



a passion for dancing weird African dances to the accompaniment 
of the tom-tom. Marriage is neither frequent nor legally 
prescribed, since children of looser unions are regarded by the 
state as legitimate. In the interior polygamy is frequent. The 
people generally speak a curious but not unattractive patois 
of French origin, known as Creole. French is the official 
language, and by a few of the educated natives it is written and 
spoken in its purity. On the whole it must be owned that, after 
a century of independence and self-government, the Haitian 
people have made no progress, if they have not actually shown 
signs of retrogression. The chief towns are Port-au-Prince 
(pop. 75.000), Cap Haitien (29,000), Les Cayes (25,000), Gonaive 
(18,000), and Port de Paix (10,000). Jeremie was the birthplace 
of the elder Dumas. The ruins of the wonderful palace of Sans- 
Souci and of the fortress of La Ferriere, built by King Henri 
Christophe (1807-1825), can be seen near Millot, a town 9 m. 
inland from Cap Haitien. Flaisance (25,000), Gros Morne 
(22,000) and La Croix des Bouquets (20,000) are the largest 
towns in the interior. The entire population of the republic 
is about 1,500,000. 

History. The history of Haiti begins with its discovery by 
Columbus, who landed from Cuba at Mole St Nicholas on the 
6th of December 1492. The natives called the country Haiti 
(mountainous country) , and Quisquica (vast country) . Columbus 
named it Espagnola (Little Spain), which was latinized into 
Hispaniola. At the time of its discovery, the island was inhabited 
by about 2,000,000 Indians, who are described by the Spaniards 
as feeble in intellect and physically defective. They were, 
however, soon exterminated, and their place was supplied (as 
early as 1512) by slaves imported from Africa, the descendants 
of whom now possess the land. Six years after its discovery 
Columbus had explored the interior of the island, founded the 
present capital, and had established flourishing settlements 
at Isabella, Santiago, La Vega, Porto Plata and Bonao. Mines 
had been opened 'up, and advances made in agriculture. Sugar 
was introduced in 1506, and in a few years became the staple 
product. About 1630, a mixed company of French and English, 
driven by the Spaniards from St Kitts, settled on the island of 
Tortuga, where they became formidable under the name of 
Buccaneers. They soon obtained a footing on the mainland of 
Haiti, and by the treaty of Ryswick, 1697, the part they occupied 
was ceded to France. This new colony, named Saint Dominique, 
subsequently attained a high degree of prosperity, and was in a 
flourishing state when the French Revolution broke out in 1789. 
The population was then composed of whites, free coloured 
people (mostly mulattoes) and negro slaves. The mulattoes 
demanded civil rights, up to that time enjoyed only by the 
whites; and in 1791 the National Convention conferred on them 
all the privileges of French" citizens. The whites at once adopted 
the most violent measures, and petitioned the home government 
to reverse the decree, which was accordingly revoked. In 
August 1791, the plantation slaves broke out into insurrection, 
and the mulattoes threw in their lot with them. A period of 
turmoil followed, lasting for several years, during which both 
parties were responsible for acts of the most revolting cruelty. 
Commissioners were sent out from France with full powers to 
settle the dispute, but although in 1793 they proclaimed the 
abolition of slavery, they could effect nothing. To add further 
to the troubles of the colony, it was invaded by a British force, 
which, in spite of the climate and the opposition of the colonists, 
succeeded in maintaining itself until driven out in 1798 by 
Toussaint 1'Ouverture. By treaty with Spain, in 1795, France 
had acquired the title to the entire island. 

By 1801, Toussaint 1'Ouverture, an accomplished negro of 
remarkable military genius, had succeeded in restoring order. 
He then published, subject to the approval of France, a form of 
constitutional government, under which he was to be governor 
for life. This step, however, roused the suspicions of Bonaparte, 
then first consul, who determined to reduce the colony and restore 
slavery. He sent out his brother-in-law, General Leclerc, with 
25,000 troops; but the colonists offered a determined, and often 
ferocious, resistance. At length, wearied of the struggle, Leclerc 



proposed terms, and Toussaint, induced by the most solemn 
guarantees on the part of the French, laid down his arms. He 
was seized and sent to France, where he died in prison in 1803. 
The blacks, infuriated by this act of treachery, renewed the 
struggle, under Jean Jacques Dessalines (1758-1806), with a 
barbarity unequalled in previous contests. The French, further 
embarrassed by the appearance of a British fleet, were only too 
glad to evacuate the island in November 1803. 

The opening of the following year saw the declaration of 
independence, and the restoration of the aboriginal name of 
Haiti. Dessalines, made governor for life, inaugurated his rule 
with a bloodthirsty massacre of all the whites. In October 
1804, he proclaimed himself emperor and was crowned with 
great pomp; but in 1806 his subjects, growing tired of his 
tyranny, assassinated him. His position was now contended for 
by several chiefs, one of whom, Henri Christophe (1767-1820), 
established himself in the north, while Alexandre Sabes Petion 
(1770-1818) took possession of the southern part. The Spaniards 
re-established themselves in the eastern part of the island, 
retaining the French name, modified to Santo Domingo. Civil 
war now raged between the adherents of Christophe and Petion, 
but in 1810 hostilities were suspended. Christophe declared 
himself king of Haiti under the title of Henry I. ; but his cruelty 
caused an insurrection, and in 1820 he committed suicide. Petion 
was succeeded in 1818 by General Jean Pierre Boyer (1776-1850), 
who, after Christophe's death, made himself master of all the 
French part of the island. In 1821 the eastern end of the island 
proclaimed its independence of Spain, and Boyer, taking ad- 
vantage of dissensions there, invaded it, and in 1822 the dominion 
of the whole island fell into his hands. Boyer held the presidency 
of the new government, which was called the republic of Haiti, 
until 1843, when he was driven from the island by a revolution. 
In 1844 the people at the eastern end of the island again asserted 
their independence. The republic of Santo Domingo was 
established, and from that time the two political divisions have 
been maintained. Meanwhile in Haiti revolution followed re- 
volution, and president succeeded president, in rapid succession. 
Order, however, was established in 1849, when Soulouque, who 
had previously obtained the presidency, proclaimed himself 
emperor, under the title of Faustin I. After a reign of nine 
years he was deposed and exiled, the republic being restored 
under the mulatto president Fabre Geffrard. His firm and 
enlightened rule rendered him so unpopular that in 1867 he was 
forced to flee to Jamaica. He was succeeded by Sylvestre 
Salnave, who, after a presidency of two years, was shot. Nissage- 
Saget (1870), Dominique (1874), and Boisrond-Canal (1876) 
followed, each to be driven into exile by revolution. The next 
president, Salomon, maintained himself in office for ten years, 
but he too was driven from the country and died in exile. Civil 
war raged in 1888-1889 between Generals Legitime and Hip- 
polyte, and the latter succeeded in obtaining the vacant pre- 
sidency. He ruled with the most absolute authority till his 
death in 1896. General Tiresias Simon Sam followed and ruled 
till his flight to Paris in 1902. The usual civil war ensued, and 
after nine months of turmoil, order was restored by the election 
of Nord Alexis in December 1902. 

Alexis' administration was unsuccessful, and was marked by 
many disturbances, culminating in his expulsion. In 1904 there 
was an attack by native soldiery on the French and German 
representatives, and punishment was exacted by these powers. 
In December 1904 ex-president Sam, his wife and members of 
his ministry were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment for 
fraudulently issuing bonds. In December 1907 a conspiracy 
against the government was reported and the ringleaders were 
sentenced to death. But in January 1908 the revolution spread, 
and Gonaive and St Marc and other places were reported to be 
in the hands of the insurgents. Prompt measures were taken, 
the rising was checked, and Alexis announced the pardon of 
the revolutionaries. In March, however, this pacific policy was 
reversed by a new ministry;, some suspects were summarily 
executed, and the attitude of the government was only modified 
when the powers sent war-ships to Port-au-Prince. In September 



HAJIPUR HAKE, T. G. 



827 



the criminal court at the capital sentenced to death, by default, 
a large number of persons implicated in the risings earlier in the 
year, and in November revolution broke out again. General 
Antoine Simon raised his standard at Aux Cayes. Disaffection 
was rife among the government troops, who deserted to him in 
great numbers. On the 2nd of December Port-au-Prince was 
occupied without bloodshed by the revolutionaries, and Alexis 
took to flight, escaping violence with some difficulty, and finding 
refuge on a French ship. General Simon then assumed the 
presidency. At the end of April 1910 Alexis died in Jamaica, 
in circumstances of some obscurity; it had just been discovered 
that a plot was on foot to depose Simon, and further trouble was 
threatened. 

AUTHORITIES. B. Edwards, Hist. Survey of the Island of S. 
Domingo (London, 1801) ; Jordan, Geschichte der Insel Haiti (Leipzig, 
1846) ; Linstant Pradin, Recueil general des lois et actes du gouverne- 
ment d'Haiti (Paris, 1851-1865); Monte y Tejada, Historia de 
Santo Domingo (Havana, 1853); Saint Amand, Hist, des revolutions 
d'Haiti (Pans, 1859); Sam. Hazard, Santo Domingo, Past and 
Present (London, 1873), with bibliography; Sir Spencer St John, 
Haiti, or the Black Republic (London, 1889); L. Gentil Tippenhauer, 
Die Insel Haiti (Leipzig, 1893) ; Marcelin, Haiti, Etudes economiques, 
sociales, et politiques; and Haiti, ses guerres civiles, leurs causes 
(Paris, 1893); Hesketh Pritchard, Where Black Rules White 
(London, 1900). For geology, see W. M. Gabb, " On the Topo- 

mand Geology of Santo Domingo," Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., 
>lphia, new series, vol. xv. (1881), pp. 49-259, with map; 
L. G. Tippenhauer, Die Insel Haiti (Leipzig, 1893); see also several 
articles by L. G. Tippenhauer in Peterm. Mitt. 1899 and 1901. A 
comparison with the Jamaican succession will be found in R. T. 
Hill, " The Geology and Physical Geography of Jamaica," Bull. 
Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard, vol. xxxiv. U 8 99)- 

HAJIPUR, a town of British India, in the Muzaffarpur district 
of Bengal, on the Gandak, just above its confluence with the 
Ganges opposite Patna. Pop. (1901), 21,398. Hajipur figures 
conspicuously in the history of the struggles between Akbar 
and his rebellious Afghan governors of Bengal, being twice 
besieged and captured by the imperial troops, in 1572 and 1574. 
Within the limits of the old fort is a small stone mosque, very 
plain, but of peculiar architecture, and attributed to Haji Ilyas, 
its traditional founder (c. 1350). Its command of water traffic 
in three directions makes the town a place of considerable 
commercial importance. Hajipur has a station on the main 
line of the Bengal and North-western railway. 

HAJJ or HADJ, the Arabic word, meaning literally a " setting 
out," for the greater pilgrimage of Mahommedans to Mecca, 
which takes place from the 8th to the loth of the twelfth month 
of the Mahommedan year; the lesser pilgrimage, called umrah 
or omra, may be made to the mosque at Mecca at any time other 
than that of the hajj proper, and is also a meritorious act. The 
term hajji or hadji is given to those who have performed the 
greater pilgrimage. ThewordAoyissometimesloosely usedof any 
Mahommedan pilgrimage to a sacred place or shrine, and is also 
applied to the pilgrimages of Christians of the East to the Holy 
Sepulchre at Jerusalem (see MECCA; MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION). 

HAJJI KHAUFA [in full Mustafa ibn 'Abdallah Katib 
Chelebl Hajji Khalifa] (ca. 1599-1658), Arabic and Turkish 
author, was born at Constantinople. He became secretary to 
the commissariat department of the Turkish army in Anatolia, 
was with the army in Bagdad in 1625, was present at the siege 
of Erzerum, and returned to Constantinople in 1628. In the 
following year he was again in Bagdad and Hamadan, and in 
1633 at Aleppo, whence he made the pilgrimage to Mecca (hence 
his title Hajji). The following year he was in Erivan and then 
returned to Constantinople. Here he obtained a post in the 
head office of the commissariat department, which afforded 
him time for study. He seems to have attended the lectures of 
great teachers up to the time of his death, and made a practice 
of visiting bookshops and noting the titles and contents of all 
books he found there. His largest work is the Bibliographical 
Encyclopaedia written in Arabic. In this work, after five chapters 
dealing with the sciences generally, the titles of Arabian, Persian 
and Turkish books written up to his own time are arranged in 
alphabetical order. With the titles are given, where possible, 
short notes on the author, his date, and sometimes the intro- 



ductory words of his work. It was edited by G. Fliigel with 
Latin translation and a useful appendix (7 vols. Leipzig, 1835- 
1858). The text alone of this edition has been reproduced at 
Constantinople (1893). 

Hajji Khalifa also wrote in Turkish: a chronological conspectus 
of general history (translated into Italian by G. R. Carli, Venice, 
1697); a history of the Turkish empire from 1594 to 1655 (Con- 
stantinople, 1870); a history of the naval wars of the Tucks 
(Constantinople, 1729; chapters 1-4 translated by J. Mitchell, 
London, 1831); a general geography published at Constantinople, 
1732 (Latin trans, by M. Norberg, London and Gotha, 1818 ; German 
trans, of part by J. von Hammer, Vienna, 1812; French trans, of 
part by V. de St Martin in his Geography of Asia Minor, vol. i). 

For his life see the preface to Fliigel s edition ; list of his works 
in C. Brockelmann's Gesch. d. arabischen Literatur (Berlin, 1902), 
vol. ii., pp. 428-429. (G. W. T.) 

HAKE, EDWARD (fl. 1579), English satirist, was educated 
under John Hopkins, the part-author of the metrical version of 
the Psalms. He resided in Gray's Inn and Barnard's Inn, 
London. In the address " To the Gentle Reader " prefixed to 
his Newes out of Powles Churchyard . . . Otherwise entitled 
Syr Nummus (2nd ed., 1579) he mentions the " first three yeeres 
which I spent in the Lines of Channcery, being now about a 
dosen of yeeres passed." In 1585 and 1586 he was mayor of 
New Windsor, and in 1 588 he represented the borough in parlia- 
ment. His last work was published in 1604. He was protected 
by the earl of Leicester, whose policy it was to support the Puritan 
party, and who no doubt found a valuable ally in so vigorous 
a satirist of error in clerical places as was Hake. Newes out of 
Paules Churchyarde, A Trappe for Syr Monye, first appeared 
in 1567, but no copy of this impression is known, and it was 
re-issued in 1579 with the title quoted above. The book takes 
the form of a dialogue between Bertulph and Paul, who meet in 
the aisles of the cathedral, and is divided into eight " satyrs," 
dealing with the corruption of the higher clergy and of judges, 
the greed of attorneys, the tricks of physicians and apothecaries, 
the sumptuary laws, extravagant living, Sunday sports, the 
abuse of St Paul's cathedral as a meeting-place for business and 
conversation, usury, &c. It is written in rhymed fourteen-syllable 
metre, which is often more comic than the author intended. It 
contains, amid much prefatory matter, a note to the " carping 
and scornefull Sicophant," in which he attacks his enemies with 
small courtesy and much alliteration. One is described as a 
" carping careless cankerd churle." 

He also wrote a translation from Thomas a Kempis, The Imitation, 
or Following of Christ (1567, 1568); A Touchstone for this Time 
Present (1574), a scurrilous attack on the Roman Catholic Church, 
followed by a treatise on education; A Commemoration of the . . . 
Raigne of . . . Elizabeth (1575), enlarged in 1578 to A Joyfull Con- 
tinuance of the Commemoration, &c. ; and of Gold's Kingdom, and this 
Unhelping Age (1604), a collection of pieces in prose and verse, in 
which the author inveighs against the power of gold. A bibliography 
of these and of Hake's other works was compiled by Mr Charles 
Edmonds for his edition in 1872 of the Newes (Isham Reprints, 
No. 2, 1872). 

HAKE, THOMAS GORDON (1809-1895), English poet, was 
born at Leeds, of an old Devonshire family, on the loth of March 
1809. His mother was a Gordon of the Huntly branch. He 
studied medicine at St George's hospital and at Edinburgh and 
Glasgow, but had given up practice for many years before his 
death, and had devoted himself to a literary life. In 1839 he 
published a prose epic Votes, republished in Ainsworth's magazine 
as Valdarno, which attracted the attention of D. G. Rossetti. 
In after years he became an intimate member of the circle of 
friends and followers gathered round Rossetti, who so far 
departed from his usual custom as to review Hake's poems in 
the Academy and in the Fortnightly Review. In 1871 he published 
Madeline; 1872, Parables and Tales; 1883, The Serpent Play; 
1890, New Day Sonnets; and in 1892 his Memoirs of Eighty 
Years. Dr Hake's works had much subtlety and felicity of 
expression, and were warmly appreciated in a some what restricted 
literary circle. In his last published verse, the sonnets, he shows 
an advance in facility on the occasional harshness of his earlier 
work. He was given a Civil List literary pension in 1893, and 
died on the nth of January 1895. 



828 



HAKE HAKLUYT 



HAKE (Merluccius vulgaris), a fish which differs from the cod 
in having only two dorsal fins and one anal. It is very common 
on the coasts of Europe and eastern North America, but its flesh 
is much less esteemed than that of the true Gadi. Specimens 
4 ft. in length are not scarce. There are local variations in the 
use of "hake" as a name; in America the "silver hake" 
(Merluccius bilinearis), sometimes called "whiting," and 
" Pacific hake " (Merluccius productus) are also food -fishes of 
inferior quality. 

HAKKAS (" Guests," or " Strangers "), a people of S.W. 
China, chiefly found in Kwang-Tung, Fu-Kien and Formosa. 
Their origin is doubtful, but there is some ground for believing 
that they may be a cross between the aboriginal Mongolic 
element of northern China and the Chinese proper. According 
to their tradition, they were in Shantung and northern China 
as early as the 3rd century B.C. In disposition, appearance 
and customs they differ from the true Chinese. They speak 
a distinct dialect. Their women, who are prettier than the pure 
Chinese, do not compress their feet, and move freely about in 
public. The Hakkas are a most industrious people and furnish 
at Canton nearly all the coolie labour employed by Europeans. 
Their intelligence is great, and many noted scholars have been 
of Hakka birth. Hung Sin-tsuan, the leader in the Taiping 
rebellion, was a Hakka. In Formosa they serve as intermediaries 
between the Chinese and European traders and the natives. 
From time immemorial they seem to have been persecuted by 
the Chinese, whom they regard as " foreigners," and with whom 
their means of communication is usually " pidgin English." 
The earliest persecution occurred under the " first universal 
emperor " of China, Shi-Hwang-ti (246-210 B.C.). From this 
time the Hakkas appear to have become wanderers. Sometimes 
for generations they were permitted to live unmolested, as under 
the Han dynasty, when some of them held high official posts. 
During the Tang dynasty (7th, 8th, and gth centuries) they 
settled in the mountains of Fu-kien and on the frontiers of 
Kwang-Tung. On the invasion of Kublai Khan, the Hakkas 
distinguished themselves by their bravery on the Chinese side. 
In the i4th century further persecutions drove them into 
Kwang-Tung. 

See " An Outline History of the Hakkas," China Review (London, 
1873-1874), vol. ii. ; Pitou, "On the Origin and History of the 
Hakkas," ib.; Dyer Ball, Easy Lessons in the Hakka Dialect (1884), 
Things Chinese (London, 1893); Schaub, " Proverbs in Daily Use 
among the Hakkas," in China Review (London, 1894-1895), vol. xxi. ; 
Rev. J. Edkins, China's Place in Philology; Girard de Rialle, Rev. 
d. anthrop. (Jan. and April, 1885); G. Taylor, " The Aborigines of 
Formosa," China Review, xiv. p. 198 seq., also xvi. No. 3, " A Ramble 
through Southern Formosa." 

HAKLUYT, RICHARD (c. 1553-1616), British geographer, 
was born of good family in or near London about 1553. The 
Hakluyts were of Welsh extraction, not Dutch as has been 
supposed. They appear to have settled in Herefordshire as 
early as the i3th century. The family seat was Eaton, 2 m. 
S.E. of Leominster. Hugo Hakelute was returned M.P. for 
that borough in 1304/5. Richard went to school at West- 
minster, where he was a queen's scholar; while there his future 
bent was determined by a visit to his cousin and namesake, 
Richard Hakluyt of the Middle Temple. His cousin's discourse, 
illustrated by " certain bookes of cosmographie, an universal! 
mappe, and the Bible," made young Hakluyt resolve to "pro- 
secute that knowledge and kind of literature." Entering Christ 
Church, Oxford, in 1570, " his exercises of duty first performed," 
he fell to his intended course of reading, and by degrees perused 
all the printed or written voyages and discoveries that he could 
find. He took his B.A. in 1573/4. It is probable that, 
shortly after taking his M.A. (1577), he began at Oxford the first 
public lectures in geography that " shewed both the old im- 
perfectly composed and the new lately reformed mappes, globes, 
spheares, and other instruments of this art." That this was not 
in London is certain, as we know that the first lecture of the 
kind was delivered in the metropolis on the 4th of November 
1588 by Thomas Hood. 

Hakluyt's first published work was his Divers Voyages touching 



the Discoverie of America (London, 1582, 4to.). This brought 
him to the notice of Lord Howard of Effingham, and so to that 
of Sir Edward Stafford, Lord Howard's brother-in-law; accord- 
ingly at the age of thirty, being acquainted with " the chiefest 
captaines at sea, the greatest merchants, and the best mariners 
of our nation," he was selected as chaplain to accompany 
Stafford, now English ambassador at the French court, to 
Paris (1583). In accordance with the instructions of Secretary 
Walsingham, he occupied himself chiefly in collecting information 
of the Spanish and French movements, and " making diligent 
inquirie of such things as might yield any light unto our westerne 
discoverie in America." The first-fruits of Hakluyt's labours 
in Paris are embodied in his important work entitled A parliculer 
discourse concerning Westerne discoveries written in the yere 1584, 
by Richarde Hackluyt of Oxforde, at the requeste and direction of 
the righte ivorshipfull Mr Waller Raghly before the comynge home 
of his twoo barkes. This long-lost MS. was at last printed in 1877. 
Its object was to recommend the enterprise of planting the 
English race in the unsettled parts of North America. Hakluyt's 
other works consist mainly of translations and compilations, 
relieved by his dedications and prefaces, which last, with a few 
letters, are the only material we possess out of which a biography 
of him can be framed. Hakluyt revisited England in 1584, 
laid before Queen Elizabeth a copy of the Discourse " along with 
one in Latin upon Aristotle's Politicks," and obtained, two days 
before his return to Paris, the grant of the next vacant prebend 
at Bristol, to which he was admitted in 1586 and held with his 
other preferments till his death. 

While in Paris Hakluyt interested himself in the publication 
of the MS. journal of Laudonniere, the Hisloire notable de la 
Florida, edited by Bassanier (Paris, 1586, 8vo.). This was 
translated by Hakluyt and published in London under the title 
of A notable historic containing foure voyages made by certayne 
French captaynes into Florida (London, 1587, 4to.). The same 
year De or be now Pelri Martyris Anglerii decades octo illustratae 
labore et industria Richardi Hackluyti saw the light at Paris. 
This work contains the exceedingly rare copperplate map dedi- 
cated to Hakluyt and signed F. G. (supposed to be Francis 
Gualle) ; it is the first on which the name of " Virginia " appears. 

In 1588 Hakluyt finally returned to England with Lady 
Stafford, after a residence in France of nearly five years. In 1589 
he published the first edition of his chief work, The Principall 
Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation 
(fol., London, i vol.). In the preface to this we have the 
announcement of the intended publication of the first terrestrial 
globe made in England by Molyneux. In 1598-1600 appeared 
the final, reconstructed and greatly enlarged edition of The 
Principal Navigations, Voyages, Trajfiques and Discoveries of 
the English Nation (fol., 3 vols.). Some few copies contain an 
exceedingly rare map, the first on the Mercator projection made 
in England according to the true principles laid down by Edward 
Wright. Hakluyt's great collection, though but little read, has 
been truly called the " prose epic of the modern English nation." 
It is an invaluable treasure of material for the history of 
geographical discovery and colonization, which has secured for its 
editor a lasting reputation. In 1601 Hakluyt edited a translation 
from the Portuguese of Antonio Galvano, The Discoveries of 
the World (410., London). In the same year his name occurs as 
an adviser to the East India Company, supplying them with 
maps, and informing them as to markets. Meantime in 1590 
(April 20th) he had been instituted to the rectory of Withering- 
sett-cum-Brockford, Suffolk. In 1602, on the 4th of May, he 
was installed prebendary of Westminster, and in the following 
year he was elected archdeacon of Westminster. In the licence 
of his second marriage (3oth of March 1604) he is also described 
as one of the chaplains of the Savoy, and his will contains a 
reference to chambers occupied by him there up to the time of 
his death; in another official document he is styled D.D. In 
1605 he secured the prospective living of James Town, the 
intended capital of the intended colony of Virginia. This 
benefice he supplied, when the colony was at last established in 
1607, by a curate, one Robert Hunt. In 1606 he appears as one 



HAKODATE HALBERSTADT 



829 



of the chief promoters of the petition to the king for patents 
to colonize Virginia. He was also a leading adventurer in the 
London or South Virginia Company. His last publication was 
a translation of Fernando de Soto's discoveries in Florida, 
entitled Virginia richly valued by the description of Florida her 
next neighbour (London, 1609, 4to). This work was intended 
to encourage the young colony of Virginia; to Hakluyt, it has 
been said, " England is more indebted for its American possession 
than to any man of that age." We may notice that it was at 
Hakluyt's suggestion that Robert Parke translated Mendoza's 
History of China (London, 1588-1589) and John Pory made his 
version of Leo Africanus (A Geographical History of Africa, 
London, 1600). Hakluyt died in 1616 (November 23rd) and 
was buried in Westminster Abbey (November 26th) ; by an error 
in the abbey register his burial is recorded under the year 1626. 
Out of his various emoluments and preferments (of which the 
last was Gedney rectory, Lincolnshire, in 1612) he amassed a 
small fortune, which was squandered by a son. A number of 
his MSS., sufficient to form a fourth volume of his collections 
of 1 598-1600, fell into the hands of Samuel Purchas, who inserted 
them in an abridged form in his Pilgrimes (1625-1626, fol.). 
Others are preserved at Oxford (Bib. Bod. MS. Seld. B. 8). which 
consist chiefly of notes gathered from contemporary authors. 

Besides the MSS. or editions noticed in the text (Divers Voyages 
(1582); Particuler Discourse (1584); Laudonniere's Florida (1587); 
Peter Martyr, Decades (1587) ; Principal Navigations (1589 and 1598- 
1600); Galvano's Discoveries (1601); De Soto's Florida record, the 
Virginia richly valued (1609, &c.), we may notice the Hakluyt 
Society's London edition of the Divers Voyages in 1850, the edition 
of the Particuler Discourse, by Charles Deane in the Collections of 
the Maine Historical Society (Cambridge, Mass., 1870, with an intro- 
duction by Leonard Woods) ; also, among modern issues of the 
Principal Navigations, those of 1809 (5 vols., with much additional 
matter), and of 1903-1905 (Glasgow, 12 vols.). The new title-page 
issued for the first volume of the final edition of the Principal 
Navigations, in 1599, merely cancelled the former 1598 title with its 
reference to the Cadiz expedition of 1596; but from this has arisen 
the mistaken supposition that a new edition was then (1599) published. 
Hakluyt's Galvano was edited for the Hakluyt Society by Admiral 
C. R. D. Bethune in 1862. This Society, which was founded 
in 1846 for printing rare and unpublished voyages and travels, 
includes the Glasgow edition of the Principal Navigations in its 
extra series, as well as C. R. Beazley's edition of Carpini, Rubruquis, 
and other medieval texts from Hakluyt (Cambridge, 1903, I vol.). 
Reckoning in these and an issue of Purchas's Pilgrimesby the Glasgow 
publisher of the Hakluyt of 1903-1905, the society has now published 
or " fathered " 150 vols. See also Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen 
to America, being Select Narratives from the Principal Navigations, by 
E. J. Payne (Oxford, 1880; 1893; new edition by C. R. Beazley, 1907). 

For Hakluyt's life the dedications of the 1589 and 1598 editions 
of the Principal Navigations should be especially consulted; also 
Winter Jones's introduction to the Kakluyt Society edition of the 
Divers Voyages; Fuller's Worthies of England, "Herefordshire"; 
Oxford Univ. Reg. (Oxford Hist. Soc.), ii., iii. 39; Historical MSS. 
Commission, 4th report, appendix, p. 614, the last giving us the 
Towneley MSS. referring to payments (prizes?) awarded to Hakluyt 
when at Oxford, May I2th and June 4th, 1575. (C. H. C. ; C. R. B.) 

HAKODATE, a town on the south of the island of Yezo, 
Japan, for many years regarded as the capital of the island 
until Sapporo was officially raised to that rank. Pop. (1903) 
84,746. Its position, as has been frequently remarked, is not. 
unlike that of Gibraltar, as the town is built along the north- 
western base of a rocky promontory (1157 ft. in height) which 
forms the eastern boundary of a spacious bay, and is united to 
the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus. The summit of the 
rock, called the Peak, is crowned by a fort. Hakodate is one of 
the ports originally opened to foreign trade. The Bay of Hako- 
date, an inlet of Tsugaru Strait, is completely land-locked, easy 
of access and spacious, with deep water almost up to the shore, 
and good holding-ground. The Russians formerly used Hakodate 
as- a winter port. The staple exports are beans, pulse and peas, 
marine products, sulphur, furs and timber; the staple imports, 
comestibles (especially salted fish), kerosene and oil-cake. The 
town is not situated so as to profit largely by the development of 
the resources of Yezo, and as a port of foreign trade its out- 
look is indifferent. Frequent steamers connect Hakodate and 
Yokohama and other ports, and there is daily communication 
with Aomori, 56 m. distant, whence there is rail-connexion with 



Tokyo. Hakodate was opened to American commerce in 1854. 
In the civil war of 1868 the town was taken by the rebel fleet, 
but it was recovered by the mikado in 1869. 

HAL, a town of Brabant, Belgium, about 9 m. S.W. of Brussels, 
situated on the river Senne and the Charleroi canal. Pop. (1904) 
13,541. The place is interesting chiefly on account of its fine 
church of Notre Dame, formerly dedicated to St Martin. This 
church, a good example of pure Gothic, was begun in 1341 and 
finished in 1409. Its principal ornament is the alabaster altar, 
by J. Mone, completed in 1533. The bronze font dates from 
1446. Among the monuments is one in black marble to the 
dauphin Joachim, son of Louis XL, who died in 1460. In the 
treasury of the church are many costly objects presented by 
illustrious personages, among others by the emperor Charles V., 
King Henry VIII. of England, Charles the Bold of Burgundy, 
and several popes. The church is chiefly celebrated, however, 
for its miraculous image of the Virgin. Legend says that during 
a siege the bullets fired into the town were caught by her in the 
folds of her dress. Some of these are still shown in a chest that 
stands in a side chapel. In consequence of this belief a great 
pilgrimage, attended by many thousands from all parts of 
Belgium, is paid annually to this church. The h6tel de ville 
dates from 1616 and has been restored with more than ordinary 
good taste. 

HALA, or HALLA (formerly known as Murtazabad ), a town of 
British India in Hyderabad district, Sind. Pop. (1901) 4985. 
It has long been famous for its glazed pottery and tiles, made 
from a fine clay obtained from the Indus, mixed with powdered 
flints. The town has also a manufacture of susis or striped 
trouser-cloths. 

HALAESA, an ancient town on the north coast of Sicily, 
about 14 m. E. of Cephaloedium [Cefalu], to the east of the 
modern Castel di Tusa, founded in 403 B.C. by Archonides, 
tyrant of Herbita, whose name it sometimes bore: we find, e.g. 
Halaisa Archonida on a coin of the time of Augustus (Corp. 
inscrip. Lat. x., Berlin, 1883, p. 768). It was the first town to 
surrender to the Romans in the First Punic War, and was granted 
freedom and immunity from tithe. It became a place of some 
importance in Roman days, especially as a port, and entirely 
outstripped its mother city. Halaesa is the only place in Sicily 
where an inscription dedicated to a Roman governor of the 
republican period (perhaps in 93 B.C.) has come to light. (T. As.) 

HALAKHA, or HALACHA (literally " rule of conduct "), the 
rabbinical development of the Mosaic law; with the haggada 
it makes up the Talmud and Midrash (q.t).}. As the haggada 
is the poetic, so the halakha is the legal element ot the Talmud 
(q.i>.), and arose out of the faction between the Sadducees, who 
disputed the traditions, and the Pharisees, who strove to prove 
their derivation from scripture. Among the chief attempts to 
codify the halakha were the Great Rides (Halakhoth Gedoloth) 
of Simon Kayyara (gth century), based on the letters written by 
the Gaonim, the heads of the Babylonian schools, to Jewish 
inquirers in many lands, the work of Jacob Alfassi (1013-1103), 
the Strong Hand of Maimonides (1180), and the Table Prepared 
(Shulhan Aruch) of Joseph Qaro (1565), which from its practical 
scope and its clarity as a work of general reference became the 
universal handbook of Jewish life in many of its phases. (I. A.) 

HALBERSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province 
of Saxony, 56 m. by rail N.W. of Halle, and 29 S.W. of Magde- 
burg. It lies in a fertile country to the north of the Harz 
Mountains, on the Holzemme, at the junction of railways to 
Halle, Goslar and Thale. Pop. (1905) 45,534. The town has 
a medieval appearance, many old houses decorated with beautiful 
wood-carving still surviving. The Gothic cathedral (now Pro- 
testant), dating from the I3th and i4th centuries, is remarkable 
for the majestic impression made by the great height of the 
interior, with its slender columns and lofty, narrow aisles. The 
treasure, preserved in the former chapter-house, is rich in 
reliquaries, vestments and other objects of medieval church 
art. The beautiful spires, which had become unsafe, were 
rebuilt in 1890-1895. Among the other churches the only one 
of special interest is the Liebfrauenkirche (Church of Our Lady). 



8 3 o 



HALBERT 



a basilica, with four towers, in the later Romanesque style, 
dating from the izth and I3th centuries and restored in 1848, 
containing old mural frescoes and carved figures. Remarkable 
among the other old buildings are the town-hall, of the i4th 
century and restored in the i?th century, with a crypt, and the 
Petershof, formerly the episcopal palace, but now utilized as 
law courts and a prison. The principal educational establish- 
ment is the gymnasium, with a library of 40,000 volumes. Close 
to the cathedral lies the house of the poet Gleim (<?..), since 1899 
the property of the municipality and converted into a museum. 
It contains a collection of the portraits of the friends of the 
poet-scholar and some valuable manuscripts. The principal 
manufactures of the town are sugar, cigars, paper, gloves, 
chemical products, beer and machinery. About a mile and a half 
distant are the Spiegelsberge, from which a fine view of the 
surrounding country is obtained, and the Klusberge, with pre- 
historic cave-dwellings cut out in the sandstone rocks. 

The history of Halberstadt begins with the transfer to it, by 
Bishop Hildegrim I., in 820 of the see founded by Charlemagne at 
Seligenstadt. At the end of the loth century the bishops were 
granted by the emperors the right to exercise temporal jurisdiction 
over their see, which became one of the most considerable of the 
ecclesiastical principalities of the Empire. As such it survived the 
introduction of the Reformation in 1542; but in 1566, on the death 
of Sigismund of Brandenburg (also archbishop of Madgeburg from 
1552 to 1566), the last Catholic bishop, the chapter from motives 
of economy elected the infant Henry Julius of Brunswick-Luneburg. 
In 1589 he became duke of Brunswick, and two years later he 
abolished the Catholic rites in Halberstadt. The see was governed 
by lay bishops until 1648, when if was formally converted by the 
treaty of Westphalia into a secular principality for the elector of 
Brandenburg. By the treaty of Tilsit in 1807 it was annexed to 
the kingdom of Westphalia, but came again to Prussia on the 
downfall of Napoleon. 

The town received a charter from Bishop Arnulf in 998. In 
1113 it was burnt by the emperor Henry V., and in 1179 by Henry 
the Lion. During the Thirty Years' War it was occupied alternately 
by the Imperialists and the Swedes, the latter of whom handed it 
over to Brandenburg. 

See Lucanus, Der Dom zu Halberstadt (1837), Wegweiser durck 
Halberstadt (2nd ed., 1866) and Die Liebfrauenkirche zu Halberstadt 
(1872); Scheffer, Inschriften und Legenden halberstddtischer Bauten 
(1864); Schmidt, Urkundenbuch der Stadt Halberstadt (Halle, 1878); 
and Zschieschc, Halberstadt, sonst undjetzi (1882). 

HALBERT, HALBERD or HALBARD, a weapon consisting of an 
axe-blade balanced by a pick and having an elongated pike-head 
at the end of the staff, which was usually about 5 or 6 ft. in 
length. The utility of such a weapon in the wars of the later 
middle ages lay in this, that it gave the foot soldier the means 
of dealing with an armoured man on horseback. The pike could 
do no more than keep the horseman at a distance. This ensured 
security for the foot soldier but did not enable him to strike a 
mortal blow, for which firstly a long-handled and secondly a 
powerful weapon, capable of striking a heavy cleaving blow, 
was required. Several different forms of weapon responding 
to these requirements are described and illustrated below; it 
will be noticed that the thrusting pike is almost always combined 
with the cutting-bill hook or axe-head, so that the individual 
billman or halberdier should not be at a disadvantage if caught 
alone by a mounted opponent, or if his first descending blow 
missed its object. It will be noticed further that, concurrently 
with the disuse of complete armour and the development of 
firearms, the pike or thrusting element gradually displaces the 
axe or cleaving element in these weapons, till at last we arrive 
at the court halberts and partizans of the late i6th and early 
1 7th centuries and the so-called " halbert " of the infantry 
officer and sergeant in the i8th, which can scarcely be classed 
even as partizans. 

Figs. 1-6 represent types of these long cutting, cut and thrust 
weapons of the middle ages, details being omitted for the sake of 
clearness. The most primitive is the voulge (fig. i), which is 
simply a heavy cleaver on a pole, with a point added. The next 
form, the gisarme or guisarme (fig. 2), appears in infinite variety 
but is always distinguished from voulges, &c. by the hook, 
which was used to pull down mounted men, and generally 
resembles the agricultural bill-hook of to-day. The glaive 
(fig. 3 is late German) is a broad, heavy, slightly curved sword- 




axe 



blade on a stave; it is often combined with the hooked gisarme 
as a glaive-gisarme (fig. 4, Burgundian, about 1480). A gisarme- 
iioulge is shown in fig. 5 (Swiss, i4th century). 

The weapon best known to Englishmen is the bill, which was 
originally a sort of scythe-blade, sharp on the concave side 
(whereas the glaive has 
the cutting edge on the 
convex side), but in its 
best-known form it should 
be called a bill-gisarme 
(fig. 6). The partizans, ran- 
seurs and halberts proper 
developed naturally from 
the earlier types. The 
feature common to all, 
as has been said, is the 

combination of spear and axe. In the halberts the 
predominates, as the examples (fig. 10, Swiss, early 
century; fig. n, Swiss, middle i6th century; and fig. 12, German 
court halbert of the same period as fig. n) show. In the 
partizan the pike is the more important, the axe-heads being 
reduced to little more than an ornamental feature. A south 
German specimen (fig. 9, 1615) shows how this was compensated 
by the broadening of the spear-head, the edges of which in such 
weapons were sharpened. Fig. 8, a service weapon of simple 
form, merely has projections on either side, and from this 
developed the ranseur (fig. 7), a partizan with a very long and 
narrow point, like the blade of a rapier, and with fork-like pro- 
jections intended to act as " sword-breakers," instead of the 
atrophied axe-heads of the partizan proper. 

The halbert played almost as conspicuous a part in the military 
history of Middle Europe during the I5th and early i6th centuries 
as the pike. But, 

even in a form A I A 

distinguishable 
from the voulge 
and the glaive, it 
dates from the 
early part of the 
i3th century, and 
for many genera- 
tions thereafter it 

was the special FIGS. 7-12. 

weapon of the 

Swiss. Fauchet, in his Origines des dignitez, printed in 1600, 
states that Louis XI. of France ordered certain new weapons 
of war called hallebardes to be made at Angers and other places in 
1475. The Swiss had a mixed armament of pikes and halberts 
at the battle of Morat in 1476. In the 15th and i6th cen- 
turies the halberts became larger, and the blades were formed 
in many varieties of shape, often engraved, inlaid, or pierced 
in open work, and exquisitely finished as works of art. This 
weapon was in use in England from the reign of Henry VII. 
to the reign of George III., when it was still carried (though in 
shape it had certainly lost its original characteristics, and had 
become half partizan and half pike) by sergeants in the guards 
and other infantry regiments. It is still retained as the symbol 
of authority borne before the magistrates on public occasions 
in some of the burghs of Scotland. The Lochaber axe may be 
called a species of halbert furnished with a hook on the end of 
the staff at the back of the blade. The godendag (Fr. godendart) 
is the Flemish name of the halbert in its original form. 

The derivation of the word is as follows. The O. Fr. hallebarde, 
of which the English " halberd," " halbert," is an adaptation, 
was itself adapted from the M.H.G. helmbarde, mod. Hellebarde; 
the second part is the O.H.G. barta or parta, broad-axe, probably 
the same word as Bart, beard, and so called from its shape; 
the first part is either helm, handle, cf. " helm," tiller of a ship, 
the word meaning " hafted axe," or else helm, helmet, an axe 
for smiting the helmet. A common derivation was to take the 
word as representing a Ger. halb-barde, half -axe; the early 
German form shows this to be an erroneous guess. 




HALDANE, J. A. HALDEMAN 



831 



HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER (1768-1851),. Scottish 
divine, the younger son of Captain James Haldane of Airthrey 
House, Stirlingshire, was born at Dundee on the I4th of July 
1768. Educated first at Dundee and afterwards at the high 
schoftl and university of Edinburgh, at the age of seventeen he 
joined the " Duke of Montrose " East Indiaman as a midship- 
man. After four voyages to India he was nominated to the 
command of the "Melville Castle" in the summer of 1793; 
but having during a long and unexpected detention of his ship 
begun a careful study of the Bible, and also come under the 
evangelical influence of David Bogue of Gosport, one of the 
founders of the London Missionary Society, he abruptly resolved 
to quit the naval profession for a religious life, and returned to 
Scotland before his ship had sailed. About the year 1796 he 
became acquainted with the celebrated evangelical divine, 
Charles Simeon of Cambridge, in whose society he made several 
tours through Scotland, endeavouring by tract-distribution 
and other means to awaken others to some of that interest in 
religious subjects which he himself so strongly felt. In May 
1797 he preached his first sermon, at Gilmerton near Edinburgh, 
with encouraging success. In the same year he established a 
non-sectarian organization for tract distribution and lay preach- 
ing called the " Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at 
Home." During the next few years he made repeated missionary 
journeys, preaching wherever he could obtain hearers, and 
generally in the open air. Not originally disloyal to the Church 
of Scotland, he was gradually driven by the hostility of the 
Assembly and the exigencies of his position into separation. 
In 1799 he was ordained as pastor of a large Independent con- 
gregation in Edinburgh. This was the first congregational church 
known by that name in Scotland. In 1801 a permanent building 
replaced the circus in which the congregation had at first met. 
To this church he continued to minister gratuitously for more 
than fifty years. In 1808 he made public avowal of his conversion 
to Baptist views. As advancing years compelled him to withdraw 
from the more exhausting labours of itineracy and open-air 
preaching, he sought more and more to influence the discussion 
of current religious and theological questions by means of the 
press. He died on the 8th of February 1851. 

His son, DANIEL RUTHERFORD HALDANE (1824-1887), by his 
second wife, a daughter of Professor Daniel Rutherford, was a 
prominent Scottish physician, who became president of the 
Edinburgh College of Physicians. 

Among J. A. Haldane's numerous contributions to current theo- 
logical discussions were: The Duty of Christian Forbearance in 
Regard to Points of Church Order (1811); Strictures on a Publication 
upon Primitive Christianity by Mr John Walker (1819); Refutation 
of Edward living's Heretical Doctrines respecting the Person and 
Atonement of Jesus Christ. His Observations on Universal Pardon, 
&c., was a contribution to the controversy regarding the views of 
Thomas Erskine of Linlathen and Campbell of Row; Man's Re- 
sponsibility (1842) is a reply to Howard Hinton on the nature and 
extent of the Atonement. He also published: Journal of a Tour 
in the North; Early Instruction Commended (1801); Views of the 
Social Worship of the First Churches (1805); The Doctrine and Duty 
of Self-Examination (1806); The Doctrine of the Atonement (1845); 
Exposition of the Epistle to the Galatians (1848). 

HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON (1856- ), British states- 
man and philosopher, was the third son of Robert Haldane of 
Cloanden, Perthshire, a writer to the signet, and nephew of 
J. S. Burdon-Sanderson. He was a grand-nephew of the Scottish 
divines J. A. and Robert Haldane. He was educated at Edin- 
burgh Academy and the universities of Edinburgh and Gottingen, 
where he studied philosophy under Lotze. He took first-class 
honours in philosophy at Edinburgh, and was Gray scholar and 
Ferguson scholar in philosophy of the four Scottish Universities 
(1876). He was called to the bar in 1879, and so early as 1890 
became a queen's counsel. In 1885 he entered parliament as 
liberal member for Haddingtonshire, for which he was re-elected 
continuously up to and including 1910. He was included in 
1905 in Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet as secretary for 
war, and was the author of the important scheme for the re- 
organization of the British army, by which the militia and the 
volunteer forces were replaced by a single territorial force. 



Though always known as one of the ablest men of the Liberal 
party and conspicuous during the Boer War of 1890-1902 as 
a Liberal Imperialist, the choice of Mr Haldane for the task of 
thinking out a new army organization on business lines had 
struck many people as curious. Besides being a chancery 
lawyer, he was more particularly a philosopher, conspicuous for 
his knowledge of Hegelian metaphysics. But with German philo- 
sophy he had also the German sense of thoroughness and system, 
and his scheme, while it was much criticized, was recognized 
as the best that could be done with a voluntary army. Mr 
Haldane's chief literary publications were: Life of Adam Smith 
(1887); Education and Empire (1902); The Pathway to Reality 
(1903). He also translated, jointly with J. Kemp, Schopen- 
hauer's Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung (The World as Will and 
Idea, 3 vols., 1883-1886). 

HALDANE, ROBERT (1764-1842), Scottish divine, elder 
brother of J. A. Haldane (<?..), was born in London on the 
28th of February 1764. After attending classes in the Dundee 
grammar school and in the high school and university of Edin- 
burgh in 1780, he joined H.M.S. " Monarch," of which his uncle 
Lord Duncan was at that time in command, and in the following 
year was transferred to the " Foudroyant," on board of which, 
during the night engagement with the " Pegase," he greatly 
distinguished himself. Haldane was afterwards present at the 
relief of Gibraltar, but at the peace of 1783 he finally left the 
navy, and soon afterwards settled on his estate of Airthrey, near 
Stirling. He put himself under the tuition of David Bogue of 
Gosport and carried away deep impressions from his academy. 
The earlier phases of the French Revolution excited his deepest 
sympathy, a sympathy which induced him to avow his strong 
disapproval of the war with France. As his over-sanguine visions 
of a new order of things to be ushered in by political change 
disappeared, he began to direct his thoughts to religious subjects. 
Resolving to devote himself and his means wholly to the advance- 
ment of Christianity, his first proposal for that end, made in 
1796, was to organize a vast mission to Bengal, of which he was 
to provide the entire expense; with this view the greater part 
of his estate was sold, but the East India Company refused to 
sanction the scheme, which therefore had to be abandoned. 
In December 1797 he joined his brother and some others in the 
formation of the " Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at 
Home," in building chapels or " tabernacles " for congregations, 
in supporting missionaries, and in maintaining institutions for 
the education of young men to carry on the work of evangeliza- 
tion. He is said to have spent more than 70,000 in the course of 
the following twelve years (1798-1810). He also initiated a 
plan for evangelizing Africa by bringing over native children 
to be trained as Christian teachers to their own countrymen. 
In 1816 he visited the continent, and first at Geneva and after- 
wards in Montauban (1817) he lectured and interviewed large 
numbers of theological students with remarkable effect; among 
them were Malan, Monod and Merle d'Aubigne. Returning to 
Scotland in 1819, he lived partly on his estate of Auchengray 
and partly in Edinburgh, and like his brother took an active part, 
chiefly through the press, in many of the religious controversies 
of the time. He died on the i2th of December 1842. 

In 1816 he published a work on the Evidences and Authority of 
Divine Revelation, and in 1819 the substance of his theological 
prelections in a Commentaire sur I'Epitre aux Remains. Among 
his later writings, besides numerous pamphlets on what was known 
as " the Apocrypha controversy," are a treatise On the Inspiration 
of Scripture (1828), which has passed through many editions, and 
a later Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans (1835), which has been 
frequently reprinted, and has been translated into French and 
German. 

See Memoirs of R. and J. A. Haldane, by Alexander Haldane 
(1852). 

HALDEMAN, SAMUEL STEHMAN (1812-1880), American 
naturalist and philologist, was born on the I2th of August 1812 
at Locust Grove, Pa. He was educated at Dickinson College, 
and in 1851 was appointed professor of the natural sciences in 
the university of Pennsylvania. In 1855 he went to Delaware 
College, where he filled the same position, but in 1869 he 
returned to the university of Pennsylvania as professor of 



HALDIMAND HALE, J. P. 



comparative philology and remained there till his death, which 
occurred at Chickies, Pa., on the roth of September 1880. His 
writings include Freshwater Univalve Mollusca of the United 
States (1840); Zoological Contributions (1842-1843); Analytic 
Orthography (1860); Tours of a Chess Knight (1864); Penn- 
sylvania Dutch, a Dialect of South German with an Infusion of 
English (1872); Outlines of Etymology (1877); and Word- 
Building (1881). 

HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK (1718-1791), British general 
and administrator, was born at Yverdun, Neuchatel, Switzerland, 
on the nth of August 1718, of Huguenot descent. After serving 
in the armies of Sardinia, Russia and Holland, he entered 
British service in 1754, and subsequently naturalized as an 
English citizen. During the Seven Years' War he served in 
America, was wounded at Ticonderoga (1758) and was present at 
the taking of Montreal (1760). After filling with credit several 
administrative positions in Canada, Florida and New York, 
in 1778 he succeeded Sir Guy Carleton (afterwards Lord Dor- 
chester) as governor-general of Canada. His measures against 
French sympathizers with the Americans have incurred 
extravagant strictures from French-Canadian historians, but he 
really snowed moderation as well as energy. In 1785 he re- 
turned to London. He died at his birthplace on the sth of 
June 1791. 

His life has been well written by Jean Mcllwraith in the " Makers 
of Canada " series (Toronto, 1904). His Correspondence and Diary 
fill 262 volumes in the Canadian Archives, and are catalogued in 
the Annual Reports (1884-1889). 

HALE, EDWARD EVERETT (1822-1909), American author, 
was born in Boston on the 3rd of April 1822, son of Nathan Hale 
(1784-1863), proprietor and editor of the Boston Daily Advertiser, 
nephew of Edward Everett, the orator and statesman, and grand- 
nephew of Nathan Hale, the martyr spy. He graduated from 
Harvard in 1839; was pastor of the church of the Unity, 
Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1846-1856, and of the South 
Congregational (Unitarian) church, Boston, in 1856-1899; and 
in 1903 became chaplain of the United States Senate. He died 
at Roxbury (Boston), Massachusetts, on the loth of June 1909. 
His forceful personality, organizing genius, and liberal practical 
theology, together with his deep interest in the anti-slavery 
movement (especially in Kansas), popular education (especially 
Chautauqua work), and the working-man's home, were active 
in raising the tone of American life for half a century. He was 
a constant and voluminous contributor to the newspapers and 
magazines. He was an assistant editor of the Boston Daily 
Advertiser, and edited the Christian Examiner, Old and New 
(which he assisted in founding in 1869; in 1875 it was merged in 
Scribner's Magazine), Lend a Hand (founded by him in 1886 and 
merged in the Charities Review in 1897), and the Lend a Hand 
Record; and he was the author or editor of more than sixty 
books fiction, travel, sermons, biography and history. 

He first came into notice as a writer in 1859, when he con- 
tributed the short story " My Double and How He Undid Me " 
to the Atlantic Monthly. He soon published in the same 
periodical other stories, the best known of which was " The 
Man Without a Country " (1863), which did much to strengthen 
the Union cause in the North, and in which, as in some of his 
other non-romantic tales, he employed a minute realism which 
has led his readers to suppose the narrative a record of fact. 
The two stories mentioned, and such others as " The Rag-Man 
and the Rag- Woman " and " The Skeleton in the Closet," gave 
him a prominent position among the short-story writers of 
America. The story Ten Times One is Ten (1870), with its hero 
Harry Wadsworth, and its motto, first enunciated in 1869 in his 
Lowell Institute lectures, " Look up and not down, look forward 
and not back, look out and not in, and lend a hand," led to the 
formation among young people of " Lend-a-Hand Clubs," 
" Look-up Legions " and " Harry Wadsworth Clubs." Out of 
the romantic Waldensian story In His Name (1873) there 
similarly grew several other organizations for religious work, 
such as " King's Daughters," and " King's Sons." 

Among his other books are Kansas and Nebraska (1854); The 
Ingham Papers (1869); His Level Best, and Other Stories (1870); 



Sybaris and Other Homes (1871); Philip Nolan's Friends (1876), his 
best-known novel, and a sequel to The Man Without a Country; The 
Kingdom of God (1880); Christmas at Narragansett (1885); East 
and West, a novel (1892); For Fifty Years (poems, 1893); Ralph 
Waldo Emerson (1899); We, the People (1903); Prayers Offered in 
the Senate of the United States (1904), and Tarry-at-Home Travels 
(1906). He edited Lingard's History of England (1853), and con- 
tributed to Winsor's Memorial History of Boston (1880-1881), and 
to his Narrative and Critical History of America (1886-1889). With 
his son, Edward Everett Hale, Jr., he published Franklin in France 
(2 vols., 1887-1888), based largely on original research. The most 
charming books of his later years were A New England Boyhood 
(1893), James Russell Lowell and His Friends (1899), and Memories 
of a Hundred Years (1902) 

A uniform and revised edition of his principal writings, in ten 
volumes, appeared in 1899-1901. 

HALE, HORATIO (1817-1896), American ethnologist, was 
born in Newport, New Hampshire, on the 3rd of May 1817. He 
was the son of David Hale, a lawyer, and of Sarah Josepha Hale 
(1790-1879), a popular poet, who, besides editing Godey's Lady's 
Magazine for many years and publishing some ephemeral books, 
is supposed to have written the verses " Mary had a little lamb," 
and to have been the first to suggest the national observance of 
Thanksgiving Day. The son graduated in 1837 at Harvard, 
and during 1838-1842 was philologist to the United States 
Exploring Expedition, which under Captain Charles Wilkes sailed 
around the world. Of the reports of that expedition Hale 
prepared the sixth volume, Ethnography and Philology (1846), 
which is said to have " laid the foundations of the ethnography 
of Polynesia." He was admitted to the Chicago bar in 1855, 
and in the following year removed to Clinton, Ontario, Canada, 
where he practised his profession, and where on the 28th of 
December 1896 he died. He made many valuable contributions 
to the science of ethnology, attracting attention particularly by 
his theory of the origin of the diversities of human languages 
and dialects a theory suggested by his study of " child- 
languages," or the languages invented by little children. He 
also emphasized the importance of languages as tests of mental 
capacity and as " criteria for the classification of human groups." 
He was, moreover, the first to discover that the Tutelos of Virginia 
belonged to the Siouan family, and to identify the Cherokee 
as a member of the Iroquoian family of speech. Besides writing 
numerous magazine articles, he read a number of valuable papers 
before learned societies. These include: Indian Migrations as 
Evidenced by Language (1882); The Origin of Languages and the 
Antiquity of Speaking Man (1886); The Development of Language 
(1888); and Language as a Test of Mental Capacity: Being an 
Attempt to Demonstrate the True Basis of Anthropology (1891). 
He also edited for Brinton's " Library of Aboriginal Literature," 
the Iroquois Book of Rites (1883). 

HALE, JOHN PARKER (1806-1873), American statesman, was 
born at Rochester, New Hampshire, on the 3ist of March 1806. 
He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1827, was admitted to the 
New Hampshire bar in 1830, was a member of the state House of 
Representatives in 1832, and from 1834 to 1841 was United 
States district attorney for New Hampshire. In 1843-1845 he 
was a Democratic member of the national House of Repre- 
sentatives, and, though his earnest co-operation with John 
Quincy Adams in securing the repeal of the " gag rule " directed 
against the presentation to Congress of anti-slavery petitions 
estranged him from the leaders of his party, he was renominated 
without opposition. In January 1845, however, he refused in 
a public statement to obey a resolution (28th of December 1844) 
of the state legislature directing him and his New Hampshire 
associates in Congress to support the cause of the annexation 
of Texas, a Democratic measure which Hale regarded as being 
distinctively in the interest of slavery. The Democratic State 
convention was at once reassembled, Hale was denounced, and 
his nomination withdrawn. In the election which followed Hale 
ran independently, and, although the Democratic candidates 
were elected in the other three congressional districts of the 
state, his vote was large enough to prevent any choice (for which 
a majority was necessary) in his own. Hale then set out in the 
face of apparently hopeless odds to win over his state to the anti- 
slavery cause. The remarkable canvass which he conducted 



HALE, SIR M. HALE, NATHAN 



833 



is known in the history of New Hampshire as the " Hale Storm 
of 1845." The election resulted in the choice of a legislature 
controlled by the Whigs and the independent Democrats, he 
himself being chosen as a member of the state House of Repre- 
sentatives, of which in 1846 he was speaker. He is remembered, 
however, chiefly for his long service in the United States Senate, 
of which he was a member from 1847 to 1853 and again from 
1855 to 1865. At first he was the only out-and-out anti-slavery 
senator, he alone prevented the vote of thanks to General Taylor 
and General Scott for their Mexican war victories from being made 
unanimous in the Senate (February 1848) but in 1849 Salmon 
P. Chase and William H. Seward, and in 1851 Charles Sumner 
joined him, and the anti-slavery cause became for the first time 
a force to be reckoned with in that body. In October 1847 he had 
been nominated for president by the Liberty party, but he 
withdrew in favour of Martin Van Buren, the Free Soil candidate, 
in 1848. In 1851 he was senior counsel for the rescuers of the 
slave Shadrach in Boston. In 1852 he was the Free Soil can- 
didate for the presidency, but received only 156,149 votes. In 
1850 he secured the abolition of flogging in the U.S. navy, 
and through his efforts in 1862 the spirit ration in the navy was 
abolished. He was one of the organizers of the Republican 
party, and during the Civil War was an eloquent supporter of 
the Union and chairman of the Senate naval committee. From 
1865 to 1869 he was United States minister to Spain. He died at 
Dover, New Hampshire, on the igth of December 1873. A 
statue of Hale, presented by his son-in-law William Eaton 
Chandler (b. 1835), U.S. senator from New Hampshire in 
1887-1901, was erected in front of the Capitol in Concord, New 
Hampshire, in 1892. 

HALE, SIR MATTHEW (1600-1676), lord chief justice of 
England, was born on the ist of November 1609 at Alderley 
in Gloucestershire, where his father, a retired barrister, had a 
small estate. His paternal grandfather was a rich clothier of 
Wotton-under-Edge; on his mother's side he was connected 
with the noble family of the Poyntzes of Acton. Left an orphan 
when five years old, he was placed by his guardian under the 
care of the Puritan vicar of Wotton-under-Edge, with whom he 
remained till he attained his sixteenth year, when he entered 
Magdalen Hall, Oxford. At Oxford, Hale studied for several 
terms with a view to holy orders, but suddenly there came a 
change. The diligent student, at first attracted by a company 
of strolling players, threw aside his studies, and plunged care- 
lessly into gay society. He soon decided to change his profession ; 
and resolved to trail a pike as a soldier under the prince of 
Orange in the Low Countries. Before going abroad, however, 
Hale found himself obliged to proceed to London in order to give 
instructions for his defence in a legal action which threatened 
to deprive him of his patrimony. His leading counsel was the 
celebrated Serjeant Glanville (1586-1661), who, perceiving in the 
acuteness and sagacity of his youthful client a peculiar fitness 
for the legal profession, succeeded, with much difficulty, in 
inducing him to renounce his military for a legal career, and on 
the 8th of November 1629 Hale became a member of the honour- 
able society of Lincoln's Inn. 

He immediately resumed his habits of intense application. 
The rules which he laid down for himself, and which are still 
extant in his handwriting, prescribe sixteen hours a day of close 
application, and prove, not only the great mental power, but 
also the extraordinary physical strength he must have possessed, 
and for which indeed, during his residence at the university, 
he had been remarkable. During the period allotted to his 
preliminary studies, he read over and over again all the year- 
books, reports, and law treatises in print, and at the Tower of 
London and other antiquarian repositories examined and care- 
fully studied the records from the foundation of the English 
monarchy down to his own time. But Hale did not confine 
himself to law. He dedicated no small portion of his time to 
the study of pure mathematics, to investigations in physics and 
chemistry, and even to anatomy and architecture; and there 
can be no doubt that this varied learning enhanced considerably 
the value of many of his judicial decisions. 
XTI. 27 



Hale was called to the bar in 1637, and almost at once found 
himself in full practice. Though neither a fluent speaker nor 
bold pleader, in a very few years he was at the head of his 
profession. He entered public life at perhaps the most critical 
period of English history. Two parties were contending in 
the state, and their obstinacy could not fail to produce a most 
direful collision. But amidst the confusion Hale steered a middle 
course, rising in reputation, and an object of solicitation from 
both parties. Taking Pomponius Atticus as his political model, 
he was persuaded that a man, a lawyer and a judge could best 
serve his country and benefit his countrymen by holding aloof 
from partisanship and its violent prejudices, which are so apt 
to distort and confuse the judgment. But he is best vindicated 
from the charges of selfishness and cowardice by the thoughts 
and meditations contained in his private diaries and papers, 
where the purity and honour of his motives are clearly seen. It 
has been said, but without certainty, that Hale was engaged as 
counsel for the earl of Straff ord; he certainly acted for Arch- 
bishop Laud, Lord Maguire, Christopher Love, the duke of 
Hamilton and others. It is also said that he was ready to plead 
on the side of Charles I. had that monarch submitted to the 
court. The parliament having gained the ascendancy, Hale 
signed the Solemn League and Covenant, and was a member 
of the famous assembly of divines at Westminster in 1644; but 
although he would undoubtedly have preferred a Presbyterian 
form of church government, he had no serious objection to the 
system of modified Episcopacy proposed by Usher. Consistently 
with his desire to remain neutral, Hale took the engagement to 
the Commonwealth as he had done to the king, and in 1653, 
already Serjeant, he became a judge in the court of common pleas. 
Two years afterwards he sat in Cromwell's parliament as one of 
the members for Gloucestershire. After the death of the pro- 
tector, however, he declined to act as a judge under Richard 
Cromwell, although he represented Oxford in Richard's parlia- 
ment. At the Restoration in 1660 Hale was very graciously 
received by Charles II., and in the same year was appointed 
chief baron of the exchequer, and accepted, with extreme 
reluctance, the honour of knighthood. After holding the office 
of chief baron for eleven years he was raised to the higher dignity 
of lord chief justice, which he held till February 1676, when his 
failing health compelled him to resign. He retired to his native 
Alderley, where he died on the 25th of December of the same 
year. He was twice married and survived all his ten children 
save two. 

As a judge Sir Matthew Hale discharged his duties with 
resolute independence and careful diligence. His sincere piety 
made him the intimate friend of Isaac Barrow, Archbishop 
Tillotson, Bishop Wilkins and Bishop Stillingfleet, as well 
as of the Nonconformist leader, Richard Baxter. He is charge- 
able, however, with the condemnation and execution of two poor 
women tried before him for witchcraft in 1664, a kind of judicial 
murder then falling under disuse. He is also reproached with 
having hastened the execution of a soldier for whom he had 
reason to believe a pardon was preparing. 

Of Hale's legal works the only two of importance are his Historia 
placitorum coronae, or History of the Pleas of the Crown (1736); 
and the History of the Common Law of England, with an Analysis 
of the Law, &c. (1713). Among his numerous religious writings the 
Contemplations, Moral and Divine, occupy the first place. Others are 
The Primitive Origination of Man (1677); Of the Nature of True 
Religion, &c. (1684) ; A Brief Abstract of the Christian Religion (1688). 
One of his most popular works is the collection of Letters of Advice 
to his Children and Grandchildren. He also wrote an Essay touching 
the Gravitation or Nongravitation of Fluid Bodies (1673) ; Difficiles 
Nugae, or Observations touching the Torricellian Experiment, &c. 
('675); and a translation of the Life of Pomponius Atticus, by 
Cornelius Nepos (1677)- His efforts in poetry were inauspicious. 
He left his valuable collection of MSS. and records to the library of 
Lincoln's Inn. His life has been written by G. Burnet (1682); by 
J. B. Williams (1835); by H. Roscoe, in his Lives of Eminent 
Lawyers, in 1838; by Lord Campbell, in his Lives of the Chief 
Justices, in 1849; and by E. Foss in his Lives of the Judges (1848- 
1870). 

HALE, NATHAN (1756-1776), American hero of the War of 
Independence, was born at Coventry, Conn., and educated 

5 



834 



HALE, W. G. HALES, STEPHEN 



at Yale, then becoming a school teacher. He joined a Con- 
necticut regiment after the breaking out of the war, and served 
in the siege of Boston, being commissioned a captain at the 
opening of 1776. When Heath's brigade departed for New York 
he went with them, and the tradition is that he was one of 
a small and daring band who captured an English provision 
sloop from under the very guns of a man-of-war. But on the 
zist of September, having volunteered to enter the British lines to 
obtain information concerning the enemy, he was captured in his 
disguise of a Dutch school-teacher and on the zznd was hanged. 
The penalty was in accordance with military law, but young 
Hale's act was a brave one, and he has always been glorified 
as a martyr. Tradition attributes to him the saying that he 
only regretted that he had but. one life to lose for his country; 
and it is said that his request for a Bible and the services of a 
minister was refused by his captors. There is a fine statue of 
Hale by Macmonnies in New York. 

See H. P. Johnston, Nathan Hale (1901). 

HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER (1840- ), American classical 
scholar, was born on the Qth of February 1849 in Savannah, 
Georgia. He graduated at Harvard University in 1870, and 
took a post-graduate course in philosophy there in 1874-1876; 
studied classical philology at Leipzig and Gottingen in 1876- 
1877; was tutor in Latin at Harvard from 1877 to 1880, and 
professor of Latin in Cornell University from 1880 to 1892, 
when he became professor of Latin and head of the Latin depart- 
ment of the University of Chicago. From 1894 to 1899 he was 
chairman and in 1895-1896 first director of the American School 
of Classical Studies at Rome. He is best known as an original 
teacher on questions of syntax. In The Cum-Construclions: 
Their History and Functions, which appeared in Cornell Uni- 
versity Studies in Classical Philology (1888-1889; an d m 
German version by Neizert in 1891), he attacked Hoffmann's 
distinction between absolute and relative temporal clauses as 
published in Lateinische Zeitpartikeln (1874); Hoffmann replied 
in 1891, and the best summary of the controversy is in Wetzel's 
Der Streit zivischen Hoffmann und Hale (1892). Hale wrote also 
The Sequence of Tenses in Latin (1887-1888), The Anticipatory 
Subjunctive in Greek and Latin (1894), and a Latin Grammar 
(1903), to which the parts on sounds, inflection and word- 
formation were contributed by Carl Darling Buck. 

HALEBID, a village in Mysore state, southern India; pop. 
(1901), 1524. The name means " old capital," being the site of 
Dorasamudra, the capital of the Hoysala dynasty founded early 
in the nth century. In 1310 and again in 1326 it was taken 
and plundered by the first Mahommedan invader of southern 
India. Two temples, still standing, though never completed 
and greatly ruined, are regarded as the finest examples of the 
elaborately carved Chalukyan style of architecture. 

HALES, or HAYLES, JOHN (d. 1571), English writer and 
politician, was a son of Thomas Hales of Hales Place, Halden, 
Kent. He wrote his Highway to Nobility about 1543, and was 
the founder of a free school at Coventry for which he wrote 
Introductiones ad grammaticam. In political life Hales, who was 
member of parliament for Preston, was specially concerned with 
opposing the enclosure of land, being the most active of the 
commissioners appointed in 1548 to redress this evil; but he 
failed to carry several remedial measures through parliament. 
When the protector, the duke of Somerset, was deprived of his 
authority in 1550, Hales left England and lived for some time 
at Strassburg and Frankfort, returning to his own country on 
the accession of Elizabeth. However he soon lost the royal 
favour by writing a pamphlet, A Declaration of the Succession of 
the Crowne Imperiall of Inglande, which declared that the recent 
marriage between Lady Catherine Grey and Edward Seymour, 
earl of Hertford, was legitimate, and asserted that, failing direct 
heirs to Elizabeth, the English crown should come to Lady 
Catherine as the descendant of Mary, daughter of Henry VII. 
The author was imprisoned, but was quickly released, and died 
on the 28th of December 1571. The Discourse of the Common 
Weal, described as " one of the most informing documents 
of the age," and written about 1549, has been attributed 



to Hales. This has been edited by E. Lamond (Cambridge, 

1893)- 

Hales is often confused with another John Hales, who was 
clerk of the hanaper under Henry VIII. and his three immediate 
successors. 

HALES, JOHN (1584-1656), English scholar, frequently 
referred to as " the ever memorable," was born at Bath on the 
igth of April 1584, and was educated at Corpus Christi College, 
Oxford. He was elected a fellow of Merton in 1605, and in 1612 
he was appointed public lecturer on Greek. In 1613 he was 
made a fellow of Eton. Five years later he went to Holland, as 
chaplain to the English ambassador, Sir Dudley Carleton, who 
despatched him to Dort to report upon the proceedings of the 
synod then sitting. In 1619 he returned to Eton and spent his 
time among his books and in the company of literary men, 
among whom he was highly reputed for his common sense, his 
erudition and his genial charity. Andrew Marvell called him 
" one of the clearest heads and best-prepared breasts in Christen- 
dom." His eirenical tract entitled Schism and Schismaticks 
(1636) fell into the hands of Archbishop Laud, and Hales, 
hearing that he had disapproved of it, is said to have, written to 
the prelate a vindication of his position. This led to a meeting, 
and in 1639 Hales .vas made one of Laud's chaplains and also a 
canon of Windsor. In 1642 he was deprived of his canonry by 
the parliamentary committee, and two years later was obliged 
to hide in Eton with the college documents and keys. In 1649 
he refused to take the "Engagement" and was ejected from his 
fellowship. He then retired to Buckinghamshire, where he found 
a home with Mrs Salter, the sister of the bishop of Salisbury 
(Brian Duppa), and acted as tutor to her son. The issue of the 
order against harbouring malignants led him to return to Eton. 
Here, having sold his valuable library at great sacrifice, he lived 
in poverty until his death on the igth of May 1656. 

His collected works (3 vols.) were edited by Lord Hailes, and 
published in 1765. 

HALES, STEPHEN (1677-1761), English physiologist, chemist 
and inventor, was born at Bekesbourne in Kent on the 7th or 
I7th of September 1677, the fifth (or sixth) son of Thomas Hales, 
whose father, Sir Robert Hales, was created a baronet by 
Charles II. in 1670. In June 1696 he was entered as a pensioner 
of Benet (now Corpus Christi) College, Cambridge, with the view 
of taking holy orders, and in February 1703 was admitted to a 
fellowship. He received the degree of master of arts in 1703 
and of bachelor of divinity Li 1711. One of his most intimate 
friends was William Stukeley (1687-1765) with whom he studied 
anatomy, chemistry, &c. In 1708-1709 Hales was presented 
to the perpetual curacy of Teddington in Middlesex, where he 
remained all his life, notwithstanding that he was subsequently 
appointed rector of Porlock in Somerset, and later of Faringdon 
in Hampshire. In 1717 he was elected fellow of the Royal 
Society, which awarded him the Copley medal in 1739. In 1732 
he was named one of a committee for establishing a colony in 
Georgia, and the next year he received the degree of doctor of 
divinity from Oxford. He was appointed almoner to the princess- 
dowager of Wales in 1750. On the death of Sir Hans Sloane in 
1753, Hales was chosen foreign associate of the French Academy 
of Sciences. He died at Teddington on the 4th of January 1761. 

Hales is best known for his Statical Essays. The first volume, 
Vegetable Stalicks (1727), contains an account of numerous 
experiments in plant-physiology the loss of water in plants by 
evaporation, the rate of growth of shoots and leaves, variations 
in root-force at different times of the day, &c. Considering it 
very probable that plants draw " through their leaves some 
part of their nourishment from the air," he undertook experi* 
ments to show in "how great a proportion air is wrought into 
the composition of animal, vegetable and mineral substances "; 
though this " analysis of the air " did not lead him to any 
very clear ideas about the composition of the atmosphere, in the 
course of his inquiries he collected gases over water in vessels 
separate from those in which they were generated, and thus used 
what was to all intents and purposes a " pneumatic trough." The 
second volume (1733) on Haemostalicks, containing experiments 



HALESOWEN HALEVY, L. 



835 



on the " force of the blood " in various animals, its rate of 
flow, the capacity of the different vessels, &c., entitles him to be 
regarded as one of the originators of experimental physiology. 
But he did not confine his attention to abstract inquiries. The 
quest of a solvent for calculus in the bladder and kidneys was 
pursued by him as by others at the period, and he devised a form 
of forceps which, on the testimony of John Ranby (1703-1773), 
sergeant-surgeon to George II., extracted stones with " great 
ase and readiness. ' ' His observations of the evil effect of vitiated 
air caused him to devise a " ventilator " (a modified organ- 
bellows) by which fresh air could be conveyed into gaols, 
hospitals, ships'-holds, &c.; this apparatus was successful in 
reducing the mortality in the Savoy prison, and it was introduced 
into France by the aid of H. L. Duhamel du Monceau. Among 
other things Hales invented a " sea-gauge " for sounding, and 
processes for distilling fresh from sea water, for preserving corn 
from weevils by fumigation with brimstone, and for salting 
animals whole by passing brine into their arteries. His Admoni- 
tion to the Drinkers of Gin, Brandy, &c., published anonymously 
in 1734, has been several times reprinted. 

HALESOWEN, a market town in the Oldbury parliamentary 
division of Worcestershire, England, on a branch line of the 
Great Western and Midland railways, 6J m. W.S.W. of Birming- 
ham. Pop. (1901), 4057. It lies in a pleasant country among 
the eastern foothills of the Lickey Hills. There are extensive 
iron and steel manufactures. The church of SS Mary and John 
the Baptist has rude Norman portions; and the poet William 
Shenstone, buried in 1763 in the churchyard, has a memorial 
in the church. His delight in landscape-gardening is exemplified 
in the neighbouring estate of the Leasowes, which was his 
property. There is a grammar school founded in 1652, and in 
the neighbourhood is the Methodist foundation of Bourne 
College (1883). Close to the town, on the river Stour, which 
rises in the vicinity, are slight ruins of a Premonstratensian abbey 
of Early English date. Within the parish and 2 m. N.W. of 
Halesowen is Cradley, with iron and steel works, fire-clay works 
and a large nail and chain industry. 

HALEVI, JUDAH BEN SAMUEL (c. io&$-c. 1140), the greatest 
Hebrew poet of the middle ages, was born in Toledo c. 1085, 
and died in Palestine after 1 140. In his youth he wrote Hebrew 
love poems of exquisite fancy, and several of his Wedding Odes 
are included in the liturgy of the Synagogue. The mystical 
connexion between marital affection and the love of God had, 
in the view of older exegesis, already expressed itself in the 
scriptural Song of Songs and Judah Halevi used this book as his 
model. In this aspect of his work he found inspiration also in 
Arabic predecessors. The second period of his literary career 
was devoted to more serious pursuits. He wrote a philosophical 
dialogue in five books, called the Cuzari, which has been trans- 
lated into English by Hirschfeld. This book bases itself on the 
historical fact that the Crimean Kingdom of the Khazars adopted 
Judaism, and the Hebrew poet-philosopher describes what he 
conceives to be the steps by which the Khazar king satisfied 
himself as to the claims of Judaism. Like many other medieval 
Jewish authors, Judah Halevi was a physician. His real fame 
depends on his liturgical hymns, which are the finest written in 
Hebrew since the Psalter, and are extensively used in the 
Septardic rite. A striking feature of his thought was his devotion 
to Jerusalem. To the love of the Holy City he devoted his 
noblest genius, and he wrote some memorable Odes to Zion, which 
have been commemorated by Heine, and doubly appreciated 
recently under the impulse of Zionism (q.v.). He started for 
Jerusalem, was in Damascus in 1140, and soon afterwards died. 
Legend has it that he was slain by an Arab horseman just as he 
arrived within sight of what Heine called his " Woebegone poor 
darling, Desolation's very image, Jerusalem." 

Excellent English renderings of some of Judah Halevi's poems 
may be read in Mrs H. Lucas's The Jewish Year, and Mrs K. N. 
Solomon's Songs of Exile. (I. A.) 

HALEVY, JACQUES FRANCOIS FROMENTAL ELIE (1799- 

1862), French composer, was born on the 27th of May 1799, at 
Paris, of a Jewish family. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire 



under Berton and Cherubini, and in 1819 gained the grand prix 
de Rome with his cantata Herminie. In accordance with the 
conditions of his scholarship he started for Rome, where he 
devoted himself to the study of Italian music, and wrote an 
opera and various minor works. In 1827 his opera L' Artisan was 
performed at the Theatre Feydeau in Paris, apparently without 
much success. Other works of minor importance, and now 
forgotten, followed, amongst which Manon Lescaut, a ballet, 
produced in 1 830, deserves mention. In 1 834 the Op6ra-Comique 
produced Ludovic, the score of which had been begun by Heiold 
and had been completed by HaleVy. In 1835 Halevy composed 
the tragic opera La Juive and the comic opera L'clair, and on 
these works his fame is mainly founded. The famous air of 
Eleazar and the anathema of the cardinal in La Juive soon became 
popular all over France. L'dair is a curiosity of musical 
literature. It is written for two tenors and two soprani, without 
a chorus, and displays the composer's mastery over the most 
refined effects of instrumentation and vocalization in a favourable 
light. After these two works he wrote numerous operas of 
various genres, amongst which only La Reine de Chypre, a 
spectacular piece analyzed by Wagner in one of his Paris letters 
(1841), and La Tempesla, in three acts, written for Her Majesty's 
theatre, London (1850), need be mentioned. In addition to his 
productive work Halevy also rendered valuable services as a 
teacher. He was professor at the Conservatoire from 1827 till 
his death some of the most successful amongst the younger 
composers in France, such as Gounod, Victor Masse and Georges 
Bizet, the author of Carmen, being amongst his pupils. He was 
maestro al cembalo at the Th6atre Italien from 1827 to 1829; 
then director of singing at the Opera House in Paris until 1845, 
and in 1836 he succeeded Reicha at the Institut de France. 
Halevy also tried his hand at literature. In 1857 he became 
permanent secretary to the Academic des Beaux Arts, and there 
exists an agreeable volume of Souvenirs et portraits from his pen. 
He died at Nice, on the I7th of March 1862. 

HALEVY, LUDOVIC (1834-1908), French author, was born 
in Paris on the ist of January 1834. His father, Leon Hal6vy 
(1802-1883), was a clever and versatile writer, who tried almost 
every branch of literature prose and verse, vaudeville, drama, 
history without, however, achieving decisive success in any. 
His uncle, J. F. Fromental E. Halevy (q.v.), was for many years 
associated with the op6ra ; hence the double and early connexion 
of Ludovic Halevy with the Parisian stage. At the age of six 
he might have been seen playing in that Foyer de la danse with 
which he was to make his readers so familiar, and, when a boy 
of twelve, he would often, of a Sunday night, on his way back 
to the College Louis le Grand, look in at the Odeon, where he 
had free admittance, and see the first act of the new play. At 
eighteen he joined the ranks of the French administration and 
occupied various posts, the last being that of secretaire-redacteur 
to the Corps Legislatif. In that capacity he enjoyed the special 
favour and friendship of the famous duke of Morny, then pre- 
sident of that assembly. In 1865 Ludovic Halevy's increasing 
popularity as an author enabled him to retire from the public 
service. Ten years earlier he had become acquainted with the 
musician Offenbach, who was about to start a small theatre of 
his own in the Champs Elys6es, and he wrote a sort of prologue, 
Entrez, messieurs, mesdames, for the opening night. Other little 
productions followed, Ba-la-clan being the most noticeable 
among them. They were produced under the pseudonym of 
Jules Servieres. The name of Ludovic Halevy appeared for the 
first time on the bills on the ist of January 1856. Soon after- 
wards the unprecedented run of Orphee aux enfers, a musical 
parody, written in collaboration with Hector Cr6mieux, made 
his name famous. In the spring of 1860 he was commissioned 
to write a play for the manager of the Varifites in conjunction 
with another vaudevillist, Lambert Thiboust. The latter having 
abruptly retired from the collaboration, Hal6vy was at a loss 
how to carry out the contract, when on the steps of the theatre 
he met Henri Meilhac (1831-1897), then comparatively astranger 
to him. He proposed to Meilhac the task rejected by Lambert 
Thiboust, and the proposal was immediately accepted. Thus 



8 3 6 



HALFPENNY HALFWAY COVENANT 



began a connexion which was to last over twenty years, and 
which proved most fruitful both for the reputation of the two 
authors and the prosperity of the minor Paris theatres. Their 
joint works may be divided into three classes: the operettes, 
the farces, the comedies. The operettes afforded excellent 
opportunities to a gifted musician for the display of his peculiar 
humour. They were broad and lively libels against the society 
of the time, but savoured strongly of the vices and follies they 
were supposed to satirize. Amongst the most celebrated works 
of the joint authors were La Belle Hilene (1864), Barbe Bleue 
(1866), La Grande Duchesse de Gerolstein (1867), and La Perichole 
(1868). After 1870 the vogue of Parody rapidly declined. The 
decadence became still more apparent when Offenbach was no 
longer at hand to assist the two authors with his quaint musical 
irony, and when they had to deal with interpreters almost 
destitute of singing powers. They wrote farces of the old type, 
consisting of complicated intrigues, with which they cleverly 
interwove the representation of contemporary whims and social 
oddities. They generally failed when they attempted comedies 
of a more serious character and tried to introduce a higher sort 
of emotion. A solitary exception must be made in the case of 
Frou-frou (1869), which, owing perhaps to the admirable talent 
of Aimee Desclee, remains their unique succes de larmes. 

Meilhac and Halevy will be found at their best in light sketches 
of Parisian life, Les Sonnettes, Le Roi Candaule, Madame attend 
Monsieur, Tola chez Tata. In that intimate association between 
the two men who had met so opportunely on the perron des 
varietes, it was often asked who was the leading partner. The 
question was not answered until the connexion was finally severed 
and they stood before the public, each to answer for his own 
work. It was then apparent that they had many gifts in common. 
Both had wit, humour, observation of character. Meilhac had 
a ready imagination, a rich and whimsical fancy; Halevy had 
taste, refinement and pathos of a certain kind. Not less clever 
than his brilliant comrade, he was more human. Of this he gave 
evidence in two delightful books, Monsieur et Madame Cardinal 
(1873) and Les Petites Cardinal, in which the lowest orders of 
the Parisian middle class are faithfully described. The pompous, 
pedantic, venomous Monsieur Cardinal will long survive as the 
true image of sententious and self-glorifying immorality. M. 
Halevy's peculiar qualities are even more visible in the simple 
and striking scenes of the Invasion, published soon after the 
conclusion of the Franco-German War, in Criquette (1883) and 
L'Abbe Constantin (1882), two novels, the latter of which went 
through innumerable editions. Zola had presented to the public 
an almost exclusive combination of bad men and women; in 
L'Abbe Constantin all are kind and good, and the change was 
eagerly welcomed by the public. Some enthusiasts still main- 
tain that the Abbe will rank permanently in literature by the side 
of the equally chimerical Vicar of Wakefield. At any rate, it 
opened for M. Ludovic Halevy the doors of the French Academy, 
to which he was elected in 1884. 

Halevy remained an assiduous frequenter of the Academy, 
the Conservatoire, the Comedie Franchise, and the Society of 
Dramatic Authors, but, when he died in Paris on the 8th of May 
1908, he had produced practically nothing new for many years. 
His last romance, Kari Kari, appeared in 1892. 

The Theatre of MM. Meilhac and Hale'vy was published in 8 vols. 
(1900-1902). 

HALFPENNY, WILLIAM, English 18th-century architectural 
designer he described himself as " architect and carpenter." 
He was also known as Michael Hoare; but whether his real name 
was William Halfpenny or Michael Hoare is uncertain. His books, 
of which he published a score, deal almost entirely with domestic 
architecture, and especially with country houses in those Gothic 
and Chinese fashions which were so greatly in vogue in the middle 
of the 1 8th century. His most important publications, from the 
point of view of their effect upon taste, were New Designs for 
Chinese Temples, in four parts (1750-1752); Rural Architecture 
in the Gothic Taste (1752); Chinese and Gothic Architecture 
Properly Ornamented (1752); and Rural Architecture in the 
Chinese Taste ( 1 7 50-1 7 5 2) . These four books were produced in 



collaboration with John Halfpenny, who is said to have been his 
son. New Designs for Chinese Temples is a volume of some 
significance in the history of furniture, since, having been pub- 
lished some years before the books of Thomas Chippendale and 
Sir Thomas Chambers, it disproves the statement so often made 
that those designers introduced the Chinese taste into this 
country. Halfpenny states distinctly that " the Chinese manner " 
had been " already introduced here with success." The work 
of the Halfpennys was by no means all contemptible. It is 
sometimes distinctly graceful, but is marked by little originality. 

HALF-TIMBER WORK, an architectural term given to those 
buildings in which the framework is of timber with vertical studs 
and cross pieces filled in between with brickwork, rubble masonry 
or plaster work on oak laths; in the first two, brick nogging or 
nogging are the terms occasionally employed (see CARPENTRY). 
Sometimes the timber structure is raised on a stone or brick 
foundation, as at Ledbury town hall in Herefordshire, where the 
lower storey is open on all sides; but more often it is raised on 
a ground storey, either in brick or stone, and in order to give 
additional size to the upper rooms projects forward, being carried 
on the floor joists. Sometimes the masonry or brickwork rises 
through two or three storeys and the half-brick work is confined 
to the gables. There seems to be some difference of opinion as 
to whether the term applies to the mixture of solid walling with 
the timber structure or to the alternation of wood posts and the 
filling in, but the latter definition is that which is generally 
understood. The half-timber throughout England is of the most 
picturesque description, and the earliest examples date from 
towards the close of the isth century. In the earliest example, 
Newgate House, York (c. 1450), the timber framing is raised 
over the ground floor. The finest specimen is perhaps that of 
Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire (1570), where there is only a stone 
foundation about 12 in. high, and the same applies to Bramall 
Hall, near Manchester, portions of which are very early. Among 
other examples are Speke Hall, Lancashire; Park Hall, Shrop- 
shire (1553-1558); Hall i' th' Wood, Lancashire (1591); St 
Peter's Hospital, Bristol (1607); the Ludlow Feather's Inn 
(1610); many of the streets at Chester and Shrewsbury; the 
Sparrowe's Home, Ipswich; and Staple Inn, Holborn, from 
which in recent years the plaster coat which was put on many 
years ago has been removed, displaying the ancient woodwork. 
A similar fate has overtaken a very large number of half-timber 
buildings to keep out the driving winds; thus in Lewes nearly 
all the half-timbered houses have had slates hung on the timbers, 
others tiles, the greater number having been covered with plaster 
or stucco. Although there are probably many more half-timber 
houses in England than on the continent of Europe, in the north 
of France and in Germany are examples in many of the principal 
towns, and in some cases in better preservation than in England. 
They are also enriched with carving of a purer and better type, 
especially in France; thus at Chartres, Angers, Rouen, Caen, 
Lisieux, Bayeux, St L6 and Beauvais, are many extremely fine 
examples of late Flamboyant and early Transitional examples. 
Again on the borders of the Rhine in all the small towns most of 
the houses are in half-timber work, the best examples being at 
Bacharach, Rhense and Boppart. Far more elaborate examples, 
however, are found in the vicinity of the Harz Mountains; 
the supply of timber from the forests there being very abundant; 
thus at Goslar, Wernigerode and Quedlingburg there is an 
endless variety, as also farther on at Gelnhausen and Hameln, 
the finest series of all being at Hildesheim. In Bavaria at 
Nuremberg, Rothenburg and Dinkelsbiihl, half-timber houses 
dating from the i6th century are still well preserved; and 
throughout Switzerland the houses constructed in timber and 
plaster are the most characteristic features of the country. 

HALFWAY COVENANT, an expedient adopted in the Con- 
gregational churches of New England between 1657 and 1662. 
Under its terms baptized persons of moral life and orthodox 
belief might receive the privilege of baptism for their children and 
other church benefits, without the full enrolment in membership 
which admitted them to the communion of the Lord's Supper. 

See CONGREGATIONALISM: American. 



HALHED HALICARNASSUS 



837 



HALHED, NATHANIEL BRASSEY (1751-1830), English 
Orientalist and philologist, was born at Westminster on the 2$th 
of May 1751. He was educated at Harrow, where he began his 
intimacy with Richard Brinsley Sheridan (see SHERIDAN 
FAMILY) continued after he entered Christ Church, Oxford, 
where, also, he made the acquaintance of Sir William Jones, 
the famous Orientalist, who induced him to study Arabic. 
Accepting a writership in the service of the East India Company, 
Halhed went out to India, and here, at the suggestion of Warren 
Hastings, by whose orders it had been compiled, translated the 
Gentoo code from a Persian version of the original Sanskrit. 
This translation was published in 1776 under the title A Code 
of Gentoo Laws. In 1778 he published a Bengali grammar, to 
print which he set up, at Hugli, the first press in India. It is 
claimed for him that he was the first writer to call attention to 
the philological connexion of Sanskrit with Persian, Arabic, 
Greek and Latin. In 1785 he returned to England, and from 
1790-1795 was M.P. for Lymington, Hants. For some time he 
was a disciple of Richard Brothers (q.v), and his unwise speech 
in parliament in defence of Brothers made it impossible for him 
to remain in the House, from which he resigned in 1795. He 
subsequently obtained a home appointment under the East 
India Company. He died in London on the i8th of February 
1830. 

His collection of Oriental manuscripts was purchased by the 
British Museum, and there is an unfinished translation by him of the 
Mahdbharata in the library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 

HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER (1796-1865), British 
writer, long a judge of Nova Scotia, was born at Windsor, Nova 
Scotia, in 1796, and received his education there, at King's 
College. He was called to the bar in 1820, and became a member 
of the House of Assembly. He distinguished himself as a barrister, 
and in 1828 was promoted to the bench as a chief-justice of 
the common pleas. In 1829 he published An Historical and 
Statistical Account of Nova Scotia. But it is as a brilliant 
humourist and satirist that he is remembered, in connexion 
with his fictitious character " Sam Slick." In 1835 he con- 
tributed anonymously to a local paper a series of letters 
professedly depicting the peculiarities of the genuine Yankee. 
These sketches, which abounded in clever picturings of national 
and individual character, drawn with great satirical humour, 
were collected in 1837, and published under the title of The 
Clock-maker, or Sayings and Doings of Samuel Slick of Slickville. 
A second series followed in 1838, and a third in 1840. The 
Attache, or Sam Slick in England (1843-1844), was the result 
of a visit there in 1841. His other works include: The Old 
Judge, or Life in a Colony (1843); The Letter Bag of the 
Great Western (1839) ; Rule and Misrule of the English in America 
(1851); Traits of American Humour (1852) ; and Nature and 
Human Nature (1855). 

Meanwhile he continued to secure popular esteem in his 
judicial capacity. In 1840 he was promoted to be a judge of the 
supreme court; but within two years he resigned his seat on 
the bench, removed to England, and in 1859 entered parliament 
as the representative of Launceston, in the Conservative interest. 
But the tenure of his seat for Launceston was brought to an end 
by the dissolution of the parliament in 1865, and he did not again 
offer himself to the constituency. He died on the 27th of August 
of the same year, at Gordon House, Isleworth, Middlesex. 

A memoir of Haliburton, by F. Blake Crofton, appeared in 1889. 

HALIBUT, or HOLIBUT (Hippoglossus wdgaris), the largest 
of all flat-fishes, growing to a length of 10 ft. or more, specimens 
of 5 ft. in length and of 100 Ib. in weight being frequently exposed 
for sale in the markets. Indeed, specimens under 2 ft. in length 
are very rarely caught, and singularly enough, no instance is 
known of a very young specimen having been obtained. Small 
ones are commonly called " chicken halibut." The halibut is 
much more frequent in the higher latitudes of the temperate 
zone than in its southern portion; it is a circumpolar species, 
being found on the northern coasts of America, Europe and 
Asia, extending in the Pacific southwards to California. On the 
British coasts it keeps at some distance from the shore, and is 



generally caught in from 50 to 1 50 fathoms. Its flesh is generally 
considered coarse, but it is white and firm, and when properly 
served is excellent for the table. The name is derived from 
" holy " (M.E. holy), and recalls its use for food on holy 
days. 

HALICARNASSUS (mod. Budrum), an ancient Greek city on 
the S.W. coast of Caria, Asia Minor, on a picturesque and 
advantageous site on the Ceramic Gulf or Gulf of Cos. It 
originally occupied only the small island of Zephyria close to the 
shore, now occupied by the great castle of St Peter, built by the 
Knights of Rhodes in 1404; but in course of time this island 
was united to the mainland and the city extended so as to 
incorporate Salmacis, an older town of the Leleges and Carians. 

About the foundation of Halicarnassus various traditions were 
current; but they agree in the main point as to its being a 
Dorian colony, and the figures on its coins, such as the head of 
Medusa, Athena and Poseidon, or the trident, support the 
statement that the mother cities were Troezen and Argos. The 
inhabitants appear to have accepted as their legendary founder 
Anthes, mentioned by Strabo, and were proud of the title of 
Antheadae. At an early period Halicarnassus was a member 
of the Doric Hexapolis, which included Cos, Cnidus, Lindus, 
Camirus and lalysus; but one of the citizens, Agasicles, having 
taken home the prize tripod which he had won in the Triopian 
games instead of dedicating it according to custom to the 
Triopian Apollo, the city was cut off from the league. In the 
early 5th century Halicarnassus was under the sway of Artemisia, 
who made herself famous at the battle of Salamis. Of Pisindalis, 
her son and successor, little is known; but Lygdamis, who next 
attained to power, is notorious for having put to death the poet 
Panyasis and caused Herodotus, the greatest of Halicarnassians, 
to leave his native city (c. 457 B.C.). In the 5th century B.C. 
Halicarnassus and other Dorian cities of Asia were to some 
extent absorbed by the Delian League, but the peace of Antalcidas 
in 387 made them subservient to Persia; and it was under 
Mausolus, a Persian satrap who assumed independent authority, 
that Halicarnassus attained its highest prosperity. Struck by 
the natural strength and beauty of its position, Mausolus removed 
to Halicarnassus from Mylasa, increasing the population of 
the city by the inhabitants of six towns of the Leleges. He was 
succeeded by Artemisia, whose military ability was shown in 
the stratagem by which she captured the Rhodian vessels 
attacking her city, and whose magnificence and taste have been 
perpetuated by the " Mausoleum," the monument she erected 
to her husband's memory (see MAUSOLUS) . One of hersuccessors, 
Pixodarus, tried to ally himself with the rising power of Macedon, 
and is said to have gained the momentary consent of the young 
Alexander to wed his daughter. The marriage, however, was 
forbidden by Philip. Alexander, as soon as he had reduced Ionia, 
summoned Halicarnassus, where Memnon, the paramount satrap 
of Asia Minor, had taken refuge with the Persian fleet, to sur- 
render; and on its refusal took the city after hard fighting and 
devastated it, but not being able to reduce the citadel, was 
forced to leave it blockaded. He handed the government of 
the city back to the family of Mausolus, as represented by Ada, 
sister of the latter. Not long afterwards we find the citizens 
receiving the present of a gymnasium from Ptolemy, and building 
in his honour a stoa or portico; but the city never recovered 
altogether from the disasters of the siege, and Cicero describes 
it as almost deserted. The site is now occupied in part by the 
town of Budrum; but the ancient walls can still be traced round 
nearly all their circuit, and the position of several of the temples, 
the theatre, and other public buildings can be fixed with 
certainty. 

From the ruins of the Mausoleum sufficient has been recovered 
by the excavations carried out in 1857 by C. T. Newton to 
enable a fairly complete restoration of its design to be made. 
The building consisted of five parts a basement or podium, 
a pteron or enclosure of columns, a pyramid, a pedestal and a 
chariot group. The basement, covering an area of 1 14 ft. by 92, 
was built of blocks of greenstone and cased with marble. Round 
the base of it were probably disposed groups of statuary. The 



8 3 8 



HALICZ HALIFAX, IST EARL OF 



pteron consisted (according to Pliny) of thirty-six columns of 
the Ionic order, enclosing a square cella. Between the columns 
probably stood single statues. From the portions that have 
been recovered, it appears that the principal frieze of the pteron 
represented combats of Greeks and Amazons. In addition to 
these, there are also many life-size fragments of animals, horse- 
men, &c., belonging probably to pedimental sculptures, but 
formerly supposed to be parts of minor friezes. Above the 
pteron rose the pyramid, mounting by 24 steps to an apex or 
pedestal. On this apex stood the chariot with the figure of 
Mausolus himself and an attendant. The height of the statue 
of Mausolus in the British Museum is 9 ft. 9! in. without the 
plinth. The hair rising from the forehead falls in thick waves 
on each side of the face and descends nearly to the shoulder; 
the beard is short and close, the face square and massive, the 
eyes deep set under overhanging brows, the mouth well formed 
with settled calm about the lips. The drapery is grandly com- 
posed. All sorts of restorations of this famous monument have 
been proposed. The original one, made by Newton and Pullan, 
is obviously in error in many respects; and that of Oldfield, 
though to be preferred for its lightness (the Mausoleum was said 
anciently to be " suspended in mid-air "), does not satisfy the 
conditions postulated by the remains. The best on the whole is 
that of the veteran German architect, F. Adler, published in 
1900; but fresh studies have since been made (see below). 

See C. T. Newton and R. P. Pullan, History of Discoveries at 
Halicarnassus (1862-1863); J- Fergusson, The Mausoleum at 
Halicarnassus restored (1862); E. Oldfield, "The Mausoleum," in 
Archaeologia (1895); F. Adler, Mausoleum zu Halikarnass (1900); 
J. P. Six in Journ. Hell. Studies (1905); W. B. Dinsmoor, in Amer. 
Journ. of Arch. (1908); J. J. Stevenson, A Restoration of the Mauso- 
leum of Halicarnassus (1909); J. B. K. Preedy, "The Chariot 
Group of the Mausoleum," in Journ. Hell. Stud., 1910. (D. G. H.) 

HALICZ, a town of Austria, in Galicia, 70 m. by rail S.S.E. 
of Lemberg. Pop. (1900), 4809. It is situated at the confluence 
of the Luckow with the Dniester and its principal resources are 
the recovery of salt from the neighbouring brine wells, soap- 
making and the trade in timber. In the neighbourhood are the 
ruins of the old castle, the seat of the ruler of the former kingdom 
from which Galicia derived its Polish name. Halicz, which is 
mentioned in annals as early as 1113, was from 1141 to 1255 the 
residence of the princes of that name, one of the principalities 
into which western Russia was then divided. The town was 
then much larger, as is shown by excavations in the neighbour- 
hood made during the igth century, and probably met its 
doom during the Mongol invasion of 1240. In 1349 it was 
incorporated in the kingdom of Poland. 

HALIFAX, CHARLES MONTAGUE, EARL OF (1661-1715), 
English statesman and poet, fourth son of the Hon. George 
Montague, fifth son of the first earl of Manchester, was born at 
Horton, Northamptonshire, on the i6th of April 1661. In his 
fourteenth year he was sent to Westminster school, where he 
was chosen king's scholar in 1677, and distinguished himself 
in the composition of extempore epigrams made according to 
custom upon theses appointed for king's scholars at the time of 
election. In 1679 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where 
he acquired a solid knowledge of the classics and surpassed all 
his contemporaries at the university in logic and ethics. Latterly, 
however, he preferred to the abstractions of Descartes the 
practical philosophy of Sir Isaac Newton; and he was one of 
the small band of students who assisted Newton in forming the 
Philosophical Society of Cambridge. But it was his facility in 
verse-writing, and neither his scholarship nor his practical 
ability, that first opened up to him the way to fortune. His 
clever but absurdly panegyrical poem on the death of Charles II. 
secured for him the notice of the earl of Dorset, who invited him 
to town and introduced him to the principal wits of the time; 
and in 1687 his joint authorship with Prior of the Hind and 
Panther transversed to the Story of the Country Mouse and the 
City Mouse, a parody of Dryden's political poem, not only 
increased his literary reputation but directly helped him to 
political influence. 

In 1689, through the patronage of the earl of Dorset, he entered 



parliament as member for Maldon, and sat in the convention 
which resolved that William and Mary should be "declared king 
and queen of England. About this time he married the countess- 
dowager of Manchester, and it would appear, according to 
Johnson, that it was still his intention to take orders; but after 
the coronation he purchased a clerkship to the council. On 
being introduced by Earl Dorset to King William, after the 
publication of his poetical Epistle occasioned by his Majesty's 
Victory in Ireland, he was ordered to receive an immediate 
pension of 500 per annum, until an opportunity should present 
itself of " making a man of him." In 1691 he was chosen 
chairman of the committee of the House of Commons appointed 
to confer with a committee of the Lords in regard to the-bill for 
regulating trials in cases of high treason; and he displayed in 
these conferences such tact and debating power that he was 
made one of the commissioners of the treasury and called to the 
privy council. But his success as a politician was less due to 
his oratorical gifts than to his skill in finance, and in this respect 
he soon began to manifest such brilliant talents as completely 
eclipsed the painstaking abilities of Godolphin. Indeed it may 
be affirmed that no other statesman has initiated schemes which 
have left a more permanent mark on the financial history of 
England. Although perhaps it was inevitable that England 
should sooner or later adopt the continental custom of lightening 
the annual taxation in times of war by contracting a national 
debt, the actual introduction of the expedient was due to 
Montague, who on the isth of December 1692 proposed to raise 
a million of money by way of loan. Previous to this the Scotsman 
William Paterson (q.v.) had submitted to the government his 
plan of a national bank, and when in the spring of 1694 the 
prolonged contest with France had rendered another large 
loan absolutely necessary, Montague introduced a bill for the 
incorporation of the Bank of England. The bill after some 
opposition passed the House of Lords in May, and immediately 
after the prorogation of parliament Montague was rewarded by 
the chancellorship of the exchequer. In 1695 he was trium- 
phantly returned for the borough of Westminster to the new 
parliament, and succeeded in passing his celebrated measure 
to remedy the depreciation which had taken place in the currency 
on account of dishonest manipulations. To provide for the 
expense of recoinage, Montague, instead of reviving the old tax 
of hearth money, introduced the window tax, and the difficulties 
caused by the temporary absence of a metallic currency were 
avoided by the issue for the first time of exchequer bills. His 
other expedients for meeting the emergencies of the financial 
crisis were equally successful, and the rapid restoration of public 
credit secured him a commanding influence both in the House 
of Commons and at the board of the treasury; but although 
Godolphin resigned office in October 1696, the king hesitated 
for some time between Montague and Sir Stephen Fox as his 
successor, and it was not till 1697 that the former was appointed 
first lord. In 1697 he was accused by Charles Duncombe, and 
in 1698 by a Col. Granville, of fraud, but both charges broke 
down, and Duncombe was shown to have been guilty of extreme 
dishonesty himself. In 1698 and 1699 he acted as one of the 
council of regency during the king's absence from England. 
With the accumulation of his political successes his vanity and 
arrogance became, however, so offensive that latterly they 
utterly lost him the influence he had acquired by his adminis- 
trative ability and his masterly eloquence; and when his power 
began to be on the wane he set the seal to his political overthrow 
by conferring the lucrative sinecure office of auditor of the 
exchequer on his brother in trust for himself should he be 
compelled to retire from power. This action earned him the 
offensive nickname of " Filcher," and for some time afterwards, 
in attempting to lead the House of Commons, he had to submit 
to constant mortifications, often verging on personal insults. 
After the return of the king in 1699 he resigned his offices in the 
government and succeeded his brother in the auditorship. 

On the accession of the Tories to power he was removed in 
1701 to the House of Lords by the title of Lord Halifax. In the 
same year he was impeached for malpractices along with Lord 



HALIFAX, 2ND EARL HALIFAX, IST MARQUESS 



839 



Somers and the earls of Portland and Oxford, but all the charges 
were dismissed by the Lords; and in 1703 a second attempt 
to impeach him was still more unsuccessful. He continued out of 
office during the reign of Queen Anne, but in 1706 he was named 
one of the commissioners to negotiate the union with Scotland; 
and after the passing of the Act of Settlement in favour of the 
house of Hanover, he was appointed ambassador to the elector's 
court to convey the insignia of order of the garter to George I. 
On the death of Anne (1714) he was appointed one of the council 
of regency until the arrival of the king from Hanover; and after 
the coronation he received the office of first lord of the treasury 
in the new ministry, being at the same time created earl of 
Halifax and Viscount Sunbury. Hediedonthe ipthof May 1715 
and left no issue. He was buried in the vault of the Albemarle 
family in Westminster Abbey. His nephew George (d. 1739) 
succeeded to the barony, and was created Viscount Sunbury 
and earl of Halifax in 1715. 

Montague's association with Prior in the travesty of Dryden's 
Hind and Panther has no doubt largely aided in preserving his 
literary reputation; but he is perhaps indebted for it chiefly 
to his subsequent influential position and to the fulsome flattery 
of the men of letters who enjoyed his friendship, and who, in 
return for his liberal donations and the splendid banqueting 
which they occasionally enjoyed at his villa on the Thames, 
" fed him," as Pope says, " all day long with dedications." 
Swift says he gave them nothing but " good words, and good 
dinners." That, however, his beneficence to needy talent, if 
sometimes attributable to an itching ear for adulation, was at 
others prompted by a sincere appreciation of intellectual merit, 
is sufficiently attested by the manner in which he procured from 
Godolphin a commissionership for Addison, and also by his 
life-long intimacy with Newton, for whom he obtained the 
mastership of the mint. The small fragments of poetry which 
he left behind him, and which were almost solely the composition 
of his early years, display a certain facility and vigour of diction, 
but their thought and fancy are never more than commonplace, 
and not unfrequently in striving to be eloquent and impressive 
he is only grotesquely and extravagantly absurd. In adminis- 
trative talent he was the superior of all his contemporaries, 
and his only rival in parliamentary eloquence was Somers; 
but the skill with which he managed measures was superior 
to his tact in dealing with men, and the effect of his brilliant 
financial successes on his reputation was gradually almost 
nullified by the affected arrogance of his manner and by the 
eccentricities of his sensitive vanity. So eager latterly was his 
thirst for fame and power that perhaps Maryborough did not 
exaggerate when he said that " he had no other principle but 
his ambition, so that he would put all in distraction rather than 
not gain his point." 

Among the numerous notices of Halifax by contemporaries may 
be mentioned the eulogistic reference which concludes Addison's 
account of the "greatest of English poets"; the dedications by 
Steel to the second volume of the Spectator and to the fourth of the 
Tatter; Pope's laudatory mention of him in the epilogue to his 
Satires and in the preface to the Iliad, and his portrait of him as 
" Full-blown Bufo in the Epistle to Arbuthnot. Various allusions 
to him are to be found in Swift's works and in Marlborough's Letters. 
See also Burnet's History of his Own Times; The Parliamentary 
History; Howell's State Trials; Johnson's Lives of the Poets; and 
Macaulay's History of England. His Miscellaneous Works were 
published at London in 1704; his Life and Miscellaneous Works in 
1715; and his Poetical Works, to which also his " Life " is attached, 
in 1716. His poems were reprinted in the gth volume of Johnson's 
English Poets. 

HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK, 2ND EARL OF (1716- 
1771), son of George Montagu, ist earl of Halifax (of the second 
creation), was born on the sth or 6th of October 1716, becoming 
earl of Halifax on his father's death in 1 739. Educated at Eton 
and at Trinity College, Cambridge, he was married in 1741 to 
Anne Richards (d. 1753), a lady who had inherited a great 
fortune from Sir Thomas Dunk, whose name was taken by 
Halifax. After having been an official in the household of 
Frederick, prince of Wales, the earl was made master of the buck- 
hounds, and in 1748 he became president of the Board of Trade. 



While filling this position he helped to found Halifax, the capital 
of Nova Scotia, which was named after him, and in several 
ways he rendered good service to trade, especially with North 
America. About this time he sought to became a secretary of 
state, but in vain, although he was allowed to enter the cabinet 
in 1757. In March 1761 Halifax was appointed lord-lieutenant 
of Ireland, and during part of the time which he held this office 
he was also first lord of the admiralty. He became secretary 
of state for the northern department under the earl of Bute in 
October 1762, retaining this post under George Grenville and 
being one of the three ministers to whom George III. entrusted 
the direction of affairs. He signed the general warrant under 
which Wilkes was arrested in 1763, for which action he was 
mulcted in damages by the courts of law in 1769, and he was 
mainly responsible for the exclusion of the name of the king's 
mother, Augusta, princess of Wales, from the Regency Bill of 
1765. With his colleagues the earl left office in July 1765, 
returning to the cabinet as lord privy seal under his nephew, 
Lord North, in January 1770. He had just been transferred to 
his former position of secretary of state when he died on the Sth 
of June 1771. Halifax, who was lord-lieutenant of Northamp- 
tonshire and a lieutenant-general in the army, showed some 
disinterestedness in money matters, but was very extravagant. 
He left no children, and his titles became extinct on his death 
Horace Walpole speaks slightingly of the earl, and says he and 
his mistress, Mary Anne Faulkner, " had sold every employment 
in his gift." 

See the Memoirs of his secretary, Richard Cumberland (1807). 

HALIFAX, GEORGE SAVILE, IST MARQUESS OF (1633-1695), 
English statesman and writer, great-grandson of Sir George 
Savile of Lupset and Thornhill in Yorkshire (created baronet 
in 1611), was the eldest son of Sir William Savile, 3rd baronet, 
who distinguished himself in the civil war in the royalist cause 
and who died in 1644, and of Anne, eldest daughter of Lord 
Keeper Coventry. He was thus nephew of Sir William Coventry, 
who is said to have influenced his political opinions, and of 
Lord Shaftesbury, afterwards his most bitter opponent, and 
great-nephew of the earl of Strafford; by his marriage with 
the Lady Dorothy Spencer, he was brother-in-law to Lord 
Sunderland. He entered public life with all the advantages of 
lineage, political connexions, great wealth and estates, and 
uncommon abilities. He was elected member of the Convention 
parliament for Pontefract in 1660, and this was his only appear- 
ance in the Lower House. A peerage was sought for him by the 
duke of York in 1665, but was successfully opposed by Clarendon, 
on the ground of his " ill-reputation amongst men of piety and 
religion," the real motives of the chancellor's hostile attitude 
being probably Savile's connexion with Buckingham and 
Coventry. The honours were, however, only deferred for a short 
time and were obtained after the fall of Clarendon on the 3ist 
of December 1667,* when Savile was created Baron Savile of 
Eland and Viscount Halifax. 

He supported zealously the anti-French policy formulated in 
the Triple Alliance of January 1668. He was at this time in 
favour at court, was created a privy councillor in 1672, and, 
while ignorant of the disgraceful secret clauses in the treaty of 
Dover, was chosen envoy to negotiate terms of peace with Louis 
XIV. and the Dutch at Utrecht. His mission was still further 
deprived of importance by Arlington and Buckingham, who 
were in the king's counsels, and who anticipated his arrival and 
took the negotiations out of his hands; and though he signed 
the compact, he had no share in the harsh terms imposed upon 
the Dutch, and henceforth became a bitter opponent of the 
policy of subservience to French interests and of the Roman 
Catholic claims. 

He took an active part in passing through parliament the 
great Test Act of 1673' and forfeited in consequence his friend- 
ship with James. In 1674 he brought forward a motion for 

1 Cal. State Papers, Dom. (Nov. i667-Sep. 1668), p. 106. 

1 Lords' Journals, 12, p. 567; Savile Correspondence, ed. by W. D.. 
Cooper, p. 136; " Character of a Trimmer," in Life of Sir G. Savile, 
by H. C. Foxcroft, ii. 316. 



840 



HALIFAX, IST MARQUESS 



disarming " popish recusants," and supported one by Lord 
Carlisle for restricting the marriages in the royal family to 
Protestants; but he opposed the bill introduced by Lord Danby 
(see LEEDS, IST DUKE OF) in 1675, which imposed a test oath 
on officials and members of parliament, speaking " with that 
quickness, learning and elegance that are inseparable from all 
his discourses," and ridiculing the multiplication of oaths, since 
" no man would ever sleep with open doors . . . should all 
the town be sworn not to rob." He was now on bad terms with 
Danby, and a witty sally at that minister's expense caused his 
dismissal from the council in January 1676. In 1678 he took 
an active part in the investigation of the "Popish Plot," to 
which he appears to have given excessive credence, but opposed 
the bill which was passed on the 3oth of October 1678, to exclude 
Roman Catholics from the House of Lords. 

In 1679, as a consequence of the fall of Danby, he became a 
member of the newly constituted privy council. With Charles, 
who had at first " kicked at his appointment," he quickly became 
a favourite, his lively and " libertine " (i.e. free or sceptical) 
conversation being named by Bishop Burnet as his chief attrac- 
tion for the king. His dislike of the duke of York and of the 
Romanist tendencies of the court did not induce him to support 
the rash attempt of Lord Shaftesbury to substitute the illegiti- 
mate duke of Monmouth for James in the succession. He feared 
Shaftesbury's ascendancy in the national councils and foresaw 
nothing but civil war and confusion as a result of his scheme. 
He declared against the exclusion of James, was made an earl 
in 1679, and was one of the " Triumvirate " which now directed 
public affairs. He assisted in passing into law the Habeas 
Corpus Bill. According to Sir. W. Temple he showed great 
severity in putting into force the laws against the Roman 
Catholics, but this statement is considered a misrepresentation. 1 
In 1680 he voted against the execution of Lord Stafford. 

Meanwhile (1679) his whole policy had been successfully 
directed towards uniting all parties with the object of frustrating 
Shaftesbury's plans. Communications were opened with the 
prince of Orange, and the illness of the king was made the 
occasion for summoning James from Brussels. Monmouth was 
compelled to retire to Holland, and Shaftesbury was dismissed. 
On the other hand, while Halifax was so far successful, James 
was given an opportunity of establishing a new influence at the 
court. It was with great difficulty that his retirement to Scotland 
was at last effected; the ministers lost the confidence and 
support of the " country party," and Halifax, fatigued and ill, 
at the close of this year, retired to Rufford Abbey, the country 
home of the Saviles since the destruction of Thornhill Hall in 
1648, and for some time took little part in affairs. He returned in 
September 1680 on the occasion of the introduction of the 
Exclusion Bill in the Lords. The debate which followed, one 
of the most famous in the whole annals of parliament, became a 
duel of oratory between Halifax and his uncle Shaftesbury, the 
finest two speakers of the day, watched by the Lords, the 
Commons at the bar, and the king, who was present. It lasted 
seven hours. Halifax spoke sixteen times, and at last, regardless 
of the menaces of the more violent supporters of the bill, who 
closed round him, vanquished his opponent. The rejection of 
the bill by a majority of 33 was attributed by all parties entirely 
to the eloquence of Halifax. His conduct transformed the 
allegiance to him of the Whigs into bitter hostility, the Ccmmons 
immediately petitioning the king to remove him from his councils 
for ever, while any favour which he might have regained with 
James was forfeited by his subsequent approval of the regency 
scheme. 

He retired to Rufford again in January 1681, but was present 
at the Oxford parliament, and in May returned suddenly to 
public life and held for a year the chief control of affairs. The 
arrest of Shaftesbury on the 2nd of July was attributed to his 
influence, but in general, during the period of Tory reaction, 
he seems to have urged a policy of conciliation and moderation 
upon the king. He opposed James's return from Scotland and, 
about this time (Sept.), made a characteristic but futile attempt 

1 Foxcroft i. 160, where Hallam is quoted to this effect. 



to persuade the duke to attend the services of the Church of 
England and thus to end all difficulties. He renewed relations 
with the prince of Orange, who in July paid a visit to England 
to seek support against the French designs upon Luxemburg. 
The influence of Halifax procured for the Dutch a formal 
assurance from Charles of his support; but the king informed 
the French ambassador that he had no intention of fulfilling 
his engagements, and made another secret treaty with Louis. 
Halifax opposed in 1682 James's vindictive prosecution of the 
earl of Argyll, arousing further hostility in the duke, while the 
same year he was challenged to a duel by Monmouth, who 
attributed to him his disgrace. 

His short tenure of power ended with the return of James in 
May. Outwardly he still retained the king's favour and was 
advanced to a marquisate (Aug. 17) and to the office of 
lord privy seal (Oct. 25). Being still a member of the 
administration he must share responsibility for the attack now 
made upon the municipal franchises, a violation of the whole 
system of representative government, especially as the new 
charters passed his office. In January 1684 he was one of the 
commissioners " who supervise all things concerning the city 
and have turned out those persons who are whiggishly inclined " 
(N. Luttrell's Diary, i. 295). He made honourable but vain 
endeavours to save Algernon Sidney and Lord Russell. " My 
Lord Halifax," declared Tillotson in his evidence before the 
later inquiry, " showed a very compassionate concern for my 
Lord Russell and all the readiness to serve them that could be 
wished." 2 The Rye-House Plot, in which it was sought to 
implicate them, was a disastrous blow to his policy, and in 
order to counteract its consequences he entered into somewhat 
perilous negotiations with Monmouth, and endeavoured to 
effect his reconciliation with the king. On the 1 2th of February 
1684, he procured the release of his old antagonist, Lord Danby. 
Shortly afterwards his influence at the court revived. Charles 
was no longer in receipt of his French pension and was beginning 
to tire of James and Rochester. The latter, instead of becoming 
lord treasurer, was, according to the epigram of Halifax which 
has become proverbial, " kicked upstairs," to the office of lord 
president of the council. Halifax now worked to establish 
intimate relations between Charles and the prince of Orange and 
opposed the abrogation of the recusancy laws. In a debate in 
the cabinet of November 1684, on the question of the grant of 
a fresh constitution to the New England colonies, he urged with 
great warmth " that there could be no doubt whatever but that 
the same laws which are in force in England should also be 
established in a country inhabited by Englishmen and that an 
absolute government is neither so happy nor so safe as that 
which is tempered by laws and which sets bounds to the authority 
of the prince," and declared that he could not " live under a king 
who should have it in his power to take, whenever he thought 
proper, the money he has in his pocket." The opinions thus 
expressed were opposed by all the other ministers and highly 
censured by Louis XIV., James and Judge Jeffreys. 

At the accession of James he was immediately deprived of all 
power and relegated to the presidency of the council. He showed 
no compliance, like other Lords, with James's Roman Catholic 
preferences. He was opposed to the parliamentary grant to the 
king of a revenue for life; he promoted the treaty of alliance 
with the Dutch in August 1685; he expostulated with the king 
on the subject of the illegal commissions in the army given to 
Roman Catholics; and finally, on his firm refusal to support the 
repeal of the Test and Habeas Corpus Acts, he was dismissed, 
and his name was struck out of the list of the privy council 
(Oct. 1685). He corresponded with the prince of Orange, 
conferred with Dykveldt, the latter's envoy, but held aloof 
from plans which aimed at the prince's personal interference in 
English affairs. In 1687 he published the famous Letter to a 
Dissenter, in which he warns the Nonconformists against being 
beguiled by the " Indulgence " into joining the court party, 
sets in a clear light the fatal results of such a step, and reminds 
them that under their next sovereign their grievances would in 

2 Hist. MSS. Comm. House of Lords MSS. 1689-1690, p. 287. 



HALIFAX, IST MARQUESS 



841 



all probability be satisfied by the law. The tract, which has 
received general and unqualified admiration, must be classed 
amongst the few known writings which have actually and 
immediately altered the course of history. Copies to the number 
of 20,000 were circulated through the kingdom, and a great party 
was convinced of the wisdom of remaining faithful to the national 
traditions and liberties. He took the popular side on the occasion 
of the trial of the bishops in June 1688, visited them in the 
Tower, and led the cheers with which the verdict of " not guilty " 
was received in court; but the same month he refrained from 
signing the invitation to William, and publicly repudiated any 
share in the prince's plans. On the contrary he attended the 
court and refused any credence to the report that the prince born 
to James was supposititious. After the landing of William he 
was present at the council called by James on the 27th of 
November. He urged the king to grant large concessions, but 
his speech, in contrast to the harsh and Overbearing attitude 
of the Hydes, was "the most tender and obliging . .'. that 
ever was heard." He accepted the mission with Nottingham 
and Godolphin to treat with William at Hungerford, and 
succeeded in obtaining moderate terms from the prince. The 
negotiations, however, were abortive, for James had from the 
first resolved on flight. In the crisis which ensued, when the 
country was left without a government, Halifax took the lead. 
He presided over the council of Lords which assembled and took 
immediate measures to maintain public order. On the return 
of James to London on the i6th of November, after his capture 
at Faversham, Halifax repaired to William's camp and hence- 
forth attached himself unremittingly to his cause. On the 
1 7th he carried with Lords Delamere and Shrewsbury a message 
from William to the king advising his departure from London, 
and, after the king's second flight, directed the proceedings of 
the executive. On the meeting of the convention on the 22nd 
of January 1689, he was formally elected speaker of the House 
of Lords. He voted against the motion for a regency (Jan. 
20), which was only defeated by two votes. The moderate 
and comprehensive character of the settlement at the revolution 
plainly shows his guiding hand, and it was finally through his 
persuasion that the Lords yielded to the Commons and agreed 
to the compromise whereby William and Mary were declared 
joint sovereigns. On the i3th of February in the Banqueting 
House at Whitehall, he tendered the crown to them in the name 
of the nation, and conducted the proclamation of their accession 
in the city. 

At the opening of the new reign he had considerable influence, 
was made lord privy seal, while Danby his rival was obliged to 
content himself with the presidency of the council, and con- 
trolled the appointments to the new cabinet which were made on 
a " trimming " or comprehensive basis. His views on religious 
toleration were as wide as those of the new king. He championed 
the claims of the Nonconformists as against the high or rigid 
Church party, and he was bitterly disappointed at the miscarriage 
of th Comprehension Bill. He thoroughly approved also at 
first of William's foreign policy; but, having excited the hostility 
of both the Whig and Tory parties, he now became exposed to 
a series of attacks in parliament which finally drove him from 
power. He was severely censured, as it seems quite unjustly, 
for the disorder in Ireland, and an attempt was made to impeach 
him for his conduct with regard to the sentences on the Whig 
leaders. The inquiry resulted in his favour; but notwithstand- 
ing, and in spite of the king's continued support, he determined 
to retire. He had already resigned the speakership of the House 
of Lords, and he now (Feb. 8, 1690) quitted his place in 
the cabinet. He still nominally retained his seat in the privy 
council, but in parliament he became a bitter critic of the 
administration; and the rivalry of Halifax (the Black Marquess) 
with Danby, now marquess of Carmarthen (the White Marquess) 
threw the former at this time into determined opposition. He 
disapproved of William's total absorption in European politics, 
and his open partiality for his countrymen. In January 1691 
Halifax had an interview with Henry Bulkeley, the Jacobite 
agent, and is said to have promised " to do everything that lay 



in his power to serve the king." This was probably merely 
a measure of precaution, for he had no serious Jacobite leanings. 
He entered bail for Lord Marlborough, accused wrongfully of 
complicity in a Jacobite plot in May 1692, and in June, during 
the absence of the king from England, his name was struck off 
the privy council. 

He spoke in favour of the Triennial Bill (Jan. 12, 1693) which 
passed the legislature but was vetoed by William, suggested 
a proviso in the Licensing Act, which restricted its operation 
to anonymous works, approved the Place Bill (1694), but 
opposed, probably on account of the large sums he had engaged 
in the traffic of annuities, the establishment of the bank of 
England in 1694. Early in 1695 he delivered a strong attack 
on the administration in the House of Lords, and, after a short 
illness arising from a neglected complaint, he died on the sth of 
April at the age of sixty-one. He was buried in Henry VII. 's 
chapel in Westminster Abbey. 

The influence of Halifax, both as orator and as writer, on 
the public opinion of his day was probably unrivalled. His in- 
tellectual powers, his high character, his urbanity, vivacity and 
satirical humour made a great impression on his contemporaries, 
and many of his witty sayings have been recorded. But the 
superiority of his statesmanship could not be appreciated till 
later times. Maintaining throughout his career a complete 
detachment from party, he never acted permanently or con- 
tinuously with either of the two great factions, and exasperated 
both in turn by deserting their cause at the moment when their 
hopes seemed on the point of realization. To them he appeared 
weak, inconstant, untrustworthy. They could not see what to 
us now is plain and clear, that Halifax was as consistent in his 
principles as the most rabid Whig or Tory. But the principle 
which chiefly influenced his political action, that of compromise, 
differed essentially from those of both parties, and his attitude 
with regard to the Whigs or Tories was thus by necessity con- 
tinually changing. Measures, too, which in certain circumstances 
appeared to him advisable, when the political scene had changed 
became unwise or dangerous. Thus the regency scheme, which 
Halifax had supported while Charles still reigned, was opposed 
by him with perfect consistency at the revolution. He readily 
accepted for himself the character of a " trimmer," desiring, he 
said, to keep the boat steady, while others attempted to weigh 
it down perilously on one side or the other; and he concluded 
his tract with these assertions: " that our climate is a Trimmer 
between that part of the world where men are roasted and the 
other where they are frozen; that our Church is a Trimmer 
between the frenzy of fanatic visions and the lethargic ignorance 
of Popish dreams; that our laws are Trimmers between the 
excesses of unbounded power and the extravagance of liberty 
not enough restrained; that true virtue hath ever been thought 
a Trimmer, and to have its dwelling in the middle between two 
extremes; that even God Almighty Himself is divided between 
His two great attributes, His Mercy and His Justice. In such 
company, our Trimmer is not ashamed of his name. . . ."* 

His powerful mind enabled him to regard the various political 
problems of his time from a height and from a point of view 
similar to that from which distance from the events enables us 
to consider them at the present day; and the superiority of his 
vision appears sufficiently from the fact that his opinions and 
judgments on the political questions of his time are those which 
for the most part have ultimately triumphed and found general 
acceptance. His attitude of mind was curiously modern. 1 
Reading, writing and arithmetic, he thinks, should be taught to 
all and at the expense of the state. His opinions again on the 
constitutional relations of the colonies to the mother country, 
already cited, were completely opposed to those of his own 
period. For that view of his character which while allowing him 
the merit of a brilliant political theorist denies him the qualities 
of a man of action and of a practical politician, there is no solid 
basis. The truth is that while his political ideas are founded 
upon great moral or philosophical generalizations, often vividly 

1 Character of a Trimmer, conclusion. 
* Saviliana quoted by Foxcroft i. 115. 



842 



HALIFAX, IST MARQUESS 



recalling and sometimes anticipating the broad conceptions of 
Burke, they are at the same time imbued with precisely those 
practical qualities which have ever been characteristic of English 
statesmenship, and were always capable of application to actual 
conditions. He was no star-gazing philosopher, with thoughts 
superior to the contemplation of mundane affairs. He had no 
taste for abstract political dogma. He seems to venture no 
further than to think that " men should live in some competent 
state of freedom," and that the limited monarchical and 
aristocratic government was the best adapted for his country. 
" Circumstances," he writes in the Rough Draft of a New Model 
at Sea, " must come in and are to be made a part of the matter 
of which we are to judge; positive decisions are always dangerous, 
more especially in politics." Nor was he the mere literary 
student buried in books and in contemplative ease. He had 
none of the " indecisiveness which commonly renders literary 
men of no use in the world " (Sir John Dalrymple). The incidents 
of his career show that there was no backwardness or hesitation 
in acting when occasion required. The constant tendency of 
his mind towards antithesis and the balancing of opinions did 
not lead to paralysis in time of action. He did not shrink from 
responsibility, nor show on any occasion lack of courage. At 
various times of crisis he proved himself a great leader. He 
returned to public life to defeat the Exclusion Bill. At the 
revolution it was Halifax who seized the reins of government, 
flung away by James, and maintained public security. His 
subsequent failure in collaborating with William is, it is true, 
disappointing. But the cause was one that has not perhaps 
received sufficient attention. Party government had come to 
the birth during the struggles over the Exclusion Bill, and there 
had been unconsciously introduced into politics a novel element 
of which the nature and importance were not understood or 
suspected. Halifax had consistently ignored and neglected 
party; and it now had its revenge. Detested by the Whigs and 
by the Tories alike, and defended by neither, the favour alone of 
the king and his own transcendent abilities proved insufficient 
to withstand the constant and violent attacks made upon him 
in parliament, and he yielded to the superior force. He seems 
indeed himself to have been at last convinced of the necessity 
in English political life of party government, for though in his 
Cautions to electors he warns them against men " tied to a 
party," yet in his last words he declares " If there are two parties 
a man ought to adhere to that which he disliked least though in 
the whole he doth not approve it; for whilst he doth not list 
himself in one or the other party, he is looked upon as such a 
straggler that he is fallen upon by both. . . . Happy those that 
are convinced so as to be of the general opinions " (Political 
Thoughts and Reflections of Parties). 

The private character of Lord Halifax was in harmony with 
the greatness of his public career. He was by no means the 
" voluptuary " described by Macaulay. He was on the contrary 
free from self-indulgence; his manner of life was decent and 
frugal, and his dress proverbially simple. He was an affectionate 
father and husband. " His heart," says Burnet (i. 492-493, 
ed. 1833), " was much set on raising his family " his last concern 
even while on his deathbed was the remarriage of his son 
Lord Eland to perpetuate his name; and this is probably the 
cause of his acceptance of so many titles for which he himself 
affected a philosophical indifference. He was estimable in his 
social relations and habits. He showed throughout his career 
an honourable independence, and was never seen to worship the 
rising sun. In a period when even great men stooped to accept 
bribes, Halifax was known to be incorruptible; at a time when 
animosities were especially bitter, he was too great a man to 
harbour resentments. " Not only from policy," says Reresby 
(Mem. p. 231), " (which teaches that we ought to let no man 
be our enemy when we can help it), but from his disposition I 
never saw any man more ready to forgive than himself." Few 
were insensible to his personal charm and gaiety. He excelled 
especially in quick repartee, in " exquisite nonsense," and in 
spontaneous humour. When quite a young man, just entering 
upon political life he is described by Evelyn as " a witty gentle- 



man, if not a little too prompt and daring." The latter cha- 
racteristic was not moderated by time but remained through life. 
He was incapable of controlling his spirit of raillery, from jests 
on Siamese missionaries to sarcasms at the expense of the heir 
to the throne and ridicule of hereditary monarchy, and his 
brilliant parodoxes, his pungent and often profane epigrams 
were received by graver persons as his real opinions and as 
evidences of atheism. This latter charge he repudiated, assuring 
Burnet that he was " a Christian in submission," but that he 
could not digest iron like an ostrich nor swallow all that the 
divines sought to impose upon the world. 

The speeches of Halifax have not been preserved, and his 
political writings on this account have all the greater value. 
The Character of a Trimmer (1684 or 1685), the authorship of 
which, long doubtful, is now established, 1 was his most ambitious 
production, written seemingly as advice to the king and as a 
manifesto of his own opinions. In it he discusses the political 
problems of the time and their solution on broad principles. 
He supports the Test Act and, while opposing the Indulgence, 
is not hostile to the repeal of the penal laws against the Roman 
Catholics by parliament. Turning to foreign affairs he contem- 
plates with consternation the growing power of France and the 
humiliation of England, exclaiming indignantly at the sight of 
the " Roses blasted and discoloured while lilies triumph and 
grow insolent upon the comparison." The whole is a masterly 
and comprehensive summary of the actual political situation and 
its exigencies; while, when he treats such themes as liberty, 
or discusses the balance to be maintained between freedom and 
government in the. constitution, he rises to the political idealism 
of Bolingbroke and Burke. The Character of King Charles II. 
(printed 1750), to be compared with his earlier sketch of the king 
in the Character of a Trimmer, is perhaps from the literary point 
of view the most admirable of his writings. The famous Letter 
to a Dissenter (1687) was thought by Sir James Mackintosh to 
be unrivalled as a political pamphlet. The Lady's New Year's 
Gift: or Advice to a Daughter, refers to his daughter Elizabeth, 
afterwards wife of the 3rd and mother of the celebrated 4th earl 
of Chesterfield (1688). In The Anatomy of an Equivalent (1688) 
he treats with keen wit and power of analysis the proposal to 
grant a " perpetual edict " in favour of the Established Church 
in return for the repeal of the test and penal laws. Maxims of 
State appeared about 1692. The Rough Draft of a New Model 
at Sea (c. 1694), though apparently only a fragment, is one of the 
most interesting and characteristic of his writings. It opens 
with the question: " 'What shall we do to be saved in this world?' 
There is no other answer but this, ' Look to your moat.' The 
first article of an Englishman's political creed must be that he 
believeth in the sea." He discusses the naval establishment, 
not from the naval point of view alone, but from the general 
aspect of the constitution of which it is a detail, and is thus led 
on to consider the nature of the constitution itself, and to show 
that it is not an artificial structure but a growth and product 
of the natural character. We may also mention Some Cautions 
to the electors of the parliament (1694), and Political, Moral and 
Miscellaneous Thoughts and Reflections (n.d.), a collection of 
aphorisms in the style of the maxims of La Rochefoucauld, 
inferior in style but greatly excelling the French author in 
breadth of view and in moderation. (For other writings 
attributed to Halifax, see Foxcroft, Life of Sir G. Savile, ii. 
529 sqq.). 

Halifax was twice married, first in 1656 to the Lady Dorothy 
Spencer daughter of the ist earl of Sunderland and of Dorothy 
Sidney, " Sacharissa " who died in 1670, leaving a family; and 
secondly, in 1672, to Gertrude, daughter of William Pierrepont 
of Thoresby, who survived him, and by whom he had one 
daughter, Elizabeth, Lady Chesterfield, who seems to have in- 
herited a considerable portion of her father's intellectual abilities. 
On the death of his son William, 2nd marquess of Halifax, in 
August 1700 without male issue, the peerage became extinct, 
and the baronetcy passed to the Saviles of Lupset, the whole 

Foxcroft, ii. 273 et seq., and Hist. MSS. Comm. MSS. of F. W. 
Leyborne-Popham, p. 264. 



HALIFAX 



843 



male line of the Savile family ending in the person of Sir George 
Savile, 8th baronet, in 1784. Henry Savile, British envoy at 
Versailles, who died unmarried in 1687, was a younger brother 
of the first marquess. Halifax has been generally supposed to 
have been the father of the illegitimate Henry Carey, the poet, 

but this is doubtful. 

See Life and Letters of Sir George Savile, ist Marquis of Halifax 
(2 vols., 1898), by Miss H. C. Foxcroft, who has collected and made 
excellent use of all the material available at that date, including 
hitherto unexplored Savile MSS., at Devonshire House, in the 
Spencer Archives, in the Longleat and other collections, and who 
has edited the works of Halifax and printed a memorandum of 
conversations with King William of 1688-1690, left in MS. by Halifax. 
Macaulay, in his History of England, misjudged Halifax on some 
points, but nevertheless understood and did justice to the greatness 
of his statesmanship, and pronounced on him a well-merited and 
eloquent eulogy (iv. 545). Contemporary characters of Halifax 
which must be accepted with caution are Burnet's in the History of 
His Own Times (ed. 1833, vol. i. pp. 491-493. and iv. 268), that by the 
author of " Savilianal," identified as William Mompesson, and 
" Sacellum Apollinare," a panegyric in verse by Elkanah Settle 
(1695). (P. C. Y.) 

HALIFAX, a city and port of entry, capital of the province of 
Nova Scotia, Canada. It is situated in 44 59' N. and 63 35' W., 
on the south-east coast of the province, on a fortified hill, 225 ft. 
in height, which slopes down to the waters of Chebucto Bay, 
now known as Halifax Harbour. The harbour, which is open all 
the year, is about 6 m. long by i m. in width, and has excellent 
anchorage in all parts; to the north a narrow passage connects 
it with Bedford Basin, 6 m. in length by 4 m., and deep enough 
for the largest men-of-war. At the harbour mouth lies McNab's 
Island, thus forming two entrances; the eastern passage is 
only employed by small vessels, though in 1862 the Confederate 
cruiser, " Tallahassee," slipped through by night, and escaped 
the northern vessels which were watching off the western 
entrance. The population in 1901 was 40,832. 

The town was originally built of wood, plastered or stuccoed, 
but though the wooden houses largely remain, the public buildings 
are of stone. Inferior in natural strength to Quebec alone, the 
city and its approaches have been fortified till it has become 
the strongest position in Canada, and one of the strongest in the 
British Empire. Till 1906 it was garrisoned by British troops, 
but in that year, with Esquimalt, on the Pacific coast, it was 
taken over by the Canadian government, an operation necessitat- 
ing a large increase in the Canadian permanent military force. 
At the same time, the royal dockyard, containing a dry-dock 
6 10 ft. in length, and the residences in connexion, were also taken 
over for the use of the department of marine and fisheries. 
Till 1905 Halifax was the summer station of the British North 
American squadron. In that year, in consequence of a redis- 
tribution of the fleet, the permanent North American squadron 
was withdrawn; but Halifax is still visited periodically by 
powerful squadrons of cruisers. 

Though, owing to the growth of Sydney and other outports, 
it no longer monopolizes the foreign trade of the province, 
Halifax is still a thriving town, and has the largest export trade 
of the Dominion in fish and fish products, the export of fish 
alone, in 1904, amounting to over three-fifths that of the entire 
Dominion. Lumber (chiefly spruce deals) and agricultural pro- 
ducts (especially apples) are also exported in large quantities. 
The chief imports are manufactures from Great Britain and 
the United States, and sugar, molasses, rum and fruit from the 
West Indies. Its industrial establishments include foundries, 
sugar refineries, manufactures of furniture and other articles of 
wood, a skate factory and rope and cordage works, the produce 
of which are all exported. It is the Atlantic terminus of the 
Intercolonial, Canadian Pacific and several provincial railways, 
and the chief winter port of Canada, numerous steamship lines 
connecting it with Great Britain, Europe, the West Indies and 
the United States. The public gardens, covering 14 acres, and 
Point Pleasant Park,- left to a great extent in its natural state, 
are extremely beautifol. Behind the city is an arm of the sea 
(known as the North- West Arm) , 5 m. in length and i m. in breadth, 
with high, well-wooded shores, and covered in summer with 
canoes and sailing craft. The educational institutions include 



a ladies' college, several convents, a Presbyterian theological 
college and Dalhousie University, with faculties of arts, law, 
medicine and science. Established by charter in 1818 by the 
earl of Dalhousie, then lieutenant governor, and reorganized 
in 1863, it has since become much the most important seat of 
learning in the maritime provinces. Other prominent buildings 
are Government House, the provincial parliament and library, 
and the Roman Catholic cathedral. St Paul's church (Anglican) 
dates from 1730, and though not striking architecturally, is 
interesting from the memorial tablets and the graves of celebrated 
Nova Scotians which it contains. The city is the seat of the 
Anglican bishop of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, and 
of the Roman Catholic bishop of Halifax. 

Founded in 1749 by the Hon. Edward Cornwallis as a rival 
to the French town of Louisburg in Cape Breton, it was named 
after the 2nd earl of Halifax, president of the board of trade and 
plantations. In the following year it superseded Annapolis as 
capital of the province. Its privateers played a prominent part 
in the war of 1812-15 with the United States, and during the 
American Civil War it was a favourite base of operations for 
Confederate blockade-runners. The federation of the North 
American provinces in 1867 lessened its relative importance, 
but its merchants have gradually adapted themselves to the 
altered conditions. 

HALIFAX, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough 
in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 194 m. N.N.W. from 
London and 7 m. S.W. from Bradford, on the Great Northern 
and the Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1891), 97,714; 
(1901) 104,936. It lies in a bare hilly district on and above the 
small river Hebble near its junction with the Calder. Its appear- 
ance is in the main modern, though a few picturesque old houses 
remain. The North Bridge, a fine iron structure, spans the 
valley, giving connexion between the opposite higher parts of 
the town. The principal public building is the town hall, 
completed in 1863 after the designs of Sir Charles Barry; it is 
a handsome Palladian building with a tower. Of churches the 
most noteworthy is that of St John the Baptist, the parish church, 
a Perpendicular building with lofty western tower. Two earlier 
churches are traceable on this side, the first perhaps pre- Norman, 
the second of the Early English period. The old woodwork is 
fine, part being Perpendicular, but the greater portion dates 
from 1621. All Souls' church was built in 1859 from the designs 
of Sir Gilbert Scott, of whose work it is a good example, at the 
expense of Mr Edward Akroyd. The style is early Decorated, 
and a rich ornamentation is carried out in Italian marble, 
serpentine and alabaster. A graceful tower and spire 236 ft. 
high rise at the north-west angle. The Square chapel, erected 
by the Congregationalists in 1857, is a striking cruciform building 
with a tower and elaborate crocketed spire. Both the central 
library and museum and the Akroyd museum and art gallery 
occupy buildings which were formerly residences, the one of 
Sir Francis Crossley (1817-1872) and the other of Mr Edward 
Akroyd. Among charitable institutions the principal is the 
handsome royal infirmary, a Renaissance building. The Heath 
grammar school was founded in 1585 under royal charter for' 
instruction in classical languages. It possesses close scholarships 
at Oxford and Cambridge universities. The Waterhouse charity 
school occupies a handsome set of buildings forming three sides 
of a quadrangle, erected in 1855. The Crossley almshouses were 
erected and endowed by Sir Francis and Mr Joseph Crossley, 
who also endowed the Crossley orphan home and school. 
Technical schools are maintained by the corporation. Among 
other public buildings may be noted the Piece-Hall, erected 
in 1799 for the lodgment and sale of piece goods, now used as a 
market, a great quadrangular structure occupying more than 
two acres; the bonding warehouse, court-house, and mechanics' 
institute. There aie six parks, of which the People's Park of 
izj acres, presented by Sir Francis Crossley in 1858, is laid out 
in ornate style from designs by Sir Joseph Paxton. 

Halifax ranks with Leeds, Bradford and Huddersfield as a 
seat of the woollen and worsted manufacture. The manufacture 
of carpets is a large industry, one establishment employing some 



HALISAH HALKETT 



5000 hands. The worsted, woollen and cotton industries, and 
the iron, steel and machinery manufactures are very ex- 
tensive. There are collieries and freestone quarries in the 
neighbourhood. 

The parliamentary borough returns two members. The 
county borough was created in 1888. The municipal borough 
is under a mayor, 15 aldermen and 45 councillors. Area, 
13,967 acres. 

At the time of the Conquest Halifax formed part of the 
extensive manor of Wakefield, which belonged to the king, but 
in the T3th century was in the hands of John, earl Warrenne 
(c. 1245-1305). The prosperity of the town began with the 
introduction of the cloth trade in the isth century, when there 
are said to have been only thirteen houses, which before the end 
of the 1 6th century had increased to 520. Camden, about the 
end of the lyth century, wrote that " the people are very in- 
dustrious, so that though the soil about it be barren and improfit- 
able, not fit to live on, they have so flourished ... by the 
clothing trade that they are very rich and have gained a reputa- 
tion for it above their neighbours." The trade is said to have 
been increased by the arrival of certain merchants driven from 
the Netherlands by the persecution of the duke of Alva. Among 
the curious customs of Halifax was the Gibbet Law, which was 
probably established by a prescriptive right to protect the wool 
trade, and gave the inhabitants the power of executing any one 
taken within their liberty, who, when tried by a jury of sixteen 
of the frith-burgesses, was found guilty of the theft of any goods 
of the value of more than I3d. The executions took place on 
market days on a hill outside the town, the gibbet somewhat 
resembling a guillotine. The first execution recorded under this 
law took place in 1541, and the right was exercised in Halifax 
longer than in any other town, the last execution taking place 
in 1650. In 1635 the king granted the inhabitants of Halifax 
licence to found a workhouse in a large house given to them for 
that purpose by Nathaniel Waterhouse, and incorporated them 
under the name of the master and governors. Nathaniel Water- 
house was appointed the first master, his successors being elected 
every year by the twelve governors from among themselves. 
Halifax was a borough by prescription, its privileges growing 
up with. the increased prosperity brought by the cloth trade, 
but it was not incorporated until 1848. Since the Reform Act 
of 1832 the burgesses have returned two members to parliament. 
In 1607 David Waterhouse, lord of the manor of Halifax, 
obtained a grant of two markets there every week on Friday 
and Saturday and two fairs every year, each lasting three days, 
one beginning on the 24th of June, the other on the nth of 
November. Later these fairs and markets were confirmed with 
the addition of an extra market on Thursday to Sir William 
Ayloffe, baronet, who had succeeded David Waterhouse as lord 
of the manor. The market rights were sold to the Markets 
Company in 1810 and purchased from them by the corporation 
in 1853. 

During the Civil War Halifax was garrisoned by parliament, 
and a field near it is still called the Bloody Field on account of 
an engagement which took place there between the forces of 
parliament and the Royalists. 

See Victoria County History, "Yorkshire"; T. Wright, The 
Antiquities of the Town of Halifax (Leeds, 1738); John Watson, 
The History and Antiquities of the Parish of Halifax (London, 1775) ; 
John Crabtree, A Concise History of the Parish and Vicarage of 
Halifax (Halifax and London, 1836). 

HALIgAH (Hebrew, n^q "untying"), the ceremony by 
which a Jewish widow releases her brother-in-law from the 
obligation to marry her in accordance with Deuteronomy xxv. 
5-10, and obtains her own freedom to remarry. By the law 
of Moses it became obligatory upon the brother of a man 
dying childless to take his widow as wife. If he refused, " then 
shall his brother's wife come unto him in the presence of the 
elders and loose his shoe from off his foot, and spit in his face, 
and shall answer and say, So shall it be done unto that man that 
will not build up his brother's house." By Rabbinical law the 
ceremony was later made more complex. The parties appear 



before a court of three elders with two assessors. The place is 
usually the synagogue house, or that of the Rabbi, sometimes 
that of the widow. After inquiry as to the relationship of the 
parties and their status (for if either be a minor or deformed, 
halisah cannot take place), the shoe is produced. It is usually 
the property of the community and made entirely of leather 
from the skin of a " clean " animal. It is of two pieces, the upper 
part and the sole, sewn together with leathern threads. It has 
three small straps in front, and two white straps to bind it on 
the leg. After it is strapped on, the man must walk four cubits 
in the presence of the court. The widow then loosens and 
removes the shoe, throwing it some distance, and spits on the 
ground, repeating thrice the Biblical formula " So shall it be 
done," &c. Halisah, which is still common among orthodox 
Jews, must not take place on the Sabbath, a holiday, or the eve 
of either, or in the evening. To prevent brothers-in-law from 
extorting money from a widow as a price for releasing her from 
perpetual widowhood, Jewish law obliges all brothers at the time 
of a marriage to sign a document pledging themselves to submit 
to halisah without payment. (Compare LEVIRATE). 

HALKETT, HUGH, FREIHERR VON (1783-1863), British 
soldier and general of infantry in the Hanoverian service, was the 
second son of Major-General F. G. Halkett, who had served 
many years in the army, and whose ancestors had for several 
generations distinguished themselves in foreign services. With 
the " Scotch Brigade " which his father had been largely instru- 
mental in raising, Hugh Halkett served in India from 1798 to 
1801. In 1803 his elder brother Colin was appointed to command 
a battalion of the newly formed King's German Legion, and in 
this he became senior captain and then major. Under his 
brother's command he served with Cathcart's expeditions to 
Hanover, Rtigen and Copenhagen, where his bold initiative on 
outpost duty won commendation. He was in the Peninsula in 
1808-1809, an< i at Walcheren. At Albuera, Salamanca, &c., he 
commanded the 2nd Light Infantry Battalion, K.G.L., in suc- 
cession to his brother, and at Venta del Pozo in the Burgos 
retreat he greatly distinguished himself. In 1813 he left the 
Peninsula and was subsequently employed in the organization 
of the new Hanoverian army. He led a brigade of these troops 
in Count Wallmoden's army, and bore a marked part in the battle 
of Gohrde and the action of Schestedt, where he took with his 
own hand a Danish standard. In the Waterloo campaign he 
commanded two brigades of Hanoverian militia which were sent 
to the front with the regulars, and during the fight with the 
Old Guard captured General Cambronne. After the fall of 
Napoleon he elected to stay in the Hanoverian service, though 
he retained his half-pay lieutenant-colonelcy in the English army. 
He- rose to be general and inspector-general of infantry. In his 
old age he led the Xth Federal Army Corps in the Danish War 
of 1848, and defeated the Danes at Oversee. He had the G.C.H., 
the C.B. and many foreign orders, including the Prussian 
order of the Black Eagle and pour le M&rite and the Russian 
St Anne. 

See Knesebeck, Leben des Freiherrn Hugh von Halkett (Stuttgart, 
1865). 

His brother, SIR COLIN HALKETT (1774-1856), British soldier, 
began his military career in the Dutch Guards and served in 
various " companies " for three years, leaving as a captain in 
1795. From 1800 to the peace of Amiens he served with the 
Dutch troops in English pay in Guernsey. In August 1803 
Halkett was one of the first officers assigned to the service of 
raising the King's German Legion, and he became major, and 
later lieutenant-colonel,' commanding the 2nd Light Infantry 
Battalion. His battalion was employed in the various expedi- 
tions mentioned above, from Hanover to Walcheren, and in 1811 
Colin Halkett succeeded Charles Alien in the command of the 
Light Brigade, K.G.L., which he held throughout the Peninsula 
War from Albuera to Toulouse. In 181 5 Major-General Sir Colin 
Halkett commanded the 5th British Brigade of Allen's division, 
and at Waterloo he received four wounds. Unlike his brolher, 
he remained in the British service, in which he rose to 
general. At the time of his death he was governor of Chelsea 



HALL, BASIL HALL, CARL 



845 



hospital. He had honorary general's rank in the Hanoverian 
service, the G.C.B. and G.C.H., as well as numerous foreign 
orders. 

For information about both the Halketts, see Beamish, History 
of the King's German Legion (1832). 

HALL, BASIL (1788-1844), British naval officer, traveller and 
miscellaneous writer, was born at Edinburgh on the 3ist of 
December 1 788. His father was Sir James Hall of Dunglass, the 
geologist. Basil Hall was educated at the High School, Edinburgh, 
and in 1802 entered the navy, where he rose to the rank of post- 
captain in 1817, after seeing active service in several fields. 
By observing the ethnological as well as the physical peculiarities 
of the countries he visited, he collected the materials for a very 
large number of scientific papers. In 1816 he commanded the 
sloop " Lyra," which accompanied Lord Amherst's embassy to 
China; and he described his cruise in An Account of a Voyage of 
Discovery to the West Coast of Corea and the Great, Loo-choo Island 
in the Japan Sea (London, 1818). In 1820 he held a command on 
the Pacific coast of America, and in 1824 published two volumes 
of Extracts from a Journal written on the Coasts of Chili, Peru and 
Mexico in the Years 1820-21-22. Retiring on half-pay in 1824, 
Hall in 1825 married Margaret, daughter of Sir John Hunter, and 
in her company travelled (1827-1828) through the United States. 
In 1829 he published his Travels in North America in the Years 
1827 and 1828, which was assailed by the American press for its 
views of American society. Schloss Hainjeld, or a Winter in 
Lower Styria (1836), is partly a romance, partly a description 
of a visit paid by the author to the castle of the countess Purg- 
stall. Spain and the Seat of War in Spain appeared in 1837. 
The Fragments of Voyages and Travels (9 vols.) were issued in 
three detachments between 1831 and 1840. Captain Hall was a 
fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and 
of the Royal Astronomical, Royal Geographical and Geological 
Societies. His last work, a collection of sketches and tales under 
the name of Patchwork (1841), had not been long published before 
its author became insane, and he died in Haslar hospital, Ports- 
mouth, on the nth of September 1844. 

HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812-1888), Danish statesman, son 
of the highly respected artisan and train-band colonel Mads Hall, 
was born at Christianshavn on the 2Sth of February 1812. 
After a distinguished career at school and college, he adopted the 
law as his profession, and in 1837 married the highly gifted but 
eccentric Augusta Marie, daughter of the philologist Peter Oluf 
Brondsted. A natural conservatism indisposed Hall at first to 
take any part in the popular movement of 1848, to which almost 
all his friends had already adhered ; but the moment he was con- 
vinced of the inevitability of popular government, he resolutely 
and sympathetically followed in the new paths. Sent to the 
Rigsforsamling of 1848 as member for the first district of Copen- 
hagen, a constituency he continued to represent in the Folketing 
till 1 88 1, he immediately took his place in the front rank of 
Danish politicians. From the first he displayed rare ability as 
a debater, his inspiring and yet amiable personality attracted 
hosts of admirers, while his extraordinary tact and temper 
disarmed opposition and enabled him to mediate between 
extremes without ever sacrificing principles. 

Hall was not altogether satisfied with the fundamental law of 
June; but he considered it expedient to make the best use 
possible of the existing constitution and to unite the best con- 
servative elements of the nation in its defence. The aloofness 
and sulkiness of the aristocrats and landed proprietors he 
deeply deplored. Failing to rally them to the good cause he 
determined anyhow to organize the great cultivated middle class 
into a political party. Hence the " June Union," whose pro- 
gramme was progress and reform in the spirit of the constitution, 
and at the same time opposition to the one-sided democratism 
and party-tyranny of the Bondevenner or peasant party. The 
" Union " exercised an essential influence on the elections of 
1852, and was, in fact, the beginning of the national Liberal 
party, which found its natural leader in Hall. During the years 
1852-1854 the burning question of the day was the connexion 
between the various parts of the monarchy. Hall was " eider- 



dansk " by conviction. He saw in the closest possible union 
between the kingdom and a Schleswig freed from all risk of 
German interference the essential condition for Denmark's 
independence; but he did not think that Denmark was strong 
enough to carry such a policy through unsupported, and he 
was therefore inclined to promote it by diplomatic means and 
international combinations, and strongly opposed to the Con- 
ventions of 1851-1852 (See DENMARK: History), though he was 
among the first, subsequently, to accept them as an established 
fact and the future basis for Denmark's policy. 

Hall first took office in the Bang administration (i2th of 
December 1854) as minister of public worship. In May 1857 
he became president of the council after Andrae, Bang's suc- 
cessor, had retired, and in July 1858 he exchanged the ministry 
of public worship for the ministry of foreign affairs, while still 
retaining the premiership. 

Hall's programme, " den Konstitutionelle Helstat," i.e. a 
single state with a common constitution, was difficult enough 
in a monarchy which included two nationalities, one of which, 
to a great extent, belonged to a foreign and hostile jurisdiction. 
But as this political monstrosity had already been guaranteed 
by the Conventions of 1851-1852, Hall could not rid himseli 
of it, and the attempt to establish this " Helstat " was made 
accordingly by the Constitution of the I3th of November 1863. 
The failure of the attempt and its disastrous consequences for 
Denmark are described elsewhere. Here it need only be said that 
Hall himself soon became aware of the impossibility of the 
" Helstat," and his whole policy aimed at making its absurdity 
patent to Europe, and substituting for it a constitutional Den- 
mark to the Eider which would be in a position to come to terms 
with an independent Holstein. That this was the best thing 
possible for Denmark is absolutely indisputable, and " the 
diplomatic Seven Years' War " which Hall in the meantime 
conducted with all the powers interested in the question is the 
most striking proof of his superior statesmanship. Hall knew 
that in the last resort the question must be decided not by the 
pen but by the sword. But he relied, ultimately, on the pro- 
tection of the powers which had guaranteed the integrity of 
Denmark by the treaty of London, and if words have any 
meaning at all he had the right to expect at the very least the 
armed support of Great Britain. 1 But the great German powers 
and the force of circumstances proved too strong for him. On 
the accession of the new king, Christian IX., Hall resigned rather 
than repeal the November Constitution, which gave Denmark 
something to negotiate upon in case of need. But he made 
matters as easy as he could for his successors in the Monrad 
administration, and the ultimate catastrophe need not have 
been as serious as it was had his advice, frankly given, been 
intelligently followed. 

After 1864 Hall bore more than his fair share of the odium 
and condemnation which weighed so heavily upon the national 
Liberal party, making no attempt to repudiate responsibility 
and refraining altogether from attacking patently unscrupulous 
opponents. But his personal popularity suffered not the slightest 
diminution, while his clear, almost intuitive, outlook and his 
unconquerable faith in the future of his country' made him, during 
those difficult years, a factor of incalculable importance in the 
public life of Denmark. In 1870 he joined the Holstein- 
Holsteinborg ministry as minister of public worship, and in 
that capacity passed many useful educational reforms, but on 
the fall of the administration, in 1873, he retired altogether 
from public life. In the summer of 1879 Hall was struck down 
by apoplexy, and for the remaining nine years of his life he 
was practically bedridden. He died on the I4th of August 
1888. In politics Hall was a practical, sagacious " opportunist," 
in the best sense of that much abused word, with an eye 
rather for things than for persons. Moreover, he had no very 
pronounced political ambition, and was an utter stranger 
to that longing for power, which drives so many men of talent 
to adopt extreme expedients. His urbanity and perfect 

1 On this head see the 3rd marquess of Salisbury's Political Essays, 
reprinted from the Quarterly Renew. 



HALL, C. F. HALL, ISAAC 



equilibrium at the very outset incited sympathy, while his wit 
and humour made him the centre of every circle within which 
he moved. 

See Vilhelm Christian Sigurd Topsoe, Polit. Portraelstudier (Copen- 
hagen, 1878); Scholler Parelius Vilhelm Birkedal, Personlige Ople- 
velser (Copenhagen, 1890-1891). (R. N. B.) 

HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871), American Arctic 
explorer, was born at Rochester, New Hampshire. After 
following the trade of blacksmith he became a journalist in 
Cincinnati; but his enthusiasm for Arctic exploration led him 
in 1859 to volunteer to the American Geographical Society 
to " go in search for the bones of Franklin." With the proceeds 
of a public subscription he was equipped for his expedition 
and sailed in May 1860 on board a whaling vessel. The whaler 
being ice-bound, Hall took up his abode in the regions to the 
north of Hudson Bay, where he found relics of Frobisher's 
16th-century voyages, and living with the Eskimo for two years 
he acquired a considerable knowledge of their habits and lan- 
guage. He published an account of these experiences under the 
title of Arctic Researches, and Life among the Esquimaux (1864). 
Determined, however, to learn more about the fate of the Franklin 
expedition he returned to the same regions in 1864, and passing 
five years among the Eskimo was successful in obtaining a 
number of Franklin relics, as well as information pointing to the 
exact fate of 76 of the crew, whilst also performing some geo- 
graphical work of interest. In 1871 he was given command of 
the North Polar expedition fitted out by the United States 
Government in the " Polaris." Making a remarkably rapid 
passage up Smith Sound at the head of Baffin Bay, which was 
found to be ice-free, the " Polaris " reached on the 3oth of August 
the lat. of 82 n', at that time, and until the English expedition 
of 1876 the highest northern latitude attained by vessel. The 
expedition went into winter quarters in a sheltered cove on the 
Greenland coast. On the 24th of October, Hail on his return 
from a successful sledge expedition to the north was suddenly 
seized by an illness of which he died on the 8th of November. 
Capt. S. O. Buddington (1823-1888) assumed command, and 
although the " Polaris " was subsequently lost after breaking 
out of the ice, with only part of the crew aboard, the whole were 
ultimately rescued, and the scientific results of the expedition 
proved to be of considerable importance. 

HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816-1902), English 
Nonconformist divine, was born at Maidstone on the 22nd of 
May 1816. His father was John Vine Hall, proprietor and 
printer of the Maidstone Journal, and the author of a popular 
evangelical work called The Sinner's Friend. Christopher was 
educated at University College, London, and took the London 
B.A. degree. His theological training was gained at Highbury 
College, whence he was called in 1842 to his first pastorate at 
the Albion Congregational Church, Hull. During the twelve 
years of his ministry there the membership was greatly increased, 
and a branch chapel and school were opened. At Hull Newman 
Hall first began his active work in temperance reform, and in 
defence of his position wrote The Scriptural Claims of Teetotalism. 
In 1854 he accepted a call to Surrey chapel, London, founded 
in 1783 by the Rev. Rowland Hill. A considerable sum had 
been bequeathed by Hill for the perpetuation of his work on 
the expiration of the lease; but, owing to some legal flaw in the 
will, the money was not available, and Newman Hall undertook 
to raise the necessary funds for a new church. By weekly 
offertories and donations the money for the beautiful building 
called Christ Church at the junction of the Kennington and 
Westminster Bridge Roads was collected, and within four years 
of opening (1876) the total cost (63,000) was cleared. In 1892 
Newman Hall resigned his charge and devoted himself to general 
evangelical work. Most of his writings are small booklets or 
tracts of a distinctly evangelical character. The best known 
of these is Come to Jesus, of which over four million copies 
have been circulated in forty different languages. Newman Hall 
visited the United States during the Civil War, and did much 
to promote a friendly understanding between England and 
America. A Liberal in politics, and a keen admirer of John 



Bright, few preachers of any denomination have exercised so 
far-reaching an influence as the " Dissenters' Bishop," as he 
came to be termed. He died on the i8th of February 1902. 

See his Autobiography (1898); obituary notice in The Congrega- 
tional Year Book for 1903. 

HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547), English chronicler and 
lawyer, was born about the end of the isth century, being a 
son of John Hall of Northall, Shropshire. Educated at Eton 
and King's College, Cambridge, he became a barrister and after- 
wards filled the offices of common sergeant of the city of London 
and judge of the sheriff's court. He was also member of parlia- 
ment for Bridgnorth. Hall's great work, The Union of the Noble 
and Ittustre Famelies of Lancastre and York, commonly called 
Hall's Chronicle, was first published in 1542. Another edition 
was issued by Richard Graf ton in 1548, the year after Hall's 
death, and another in 1550; these include a continuation from 
1532 compiled by Graf ton from the author's notes. In 1809' 
an edition was published under the supervision of Sir Henry 
Ellis, and in 1904 the part dealing with the reign of Henry VIII. 
was edited by C. Whibley. The Chronicle begins with the 
accession of Henry IV. to the English throne in 1399; it follows 
the strife between the houses of Lancaster and York, and with 
Grafton's continuation carries the story down to the death of 
Henry VIII. in 1547. Hall presents the policy of this king in a 
very favourable light and shows his own sympathy with the 
Protestants. For all kinds of ceremonial he has all a lawyer's 
respect, and his pages are often adorned and encumbered with 
the pageantry and material garniture of the story. The value of 
the Chronicle in its early stages is not great, but this increases 
when dealing with the reign of Henry VII. and is very consider- 
able for the reign of Henry VIII. Moreover, the work is not only 
valuable, it is attractive. To the historian it furnishes what is 
evidently the testimony of an eye-witness on several matters 
of importance which are neglected by other narrators; and to 
the student of literature it has the exceptional interest of being, 
one of the prime sources of Shakespeare's historical plays. 

See J. Gairdner, Early Chroniclers of Europe; England (1879). 

HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901), American Orientalist, 
was born in Troy, New York, on the 2ist of March 1825. He 
graduated with the degree of civil engineer from the Rensselaer 
Polytechnic Institute at Troy in 1842, and entered Harvard in 
the class of 1846; just before his class graduated he left college 
and went to India in search of a runaway brother. In January 
1850 he was appointed tutor, and in 1853 professor of Sanskrit 
and English, in the government college at Benares; and in 
1855 was made inspector of public instruction in Ajmere-Merwara 
and in 1856 in the Central Provinces. He settled in England 
in 1862 and received the appointment to the chair of Sanskrit, 
Hindustani and Indian jurisprudence in King's College, London, 
and to the librarianship of the India Office. He died at Maries- 
ford, Suffolk, on the ist of February 1901. Hall was the first 
American to edit a Sanskrit text, the Vishnupurana; his library 
of a thousand Oriental MSS. he gave to Harvard University. 

His works include: in Sanskrit, Atmabodha (1852), Sankhya- 
pravachana (1856), Saryasiddhanta (1859), Vasavadattu (1859), 
Sankhyasdra (1862) and Dasarupa (1865); in Hindi, Ballantynes" 
Hindi Grammar (1868) and a Reader (1870); on English philology, 
Recent Exemplifications of False Philology (1872), attacking Richard 
Grant White, Modern English (1873), " On English Adjectives in 
-able, with Special Reference to Reliable " (Am. Jour. .Philology, 
1877), Doctor Indoctus (1880). 

HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896), American Orientalist, 
was born in Norwalk, Connecticut, on the I2th of December 
1837. He graduated at Hamilton College in 1859, was a tutor 
there in 1859-1863, graduated at the Columbia Law School in 
1865, practised law in New York City until 1875, and in 1875- 
1877 taught in the Syrian Protestant College at Beirut, where he 
discovered a valuable Syriac manuscript of the Philoxenian 
version of a large part of the New Testament, which he published 
in part in facsimile in 1884. He worked with General di Cesnola 
in classifying the famous Cypriote collection in the Metropolitan 
Museum of New York City, and was a curator of that museum 
from 1885 until his death in Mount Vernon, New York, on the 



HALL, SIR J. HALL, JOSEPH 



847 



and of July 1896. He was an eminent authority on Oriental 
inscriptions. Following the scanty clues given by George Smith 
and Samuel Birch, and working on the data furnished by the 
di Cesnola collection, he succeeded about 1874 in decipher- 
ing an entire Cypriote inscription, and in establishing the 
Hellenic character of the dialect and the syllabic nature of the 
script. 

His work in Cypriote epigraphy is described in his articles in 
Scribner's Magazine, vol. 20 (June, 1880), pp. 205-211 and in the 
Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 10, No. 2 (1880), 
pp. 201-218. He published in facsimile the Antilegomena epistles 
(1886), which he deciphered from the W. F. Williams manuscript, 
and edited A Critical Bibliography of the Greek New Testament as 
Published in America (1884). 

HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832), Scottish geologist and 
physicist, eldest son of Sir John Hall, Bart., was born at Dun- 
glass on the I7th of January 1761; and became distinguished 
as the first to establish experimental research as an aid to geo- 
logical investigation. He was intimately acquainted with James 
Hutton and John Playfair, and having studied rocks in various 
parts of Europe he was eventually led to accept and to demon- 
strate the truth of Hutton's views with regard to intrusive rocks. 
He commenced a series of experiments to illustrate the fusion of 
rocks, their vitreous and crystalline characters, and the influence 
of molten rocks in altering adjacent strata. He thus assisted 
in proving that granitic veins had been injected into overlying 
deposits after their consolidation. He studied the volcanic rocks 
in Italy and recognized that the old lava flows and the numerous 
dikes in Scotland must have had a similar origin. He made 
further experiments to illustrate the contortions of rocks. The 
results were brought before the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 
He died at Edinburgh on the 23rd of June 1832. He represented 
in parliament (1807-1812) the old borough of Michael in Corn- 
wall; he also wrote an Essay on the Origin, History and Principles 
of Gothic Architecture (1813). 

His eldest son, John Hall (1787-1860), who succeeded him, 
was a Fellow of the Royal Society; the second son, Captain 
Basil Hall (q.v.), was the distinguished traveller; the third son, 
James Hall (1800-1854), was a painter, art-patron, and a friend 
of Sir David Wilkie. 

HALL, JAMES ( 1 793-1868) , American judge and man of letters, 
was born at Philadelphia on the igth of August 1793. After for 
some time prosecuting the study of law, he in 1812 joined the 
army, and in the war with Great Britain distinguished himself in 
engagements at Lundy's Lane, Niagara and Fort Erie. On 
the conclusion of the war he accompanied an expedition against 
Algiers, but in 1818 he resigned his commission, and continued 
the study of law at Pittsburg. In 1820 he removed to Shawnee- 
town, Illinois, where he commenced practice at the bar and also 
edited the Illinois Gazette. Soon after he was appointed public 
prosecutor of the circuit, and in 1824 state circuit judge. In 1827 
he became state treasurer, and held that office till 1831, but he 
continued at the same time his legal practice and also edited 
the Illinois Intelligencer. Subsequently he became editor of the 
Western Souvenir, an annual publication, and of the Illinois 
Monthly Magazine, afterwards the Western Monthly Magazine. 
He died near Cincinnati on the sth of July 1868. 

The following are his principal works: Letters from the West, 
originally contributed to the Portfolio, and collected and published 
in London in 1828; Legends of the West (1832); The Soldier's Bride 
and other Tales (1832); The Harpe's Head, a Legend of Kentucky 
(1833); Sketches of the West (2 vols., 1835); Tales of the Border 
(1835); Notes on the Western States (1838); History of the Indian 
Tribes, in conjunction with T. L. M'Keeney (3 vols., 1838-1844); 
The Wilderness and the War-Path (1845); Romance of Western 
History (1857). 

HALL, JAMES (1811-1898), American geologist and palaeon- 
tologist, was born at Hingham, Massachusetts, on the i2th of 
September 1811. In early life he became attached to the study 
of natural history, and he completed his education at the poly- 
technic institute at Troy in New York, where he graduated in 
1832, and afterwards became professor of chemistry and natural 
science, and subsequently of geology. In 1836 he was appointed 
one of the geologists on the Geological Survey of the state of 



New York, and he was before long charged with the palaeonto- 
logical work. Eventually he became state geologist and director 
of the museum of natural history at Albany. His published 
papers date from 1836, and include numerous reports on the 
geology and palaeontology of various portions of the United 
States and Canada. He dealt likewise with physical geology, 
and in 1859 discussed the connexion between the accumulation 
of sedimentary deposits and the elevation of mountain-chains. 
His chief work was the description of the invertebrate fossils of 
New York in which he dealt with the graptolites, brachio- 
pods, mollusca, trilobites, echini and crinoids of the Palaeozoic 
formations. The results were published in a series of quarto 
volumes entitled Palaeontology of New York (1847-1894), in 
which he was assisted in course of time by R. P. Whitfield and 
J. M. Clarke. He published also reports on the geology of Oregon 
and California (1845), Utah (1852), Iowa (1859) and Wisconsin 
(1862). He received the Wollaston medal from the Geological 
Society of London in 1858. He was a man of great energy and 
untiring industry, and in 1897, when in his eighty-sixth year, he 
journeyed to St Petersburg to take part in the International 
Geological Congress, and then joined the excursion to the Ural 
mountains. He died at Albany on the 7th of August 1898. 

See Life and Work of James Hall, by H. C. Hovey, Amer. Geol. 
xxiii., 1899, p. 137 (portraits). 

HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656), English bishop and satirist, 
was born at Bristow park, near Ashby de la Zouch, Leicester- 
shire, on the ist of July 1574. His father, John Hall, was agent 
in the town for Henry, earl of Huntingdon, and his mother, 
Winifred Bambridge, was a pious lady, whom her son compared 
to St Monica. Joseph Hall received his early education at the 
local school, and was sent (1589) to Emmanuel College, Cam- 
bridge. Hall was chosen for two years in succession to read the 
public lecture on rhetoric in the schools, and in 1595 became fellow 
of his college. During his residence at Cambridge he wrote his 
Virgidemiarum (i5>7), satires written after Latin models. The 
claim he put forward in the prologue to be the earliest English 
satirist: 

I first adventure, follow me who list 
And be the second English satirist " 
gave bitter offence to John Marston, who attacks him in the 
satires published in 1598. The archbishop of Canterbury gave 
an order (1599) that Hall's satires should be burnt with works 
of John Marston, Marlowe, Sir John Davies and others on the 
ground of licentiousness, but shortly afterwards Hall's book, 
certainly unjustly condemned, was ordered to be " staied at the 
press," which may be interpreted as reprieved (see Notes and 
Queries, 3rd series, xii. 436). Having taken holy orders, Hall 
was offered the mastership of Blundell's school, Tiverton, but 
he refused it in favour of the living of Halsted, Essex, to which 
he was presented (1601) by Sir Robert Drury. In his parish 
he had an opponent in a Mr Lilly, whom he describes as " a 
witty and bold atheist." In 1603 he married; and in 1605 he 
accompanied Sir Edmund Bacon to Spa, with the special aim, 
he says, of acquainting himself with the state and practice of 
the Romish Church. At Brussels he disputed at the Jesuit 
College on the authentic character of modern miracles, and his 
inquiring and argumentative disposition more than once 
threatened to produce serious results, so that his patron at 
length requested him to abstain from further discussion. His 
devotional writings had attracted the notice of Henry, prince 
of Wales, who made him one of his chaplains (1608). In 1612 
Lord Denny, afterwards earl of Norwich, gave him the curacy 
of Waltham-Holy-Cross, Essex, and in the same year he received 
the degree of D.D. Later he received the prebend of Willenhall 
in the collegiate church of Wolverhampton, and in 1616 he 
accompanied James Hay, Lord Doncaster, afterwards earl of 
Carlisle, to France, where he was sent to congratulate Louis XIII. 
on his marriage, but Hall was compelled by illness to return. 
tn his absence the king nominated him dean of Worcester, and 
n 1617 he accompanied James to Scotland, where he defended 
the five points of ceremonial which the king desired to impose 
upon the Scots. In the next year he was one of the English 



HALL, MARSHALL 



deputies at the synod of Dort. In 1624 he refused the see of 
Gloucester, but in 1627 became bishop of Exeter. 

He took an active part in the Arminian and Calvinist contro- 
versy in the English church. He did his best in his Via media, 
The Way of Peace, to persuade the two parties to accept a com- 
promise. In spite of his Calvinistic opinions he maintained 
that to acknowledge the errors which had arisen in the Catholic 
Church did not necessarily imply disbelief in her catholicity, 
and that the Church of England having repudiated these errors 
should not deny the claims of the Roman Catholic Church on 
that account. This view commended itself to Charles I. and 
his episcopal advisers, but at the same time Archbishop Laud 
sent spies into Hall's diocese to report on the Calvinistic tend- 
encies of the bishop and his lenience to the Puritan and low- 
church clergy. Hall says he was thrice down on his knees to 
the King to answer Laud's accusations and at length threatened 
to " cast up his rochet " rather than submit to them. He was, 
however, amenable to criticism, and his defence of the English 
Church, entitled Episcopacy by Divine Right (1640), was twice 
revised at Laud's dictation. This was followed by An Humble 
Remonstrance to the High Court of Parliament (1640 and 1641), 
an eloquent and forceful defence of his order, which produced 
a retort from the syndicate of Puritan divines, who wrote under 
the name of " Smectymnuus," and was followed by a long 
controversy to which Milton contributed five pamphlets, 
virulently attacking Hall and his early satires. 

In 1641 Hall was translated to the see of Norwich, and in the 
same year sat on the Lords' Committee on religion. On the 
30th of December he was, with other bishops, brought before 
the bar of the House of Lords to answer a charge of high treason 
of which the Commons had voted them guilty. They were 
finally convicted of an offence against the Statute of Praemunire, 
and condemned to forfeit their estates, receiving a small main- 
tenance from the parliament. They were immured in the Tower 
from New Year to Whitsuntide, when thev. were released on 
finding bail for 5000 each. On his release Hall proceeded to his 
new diocese at Norwich, the revenues of which he seems for a 
time to have received, but in 1643, when the property of the 
" malignants " was sequestrated, Hall was mentioned by name. 
Mrs Hall had difficulty in securing a fifth of the maintenance 
(400) assigned to the bishop by the parliament; they were 
eventually ejected from the palace, and the cathedral was 
dismantled. Hall retired to the village of Higham, near Norwich, 
where he spent the time preaching and writing until " he was 
first forbidden by man, and at last disabled by God." He bore 
his many troubles and the additional burden of much bodily 
suffering with sweetness and patience, dying on the 8th of 
September 1656. Thomas Fuller says: " He was commonly 
called our English Seneca, for the purenesse, plainnesse, and 
fulnesse of his style. Not unhappy at Controversies, more happy 
at Comments, very good in his Characters, better in his Sermons, 
best of all in his Meditations." 

Bishop Hall's polemical writings, although vigorous and effective, 
were chiefly of ephemeral interest, but many of his devotional 
writings have been often reprinted. It is by his early work as the 
censor of morals and the unsparing critic of contemporary literary 
extravagance and affectations that he is best known. Virgt- 
demiarum. Sixe Bookes. First three Bookes. Of Toothlesse Satyrs. 
(l) Poetical!, (2) Academicall, (3) Morall (1597) was followed by an 
amended edition in 1598, and in the same year by Virgidemiarum. 
The three last bookes. Of byting Satyres (reprinted 1599). His claim 
to be reckoned the earliest English satirist, even in the formal sense, 
cannot be justified. Thomas Lodge, in his Fig for Momus (1593), 
had written four satires in the manner of Horace, and John Marston 
and John Donne both wrote satires about the same time, although 
the publication was in both cases later than that of Virgidemiae. 
But if he was not the earliest, Hall was certainly one of the best. 
He writes in the heroic couplet, which he manoeuvres with great 
ease and smoothness. In the first book of his satires (Poeticall) he 
attacks the writers whose verses were devoted to licentious subjects, 
the bombast of Tamburlaine and tragedies built on similar lines, the 
laments of the ghosts of the Mirror for Magistrates, the metrical 
eccentricities of Gabriel Harvey and Richard Stanyhurst, the 
extravagances of the sonneteers, and the sacred poets (Southwell is 
aimed at in " Now good St Peter weeps pure Helicon, And both the 
Mary's make a music moan "). In Book II. Satire 6 occurs the well- 



known description of the trencher-chaplain, who is tutor and hanger- ' 
on in a country manor. Among his other satirical portraits is that of 
the famished gallant, the guest of " Duke Humfray." 1 Book VI. 
consists of one long satire on the various vices and follies dealt with 
in the earlier books. If his prose is sometimes antithetical and 
obscure, his verse is remarkably free from the quips and conceits 
which mar so much contemporary poetry. 

He also wrote The King's Prophecie; or Weeping Joy (1603), 
a gratulatory poem on the accession of James I. ; Epistles, both the 
first and second volumes of which appeared in 1608 and a third in 
1611; Characters of Virtues and Vices (1608), versified by Nahum 
Tate (1691); Solomons Divine Arts . . . (1609); and, probably 
Mundus alter et idem sive Terra Australis ante ha /: semper incognita 
. . . lustrata (1605? and 1607), by " Mercurius Britannicus, " 
translated into English by John Healy (1608) as The Discovery 
of a New World or A Description of the South Indies . . . by an 
English Mercury. Mundus alter is an excuse for a satirical descrip- 
tion of London, with some criticism of the Romish church, its 
manners and customs, and is said to have furnished Swift with 
hints for Gulliver's Travels. It was not ascribed to him by name 
until 1674, when Thomas Hyde, the librarian of the Bodleian, 
identified " Mercurius Britannicus " with Joseph Hall. For the 
question of the authorship of this pamphlet, and the arguments that 
may be advanced in favour of the suggestion that it was written by 
Alberico Gentili, see E. A. Petherick, Mundus alter et idem, reprinted 
from the Gentleman's Magazine (July 1896). His controversial 
writings, not already mentioned, include: A Common Apology 
. . . against the Brownists (1610), in answer to John Robinson's 
Censorious Epistle; The Olde Religion: A treatise, wherein is laid 
downe the true state of the difference betwixt the Reformed and the 
Romane Church; and the blame of this schisme is cast upon the true 
Authors ... (1628) ; Columba Noae olivam adferens . . ., a sermon 
preached at St Paul's in 1623; Episcopacie by Divine Right (1640); 
A Short Answer to the Vindication of Smectymnuus (1641) ; A Modest 
Confutation of . . . (Milton's) Animadversions (1642). 

His devotional works include : Holy Observations Lib. I. Some few 
of David's Psalmes Metaphrased (1607 and 1609) ; three centuries of 
Meditations and Vowes, Divine and Morall (1606, 1607, 1609), edited 
by Charles Sayle (1901); The Arte of Divine Meditation (1607); 
Heaven upon Earth, or of True Peace and Tranquillitie of Mind (1606), 
reprinted with some of his letters in John Wesley's Christian Library^ 
vol. iv. (1819); Occasional Meditations . . . (1630), edited by his 
son Robert Hall; Henochisme; or a Treatise showing how to walk 
with God (1639), translated from Bishop Hall's Latin by Moses Wall ; 
The Devout Soul; or Rules of Heavenly Devotion (1644), often since 
reprinted; The Balm of Gilead . . . (1646, 1752); Christ MysticoJl; 
or the blessed union of Christ and his Members (1647), of which 
General Gordon was a student (reprinted from Gordon's copy, 1893) ; 
Susurrium cum Deo (1659) ; The Great Mysterie of Godliness (1650) ; 
Resolutions and Decisions of Divers Practicall cases of Conscience 
(1649, 1650, 1654). 

AUTHORITIES. The chief authority for Hall's biography is to be 
found in his autobiographical tracts: Observations of some Specialities 
of Divine Providence in the Life of Joseph Hall, Bishop of Norwich, 
Written with his own hand; and his Hard Measure, a reprint of which 
may be consulted in Dr Christopher Wordsworth's Ecclesiastical 
Biography. The best criticism of his satires is to be found in Thomas- 
Warton's History of English Poetry, vol. iv. pp. 363-409 (ed. Hazlitt, 
1871), where a comparison is instituted between Marston and Hall. 
In 1615 Hall published A Recollection of such treatises as have been 
. . . published . . . (1615, 1617, 1621); in 1625 appeared his Works 
(reprinted 1627, 1628, 1634, 1662). The first complete Works ap- 
peared in 1808, edited by the Rev. Josiah Pratt. Other editions are 
by Peter Hall (1837) and by Philip Wynter (1863). See also Bishop 
Hall, his Life and Times (1826), by Rev. John Jones; Life of Joseph 
Hall, by Rev. George Lewis (1886); A. B. Grosart, The Complete 
Poems of Joseph Hall... with introductions, &c. (1879); Satires, 
&c. (Early English Poets, ed. S. W. Singer, 1824). Many of Hall's 
works were translated into French, and some into Dutch, and there 
have been numerous selections from his devotional works. 

HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857), English physiologist, was 
born on the i8th of February 1790, at Basford, near Nottingham, 
where his father, Robert Hall, was a cotton manufacturer. 
Having attended the Rev. J. Blanchard's academy at Notting- 
ham, he entered a chemist's shop at Newark, and in 1809 began 
to study medicine at Edinburgh University. In 1811 he was 
elected senior president of the Royal Medical Society; the 
following year he took the M.D. degree, and was immediately 
appointed resident house physician to the Royal Infirmary, 
Edinburgh. This appointment he resigned after two years, 
when he visited Paris and its medical schools, and, on a walking 

1 The tomb of Sir John Beauchamp (d. 1358) in old St Paul's 
was commonly known, in error, as that of Duke Humphrey of Glou- 
cester. " To dine with Duke Humphrey " was to go hungry among 
the debtors and beggars who frequented " Duke Humphrey's Walk " 
in the cathedral. 



HALL, ROBERT 



849 



tour, those also of Berlin and Gottingen. In 1817, when he 
settled at Nottingham, he published his Diagnosis, and in 1818 
he wrote the Mimoses, a work on the affections denominated 
bilious, nervous, &c. The next year he was elected a fellow of 
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in 1825 he became physician 
to the Nottingham general hospital. In 1826 he removed to 
London, and in the following year he published his Commentaries 
on the more important diseases of females. In 1830 he issued 
his Observations on Blood-letting, founded on researches on the 
morbid and curative effects of loss of blood, which were acknow- 
ledged by the medical profession to be of vast practical value, 
and in 1831 his Experimental Essay on the Circulation of the 
Blood in the Capillary Vessels, in which he showed that the 
blood-channels intermediate between arteries and veins serve 
the office of bringing the fluid blood into contact with the material 
tissues of the system. In the following year he read before the 
Royal Society a paper " On the inverse ratio which subsists 
between Respiration and Irritability in the Animal Kingdom." 
His most important work in physiology was concerned with the 
theory of reflex action, embodied in a paper " On the reflex 
Function of the Medulla Oblongata and the Medulla Spinalis " 
(1832), which was supplemented in 1837 by another" On the True 
Spinal Marrow, and the Excito-motor System of Nerves." The 
" reflex function " excited great attention on the continent of 
Europe, though in England some of his papers were refused 
publication by the Royal Society. Hall thus became the 
authority on the multiform deranged states of health referable 
to an abnormal condition of the nervous system, and he gained 
a large practice. His " ready method " for resuscitation in 
drowning and other forms of suspended respiration has been the 
means of saving innumerable lives. He died at Brighton of a 
throat affection, aggravated by lecturing, on the nth of August 

1857- 

A list of his works and details of his " ready method," &c., are 
given in his Memoirs by his widow (London, 1861). 

HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831), English Baptist divine, was born 
on the 2nd of May 1764, at Arnesby near Leicester, where his 
father, Robert Hall (1728-1791), a man whose cast of mind in 
some respects resembled closely that of the son, was pastor of a 
Baptist congregation. Robert was the youngest of a family of 
fourteen. While still at the dame's school his passion for books 
absorbed the greater part of his time, and in the summer it was 
his custom after school hours to retire to the churchyard with 
a volume, which he continued to peruse there till nightfall, 
making out the meaning of the more difficult words with the 
help of a pocket dictionary. From his sixth to his eleventh 
year he attended the school of Mr Simmons at Wigston, a village 
four miles from Arnesby. There his precocity assumed the 
exceptional form of an intense interest in metaphysics, partly 
perhaps on account of the restricted character of his father's 
library; and before he was nine years of age he had read and 
re-read Jonathan Edwards's Treatise on the Will and Butler's 
Analogy. This incessant study at such an early period of life 
seems, however, to have had an injurious influence on his health. 
After he left Mr Simmons's school his appearance was so sickly 
as to awaken fears of the presence of phthisis. In order, therefore, 
to obtain the benefit of a change of air, he stayed for some time 
in the house of a gentleman near Kettering, who with an impro- 
priety which Hall himself afterwards referred to as "egregious," 
prevailed upon the boy of eleven to give occasional addresses 
at prayer meetings. As his health seemed rapidly to recover, 
he was sent to a school at Northampton conducted by the Rev. 
John Ryland, where he remained a year and a half, and " made 
great progress in Latin and Greek." On leaving school he for 
some time studied divinity under the direction of his father, 
and in October 1778 he entered the Bristol academy for the pre- 
paration of students for the Baptist ministry. Here the self- 
possession which had enabled him in his twelfth year to address 
unfalteringly various audiences of grown-up people seems to 
have strangely forsaken him; for when, in accordance with the 
arrangements of the academy, his turn came to deliver an 
address in the vestry of Broadmcad chapel, he broke down on 



two separate occasions and was unable to finish his discourse. 
On the 1 3th of August 1780 he was set apart to the ministry, 
but he still continued his studies at the academy; and in 1781, 
in accordance with the provisions of an exhibition which he 
held, he entered King's College, Aberdeen, where he took the 
degree of master of arts in March 1 785. At the university he was 
without a rival of his own standing in any of the classes, dis- 
tinguishing himself alike in classics, philosophy and mathematics. 
He there formed the acquaintance of Mackintosh (afterwards 
Sir James), who, though a year his junior in age, was a year his 
senior as a student. While they remained at Aberdeen the two 
were inseparable, reading together the best Greek authors, 
especially Plato, and discussing, either during their walks by 
the sea-shore and the banks of the Don or in their rooms until 
early morning, the most perplexed questions in philosophy and 
religion. 

During the vacation between his last two sessions at Aberdeen, 
Hall acted as assistant pastor to Dr Evans at Broadmead chapel, 
Bristol, and three months after leaving the university he was 
appointed classical tutor in the Bristol academy, an office which 
he held for more than five years. Even at this period his extra- 
ordinary eloquence had excited an interest beyond the bounds 
of the denomination to which he belonged, and when he preached 
the chapel was generally crowded to excess, the audience includ- 
ing many persons of intellectual tastes. Suspicions in regard 
to his orthodoxy having in 1789 led to a misunderstanding with 
his colleague and a part of the congregation, he in July 1790 
accepted an invitation to make trial of a congregation at Cam- 
bridge, of which he became pastor in July of the following year. 
From a statement of his opinions contained in a letter to the 
congregation which he left, it would appear that, while a firm 
believer in the proper divinity of Christ, he had at this time 
disowned the cardinal principles of Calvinism the federal 
headship of Adam, and the doctrine of absolute election and 
reprobation; and that he was so far a materialist as to " hold 
that man's thinking powers and faculties are the result of a 
certain organization of matter, and that after death he ceases 
to be conscious till the resurrection." It was during his Cam- 
bridge ministry, which extended over a period of fifteen years, 
that his oratory was most brilliant and most immediately power- 
ful. At Cambridge the intellectual character of a large part of 
the audience supplied a stimulus which was wanting at Leicester 
and Bristol. 

His first published compositions had a political origin. In 
1791 appeared Christianity consistent with the Love of Freedom, 
in which he defended the political conduct of dissenters against 
the attacks of the Rev. John Clayton, minister of Weighhouse, 
and gave eloquent expression to his hopes of great political and 
social ameliorations as destined to result nearly or remotely 
from the subversion of old ideas and institutions in the maelstrom 
of the French Revolution. In 1793 he expounded his political 
sentiments in a powerful and more extended pamphlet entitled 
an Apology for the Freedom of the Press. On account, however, 
of certain asperities into which the warmth of his feelings had 
betrayed him, and his conviction that he had treated his subject 
in too superficial a manner, he refused to permit the publication 
of the pamphlet beyond the third edition, until the references of 
political opponents and the circulation of copies without his 
sanction induced him in 1821 to prepare a new edition; from 
which he omitted the attack on Bishop Horsley, and to which 
he prefixed an advertisement stating that his political opinions 
had undergone no substantial change. His other publications 
while at Cambridge were, three sermons On Modern Infidelity 
(1801), Reflections on War\(i&o2), and Sentiments proper to the 
present Crisis (1803). He began, however, to suffer from mental 
derangement in November 1804. He recovered so speedily 
that he was able to resume his duties in April 1805, but a recur- 
rence of the malady rendered it advisable for him on his second 
recovery to resign his pastoral office in March 1806. 

On leaving Cambridge he paid a visit to his relatives in 
Leicestershire, and then for some time resided at Enderby, 
preaching occasionally in some of the neighbouring villages. 



850 



HALL, S. C. HALL 



Latterly he ministered to a small congregation in Harvey Lane, 
Leicester, from whom at the close of 1806 he accepted a call to 
be their stated pastor. In the autumn of 1807 he changed his 
residence from Enderby to Leicester, and in 1808 he married the 
servant of a brother minister. His proposal of marriage had 
been made after an almost momentary acquaintance, and, 
according to the traditionary account, in very abrupt and 
peculiar terms; but, judging from his subsequent domestic 
life, his choice did sufficient credit to his penetration and sagacity. 
His writings at Leicester embraced various tracts printed for 
private circulation; a number of contributions to the Eclectic 
Review, among which may be mentioned his articles on " Foster's 
Essays " and on " Zeal without Innovation "; several sermons, 
including those On the Advantages of Knowledge to the Lower 
Classes (1810), On the Death of the Princess Charlotte (1817), 
and On the Death of Dr Ryland (1825); and his pamphlet on 
Terms of Communion, in which he advocated intercommunion 
with all those who acknowledged the " essentials " of Christianity. 
In 1819 he published an edition in one volume of his sermons 
formerly printed. On the death of Dr Ryland, Hall was invited 
to return to the pastorate of Broadmead chapel, Bristol, and as 
the peace of the congregation at Leicester had been to some 
degree disturbed by a controversy regarding several cases of 
discipline, he resolved to accept the invitation, and removed 
there in April 1826. The malady of renal calculus had for many 
years rendered his life an almost continual martyrdom, and 
henceforth increasing infirmities and sufferings afflicted him. 
Gradually the inability to take proper exercise, by inducing 
a plethoric habit of body and impeding the circulation, led to a 
diseased condition of the heart, which resulted in his death on 
the 2ist of February 1831. He is remembered as a great pulpit 
orator, of a somewhat laboured, rhetorical style in his written 
works, but of undeniable vigour in his spoken sermons. 

See Works of Robert Hall, A.M., with a Brief Memoir of his Life, 
by Olinthus Gregory, LL.D., and Observations on his Character as 
Preacher by John Foster, originally published in 6 vols. (London, 
1832) ; Reminiscences of the Rev. Robert Hall, A.M., by John Greene, 
(London, 1832); Biographical Recollections of the Rev. Robert Hall, 
by J. W. Morris (1848); Fifty Sermons of Robert Hall from Notes 
taken at the time of their Delivery, by the Rev. Thomas Grinfield, 
M.A. (1843); Reminiscences of College Life in Bristol during the 
Ministry of the Rev. Robert Hall, A.M., by Frederick Trestrail (1879). 

HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (1800-1889), English journalist, 
was born at Waterford on the gth of May 1800, the son of an 
army officer. In 1821 he went to London, and in 1823 became 
a parliamentary reporter. From 1826 to 1837 he was editor of 
a great number and variety of public prints, and in 1^39 he 
founded and edited The Art Journal. His exposure of the trade 
in bogus " Old Masters " earned for this publication a consider- 
able reputation. Hall resigned the editorship in 1880, and was 
granted a Civil List pension " for his long and valuable services 
to literature and art." He died in London on the i6th of March 
1889. His wife, Anna Maria Fielding (1800-1881), became 
well known as Mrs S. C. Hall, for her numerous novels, sketches 
of Irish life, and plays. Two of the last, The Groves of Blarney 
and The French Refugee, were produced in London with success. 
She also wrote a number of children's books, and was practically 
interested in various London charities, several of which she 
helped to found. 

HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894), English writer on 
international law, was the only child of William Hall, M.D., 
a descendant of a junior branch of the Halls of Dunglass, and 
of Charlotte, daughter of William Cotton, F.S.A. He was born 
on the 22nd of August 1835, at Leatherhead, Surrey, but passed 
his childhood abroad, Dr Hall having acted as physician to the 
king of Hanover, and subsequently to the British legation at 
Naples. Hence, perhaps, the son's taste in after life for art and 
modern languages. He was educated privately till, at the early 
age of seventeen, he matriculated at Oxford, where in 1856 he 
took his degree with a first class in the then recently instituted 
school of law and history, gaining, three years afterwards, the 
chancellor's prize for an essay upon " the effect upon Spain of the 
discovery of the precious metals in America." In 1861 he was 



called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, but devoted his time less to 
any serious attempt to obtain practice than to the study of Italian 
art, and to travelling over a great part of Europe, always bringing 
home admirable water-colour drawings of buildings and scenery. 
He was an early and enthusiastic member of the Alpine Club, 
making several first ascents, notably that of the Lyskamm. He 
was always much interested in military matters, and was 
under fire, on the Danish side, in the war of 1864. In 1867 he 
published a pamphlet entitled " A Plan for the Reorganization 
of the Army," and, many years afterwards, he saw as much 
as he' was permitted to see of the expedition sent for the rescue 
of Gordon. He would undoubtedly have made his mark in the 
army, but in later life his ideal, which he realized, with much 
success, first at Llanfihangel in Monmouthshire, and then at 
Coker Court in Somersetshire, was, as has been said, " the English 
country gentleman, with cosmopolitan experiences, encyclopaedic 
knowledge, and artistic feeling." His travels took him to 
Lapland, Egypt, South America and India. He had done good 
work for several government offices, in 1871 as inspector of 
returns under the Elementary Education Act, in 1877 by reports 
to the Board of Trade upon Oyster Fisheries, in France as well 
as in England; and all the time was amassing materials for 
ambitious undertakings upon the history of civilization, and of 
the colonies. His title to lasting remembrance rests, however, 
upon his labours in the realm of international law, recognized 
by his election as assocti in 1875, and as membrein 1882, of the 
Institut de Droit International. In 1874 he published a thin 8vo 
upon the Rights and Duties of Neutrals, and followed it up in 
1880 by his magnum opm,, the Treatise on International Law, 
unquestionably the best book upon the subject in the English 
language. It is well planned, free from the rhetorical vagueness 
which has been the besetting vice of older books of a similar 
character, full of information, and everywhere bearing traces 
of the sound judgment and statesmanlike views of its author. 
In 1894 Hall published a useful monograph upon a little-explored 
topic, " the Foreign Jurisdictions of the British Crown," but 
on the 3oth of November of the same year, while apparently 
in the fullest enjoyment of bodily as well as mental vigour, he 
suddenly died. He married, in 1866, Imogen, daughter of 
Mr (afterwards Mr Justice) Grove, who died in 1886; and in 
1891, Alice, daughter of Colonel Hill of Court Hill, Shropshire, 
but left no issue. 

See T. E. Holland in Law Quarterly Review, vol. xi. p. 113; and in 
Studies in International Law, p. 302. (T. E. H.) 

HALL, or BAD-HALL, a market-place and spa of Austria, in 
Upper Austria, 25 m. S. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 984. It 
is renowned for its saline springs, strongly impregnated with 
iodine and bromine, which are considered very efficacious in 
scrofulous affections and venereal skin diseases. Although the 
springs are known since the 8th century, Hall attained its actual 
importance only since 1855, when the springs became the 
property of the government. The number of visitors in 1901 
was 4300. 

HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, to distinguish 
it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health 
resort in Upper Austria), a town of Germany, in the kingdom 
of Wiirttemberg, situated in a deep valley on both sides of the 
Kocher, and on the railway from Heilbronn to Krailsheim, 
35 m. N.E. of Stuttgart. Pop: (1905) 9400. It possesses four 
Evangelical churches (of which the Michaeliskirche dates from 
the isth century and has fine medieval carving), a Roman 
Catholic church, a handsome town hall and classical and modern 
schools. A short distance south from the town is the royal 
castle of Komburg, formerly a Benedictine abbey and now used 
as a garrison for invalid soldiers, with a church dating from the 
1 2th century. The town is chiefly known for its production of 
salt, which is converted into brine and piped from Wilhelmsgliick 
mine, 5 m. distant. Connected with the salt-works there is a 
salt-bath and whey-diet establishment. The industries of the 
town also include cotton-spinning, iron founding, tanning, and 
the manufacture of soap, starch, brushes, machines, carriages 
and metal ware. 



HALL HALLAM, HENRY 



851 



Hall was early of importance on account of its salt-mines, 
which were held as a fief of the Empire by the so-called Salzgrafen 
(Salt-graves), of whom the earliest known, the counts of West- 
heim, had their seat in the castle of Hall. Later the town 
belonged to the Knights Templars. It was made a free imperial 
city in 1 276 by Rudolph of Habsburg. In 1802 it came into the 
possession of Wurttemberg. 

HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle), 
a term which has two significations in England and is applied 
sometimes to the manor house, the residence of the lord of the 
manor, which implied a territorial possession, but more often to 
the entrance hall of a mansion. In the latter case it wastheone 
large room in the feudal castle up to the middle of the isth 
century, when it served as audience chamber, dining-room, and 
dormitory. The hall was generally a parallelogram on plan, 
with a raised dais at the farther end, a large bow window on one 
side, and in one or two cases on both sides. At the entrance end 
was a passage, which was separated from the hall by a partition 
screen often elaborately decorated, and over which was provided 
a minstrels' gallery; on the opposite side of the passage were the 
hatches communicating with the serveries. This arrangement 
is still found in some of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, 
such as those of New College, Christchurch, Wadham and 
Magdalen, Oxford, and in Trinity College, Cambridge. In 
private mansions, however, the kitchen and offices have been 
removed to a greater distance, and the great hall is only used for 
banquets. Among the more remarkable examples are the halls 
of Audley End; Hatfield; Brougham Castle; Hard wick; 
Knole Stanway in Gloucestershire; Wollaton, where it is 
situated in the centre of the mansion and lighted by clerestory 
windows; Burton Agnes in Yorkshire; Canons Ashley, North- 
amptonshire; Westwood Park, Worcestershire; Fountains, 
Yorkshire; Sydenham House, Devonshire; Cobham, Kent; 
Montacute, Somersetshire; Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire (vaulted 
and with two columns in the centre of the hall to carry the 
vault); Longford Castle, Wiltshire; Barlborough, Derbyshire; 
Rushton Hall, Northamptonshire, with a bow window at each 
end of the dais and a third bow window at the other end; 
Knole, Kent; and at Mayfield, Sussex (with stone arches across 
to carry the roof), now converted into a Roman Catholic chapel. 
Many of these halls have hammer-beam roofs, the most remark- 
able of which is found in the Middle Temple Hall, London, where 
both the tie and collar beams have hammer-beams. Of other 
halls, Westminster is the largest, being 238 ft. long; followed 
by the Banqueting Hall, Whitehall, no ft; Wolsey's Hall, 
Hampton Court, 106 ft; the Egyptian Hall at the Mansion 
House; the hall at Lambeth, now the library; Crosby Hall; 
Gray's Inn Hall; the Guildhall; Charterhouse; and the 
following halls of the London City Companies Clothworkers, 
Brewers, Goldsmiths, Fishmongers. The term hall is also given 
to the following English mansions: Haddon, Hardwick, 
Apethorpe, Aston, Blickling, Brereton, Burton Agnes, Cobham, 
Dingley, Rushton, Kirby, Litford and Wollaton; and it was 
the name of some of the earlier colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, 
most of which have now been absorbed in other colleges, so that 
there remain only St Edmund's Hall, Oxford, and Trinity Hall, 
Cambridge. 

HALLAM, HENRY (1777-1859), English historian, was the 
only son of John Hallam, canon of Windsor and dean of Bristol, 
and was born on the 9th of July 1777. He was educated at Eton 
and Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in 1 799. Called 
to the bar, he practised for some years on the Oxford circuit; 
but his tastes were literary, and when, on the death of his father 
in 1812, he inherited a small estate in Lincolnshire, he gave 
himself up wholly to the studies of his life. He had early become 
connected with the brilliant band of authors and politicians who 
then led the Whig party, a connexion to which he owed his 
appointment to the well-paid and easy post of commissioner of 
stamps; but in practical politics, for which he was by nature 
unsuited, he took no active share. But he was an active sup- 
porter of many popular movements particularly of that which 
ended in the abolition of the slave trade; and he was throughout 



his entire life sincerely and profoundly attached to the political 
principles of the Whigs, both in their popular and in their 
aristocratic aspect. 

Hallam's earliest literary work was undertaken in connexion 
with the great organ of the Whig party, the Edinburgh Review, 
where his review of Scott's Dryden attracted much notice. His 
first great work, The View of the State of Europe during the 
Middle Ages, was produced in 1818, and was followed nine years 
later by the Constitutional History of England. In 1838-1839 
appeared the Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the ijth, 
i6th and ifth Centuries. These are the three works on which 
the fame of Hallam rests. They at once took a place in English 
literature which has never been seriously challenged. A volume 
of supplemental notes to his Middle Ages was published in 1848. 
These facts and dates represent nearly all the events of Hallam's 
career. The strongest personal interest in his life was the 
affliction which befell him in the loss of his children, one after 
another. His eldest son, Arthur Henry Hallam, the " A.H.H." 
of Tennyson's In Memoriam, and by the testimony of his con- 
temporaries a man of the most brilliant promise, died in 1833 
at the age of twenty-two. Seventeen years later, his second 
son, Henry Fitzmaurice Hallam, was cut off like his brother 
at the very threshold of what might have been a great career. 
The premature death and high talents of these young men, and 
the association of one of them with the most popular poem of the 
age, have made Hallam's family afflictions better known than 
any other incidents of his life. He survived wife, daughter and 
sons by many years. In 1834 Hallam published The Remains 
in Prose and Verse of Arthur Henry Hallam, with a Sketch of his 
Life. In 1852 a selection of Literary Essays and Characters 
from the Literature of Europe was published. Hallam was a 
fellow of the Royal Society, and a trustee of the British Museum, 
and enjoyed many other appropriate distinctions. In 1830 he 
received the gold medal for history, founded by George IV. 
He died on the 2ist of January 1859. 

The Middle Ages is described by Hallam himself as a series 
of historical dissertations, a comprehensive survey of the chief 
circumstances that can interest a philosophical inquirer during 
the period from the 5th to the isth century. The work consists 
of nine long chapters, each of which is a complete treatise in itself. 
The history of France, of Italy, of Spain, of Germany, and of the 
Greek and Saracenic empires, sketched in rapid and general 
terms, is the subject of five separate chapters. Others deal 
with the great institutional features of medieval society the 
development of the feudal system, of the ecclesiastical system, 
and of the free political system of England. The last chapter 
sketches the general state of society, the growth of commerce, 
manners, and literature in the middle ages. The book may be 
regarded' as a general view of early modern history, preparatory 
to the more detailed treatment of special lines of inquiry carried 
out in his subsequent works, although Hallam's original intention 
was to continue the work on the scale on which it had been 
begun. 

The Constitutional History of England takes up the subject 
at the point at which it had been dropped in the View of the 
Middle Ages, viz. the accession of Henry VII., 1 and carries it 
down to the accession of George III. Hallam stopped here for 
a characteristic reason, which it is impossible not to respect and 
to regret. He was unwilling to excite the prejudices of modern 
politics which seemed to him to run back through the whole 
period of the reign of George III. As a matter of fact they ran 
back much farther, as Hallam soon found. The sensitive 
impartiality which withheld him from touching perhaps the 
most interesting period in the history of the constitution did not 
save him from the charge of partisanship. The Quarterly Review 
for 1828 contains an article on the Constitutional History, written 
by Southey, full of railing and reproach. The work, he says, 
is the " production of a decided partisan," who " rakes in the 
ashes of long-forgotten and a thousand times buried slanders, 

1 Lord Brougham, overlooking the constitutional chapter in the 
Middle Ages, censured Hallam for making an arbitrary beginning at 
this point, and proposed to write a more complete history himself. 



HALLAM, ROBERT 



for the means of heaping obloquy on all who supported the 
established institutions of the country." No accusation made 
by a critic ever fell so wide of the mark. Absolute justice is the 
standard which Hallam set himself and maintained. His view 
of constitutional history was that it should contain only so much 
of the political and general history of the time as bears directly 
on specific changes in the organization of the state, including 
therein judicial as well as ecclesiastical institutions. But while 
abstaining from irrelevant historical discussions, Hallam dealt 
with statesmen and policies with the calm and fearless impartiality 
of a judge. It was his cool treatment of such sanctified names 
as Charles, Cranmer and Laud that provoked the indignation of 
Southey and the Quarterly, who forgot that the same impartial 
measure was extended to statesmen on the other side. If 
Hallam can ever be said to have deviated from perfect fairness, 
it was in the tacit assumption that the ipth-century theory of 
the constitution was the right theory in previous centuries, and 
that those who departed from it on one side or the other were 
in the wrong. He did unconsciously antedate the constitution, 
and it is clear from incidental allusions in his last work that he 
did not regard with favour the democratic changes which he 
thought to be impending. Hallam, like Macaulay, ultimately 
referred all political questions to the standard of Whig con- 
stitutionalism. But though his work is thus, Eke that of many 
historians, coloured by his opinions, this was not the outcome 
of a conscious purpose, and he was scrupulously conscientious 
in collecting and weighing his materials. In this he was helped 
by his legal training, and it was doubtless this fact which made 
the Constitutional History one of the text-books of English 
politics, to which men of all parties appealed, and which, in 
spite of all the work of later writers, still leaves it a standard 
authority. 

Like the Constitutional History, the Introduction to the Literature 
of Europe continues one of the branches of inquiry which had 
been opened in the View of the Middle Ages. In the first chapter 
of the Literature, which is to a great extent supplementary to 
the last chapter of the Middle Ages, Hallam sketches the state 
of literature in Europe down to the end of the I4th century: 
the extinction of ancient learning which followed the fall of the 
Roman empire and the rise of Christianity; the preservation 
of the Latin language in the services of the church; and the slow 
revival of letters, which began to show itself soon after the 7th 
century " the nadir of the human mind " had been passed. 
For the first century and a half of his special period he is mainly 
occupied with a review of classical learning, and he adopts the 
plan of taking short decennial periods and noticing the most 
remarkable works which they produced. The rapid growth of 
literature in the i6th century compels him to resort to a classifica- 
tion of subjects. Thus in the period 1520-1550 we have separate 
chapters on ancient literature, theology, speculative philosophy 
and jurisprudence, the literature of taste, and scientific and 
miscellaneous literature; and the subdivisions of subjects is 
carried further of course in the later periods. Thus poetry, the 
drama and polite literature form the subjects of separate 
chapters. One inconvenient result of this arrangement is that 
the same author is scattered over many chapters, according as his 
works fall within this category or that period of time. Names 
like Shakespeare, Grotius, Bacon, Hobbes appear in half a dozen 
different places. The individuality of great authors is thus 
dissipated except when it has been preserved by an occasional 
sacrifice of the arrangement and this defect, if it is to be 
esteemed a defect, is increased by the very sparing references 
to personal history and character with which Hallam was 
obliged to content himself. His plan excluded biographical 
history, nor is the work, he tells us, to be regarded as one of 
reference. It is rigidly an account of the books which would 
make a complete library of the period ,' arranged according to the 
date of their publication and the nature of their subjects. The 
history of institutions like universities and academies, and that 
of great popular movements like the Reformation, are of course 

1 Technical subjects like painting or English law have been ex- 
cluded by Hallam, and history and theology only partially treated. 



noticed in their immediate connexion with literary results; 
but Hallam had little -taste for the spacious generalization which 
such subjects suggest. The great quah'ties displayed in this 
work have been universally acknowledged conscientiousness, 
accuracy, judgment and enormous reading. Not the least 
striking testimony to Hallam's powers is his mastery over so 
many diverse forms of intellectual activity. In science and 
theology, mathematics and poetry, metaphysics and law, he is a 
competent and always a fair if not a profound critic. The bent 
of his own mind is manifest in his treatment of pure literature 
and of political speculation which seems to be inspired with 
stronger personal interest and a higher sense of power than other 
parts of his work display. Not less worthy of notice in a literary 
history is the good sense by which both his learning and his tastes 
have been held in control. Probably no writer ever possessed a 
juster view of the relative importance of men and things. The 
labour devoted to an investigation is with Hallam no excuse for 
dwelling on the result, unless that is in itself important. He turns 
away contemptuously from the mere curiosities of literature, 
and is never tempted to make a display of trivial erudition. 
Nor do we find that his interest in special studies leads him to 
assign them a disproportionate place in his general view of the 
literature of a period. 

Hallam is generally described as a " philosophical historian." 
The description is justified not so much by any philosophical 
quality in his method as by the nature of his subject and his own 
temper. Hallam is a philosopher to this extent that both in 
political and in literary history he fixed his attention on results 
rather than on persons. His conception of history embraced 
the whole movement of society. Beside that conception the 
issue of battles and the fate of kings fall into comparative 
insignificance. " We can trace the pedigree of princes," he 
reflects, "fill up the catalogue of towns besieged and provinces 
desolated, describe even the whole pageantry of coronations and 
festivals, but we cannot recover the genuine history of mankind." 
But, on the other hand, there is no trace in Hallam of anything 
like a philosophy of history or society. Wise and generally 
melancholy reflections on human nature and political society 
are not infrequent in his writings, and they arise naturally and 
incidentally out of the subject he is discussing. His object is 
the attainment of truth in matters of fact. Sweeping theories 
of the movement of society, and broad characterizations of 
particular periods of history seem to have no attraction for him. 
The view of mankind on which such generalizations are usually 
based, taking little account of individual character, was highly 
distasteful to him. Thus he objects to the use of statistics 
because they favour that tendency to regard all men as mentally 
and morally equal which is so unhappily strong in modern times. 
At the same time Hallam by no means assumes the tone of the 
mere scholar. He is even solicitous to show that his point of 
view is that of the cultivated gentleman and not of the specialist 
of any order. Thus he tells us that Montaigne is the first French 
author whom an English gentleman is ashamed not to have read. 
In fact, allusions to the necessary studies of a gentleman meet 
us constantly, reminding us of the unlikely erudition of the 
schoolboy in Macaulay. Hallam's prejudices, so far as he had 
any, belong to the same character. His criticism is apt to 
assume a tone of moral censure when he has to deal with certain 
extremes of human thought scepticism in philosophy, atheism 
in religion and democracy in politics. 

Hallam's style is singularly uniform throughout all his writings. 
It is sincere and straightforward, and obviously innocent of any 
motive beyond that of clearly expressing the writer's meaning. 
In the Literature of Europe there are many passages of great 
imaginative beauty. (E. R.) 

HALLAM, ROBERT (d. 1417), bishop of Salisbury and 
English representative at the council of Constance, was educated 
at Oxford, and was chancellor of the university from 1403 to 
1405. In the latter year the pope nominated him to be arch- 
bishop of York, but the king objected. However, in 1407 he 
was consecrated by Gregory XII. at Siena as bishop of Salis- 
bury. At the council of Pisa in 1409 he was one of the English 



HALLE, SIR C. HALLE 



853 



representatives. On the 6th of June 1411 Pope John XXIII. made 
Hallam a cardinal, but there was some irregularity, and his title 
was not recognized. At the council of Constance (q.v.), which met 
in November 1414, Hallam was the chief English envoy. There 
he at once took a prominent position, as an advocate of the cause 
of Church reform, and of the superiority of the council to the 
pope. In the discussions which led up to the deposition of 
John XXIII. on the zgth of May 1415 he had a leading share. 
With the trials of John Hus and Jerome of Prague he had less 
concern. The emperor Sigismund, through whose influence 
the council had been assembled, was absent during the whole 
of 1416 on a diplomatic mission in France and England; but 
when he returned to Constance in January 1417, as the open 
ally of the English king, Hallam as Henry's trusted representative 
obtained increased importance. Hallam contrived skilfully 
to emphasize English prestige by delivering the address of 
welcome to Sigismund on his formal reception. Afterwards, 
under his master's direction, he gave the emperor vigorous 
support in the endeavour to secure a reform of the Church, 
before the council proceeded to the election of a new pope. This 
matter was still undecided when Hallam died suddenly, on the 
4th of September 1417. After his death the direction of the 
English nation fell into less skilful hands, with the result that 
the cardinals were able to secure the immediate election of a new 
pope (Martin V., elected on the i ith of November). It has been 
supposed that the abandonment of the reformers by the English 
was due entirely to Hallam's death; but it is more likely that 
Henry V., foreseeing the possible need for a change of front, 
had given Hallam discretionary powers which the bishop's 
successors used with too little judgment. Hallam himself, 
who had the confidence of Sigismund and was generally respected 
for his straightforward independence, might have achieved a 
better result. Hallam was buried in the cathedral at Constance, 
where his tomb near the high altar is marked by a brass of 
English workmanship. 

For the acts of the council of Constance see H. von der Hardt's 
Concilium Constantiense, and H. Finke's Ada concilii Constanciensis. 
For a modern account see Mandell Creighton's History of the Papacy 
(6 vols., London, 1897). (C. L. K.) 

HALLE, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1810-1895), 
English pianist and conductor, German by nationality, was 
born at Hagen, in Westphalia, on the nth of April 1819. He 
studied under Rink at Darmstadt in 1835, an d a s early as 1836 
went to Paris, where for twelve years he lived in constant inter- 
course with Cherubini, Chopin, Liszt and other musicians, and 
enjoyed the friendship of such great literary figures as Alfred 
de Musset and George Sand. He had started a set of chamber 
concerts with Alard and Franchomme with great success, and 
had completed one series of them when the revolution of 1848 
drove him from Paris, and he settled, with his wife and two 
children, in London. His pianoforte recitals, given at first from 
1850 in his own house, and from 1861 in St James's Hall, were an 
important feature of London musical life, and it was due in 
great measure to them that a knowledge of Beethoven's piano- 
forte sonatas became general in English society. At the Musical 
Union founded by John Ella, and at the Popular Concerts from 
their beginning, Halle was a frequent performer, and from 1853 
was director of the Gentlemen's Concerts in Manchester, where, 
in 1857, he started a series of concerts of his own, raising the 
orchestra to a pitch of perfection quite unknown at that time 
in England. In 1888 he married Madame Norman Neruda 
(b. 1839), the violinist, widow of Ludwig Norman, and daughter 
of Josef Neruda, members of whose family had long been famous 
for musical talent. In the same year he was knighted; and 
in 1890 and 1891 he toured with his wife in Australia and else- 
where. He died at Manchester on the 25th of October 1895. 
Halle exercised an important influence in the musical education 
of England; if his pianoforte-playing, by which he was mainly 
known to the public in London, seemed remarkable rather for 
precision than for depth, for crystal clearness rather than for 
warmth, and for perfect realization of the written text rather 
than for strong individuality, it was at least of immense value 



as giving the composer's idea with the utmost fidelity. Those 
who were privileged to hear him play in private, like those who 
could appreciate the power, beauty and imaginative warmth 
of his conducting, would have given a very different verdict; 
and they were not wrong in judging Halle to be a man of the 
widest and keenest artistic sympathies, with an extraordinary 
gift of insight into music of every school, as well as a strong sense 
of humour. He fought a long and arduous battle for the best 
music, and never forgot the dignity of his art. In spite of the 
fact that his technique was that of his youth, of the period before 
Liszt, the ease and certainty he attained in the most modern 
music was not the less wonderful because he concealed the 
mechanical means so completely. 

Lady Halle, who from 1864 onwards had been one of the leading 
solo violinists of the time, was constantly associated with her 
husband on the concert stage till his death; and in 1896 a public 
subscription was organized in her behalf, under royal patronage. 
She continued to appear occasionally in public, notably as late 
as 1907, when she played at the Joachim memorial concert. In 
1901 she was given by Queen Alexandra the title of "violinist 
to the queen." A fine classical player and artist, frequently 
associated with Joachim, Lady Halle was the first of the women 
violinists who could stand comparison with men. 

HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, to distinguish it 
from the small town of Halle in Westphalia), a town of Germany, 
in the Prussian province of Saxony, situated in a sandy plain on 
the right bank of the Saale, which here divides into several arms, 
21 m. N.W. from Leipzig by the railway to Magdeburg. Pop. 
(1875), 60,503; (1885) 81,982; (1895) 116,304; (1905) 160,031. 
Owing to its situation at the junction of six important lines of 
railway, bringing it into direct communication with Berlin, 
Breslau, Leipzig, Frankfort-on-Main, the Harz country and 
Hanover, it has greatly developed in size and in commercial 
and industrial importance. It consists of the old, or inner, town 
surrounded by promenades, which occupy the site of the former 
fortifications, and beyond these of two small towns, Glaucha 
in the south and Neumarkt in the north, and five rapidly in- 
creasing suburbs. The inner town is irregularly built and 
presents a somewhat unattractive appearance, but it has been 
much improved and modernized by the laying out of new streets. 

The centre of the town proper is occupied by the imposing 
market square, on which stand the fine medieval town haU 
(restored in 1883) and the handsome Gothic Marienkirche, 
dating mainly from the i6th century, with two towers connected 
by a bridge. In the middle of the square are a clock-tower 
(Der rote Turm) 276 ft. in height, and a bronze statue of Handel, 
the composer, a native of Halle. West of the market-square lies 
the Halle, or the Tal, where the brine springs (see below) issue. 
Among the eleven churches, nine Protestant and two Roman 
Catholic, may also be mentioned the St Moritzkirche, dating 
from the I2th century, with fine wood carvings and sculptures, 
and the cathedral (belonging since 1689 to the Reformed or 
Calvinistic church), built in the i6th century and containing an 
altar-piece representing Duke Augustus of Saxony and his 
family. Of secular buildings the most noticeable are the ruins 
of the castle of Moritzburg, formerly a citadel and the residence 
of the archbishops of Magdeburg, destroyed by fire in the Thirty 
Years' War, with the exception of the left wing now used for 
military purposes, the university buildings, the theatre and the 
new railway station. The famous university was founded by 
the elector Frederick III. of Brandenburg (afterwards king of 
Prussia), in 1694, on behalf of the jurist, Christian Thomasius 
(1655-1728), whom many students followed to Halle, when he was 
expelled from Leipzig through the enmity of his fellow professors. 
It was closed by Napoleon in 1806 and again in 1813, but in 1815 
was re-established and augmented by the removal to it of the 
university of Wittenberg, with which it thus became united. 
It has faculties of theology, law, medicine and philosophy. 
From the-first it has been recognized as one of the principal seats 
of Protestant theology, originally of the pietistic and latterly of 
the rationalistic and critical school. In connexion with the 
university there are a botanical garden, a theological seminary, 



HALLECK, F. HALLECK, H. W. 



anatomical, pathological and physical institutes, hospitals, an 
agricultural institute one of the foremost institutions of the 
kind in Germany a meteorological institute, an observatory 
and a library of 180,000 printed volumes and 800 manuscripts. 
Among other educational establishments must be mentioned 
the Francke'sche Stiftungen, founded in 1691 by August Hermann 
Francke (1663-1727), a bronze statue of whom by Rauch was 
erected in 1829 in the inner court of the building. They embrace 
an orphanage, a laboratory where medicines are prepared and 
distributed, a Bible press from which Bibles are issued at a cheap 
rate, and eight schools of various grades, attended in all by over 
3000 pupils. The other principal institutions are the city 
gymnasium, the provincial lunatic asylum, the prison, the town 
hospital and infirmary, and the deaf and dumb institute. The 
salt-springs of Halle have been known from a very early period. 
Some rise within the town and others on an island in the 
Saale; and together their annual yield of salt is about 8500 
tons. 

The workmen employed at the salt-works are of a peculiar race 
and are known as the Halloren. They have been usually regarded 
as descendants of the original Wendish inhabitants, or as Celtic 
immigrants, with an admixture of Prankish elements. They 
wear a distinct dress, the ordinary costume of about 1700, 
observe several ancient customs, and enjoy certain exemptions 
and privileges derived from those of the ancient Pfannerschaft 
(community of the salt-panners). 

Among the other industries of Halle are sugar refining, machine 
building, the manufacture of spirits, malt, chocolate, cocoa, 
confectionery, cement, paper, chicory, lubricating and illuminat- 
ing oil, wagon grease, carriages and playing cards, printing, 
dyeing and coal mining (soft brown coal). The trade, which is 
supervised by a chamber of commerce, is very considerable, the 
principal exports being machinery, raw sugar and petroleum. 
Halle is also noted as the seat of several important publishing 
firms. The Bibelanstalt (Bible institution) of von Castein is the 
central authority for the revision of Luther's Bible, of which it 
sells annually from 60,000 to 70,000 copies. 

Halle is first mentioned as a fortress erected on the Saale in 806 
by Charles, son of Charlemagne, during his expedition against the 
Sorbs. The place was, however, known long before, and owes its 
origin as well as its name to the salt springs (Halis). In 968 Halle, 
with the valuable salt works, was given by the emperor Otto I. to 
the newly founded archdiocese of Magdeburg, and in 981 Otto II. 
gave it a charter as a town. The interests of the archbishop were 
watched over by a Vogt (advocatus) and a burgrave, and from the 
first there were separate jurisdictions for the Halloren and the 
German settlers in the town, the former being under that of the 
Salzgraf (comes sails), the latter of a Schultheiss or bailiff, both 
subordinate to the burgrave. The conflict of interests and juris- 
dictions led to the usual internecine strife during the middle ages. The 
panners (Pfanner) of the Tal, feudatories or officials, became a close 
hereditary aristocracy in perpetual rivalry with the gilds in the town ; 
and both resisted the pretensions of the archbishops. At the 
beginning of the I2th century Halle had attained considerable im- 
portance, and in the I3th and I4th centuries as a member of the 
Hanseatic League it carried on successful wars with the archbishops 
of Magdeburg ; and in 1435 it resisted an army of 30,000 men under 
the elector of Saxony. Its liberty perished, however, as a result 
of the internal feud between the democratic gilds and the patrician 
panners. On the 2Oth of September 1478 a demagogue and cobbler 
named Jakob Weissak, a member of the town council, with his 
confederates opened the gates to the soldiers of the archbishop. The 
townsmen were subdued, and to hold them in check the archbishop, 
Ernest of Saxony, built the castle of Moritzburg. Notwithstanding 
the efforts of the archbishops of Mainz and Magdeburg, the Refor- 
mation found an entrance into the city in 1522; and in 1541 a 
Lutheran superintendent was appointed. After the peace of West- 
phalia in 1648 the city came into the possession of the house of 
Brandenburg. In 1806 it was stormed and taken by. the French, 
after which, at the peace of Tilsit, it was united to the new kingdom 
of Westphalia. After the battle between the Prussians and French, 
in May 1813, it was taken by the Prussians. The rise of Leipzig 
was for a long time hurtful to the prosperity of Halle, and its present 
rapid increase in population and trade is principally due to its position 
as the centre of a network of railways. 

See Dreyhaupt, Ausfiihrliche Beschreibung des Saalkreises (Halle, 
2 vols., 1755; 3rd edition, 1842-1844); Hoffbauer, Geschichte der 
Universitdt zu Halle ( 1 806) ; Halle in Vorzeit und Gegenwart (1851); 
Knauth, Kurze Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Halle (3rd ed., 
1861); vom Hagen, Die Stadt Halle (1866-1867); Hertzberg, 



Geschichte der Vereinigung der Universitaten von Wittenberg und 
Halle (1867); Voss, Zur Geschichte der Autonomie der Stadt Halle 
(1874); Schrader, Geschichte der Friedrichs-Universitdt zu Halle 
(Berlin, 1894); Karl Hegel, Slddte und Gilden der germanischen 
Volker (Leipzig, 1891), ii. 444-449. 

HALLECK, FITZ-GREENE (1790-1867), American poet, was 
born at Guilford, Connecticut, on the 8th of July 1790. By his 
mother he was descended from John Eliot, the " Apostle to the 
Indians." At an early age he became clerk in a store at Guil- 
ford, and in 1811 he entered a banking-house in New York. 
Having made the acquaintance of Joseph Rodman Drake, in 1819 
he assisted him under the signature of " Croaker junior " in 
contributing to the New York Evening Post the humorous series 
of " Croaker Papers." In 1821 he published his longest poem, 
Fanny, a satire on local politics and fashions in the measure of 
Byron's Don Juan. He visited Europe in 1822-1823, and after 
his return published anonymously in 1827 Alnwick Castle, with 
other Poems. From 1832 to 1841 he was confidential agent of 
John Jacob Astor, who named him one of- the trustees of the 
Astor library. In 1864 he published in the New York Ledger 
a poem of 300 lines entitled " Young America." He died at 
Guilford, on the igih of November 1867. The poems of Halleck 
are written with great care and finish, and manifest the possession 
of a fine sense of harmony and of genial and elevated sentiments. 

His Life and Letters, by James Grant Wilson, appeared in 1869. 
His Poetical Writings, together with extracts from those of Joseph 
Rodman Drake, were edited by Wilson in the same year. 

HALLECK, HENRY WAGER (1815-1872), American general 
and jurist, was born at Westernville, Oneida county, N.Y., 
in 1815, entered the West Point military academy at the age of 
twenty, and on graduating in 1839 was appointed to the engineers, 
becoming at the same time assistant professor of engineering 
at the academy. In the following year he was made an assistant 
to the Board of Engineers at Washington, from 1841 to 1846 
he was employed on the defence works at New York, and in 
1845 he was sent by the government to visit the principal 
military establishments of Europe. After his return, Halleck 
delivered a course of lectures on the science of war, published 
in 1846 under the title Elements of Military Art and Science. 
A later edition of this work was widely used as a text-book by 
volunteer officers during the Civil War. On the outbreak of the 
Mexican War in 1846, he served with the expedition to California 
and the Pacific coast, in which he distinguished himself not only 
as an engineer, but by his skill in civil administration and by his 
good conduct before the enemy. He served for several years 
in California as a staff officer, and as secretary of state under the 
military government, and in 1849 ne helped to frame the state 
constitution of California, on its being admitted into the Union. 
In 1852 he was appointed inspector and engineer of lighthouses, 
and in 1853 was employed in the fortification of the Pacific 
coast. In 1854 Captain Halleck resigned his commission and 
took up the practice of law with great success. He was also 
director of a quicksilver mine, and in 1855 he became president 
of the Pacific & Atlantic railway. On the outbreak of the Civil 
War he returned to the army as a major-general, and in 
November 1861 he was charged with the supreme command in 
the western theatre of war. There can be no question that his 
administrative skill was mainly instrumental in bringing order 
out of chaos in the hurried formation of large volunteer armies 
in 1861, but the strategical and tactical successes of the following 
spring were due rather to the skill and activity of his subordinate 
generals Grant, Buell and Pope, than to the plans of the supreme 
commander, and when he assumed command of the united forces 
of these three generals before Corinth, the methodical slowness 
of his advance aroused much criticism. In July, however, he 
was called to Washington as general-in-chief of the armies. At 
headquarters his administrative powers were conspicuous, 
but he proved to be utterly wanting in any large grasp of the 
military problem; the successive reverses of Generals McClellan, 
Pope, Burnside and Hooker in Virginia were not infrequently 
traceable to the defects of the general-in-chief. No co-ordination 
of the military efforts of the Union was seriously undertaken by 
Halleck, and eventually in March 1864 Grant was appointed to 



HALLEFLINTA HALLER, A. VON 



855 



replace him, Major-General Halleck becoming chief of staff at 
Washington. This post he occupied with credit until the 
end of the war. In April 1865 he held the command of the 
military division of the James and in August of the same year 
of the military division of the Pacific, which he retained till 
June 1869, when he was transferred to that of the South, a 
position he held till his death at Louisville, Ky., on the gth of 
January 1872. Halleck's position as a soldier is easily denned 
by his uniform success as an administrative official, his equally 
uniform want of success as an officer at the head of large armies 
in the field, and the popularity of his theoretical writings on 
war. His influence, for good or evil, on the course of the greatest 
war of modern times was greater than that of any soldier on 
either side save Grant and Lee, and whilst his interference with 
the dispositions of the commanders in the field was often dis- 
astrous, his services in organizing and instructing the Union 
forces were always of the highest value, and in this respect he 
was indispensable. 

Besides Military Art and Science, Halleck wrote Bitumen, its 
Varieties, Properties and Uses (1841); The Mining Laws of Spain 
and Mexico (1859); International Law (1861; new edition, 1908); 
and Treatise on International Law and the Laws of War, prepared 
for the use of Schools and Colleges, abridged from the larger work. 
He translated Jomini's Vie politique et militaire de Napoleon (1864) 
and de Fooz On the Law of Mines (1860). The works on international 
law mentioned above entitle General Halleck to be considered as 
one of the great jurists of the igth century. 

HALLEFLINTA (a Swedish word meaning rock-flint), a white, 
grey, yellow, greenish or pink, fine-grained rock consisting of 
an intimate mixture of quartz and felspar. Many examples 
are banded or striated; others contain porphyritic crystals 
of quartz which resemble those of the felsites and porphyries. 
Mica, iron oxides, apatite, zircon, epidote and hornblende may 
also be present in small amount. The more micaceous varieties 
form transitions to granulite and gneiss. Halleflinta under the 
microscope is very finely crystalline, or even cryptocrystalline, 
resembling the felsitic matrix of many acid rocks. It is essentially 
metamorphic and occurs with gneisses, schists and granulites, 
especially in the Scandinavian peninsula, where it is regarded 
as being very characteristic of certain horizons. Of its original 
nature there is some doubt, but its chemical composition and 
the occasional presence of porphyritic crystals indicate that it 
has affinities to the fine-grained acid intrusive rocks. In this 
group there may also have been placed metamorphosed acid 
tuffs and a certain number of adinoles (shales, contact altered 
by intrusions of diabase). The assemblage is not a perfectly 
homogeneous one but includes both igneous and sedimentary 
rocks, but the former preponderate. Rocks very similiar to the 
typical Swedish halleflintas occur in Tirol, in Galicia and eastern 
Bohemia. 

HALLEL (Heb. V?rt a Mishnic derivative from ^" hillel, 
" to praise "), a term in synagogal liturgy for (a) Psalms 
cxiii.-cxviii., often called " the Egyptian Hallel " because of its 
recitation during the paschal meal on the night of the Passover, 
(6) Psalm cxxxvi. "the Great Hallel." C. A. Briggs 1 points out 
that the term " Hallelujah " (Praise ye Yah) is found at the 
close of Pss. civ., cv., cxv., cxvi., cxvii., at the beginning of 
Pss. cxi., cxii. and at both ends of Pss. cvi., cxiii., cxxxv., cxlvi. 
to cl. The Septuagint also gives it at the beginning of Pss. cv., 
cvii., cxiv., cxvi. to cxix., cxxxvi. There are thus four groups 
of Hallel psalms: civ.-cvii. (a tetralogy on creation, the 
patriarchal age, the Exodus, and the Restoration); cxi.-cxvii. 
which includes most of the "Egyptian Hallel"; cxxxv.-cxxxvi. ; 
cxlvi.-cl. All of these Hallels (except cxlvii. and cxlix. which 
are Maccabean) belong to the Greek period, forming a collection 
of sixteen psalms composed for public use by the choirs, especially 
at the great feasts. Their distribution into four groups was the 
work of the final editor of the psalter. Later liturgical use 
regarded Pss. cxviii. and even cxix. as Hallels, as well as Pss. 
cxx. to cxxxiv. 

It will be observed that the extent of the official Hallel varied 
from time to time. It would appear that in the time of Gamaliel 

1 International Critical Commentary, " Psalms," Intro. Ixxviii. 



(Pesahim x. 5) the custom of its recitation at the paschal meal 
was still of recent innovation. While the school of Shammai 
advised only Ps. cxiii., the school of Hillel favoured Pss. cxiii. 
and cxiv. 2 The further extension so as to include Pss. cxv. to 
cxviii. probably dates from the first half of the 2nd century A.D., 
and these four psalms were recited after the pouring out of the 
fourth cup, the two earlier ones being taken at the beginning of 
the meal. From the 3rd century the use of the Hallel was 
extended to other occasions, and was gradually incorporated 
into the liturgy of eighteen festal days. 

The " Great Hallel " (Ps. cxxxvi. and its later extension to 
cxx.-cxxxvi.) always served the wider purpose of a more general 
thanksgiving. According to Rabbi Johanan it derived its name 
from the allusion in v. 25 to the Holy One who sits in heaven and 
thence distributes food to all his creatures. 

HALLER, ALBRECHT VON (1708-1777), Swiss anatomist 
and physiologist, was born of an old Swiss family at Bern, on the 
1 6th of October 1708. Prevented by long-continued ill-health 
from taking part in boyish sports, he had the more opportunity 
for the development of his precocious mind. At the age of four, 
it is said, he used to read and expound the Bible to his father's 
servants; before he was ten he had sketched a Chaldee grammar, 
prepared a Greek and a Hebrew vocabulary, compiled a collection 
of two thousand biographies of famous men and women on the 
model of the great works of Bayle and Moreri, and written in 
Latin verse a satire on his tutor, who had warned him against 
a too great excursiveness. When still hardly fifteen he was 
already the author of numerous metrical translations from Ovid, 
Horace and Virgil, as well as of original lyrics, dramas, and an 
epic of four thousand lines on the origin of the Swiss confedera- 
tions, writings which he is said on one occasion to have rescued 
from a fire at the risk of his life, only, however, to burn them a 
little later (1729) with his own hand. Haller's attention had 
been directed to the profession of medicine while he was residing 
in the house of a physician at Biel after his father's death in 
1721; and, following the choice then made, he while still a 
sickly and excessively shy youth went in his sixteenth year to 
the university of Tubingen (December 1723), where he studied 
under Camerarius and Duvernoy. Dissatisfied with his progress, 
he in 1725 exchanged Tubingen for Leiden, where Boerhaave 
was in the zenith of his fame, and where Albinus had already 
begun to lecture in anatomy. At that university he graduated 
in May 1727, undertaking successfully in his thesis to prove that 
the so-called salivary duct; claimed as a recent discovery by 
Coschwitz, was nothing more than a blood-vessel. Haller then 
visited London, making the acquaintance of Sir Hans Sloane, 
Cheselden, Pringle, Douglas and other scientific men; next, 
after a short stay in Oxford, he visited Paris, where he studied 
under Ledran and Winslow; and in 1728 he proceeded to Basel, 
where he devoted himself to the study of the higher mathematics 
under John Bernoulli. It was during his stay there also that 
his first great interest in botany was awakened; and, in the 
course of a tour (July-August, 1828), through Savoy, Baden 
and several of the Swiss cantons, he began a collection of plants 
which was afterwards the basis of his great work on the flora 
of Switzerland. From a literary point of view the main result 
of this, the first of his many journeys through the Alps, was his 
peom entitled Die Alpen, which was finished in March 1729, 
and appeared in the first edition (1732) of his Gedichte. This 
poem of 490 hexameters is historically important as one of the 
earliest signs of the awakening appreciation of the mountains 
(hitherto generally regarded as horrible monstrosities), though 
it is chiefly designed to contrast the simple and idyllic life of the 
inhabitants of the Alps with the corrupt and decadent existence 
of the dwellers in the plains. 

In 1729 he returned to Bern and began to practise as a 
physician; his best energies, however, were devoted to the 
botanical and anatomical researches which rapidly gave him a 
European reputation, and procured for him from George II. 

1 The reference to a hymn at the institution of the Eucharist 
(Matt. xxvi. 30, Mark xiv. 26) must be interpreted in the light of this 
inceptive stage of the Hallel. 



856 



HALLER, B. HALLEY 



in 1736 a call to the chair of medicine, anatomy, botany and 
surgery in the newly founded university of Gottingen. He became 
F.R.S. in 1743, and was ennobled in 1749. The quantity of 
work achieved by Haller in the seventeen years during which 
he occupied his Gottingen professorship was immense. Apart 
from the ordinary work of his classes, which entailed upon him 
the task of newly organizing a botanical garden, an anatomical 
theatre and museum, an obstetrical school, and similar institu- 
tions, he carried on without interruption those original investiga- 
tions in botany and physiology, the results of which are preserved 
in the numerous works associated with his name; he continued 
also to persevere in his youthful habit of poetical composition, 
while at the same time he conducted a monthly journal (the 
Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen), to which he is said to have 
contributed twelve thousand articles relating to almost every 
branch of human knowledge. He also warmly interested himself 
in most of the religious questions, both ephemeral and 
permanent, of his day; and the erection of the Reformed church 
in Gottingen was mainly due to his unwearied energy. Not- 
withstanding all this variety of absorbing interests he never 
felt at home in Gottingen; his untravelled heart kept ever 
turning towards his native Bern (where he had been elected a 
member of the great council in 1745), and in 1753 he resolved to 
resign his chair and return to Switzerland. 

The twenty-one years of his life which followed were largely 
occupied in the discharge of his duties in the minor political post 
of a Rathhausammann which he had obtained by lot, and in the 
preparation of his Bibliotheca medica, the botanical, surgical 
and anatomical parts of which he lived to complete; but he 
also found time to write the three philosophical romances 
Usong (1771), Alfred (1773) and Fabius and Cato (1774), in 
which his views as to the respective merits of despotism, of 
limited monarchy and of aristocratic republican government are 
fully set forth. About 1773 the state of his health rendered 
necessary his entire withdrawal from public business; for some 
time he supported his failing strength by means of opium, on the 
use of which he communicated a paper to the Proceedings of 
the Gottingen Royal Society in 1776; the excessive use of the 
drug is believed, however, to have hastened his death, which 
occurred on the i7th of December 1777. Haller, who had been 
three times married, left eight children, the eldest of whom, 
Gottlieb Emanuel, attained to some distinction as a botanist 
and as a writer on Swiss historical bibliography (1785-1788, 
7 vols.). 

Subjoined is a classified but by no means an exhaustive list of his 
very numerous works in various branches of science and literature 
(a complete list, up to 1775, numbering 576 items, including various 
editions, was published by Haller himself, in 1775, at the end of 
vol. 6 of the correspondence addressed to him by various learned 
friends): (i) Anatomical -.Icones anatomicae (1743-1754); Dis- 
putationes anatomicae selections (1746-1752); and Opera acad. 
minora anatomici argumenti (1762-1768). (2) Physiological: De 
respiratione experimenta anatomica (1747) ; Primae lineae physiologiae 
(1747); and Elementa physiologiae corporis humani (1757-1760). 
(3) Pathological and surgical: Opuscula pathologica (1754); Dis- 
putationum chirurg. collectio (1777); also careful editions of Boer- 
haave's Praelectiones academicae in suas instituliones rei medicae 
(!739). and of the Arlis medicae principia of the same author (1769- 
1774). (4) Botanical : Enumeratio methodica stirpium Helveticarum 
(1742); Opuscula botanica (1749); Bibliotheca botanica (1771). (5) 
Theological : Briefe tiber die wichtigsten Wahrheiten der Offenbarung 
(1772); and Briefe zur Vertheidigung der Offenbarung (1775 1777)- 
(6) Poetical: Gedichle (1732, I2th ed., 1777). His three romances 
have been already mentioned. Several volumes of lectures and 
" Tagebiicher " or journals were published posthumously. 

See J. G. Zimmermann, Das Leben des Herrn von Haller (1755), 
and the articles by Forster and Seiler in Ersch and Gruber's Encyklo- 
pddie, and particularly the detailed biography (over 500 pages) by 
L. Hirzel, printed at the head of his elaborate edition (Frauenfeld, 
1882) of Haller's Gedichte. 

HALLER, BERTHOLD (1492-1536), Swiss reformer, was born 
at Aldingen in Wurttemberg, and after studying at Pforzheim, 
where he met Melanchthon, and at Cologne, taught in the 
gymnasium at Bern. He was appointed assistant preacher at 
the church' of St Vincent in 1515 and people's priest in 1520. 
Even before his acquaintance with Zwingli in 1521 he had begun 
to preach the Reformation, his sympathetic character and his 



eloquence making him a great force. In 1526 he was at the 
abortive conference of Baden, and in January 1528 drafted and 
defended the ten theses for the conference of Bern which 
established the new religion in that city. He left no writings 
except a few letters which are preserved in Zwingli's works. 
He died on the 25th of February 1536. 

Life by Pestalozzi (Elberfeld, 1861). 

HALLEY, EDMUND (1656-1742), English astronomer, was 
born at Haggerston, London, on the 29th of October 1656. 
His father, a wealthy soapboiler, placed him at St Paul's school, 
where he was equally distinguished for classical and mathe- 
matical ability. Before leaving it for Queen's College, Oxford, 
in 1673, he had observed the change in the variation of the 
compass, and at the age of nineteen, he supplied a new and 
improved method of determining the elements of the planetary 
orbits (Phil. Trans, xi. 683). His detection of considerable 
errors in the tables then in use led him to the conclusion that a 
more accurate ascertainment of the places of the fixed stars was 
indispensable to the progress of astronomy; and, finding that 
Flamsteed and Hevelius had already undertaken to catalogue 
those visible in northern latitudes, he assumed to himself the 
task of making observations in the southern hemisphere. A 
recommendation from Charles II. to the East India Company 
procured for him an apparently suitable, though, as it proved, 
ill-chosen station, and in November 1676 he embarked for St 
Helena. On the voyage he noticed the retardation of the pendu- 
lum in approaching the equator; and during his stay on the 
island he observed, on the 7th of November 1677, a transit of 
Mercury, which suggested to him the important idea of employing 
similar phenomena for determining the sun's distance. He 
returned to England in November 1678, having by the registra- 
tion of 341 stars won the title of the " Southern Tycho," and 
by the translation to the heavens of the " Royal Oak," earned 
a degree of master of arts, conferred at Oxford by the king's 
command on the 3rd of December 1678, almost simultaneously 
with his election as fellow of the Royal Society. Six months 
later, the indefatigable astronomer started for Danzig to set 
at rest a dispute of long standing between Hooke and Hevelius 
as to the respective merits of plain or telescopic sights; and 
towards the end of 1680 he proceeded on a continental tour. 
In Paris he observed, with G. D. Cassini, the great comet of 1680 
after its perihelion passage; and having returned to England, 
he married in 1682 Mary, daughter of Mr Tooke, auditor of the 
exchequer, with whom he lived harmoniously for fifty-five years. 
He now fixed his residence at Islington, engaged chiefly upon 
lunar observations, with a view to the great desideratum of a 
method of finding the longitude at sea. His mind, however, 
was also busy with the momentous problem of gravity. Having 
reached so far as to perceive that the central force of the solar 
system must decrease inversely as the square of the distance, 
and applied vainly to Wren and Hooke for further elucidation, 
he made in August 1684 that journey to Cambridge for the 
purpose of consulting Newton, which resulted in the publication 
of the Principia. The labour and expense of passing this great 
work through the press devolved upon Halley, who also wrote 
the prefixed hexameters ending with the well-known line 
Nee fas est propius mortali attingere divos. 

In 1696 he was, although a zealous Tory, appointed deputy 
comptroller of the mint at Chester, and (August 19, 1698) he 
received a commission as captain of the " Paramour Pink " 
for the purpose of making extensive observations on the con- 
ditions of terrestrial magnetism. This task he accomplished in 
a voyage which lasted two years, and extended to the 52nd 
degree of S. latitude. The results were published in a General 
Chart of the Variation of the Compass in 1701; and immediately 
afterwards he executed by royal command a careful survey of 
the tides and coasts of the British Channel, an elaborate map 
of which he produced in 1702. On his return from a journey 
to Dalmatia, for the purpose of selecting and fortifying the port 
of Trieste, he was nominated, November 1703, Savilian professor 
of geometry at Oxford, and received an honorary degree of 



HALLGRIMSSON HALLOWE'EN 



857 



doctor of laws in 1710. Between 1713 and 1721 he acted as 
secretary to the Royal Society, and early in 1720 he succeeded 
Flamsteed as astronomer-royal. Although in his sixty-fourth 
year, he undertook to observe the moon through an entire 
revolution of her nodes (eighteen years), and actually carried 
out his purpose. He died on the I4th of January 1742. His 
tomb is in the old graveyard of StMargaret'schurch, Lee, Kent. 

Halley's most notable scientific achievements were his 
detection of the " long inequality " of Jupiter and Saturn, and 
of the acceleration of the moon's mean motion (1693), his dis- 
covery of the proper motions of the fixed stars (1718), his theory 
of variation (1683), including the hypothesis of four magnetic 
poles, revived by C. Hansteen in 1819, and his suggestion of the 
magnetic origin of the aurora borealis; his calculation of the 
orbit of the 1682 comet (the first ever attempted), coupled with 
a prediction of its return, strikingly verified in 1759; and his 
indication (first in 1679, and again in 1716, Phil. Trans., No. 348) 
of a method extensively used in the i8th and igth centuries for 
determining the solar parallax by means of the transits of Venus. 

His principal works are Catalogus stellarum australium (London, 
1679), the substance of which was embodied in vol. iii. of Flamsteed's 
Historia coelestis (1725); Synopsis astronomiae cometicae (Oxford, 
1705); Astronomical Tables (London, 1752) ; also eighty-one mis- 
cellaneous papers of considerable interest, scattered through the 
Philosophical Transactions. To these should be added his version 
from the Arabic (which language he acquired for the purpose) of the 
treatise of Apollonius De sectione rationis, with a restoration of his 
two lost books De sectione spatii, both published at Oxford in 1706; 
also his fine edition of the Conies of Apollonius, with the treatise 
by Serenus De sectione cylindri et coni (Oxford, 1710, folio). His 
edition of the Spherics of Menelaus was published by his friend Dr 
Costard in 1758. See also Biographia Britannica, vol. iv. (1757); 
Gent. Mag. xvii. 455, 503; A. Wood, Athenae Oxon. (Bliss), iv. 536; 
J. Aubrey, Lives, ii. 365; F. Baily, Account of Flamsteed; Sir D. 
Brewster, Life of Newton; R. Grant, History of Astronomy, p. 477 
and passim ; A. J. Rudolph, Bulletin of Bibliography, No. 14 (Boston, 
1904) ; E. F. McPike, " Bibliography of Halley's Comet," Smith- 
sonian Misc. Collections, vol. xlviii. pt. i. (1905); Notes and Queries, 
9th series, vols. x. xi. xii., loth series, vol. ii. (E. F. McPike). A 
collection of manuscripts regarding Halley is preserved among the 
Rigaud papers in the Bodleian library, Oxford; and many of his 
unpublished letters exist at the Record Office and in the library of 
the Royal Society. (A. M. C.) 

HALLGRllttSSON, J6NAS (1807-1844), the chief lyrical poet 
of Iceland, was born in 1807 at SteinsstaSir in EyjafjarSarsysla 
in the north of that island, and educated at the famous school 
of BessastaSr. In 1832 he went to the university of Copenhagen, 
and shortly afterwards turned his attention to the natural 
sciences, especially geology. Having obtained pecuniary assist- 
ance from the Danish government, he travelled through all 
Iceland for scientific purposes in the years 1837-1842, and made 
many interesting geological observations. Most of his writings 
on geology are in Danish. His renown was, however, not 
acquired by his writings in that language, but by his Icelandic 
poems and short stories. He was well read in German literature, 
Heine and Schiller being his favourites, and the study of the 
German masters and the old classical writers of Iceland opened 
his eyes to the corrupt state of Icelandic poetry and showed him 
the way to make it better. The misuse of the Eddie metaphors 
made the lyrical and epical poetry of the day hardly intelligible, 
and, to make matters worse, the language of the poets was mixed 
up with words of German and Danish origin. The great Danish 
philologist and friend of Iceland, Rasmus Rask, and the poet 
Bjarni Thorarensen had done much to purify the language, 
but Jonas Hallgrimsson completed their work by his poems and 
tales, in a purer language than ever had been written in Iceland 
since the days of Snorri Sturlason. The excesses of Icelandic 
poetry were specially seen in the so-called rimur, ballads of 
heroes, &c., which were fiercely attacked by J6nas Hallgrimsson, 
who at last succeeded in converting the educated to his view. 
Most of the principal poems, tales and essays of Jonas Hall- 
grimsson appeared in the periodical Fjolnir, which he began 
publishing at Copenhagen in 183 5, together with KomiSGislason, 
a well-known philologist, and the patriotic Thomas Saemunds- 
son. Fjolnir had in the beginning a hard struggle against old 
prejudices, but as the years went by its influence became 



enormous; and when it at last ceased, its programme and spirit 
still lived in Ny Felagsrit and other patriotic periodicals which 
took its place. Jonas Hallgrimsson, who died in 1844, is the 
father of a separate school in Icelandic lyric poetry. He intro- 
duced foreign thoughts and metres, but at the same time revived 
the metres of the Icelandic classical poets. Although his poetical 
works are all comprised in one small volume, he strikes every 
string of the old harp of Iceland. (S. BL.) 

HALLIDAY, ANDREW [ANDREW HALLIDAY DUFF] (1830- 
1877), British journalist and dramatist, was born at Marnoch, 
Banffshire, in 1830. He was educated at Marischal College, 
Aberdeen, and in 1849 he came to London, and discarding the 
name of Dyff , devoted himself to literature. His first engagement 
was with the daily papers, and his work having attracted the 
notice of Thackeray, he was invited to write for the Cornhill 
Magazine. From 1861 he contributed largely to All the Year 
Round, and many of his articles were republished in collected 
form. He was also the author, alone and with others, of a great 
number of farces, burlesques and melodramas and a peculiarly 
successful adapter of popular novels for the stage. Of these 
Little Em'ly (1869), his adaptation of David Copper field, was 
warmly approved by Dickens himself, and enjoyed a long run 
at Drury Lane. Halliday died in London on the loth of April 
1877. 

HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, JAMES ORCHARD (1820-1889), 
English Shakespearian scholar, son of Thomas Halliwell, was 
born in London, on the zist of June 1820. He was educated 
privately and at Jesus College, Cambridge. He devoted himself 
to antiquarian research, particularly in early English literature. 
In 1839 he edited Sir John Mandeville's Travels; in 1842 pub- 
lished an Account of the European AfSS. in the Chelham Library, 
besides a newly discovered metrical romance of the isth century 
(Torrent of Portugal). He became best known, however, as a 
Shakespearian editor and collector. In 1848 he brought out his 
Life of Shakespeare, which passed through several editions; 
in 1853-1865 a sumptuous edition, limited to 150 copies, of 
Shakespeare in folio, with full critical notes; in 1863 a Calendar 
of the Records at Stratford-on-Awn; in 1864 a History of New 
Place. After 1870 he entirely gave up textual criticism, and 
devoted his attention to elucidating the particulars of Shake- 
speare's life. He collated all the available facts and documents 
in relation to it, and exhausted the information to be found in 
local records in his Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare. He was 
mainly instrumental in the purchase of New Place for the 
corporation of Stratford-on-Avon, and in the formation there 
of the- Shakespeare museum. His publications in all numbered 
more than sixty volumes. He assumed the name of Phillipps 
in 1872, under the will of the grandfather of his first wife, a 
daughter of Sir Thomas Phillipps the antiquary. He took an 
active interest in the Camden Society, the Percy Society and the 
Shakespeare Society, for which he edited many early English 
and Elizabethan works. From 1845 Halliwell was excluded 
from the library of the British Museum on account of the 
suspicion attaching to his possession of some manuscripts which 
had been removed from the library of Trinity College, Cambridge. 
He published privately an explanation of the matter in 1845. 
His house, Hollingbury Copse, near Brighton, was full of rare 
and curious works, and he generously gave many of them to the 
Chetham library, Manchester, to the town library of Penzance, 
to the Smithsonian Institute, Washington, and to the library of 
Edinburgh university. He died on the 3rd of January 1889. 

HALLOWE'EN, or ALL HALLOWS EVE, the name given to the 
3ist of October as the vigil of Hallowmas or All Saints' Day. 
Though now known as little else but the eve of the Christian 
festival, Hallowe'en and its formerly attendant ceremonies 
long antedate Christianity. The two chief characteristics of 
ancient Hallowe'en were the lighting of bonfires and the belief 
that of all nights in the year this is the one during which ghosts 
and witches are most likely to wander abroad. Now on or about 
the ist of November the Druids held their great autumn festival 
and lighted fires in honour of the Sun-god in thanksgiving for 
the harvest. Further, it was a Druidic belief that on the eve of 



8 5 8 



HALLSTATT HALLUCINATION 



this festival Saman, lord of death, called together the wicked 
souls that within the past twelve months had been condemned to 
inhabit the bodies of animals. Thus it is clear that the main 
celebrations of Hallowe'en were purely Druidical, and this is 
further proved by the fact that in parts of Ireland the 3ist of 
October was, and even still is, known as Oidhche Shamhna, 
" Vigil of Saman." On the Druidic ceremonies were grafted some 
of the characteristics of the Roman festival in honour of Pomona 
held about the ist of November, in which nuts and apples, as 
representing the winter store of fruits, played an important 
part. Thus the roasting of nuts and the sport known as " apple- 
ducking " attempting to seize with the teeth an apple floating 
in a tub of water, were once the universal occupation of the 
young folk in medieval England on the 3ist of October. The 
custom of lighting Hallowe'en fires survived until recent years 
in the highlands of Scotland and Wales. In the dying embers 
it was usual to place as many small stones as there were persons 
around, and next morning a search was made. If any of the 
pebbles were displaced it was regarded as certain that the person 
represented would die within the twelve months. 

For details of the Hallowe'en games and bonfires see Brand's 
Antiquities of Great Britain; Chambers's Book of Days; Grimm's 
Deutsche Mythologie, ch. xx. (Elemente) and ch. xxxiv. (Aberglaube) ; 
and J. G. Frazer's Golden Bough, vol. iii. Compare also BELTANE 
and BONFIRE. 

HALLSTATT, a market-place of Austria, in Upper Austria, 
67 m. S.S.W. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 737. It is situated 
on the shore of the Hallstatter-see and at the foot of the Hall- 
statter Salzberg, and is built in amphitheatre with its houses 
clinging to the mountain side. The salt mine of Hallstatt, 
which is one of the oldest in existence, was rediscovered in the 
1 4th century. In the neighbourhood is the celebrated Celtic 
burial ground, where a great number of very interesting anti- 
quities have been found. Most of these have been removed to 
the museums at Vienna and Linz, but some are kept in the local 
museum. 

The excavations (1847-1864) revealed a form of culture 
hitherto unknown, and accordingly the name Hallstatt has 
been applied to objects of like form and decoration since found 
in Styria, Carniola, Bosnia (at Glasinatz and Jezerin), Epirus, 
north Italy, France, Spain and Britain (see CELT). Everywhere 
else the change from iron weapons to bronze is immediate, but 
at Hallstatt iron is seen gradually superseding bronze, first for 
ornament, then for edging cutting instruments, then replacing 
fully the old bronze types, and finally taking new forms of its 
own. There can be no doubt that the use of iron first developed 
in the Hallstatt area, and that thence it spread southwards into 
Italy, Greece, the Aegean, Egypt and Asia, and northwards 
and westwards in Europe. At Noreia, which gave its name to 
Noricum (q.v.) less than 40 m. from Hallstatt, were the most 
famous iron mines of antiquity, which produced the Noric iron 
and Noric swords so prized and dreaded by the Romans (Pliny, 
Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 145; Horace, Epod. 17. 71). This iron needed 
no tempering, and the Celts had probably found it ready smelted 
by nature, just as the Eskimo had learned of themselves to use 
telluric iron embedded in basalt. The graves at Hallstatt were 
partly inhumation partly cremation; they contained swords, 
daggers, spears, javelins, axes, helmets, bosses and plates of 
shields and hauberks, brooches, various forms of jewelry, amber 
and glass beads, many of the objects being decorated with animals 
and geometrical designs. Silver was practically unknown. 
The weapons and axes are mostly iron, a few being bronze. The 
swords are leaf-shaped, with blunt points intended for cutting, 
not for thrusting; the hilts differ essentially from those of the 
Bronze Age, being shaped like a crescent to grasp the blade, 
with large pommels, or sometimes with antennae (the latter 
found also in Bavaria, Wiirttemberg, Baden, Switzerland, the 
Pyrenees, Spain, north Italy): only six arrowheads (bronze) 
were found. Both flanged and socketed celts occurred, the iron 
being much more numerous than the bronze. The flat axes are 
distinguished by the side stops and in some cases the transition 
from palstave to socketed axe can be seen. The shields were 



round as in the early Iron Age of north Italy (see VILLANOVA). 
Greaves were found at Glasinatz and Jezerin, though not at 
Hallstatt; two helmets were found at Hallstatt and others in 
Bosnia; broad bronze belts were numerous, adorned in repousse. 
with beast and geometric ornament. Brooches are found in 
great numbers, both those derived from the primitive safety-pin 
(" Peschiera " type) and the " spectacle " or " Hallstatt " type 
found all down the Balkans and in Greece. The latter are formed 
of two spirals of wire, sometimes four such spirals being used, 
whilst there were also brooches in animal forms, one of the latter 
being found with a bronze sword. The Hallstatt culture is that 
of the Homeric Achaeans (see ACHAEANS), but as the brooch 
(along with iron, cremation of the dead, the round shield and 
the geometric ornament) passed down into Greece from central 
Europe, and as brooches are found in the lower town at Mycenae, 
1350 B.C., they must have been invented long before that date 
in central Europe. But as they are found in the late Bronze 
Age and early Iron Age, the early iron culture of Hallstatt must 
have originated long before 1350 B.C., a conclusion in accord 
with the absence of silver at Hallstatt itself. 

See Baron von Sacken, Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt; Bertrand and 
S. Reinach, Les Celtes dans les vallees du P6 et du Danube; W. Ridge- 
way, Early Age of Greece; ARCHAEOLOGY (plate). (W. Ri.) 

HALLUCINATION (from Lat. alucinari or allucinari, to 
wander in mind, Gr. &\vaaeiv or aXvtiv, from &\ri, wandering), 
a psychological term which has been the subject of much con- 
troversy, and to which, although there is now fair agreement as 
to its denotation, it is still impossible to give a precise and 
entirely satisfactory definition. Hallucinations constitute one 
of the two great classes of all false sense-perceptions, the other 
class consisting of the " illusions," and the difficulty of definition 
is clearly to mark the boundary between the two classes. Illusion 
may be defined as the misinterpretation of sense-impression, 
while hallucination, in its typical instances, is the experiencing 
of a sensory presentation, i.e. a presentation having the sensory 
vividness that distinguishes perceptions from representative 
imagery, at a time when no stimulus is acting on the correspond- 
ing sense-organ. There is, however, good reason to think that 
in many cases, possibly in all cases, some stimulation of the 
sense-organ, coming either from without or from within the 
body, plays a part in the genesis of the hallucination. This 
being so, we must be content to leave the boundary between 
illusions and hallucinations ill-defined, and to regard as illusions 
those false perceptions in which impressions made on the sense- 
organ play a leading part in determining the character of the percept, 
and as hallucinations those in which any such impression is 
lacking, or plays but a subsidiary part and bears no obvious relation 
to the character of the false percept. 

As in the case of illusion, hallucination may or may not 
involve delusion, or belief in the reality of the object falsely 
perceived. Among the sane the hallucinatory object is fre- 
quently recognized at once as unreal or at least as but quasi-real ; 
and it is only the insane, or persons in abnormal states, such 
as hypnosis, who, when an hallucination persists or recurs, fail 
to recognize that it corresponds to no physical impression from, 
or object in, the outer world. Hallucinations of all the senses 
occur, but the most commonly reported are the auditoryiand 
the visual, while those of the other senses seem to be comparatively 
rare. This apparent difference of frequency is no doubt largely 
due to the more striking character of visual and auditory hal- 
lucinations, and to the relative difficulty of ascertaining, in the 
case of perceptions of the lower senses, e.g. of taste and smell, 
that no impression adequate to the genesis of the percept has 
been made upon the sense-organ; but, in so far as it is real, it is 
probably due in part to the more constant use of the higher 
senses and the greater strain -consequently thrown upon them, 
in part also to their more intimate connexion with the life of 
ideas. 

The hallucinatory perception may involve two or more senses, 
e.g., the subject may seem to see a human being, to hear his voice 
and to feel the touch of his hand. This is rarely the case in 
spontaneous hallucination, but in hypnotic hallucination the 



HALLUCINATION 



859 



subject is apt to develop the object suggested to him, as present 
to one of his senses, and to perceive it also through other senses. 

Among visual hallucinations the human figure, and among 
auditory hallucinations human voices, are the objects most 
commonly perceived. The figure seen always appears localized 
more or less definitely in the outer world. In many cases it 
appears related to the objects truly seen in just the same way 
as a real object; e.g. it is no longer seen if the eyes are closed 
or turned away, it does not move with the movements of the 
eyes, and it may hide objects lying behind it, or be hidden by 
objects coming between the place that it appears to occupy and 
the eye of the percipient. Visual hallucinations are most often 
experienced when the eyes are open and the surrounding space 
is well or even brightly illuminated. Less frequently the visual 
hallucination takes the form of a self-luminous figure in a dark 
place or appears in a luminous globe or mist which shuts out 
from view the real objects of the part of the field of view in 
which it appears. 

Auditory hallucinations, especially voices, seem to fall into 
two distinct classes (i) those which are heard as coming from 
without, and are more or less definitely localized in outer space, 
(2) those which seem to be within the head or, in some cases, 
within the chest, and to have less definite auditory quality. 
It seems probable that the latter are hallucinations involving 
principally kinaesthetic sensations, sensations of movement of 
the organs of speech. 

Hallucinations occur under a great variety of bodily and 
mental conditions, which may conveniently be classified as 
follows. 

I. Conditions which imply normal waking Consciousness and no 

distinct Departure from bodily and mental Sanity. 

a. It would seem that a considerable number of perfectly 
healthy persons occasionally experience, while in a fully waking 
state, hallucinations for which no cause can be assigned. The 
census of hallucinations conducted by the Society for Psychical 
Research showed that about 10 % of all sane persons can 
remember having experienced at least one hallucination while 
they believed themselves to be fully awake and in normal health. 
These sporadic hallucinations of waking healthy persons are far 
more frequently visual than auditory, and they usually take 
the form of some familiar person in ordinary attire. The figure 
in many cases is seen, on turning the gaze in some new direction, 
fully developed and lifelike, and its hallucinatory character may 
be revealed only by its noiseless movements, or by its fading away 
in situ. A special interest attaches to hallucinations of this 
type, owing to the occasional coincidence of the death of the 
person with his hallucinatory appearance. The question raised 
by these coincidences will be discussed in a separate paragraph 
below. 

b. A few persons, otherwise normal in mind and body, seem 
to experience repeatedly some particular kind of hallucination. 
The voice (Sai/wctov) so frequently heard by Socrates, 
warning or advising him, is the most celebrated example of 
this type. 

II. Conditions more or less unusual or abnormal but not implying 

distinct Departure from Health. 

a. A kind of hallucination to which perhaps every normal 
person is liable is that known technically as " recurrent sensa- 
tion." This kind is experienced only when some sense-organ 
has been continuously or repeatedly subjected to some one kind 
of impression or stimulation for a considerable period; e.g. 
the microscopist, after examining for some hours one particular 
kind of object or structure, may suddenly perceive the object 
faithfully reproduced in form and colour, and lying, as it were, 
upon any surface to which his gaze is directed. Perhaps the 
commonest experience of this type is the recurrence of the 
sensations of movement at intervals in the period following a sea 
voyage or long railway journey. 

b. A considerable proportion of healthy sane persons can 
induce hallucinations of vision by gazing fixedly at a polished 



surface or into some dark translucent mass; or of hearing, by 
applying a large shell or similar object to the ear. These methods 
of inducing hallucinations, especially the former, have long been 
practised in many countries as modes of divination, various 
objects being used, e.g. a drop of ink in the palm of the hand, or 
a polished finger-nail. The object now most commonly used is a 
polished sphere of clear glass or crystal (see CRYSTAL-GAZING). 
Hence such hallucinations go by the name of crystal visions. 
The crystal vision often appears as a picture of some distant or 
unknown scene lying, as it were, in the crystal; and in the picture 
figures may come and go, and move to and fro, in a perfectly 
natural manner. In other cases, written or printed words or 
sentences appear. The percipient, seer or scryer, commonly 
seems to be in a fully waking state as he observes the objects 
thus presented. He is usually able to describe and discuss the 
appearances, successively discriminating details by attentive 
observation, just as when observing an objective scene; and 
he usually has no power of controlling them, and no sense of 
having produced them by his own activity. In some cases these 
visions have brought back to the mind of the scryer facts or 
incidents which he could not voluntarily recollect. In other 
cases they are asserted by credible witnesses to have given to 
the scryer information, about events distant in time or place, 
that had not come to his knowledge by normal means. These 
cases have been claimed as evidence of telepathic communication 
or even of clairvoyance. But at present the number of well- 
attested cases of this sort is too small to justify acceptance of 
this conclusion by those who have only secondhand knowledge 
of them. 

c. Prolonged deprivation of food predisposes to hallucina- 
tions, and it would seem that, under this condition, a large 
proportion of otherwise healthy persons become' liable to them, 
especially to auditory hallucinations. 

d. Certain drugs, notably opium, Indian hemp, and mescal 
predispose to hallucinations, each tending to produce a peculiar 
type. Thus Indian hemp and mescal, especially the latter, 
produce in many cases visual hallucinations in the form of a 
brilliant play of colours, sometimes a mere succession of patches 
of brilliant colour, sometimes in architectural or other definite 
spatial arrangement. 

e. The states of transition from sleep to waking, and from 
waking to sleep, seem to be peculiarly favourable to the appear- 
ance of hallucinations. The recurrent sensations mentioned 
above are especially prone to appear at such times, and a con- 
siderable proportion of the sporadic hallucinations of persons 
in good health are reported to have been experienced under these 
conditions. The name " hypnagogic " hallucinations, first 
applied by Alfred Maury, is commonly given to those experienced 
in these transition states. 

/. The presentations, predominantly visual, that constitute 
the principal content of most dreams, are generally described as 
hallucinatory, but the propriety of so classing them is very 
questionable. The present writer is confident that his own 
dream-presentations lack the sensory vividness which is the 
essential mark of the percept, whether normal or hallucinatory, 
and which is the principal, though not the only, character in 
which it differs from the representation or memory-image. It is 
true that the dream-presentation, like the percept, differs from 
the representative imagery of waking life in that it is relatively 
independent of volition; but that seems to be merely because 
the will is in abeyance or very ineffective during sleep. The wide 
currency of the doctrine that classes dream-images with hal- 
lucinations seems to be due to this independence of volitional 
control, and to the fact that during sleep the representative 
imagery appears without that rich setting of undiscriminated 
or marginal sensation which always accompanies waking imagery, 
and which by contrast accentuates for introspective reflection 
the lack of sensory vividness of such imagery. 

g. Many of the subjects who pass into the deeper stages of 
hypnosis (see HYPNOTISM) show themselves, while in that 
condition, extremely liable to hallucination, perceiving whatever 
object is suggested to them' as present, and failing to perceive 



86o 



HALLUCINATION 



any object of which it is asserted by the operator that it is no 
longer present. The reality of these positive and negative 
hallucinations of the hypnotized subject has been recently 
questioned, it being maintained that the subject merely gives 
verbal assent to the suggestions of the operator. But that the 
hypnotized subject does really experience hallucinations seems 
to be proved by the cases in which it is possible to make the 
hallucination, positive or negative, persist for some time after the 
termination of hypnosis, and by the fact that in some of these cases 
the subject, who in the post-hypnotic state seems in every other 
respect normal and wide awake, may find it difficult to distinguish 
between the hallucinatory and real objects. Further proof is 
afforded by experiments such as those by which Alfred Binet 
showed that a visual hallucination may behave for its percipient 
in many respects like a real object, e.g. that it may appear 
reflected in a mirror, displaced by a prism and coloured when 
a coloured glass is placed before the patient's eyes. It was by 
means of experiments of this kind that Binet showed that 
hypnotic hallucinations may approximate to the type of the 
illusion, i.e. that some real object affecting the sense-organ (in 
the case of a visual hallucination some detail of the surface 
upon which it is projected) may provide a nucleus of peripherally 
excited sensation around which the false percept is built up. 
An object playing a part of this sort in the genesis of an hal- 
lucination is known as a " point de repere." It has been main- 
tained that all hallucinations involve seme such point de repere 
or objective nucleus; but there are good reasons for rejecting 
this view. 

h. In states of ecstasy, or intense emotional concentration 
of attention upon some one ideal object, the object contemplated 
seems at times to take on sensory vividness, and so to acquire 
the character oil an hallucination. In these cases the state of 
mind of the subject is probably similar in many respects to that 
of the deeply hypnotized subject, and these two classes of 
hallucination may be regarded as very closely allied. 

III. Hallucinations -which occur as symptoms of both bodily and 
mental diseases. 

a. Dr H. Head has the credit of having shown for the first 
time, in the year 1901, that many patients, suffering from more 
or less painful visceral diseases, disorders of heart, lungs, 
abdominal viscera, &c., are liable to experience hallucinations 
of a peculiar kind. These "visceral" hallucinations, which 
are constantly accompanied by headache of the reflected visceral 
type, are most commonly visual, more rarely auditory. In all 
Dr Head's cases the visual hallucination took the form of a 
shrouded human figure, colourless and vague, often incomplete, 
generally seen by the patient standing by his bed when he 
wakes in a dimly lit room. The auditory " visceral " hallucina- 
tion was in no instance vocal, but took such forms as sounds of 
tapping, scratching or rumbling, and were heard only in the 
absence of objective noises. In a few cases the " visceral " 
hallucination was bisensory, i.e. both auditory and visual. 

In all these respects the " visceral " hallucination differs 
markedly from the commoner types of the sporadic hallucination 
of healthy persons. 

b. Hallucinations are constant symptoms of certain general 
disorders in which the nervous system is involved, notably 
of the delirium tremens, which results from chronic alcohol 
poisoning, and of the delirium of the acute specific fevers. The 
hallucinations of these states are generally of a distressing or 
even terrifying character. Especially is this the rule with those 
of delirium tremens, and in the hallucinations of this disease 
certain kinds of objects, e.g. rats and snakes, occur with curious 
frequency. 

c. Hallucinations occasionally occur as symptoms of certain 
nervous diseases that are not usually classed with the insanities, 
notably in cases of epilepsy and severe forms of hysteria. In 
the former disorder, the sensory aura that so often precedes 
the epileptic convulsion may take the form of an hallucinatory 
object, which in some cases is very constant in character. 
Unilateral hallucinations, an especially interesting class, occur 



in severe cases of hysteria, and are usually accompanied by 
hemi-anaesthesia of the body on the side on which the hallucin- 
atory object is perceived. 

d. Hallucinations occur in a large, but not accurately definable, 
proportion of all cases of mental disease proper. Two classes 
are recognized: (i) those that are intimately connected with 
the dominant emotional state or with some dominant delusion; 
(2) those that occur sporadically and have no such obvious 
relation to the other symptoms of disease. Hallucinations of 
the former class tend to accentuate, and in turn to be confirmed 
by, the congruent emotional or delusional state; but whether 
these are to be regarded as primary symptoms and as the cause 
of the hallucinations, or vice versa, it is generally impossible to say. 
Patients who suffer delusions of persecution are very apt to 
develop later in the course of their disease hallucinations of the 
voices of their persecutors; while in other cases hallucinatory 
voices, which are at first recognized as such, come to be regarded 
as real and in these cases seem to be factors of primary importance 
in the genesis of further delusions. Hallucinations occur in 
almost every variety of mental disease, but are commonest in 
the forms characterized by a cloudy dream-like condition of 
consciousness, and in extreme cases of this sort the patient (as 
in the delirium of chronic alcohol-poisoning) seems to move 
waking through a world consisting largely of the images of his 
own creation, set upon a background of real objects. 

In some cases hallucinations are frequently experienced for 
long periods in the absence of any other symptom of mental 
disorder, but these no doubt usually imply some morbid condition 
of the brain. 

Physiology of Hallucination. There has been much discussion 
as to the nature of the neural process in hallucination. It 
is generally and rightly assumed that the hallucinatory perception 
of any object has for its immediate neural correlate a state of 
excitement which, as regards its characters and its distribution 
in the elements of the brain, is entirely similar to the neural 
correlate of the normal perception of the same object. The 
hallucination is a perception, though a false perception. ' In 
the perception of an object and in the representation of it, 
introspective analysis discovers a number of presentative 
elements. In the case of the representation these elements are 
memory images only (except perhaps in so far as actual kin- 
aesthetic sensations enter into its composition); whereas, in 
the case of the percept, some of these elements are sensations, 
sensations which differ from images in having the attribute of 
sensory vividness; and the sensory vividness of these elements 
lends to the whole complex the sensory vividness or reality, 
the possession of which character by the percept constitutes its 
principal difference from the representation. Normally, sensory 
vividness attaches only to those presentative elements which 
are excited through stimulations of the sense-organs. The 
normal percept, then, owes its character of sensory reality to 
the fact that a certain number of its presentative elements are 
sensations peripherally excited by impressions made upon a 
sense-organ. The problem is, then, to account for the fact that 
the hallucination contains presentative elements that have 
sensory vividness, that are sensations, although they are not 
excited by impressions from the external world falling upon a 
sense-organ. Most of the discussions of this subject suffer from 
the neglect of this preliminary definition of the problem. Many 
authors, notably W. Wundt and his disciples, have been content 
to assume that the sensation differs from the memory-image 
only in having a higher degree of intensity; from which they 
infer that its neural correlate in the brain cortex also differs 
from that of the image only in having a higher degree of intensity. 
For them an hallucination is therefore merely a representation 
whose neural correlate involves an intensity of excitement of 
certain brain-elements such as is normally produced only by 
peripheral stimulation of sensory nerves in the sense-organs. 
But this view, so attractively simple, ignores an insuperable 
objection. Sensory vividness is not to be identified with superior 
intensity; for while the least intense sensation has it, the 
memory image of the most intense sensation lacks it completely. 



HALLUCINATION 



861 



And, since intensity of sensation is a function of the intensity 
of the underlying neural excitement, we may not assume that 
sensory vividness is also the expression in consciousness of that 
intensity of excitement. If Wundt's view were true a progressive 
diminution of the intensity of a sensory stimulus should bring 
the sensation to a point in the scale of diminishing intensity at 
which it ceases to be sensation, ceases to have sensory vividness 
and becomes an image merely. But this is not the case; with 
diminishing intensity of stimulation, the sensation declines to 
a minimal intensity and then disappears from consciousness. 
This objection applies not only to Wundt's view of hallucinations, 
but also to H. Taine's explanation of them by the aid of his 
doctrine of " reductives," for this too identifies sensory vividness 
with intensity. (H. Taine, De I' intelligence, tome i. p. 108.) 

Another widely current explanation is based on the view that 
the representation and the percept have their anatomical bases 
in different element-groups or " centres " of the brain, the 
" centre " of the representation being assigned to a higher level 
of the brain than that of the percept (the latter being sometimes 
assigned to the basal ganglia of the brain, the former to the 
cortex). It is then assumed that while the lower perceptual 
centre is normally excited only through the sense-organ, it may 
occasionally be excited by impulses playing down upon it from 
the corresponding centre of representation, when hallucination 
results. 

This view also is far from satisfactory, because the great 
additions recently made to our knowledge of the brain tend 
very strongly to show that both sensations and memory- 
images have their anatomical bases in the same sensory areas 
of the cerebral cortex; and many considerations converge 
to show that their anatomical bases must be, in part at least, 
identical. 

The views based on the assumptions of complete identity, and 
of complete separateness, of the anatomical bases of the percept 
and of the representation are then alike untenable; and the 
alternative that their anatomical bases are in part identical, 
in part different, which is indicated by this conclusion renders 
possible a far more satisfactory doctrine. We have good reason 
to believe that the neural correlate of sensation is the trans- 
mission of the nervous impulse through a sensori-motor arc of 
the cortex, made up of a chain of neurones; and the view suggests 
itself that the neural correlate of the corresponding memory- 
image is the transmission of the impulse through a part only of 
this chain of cortical elements, either the efferent motor part of 
this chain or the afferent sensory part of it. Professor W. 
James's theory of hallucinations is based on the latter assump- 
tion. He suggests that the sensory vividness of sensation and 
of the percept is due to the discharge of the excitement of the 
chain of elements in the forward or motor direction; and that, 
in the case of the image and of the representation, the discharge 
takes place, not in this direction through the efferent channel of 
the centre, but laterally into other centres of the cortex. Hal- 
lucination may then be conceived as caused by obstruction, or 
abnormally increased resistance, of the paths connecting such a 
cortical centre with others, so that, when it becomes excited 
in any way, the tension or potential of its charge rises, until 
discharge takes place in the motor direction through the 
efferent limbs of the sensori-motor arcs which constitute the 
centre. 

It is a serious objection to this view that, as James himself, 
in common with most modern authors, maintains, every idea 
has its motor tendency which commonly, perhaps always, finds 
expression in some change of tension of muscles, and in many 
cases issues in actual movements. Now if we accept James's 
theory of hallucination, we should expect to find that whenever 
a representation issues in bodily action it should assume the 
sensory vividness of an hallucination; and this, of course, is 
not the case. 

The alternative form of the view that assumes partial identity 
of the anatomical bases of the percept and the representation 
of an object, would regard the neural correlate of the sensation 
as the transmission of the nervous impulse throughout the length 



of the sensori-motor arc of the cortex, from sensory inlet to 
motor outlet; and that of the image as its transmission through 
the efferent part of this arc only; that is to say, in the case 
of the image, it would regard the excitement of the arc as being 
initiated at some point between its afferent inlet and its motor 
outlet, and as spreading, in accordance with the law of forward 
conduction, towards the motor outlet only, so that only the part 
of the arc distal or efferent to this point becomes excited. 

This view of the neural basis of sensory vividness, which 
correlates the difference between the sensation and the image 
with the only known difference between their physiological 
conditions, namely the peripheral initiation of the one and the 
central initiation of the other, enables us to formulate a satis- 
factory theory of the physiology of hallucinations. 

The anatomical basis of the perception and of the representa- 
tion of any object is a functional system of nervous elements, 
comprising a number of sensori-motor arcs, whose excitement by 
impulses ascending to them by the sensory paths from the sense- 
organs determines sensations, and whose excitement in their 
efferent parts only determines the corresponding images. In 
the case of perception, some of these arcs are excited by impulses 
ascending from the sense-organs, others only by the spread of 
the excitement through the system from these peripherally 
excited arcs; while, in the case of the representation, all alike 
are excited by impulses that reach the system from other parts 
of the cortex and spread throughout its efferent parts only to its 
motor outlets. 

If then impulses enter this system by any of the afferent limbs 
of its sensori-motor arcs, the presentation that accompanies 
its excitement will have sensory vividness and will be a true 
perception, an illusion, or an hallucination, according as these 
impulses have followed the normal course from the sense-organ, 
or have been diverted, to a lesser or greater degree, from their 
normal paths. If any such neural system becomes abnormally 
excitable, or becomes excited in any way with abnormal intensity, 
it is thereby rendered a path of exceptionally low-resistance 
capable of diverting to itself, from their normal path, any 
streams of impulses ascending from the sense-organ; which 
ascending impulses, entering the system by its afferent inlets, 
excite sensations that impart to the presentation the character 
of sensory vividness; the presentation thus acquires the 
character of a percept in spite of the absence of the appropriate 
impression on the sense-organ, and we call it an hallucination. 

This view renders intelligible the modus operandi of many of 
the predisposing causes of hallucination; e.g. the pre-occupation 
with certain representations of the ecstatic, or of the sufferer 
from delusions of persecution; the intense expectation of a 
particular ^ense impression, the generally increased excitability 
of the cortex in states of delirium; in all these conditions the 
abnormally intense excitement of the cortical systems may be 
supposed to give them an undue directive and attractive influence 
upon the streams of impulses ascending from the sense-organs, 
so that sensory impulses may be diverted from their normal paths. 
Again, it renders intelligible the part played by chronic irritation 
of a sense-organ, as when chronic irritation of the internal ear 
leads on to hallucinations of hearing; perhaps also the chronic 
irritation of sensory nerves that must accompany the states of 
visceral disease, shown by Head to be so frequently accompanied 
by a liability to hallucinations; for any such chronic irritation 
supplies a stream of disorderly impulses rising constantly from 
the sense-organ, for the reception of which the brain has no 
appropriate system, and which, therefore, readily enters any 
organized cortical system that at any moment constitutes a 
path of low-resistance. A similar explanation applies to the 
influence of fixed gazing upon a crystal, or the placing of a shell 
over the ear, in inducing visual and auditory hallucinations. 
The " recurrent sensations " experienced after prolonged 
occupation with some one kind of sensory object may be regarded 
as due to an abnormal excitability of the cortical system con- 
cerned, resulting from its unduly prolonged exercise. The 
hypothesis renders intelligible also the liability to hallucination 
of persons in the hysterical and hypnotic states, in whose brains 



862 



HALLUCINATION 



the cortical neural systems are in a state of partial dissociation, 
which renders possible an unduly intense and prolonged excite- 
ment of some one system at the expense of all other systems 
(cf. HYPNOTISM). 

Coincidental Hallucinations. It would seem that, in well- 
nigh all countries and in all ages, apparitions of persons known 
to be in distant places have been occasionally observed. Such 
appearances have usually been regarded as due to the presence, 
before the bodily eye of the seer, of the ghost, wraith, double 
or soul of the person who thus appears; and, since the soul 
has been very commonly supposed to leave the body, permanently 
at death and temporarily during sleep, trance or any period of 
unconsciousness, however induced, it was natural to regard 
such an appearance as evidence that the person whose wraith 
was thus seen was in some such condition. Such apparitions 
have probably played a part, second only to that of dreams, 
in generating the almost universal belief in the separability of 
soul and body. 

In many parts of the world traditional beb'ef has connected 
such apparitions more especially with the death of the person 
so appearing, the apparition being regarded as an indication 
that the person so appearing has recently died, is dying or is 
about to die. Since death is so much less common an event than 
sleep, trance, or other form of temporary unconsciousness, the 
wide extension of this belief suggests that such apparitions may 
coincide in time with death, with disproportionate frequency. 
The belief in the significance of such apparitions still survives 
in civilized communities, and stories of apparitions coinciding 
with the death of the person appearing are occasionally reported 
in the newspapers, or related as having recently occurred. The 
Society for Psychical Research has sought to find grounds for 
an answer to the question " Is there any sufficient justification 
for the belief in a causal relation between the apparition of a 
person at a place distant from his body and his death or other 
exceptional and momentous event in his experience?" The 
problem was attacked in a thoroughly scientific spirit, an 
extensive inquiry was made, and the results were presented and 
fully discussed in two large volumes, Phantasms of the Living, 
published in the year 1886, bearing on the title-page the names 
of Edmund Gurney, F. W. H. Myers and F. Podmore. Of 
the three collaborators Gurney took the largest share in the 
planning of the work, in the collection of evidence, and in the 
elaboration and discussion of it. 

Gurney set out with the presumption that apparitions, whether 
coincidental or not, are hallucinations in the sense defined above; 
that they are false perceptions and are not excited by any object 
or process of the external world acting upon the sense-organs 
of the percipient in normal fashion; that they do not imply the 
presence, in the place apparently occupied by them, of any wraith 
or any form of existence emanating from, or specially connected 
with, the person whose phantasm appears. This initial assump- 
tion was abundantly justified by an examination of a large 
number of cases for it, which snowed that, in all important 
respects, most of these apparitions of persons at a distance, 
whether coincidental or not, were similar to other forms of 
hallucination. 

The acceptance of this conclusion does not, however, imply 
a negative answer to the question formulated above. The 
Society for Psychical Research had accumulated an impressive 
and, to almost all those who had first-hand acquaintance with 
it, a convincing mass of experimental evidence of the reality 
.of telepathy (<?..), the influence of mind on mind otherwise 
than through the recognized channels of sense. The successful 
experiments had for the most part been made between persons 
in close proximity, in the same room or in adjoining rooms; 
but they seemed to show that the state of consciousness of one 
person may induce directly (i.e. without the mediation of the 
organs of expression and sense-perception) a similar state of 
consciousness in another person, especially if the former, 
usually called the " agent," strongly desired or " willed " 
that this effect should be produced on the other person, the 
" percipient." 



The question formulated above thus resolved itself for Gurney 
into the more definite form, " Can we find any good reason for 
believing that coincidental hallucinations are sometimes veridical, 
that the state of mind of a person at some great crisis of his 
experience may telepathically induce in the mind of some 
distant relative or friend an hallucinatory perception of himself ? " 
It was at once obvious that, if coincidental apparitions can be 
proved to occur, this question can only be answered by a 
statistical inquiry; for each such coincidental hallucination, 
considered alone, may always be regarded as most educated 
persons of the present time have regarded them, namely, as 
merely accidental coincidences. That the coincidences are not 
merely accidental can only be proved by showing that they 
occur more frequently than the doctrine of chances would justify 
us in expecting. Now, the death of any person is a unique event, 
and the probability of its occurrence upon any particular day 
may be very simply calculated from the mortality statistics, 
if we assume that nothing is known of the individual's vitality. 
On the other hand, hallucinatory perceptions of persons, occurring 
to sane and healthy individuals in the fully waking state, are 
comparatively rare occurrences, whose frequency we may hope 
to determine by a statistical inquiry. If, then, we can' obtain 
figures expressing the frequency of such hallucinations, we can 
deduce, by the help of the laws of chance, the proportion of such 
hallucinations that may be expected to coincide with (or, for 
the purposes of the inquiry, to fall within twelve hours of) the 
death of the person whose apparition appears, if no causal 
relation obtains between the coinciding events. If, then, it 
appears that the proportion of such coincidental hallucinations 
is greater than the laws of probability will account for, a certain 
presumption of a causal relation between the coinciding events 
is thereby established; and the greater the excess of such 
coincidences, the stronger does this presumption become. 
Gurney attempted a census of hallucinations in order to obtain 
data for this statistical treatment, and the results of it, embodied 
in Phantasms of the Living, were considered by the authors of 
that work to justify the belief that some coincidental hallucina- 
tions are veridical. In the year 1889 the Society for Psychical 
Research appointed a committee, under the chairmanship of the 
late Henry Sidgwick, to make a second census of hallucinations 
on a more extensive and systematic plan than the first, in order 
that the important conclusion reached by the authors of Phant- 
asms of the Living might be put to the severer test rendered 
possible by a larger and more carefully collected mass of data. 
Seventeen thousand adults returned answers to the question, 
" Have you ever, when believing yourself to be completely awake, 
had a vivid impression of seeing or being touched by a living 
being or inanimate object, or of hearing a voice; which impres- 
sion, so far as you could discover, was not due to any external 
physical cause ? " Rather more than two thousand persons 
answered affirmatively, and to each of these were addressed 
careful inquiries concerning their hallucinatory experiences. 
In this way it was found that of the total number, 381 apparitions 
of persons living at the moment (or not more than twelve hours 
dead) had been recognized by the percipients, and that, of these, 
80 were alleged to have been experienced within twelve hours 
of the death of the person whose apparition had appeared. A 
careful review of all the facts, conditions and probabilities, 
led the committee to estimate that the former number should be 
enlarged to 1300 in order to make ample allowance for forgetful- 
ness and for all other causes that might have tended to prevent 
the registration of apparitions of this class. On the other hand, 
a severe criticism of the alleged death-coincidences led them to 
reduce the number, admitted by them for the purposes of their 
calculation, to 30. The making of these adjustments gives us 
about i in 43 as the proportion of coincidental death-apparitions 
to the total number of recognized apparitions among the 17,000 
persons reached by the census. Now the death-rate being just 
over 19 per thousand, the probability that any person taken at 
random will die on a given day is about i in 19,000; or, more 
strictly speaking, the average probability that any person will 
die within any given period of twenty-four hours duration 



HALLUIN HALMAHERA 



863 



is about i in 19,000. Hence the probability that any other 
particular event, having no causal relation to his death, but 
occurring during his lifetime (or not later than twelve hours 
after his death) will fall within the same twenty-four hours as his 
death is i in 19,000; i.e. if an apparition of any individual is 
seen and recognized by any other person, the probability of its 
being experienced within twelve hours of that individual's death 
is i in 19,000, if no causal relation obtains between the two 
events. Therefore, of all recognized apparitions of living persons, 
i only in 19,000 may be expected to be a death-coincidence of 
this sort. But the census shows that of 1300 recognized appari- 
tions of living persons 30 are death-coincidences and that is 
equivalent to 440 in 19,000. Hence, of recognized hallucinations, 
those coinciding with death are 440 times more numerous than 
we should expect, if no causal relation obtained; therefore, if 
neither the data nor the reasoning can be destructively criticized, 
we are compelled to believe that some causal relation obtains; 
and, since good evidence of telepathic communication has been 
experimentally obtained, the least improbable explanation of 
these death-apparitions is that the dying person exerts upon his 
distant friend some telepathic influence which generates an 
hallucinatory perception of himself. 

These death-coincidences constitute the main feature of the 
argument in favour of telepathic communication between 
distant persons, but the census of hallucinations afforded other 
data from which a variety of arguments, tending to support this 
conclusion, were drawn by the committee; of these the most 
important are the cases in which the hallucinatory percept 
embodied details that were connected with the person perceived 
and which could not have become known to the percipient by 
any normal means. The committee could not find in the results 
of the census any evidence sufficient to justify a belief that 
hallucinations may be due to telepathic influence exerted by 
personalities surviving the death of the body. 

The critical handling of the cases by the committee seems to 
be above reproach. Those who do not accept their conclusion 
based on the death-coincidences must direct their criticism to 
the question of the reliability of the reports of these cases. It 
is to be noted that, although only those cases are reckoned in 
which the percipient had no cause to expect the death of the 
person whose apparition he experienced, and although, in nearly 
all the accepted cases, some record or communication of the 
hallucination was made before hearing of the death, yet in very 
few cases was any contemporary written record of the event 
forthcoming for the inspection of the committee. (W. McD.) 

HALLUIN, a frontier town of northern France, in the depart- 
ment of Nord, near the right bank of the Lys, 14 m. N. by E. 
of Lille by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 11,670; commune, 16,158. 
Its church is of Gothic architecture. The manufactures comprise 
linen and cotton goods, chairs and rubber goods, and brewing 
and tanning are carried on; there is a board of trade arbitration. 
The family of Halluin is mentioned as early as the I3th century. 
In 1587 the title of duke and peer of the realm was granted to it, 
but in the succeeding century it became extinct. 

HALM, CARL FELIX (1809-1882), German classical scholar 
and critic, was born at Munich on the 5th of April 1809. In 
1849, after having held appointments at Spires and Hadamar, 
he became rector of the newly founded Maximiliansgymnasium 
at Munich, and in 1856 director of the royal library and professor 
in the university. These posts he held till his death on the 5th 
of October 1882. It is chiefly as the editor of Cicero and other 
Latin prose authors that Halm is known, although in early years 
he also devoted considerable attention to Greek. After the 
death of J. C. Orelli, he joined J. G. Baiter in the preparation 
of a revised critical edition of the rhetorical and philosophical 
writings of Cicero (1854-1862). His school editions of some of 
the speeches of Cicero in the Haupt and Sauppe series, with 
notes and introductions, were very successful. He also edited 
a number of classical texts for the Teubner series, the most 
important of which are Tacitus (4th ed., 1883); Rhetores Latini 
minores (1863); Quintilian (1868); Sulpicius Severus (1866); 
Minucius Felix together with Firmicus Maternus De errors 



(1867); Salvianus (1877) an d Victor Vitensis's Historia per- 
secutionis Africanae provinciae (1878). He was also an 
enthusiastic collector of autographs. 

See articles by W. Christ and G. Laubmann in A llgemeine deutsche 
'Biographic and by C. Bursian in Biotraphisches Jahrbuch; and 
J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship, iii. 195 (1908). 

HALMA (Greek for " jump "), a table game, a form of which 
was known to the ancient Greeks, played on a board divided 
into 256 squares with wooden men, resembling chess pawns. 
In the two-handed game 19 men are employed on each side, 
coloured respectively black and white; in the four-handed 
each player has 13, the men being coloured white, black, red 
and green. At the beginning of the game the men are drawn up 
in triangular formation in the enclosures, or yards, diagonally 
opposite each other in the corners of the board. The object of 
each player is to get all his men into his enemy's yard, the player 
winning who first accomplishes this. The moves are made 
alternately, the mode of progression being by a step, from one 
square to another immediately adjacent, or by a jump (whence 
the name) , which is the jumping of a man from a square in front 
of it into an empty square on the other side of it. This corre- 
sponds to jumping in draughts, except that, in halma, the 
hop may be in any direction, over friendly as well as hostile 
men, and the men jumped over are not taken but remain on 
the board. 

In the four-handed game either each player plays for himself, 
or two adjacent players play against the other two. 

See Card and Table Games, by Professor Hoffmann (London, 1903). 

HALMAHERA ["great land"; also Jilolo or Gilolo], an 
island of the Dutch East Indies, belonging to the residency 
of Ternate, lying under the equator and about 128 E. Its 
shape is extremely irregular, resembling that of the island 
of Celebes. It consists of four peninsulas so arranged as to 
enclose three great bays (Kayu, Bicholi, Weda), all opening 
towards the east, the northern peninsula being connected with 
the others by an isthmus only 5 m. wide. On the western side 
of the isthmus lies another bay, that of Dodinga, in the mouth 
of which are situated the two islands Ternate and Tidore, whose 
political importance exceeds that of the larger island (see these 
articles). Of the four peninsulas of Halmahera the northern 
and the southern are reckoned to the sultanate of Ternate, the 
north-eastern and south-eastern to that of Tidore; the former 
having eleven, the latter three districts. The distance between 
the extremities of the northern and southern peninsulas, measured 
along the curve of the west coast, is about 240 m. ; and the total 
area of the island is 6700 sq. m. Knowledge of the island is very 
incomplete. It appears that the four peninsulas are traversed 
in the direction of their longitudinal axis by mountain chains 
3000 to 4000 ft. high, covered with forest, without a central 
chain at the nucleus of the island whence the peninsulas diverge. 
The mountain chains are frequently interrupted by plains, such 
as those of Weda and Kobi. The northern part of the mountain 
chain of the northern peninsula is volcanic, its volcanoes con- 
tinuing the line of those of Makian, Ternate and Tidore. Coral 
formations on heights in the interior would indicate oscillations 
of the land in several periods, but a detailed geology of the 
island is wanting. To the north-east of the northern peninsula 
is the considerable island of Morotai (635 sq. m.), and to the west 
of the southern peninsula the more important island of Bachian 
(q.v.) among others. Galela is a considerable settlement, situated 
on a bay of the same name on the north-east coast, in a well 
cultivated plain which extends southward and inland. Vegeta- 
tion is prolific. Rice is grown by the natives, but the sago tree 
is of far greater importance to them. Dammar and coco-nuts 
are also grown. The sea yields trepang and pearl shells. A 
little trade is carried on by the Chinese and Macassars of Ternate, 
( who, crossing the narrow isthmus of Dodinga, enter the bay of 
Kayu on the east coast. The total population is estimated at 
100,000. 

The inhabitants are mostly of immigrant Malayan stock. 
In the northern peninsula are found people of Papuan type, 
probably representing the aborigines, and a tribe around Galela, 



864 



HALMSTAD HALO 



who are Polynesian in physique, possibly remnants, much mixed 
by subsequent crossings with the Papuan indigenes, of the 
Caucasian hordes emigrating in prehistoric times across the 
Pacific. M. Achille Raffray gives a description of them in Tour 
du monde (1879) where photographs will be found. " They are 
as unlike the Malays as we are, excelling them in tallness of 
stature and elegance of shape, and being perfectly distinguished 
by their oval face, with a fairly high and open brow, their aquiline 
nose and their horizontally placed eyes. Their beards are 
sometimes thick; their limbs are muscular; the colour of their 
skins is cinnamon brown. Spears of iron-wood, abundantly 
barbed, and small bows and bamboo arrows free from poison 
are their principal weapons." They are further described as 
having temples (subnets) in which they suspend images of 
serpents and other monsters as well as the trophies procured by 
war. They believe in a better life hereafter, but have no idea 
of a hell or a devil, their evil spirits only tormenting them in 
the present state. 

The Portuguese and Spaniards were better acquainted with 
Halmahera than with many other parts of the archipelago; 
they called it sometimes Batu China and sometimes Moro. It 
was circumnavigated by one of their vessels in 1525, and the 
general outline of the coasts is correctly given in their maps at 
a time when separate portions of Celebes, such as Macassar and 
Menado, are represented as distinct islands. The name (Jilolo) 
was really that of a native state, the sultan of which had the 
chief rank among the princes of the Moluccas before he was 
supplanted by the sultan of Ternate about 1380. His capital, 
Jilolo, lay on the west coast on the first bay to the north of that 
of Dodinga. In 1876 Danu Hassan, a descendant of the sultans 
of Jilolo, raised an insurrection in the island for the purpose 
of throwing off the authority of the sultans of Tidore and Ternate ; 
and his efforts would probably have been successful but for the 
intervention of the Dutch. In 1878 a Dutch expedition was 
directed against the pirates of Tobalai, and they were virtually 
extirpated. Slavery remains in the interior. Missionary work, 
carried on in the northern peninsula of Halmahera since 1866, 
has been fairly successful among the heathen natives, but less so 
among the Mahommedans, who have often incited the others 
against the missionaries and their converts. 

HALMSTAD, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district 
(/on) of Halland, on the E. shore of the Cattegat, 76 m. S.S.E. 
of Gothenburg by the railway to Helsingborg. Pop. (1900), 
15,362. It lies at the mouth of the river Nissa, having an inner 
harbour (15 ft. depth), an outer harbour, and roads giving 
anchorage (24 to 36 ft.) exposed to S. and N.W. winds. In the 
neighbourhood there are quarries of granite, which is exported 
chiefly to Germany. Other industries are engineering, ship- 
building and Brewing, and there are cloth, jute, hat, wood-pulp 
and paper factories. The principal exports are granite, timber 
and hats; and butter through Helsingborg and Gothenburg. 
The imports are coal, machinery and grain. Potatoes are 
largely grown in the district, and the salmon fisheries are valuable. 
The castle is the residence of the governor of the province. There 
are both mineral and sea-water baths in the neighbourhood. 

Mention of the church of Halmstad occurs as early as 1462, 
and the fortifications are mentioned first in 1225. The latter 
were demolished in 1734. There were formerly Dominican and 
Franciscan monasteries in the town. The oldest town-privileges 
date from 1307. During the revolt of the miner Engelbrekt, 
it twice fell into the hands of the rebels in 1434 and 1436. 
The town appears to have been frequently chosen as the meeting- 
place of the rulers and delegates of the three northern kingdoms; 
and under the union of Kalmar it was appointed to be trie place 
for the election of a new Scandinavian monarch whenever 
necessary. The Ian of Halland formed part of the territory of 
Denmark in Sweden, and accordingly, in 1534, during his war 
with the Danes, Gustavus Vasa assaulted and took its chief town. 
In 1660, by the treaty of Copenhagen, the whole district was 
ceded to Sweden. In 1676 Charles XII. defeated near Halmstad 
a Danish army which was attempting to retake the district, and 
since that time Halland has formed part of Sweden. 



HALO, a word derived from the Gr. a\u>s, a threshing-floor, 
and afterwards applied to denote the disk of the sun or moon, 
probably on account of the circular path traced out by the oxen 
threshing the corn. It was thence applied to denote any luminous 
ring, such as that viewed around the sun or moon, or portrayed 
about the heads of saints. 

In physical science, a halo is a luminous circle, surrounding 
the sun or moon, with various auxiliary phenomena, and formed 
by the reflection and refraction of light by ice-crystals suspended 
in the atmosphere. The optical phenomena produced by 
atmospheric water and ice may be divided into two classes, 
according to the relative position of the luminous ring and the 
source of light. In the first class we have halos, and coronae, 
or " glories," which encircle the luminary; the second class 
includes rainbows, fog-bows, mist-halos, anthelia and mountain- 
spectres, whose centres are at the anti-solar point. Here it is 
only necessary to distinguish halos from coronae. Halos are 
at definite distances (22 and 46) from the sun, and are coloured 
red on the inside, being due to refraction; coronae closely 
surround the sun at variable distances, and are coloured red 
on the outside, being due to diffraction. 

The phenomenon of a solar (or lunar) halo as seen from the 
earth is represented in fig. i ; fig. 2 is a diagrammatic sketch 
showing the appearance as viewed from the zenith; but it is 
only in exceptional circumstances that all the parts are seen. 
Encircling the sun or moon (S), there are two circles, known as 




FIG. i. 



FIG. 2. 



the inner halo I, and the outer halo 0, having radii of about 22 
and 46, and exhibiting the colours of the spectrum in a confused 
manner, the only decided tint being the red on the inside. 
Passing through the luminary and parallel to the horizon, there 
is a white luminous circle, the parhelic circle (P), on which a 
number of images of the luminary appear. The most brilliant 
are situated at the intersections of the inner halo and the parhelic 
circle; these are known as parhelia (denoted by the letter p in 
the figures) (from the Gr. irapb, beside, and rjXioj, the sun) 
or " mock-suns," in the case of the sun, and as paraselenae 
(from irapa and atkqvri, the moon) or " mock-moons," in the 
case of the moon. Less brilliant are the parhelia of the outer 
halo. The parhelia are most brilliant when the sun is near the 
horizon. As the sun rises, they pass a little beyond the halo 
and exhibit flaming tails. The other images on the parhelic 
circle are the paranthelia (q) and the anthelion (a) (from the 
Greek ami, opposite, and TJXws, the sun). The former are 
situated at from 90 to 140 from the sun; the latter is a white 
patch of light situated at the anti-solar point and often exceeding 
in size the apparent diameter of the luminary. A vertical circle 
passing through the sun may also be seen. From the parhelia 
of the inner halo two oblique curves (L) proceed. These are 
known as the " arcs of Lowitz," having been first described in 
1794 by Johann Tobias Lowitz (1757-1804). Luminous arcs 
(T), tangential to the upper and lower parts of each halo, also 
occur, and in the case of the inner halo, the arcs may be prolonged 
to form a quasi-elliptic halo. 

The physical explanation of halos originated with Rene 
Descartes, who ascribed their formation to the presence of ice- 
crystals in the atmosphere. This theory was adopted by Edme 
Mariotte, Sir Isaac Newton and Thomas Young; and, although 



HALOGENS HALS, FRANS 



865 



certain of their assumptions were somewhat arbitrary, yet the 
general validity of the theory has been demonstrated by the 
researches of J. G. Galle and A. Bravais. The memoir of the 
last-named, published 1 in the Journal de l'cole royale poly- 
technique for 1847 (xviii., 1-270), ranks as a classic on the 
subject; it is replete with examples and illustrations, and dis- 
cusses the various phenomena in minute detail. 

The usual form of ice-crystals in clouds is a right hexagonal 
prism, which may be elongated as a needle or foreshortened 
like a thin plate. There are three refracting angles possible, 
one of 1 20 between two adjacent prism faces, one of 60 between 
two alternate prism faces, and one of 90 between a prism face 
and the base. If innumerable numbers of such crystals fall in 
any manner between the observer and the sun, light falling 
upon these crystals will be refracted, and the refracted rays will 
be crowded together in the position of minimum deviation (see 
REFRACTION OF LIGHT). Mariotte explained the inner halo as 
being due to refraction through a pah of alternate faces, since the 
minimum deviation of an ice-prism whose refracting angle is 60 
is about 22. Since the minimum deviation is least for the least 
refrangible rays, it follows that the red rays will be the least 
refracted, and the violet the more refracted, and therefore the 
halo will be coloured red on the inside. Similarly, as explained 
by Henry Cavendish, the halo of 46 is due to refraction by faces 
inclined at 90. The impurity of the colours (due partly to the 
sun's diameter, but still more to oblique refraction) is more 
marked in halos than in rainbows; in fact, only the red is at 
all pure, and as a rule, only a mere trace of green or blue is seen, 
the external portion of each halo being nearly white. 

The two halos are the only phenomena which admit of 
explanation without assigning any particular distribution to the 
ice-crystals. But it is obvious that certain distributions will 
predominate, for the crystals will tend to fall so as to offer the 
least resistance to their motion; a needle-shaped crystal tending 
to keep its axis vertical, a plate-shaped crystal to keep its axis 
horizontal. Thomas Young explained the parhelic circle (P) 
as due to reflection from the vertical faces of the long prisms 
and the bases of the short ones. If these vertical faces become 
very numerous, the eye will perceive a colourless horizontal 
circle. Reflection from an excess of horizontal prisms gives 
rise to a vertical circle passing through the sun. 

The parhelia (p) were explained by Mariotte as due to refrac- 
tion through a pair of alternate faces of a vertical prism. When 
the sun is near the horizon the rays fall upon the principal section 
of the prisms; the minimum deviation for such rays is 22, and 
consequently the parhelia are not only on the inner halo, but 
also on the parhelic circle. As the sun rises, the rays enter the 
prisms more and more obliquely, and the angle of minimum 
deviation increases ; but since the emergent ray makes the same 
angle with the refracting edge as the incident ray, it follows that 
the parhelia will remain on the parhelic circle, while receding 
from the inner halo. The different values of the angle of 
minimum deviation for rays of different refrangibilities give rise 
to spectral colours, the red being nearest the sun, while farther 
away the overlapping of the spectra forms a flaming colourless 
tail sometimes extending over as much as 10 to 20. The 
" arcs of Lowitz " (L) are probably due to small oscillations of 
the vertical prisms. 

The " tangential arcs " (T) were explained by Young as being 
caused by the thin plates with their axes horizontal, refraction 
taking place through alternate faces. The axes will take up any 
position, and consequently give rise to a continuous series of 
parhelia which touch externally the inner halo, both above and 
below, and under certain conditions (such as the requisite 
altitude of the sun) form two closed elliptical curves; generally, 
however, only the upper and lower portions are seen. Similarly, 
the tangential arcs to the halo of 46 are due to refraction through 
faces inclined at 90. 

The paranthelia (q) may be due to two internal or two external 

reflections. A pair of triangular prisms having a common face, 

or a stellate crystal formed by the symmetrical interpenetration 

of two triangular prisms admits of two internal reflections by 

xn. 28 



faces inclined at 120, and so give rise to two colourless images 
each at an angular distance of 120 from the sun. Double 
internal reflection by a triangular prism would form a single 
coloured image on the parhelic circle at about 98 from the sun. 
These angular distances are attained only when the sun is on 
the horizon, and they increase as it rises. 

The anthelion (a) may be explained as caused by two internal 
reflections of the solar rays by a hexagonal lamellar crystal, 
having its axis horizontal and one of the diagonals of its base 
Vertical. The emerging rays are parallel to their original direction 
and form a colourless image on the parhelic circle opposite 
the sun. 

REFERENCES. Auguste Bravais's celebrated memoir, " Sur les 
h^los et les ph6nom6nes optiques qui les accompagnent " (Journ. 
Ecole poly. vol. xviii., 1847), contains a full account of the geometrical 
theory. See also E. Mascart, Traiti d'optiquc; J. Pernter, Meteoro- 
logische Optik (1902-1905); and R. S. Heath, Geometrical Optics. 

HALOGENS. The word halogen is derived from the Greek 
a\s (sea-salt) and ytvvav (to produce), and consequently 
means the sea-salt producer. The term is applied to the four 
elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine, on account of 
the great similarity of their sodium salts to ordinary sea-sal't. 
These four elements show a great resemblance to one another 
in their general chemical behaviour, and in that of their com- 
pounds, whilst their physical properties show a gradual transition. 
Thus, as the atomic weight increases, the state of aggregation 
changes from that of a gas in the case of fluorine and chlorine, 
to that of a liquid (bromine) and finally to that of the solid 
(iodine); at the same time the melting and boiling points rise 
with increasing atomic weights. The halogen of lower atomic 
weight can displace one of higher atomic weight from its hydrogen 
compound, or from the salt derived from such hydrogen com- 
pound, while, on the other hand, the halogen of higher atomic 
weight can displace that of lower atomic weight, from the 
halogen oxy-acids and their salts; thus iodine will liberate 
chlorine from potassium chlorate and also from perchloric acid. 
All four of the halogens unite with hydrogen, but the affinity 
for hydrogen decreases as the atomic weight increases, hydrogen 
and fluorine uniting explosively at very low temperatures and 
in the dark, whilst hydrogen and iodine unite only at high 
temperatures, and even then the resulting compound is very 
readily decomposed by heat. The hydrides of the halogens are 
all colourless, strongly fuming gases, readily soluble in water and 
possessing a strong acid reaction; they react readily with basic 
oxides, forming in most cases well defined crystalline salts which 
resemble one another very strongly. On the other hand the 
stability of the known oxygen compounds increases with the 
atomic weight, thus iodine pentoxide is, at ordinary temperatures, 
a well-defined crystalline solid, which is only decomposed on 
heating strongly, whilst chlorine monoxide, chlorine peroxide, 
and chlorine heptoxide are very unstable, even at ordinary 
temperatures, decomposing at the slightest shock. Compounds 
of fluorine and oxygen, and of bromine and oxygen, have not 
yet been isolated. In some respects there is a very marked 
difference between fluorine and the other members of the group, 
for, whilst sodium chloride, bromide and iodide are readily 
soluble in water, sodium fluoride is much less soluble; again, 
silver chloride, bromide and iodide are practically insoluble 
in water, whilst, on the other hand, silver fluoride is appreciably 
soluble in water. Again, fluorine shows a great tendency to form 
double salts, which have no counterpart among the compounds 
formed by the other members of the family. 

HALS, FRANS (is8o?-i666), Dutch painter, was born at 
Antwerp according to the most recent authorities in 1580 or 
1581, and died at Haarlem in 1666. As a portrait painter second 
only to Rembrandt in Holland, he displayed extraordinary 
talent and quickness in the exercise of his art coupled with 
improvidence in the use of the means which that art secured to 
him. At a time when the Dutch nation fought for independence 
and won it, Hals appears in the ranks of its military gilds. He 
was also a member of the Chamber of Rhetoric, and (1644) chair- 
man of the Painters' Corporation at Haarlem. But as a man he 
had failings. He so ill-treated his first wife, Anneke Hermansz, 



866 



HALS, FRANS 



that she died prematurely in 1616; and he barely saved the 
character of his second, Lysbeth Reyniers, by marrying her in 
1617. Another defect was partiality to drink, which led him 
into low company. Still he brought up and supported a family 
of ten children with success till 1652, when the forced sale of his 
pictures and furniture, at the suit of a baker to whom he was 
indebted for bread and money, brought him to absolute penury. 
The inventory of the property seized on this occasion only 
mentions three mattresses and bolsters, an armoire, a table and 
five pictures. This humble list represents all his worldly posses- 
sions at the time of his bankruptcy. Subsequently to this he 
was reduced to still greater straits, and his rent and firing were 
paid by the municipality, which afterwards gave him (1664) 
an annuity of 200 florins. We may admire the spirit which 
enabled him to produce some of his most striking works in his 
unhappy circumstances: we find his widow seeking outdoor 
relief from the guardians of the poor, and dying obscurely in a 
hospital. 

Hals's pictures illustrate the various strata of society into 
which his misfortunes led him. His banquets or meetings of 
officers, of sharpshooters, and gildsmen are the most interesting 
of his works. But they are not more characteristic than his 
low-life pictures of itinerant players and singers. His portraits 
of gentlefolk are true and noble, but hardly so expressive as 
those of fishwives and tavern heroes. 

His first master at Antwerp was probably van Noort, as has 
been suggested by M. G. S. Davies, but on his removal toHaarlem 
Frans Hals entered the atelier of van Mander, the painter and 
historian, of whom he possessed some pictures which went to 
pay the debt of the baker already alluded to. But he soon 
improved upon the practice of the time, illustrated by J. van 
Schoreel and Antonio Moro, and, emancipating himself gradually 
from tradition, produced pictures remarkable for truth and 
dexterity of hand. We prize in Rembrandt the golden glow of 
effects based upon artificial contrasts of low light in immeasurable 
gloom. Hals was fond of daylight of silvery sheen. Both men 
were painters of touch, but of touch on different keys Rem- 
brandt was the bass, Hals the treble. The latter is perhaps 
more expressive than the former. He seizes with rare intuition 
a moment in the life of his sitters. What nature displays in 
that moment he reproduces thoroughly in a very delicate scale 
of colour, and with a perfect mastery over every form of expres- 
sion. He becomes so clever at last that exact tone, light and 
shade, and modelling are all obtained with a few marked and 
fluid strokes of the brush. 

In every form of his art we can distinguish his earlier style 
from that of later years. It is curious that we have no record 
of any work produced by him in the first decade of his 
independent activity, save an engraving by Jan van de Velde 
after a lost portrait of " The Minister Johannes Bogardus," 
who died in 1614. The earliest works by Frans Hals that have 
come down to us, " Two Boys Playing and Singing " in the 
gallery of Cassel, and a " Banquet of the officers of the 'St 
Joris Doele' " or Arquebusiers of St George (1616) in themuseum 
of Haarlem, exhibit him as a careful draughtsman capable of 
great finish, yet spirited withal. His flesh, less clear than it 
afterwards becomes, is pastose and burnished. Later he becomes 
more effective, displays more freedom of hand, and a greater 
command of effect. At this period we note the beautiful full- 
length of " Madame van Beresteyn " at the Louvre in Paris, 
and a splendid full-length portrait of " Willem van Heythuysen " 
leaning on a sword in the Liechtenstein collection at Vienna. 
Both these pictures are equalled by the other " Banquet of the 
officers of the Arquebusiers of St George " (with different 
portraits) and the " Banquet of the officers of the ' Cloveniers 
Doelen ' " or Arquebusiers of St Andrew of 1627 and an 
" Assembly of the officers of the Arquebusiers of St Andrew " 
of 1633 in the Haarlem Museum. A picture of the same kind 
in the town hall of Amsterdam, with the date of 1637, suggests 
some study of the masterpieces of Rembrandt, and a similar 
influence is apparent in a picture of 1641 at Haarlem, representing 
the " Regents of the Company of St Elizabeth " and in the 



portrait of " Maria Voogt " at Amsterdam. But Rembrandt's 
example did not create a lasting impression on Hals. He gradu- 
ally dropped more and more into grey and silvery harmonies 
of tone; and two of his canvases, executed in 1664, " The 
Regents and Regentesses of the Oudemannenhuis " at Haarlem, 
are masterpieces of colour, though in substance all but mono- 
chromes. In fact, ever since 1641 Hals had shown a tendency 
to restrict the gamut of his palette, and to suggest colour rather 
than express it. This is particularly noticeable in his flesh tints 
which from year to year became more grey, until finally the 
shadows were painted in almost absolute black, as in the 
" Tymane Oosdorp," of the Berlin Gallery. As this tendency 
coincides with the period of his poverty, it has been suggested 
that one of the reasons, if not the only reason, of his predilection 
for black and white pigment was-the cheapness of these colours 
as compared with the costly lakes and carmines. 

As a portrait painter Frans Hals had scarcely the psychological 
insight of a Rembrandt or Velazquez, though in a few works, 
like the " Admiral de Ruyter," in Earl Spencer's collection, 
the " Jacob Olycan " at the Hague Gallery, and the " Albert 
van der Meer " at Haarlem town hall, he reveals a searching 
analysis of character which has little in common with the 
instantaneous expression of his so-called " character " portraits. 
In these he generally sets upon the canvas the fleeting aspect 
of the various stages of merriment, from the subtle, half ironic 
smile that quivers round the lips of the curiously misnamed 
" Laughing Cavalier " in the Wallace Collection to the imbecile 
grin of the " Hille Bobbe " in the Berlin Museum. To this 
group of pictures belong Baron Gustav Rothschild's " Jester," 
the " Bohimienne " at the Louvre, and the " Fisher Boy " at 
Antwerp, whilst the " Portrait of the Artist with his second 
Wife " at the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam, and the somewhat 
confused group of the " Beresteyn Family " at the Louvre 
show a similar tendency. Far less scattered in arrangement 
than this Beresteyn group, and in every respect one of the most 
masterly of Frans Hals's achievements is the group called " The 
Painter and his Family " in the possession of Colonel Warde, 
which was almost unknown until it appeared at the winter 
exhibition at the Royal Academy in 1906. 

Though a visit to Haarlem town hall, which contains the 
five enormous Doelen groups and the two Regenten pictures, 
is as necessary for the student of Hals's art as a visit to the 
Prado in Madrid is for the student of Velazquez, good examples 
of the Dutch master have found their way into most of the 
leading public and private collections. In the British Isles, 
besides the works already mentioned, portraits from his brush 
are to be found at the National Gallery, the Edinburgh Gallery, 
the Glasgow Corporation Gallery, Hampton Court, Buckingham 
Palace, Devonshire House, and the collections of Lord North- 
brooke, Lord Ellesmere, Lord Iveagh and Lord Spencer. 

At Amsterdam is the celebrated " Flute Player," once in the 
Dupper collection at Dort; at Brussels, the patrician "Heyt- 
huysen "; at the Louvre, " Descartes "; at Dresden, the 
painter " Van der Vinne." Hals's sitters were taken from 
every class of society admirals, generals and burgomasters 
pairing with merchants, lawyers, clerks. To register all that 
we find in public galleries would involve much space. There 
are eight portraits at Berlin, six at Cassel, five at St Petersburg, 
six at the Louvre, two at Brussels, five at Dresden, two at Gotha. 
In private collections, chiefly in Paris, Haarlem and Vienna, 
we find an equally important number. Amongst the painter's 
most successful representations of fishwives and termagants 
we should distinguish the " Hille Bobbe " of the Berlin Museum, 
and the " Hille Bobbe with her Son " in the Dresden Gallery. 
Itinerant players are best illustrated in the Neville-Goldsmith 
collection at the Hague, and the Six collection at Amsterdam. 
Boys and girls singing, playing or laughing, or men drinking, 
are to be found in the gallery of Schwerin, in the Arenberg 
collection, and in the royal palace at Brussels. 

For two centuries after his death Frans Hals was held in such 
poor esteem that some of his paintings, which are now among 
the proudest possessions of public galleries, were sold at auction 



HALSBURY HALYBURTON, T. 



867 



for a few pounds or even shillings. The portrait of " Johannes 
Acronius," now at the Berlin Museum, realized five shillings 
at the Enschede sale in 1786. The splendid portrait of the man 
with the sword at the Liechtenstein gallery was sold in 1800 for 
4, 53. With his rehabilitation in public esteem came the 
enormous rise in values, and, at the Secretan sale in 1889, the 
portrait of " Pieter van de Broecke d'Anvers " was bid up to 
4420, while in 1908 the National Gallery paid 25,000 for the 
large group from the collection of Lord Talbot de Malahide. 

Of the master's numerous family none has left a name except 
FRANS HALS THE YOUNGER, born about 1622, who died in 1669. 
His pictures represent cottages and poultry; and the " Vanitas " 
at Berlin, a table laden with gold and silver dishes, cups, glasses 
and books, is one of his finest works and deserving of a passing 
glance. 

Quite in another form, and with much of the freedom of the 
elder Hals, DIRK HALS, his brother (born at Haarlem, died 1656), 
is a painter of festivals and ball-rooms. But Dirk had too much 
of the freedom and too little of the skill in drawing which cha- 
racterized his brother. He remains second on his own ground to 
Palamedes. A fair specimen of his art is a " Lady playing a 
Harpsichord to a Young Girl and her Lover " in the van der 
Hoop collection at Amsterdam, now in the Ryks Museum. 
More characteristic, but not better, is a large company of 
gentle-folk rising from dinner, in the Academy at Vienna. 

LITERATURE. See W. Bode, Frans Hals und seine Schule (Leipzig, 
1871); W. Unger and W. Vosmaer, Etchings after Frans Hals 
(Leyden, 1873); Percy Rendell Head, Sir Anthony Van Dyck and 
Frans Hals (London, 1879); D. Knackfuss, Frans Hals (Leipzig, 
1896) ; G. S. Davies, Frans Hals (London, 1902). (P. G. K.) 

HALSBURY, HARDINGE STANLEY GIFFARD, IST EARL OF 
(1825- ), English lord chancellor, son of Stanley Lees 
Giffard, LL.D., was born in London on the 3rd of September 
1825. He was educated at Merton College, Oxford, and was 
called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1850, joining the North 
Wales and Chester circuit. Afterwards he had a large practice 
at the central criminal court and the Middlesex sessions, and he 
was for several years junior prosecuting counsel to the treasury. 
He was engaged in most of the celebrated trials of his time, 
including the Overend and Gurney and the Tichborne cases. 
He became queen's counsel in 1865, and a bencher of the Inner 
Temple. Mr Giffard twice contested Cardiff in the Conservative 
interest, in 1868 and 1874, but he was still without a seat in the 
House of Commons when he was appointed solicitor-general by 
Disraeli in 1875 and received the honour of knighthood. In 1877 
he succeeded in obtaining a seat, when he was returned for 
Launceston, which borough he continued to represent until his 
elevation to the peerage in 1885. He was then created Baron 
Halsbury and appointed lord chancellor, thus forming a remark- 
able exception to the rule that no criminal lawyer ever reaches 
the woolsack. Lord Halsbury resumed the position in 1886 
and held it until 1892 and again from 1895 to 1905, his tenure 
of the office, broken only by the brief Liberal ministries of 1886 
and 1892-1895, being longer than that of any lord chancellor 
since Lord Eldon. In 1898 he was created earl of Halsbury and 
Viscount Tiverton. Among Conservative lord chancellors Lord 
Halsbury must always hold a high place, his grasp of legal 
principles and mastery in applying them being pre-eminent 
among the judges of his day. 

HALSTEAD, a market-town in the Maldon parliamentary 
division of Essex, England, on the Colne, 17 m. N.N.E. from 
Chelmsford; served by the Colne Valley railway from Chappel 
Junction on the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district 
(1901), 6073. It lies on a hill in a pleasant wooded district. 
The church of St Andrew is mainly Perpendicular. It contains 
a monument supposed to commemorate Sir Robert Bourchier 
(d. 1349), lord chancellor to Edward III. The Lady Mary 
Ramsay grammar school dates from 1594. There are large silk 
and crape works. Two miles N. of Halstead is Little Maplestead, 
where the church is the latest in date of the four churches with 
round naves extant in England, being perhaps of lath-century 
foundation, but showing early Decorated work in the main. 
The chancel, which is without aisles, terminates in an apse. 



Three miles N.W. from Halstead are the large villages of Sible 
Hedingham (pop. 1701) and Castle Hedingham (pop. 1097). At 
the second is the Norman keep of the de Veres, of whom Aubrey 
de Vere held the lordship from William I. The keep dates from 
the end of the nth century, and exhibits much fine Norman 
work. The church of St Nicholas, Castle Hedingham, has fine 
Norman, Transitional and Early English details, and there is a 
black marble tomb of John de Vere, isth earl of Oxford (d. 1540), 
with his countess. 

There are signs of settlement at Halstead (Halsteda,Halgusted, 
Halsted) in the Bronze Age; but there is no evidence of the 
causes of its growth in historic times. Probably its situation 
on the river Colne made it to some extent a local centre. 
Throughout the middle ages Halstead was unimportant, and 
never rose to the rank of a borough. 

HALT, (i) An adjective common to Teutonic languages and 
still appearing in Swedish and Danish, meaning lame, crippled. 
It is also used as a verb, meaning to limp, and as a substantive, 
especially in the term " string-halt " or " spring-halt," a nervous 
disorder affecting the muscles of the hind legs of horses. (2) A 
pause or stoppage made on a march or a journey. The word 
came into English in the form " to make alto " or " alt," and 
was taken from the French faire alte or Italian far alto. The 
origin is a German military term, Halt machen, Hall meaning 
" hold." 

HALUNTIUM (Gr. 'AX&riov, mod. S. Marco d'Alunzio), an 
ancient city of Sicily, 6 m. from the north coast and 25m. E.N.E. 
of Halaesa. It was probably of Sicel origin, though its foundation 
was ascribed to some of the companions of Aeneas. It appears 
first in Roman times as a place of some importance, and suffered 
considerably at the hands of Verres. The abandoned church of 
S. 'Mark, just outside the modern town, is built into the cella 
of an ancient Greek temple, which measures 62 ft. by 18. A 
number of ancient inscriptions have been found there. 

HALYBURTON, JAMES (1518-1589), Scottish reformer, was 
born in 1 5 1 8, and was educated at St Andrews, where he graduated 
M.A. in 1538. From 1553 to 1586 he was provost of St Andrews 
and a prominent figure in the national life. He was chosen as 
one of the lords of the congregation in 1557, and commanded 
the contingents sent by Forfar and Fife against the queen regent 
in 1559. He took part in the defence of Edinburgh, and in the 
battles of Langside (1568) and Restalrig (1571). He had stoutly 
opposed the marriage of Mary with Darnley, and when, after 
Restalrig, he was captured by the queen's troops, he narrowly 
escaped execution. He represented Morton at the conference 
of 1578, and was one of the royal commissioners to the General 
Assembly in 1582 and again in 1588. He died in February 1589. 

HALYBURTON, THOMAS (1674-1712), Scottish divine, was 
born at Dupplin, near Perth, on the 25th of December 1674. 
His father, one of the ejected ministers, having died in 1682, 
he was taken by his mother in 1685 to Rotterdam to escape 
persecution, where he for some time attended the school founded 
by Erasmus. On his return to his native country in 1687 he 
completed his elementary education at Perth and Edinburgh, 
and in 1696 graduated at the university of St Andrews. In 
1700 he was ordained minister of the parish of Ceres, and in 1710 
he was recommended by the synod of Fife for the chair of 
theology in St Leonard's College, St Andrews, to which accord- 
ingly he was appointed by Queen Anne. After a brief term of 
active professorial life he died from the effects of overwork in 
1712. 

The works by which he continues to be known were all of them 
published after his death. Wesley and Whitefield were accustomed 
to commend them to their followers. They were published as 
follows: Natural Religion Insufficient, and Revealed Religion 
Necessary, to Man's Happiness in his Present State (1714), an able 
statement of the orthodox Calvinistic criticism of the deism of Lord 
Herbert of Cherbury and Charles Blount; Memoirs of the Life of 
Mr Thomas Halyburton (1715), three parts by his own hand, the 
fourth from his diary by another hand; The Great Concern of 
Salvation (1721), with a word of commendation by I. Watts; Ten 
Sermons Preached Before and After the Lord's Supper (1722); The 
Unpardonable Sin Against the Holy Ghost (1784). See Halyburton's 
Memoirs (1714). 



868 



HAM HAMADHANI 



HAH, in the Bible, (i) on, gam, in Gen. v. 32, vi. 10, vii. 13, 
ix. 18, x. s, i Chron. i. 4, the second son of Noah; in Gen. ix. 24, 
the youngest son (but cf . below) ; and in Gen. x. 6, i Chron. i. 8, 
the father of Cush (Ethiopia), Mizraim (Egypt), Phut and 
Canaan. Genesis x. exhibits in the form of genealogies the 
political, racial and geographical relations of the peoples known 
to Israel; as it was compiled from various sources and has been 
more than once edited, it does not exactly represent the situation 
at any given date, 1 but Ham seems to stand roughly for the 
south-western division of the world as known to Israel, which 
division was regarded as the natural sphere of influence of Egypt. 
Ham is held to be the Egyptian word Khem (black) which was 
the native name of Egypt; thus in Pss. Ixxviii. 51, cv. 23, 27, 
cvi. 22, Ham = Egypt. In Gen. ix. 20-26 Canaan was originally 
the third son of Noah and the villain of the story. Ham is a 
later addition to harmonize with other passages. 

(2) err, Ham, i Chron. iv. 40, apparently the name of a place 
or tribe. It can hardly be identical with (i); nothing else is 
known of this second Ham, which may be a scribe's error; 
the Syriac version rejects the name. 

(3) on, If am, Gen. xiv. 5; the place where Chedorlaomer 
defeated the Zuzim, apparently in eastern Palestine. The place 
is unknown, and the name may be a scribe's error, perhaps for 
Ammon. (W. H. BE.) 

HAM, a small town of northern France, in the department of 
Somme, 36 m. E.S.E. of Amiens on the Northern railway between 
that city and Laon. Pop. (1906), 2957. It stands on the Somme 
in a marshy district where market-gardening is carried on. From 
the gth century onwards it appears as the seat of a lordship 
which, after the extinction of its hereditary line, passed in 
succession to the houses of Coucy, Enghien, Luxembourg, Rohan, 
Vendome and Navarre, and was finally united to the French 
crown on the accession of Henry IV. Notre-Dame, the church 
of an abbey of canons regular of St Augustin, dates from the 
1 2th and I3th centuries, but in 1760 all the inflammable portions 
of the building were destroyed by a conflagration caused by 
lightning, and a process of restoration was subsequently carried 
out. Of special note are the bas-reliefs of the nave and choir, 
executed in the I7th and i8th centuries, and the crypt of the 
1 2th century, which contains the sepulchral effigies of Odo IV. 
of Ham and his wife Isabella of Bethencourt. The castle, 
founded before the loth century, was rebuilt early in the I3th, 
and extended in the I4th; its present appearance is mainly 
due to the constable Louis of Luxembourg, count of St Pol, 
who between 1436 and 1470 not only furnished it with outworks, 
but gave such a thickness to the towers and curtains, and more 
especially to the great tower or donjon which still bears his 
motto Man Myeidx, that the great engineer and architect 
Viollet-le-Duc considered them, even in the I9th century, 
capable of resisting artillery. It forms a rectangle 395 ft. long 
by 263 ft. broad, with a round tower at each angle and two 
square towers protecting the curtains. The eastern and western 
sides are each defended by a demi-lune. The Constable's Tower, 
for so the great tower is usually called in memory of St Pol, 
has a height of about 100 ft., and the thickness of the walls is 
36 ft. ; the interior is occupied by three large hexagonal chambers 
in as many stories. The castle of Ham, which now serves as 
barracks, has frequently been used as a state prison both in 
ancient and modern times, and the list of those who have 
sojourned there is an interesting one, including as it does Joan 
of Arc, Louis of Bourbon, the ministers of Charles X., Louis 
Napoleon, and Generals Cavaignac and Lamoriciere. Louis 
Napoleon was there for six years, and at last effected his escape 
in the disguise of a workman. During 1870-1871 Ham was 
several times captured and recaptured by the belligerents. A 
statue commemorates the birth in the town of General Foy 
(1775-1825). 

See J. G. Cappot, Le ChAteau de Ham (Paris, 1842) ; and Ch. 
Gomart, Ham, son chdteau et ses prisonniers (Ham, 1864). 



1 A. Jeremias, Das A.T. im Lichte des alien Orients, p. 145, holds 
that it represents the situation in the 8th century B.C. 



HAMADAN, a province and town of Persia. The province is 
bounded N. by Gerrus and Khamseh, W. by Kermanshah, 
S. by Malayir and Irak, E. by Savah and Kazvin. It has many 
well-watered, fertile plains and more than four hundred flourish- 
ing villages producing much grain, and its population, estimated 
at 350,000 more than half being Turks of the Karaguzlu 
(black-eyed) and Shamlu (Syrian) tribes supplies several 
battalions of infantry to the army, and pays, besides, a yearly 
revenue of about 18,000. 

Hamadan, the capital of the province, is situated 188 m. 
W.S.W. of Teheran, at an elevation of 5930 ft., near the foot of 
Mount El vend (old Persian Arvand, Gr. Orontes), whose granite 
peak rises W. of it to an altitude of 11,900 ft. It is a busy trade 
centre with about 40,000 inhabitants (comprising 4000 Jews 
and 300 Armenians), has extensive and well-stocked bazaars and 
fourteen large and many small caravanserais. The principal 
industries are tanning leather and the manufacture of saddles, 
harnesses, trunks, and other leather goods, felts and copper 
utensils. The leather of Hamadan is much esteemed throughout 
the country and exported to other provinces in great quantities. 
The streets are narrow, and by a system called Kucheh-bandi 
(street-closing) established long ago for impeding the circulation 
of crowds and increasing general security, every quarter of the 
town, or block of buildings, is shut off from its neighbours by 
gates which are closed during local disorders and regularly at 
night. Hamadan has post and telegraph offices and two 
churches, one Armenian, the other Protestant (of the American 
Presbyterian Mission). 

Among objects of interest are the alleged tombs of Esther 
and Mordecai in an insignificant domed building in the centre 
of the town. There are two wooden sarcophagi carved all over 
with Hebrew inscriptions. That ascribed to Mordecai has the 
verses Isaiah lix. 8; Esther ii. 5; Ps. xvi. 9, 10, n, and the 
date of its erection A.M. 4318 (A.D. 557). The inscriptions on 
the other sarcophagus consist of the verses Esther ix. 29, 32, 
x. i; and the statement that it was placed there A.M. 4602 
(A.D. 841) by " the pious and righteous woman Gemal Setan." 
A tablet let into the wall states that the building was repaired 
A.M. 4474 (A.D. 713). Hamadan also has the grave of the cele- 
brated physician and philosopher Abu Ali ibn Sina, better known 
as Avicenna (d. 1036). It is now generally admitted that 
Hamadan is the Hagmatana (of the inscriptions), Agbatana or 
Ecbatana (q.v., of the Greek writers), the " treasure city " of the 
Achaemenian kings which was taken and plundered by Alexander 
the Great, but very few ancient remains have been discovered. 
A rudely carved stone lion, which lies on the roadside close to 
the southern extremity of the city, and by some is supposed to 
have formed part of a building of the ancient city, is locally 
regarded as a talisman against famine, plague, cold, &c., placed 
there by Pliny, who is popularly known as the sorcerer Balinas 
(a corruption of Plinius). 

Five miles S.W. from the city in a mountain gorge of Mount 
Elvend is the so-called Ganjnama (treasure-deed), which consists 
of two tablets with trilingual cuneiform inscriptions cut into 
the rock and relating the names and titles of Darius I. (521- 
485 B.C.) and his son Xerxes I. (485-465 B.C.). (A. H.-S.) 

HAMADHANI, in full ABU-L FADL AHMAD IBN UL-HUSAIN 
UL-HAMADHANI (967-1007), Arabian writer, known as Badi' 
uz-Zaman (the wonder of the age), was born and educated at 
Hamadhan. In 990 he went to Jorjan, where he remained two 
years; then passing to Nlshapur, where he rivalled and surpassed 
the learned Khwarizml. After journeying through Khorasan 
and Sijistan, he finally settled in Herat under the protection of 
the vizir of Mahmud, the Ghaznevid sultan. There he died at the 
age of forty. He was renowned for a remarkable memory and 
for fluency of speech, as well as for the purity of his language. 
He was one of the first to renew the use of rhymed prose both in 
letters and maqamas (see ARABIA: Literature, section " Belles 
Lettres "). 

His letters were published at Constantinople (1881), and with 
commentary at Beirut (1890); his maqamas at Constantinople 
(1881), and with commentary at Beirut (1889). A good idea of the 



HAMAH HAMAR 



869 



latter may be obtained from S. de Sacy's edition of six of the maqamas 
with French translation and notes in his Chrestomathie arabe, vol. iii. 
(2nd ed., Paris, 1827). A specimen of the letters is translated into 
German in A. von Kremer's Culturgeschichte des Orients, ii. 470 sqq. 
(Vienna, 1877). (G. W. T.) 

HAMAH, the Hamath of the Bible, a Hittite royal city, 
situated in the narrow valley of the Orontes, no English miles N. 
(by E.) of Damascus. It finds a place in the northern boundaries 
of Israel under David, Solomon and Jeroboam II. (2 Sam. viii. 9; 
i Kings viii. 65; 2 Kings xiv. 25). The Orontes flows winding 
past the city and is spanned by four bridges. On the south-east 
the houses rise 150 ft. above the river, and there are four other 
hills, that of the Kalah or castle being to the north 100 ft. high. 
Twenty-four minarets rise from the various mosques. The 
houses are principally of mud, and the town stands amid poplar 
gardens with a fertile plain to the west. The castle is ruined, 
the streets are narrow and dirty, but the bazaars are good, and 
the trade with the Bedouins considerable. The numerous water- 
wheels (naurah,) of enormous dimension, raising water from the 
Orontes are the most remarkable features of the view. Silk, 
woollen and cotton goods are manufactured. The population 
is about 40,000. 

In the year 854 B.C. Hamath was taken by Shalmaneser II., 
king of Assyria, who defeated a large army of allied Hamathites, 
Syrians and Israelites at Karkor and slew 14,000 of them. In 
738 B.C. Tiglath Pileser III. reduced the city to tribute, and 
another rebellion was crushed by Sargon in 720 B.C. The down- 
fall of so ancient a state made a great impression at Jerusalem 
(Isa. x. 9). According to 2 Kings xvii. 24, 30, some of its people 
were transported to the land of N. Israel, where they made 
images of Ashima or Eshmun (probably Ishtar). After the 
Macedonian conquest of Syria Hamath was called Epiphania 
by the Greeks in honour of Antiochus IV., Epiphanes, and in 
the early Byzantine period it was known by both its Hebrew 
and its Greek name. In A.D. 639 the town surrendered to Abu 
'Obeida, one of Omar's generals, and the church was turned 
into a mosque. In A.D. 1108 Tancred captured the city and 
massacred the Ism'aileh defenders. In 1115 it was retaken by 
the Moslems, and in 1178 was occupied by Saladin. Abulfeda, 
prince of Hamah in the early part of the i4th century, is well 
known as an authority on Arab geography. 

HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG (1730-1788), German writer on 
philosophical and theological subjects, was born at Konigsberg 
in Prussia on the 27th of August 1730. His parents were of 
humble rank and small means. The education he received was 
comprehensive but unsystematic, and the want of definiteness 
in this early training doubtless tended to aggravate the peculiar 
instability of character which troubled Hamann's after life. 
In 1746 he began theological studies, but speedily deserted 
them and turned his attention to law. That too was taken up 
in a desultory fashion and quickly relinquished. Hamann seems 
at this time to have thought that any strenuous devotion to 
" bread-and-butter " studies was lowering, and accordingly 
gave himself entirely to reading, criticism and philological 
inquiries. Such studies, however, were pursued without any 
definite aim or systematic arrangement, and consequently were 
productive of nothing. In 1752, constrained to secure some 
position in the world, he accepted a tutorship in a family resident 
in Livonia, but only retained it a few months. A similar situation 
in Courland he also resigned after about a year. In both cases 
apparently the rupture might be traced to the curious and 
unsatisfactory character of Hamann himself. After leaving his 
second post he was received into the house of a merchant at 
Riga named Johann Christoph Behrens, who contracted a great 
friendship for him and selected him as his companion for a tour 
through Danzig, Berlin, Hamburg, Amsterdam and London. 
Hamann, however, was quite unfitted for business, and when 
left in London, gave himself up entirely to his fancies, and was 
quickly reduced to a state of extreme poverty and want. It was 
at this period of his life, when his inner troubles of spirit har- 
monized with the unhappy external conditions of his lot, that 
he began an earnest and prolonged study of the Bible; and from 
this time dates the tone of extreme pietism which is characteristic 



of his writings, and which undoubtedly alienated many of his 
friends. He returned to Riga, and was well received by the 
Behrens family, in whose house he resided for some time. A 
quarrel, the precise nature of which is not very clear though the 
occasion is evident, led to an entire separation from these friends. 
In 1759 Hamann returned to Konigsberg, and lived for several 
years with his father, filling occasional posts in Konigsberg and 
Mitau. In 1767 he obtained a situation as translator in the 
excise office, and ten years later a post as storekeeper in a 
mercantile house. During this period of comparative rest 
Hamann was able to indulge in the long correspondence with 
learned friends which seems to have been his greatest pleasure. 
In 1784 the failure of some commercial speculations greatly 
reduced his means, and about the same time he was dismissed 
with a small pension from his situation. The kindness of friends, 
however, supplied provision for his children, and enabled him 
to carry out the long-cherished wish of visiting some of his 
philosophical allies. He spent some time with Jacobi at Pempel- 
fort and with Buchholz at Walbergen. At the latter place he was 
seized with illness, and died on the 2ist of June 1788. 

Hamann's works resemble his life and character. They are en- 
tirely unsystematic so far as matter is concerned, chaotic and dis- 
jointed in style. To a reader not acquainted with the peculiar 
nature of the man, which led him to regard what commended 
itself to him as therefore objectively true, they must be, moreover, 
entirely unintelligible and, from their peculiar, pietistic tone and 
scriptural jargon, probably offensive. A place in the history of 
philosophy can be yielded to Hamann only because he expresses in 
uncouth, barbarous fashion an idea to which other writers have 
given more effective shape. The fundamental thought is with him 
the unsatisfactoriness of abstraction or one-sidedness. The Aufkla- 
rung, with its rational theology, was to him the type of abstraction. 
Even Epicureanism, which might appear concrete, was by him 
rightly designated abstract. Quite naturally, then, Hamann is led 
to object strongly to much of the Kantian philosophy. The sepa- 
ration of sense and understanding is for him unjustifiable, and only 
paralleled by the extraordinary blunder of severing matter and 
form. Concreteness, therefore, is the one demand which Hamann 
expresses, and as representing his own thought he used to refer to 
Giordano Bruno's conception (previously held by Nicolaus Curanus) 
of the identity of contraries. The demand, however, remains but a 
demand. Nothing that Hamann has given can be regarded as in the 
slightest degree a response to it. His hatred of system, incapacity for 
abstract thinking, and intense personality rendered it impossible 
for him to do more than utter the disjointed, oracular, obscure dicta 
which gained for him among his friends the name of " Magus of the 
North." Two results only appear throughout his writings first, the 
accentuation of belief; and secondly, the transference of many 
philosophical difficulties to language. Belief is, according to Hamann, 
the groundwork of knowledge, and he accepts in all. sincerity Hume's 
analysis of experience as being most helpful in constructing a theo- 
logical view. In language, which he appears to regard as somehow 
acquired, he finds a solution for the problems of reason which 
Kant had discussed in the Kritik der reinen Vernunft. On the 
application of these thoughts to the Christian theology one need 
not enter. 

None of Hamann's writings is of great bulk; most are mere 
pamphlets of some thirty or forty pages. A complete collection 
has been published by F. Roth (Schriften, 8vo, 1821-1842), and by 
C. H. Gildemeister (Leben und Schriften, 6 vols., 1851-1873). See 
also M. Petri, Hamanns Schriften u. Briefe, 4 vols., 1872-1873); 
J. Poel, Hamann, der Magus im Norden, sein Leben u. Mitteilungen 
aus seinen Schriften (2 vols., 1874-1876); J. Claassen, Hamanns 
Leben und Werke (1885). Also H. Weber, Neue Hamanniana (1905). 
A very comprehensive essay on Hamann is to be found in Hegel's 
Vermtschte Schriften, ii. (Werke, Bd. xvii.). On Hamann's influence 
on German literature, see J. Minor, J. G. Hamann in seiner Bedeu- 
tungfiir die Sturm- und Drang-Periode (1881). 

HAMAR, or STOREHAMMER (GREAT HAMAR), a town of Norway 
in Hedemarken ami (county), 78 m. by rail N. of Christiania. 
Pop. (1900), 6003. It is pleasantly situated between two bays 
of the great Lake Mjosen, and is the junction of the railways to 
Trondhjem (N.) and to Otta in Gudbrandsdal (N.W.). The 
existing town was laid out in 1849, and made a bishop's see in 
1864. Near the same site there stood an older town, which, 
together with a bishop's see, was founded in 1 1 5 2 by the English- 
man Nicholas Breakspeare (afterwards Pope Adrian IV.); but 
both town and cathedral were destroyed by the Swedes in 1567. 
Remains of the latter include a nave-arcade with rounded arches. 
The town is a centre for the local agricultural and timber 
trade. 



HAMASA 



HAMASA (HAMASAH) , the name of a famous Arabian anthology 
compiled by Habib ibn Aus at-Ta'I, surnamed Abu Tammam 
(see ABU TAMMAM). The collection is so called from the title of 
its first book, containing poems descriptive of constancy and 
valour in battle, patient endurance of calamity, steadfastness in 
seeking vengeance, manfulness under reproach and temptation, 
all which qualities make up the attribute called by the Arabs 
hamdsah (briefly paraphrased by at-Tibrizi as ash-shiddah 
fi-l-amr). It consists of ten books or parts, containing in all 
884 poems or fragments of poems, and named respectively 
(i) al-ffamasa, 261 pieces; (2) al-Mardthi, " Dirges," 169 
pieces; (3) al-Adab, " Manners," 54 pieces; (4) an-Nasib, 
" The Beauty and Love of Women," 139 pieces; (5) al-Hijd, 
"Satires," 80 pieces; (6) al-Adydf wa-l-Madifr, "Hospitality 
and Panegyric," 143 pieces; (7) a$-$tfat, " Miscellaneous 
Descriptions," 3 pieces; (8) as-Sair wa-n-Nu'ds, " Journeying 
and Drowsiness," 9 pieces; (9) al-Mulah, " Pleasantries," 38 
pieces; and (10) Madhammat-an-nisd, "Dispraise of Women," 
1 8 pieces. Of these books the first is by far the longest, both 
in the number and extent of its poems, and the first two together 
make up more than half the bulk of the work. The poems are 
for the most part fragments selected from longer compositions, 
though a considerable number are probably entire. They are 
taken from the works of Arab poets of all periods down to that 
of Abu Tammam himself (the latest ascertainable date being 
A.D. 832), but chiefly of the poets of the Ante-Islamic time 
(J ahiliyyun) , those of the early days of Al-Islam (Mukha- 
drimun), and those who flourished during the reigns of the 
Omayyad caliphs, A.D. 660-749 (Islamiyyuri). Perhaps the 
oldest in the collection are those relating to the war of Basus, 
a famous legendary strife which arose out of the murder of 
Kulaib, chief of the combined clans of Bakr and Taghlib, and 
lasted for forty years, ending with the peace of Dhu-1-Majaz, 
about A.D. 534. Of the period of the Abbasid caliphs, under 
whom Abu Tammam himself lived, there are probably not more 
than sixteen fragments. 

Most of the poems belong to the class of extempore or 
occasional utterances, as distinguished from qasldas, or elabor- 
ately finished odes. While the latter abound with comparisons 
and long descriptions, in which the skill of the poet is exhibited 
with much art and ingenuity, the poems of the flamasa are short, 
direct and for the most part free from comparisons; the transi- 
tions are easy, the metaphors simple, and the purpose of the 
poem clearly indicated. It is due probably to the fact that this 
style of composition was chiefly sought by Abu Tammam in 
compiling his collection that he has chosen hardly anything from 
the works of the most famous poets of antiquity. Not a single 
piece from Imra 'al-Qais (Amru-ul-Qais) occurs in the l}amasa, 
nor are there any from 'Alqama, Zuhair or A'sha; Nabigha 
is represented only by two pieces (pp. 408 and 742 of Freytag's 
edition) of four and three verses respectively; 'Antara by two 
pieces of four verses each (id. pp. 206, 209) ; Tarafa by one piece 
of five verses (id. p. 632); Labld by one piece of three verses 
(id. p. 468) ; and 'Amr ibn Kulthum by one piece of four verses 
(id. p. 236). The compilation is thus essentially an anthology 
of minor poets, and exhibits (so far at least as the more ancient 
poems are concerned) the general average of poetic utterance 
at a time when to speak in verse was the daily habit of every 
warrior of the desert. 

To this description, however, there is an important exception 
in the book entitled an-Nasib, containing verses relating to 
women and love. In the classical age of Arab poetry it was the 
established rule that all qasidas, or finished odes, whatever 
their purpose, must begin with the mention of women and their 
charms (tashbib), in order, as the old critics said, that the hearts 
of the hearers might be softened and inclined to regard kindly 
the theme which the poet proposed to unfold. The fragments 
included in this part of the work are therefore generally taken 
from the opening verses of qasidas; where this is not the case, 
they are chiefly compositions of the early Islamic period, when 
the school of exclusively erotic poetry (of which the greatest 
representative was 'Omar ibn Abl Rabi'a) arose. 



The compiler was himself a distinguished poet in the style 
of his day, and wandered through many provinces of the Moslem 
empire earning money and fame by his skill in panegyric. About 
220 A.H. he betook himself to Khorasan, then ruled by 'Abdallah 
ibn Tanir, whom he praised and by whom he was rewarded; 
on his journey home to 'Irak he passed through Hamadhan,and 
was there detained for many months a guest of Abu-1-Wafa, son 
of Salama, the road onward being blocked by heavy falls of 
snow. During his residence at Hamadhan, Abu Tammam is 
said to have compiled or composed, from the materials which 
he found in Abu-1-Wafa's library, five poetical works, of which 
one was the tfamasa. This collection remained as a precious 
heirloom in the family of Abu-1-Waf a until their fortunes decayed, 
when it fell into the hands of a man of Dinawar named Abu-1- 
'Awadhil,-who carried it to Isfahan and made it known to the 
learned of that city. 

The worth of the flamasa as a store-house of ancient legend, 
of faithful detail regarding the usages of the pagan time and 
early simplicity of the Arab race, can hardly be exaggerated. 
The high level of excellence which is found in its selections, both 
as to form and matter, is remarkable, and caused it to be said that 
Abu Tammam displayed higher qualities as a poet in his choice 
of extracts from the ancients than in his own compositions. 
What strikes us chiefly in the class of poetry of which the T}amasa 
is a specimen, is its exceeding truth and reality, its freedom 
from artificiality and hearsay, the evident first-hand experience 
which the singers possessed of all of which they sang. For 
historical purposes the value of the collection is not small; 
but most of all there shines forth from it a complete portraiture 
of the hardy and manful nature, the strenuous life of passion 
and battle, the lofty contempt of cowardice, niggardliness and 
servility, which marked the valiant stock who bore Islam 
abroad in a flood of new life over the outworn civilizations of 
Persia, Egypt and Byzantium. It has the true stamp of the 
heroic time, of its cruelty and wantonness as of its strength and 
beauty. 

No fewer than twenty commentaries are enumerated by Hajji 
Khalifa. Of these the earliest was by Abu Riyash (otherwise ar- 
Riyashi), who died in 257 A.H.; excerpts from it, chiefly in eluci- 
dation of the circumstances in which the poems were composed, are 
frequently given by at-Tibrizi (Tabrizi). He was followed by the 
famous grammarian Abu-1-Fatb ibn al-Jinni (d. 392 A.H.), and later 
by Shihab ad-Din Ahmad al-Marzuql of Isfahan (d. 421 A.H.). Upon 
al-MarzuqTs commentary is chiefly founded that of Abu Zakariya 
Yaljya at-Tibrizi (b. 421 A.H., d. 502), which has been published by 
the late Professor G. W. Freytag of Bonn, together with a Latin 
translation and notes (1828-1851). This monumental work, the 
labour of a life, is a treasure of information regarding the classical 
age of Arab literature which has not perhaps its equal for extent, 
accuracy, and minuteness of detail in Europe. No other complete 
edition of the Hamasa has been printed in the West; but in 1856 
one appeared at Calcutta under the names of Maulavi Ghulam 
Rabbani and Kabiru-d-din Ahmad. Though no acknowledgment 
of the fact is contained in this edition, it is a simple reprint of Pro- 
fessor Freytag's text (without at-TibrizI's commentary), and follows 
its original even in the misprints (corrected by Freytag at the end 
of the second volume, which being in Latin the Calcutta editors do 
not seem to have consulted). It contains in an appendix of 12 pages 
a collection of verses (and some entire fragments) not found in 
at-Tibrizi's recension, but stated to exist in some copies consulted 
by the editors; these are, however, very carelessly edited and 
printed, and in many places unintelligible. Freytag's text, with 
at-Tibrizi's commentary, has been reprinted at Bulaq (1870). In 
1882 an edition of the text, with a marginal commentary by Munshi 
'Abdul-Qadir ibn Shaikh Luqman, was published at Bombay. 

The Hamasa has been rendered with remarkable skill and spirit 
into German verse by the illustrious Friedrich Ruckert (Stuttgart, 
1846), who has not only given translations of almost all the poems 
proper to the work, but has added numerous fragments drawn from 
other sources, especially those occurring in the scholia of at-Tibrizi, 
as well as the Mu'allagas of Zuhair and 'Antara, the Lamiyya of 
Ash-Shanfari, and the Banat Su'ad of Ka'b, son of Zuhair. A small 
collection of translations, chitfly in metres imitating those of the 
original, was published in London by Sir Charles Lyall in 1885. 

When the Hamasa is spoken of, that of Abu Tammam, as the first 
and most famous of the name, is meant; but several collections of 
a similar kind, also called Hamasa, exist. The best-known and 
earliest of these is the Hamasa of Buhturi (d. 284 A.H.), of which the 
unique MS. now in the Leiden University Library, has been repro- 
duced by photo-lithography (1909); a critical edition has been 



HAMBURG 



871 



prepared by Professor Chlikho at Beyreuth. Four other works of the 
same name, formed on the model of Abu Tammam's compilation, 
are mentioned by Hajjl Khalifa. Besides these, a work entitled 
tfamasat ar-Rdh (" the Hamasa of' wine ") was composed of Abu-1- 
'Ala al-Ma'arri (d. 429 A.H.). (C.J.L.) 

HAMBURG, a state of the German empire, on the lower Elbe, 
bounded by the Prussian provinces of Schleswig-Holstein and 
Hanover. The whole territory has an area of 160 sq. m., and 
consists of the city of Hamburg with its incorporated suburbs 
and the surrounding district, including several islands in the 
Elbe, five small enclaves in Hoist ein; the communes of Moorburg 
in the Luneburg district of the Prussian province of Hanover 
and Cuxhaven-Ritzebuttel at the mouth of the Elbe, the island 
of Neuwerk about 5 m. from the coast, and the bailiwick (amt) 
of Bergedorf, which down to 1867 was held in common by 
Liibeck and Hamburg. Administratively the state is divided 
into the city, or metropolitan district, and four rural domains 
(or Landherrenschaften), each under a senator as praeses, viz. 
the domain of the Geestlande, of the Marschlande, of Bergedorf 
and of Ritzebuttel with Cuxhaven. Cuxhaven-Ritzebuttel and 
Bergedorf are the only towns besides the capital. The Geest- 
lande comprise the suburban districts encircling the city on the 
north and west; the Marschlande includes various islands in 
the Elbe and the fertile tract of land lying between the northern 
and southern arms of the Elbe, and with its pastures and market 
gardens supplying Hamburg with large quantities of country 
produce. In the Bergedorf district lies the Vierlande, or Four 
Districts (Neuengamme, Kirchwarder, Altengamme and Curs- 
lack), celebrated for its fruit gardens and the picturesque dress 
of the inhabitants. Ritzebuttel with Cuxhaven, also a watering- 
place, have mostly a seafaring population. Two rivers, the 
Alster and the Bille, flow through the city of Hamburg into the 
Elbe, the mouth of which, at Cuxhaven, is 75 m. below the 
city. 

Government. As a state of the empire, Hamburg is repre- 
sented in the federal council (Bundesrat) by one plenipotentiary, 
and in the imperial diet (Reichstag) by three deputies. Its 
present constitution came into force on the ist of January 1861, 
and was revised in 1879 and again in 1906. According to this 
Hamburg is a republic, the government (Stoats gewalt) residing 
in two chambers, the Senate and the House of Burgesses. The 
Senate, which exercises the greater part of the executive power, 
is composed of eighteen members, one half of whom must have 
studied law or finance, while at least seven of the remainder 
must belong to the class of merchants. The members of the 
Senate are elected for life by the House of Burgesses; but a 
senator is free to retire from office at the expiry of six years. 
A chief (ober-) and second (zweiler-) burgomaster, the first of 
whom bears the title of " Magnificence," chosen annually in 
secret ballot, preside over the meetings of the Senate, and are 
usually jurists. No burgomaster can be in office for longer than 
two years consecutively, and no member of the Senate may hold 
any other public office. The House of Burgesses consists of 
1 60 members, of whom 80 are elected in secret ballot by the 
direct suffrages of all tax-paying citizens, 40 by the owners of 
house-property within the city (also by ballot), and the remaining 
40, by ballot also, by the so-called " notables," i.e. active and 
former members of the law courts and administrative boards. 
They are elected for a period of six years, but as half of each 
class retire at the end of three years, new elections for one half 
the number take place at the end of that time. The House of 
Burgesses is represented by a Biirgerausschuss (committee of the 
house) of twenty deputies whose duty it is to watch over the 
proceedings of the Senate and the constitution generally. The 
Senate can interpose a veto in all matters of legislation, saving 
taxation, and where there is a collision between the two bodies, 
provision is made for reference to a court of arbitration, consist- 
ing of members of both houses in equal numbers, and also to the 
supreme court of the empire (Reichsgericht) sitting at Leipzig. 
The law administered is that of the civil and penal codes of the 
German empire, and the court of appeal for all three Hanse towns 
is the common Oberlandesgericht, which has its seat in Hamburg. 



There is also a special court of arbitration in commercial disputes 
and another for such as arise under accident insurance. 

Religion. The church in Hamburg is completely separated 
from the state and manages its affairs independently. The 
ecclesiastical arrangements of Hamburg have undergone great 
modifications since the general constitution of 1860. From 
the Reformation to the French occupation in the beginning of 
the igth century, Hamburg was a purely Lutheran state; 
according to the " Recess " of 1529, re-enacted in 1603, non- 
Lutherans were subject to legal punishment and expulsion from 
the country. Exceptions were gradually made in favour of 
foreign residents; but it was not till 1785 that regular inhabitants 
were allowed to exercise the religious rites of other denominations, 
and it was not till after the war of freedom that they were 
allowed to have buildings in the style of churches. In 1860 full 
religious liberty was guaranteed, and the identification of church 
and state abolished. By the new constitution of the Lutheran 
Church, published at first in 1870 for the city only, but in 1876 
extended to the rest of the Hamburg territory, the parishes or 
communes are divided into three church-districts, and the general 
affairs of the whole community are entrusted to a synod of 
53 members and to an ecclesiastical council of 9 members which 
acts as an executive. Since 1887 a church rate has been levied 
on the Evangelical-Lutheran communities, and since 1904 upon 
the Roman Catholics also. The German Reformed Church, 
the French Reformed, the English Episcopal, the English 
Reformed, the Roman Catholic, and the Baptist are all recognized 
by the state. Civil marriages have been permissible in Hamburg 
since 1866, and since the introduction of the imperial law in 
January 1876 the number of such marriages has greatly 
increased. 

Finance. The jurisdiction of the Free Port was on the ist of 
January 1882 restricted to the city and port by the extension 
of the Zollverein to the lower Elbe, and in 1888 the whole of the 
state of Hamburg, with the exception of the so-called " Free 
Harbour " (which comprises the port proper and some large 
warehouses, set apart for goods in bond), was taken into the 
Zollverein. 

Population. The population increased from 453,000 in 1880 
to 622,530 in 1890, and in 1905 amounted to 874,878. The 
population of the country districts (exclusive of the city of 
Hamburg) was 72,085 in 1905. The crops raised in the country 
districts are principally vegetables and fruit, potatoes, hay, oats, 
rye and wheat. For manufactures and trade statistics see 
HAMBURG (city). 

The military organization of Hamburg was arranged by 
convention with Prussia. The state furnishes three battalions 
of the 2nd Hanseatic regiment, under Prussian officers. The 
soldiers swear the oath of allegiance to the senate. 

HAMBURG, a seaport of Germany, capital of the free state 
of Hamburg, on the right bank of the northern arm of the Elbe, 
75 m. from its mouth at Cuxhaven and 178 m. N.W. from Berlin 
by rail. It is the largest and most important seaport on the 
continent of Europe and (after London and New York) the 
third largest in the world. Were it not for political and municipal 
boundaries Hamburg might be considered as forming with Altona 
and Ottensen (which lie within Prussian territory) one town. The 
view of the three from the south, presenting a continuous river 
frontage of six miles, the river crowded with shipping and the 
densely packed houses surmounted by church towers of which 
three are higher than the dome of St Paul's in London is one 
of great magnificence. 

The city proper lies on both sides of the little river Alster, 
which, dammed up a short distance from its mouth, forms a 
lake, of which the southern portion within the line of the former 
fortifications bears the name of the Inner Alster (Binnen Alster), 
and the other and larger portion (2500 yards long and 1300 yards 
at the widest) that of the Outer Alster (Aussen Alster). The 
fortifications as such were removed in 1815, but they have left 
their trace in a fine girdle of green round the city, though too 
many inroads on its completeness have been made by railways 
and roadways. The oldest portion of the city is that which lies 



HAMBURG 



HAMBURG 



Boundary of Hamburg 
shown thai:- ........ 




to the east, of the Alster; but, though it still retains the name of 
Altstadt, nearly all trace of its antiquity has disappeared, as it 
was rebuilt after the great fire of 1842. To the west lies the 
new town (Neustadt), incorporated in 1678; beyond this and 
contiguous to Altona is the former suburb of St Pauli, incor- 
porated in 1876, and towards the north-east that of St Georg, 
which arose in the I3th century but was not incorporated till 
1868. 

The old town lies low, and it is traversed by a great number 
of narrow canals or " fleets " (Fleeten) for the same word which 
has left its trace in London nomenclature is used in the Low 
German city which add considerably to the picturesqueness 
of the meaner quarters, and serve as convenient channels for 
the transport of goods. They generally form what may be called 
the back streets, and they are bordered by warehouses, cellars 
and the lower class of dwelling-houses. As they are subject to 
the ebb and flow of the Elbe, at certain times they run almost 
dry. As soon as the telegram at Cuxhaven announces high tide 
three shots are fired from the harbour to warn the inhabitants 
of the " fleets "; and if the progress of the tide up the river gives 
indication of danger, other three shots follow. The " fleets " 
with their quaint medieval warehouses, which come sheer down 
to the water, and are navigated by barges, have gained for 
Hamburg the name of " Northern Venice." They are, however, 
though antique and interesting, somewhat dismal and unsavoury. 
In fine contrast to them is the bright appearance of the Binnen 



Alster, which is enclosed on three sides by handsome rows of 
buildings, the Alsterdamm in the east, the Alter Jungfernstieg 
in the south, and the Neuer Jungfernstieg in the west, while 
it is separated from the Aussen Alster by part of the* rampart 
gardens traversed by the railway uniting Hamburg with Altona 
and crossing the lakes by a beautiful bridge the Lombards- 
Briicke. Around the outer lake are grouped the suburbs 
Harvestehude and Posseldorf on the western shore, and Uhlen- 
horst on the eastern, with park-like promenades and villas 
surrounded by well-kept gardens. Along the southern end of 
the Binnen Alster runs the Jungfernstieg with fine shops, hotels 
and restaurants facing the water. A fleet of shallow-draught 
screw steamers provides a favourite means of communication 
between the business centre of the city and the outlying colonies 
of villas. 

The streets enclosing the Binnen Alster are fashionable 
promenades, and leading directly from this quarter are the main 
business thoroughfares, the Neuer-Wall, the Grosse Bleichen 
and the Hermannstrasse. The largest of the public squares in 
Hamburg is the Hopfenmarkt, which contains the church of 
St Nicholas (Nikolaikirche) and is the principal market for 
vegetables and fruit. Others of importance are the Gansemarkt, 
the Zeughausmarkt and the Grossneumarkt. Of the thirty-five 
churches existing in Hamburg (the old cathedral had to be taken 
down in 1805), the St Petrikirche, Nikolaikirche, St Katharinen- 
kirche, St Jakobikirche and St Michaeliskirche are those that 



HAMBURG 



873 



give their names to the five old city parishes. The Nikolaikirche 
is especially remarkable for its spire, which is 473 ft. high and 
ranks, after those of Ulm and Cologne, as the third highest 
ecclesiastical edifice in the world. The old church was destroyed 
in the great fire of 1842, and the new building, designed by Sir 
George Gilbert Scott in i3th century 'Gothic, was erected 1845- 
1874. The exterior and interior are elaborately adorned with 
sculptures. Sandstone from Osterwald near Hildesheim was 
used for the outside, and for the inner work a softer variety from 
Postelwitz near Dresden. The Michaeliskirche, which is built 
on the highest point in the city and has a tower 428 ft. high, 
was erected (1750-1762) by Ernst G. Sonnin on the site of the 
older building of the i7th century destroyed by lightning; the 
interior, which can contain 3000 people, is remarkable for its 
bold construction, there being no pillars. The St Petrikirche, 
originally consecrated in the I2th century and rebuilt in the 
I4th, was the oldest church in Hamburg; it was burnt in 1842 and 
rebuilt in its old form in 1844-1849. It has a graceful tapering 
spire 402 ft. in height (completed 1878); the granite columns 
from the old cathedral, the stained glass windows by Kellner 
of Nuremberg, and H. Schubert's fine relief of the entombment 
of Christ are worthy of notice. The St Katharinenkirche and 
the St Jakobikirche are the only surviving medieval churches, 
but neither is of special interest. Of the numerous other churches, 
Evangelical, Roman Catholic and Anglican, none are of special 
interest. The new synagogue was built by Rosengarten between 
1857 and 1859, and to the same architect is due the sepulchral 
chapel built for the Hamburg merchant prince Johann Heinrich, 
Freiherr von Schroder (1784-1883), in the churchyard of the 
Petrikirche. The beautiful chapel of St Gertrude was unfortu- 
nately destroyed in 1842. 

Hamburg has comparatively few secular buildings of great 
architectural interest, but first among them is the new Rathaus, 
a huge German Renaissance building, constructed of sandstone 
in 1886-1897, richly adorned with sculptures and with a spire 
330 ft. in height. It is the place of meeting of the municipal 
council and of the senate and contains the city archives. 
Immediately adjoining it and connected with it by two wings is 
the exchange. It was erected in 1836-1841 on the site of the 
convent of St Mary Magdalen and escaped the conflagration of 
1842. It was restored and enlarged in 1904, and shelters the 
commercial library of nearly 100,000 vols. During the business 
hours (1-3 p.m.) the exchange is crowded by some 5000 merchants 
and brokers. In the same neighbourhood is the Johanneum, 
erected in 1834 and in which are preserved the town library of 
about 600,000 printed books and 5000 MSS. and the collection 
of Hamburg antiquities. In the courtyard is a statue (1885) 
of the reformer Johann Bugenhagen. In the Fischmarkt, 
immediately south of the Johanneum, a handsome fountain 
was erected in 1890. Directly west of the town hall is the new 
Stadthaus, the chief police station of the town, in front of which 
is a bronze statue of the burgomaster Karl Friedrich Petersen 
(1809-1892), erected in 1897. A little farther away are the 
headquarters of the Patriotic Society (Patriotische Gesellschaft) , 
founded in 1765, with fine rooms for the meetings of artistic 
and learned societies. Several new public buildings have been 
erected along the circuit of the former walls. Near the west 
extremity, abutting upon the Elbe, the moat was filled in in 
1894-1897, and some good streets were built along the site, 
while the Kersten Miles-Briicke, adorned with statues of four 
Hamburg heroes, was thrown across the Helgolander Allee. 
Farther north, along the line of the former town wall, are the 
criminal law courts (1879-1882, enlarged 1893) and the civil 
law courts (finished in 1901). Close to the latter stand the new 
supreme court, the old age and accident state insurance offices, 
the chief custom house, and the concert hall, founded by Karl 
Laeisz, a former Hamburg wharfinger. Farther on are the 
chemical and the physical laboratories and the Hygienic In- 
stitute. Facing the botanical gardens a new central post-office, 
in the Renaissance style, was built in 1887. At the west end of 
the Lombards-Briicke there is a monument by Schilling, com- 
memorating the war of 1870-71. A few streets south of that is 



a monument to Lessing (1881); while occupying a commanding 
site on the promenades towards Altona is the gigantic statue of 
Bismarck which was unveiled in June 1906. The Kunst-Halle 
(the picture gallery), containing some good works by modern 
masters, faces the east end of Lombards-Briicke. The new 
Natural History Museum, completed in 1891, stands a little 
distance farther south. To the east of it comes the Museum 
for Art and Industry, founded in 1878, now one of the most 
important institutions of the kind in Germany, with which 
is connected a trades school. Close by is the Hansa-founlain 
(65 ft. high), erected in 1878. On the north-east side of the 
suburb of St Georg a botanical museum and laboratory have 
been established. There is a new general hospital at Eppendorf, 
outside the town on the north, built on the pavilion principle, 
and one of the finest structures of the kind in Europe; and at 
Ohlsdorf, in the same direction, a crematorium was built in 1801 
in conjunction with the town cemeteries (370 acres). There 
must also be mentioned the fine public zoological gardens, 
Hagenbeck's private zoological gardens in the vicinity, the 
schools of music and navigation, and the school of commerce. 
In 1900 a high school for shipbuilding was founded, and in 1901 
an institute for seamen's and tropical diseases, with a laboratory 
for their physiological study, was opened, and also the first 
public free library in the city. The river is spanned just above 
the Frei Hafen by a triple-arched railway bridge, 1339 ft. long, 
erected in 1868-1873 and doubled in width in 1894. Some 270 
yds. higher up is a magnificent iron bridge (1888) for vehicles 
and foot passengers. The southern arm of the Elbe, on the 
south side of the island of Wilhelmsburg, is crossed by another 
railway bridge of four arches and 2050 ft. in length. 

Railways. The through railway traffic of Hamburg is practic- 
ally confined to that proceeding northwards to Kiel and Jutland 
and for the accommodation of such trains the central (terminus) 
station at Altona is the chief gathering point. The Hamburg 
stations, connected with the other by the Verbindungs-Bahn 
(or metropolitan railway) crossing the Lombards-Briicke, are 
those of the Venloer (or Hanoverian, as it is often called) 
Bahnhof on the south-east, in close proximity to the harbour, 
into which converge the lines from Cologne and Bremen, Hanover 
and Frankfort-on-Main, and from Berlin, via Nelzen; the 
Klostertor-Bahnhof (on the metropolitan line) which temporarily 
superseded the old Berlin station, and the Lubeck station a little 
to the north-east, during the erection of the new central station, 
which occupies a site between the Klostertor-Bahnhof and the 
Lombards-Briicke. Between this central station and Altona 
terminus runs the metropolitan railway, which has been raised 
several feet so as to bridge over the streets, and on which lie 
the important stations Dammtor and Sternschanze. An excellent 
service of electric trams interconnect the towns of Hamburg, 
Altona and the adjacent suburbs, and steamboats provide 
communication on the Elbe with the riparian towns and villages; 
and so with Blankenese and Harburg, with Stade, Gliickstadt 
and Cuxhaven. 

Trade and Shipping. Probably there is no place which during 
the last thirty years of the I9th century grew faster commercially 
than Hamburg. Its commerce is, however, almost entirely of 
the nature of transit trade, for it is not only the chief distributing 
centre for the middle of Europe of the products of all other parts 
of the world, but is also the chief outlet for German, Austrian, 
and even to some extent Russian (Polish) raw products and 
manufactures. Its principal imports are coffee (of which it is 
the greatest continental market), tea, sugar, spices, rice, wine 
(especially from Bordeaux), lard (from Chicago), cereals, sago, 
dried fruits, herrings, wax (from Morocco and Mozambique), 
tobacco, hemp, cotton (which of late years shows a large increase), 
wool, skins, leather, oils, dyewoods, indigo, nitrates, phosphates 
and coal. Of the total importations of all kinds of coal to Ham- 
burg, that of British coal, particularly from Northumberland 
and Durham, occupies the first place, and despite some falling off 
in late years, owing to the competition made by Westphalian 
coal, amounts to more than half the total import. The increase 
of the trade of Hamburg is most strikingly shown by that of 



HAMBURG 



the shipping belonging to the port. Between 1876 and 1880 
there were 475 sailing vessels with a tonnage of 230,691, and 
no steam-ships with a tonnage of 87,050. In 1907 there were 
(exclusive of fishing vessels) 470 sailing ships with a tonnage of 
271,661, and 610 steamers with a tonnage of 1,236,449. In 
1870 the crews numbered 6900 men, in 1907 they numbered 

29,536. 

Industries. The development of manufacturing industries 
at Hamburg and its immediate vicinity since 1880, though not so 
rapid as that of its trade and shipping, has been very remarkable, 
and more especially has this been the case since the year 1888, 
when Hamburg joined the German customs union, and the 
barriers which prevented goods manufactured at Hamburg from 
entering into other parts of Germany were removed. Among 
the chief industries are those for the production of articles of 
food and drink. The import trade of various cereals by sea to 
Hamburg is very large, and a considerable portion of this corn 
is converted into flour at Hamburg itself. There are also, in 
this connexion, numerous bakeries for biscuit, rice-peeling mills 
and spice mills. Besides the foregoing there are cocoa, chocolate, 
confectionery and baking-powder factories, coffee-roasting and 
ham-curing and smoking establishments, lard refineries, mar- 
garine manufactories and fish-curing, preserving and packing 
factories. There are numerous breweries, producing annually 
about 24,000,000 gallons of beer, spirit distilleries and factories 
of artificial waters. Yarns, textile goods and weaving industries 
generally have not attained any great dimensions, but there are 
large jute-spinning mills and factories for cotton-wool and 
cotton driving-belts. Among other important articles of 
domestic industry are tobacco and cigars (manufactured mainly 
in bond, within the free harbour precincts), hydraulic machinery, 
electro-technical machinery, chemical products (including 
artificial manures), oils, soaps, india-rubber, ivory and celluloid 
articles and the manufacture of leather. 

Shipbuilding has made very important progress, and there 
are at present in Hamburg eleven large shipbuilding yards, 
employing nearly 10,000 hands. Of these, however, only three 
are of any great extent, and one, where the largest class of 
ocean-going steamers and of war vessels for the German navy 
are built, employs about 5000 persons. There are also two yards 
for the building of pleasure yachts and rowing-boats (in both 
which branches of sport Hamburg takes a leading place in 
Germany). Art industries, particularly those which appeal to 
the luxurious taste of the inhabitants in fitting their houses, 
such as wall-papers and furniture, and those which are included 
in the equipment of ocean-going steamers, have of late years 
made rapid strides and are among the best productions of this 
character of any German city; 

Harbour. It was the accession of Hamburg to the customs union 
in 1888 which gave such a vigorous impulse to her more recent com- 
mercial development. At the same time a portion of the port was 
set apart as a free harbour, altogether an area of 750 acres of water 
and 1750 acres of dry land. In anticipation of this event a gigantic 
system of docks, basins and quays was constructed, at a total cost 
of some 7,000,000 (of which the imperial treasury contributed 
2,000,000), between the confluence of the Alster and the railway 
bridge (1868-1873), an entire quarter of the town inhabited by some 
24,000 people being cleared away to make room for these accessories 
of a great port. On the north side of the Elbe there are the Sandtor 
basin (3380 ft. long, 295 to 427 ft. wide), in which British and Dutch 
steamboats and steamboats of the Sloman (Mediterranean) line 
anchor. South of this lies the Grasbrook basin (quayage of 2100 ft. 
arid 1693 ft. alongside), which is used by French, Swedish and trans- 
atlantic steamers. At the quay point between these two basins there 
are vast state granaries. On the outer (i.e. river) side of the Gras- 
brook dock is the quay at which the emigrants for South America 
embark, and from which the mail boats for East Africa, the boats of 
the Woermann (West Africa) line, and the Norwegian tourist boats 
depart. To the east of these two is the small Magdeburg basin, 
penetrating north, and the Baaken basin, penetrating east, i.e. 
parallel to the river. The latter affords accommodation to the trans- 
afjantic steamers, including the emigrant ships of the Hamburg- 
America line, though their " ocean mail boats " generally load and 
unlbad at Cuxhaven. On the south bank of the stream there follow 
in succession, going from east to west, the Moldau dock for river craft, 
the sailing vessel dock (Segelschiff Hafen, 3937 ft. long, 459 to 886 
ft.,wide, 26J ft. deep), the Hansa dock, India dock, petroleum dock, 



several swimming and dry docks; and in the west of the free port 
area three other large docks, one of 77 acres for river craft, the others 
each 56 acres in extent, and one 23! ft. deep, the other 26J ft. deep, 
at low water, constructed in 1900-1901. In 1897 Hamburg was 
provided with a huge floating dock, 558 ft. long and 84 ft. in maxi- 
mum breadth, capable of holding a vessel of 17,500 tons and draught 
not exceeding 29 ft., so constructed and equipped that in time of 
need (war) it could be floated down to Cuxhaven. During the last 
25 years of the igth century the channel of the Elbe was greatly 
improved and deepened, and during the last two years of the igth 
century some 360,000 was spent by Hamburg alone in regulating 
and correcting this lower course of the river. The new Kuhwarder- 
basin, on the left bank of the river, as well as two other large dock 
basins (now leased to the Hamburg- American Company), raise the 
number of basins to twelve in all. 

Emigration. Hamburg is one of the principal continental ports 
for the embarkation of emigrants. In 1881-1890, on an average 
they numbered 90,000 a year (of whom 60,000 proceeded to the 
United States). In 1900 the number was 87,153 (and to the United 
States 64,137). The number of emigrant Germans has enormously 
decreased of late years, Russia and Austria-Hungary now being 
most largely represented. For the accommodation of such passengers 
large and convenient emigrant shelters have been recently erected 
close to the wharf of embarkation. 

Health and Population. The health of the city of Hamburg and 
the adjoining district may be described as generally good, no 
epidemic diseases having recently appeared to any serious degree. 
The malady causing the greatest number of deaths is that of pul- 
monary consumption; but better housing accommodation has of 
late years reduced the mortality from this disease very considerably. 
The results of the census of 1905 showed the population of the city 
(not including the rural districts belonging to the state of Hamburg) 
to be 802,793. 

Hamburg is well supplied with places of amusement, especially 
of the more popular kind. Its Stadt-Theater, rebuilt in 1874, has 
room for 1750 spectators and is particularly devoted to operatic 
performances; the Thalia-Theater dates from 1841, and holds 
1700 to 1800 people, and the Schauspielhaus (for drama) from 1900 
people, and there are some seven or eight minor establishments. 
Theatrical performances were introduced into the city in the 1 7th 
century, and 1678 is the date of the first opera, which was played 
in a house in the Gansemarkt. Under Schroder and Lessing the 
Hamburg stage rose into importance. Though contributing few 
names of the highest rank to German literature, the city has been 
intimately associated with the literary movement. The historian 
Lappenberg and Friedrich von Hagedorn were born in Hamburg; 
and not only Lessing, but Heine and Klopstock lived there for some 
time. 

History. Hamburg probably had its origin in a fortress 
erected in 808 by Charlemagne, on an elevation between the 
Elbe and Alster, as a defence against the Slavs, and called 
Hammaburg because of the surrounding forest (Hamme). In 
8 ii Charlemagne founded a church here, perhaps on the site of 
a Saxon place of sacrifice, and this became a great centre for 
the evangelization of the north of Europe, missionaries from 
Hamburg introducing Christianity into Jutland and the Danish 
islands and even into Sweden and Norway. In 834 Hamburg 
became an archbishopric, St Ansgar, a monk of Corbie and 
known as the apostle of the North, being the first metropolitan. 
In 845 church, monastery and town were burnt down by the 
Norsemen, and two years later the see of Hamburg was united 
with that of Bremen and its seat transferred to the latter city. 
The town, rebuilt after this disaster, was again more than once 
devastated by invading Danes and Slavs. Archbishop Unwan 
of Hamburg-Bremen (1013-1029) substituted a chapter of 
canons for the monastery, and in 1037 Archbishop Bezelin (or 
Alebrand) built a stone cathedral and a palace on the Elbe. 
In i no Hamburg, with Holstein, passed into the hands of 
Adolph I., count of Schauenburg, and it is with the building 
of the Neustadt (the present parish of St Nicholas) by his grand- 
son, Adolph III. of Holstein, that the history of the commercial 
city actually begins. In return for a contribution to the costs 
of a crusade, he obtained from the emperor Frederick I. in 1189 
a charter granting Hamburg considerable franchises, including 
exemption from tolls, a separate court and jurisdiction, and the 
rights of fishery on the Elbe from the city to the sea. The city 
council (Rath), first mentioned in 1190, had jurisdiction over 
both the episcopal and the new town. Craft gilds were already 
in existence, but these had no share in the government; for, 
though the Liibeck rule excluding craftsmen from the Rath 
did not obtain, they were excluded in practice. The counts, of 



HAMDANI 



875 



course, as over-lords, had their Vogt (adwcatus) in the town, 
but this official, as the city grew in power, became subordinate 
to the Rath, as at Lubeck. 

The wealth of the town was increased in 1 189 by the destruction 
of the flourishing trading centre of Bardowieck by Henry the 
Lion ; from this time it began to be much frequented by Flemish 
merchants. In 1 201 the city submitted to Valdemar of Schleswig, 
after his victory over the count of Holstein, but in 1225, owing 
to the capture of King Valdemar II. of Denmark by Henry of 
Schwerin, it once more exchanged the Danish over-lordship for 
that of the counts of Schauenburg, who established themselves 
here and in 1 23 1 built a strong castle to hold it in check. The 
defensive alliance of the city with Lubeck in 1241, extended 
for other purpose by the treaty of 1255, practically laid the 
foundations of the Hanseatic League (q.v.), of which Hamburg 
continued to be one of the principal members. The internal 
organization of the city, too, was rendered more stable by the 
new constitution of 1270, and the recognition in 1292 of the 
complete internal autonomy of the city by the count of Schauen- 
burg. The exclusion of the handicraftsmen from the Rath led, 
early in the isth century, to a rising of the craft gilds against 
the patrician merchants, and in 1410 they forced the latter to 
recognize the authority of a committee of 48 burghers, which 
concluded with the senate the so-called First Recess; there 
were, however, fresh outbursts in 1458 and 1483, which were 
settled by further compromises. In 1461 Hamburg did homage 
to Christian I. of Denmark, as heir of the Schauenburg counts; 
but the suzerainty of Denmark was merely nominal and soon 
repudiated altogether; in 1510 Hamburg was made a free 
imperial city by the emperor Maximilian I. 

In 1529 the Reformation was definitively established in 
Hamburg by the Great Recess of the igth of February, which 
at the same time vested the government of the city in the Rath, 
together with the three colleges of the Oberalten, the Forty-eight 
(increased to 60 in 1685) and the Hundred and Forty-four 
(increased to 180). The ordinary burgesses consisted of the 
freeholders and the master- workmen of the gilds. In 1536 
Hamburg joined the league of Schmalkalden, for which error 
it had to pay a heavy fine in 1547 when the league had been 
defeated. During the same period the Lutheran zeal of the 
citizens led to the expulsion of the Mennonites and other Pro- 
testant sects, who founded Altona. The loss this brought to 
the city was, however, compensated for by the immigration of 
Protestant refugees from the Low Countries and Jews from 
Spain and Portugal. In 1549, too, the English merchant 
adventurers removed their staple from Antwerp to Hamburg. 

The 1 7th century saw notable developments. Hamburg had 
established, so early as the i6th century, a regular postal service 
with certain cities in the interior -of Germany, e.g. Leipzig and 
Breslau; in 1615 it was included in the postal system of Turn 
and Taxis. In 1603 Hamburg received a code of laws regulating 
exchange, and in 1619 the bank was established. In 1615 the 
Neustadt was included within the city walls. During the Thirty 
Years' War the city received no direct harm; but the ruin of 
Germany reacted upon its prosperity, and the misery of the lower 
orders led to an agitation against the Rath. In 1685, at the 
invitation of the popular leaders, the Danes appeared before 
Hamburg demanding the traditional homage; they were 
repulsed, but the internal troubles continued, culminating in 
1708 in the victory of the democratic factions. The imperial 
government, however, intervened, and in 1712 the " Great 
Recess " established durable good relations between the Rath 
and the commonalty. Frederick IV. of Denmark, who had seized 
the opportunity to threaten the city (1712), was bought off with 
a ransom of 246,000 Reichsthaler . Denmark, however, only 
finally renounced her claims by the treaty of Gottorp in 1768, 
and in 1770 Hamburg was admitted for the first time to a repre- 
sentation in the diet of the empire. 

The trade of Hamburg received its first great impulse in 1783, 
when the United States, by the treaty of Paris, became an in- 
dependent power. From this time dates its first direct mari- 
time communication with America. Its commerce was further 



extended and developed by the French occupation of Holland 
in 1795, when the Dutch trade was largely directed to its port. 
The French Revolution and the insecurity of the political 
situation, however, exercised a depressing and retarding effect. 
The wars which ensued, the closing of continental ports against 
English trade, the occupation of the city after the disastrous 
battle of Jena, and pestilence within its walls brought about a 
severe commercial crisis and caused a serious decline in its 
prosperity. Moreover, the great contributions levied by 
Napoleon on the city, the plundering of its bank by Davoust, and 
the burning of its prosperous suburbs inflicted wounds from 
which the city but slowly recovered. Under the long peace 
which followed the close of the Napoleonic wars, its trade gradu- 
ally revived, fostered by the declaration of independence of 
South and Central America, with both of which it energetically 
opened close commercial relations, and by the introduction of 
steam navigation. The first steamboat was seen on the Elbe on 
the I7th of June 1816; hi 1826 a regular steam communication 
was opened with London; and in 1856 the first direct steamship 
line linked the port with the United States. The great fire of 
1842 (5th-8th of May) kid in waste the greatest part of the 
business quarter of the city and caused a temporary interruption 
of its commerce. The city, however, soon rose from its ashes, 
the churches were rebuilt and new streets laid out on a scale of 
considerable magnificence. In 1866 Hamburg joined the North 
German Confederation, and in 1871, while remaining outside 
the Zollverein, became a constituent state of the German empire. 
In 1883-1888 the works for the Free Harbour were completed, 
and on the i8th of October 1888 Hamburg joined the Customs 
Union (Zollverein). In 1892 the cholera raged within its walls, 
carried off 8500 of its inhabitants, and caused considerable losses 
to its commerce and industry; but the visitation was not without 
its salutary fruits, for an improved drainage system, better 
hospital accommodation, and a purer water-supply have since 
combined to make it one of the healthiest commercial cities of 
Europe. 

Further details about Hamburg will be found in the following 
works: O. C. Gaedechens, Historische Topographic der Freien und 
Hansestadt Hamburg (1880); E. H. Wichmann, Heimatskunde von 
Hamburg (1863); W. Melhop, Historische Topographic der Freien 
und Hansestadt Hamburg von 1880-1895 (1896) ; Wum , Hamburgische 
Gesetze und Verordnungen (1889-1896) ; and W. von Melle, Das ham- 
burgische Staatsrecht (1891). There are many valuable official 
publications which may be consulted, among these being: Statistik 
des hamburgischen Staates (1867-1904) ; Hamburgs Handel und 
Schiffahrt (1847-1903); the yearly Hamburgischer Staatskalender \ 
and Jahrbuch der Hamburger wissenschaftlichen Anstalten. See also 
Hamburg und seine Bauten (1890); H. Benrath, Lokalfuhrer durch 
Hamburg und Umgebungen (1904) ; and the consular reports by 
Sir William Ward, H.B.M.'s consul-general at Hamburg, to whom 
the author is indebted for great assistance in compiling this article.. 

For the history of Hamburg see the Zeitschrift des Vereins fur 
hamburgische Geschichte (1841, fol.); G. Dehio, Geschichle des Erz- 
bistums Hamburg-Bremen (Berlin, 1877) ; the Hamburgisches 
Urkundenbuch (1842), the Hamburgische Chroniken (1852-1861), 
and the Chronica der Stadt Hamburg bis 1557 of Adam Tratziger 
(1865), all three edited by J. M. Lappenberg; the Briefsammlung 
des hamburgischen Superintendenten Joachim Westphal 1530-1575, 
edited by C. H. W. Sillem (1903); Gallois, Geschichte der Stadt 
Hamburg (1853-1856); K. Koppmann, Aus Hamburgs Vergangenheit 
(1885), and Kammereirechnungen der Stadt Hamburg (1869-1894); 
H. W. C. Hubbe, Beitrage zur Geschichte der Stadt Hamburg (1897) ; 
C. Monckeberg, Geschichte der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg 
(1885) ; E. H. Wichmann, Hamburgische Geschichte in Darstellungen 
aus alter und neuer Zeit (1889) ; and R. Bollheimer, Zeittafeln der 
hamburgischen Geschichte (1895). 

HAMDANI, in full AsO MA^OMMED UL-HASAN IBN AHMAD 
IBN YA'QUB UL-HAMDANI (d. 945), Arabian geographer, also 
known as Ibn ul-Ha'ik. Little is known of him except that 
he belonged to a family of Yemen, was held in repute as a 
grammarian in his own country, wrote much poetry, compiled 
astronomical tables, devoted most of his life to the study of the 
ancient history and geography of Arabia, and died in prison at 
San'a in 945. His Geography of the Arabian Peninsula (Kildb 
Jazirat ul-Arab) is by far the most important work on the 
subject. After being used in manuscript by A. Sprenger in his 
Post- und Reiserouten des Orients (Leipzig, 1864) and further 



8 7 6 



HAMELIN HAMERLING 



in his Alte Geographic Arabiens (Bern, 1875), it was edited by 
D. H. Miiller (Leiden, 1884; cf. A. Sprenger's criticism in 
Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlUndischen Gesellschafl, vol. 45, 
pp. 361-394). Much has also been written on this work by E. 
Glaser in his various publications on ancient Arabia. The other 
great work of Hamda.nl is the Ikltt (Crown) concerning the 
genealogies of the Himyarites and the wars of their kings in ten 
volumes. Of this, part 8, on the citadels and castles of south 
Arabia, has been edited and annotated by D. H. Miiller in Die 
Burgen und Schlo'sser Sudarabiens (Vienna, 1879-1881). 

For other works said to have been written by Hamdan! cf. G. 
Fliigel's Die grammatischen Schulen der Araber (Leipzig, 1862), 
pp. 220-221. (G. W. T.) 

HAMELIN, FRANCOIS ALPHONSE (1796-1864), French 
admiral, was born at Pont 1'Eveque on the 2nd of September 
1796. He went to sea with his uncle, J. F. E. Hamelin, in the 
" Venus " frigate in 1806 as cabin boy. The " Venus " was 
part of the French squadron in the Indian Ocean, and young 
Hamelin had an opportunity of seeing much active service. 
She, in company with another and a smaller vessel, captured 
the English frigate " Ceylon " in 1810, but was immediately 
afterwards captured herself by the " Boadicea," under Com- 
modore Rowley (1765-1842). Young Hamelin was a prisoner of 
war for a short time. He returned to France in 1811. On the 
fall of the Empire he had better fortune than most of the 
Napoleonic officers who were turned ashore. In 1821 he became 
lieutenant, and in 1823 took part in the French expedition under 
the duke of Angouleme into Spain. In 1828 he was appointed 
captain of the " Acteon," and was engaged till 1831 on the coast 
of Algiers and in the conquest of the town and country. His 
first command as flag officer was in the Pacific, where he showed 
much tact during the dispute over the Marquesas Islands with 
England in 1844. He was promoted vice-admiral in 1848. 
During the Crimean War he commanded in the Black Sea, and 
co-operated with Admiral Dundas hi the bombardment of 
Sevastopol I7th of October 1854. His relations with his English 
colleague were not very cordial. On the 7th of December 1854 
he was promoted admiral. Shortly afterwards he was recalled 
to France, and was named minister of marine. His administra- 
tion lasted till 1860, and was remarkable for the expeditions 
to Italy and China organized under his directions; but it was 
even more notable for the energy shown in adopting and 
developing the use of armour. The launch of the " Gloire " 
in 1859 set the example of constructing sea-going ironclads. 
The first English ironclad, the " Warrior," was designed as 
an answer to the " Gloire." When Napoleon III. made his first 
concession to Liberal opposition, Admiral Hamelin was one of 
the ministers sacrificed. He held no further command, and died 
on the loth of January 1864. 

HAMELN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Hanover, at the confluence of the Weser and Hamel, 33 m. S.W. 
of Hanover, on the line to Altenbeken, which here effects a 
junction with railways to Lohne and Brunswick. Pop. (1905) 
20,736. It has a venerable appearance and has many interesting 
and picturesque houses. The chief public buildings of interest 
are the minster, dedicated to St Boniface and restored in 1870- 
1875; the town hall; the so-called Rattenfangerhaus (rat- 
catcher's house) with mural frescoes illustrating the legend (see 
below); and the Hochzeitshaus (wedding house) with beautiful 
gables. There are classical, modern and commercial schools. 
The principal industries are the manufacture of paper, leather, 
chemicals and tobacco, sugar refining, shipbuilding and salmon 
fishing. By the steamboats on the Weser there is communication 
with Karlshafen and Minden. In order to avoid the dangerous 
part of the river near the town a channel was cut in 1734, the 
repairing and deepening of which, begun in 1868, was completed 
in 1873. The Weser is here crossed by an iron suspension bridge 
830 ft. in length, supported by a pier erected on an island in the 
middle of the river. 

The older name of Hameln was Hameloa or Hamelowe, and 
the town owes its origin to an abbey. It existed as a town as 
early as the nth century, and in 1259 it was sold by the abbot 



of Fulda to the bishop of Minden, afterwards passing under the 
protection of the dukes of Brunswick. About 1540 the Reforma- 
tion gained an entrance into the town, which was taken by both 
parties during the Thirty Years' War. In 1757 it capitulated 
to the French, who, however, vacated it in the following year. 
Its fortifications were strengthened in 1766 by the erection of 
Fort George, on an eminence to the west of the town, across the 
river. On the capitulation of the Hanoverian army in 1803 
Hameln fell into the hands of the French; it was retaken by 
the Prussians in 1806, but, after the battle of Jena, again passed 
to the French, who dismantled the fortifications and incorporated 
the town in the kingdom of Westphalia. In 1814 it again became 
Hanoverian, but in 1866 fell with that kingdom to Prussia. 

Legend of the Pied Piper. Hameln is famed as the scene of 
the myth of the piper of Hameln. According to the legend, 
the town in the year 1284 was infested by a terrible plague of 
rats. One day there appeared upon the scene a piper clad in 
a fantastic suit, who offered for a certain sum of money to charm 
all the vermin into the Weser. His conditions were agreed to, 
but after he had fulfilled his promise the inhabitants, on the 
ground that he was a sorcerer, declined to fulfil their part of the 
bargain, whereupon on the 26th of June he reappeared in the 
streets of the town, and putting his pipe to his lips began a soft 
and curious strain. This drew all the children after him and 
he led them out of the town to the Koppelberg hill, in the side 
of which a door suddenly opened, by which he entered and the 
children after him, all but one who was lame and could not 
follow fast enough to reach the door before it shut again. Some 
trace the origin of the legend to the Children's Crusade of 1211; 
others to an abduction of children; and others to a dancing 
mania which seized upon some of the young people of Hameln 
who left the town on a mad pilgrimage from which they never 
returned. For a considerable time the town dated its public 
documents from the event. The story is the subject of a poem 
by Robert Browning, and also of one by Julius Wolff. Curious 
evidence that the story rests on a basis of truth is given by the 
fact that the Koppelberg is not one of the imposing hills by which 
Hameln is surrounded, but no more than a slight elevation of 
the ground, barely high enough to hide the children from view 
as they left the town. 

See C. Langlotz, Geschichte der Stadt Hameln(Hameln, 1888 fol.); 
Sprenger, Geschichte der Stodt Hameln (1861); O. Meinardus, Der 
htstortsche Kern der Rattenfdngersage (Hameln, 1882); Jostes, Der 
Ratten/anger von Hameln (Bonn, 1885); and S. Baring-Gould, 
Curious Myths of the Middle Ages (1868). 

HAMERLING, ROBERT (1830-1889), Austrian poet, was born 
at Kirchenberg-am-Walde in Lower Austria, on the 24th of 
March 1830, of humble parentage. He early displayed a genius 
for poetry and his youthful attempts at drama excited the 
interest and admiration of some influential persons. Owing to 
their assistance young Hamerling was enabled to attend the 
gymnasium in Vienna and subsequently the university. In 
1848 he joined the student's legion, which played so conspicuous 
a part in the revolutions of the capital, and in 1849 shared in the 
defence of Vienna against the imperialist troops of Prince 
Windischgratz, and after the collapse of the revolutionary 
movement he was obliged to hide for a long time to escape 
arrest. For the next few years he diligently pursued his studies 
in natural science and philosophy, and in 1855 was appointed 
master at the gymnasium at Trieste. For many years he battled 
with ill-health, and in 1866 retired on a pension, which in acknow- 
ledgment of his literary labours was increased by the government 
to a sum sufficient to enable him to live without care until his 
death at his villa in Stiftingstal near Graz, on the i3th of July 
1889. Hamerling was one of the most remarkable of the poets 
of the modern Austrian school; his imagination was rich and 
his poems are full of life and colour. His most popular poem, 
Ahasver in Rom (1866), of which the emperor Nero is the central 
figure, shows at its best the author's brilliant talent for descrip- 
tion. Among his other works, may be mentioned Venus im 
Exil (1858); Der Konig wn Sion (1869), which is generally 
regarded as his masterpiece; Die sieben Todsiinden (1872); 
Blatter im Winde (1887); Homunculus (1888); Amor und 



HAMERTON HAMILCAR 



877 



Psyche (1882). His novel, Aspasia (1876) gives a finely-drawn 
description of the Periclean age, but like his tragedy Danton 
und Robespierre (1870), is somewhat stilted, showing that 
Hamerling's genius, though rich in imagination, was ill-suited 
for the realistic presentation of character. 

A popular edition of Hamerling's works in four volumes was 
published by M. M. Rabenlechner (Hamburg, 1900). For the poet s 
life, see his autobiographical writings, Slationen meiner Lebenspilger- 
schaft (1889) and Lehrjahre der Liebe (1890); also M. M. Raben- 
lechner, Hamerling, sein Leben und seine Werke, i. (Hamburg, 1896) ; 
a short biography by the same (Dresden, 1901); R. H. Kleinert, 
R. Hamerling, ein Dichter der Schonheit (Hamburg, 1889) ; A. Polzer, 
Hamerling, sein Wesen und Wirken (Hamburg, 1890). 

HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT (1834-1894), English artist 
and author, was born at Laneside, near Shaw, close to Oldham, 
on the icth of September 1834. His mother died at his birth, 
and having lost his father ten years afterwards, he was educated 
privately under the direction of his guardians. His first literary 
attempt, a volume of poems, proving unsuccessful, he devoted 
himself for a time entirely to landscape painting, encamping 
out of doors in the Highlands, where he eventually rented the 
island of Innistrynych, upon which he settled with his wife, a 
French lady, in 1858. Discovering after a time that his qualifica- 
tions were rather those of an art critic than of a painter he 
removed to the neighbourhood of his wife's relatives in France, 
where he produced his Painter's Camp in the Highlands (1863), 
which obtained a great success and prepared the way for his 
standard work on Etching and Etchers (1866). In the following 
year he published a book, entitled Contemporary French Painters, 
and in 1868 a continuation, Painting in France after the Decline 
of Classicism. He had meanwhile become art critic to the 
Saturday Review, a position which, from the burden it laid upon 
him of frequent visits to England, he did not long retain. He 
proceeded (1870) to establish an art journal of his own, The 
Portfolio, a monthly periodical, each number of which consisted 
of a monograph upon some artist or group of artists, frequently 
written and always edited by him. The discontinuance of his 
active work as a painter gave him time for more general literary 
composition, and he successively produced The Intellectual Life 
(1873), perhaps the best known and most valuable of his writings ; 
Round my House (1876), notes on French society by a resident; 
and Modern Frenchmen (1879), admirable short biographies. 
He also wrote two novels, Wenderholme (1870) and Marmorne 
(1878). In 1884 Human Intercourse, another valuable volume 
of essays, was published, and shortly afterwards Hamerton 
began to write his autobiography, which he brought down to 
1858. In 1882 he issued a finely illustrated work on the technique 
of the great masters of various arts, under the title of The 
Graphic Arts, and three years later another splendidly illustrated 
volume, Landscape, which traces the influence of landscape upon 
the mind of man. His last books were: Portfolio Papers (1889) 
and French and English (1889). In 1891 he removed to the 
neighbourhood of Paris, and died suddenly on the 4th of 
November 1894, occupied to the last with his labours on The 
Portfolio and other writings on art. 

In 1896 was published Philip Gilbert Hamerton: an Auto- 
biography, 1834-1858 ; and a Memoir by his Wife, 1858-1804. 

HAHI, a town in Chinese Turkestan, otherwise called KAMIL, 
KOMUL or KAMUL, situated on the southern slopes of the Tian- 
Shan mountains, and on the northern verge of the Great Gobi 
desert, in 42 48' N., 93 28' E., at a height above sea-level of 
3150 ft. The town is first mentioned in Chinese history in the 
ist century, under the name I-wu-lu, and said to be situated 
icoo lis north of the fortress Yu-men-kuan, and to be the key 
to the western countries. This evidently referred to its advanta- 
geous position, lying as it did in a fertile tract, at the point 
of convergence of two main routes running north and south of 
the Tian-Shan and connecting China with the west. It was 
taken by the Chinese in A.D. 73 from the Hiungnu (the ancient 
inhabitants of Mongolia), and made a military station. It next 
fell into the hands of the Uighurs or Eastern Turks, who made 
it one of their chief towns and held it for several centuries, and 
whose descendants are said to live there now. From the 7th 



to the nth century I-wu-lu is Said to have borne the name of 
Igu or I-chu, under the former of which names it is spoken of by 
the Chinese pilgrim, Hsiian tsang, who passed through it in the 
7th century. The name Hami is first met in the Chinese YUan-shi 
or " History of the Mongol Dynasty," but the name more 
generally used there is Homi-li or Komi-li. Marco Polo, describ- 
ing it apparently from hearsay, calls it Camul, and speaks of it 
as a fruitful place inhabited by a Buddhist people of idolatrous 
and wanton habits. It was visited in 1341 by Giovanni de 
Marignolli, who baptized a number of both sexes there, and by 
the envoys of Shah Rukh (1420), who found a magnificent 
mosque and a convent of dervishes, in juxtaposition with a fine 
Buddhist temple. Hadji Mahommed (Ramusio's friend) speaks 
of Kamul as being in his time (c. 1550) the first Mahommedan 
city met with in travelling from China. When Benedict Goes 
travelled through the country at the beginning of the I7th 
century, the power of the king Mahommed Khan of Kashgar 
extended over nearly the whole country at the base of the Tian- 
Shan to the Chinese frontier, including Kamil. It fell under the 
sway of the Chinese in 1720, was lost to them in 1865 during the 
great Mahommedan rebellion, and the trade route through it 
was consequently closed, but was regained in 1873. Owing to 
its commanding position on the principal route to the west, and 
its exceptional fertility, it has very frequently changed hands 
in the wars between China and her western neighbours. Hami 
is now a small town of about 6000 inhabitants, and is a busy 
trading centre. The Mahommedan population consists of 
immigrants from Kashgaria, Bokhara and Samarkand, and of 
descendants of the Uighurs. 

HAMILCAR BARCA, or BARCAS (Heb. barak " lightning"), 
Carthaginian general and statesman, father of Hannibal, was 
born soon after 270 B.C. He distinguished himself during the 
First Punic War in 247, when he took over the chief command in 
Sicily, which at this time was almost entirely in the hands of 
the Romans. Landing suddenly on the north-west of the island 
with a small mercenary force he seized a strong position on Mt. 
Ercte (Monte Pellegrino, near Palermo), and not only maintained 
himself against all attacks, but carried his raids as far as the 
coast of south Italy. In 244 he transferred his army to a similar 
position on the slopes of Mt. Eryx (Monte San Giuliano), from 
which he was able to lend support to the besieged garrison in 
the neighbouring town of Drepanum (Trapani). By a provision 
of the peace of 241 Hamilcar's unbeaten force was allowed to 
depart from Sicily without any token of submission. On return- 
ing to Africa his troops, which had been kept together only by 
his personal authority and by the promise of good pay, broke 
out into open mutiny when their rewards were withheld by 
Hamilcar's opponents among the governing aristocracy. The 
serious danger into which Carthage was brought by the failure 
of the aristocratic generals was averted by Hamilcar, whom 
the government in this crisis could not but reinstate. By the 
power of his personal influence among the mercenaries and the 
surrounding African peoples, and by superior strategy, he speedily 
crushed the revolt (237). After this success Hamilcar enjoyed 
such influence among the popular and patriotic party that his 
opponents could not prevent him being raised to a virtual 
dictatorship. After recruiting and training a new army in 
some Numidian forays he led on his own responsibility an 
expedition into Spain, where he hoped to gain a new empire to 
compensate Carthage for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia, and to 
serve as a basis for a campaign of vengeance against the Romans 
(236). In eight years by force of arms and diplomacy he secured 
an extensive territory in Spain, but his premature death in battle 
(228) prevented him from completing the conquest. Hamilcar 
stood out far above the Carthaginians of his age in military and 
diplomatic skill and in strength of patriotism ; in these qualities 
he was surpassed only by his son Hannibal, whom he had 
imbued with his own deep hatred of Rome and trained to be 
his successor in the conflict. 

This Hamilcar has been confused with another general who 
succeeded to the command of the Carthaginians in the First Punic 
War, and after successes at Therma and Drepanum was defeated at 



HAMILTON (FAMILY) 



Ecnomus (2568. C.). Subsequently, apart from unskilful operations 
against Regulus, nothing is certainly known of him. tor others 
o? the name see CARTHAGE, SICILY, Smith's Classical Dictionary. 
So far as the name itself is concerned, Milcar is perhaps the same as 
Melkarth, the Tyrian god. 

See Polybius i.-iii. ; Cornelius Nepos, Vita Hamilcaris; Appian, 
Res Hispanicae, chs. 4, 5- Diodorus, Excerpta, xxiv., xxv.; O. 
Meltzer, Geschichte der Karthager (Berlin, 1877), 11. also PUNIC 
WARS. ( M - - B - c -> 

HAMILTON, the name of a famous Scottish family. Chief 
among the legends still clinging to this important family is that 
which gives a descent from the house of Beaumont, a branch 
of which is stated to have held the manor of Hamilton in 
Leicestershire; and it is argued that the three cinquefoils of 
the Hamilton shield bear some resemblance to the single cinque- 
foil of the Beaumonts. In face of this it has been recently shown 
that the single cinquefoil was also borne by the Umfravilles of 
Northumberland, who appear to have owned a place called 
Hamilton in that county. It may be pointed out that Simon 
de Montfort, the great earl of Leicester, in whose veins flowed 
the blood of the Beaumonts, obtained about 1245 the wardship 
of Gilbert de Umfraville, second earl of Angus, and it is con- 
ceivable that this name Gilbert may somehow be responsible 
for the legend of the Beaumont descent, seeing that the first 
authentic ancestor of the Hamiltons is one Walter FitzGilbert. 
He first appears in 1 294-1 295 as one of the witnesses to a charter 
by James, the high steward of Scotland, to the monks of Paisley; 
and in 1296 his name appears in the Homage Roll as Walter 
FitzGilbert of " Hameldone." Who this Gilbert of " Hamel- 
done " may have been is uncertain, " but the fact must be faced," 
Mr John Anderson points out (Scots Peerage, iv. 340) " that in 
a charter of the i2th of December 1272 by Thomas of Cragyn 
or Craigie to the monks of Paisley of his church of Craigie in 
Kyle, there appears as witness a certain ' Gilbert de Hameldun 
clericus,' whose name occurs along with the local clergy of 
Inverkip, Blackball, Paisley and Dunoon. He was therefore 
probably also a cleric of the same neighbourhood, and it is 
significant that ' Walter FitzGilbert ' appears first in that 
district in 1294 and in 1296 is described as son of Gilbert de 
Hameldone. . . ." Walter FitzGilbert took some part in the 
affairs of his time. At first he joined the English party but after 
Bannockburn went over to Bruce, was knighted and subse- 
quently received the barony of Cadzow. His younger son John 
was father of Alexander Hamilton who acquired the lands of 
Innerwick by marriage, and from him descended a certain 
Thomas Hamilton, who acquired the lands of Priestfield early 
in the i6th century. Another Thomas, grandson of this last, 
who had with others of his house followed Queen Mary and 
with them had been restored to royal favour, became a lord of 
session as Lord Priestfield. Two of his younger sons enjoyed 
also this legal distinction, while the eldest, Thomas, was made 
an ordinary lord of session as early as 1 592 and was eventually 
created earl of Haddington (q.v.). It is interesting to note that 
the sth earl of Haddington by his marriage with Lady Margaret 
Leslie brought for a time the earldom of Rothes to the Hamiltons 
to be added to their already numerous titles. 

Sir " David FitzWalter FitzGilbert," who carried on the 
main line of the Hamiltons, was taken prisoner at the battle o: 
Neville's Cross (1346) and treated as of great importance, being 
ransomed, it is stated, for a large sum of money; in 1371 anc 
1373 he was one of the barons in the parliament. Of the four 
sons attributed to him David succeeded in the representation 
of the family, Sir John Hamilton of Fingaltoun was ancestor 
of the Hamiltons of Preston, and Walter is stated to have been 
progenitor of the Hamiltons of Cambuskeith and Sanquhar in 
Ayrshire. 

David Hamilton, the first apparently to describe himself as 
lord of Cadzow, died before 1392, leaving four or five sons, from 
whom descended the Hamiltons of Bathgate and of Bardowie 
and perhaps also of Udstown, to which last belong the lord 
Belhaven. 

Sir John Hamilton of Cadzow, the eldest son, was twice i 
prisoner in England, but beyond this little is known of him 



ven the date of his death is uncertain. His two younger sons 
.re stated to have been founders of the houses of Dalserf and 
laploch. His eldest son, James Hamilton of Cadzow, like his 
ather and great-grandfather, visited England as a prisoner, 
jeing one of the hostages for the king's ransom. From him the 
lamiltons of Silvertonhill and the lords Hamilton of Dalzell 
laim descent, among the more distinguished members of the 
ormer branch being General Sir Ian Hamilton, K.C.B. James 
lamilton was succeeded by his eldest son Sir James Hamilton 
)f Cadzow, who was created in 1445 an hereditary lord of parlia- 
ment, and was thereafter known as Lord Hamilton. He had 
allied himself some years before with the great house of Douglas 
ay marriage with Euphemia, widow of the 5th earl of Douglas, 
,nd was at first one of its most powerful supporters in the 
truggle with James II. Later, however, he obtained the royal 
avour and married about 1474 Mary, sister of James III. and 
widow of Thomas Boyd, earl of Arran. Of this marriage was 
>orn James, second Lord Hamilton, who as a near relative took 
an active part in the arrangements at the marriage of James IV. 
with Margaret Tudor; being rewarded on the same day (the 
Sth of August 1503) with the earldom of Arran. A champion 
n the lists he was scarcely so successful as a leader of men, his 
struggle with the Douglases being destitute of any great martial 
achievement. Of his many illegitimate children Sir James 
rlamilton of Finnart, beheaded in 1540, was ancestor of the 
Samiltons of Gilkerscleugh; and John, archbishop of St Andrews, 
langed by his Protestant enemies, was ancestor of the Hamiltons 
of Blair, and is said also to have been ancestor of Hamilton of 
London, baronet. James, second earl of Arran, son of the first 
earl by his second wife Janet Beaton, was chosen governor to 
the little Queen Mary, being nearest of kin to the throne through 
Sis grandmother, though the question of the validity of his 
mother's marriage was by no means settled. He held the 
governorship till 1554, having in 1549 been granted the duchy 
of Chatellerault in France. In his policy he _ was vacillating 
and eventually he retired to France, being absent during the 
three momentous years prior to the deposition of Mary. On his 
return he headed the queen's party, his property suffering in 
consequence. He was succeeded in the title in 1579 by his eldest 
son James, whose qualities were such that he was even proposed 
as a husband for Queen Elizabeth, but unfortunately he soon after 
became insane, his brother John, afterwards first marquess of 
Hamilton, administering the estates. From the third son, Claud, 
descends the duke of Abercorn, heir male of the house of 
Hamilton. 

The first marquess of Hamilton had a natural son, Sir John 
Hamilton of Lettrick, who was legitimated in 1600 and was 
ancestor of the lords Bargany. His two legitimate sons were 
James, 3rd marquess and first duke of Hamilton, and William, 
who succeeded his brother as 2nd duke and was in turn 
succeeded under the special remainder contained in the patent of 
dukedom, by his niece Anne, duchess of Hamilton, who was 
married in 1656 to William Douglas, earl of Selkirk. The history 
of the descendants of this marriage belongs to the great house 
of Douglas, the 7th duke of Hamilton becoming the male repre- 
sentative and chief of the house of Douglas, earls of Angus. 

The above mentioned Claud Hamilton, who with his brother, 
the first marquess, had taken so large a part in the cause of 
Queen Mary, was created a lord of parliament as Lord Paisley 
in 1587. He had five sons, of whom three settled in Ireland, 
Sir Claud being ancestor of the Hamiltons of Beltrim and Sir 
Frederick, distinguished in early life in the Swedish wars, being 
ancestor of the viscounts Boyne. 

James, the eldest son of Lord Paisley, found favour with 
James VI. and was created in 1603 Lord of Abercorn, and three 
years later was advanced in the peerage as earl of Abercorn 
and lord of Paisley, Hamilton, Mountcastell and Kilpatrick. His 
eldest son James, 2nd earl of Abercorn, eventually heir male of 
the house of Hamilton and successor to the dukedom of Chatel- 
lerault, was created in his father's lifetime lord of Strabane in 
Ireland, but he resigned this title in 1633 in favour of his brother 
Claud, whose grandson, Claud, sth Lord Strabane, succeeded 



HAMILTON (TITLE) 



879 



eventually as 4th earl of Abercorn. This earl, taking the side 
of James II., was with him in Ireland, his estate and title being 
afterwards forfeited, while his kinsman Gustavus Hamilton, 
afterwards first Lord Boyne, raised several regiments for William 
III., and greatly distinguished himself in the service of that 
monarch. His brother Charles, 5th earl of Abercorn, who 
obtained a reversal of the attainder, died without issue surviving 
in 1701 when the titles passed to his kinsman James Hamilton, 
grandson of Sir George Hamilton of Donalong in Ireland and 
great-grandson of the first earl. This branch, most faithful 
to the house of Stuart, counted among its many members 
distinguished in military annals Count Anthony Hamilton, 
author of the Memoires du comte de Gramont and brother of " la 
belle Hamilton." James, 6th earl of Abercorn (whose brother 
William was ancestor of Hamilton of the Mount, baronet), was a 
partizan of William III., and obtained in 1701 the additional 
Irish titles of lord of Mountcastle and viscount of Strabane. 

The 8th earl of Abercorn, who was summoned to the Irish 
house of peers in his father's lifetime as Lord Mountcastle, was 
created a peer of Great Britain in 1786 as Viscount Hamilton 
of Hamilton in Leicestershire, and renewed the family's connexion 
with Scotland by repurchasing the barony of Duddingston 
and later the lordship of Paisley. His nephew and successor 
was created marquess of Abercorn in 1790, and was father of 
James, ist duke of Abercorn. 

See the article Hamilton and other articles on the different 
branches of the family (e.g. Haddington and Belhaven) in Sir J. B. 
Paul's edition of Sir R. Douglas's Peerage of Scotland; and also 
G. Marshall, Guide to Heraldry and Genealogy. 

HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF. The holders 
of these titles descended from Sir James Hamilton of Cadzow, 
who was made an hereditary lord of parliament in 1445, his lands 
and baronies at the same time being erected into the " lordship " 
of Hamilton. His first wife Euphemia, widow of the sth earl 
of Douglas, died in 1468^ and probably early in 1474 he married 
Mary, daughter of King James II. and widow of Thomas Boyd, 
earl of Arran; the consequent nearness of the Hamiltons to 
the Scottish crown gave them very great weight in Scottish 
affairs. The first Lord Hamilton has been frequently confused 
with his father, James Hamilton of Cadzow, who was one of the 
hostages in England for the payment of James I.'s ransom, 
and is sometimes represented as surviving until 1451 or even 
1479, whereas he certainly died, according to evidence brought 
forward by J. Anderson in The Scots Peerage, before May 1441. 
James, 2nd Lord Hamilton, son of the ist lord and Princess 
Mary, was created earl of Arran in 1503; and his son James, 
who was regent of Scotland from 1542 to 1554, received in 
February 1549 a grant of the duchy of Chatellerault in 
Poitou. 

JOHN, ist marquess of Hamilton (c. 1542-1604), third son 
of James Hamilton, 2nd earl of Arran (<?..) and duke of Chatel- 
lerault, was given the abbey of Arbroath in 1551. In politics 
he was largely under the influence of his energetic and un- 
scrupulous younger brother Claud, afterwards Baron Paisley 
(c. 1543-1622), ancestor of the dukes of Abercorn. The brothers 
were the real heads of the house of Hamilton, their elder brother 
Arran being insane. At first hostile to Mary, they later became 
her devoted partisans. Their uncle, John Hamilton, archbishop 
of St Andrews, natural son of the ist earl of Arran, was restored 
to his consistorial jurisdiction by Mary in 1566, and in May of 
the next year he divorced Bothwell from his wife. Lord Claud 
met Mary on her escape from Lochleven and escorted her to 
Hamilton palace. John appears to have been in France in 
1 568 when the battle of Langside was fought, and it was probably 
Claud who commanded Mary's vanguard in the battle. With 
others of the queen's party they were forfeited by the parliament 
and sought their revenge on the regent Murray. Although 
the Hamiltons disavowed all connexion with Murray's murderer, 
James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh, he had been provided with 
horse and weapons by the abbot of Arbroath, and it was at Hamil- 
ton that he sought refuge after the deed. Archbishop Hamilton 
was hanged at Stirling in 1571 for alleged complicity in the 



murder of Darnley, and is said to have admitted that he was a 
party to the murder of Murray. At the pacification of Perth 
in .1573 the Hamiltons abandoned Mary's cause, and a recon- 
ciliation with the Douglases was sealed by Lord John's marriage 
with Margaret, daughter of the 7th Lord Glamis, a cousin of 
the regent Morton. Sir William Douglas of Lochleven, however, 
persistently sought his life in revenge for the murder of Murray 
until, on his refusal to keep the peace, he was imprisoned. On 
the uncertain evidence extracted from the assassin by torture, 
the Hamiltons had been credited with a share in the murder of 
the regent Lennox in 1571. In 1579 proceedings against them 
for these two crimes were resumed, and when they escaped to 
England their lands and titles were seized by their political 
enemies, James Stewart becoming earl of Arran. John Hamilton 
presently dissociated himself from the policy of his brother 
Claud, who continued to plot for Spanish intervention on behalf 
of Mary; and Catholic plotters are even said to have suggested 
his murder to procure the succession of his brother. Hamilton 
had at one time been credited with the hope of marrying 
Mary; his desires now centred on the peaceful enjoyment of his 
estates. With other Scottish exiles he crossed the border in 
1585 and marched on Stirling; he was admitted on the 4th of 
November and formally reconciled with James VI., with whom 
he was thenceforward on the friendliest terms. Claud returned 
to Scotland in 1586, and the abbey of Paisley was erected into a 
temporal barony in his favour in 1587. Much of his later years 
was spent in strict retirement, his son being authorized to act 
for him in 1598. John was created marquess of Hamilton and 
Lord Evan in 1599, and died on the 6th of April 1604. 

His eldest surviving son JAMES, 2nd marquess of Hamilton 
(c. 1589-1625), was created baron of Innerdale and earl of 
Cambridge in the peerage of England in 1619, and these honours 
descended to his son James, who in 1643 was created duke of 
Hamilton (?..). William, 2nd duke of Hamilton (1616-1651), 
succeeded to the dukedom on his brother's execution in 1649. 
He was created earl of Lanark in 1639, and in the next year 
became secretary of state in Scotland. Arrested at Oxford by 
the king's orders in 1643 for " concurrence " with Hamilton, 
he effected his escape and was temporarily reconciled with the 
Presbyterian party. He was sent by the Scottish committee 
of estates to treat with Charles I. at Newcastle in 1646, when 
he sought in vain to persuade the king to consent to the 
establishment of Presbyterianism in England. On the 26th of 
September 1647 he signed on behalf of the Scots the treaty with 
Charles known as the " Engagement " at Carisbrooke Castle, 
and helped to organize the second Civil War. In 1648 he fled 
to Holland, his succession in the next year to his brother's 
dukedom making him an important personage among the 
Royalist exiles. He returned to Scotland with Prince Charles 
in 1650, but, finding a reconciliation with Argyll impossible, 
he refused to prejudice Charles's cause by pushing his claims, 
and lived in retirement chiefly until the Scottish invasion of 
England, when he acted as colonel of a body of his dependants. 
He died on the i2th of September 1651 from the effects of 
wounds received at Worcester. He left no male heirs, and the 
title devolved on the ist duke's eldest surviving daughter Anne, 
duchess of Hamilton in her own right. 

Anne married in 1656 William Douglas, earl of Selkirk (1635- 
1694), who was created duke of Hamilton in 1660 on his wife's 
petition, receiving also several of the other Hamilton peerages, 
but for his life only. The Hamilton estates had been declared 
forfeit by Cromwell, and he himself had been fined 1000. He 
supported Lauderdale in the early stages of his Scottish policy, 
in which he adopted a moderate attitude towards the Presby- 
terians, but the two were soon alienated, through the influence 
of the countess of Dysart, according to Gilbert Burnet, who 
spent much time at Hamilton Palace in arranging the Hamilton 
papers. With other Scottish noblemen who resisted Lauderdale's 
measures Hamilton was twice summoned to London to present 
his case at court, but without obtaining any result. He was 
dismissed from the privy council in 1676, and on a subsequent 
visit to London Charles refused to receive him. On the accession 



88o 



HAMILTON, ALEXANDER 



of James II. he received numerous honours, but he was one of 
the first to enter into communication with the prince of Orange. 
He presided over the convention of Edinburgh, summoned at 
his request, which offered the Scottish crown to William and 
Mary in March 1689. His death took place at Holyrood on 
the 1 8th of April 1694. His wife survived until 1716. 

JAMES DOUGLAS, 4th duke of Hamilton (1658-1712), eldest 
son of the preceding and of Duchess Anne, succeeded his mother, 
who resigned the dukedom to him in 1698, and at the accession 
of Queen Anne he was regarded as leader of the Scottish national 
party. He was an opponent of the union with England, but 
his lack of decision rendered his political conduct ineffective. 
He was created duke of Brandon in the peerage of Great Britain 
in 1711; and on the isth of November in the following year 
he fought the celebrated duel with Charles Lord Mohun, narrated 
in Thackeray's Esmond, in which both the principals were killed. 
His son, James (1703-1743), became 5th duke, and his grandson 
James, 6th duke of Hamilton and Brandon (1724-1758), married 
the famous beauty, Elizabeth Gunning, afterwards duchess of 
Argyll. James George, 7th duke (1755-1769), became head of 
the house of Douglas on the death in 1761 of Archibald, duke 
of Douglas, whose titles but not his estates then devolved on 
the duke of Hamilton as heir-male. Archibald's brother Douglas 
(1756-1799) was the 8th duke, and when he died childless 
the titles passed to his uncle Archibald (1740-1819). His son 
Alexander, loth duke (1767-1852), who as marquess of Douglas 
was a great collector and connoisseur of books and pictures (his 
collections reaMzed 397,562 in 1882), was ambassador at St 
Petersburg in 1806-1807. His sister, Lady Anne Hamilton, 
was lady-in-waiting and a faithful friend to Queen Caroline, 
wife of George IV.; she did not write the Secret History of the 
Court of England . . . (1832) to which her name was attached. 
William Alexander, nth duke of Hamilton (1811-1863), married 
Princess Marie Amelie, daughter of Charles, grand-duke of Baden, 
and, on her mother's side, a cousin of Napoleon III. The title 
of duke of Chatellerault, granted to his remote ancestor in 1548, 
and claimed at different times by various branches of the 
Hamilton family, was conferred on the nth duke's son, William 
Alexander, i2th duke of Hamilton (1845-1895), by the emperor 
of the French in 1864. His sister, Lady Mary Douglas-Hamilton, 
married in 1869 Albert, prince of Monaco, but their marriage 
was declared invalid in 1880. She subsequently married Count 
Tassilo Festetics, a Hungarian noble. The I2th duke left no 
male issue and was succeeded in 1895 by his kinsman, Alfred 
Douglas, a descendant of the 4th duke. Claud Hamilton, ist 
Baron Paisley, brother of the ist marquess of Hamilton, was, 
as mentioned above, ancestor of the Abercorn branch of the 
Hamiltons. His son, who became earl of Abercorn in 1606, 
received among a number of other titles that of Lord Hamilton. 
This title, and also that of Viscount Hamilton, in the peerage 
of Great Britain, conferred on the 8th earl of Abercorn in 1786, 
are borne by the dukes of Abercorn, whose eldest son is usually 
styled by courtesy marquess of Hamilton, a title which was 
added to the other family honours -when the 2nd marquess of 
Abercorn was raised to the dukedom in 1868. 

See John Anderson, The House of Hamilton (1825); Hamilton 
Papers, ed. J. Bain (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1890-1892) ; Gilbert Burnet, 
Lives of James and William, dukes of Hamilton (1677) ; The Hamilton 
Papers relative to 1638-1650, ed. S. R. Gardiner for the Camden 
Society (1880); G. E. C[okayne], Complete Peerage (1887-1898); 
an article by the Rev. J. Anderson in Sir J. B. Paul's edition of the 
Scots Peerage, vol. iv. (1907). 

HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1757-1804), American statesman 
and economist, was born, as a British subject, on the island of 
Nevis in the West Indies on the nth of January 1757. He 
came of good family on both sides. His father, James Hamilton, 
a Scottish merchant of St Christopher, was a younger son of 
Alexander Hamilton of Grange, Lanarkshire, by Elizabeth, 
daughter of Sir R. Pollock. His mother, Rachael Fawcett 
(Faucette), of French Huguenot descent, married when very 
young a Danish proprietor of St Croix, John Michael Levine, 
with whom she lived unhappily and whom she soon left, sub- 
sequently living with James Hamilton; her husband procured 



a divorce in 1759, but the court forbade her remarriage. 1 Such 
unions as hers with James Hamilton were long not uncommon 
in the West Indies. By her James Hamilton had two sons, 
Alexander and James. Business misfortunes having caused 
his father's bankruptcy, and his mother dying in 1768, young 
Hamilton was thrown upon the care of maternal relatives at 
St Croix, where, in his twelfth year, he entered the counting- 
house of Nicholas Cruger. Shortly afterward Mr Cruger, going 
abroad, left the boy in charge of the business. The extra- 
ordinary specimens we possess of his mercantile correspondence 
and friendly letters, written at this time, attest an astonishing 
poise and maturity of mind, and self-conscious ambition. His 
opportunities for regular schooling must have been very scant; 
but he had cultivated friends who discerned his talents and en- 
couraged their development, and he early formed the habits of 
wide reading and industrious study that were to persist through 
his life. An accomplishment later of great service to Hamilton, 
common enough in the Antilles, but very raiye in the English 
continental colonies, was a familiar command of French. In 
1772 some friends, impressed by a description by him of the 
terrible West Indian hurricane in that year, made it possible 
for him to go to New York to complete his education. Arriving 
in the autumn of 1772, he prepared for college at Elizabethtown, 
N.J., and in 1774 entered King's College (now Columbia Uni- 
versity) in New York City. His studies, however, were inter- 
rupted by the War of American Independence. 

A visit to Boston seems to have thoroughly confirmed the 
conclusion, to which reason had already led him, that he should 
cast in his fortunes with the colonists. Into their cause he threw 
himself with ardour. In 1774-1775 he wrote two influential 
anonymous pamphlets, which were attributed to John Jay; 
they show remarkable maturity and controversial ability, and 
rank high among the political arguments of the time. 2 He 
organized an artillery company, was awarded its captaincy 
on examination, won the interest of Nathanael Greene and 
Washington by the proficiency and bravery he displayed in the 
campaign of 1776 around New York City, joined Washington's 
staff in March 1777 with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and 
during four years served as his private secretary and confidential 
aide. The important duties with which he was entrusted attest 
Washington's entire confidence in his abilities and character; 
then and afterwards, indeed, reciprocal confidence and respect 
took the place, in their relations, of personal attachment.* 
But Hamilton was ambitious for military glory it was an 
ambition he never lost; he became impatient of detention in 
what he regarded as a position of unpleasant dependence, and 
(Feb. 1781) he seized a slight reprimand administered by Wash- 
ington as an excuse for abandoning his staff position. 4 Later 
he secured a field command, through Washington, and won 
laurels at Yorktown, where he led the American column in the 

1 These facts were first definitely determined by Mrs Gertrude 
Atherton from the Danish Archives in Denmark and the West 
Indies; see article in North American Review, Aug. 1902, vol. 175, 
p. 229 ; and preface to her A Few of Hamilton's Letters (New York, 
1903). 

1 These were written in answer to the widely read pamphlets 
published over the nom de plume of "A Westchester Farmer," 
and now known to have been written by Samuel Seabury (q.v.). 
Hamilton's pamphlets were entitled " A Full Vindication of_ the 
Measures of the Congress from the Calumnies of their Enemies," 
and " The Farmer Refuted." Concerning them George Ticknor 
Curtis (Constitutional History of the United States, i. 274) has said, 
"There are , displayed in these papers a power of reasoning and 
sarcasm, a knowledge of the principles of government and of the 
English constitution, and a grasp of the merits of the whole contro- 
versy, that would have done honour to any man at any age. To 
say that they evince precocity of intellect gives no idea of their main 
characteristics. They show great maturity a more remarkable 
maturity than has ever been exhibited by any other person, at so early 
an age, in the same department of thought." 

George Bancroft was the first to point out that there is smalt 
evidence that Hamilton ever really appreciated Washington's great 
qualities; but on the score of personal and Federalist indebtedness 
he left explicit recognition. 

* For Hamilton's letter to General Schuyler on this episode 
one of the most important letters, in some ways, that he ever wrote 
see the Works, ix. 232 (8 : 35). 



HAMILTON, ALEXANDER 



881 



final assault on the British works. In 1780 he married Elizabeth, 
daughter of General Philip Schuyler, and thus became allied 
with one of the most distinguished families in New York. 

Meanwhile, he had begun the political efforts upon which 
his fame principally rests. In letters of 1779-1780' he correctly 
diagnoses the ills of the Confederation, and suggests with 
admirable prescience the necessity of centralization in its 
governmental powers; he was, indeed, one of the first, if not 
to conceive, at least to suggest adequate checks on the anarchic 
tendencies of the time. After a year's service in Congress in 
1782-1783, in which he experienced the futility of endeavouring 
to attain through that decrepit body the ends he sought, he 
settled down to legal practice in New York. 2 The call for the 
Annapolis Convention (1786) was ' Hamilton's opportunity. 
A delegate from New York, he supported Madison in inducing 
the Convention to exceed its delegated powers and summon 
the Federal Convention of 1787 at Philadelphia (himself drafting 
the call); he sefured a place on the New York delegation; and, 
when his anti-Federal colleagues withdrew from the Convention, 
he signed the Constitution for his state. So long as his colleagues 
were present his own vote was useless, and he absented himself 
for some time from the debates after making one remarkable 
speech (June i8th, 1787). In this he held up the British govern- 
ment as the best model in the world. 3 Though fully conscious 
that monarchy in America was impossible, he wished to obtain 
the next best solution in an aristocratic, strongly centralized, 
coercive, but representative union, with devices to give weight 
to the influence of class and property. 4 His plan had no chance 
of success; but though unable to obtain what he wished, he 
used his great talents to secure the adoption of the Constitution. 

To this struggle was due the greatest of his writings, and the 
greatest individual contribution to the adoption of the new 
government, The Federalist, which remains a classic commentary 
on American constitutional law and the principles of government, 
and of which Guizot said that " in the application of elementary 
principles of government to practical administration " it was 
the greatest work known to him. Its inception, and much more 
than half its contents were Hamilton's (the rest Madison's and 
Jay's). 6 Sheer will and reasoning could hardly be more bril- 

1 Especially the letter of September 1780 to James Duane, Works, 
i. 213 (i: 203); also the " Continentalist " papers of 1781. 

2 His most famous case at this time (Rutgers v. Waddington) was 
one that well illustrated his moral courage. Under a " Trespass 
Law " of New York, Elizabeth Rutgers, a widow, brought suit 
against one Joshua Waddington, a Loyalist, who during the war of 
American Independence, while New York was occupied by the 
British, had made use of some of her property. In face of popular 
clamour, Hamilton, who advocated a conciliatory treatment of the 
Loyalists, represented Waddington, who won the case, decided in 
1784. 

3 As Mr Oliver points out (Alexander Hamilton, p. 156), Hamilton's 
idea of the British constitution was not a correct picture of the 
British constitution in 1 787, and still less of that of the 2oth century. 
" What he had in mind was the British constitution as George III. 
had tried to make it." Hamilton's ideal was an elective monarchy, 
and his guiding principle a proper balance of authority. 

4 Briefly, he proposed a governor and two chambers an Assembly 
elected by the people for three years, and a Senate the governor 
and senate holding office for life or during good behaviour, and 
chosen, through electors, by voters qualified by property; the 
governor to have an unqualified veto on federal legislation; state 
governors to have a similar veto on state legislation, and to be 
appointed by the federal government; the federal government to 
control all militia. _ See Works, i. 347 (i : 331); and cf. his corre- 
spondence, which is scanty, passim in later years, notably x, 446, 
43 1 329 (8: 606, 596, 517), and references below. 

6 Nearly all the papers in The Federalist first appeared (between 
October 1787 and April 1788) in New York journals, over the signa- 
ture " Publius." Jay wrote only five. The authorship of twelve 
of them is uncertain, and has been the subject of much controversy 
between partisans of Hamilton and Madison. Concerning The 
Federalist Chancellor James Kent (Commentaries, i. 241) said: 

There is no work on the subject of the Constitution, and on re- 
publican and federal government generally, that deserves to be more 
thoroughly studied. I know not indeed of any work on the principles 
of free government that is to be compared, in instruction and intrinsic 
value, to this small and unpretending volume. ... It is equally 
admirable in the depth of its wisdom, the comprehensiveness of its 
views, the sagacity of its reflections, and the fearlessness, patriotism, 



liantly and effectively exhibited than they were by Hamilton 
in the New York convention of 1788, whose vote he won, against 
the greatest odds, for the ratification of the Constitution. It 
was the judgment of Chancellor James Kent, the justice of 
which can hardly be disputed, that " all the documentary proof 
and the current observation of the time lead us to the conclusion 
that he surpassed all his contemporaries in his exertions to create, 
recommend, adopt and defend the Constitution of the United 
States." 

When the new government was inaugurated, Hamilton became 
secretary of the treasury in Washington's cabinet.' Congress 
immediately referred to him a press of queries and problems, 
and there came from his pen a succession of papers that have 
left the strongest imprint on the administrative organization 
of the national government two reports on public credit, 
upholding an ideal of national honour higher than the prevalent 
popular principles; a report on manufactures, advocating their 
encouragement (e.g. by bounties paid from surplus revenues 
amassed by tariff duties) a famous report that has served ever 
since as a storehouse of arguments for a national protective 
policy; 7 a report favouring the establishment of a national 
bank, the argument being based on the doctrine of " implied 
powers " in the Constitution, and on the application that Con- 
gress may do anything that can be made, through the medium 
of money, to subserve the " general welfare " of the United 
States doctrines that, through judicial interpretation, have 
revolutionized the Constitution; and, finally, a vast mass of 
detailed work by which order and efficiency were given to the 
national finances. In 1793 he put to confusion his opponents 
who had brought about a congressional investigation of his 
official accounts. The success of his financial measures was im- 
mediate and remarkable. They did not, as is often but loosely 
said, create economic prosperity; but they did prop it, in 
an all-important field, with order, hope and confidence. His 
ultimate purpose was always the strengthening of the union; 
but before particularizing his political theories, and the political 
import of his financial measures, the remaining events of his 
life may be traced. 

His activity in the cabinet was by no means confined to 
the finances. He regarded himself, apparently, as premier, and 
sometimes overstepped the limits of his office in interfering 
with other departments. The heterogeneous character of the 
duties placed upon his department by Congress seemed in fact 
to reflect the English idea of its primacy. Hamilton's influence 
was in fact predominant with Washington (so far as any man 
could have predominant influence). Thus it happens that in 
foreign affairs, whatever credit properly belongs to the Federalists 
as a party (see also the article FEDERALIST PARTY) for the 
adoption of that principle of neutrality which became the 
traditional policy of the United States must be regarded as 
largely due to Hamilton. But allowance must be made for the 
mere advantage of initiative which belonged to any party that 
organized the government the differences between Hamilton 
and Jefferson, in this question of neutrality, being almost purely 
factitious. 8 On domestic policy their differences were vital, 

candour, simplicity, and elegance, with which its truths are uttered 
and recommended." 

6 The position was offered first to Robert Morris, who declined 
it, expressing the opinion that Hamilton was the man best fitted to 
meet its problems. 

7 Hamilton's Report on Manufactures (1791) by itself entitles him 
to the place of an epoch-maker in economics. It was the first great 
revolt from Adam Smith, on whose Wealth of Nations (1776) ne is 
said to have already written a commentary which is lost. In his 
criticism on Adam Smith, and his arguments for a system of 
moderate protective duties associated with the deliberate policy of 
promoting national interests, his work was the inspiration of Fried- 
rich List, and so the foundation of the economic system of Germany 
in a later day, and again, still later, of the policy of Tariff Reform 
and Colonial Preference in England, as advocated by Mr Chamber- 
lain and his supporters. See the detailed account given in the 
article PROTECTION. 

* That is, while Jefferson hated British aristocracy and sym- 
pathized with French democracy, Hamilton hated French demo- 
cracy and sympathized with British aristocracy and order; but 



HAMILTON, ALEXANDER 



and in their conflicts over Hamilton's financial measures they 
organized, on the basis of varying tenets and ideals which 
have never ceased to conflict in American politics, the two 
great parties of Federalists and Democrats (or Democratic- 
Republicans). On the 3ist of January 1795 Hamilton resigned 
his position as secretary of the treasury and returned to the 
practice of law in New York, leaving it for public service only 
in 1798-1800, when he was the active head, under Washington 
(who insisted that Hamilton should be second only to himself), 
of the army organized for war against France. But though in 
private life he remained the continual and chief adviser of 
Washington notably in the serious crisis of the Jay Treaty, 
of which Hamilton approved. Washington's Farewell Address 
(1796) was written for him by Hamilton. 

After Washington's death the Federalist leadership was 
divided (and disputed) between John Adams, who had the 
prestige of a varied and great career, and greater strength than 
any other Federalist with the people, and Hamilton, who con- 
trolled practically all the leaders of lesser rank, including much 
the greater part of the most distinguished men of the country, 
so that it has been very justly said that " the roll of his followers 
is enough of itself to establish his position in American history " 
(Lodge). But Hamilton was not essentially a popular leader. 
When his passions were not involved, or when they were repressed 
by a crisis, he was far-sighted, and his judgment of men was 
excellent. 1 But as Hamilton himself once said, his heart was 
ever the master of his judgment. He was, indeed, not above 
intrigue, 2 but he was unsuccessful in it. He was a fighter through 
and through, and his courage was superb; but he was indiscreet 
in utterance, impolitic in management, opinionated, self-con- 
fident, and uncompromising in nature and methods. His faults 
are nowhere better shown than in his quarrel with John Adams. 
Three times, in order to accomplish ends deemed by him, person- 
ally, to be desirable, Hamilton .used the political fortunes of 
John Adams, in presidential elections, as a m.ere hazard in his 
manoeuvres; moreover, after Adams became president, and 
so the official head of the party, Hamilton constantly advised 
the members of the president's cabinet, and through them 
endeavoured to control Adams's policy; and finally, on the eve 
of the crucial election of 1800, he wrote a bitter personal attack 
on the president (containing much confidential cabinet informa- 
tion), which was intended for private circulation, but which 
was secured and published by Aaron Burr, his legal and political 
rival. 

The mention of Burr leads us to the fatal end of another great 
political antipathy of Hamilton's life. He read Burr's character 
correctly from the beginning; deemed it a patriotic duty to 
thwart him in his ambitions; defeated his hopes successively 
1 of a foreign mission, the presidency, and the governorship of 
New York; and in his conversations and letters repeatedly 
and unsparingly denounced him. If these denunciations were 
known to Burr they were ignored by him until his last defeat. 
After that he forced a quarrel on a trivial bit of hearsay (that 
Hamilton had said he had a "despicable" opinion of Burr); 
and Hamilton, believing as he explained in a letter he left before 
going to his death that a compliance with the duelling prejudices 
of the time was inseparable from the ability to be in future 

neither wanted war; and indeed Jefferson, throughout life, was the 
more peaceful of the two. Neutrality was in the line of common- 
place American thinking of that time, as may be seen in the writings 
of all the leading men of the day. The cry of " British Hamilton " 
had no good excuse whatever. 

1 e.g. his prediction in 1789 of the course of the French Revolu- 
tion; his judgments of Burr from 1792 onward, and of Burr and 
Jefferson in 1800. 

5 After the Democrats won New York in 1799, Hamilton proposed 
to Governor John Jay to call together the out-going Federalist 
legislature, in order to choose Federalist presidential electors, a 
suggestion which Jay simply endorsed: " Proposing a measure for 
party purposes which it would not become me to adopt." WorKs, x. 
371 (8 : 549)- Compare also with later developments of ward 
politics in New York City, Hamilton's curious suggestions as to 
Federalist charities, &c., in connexion with the Christian Consti- 
tutional Society proposed by him in 1802 to combat irreligion and 
democracy (Works, x. 432 (8 : 596). 



useful in public affairs, accepted a challenge from him. The duel 
was fought at Weehawken on the Jersey shore of the Hudson 
opposite the City of New York. At the first fire Hamilton fell, 
mortally wounded, and he died on the following day, the i2th 
of July 1804. Hamilton himself did not intend to fire, but his 
pistol went off as he fell. The tragic close of his career appeased 
for the moment the fierce hatred of politics, and his death was 
very generally deplored as a national calamity.* 

No emphasis, however strong, upon the mere consecutive 
personal successes of Hamilton's life is sufficient to show the 
measure of his importance in American history. That import- 
ance lies, to a large extent, in the political ideas for which he 
stood. His mind was eminently " legal." He was the unrivalled 
controversialist of the time. His writings, which are distin- 
guished by clarity, vigour and rigid reasoning, rather than by 
any show of scholarship in the extent of which, however solid 
in character Hamilton's might have been, he was surpassed by 
several of his contemporaries are in general strikingly empirical 
in basis. He drew his theories from his experiences of the 
Revolutionary period, and he modified them hardly at all through 
life. In his earliest pamphlets (1774-1775) he started out with 
the ordinary pre-Revolutionary Whig doctrines of natural 
rights and liberty; but the first experience of semi-anarchic 
states'-rights and individualism ended his fervour for ideas 
so essentially alien to his practical, logical mind, and they have 
no place in his later writings. The feeble inadequacy of concep- 
tion, infirmity of power, factional jealousy, disintegrating 
particularism, and vicious finance of the Confederation were 
realized by many others; but none other saw so clearly the 
concrete nationalistic remedies for these concrete ills, or 
pursued remedial ends so constantly, so ably, and so con- 
sistently. An immigrant, Hamilton had no particularistic 
ties; he was by instinct a " continentalist " or federalist. 
He wanted a strong union and energetic government that 
should " rest as much as possible on the shoulders of the 
people and as little as possible on those of the state 
legislatures "; that should have the support of wealth and 
class; and that should curb the states to such an " entire 
subordination " as nowise to be hindered by those bodies. At 
these ends he aimed with extraordinary skill in all his financial 
measures. As early as 1776 he urged the direct collection of 
federal taxes by federal agents. From 1779 onward we trace the 
idea of supporting government by the interest of the propertied 
classes; from 1781 onward the idea that a not-excessive public 
debt would be a blessing 4 in giving cohesiveness to the union: 
hence his device by which the federal government, assuming 
the war debts of the states, secured greater resources, based 
itself on a high ideal of nationalism, strengthened its hold on the 
individual citizen, and gained the support of property. In his 
report on manufactures his chief avowed motive was to strengthen 
the union. To the same end he conceived the constitutional 
doctrines of liberal construction, " implied powers," and the 
" general welfare," which were later embodied in the decisions 
of John Marshall. The idea of nationalism pervaded and 
quickened all his life and works. With one great exception, the 
dictum of Guizot is hardly an exaggeration, that " there is not in 
the Constitution of the United States an element of order, of 
force, of duration, which he did not powerfully contribute to 
introduce into it and to cause to predominate." 

3 Hamilton's widow, who survived him for half a century, dying 
at the age of ninety-seven, was left , with four sons and four 
daughters. He had been an affectionate husband and father, 
though his devotion to his wife had been consistent with occasional 
lapses from strict marital fidelity. One intrigue into which he 
drifted in 1791, with a Mrs Reynolds, led to the blackmailing of 
Hamilton by her husband ; and when this rascal, shortly afterwards, 
got into trouble for fraud, his relations with Hamilton were un- 
scrupulously misrepresented for political purposes by some of 
Hamilton's opponents. But Hamilton faced the necessity of revealing 
the true state of things with conspicuous courage, and the scandal 
only reacted on his accusers. One of them was Monroe, whose re- 
putation comes very badly out of this unsavoury affair. 

* In later years he said no debt should be incurred without provid- 
ing simultaneously for its payment. 



HAMILTON, ALEXANDER 



883 



The exception, as American history showed, was American 
democracy. The loose and barren rule of the Confederation 
seemed to conservative minds such as Hamilton's to presage, 
in its strengthening of individualism, a fatal looseness of social 
restraints, and led him on to a dread of democracy that he never 
overcame. Liberty, he reminded his fellows, in the New York 
Convention of 1788, seemed to be alone considered in govern- 
ment, but there was another thing equally important: " a 
principle of strength and stability in the organization . . . and 
of vigour in its operation." But Hamilton's governmental 
system was in fact repressive. 1 He wanted a system strong 
enough, he would have said, to overcome the anarchic tendencies 
loosed by war, and represented by those notions of natural 
rights which he had himself once championed; strong enough 
to overbear all local, state and sectional prejudices, powers or 
influence, and to control not, as Jefferson would have it, to 
be controlled by the people. Confidence in the integrity, the 
self-control, and the good judgment of the people, which was 
the content of Jefferson's political faith, had almost no place 
in Hamilton's theories. " Men," said he, " are reasoning rather 
than reasonable animals." The charge that he laboured to 
introduce monarchy by intrigue is an under-estimate of his good 
sense. 2 Hamilton's thinking, however, did carry him foul of 
current democratic philosophy; as he said, he presented his 
plan in 1787 " not as attainable, but as a model to which we 
ought to approach as far as possible "; moreover, he held through 
life his belief in its principles, and in its superiority over the 
government actually created; and though its inconsistency 
with American tendencies was yearly more apparent, he never 
ceased to avow on all occasions his aristocratic-monarchical 
partialities. Moreover, his preferences for at least an aristocratic 
republic were shared by many other men of talent. When it is 
added that Jefferson's assertions, alike as regards Hamilton's 
talk 3 and the intent and tendency of his political measures, 
were, to the extent of the underlying basic fact but discounting 
Jefferson's somewhat intemperate interpretations unquestion- 
ably true, 4 it cannot be accounted strange that Hamilton's 
Democratic opponents mistook his theoretic predilections for 
positive designs. Nor would it be a strained inference from 
much that he said, to believe that he hoped and expected that 
in the " crisis " he foresaw, when democracy should have caused 
the ruin of the country, a new government might be formed 
that should approximate to his own ideals. 5 From the beginning 
of the excesses of the French Revolution he was possessed by 
the persuasion that American democracy, likewise, might at 
any moment crush the restraints of the Constitution to enter 
on a career of licence and anarchy. To this obsession he sacri- 

1 He warmly supported the Alien and Sedition Laws of 1798 (in 
their final form). 

2 The idea, he wrote to Washington, was " one of those visionary 
things none but madmen could undertake, and that no wise man 
will believe" (1792). And see his comments on Burr's ambitions, 
Works, x. 417, 450 (8:585, 610). We may accept as just, and 
applicable to his entire career, the statement made by himself in 
1803 oi his principles in 1787 : " (l) That the political powers of the 
people of this continent would endure nothing but a representative 
form of government. (2) That, in the actual situation of the country, 
it was itself right and proper that the representative system should 
have a full and fair trial. (3) That to such a trial it was essential 
that the government should be so constructed as to give it all the 
energy and the stability reconcilable with the principles of that 
theory." 

3 Cf. Gouverneur Morris, Diary and Letters, ii. 455, 526, 531. 

* Cf. even Mr Lodge's judgments, pp. 90-92, 115-116, 122, 130, 140. 
When he says (p. 140) that " In Hamilton's successful policy there 
were certainly germs of an aristocratic republic, there were certainly 
limitations and possibly dangers to pure democracy," this is practi- 
cally Jefferson's assertion (1792) that " His system flowed from 
principles adverse to liberty"; but Jefferson goes on to add: 

and was calculated to undermine and demolish the republic." As 
to the intent of Hamilton to secure through his financial measures 
the political support of property, his own words are honest and clear ; 
and in fact he succeeded. Jefferson merely had exaggerated fears 
of a moneyed political engine, and seeing that Hamilton's measures 
of funding and assumption did make the national debt politically 
useful to the Federalists in the beginning he concluded that they 
would seek to fasten the debt on the country for ever. 

* Cf. Gouv. Morris, op. cit. ii. 474. 



need his life. 6 After the Democratic victory of 1800, his letters, 
full of retrospective judgments and interesting outlooks, are 
but rarely relieved in their sombre pessimism by flashes of hope 
and courage. His last letter on politics, written two days 
before his death, illustrates the two sides of his thinking already 
emphasized: in this letter he warns his New England friends 
against dismemberment of the union as " a clear sacrifice of 
great positive advantages, without any counterbalancing good; 
administering no relief to our real disease, which is democracy, 
the poison of which, by a subdivision, will only be more con- 
centrated in each part, and consequently the more virulent." 
To the end he never lost his fear of the states, nor gained faith 
in the future of the country. He laboured still, in mingled hope 
and apprehension, "to prop the frail and worthless fabric," 7 
but for its spiritual content of democracy he had no under- 
standing, and even in its nationalism he had little hope. Yet 
probably to no one man, except perhaps to Washington, does 
American nationalism owe so much as to Hamilton. 

In the development of the United States the influence of 
Hamiltonian nationalism and Jeffersonian democracy has been 
a reactive union; but changed conditions since Hamilton's 
time, and particularly since the Civil War, are likely to create 
misconceptions as to Hamilton's position in his own day. Great 
constructive statesman as he was, he was also, from the American 
point of view, essentially a reactionary. He was the leader of 
reactionary forces constructive forces, as it happened in 
the critical period after the War of American Independence, 
and in the period of Federalist supremacy. He was in sympathy 
with the dominant forces of public life only while they took, 
during the war, the predominant impress of an imperfect nation- 
alism. 8 Jeffersonian democracy came into power in 1800 in 
direct line with colonial development; Hamiltonian Federalism 
was a break in that development; and this alone can explain 
how Jefferson could organize the Democratic Party in face of 
the brilliant success of the Federalists in constructing the govern- 
ment. Hamilton stigmatized his great opponent as a political 
fanatic; but actualist as he claimed to be, 9 Hamilton could not 
see, or would not concede, the predominating forces in American 
life, and would uncompromisingly have minimized the two 
great political conquests of the colonial period local self- 
government and democracy. 

Few Americans have received higher tributes from foreign 
authorities. Talleyrand, personally impressed when in America 
with Hamilton's brilliant qualities, declared that he had the 
power of divining without reasoning, and compared him to Fox 
and Napoleon because he had " devine 1'Europe." Of the 
judgments rendered by his countrymen, Washington's con- 
fidence in his ability and integrity is perhaps the most significant. 
Chancellor James Kent, and others only less competent, paid 
remarkable testimony to his legal abilities. Chief-justice 
Marshall ranked him second to Washington alone. No judgment 

6 He dreamed of saving the country with an army in this crisis 
of blood and iron, and wished to preserve unweakened the public 
confidence in his personal bravery. 

7 His own words in 1802. In justification of the above state- 
ments see the correspondence of 1800-1804 passim Works, vol. ix.- 
x. (or 7-8) ; especially x. 363, 425, 434, 440, 445 (or 8:543, 591. 596, 
602, 605). 

8 Cf. Anson D. Morse, article cited below, pp. 4, 18-21. 

9 Chancellor Kent tells us (Memoirs and Letters, p. 32) that in 
1804 Hamilton was planning a co-operative Federalist work on the 
history and science of government on an inductive basis. Kent 
always speaks of Hamilton's legal thinking as deductive, however 
(ibid, p. 290, 329), and such seems to have been in fact all his political 
reasoning: i.e. underlying them were such maxims as that of Hume, 
that in erecting a stable government every citizen must be assumed 
a knave, and be bound by self-interest to co-operation for the public 
good. Hamilton always seems to be reasoning deductively from 
such principles. He went too far and fast for even such a Federalist 
disbeliever in democracy as Gouverneur Morris; who, to Hamilton's 
assertion that democracy must be cast out to save the country, 
replied that " such necessity cannot be shown by a political ratio- 
cination. Luckily, or, to speak with a reverence proper to the 
occasion, providentially, mankind are not disposed to embark the 
blessings they enjoy on a voyage of syllogistic adventure to obtain 
something more beautiful in exchange. They must feel before they 
will act (op. cit. ii. 531). 



884 HAMILTON, ANTHONY HAMILTON, ELIZABETH 



is more justly measured than Madison's (in 1831): "That he 
possessed intellectual powers of the first order, and the moral 
qualities of integrity and honour in a captivating degree, has 
been awarded him by a suffrage now universal. If his theory 
of government deviated from the republican standard he had 
the candour to avow it, and the greater merit of co-operating 
faithfully in maturing and supporting a system which was not 
his choice." 

In person Hamilton was rather short and slender; in carriage, 
erect, dignified and graceful. Deep-set, changeable, dark eyes 
vivified his mobile features, and set off his light hair and fair, 
ruddy complexion. His head in the famous Trumbull portrait 
is boldly poised and very striking. The captivating charm of 
his manners and conversation is attested by all who knew him, 
and in familiar life he was artlessly simple. Friends he won 
readily, and he held them in devoted attachment by. the solid 
worth of a frank, ardent, generous, warm-hearted and high- 
minded character. Versatile as were his intellectual powers, his 
nature seems comparatively simple. A firm will, tireless 
energy, aggressive courage and bold self-confidence were its 
leading qualities; the word " intensity " perhaps best sums up 
his character. His Scotch and Gallic strains of ancestry are 
evident; his countenance was decidedly Scotch; his nervous 
speech and bearing and vehement temperament rather French; 
in his mind, agility, clarity and penetration were matched with 
logical solidity. The remarkable quality of his mind lay in the 
rare combination of acute analysis and grasp of detail with great 
comprehensiveness of thought. So far as his writings show, he 
was almost wholly lacking in humour, and in imagination little 
less so. He certainly had wit, but it is hard to believe he could 
have had any touch of fancy. In public speaking he often 
combined a rhetorical effectiveness and emotional intensity 
that might take the place of imagination, and enabled him, 
on the coldest theme, to move deeply the feelings of his 
auditors. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Hamilton's Works have been edited by H. C. 
Lodge (New York, 9 vols., 1885-1886, and 12 vols., 1904); all 
references above are first to the latter edition, secondly (in brackets) 
to the former. There are various additional editions of The Federal- 
ist, notably those of H. B. Dawson (1863), H. C. Lodge (1888), and 
the most scholarly P. L. Ford (1898); cf. American Historical 
Review, ii. 413, 675. See also James Bryce, " Predictions of Hamil- 
ton and de Tocqueville," in Johns Hopkins University Studies, 
vol. 5 (Baltimore, 1887); and the capital essay of Anson D. Morse 
in the Political Science Quarterly, v. (1890), pp. 1-23. For a biblio- 
graphy of the period see the Cambridge Modern History, vol. vii. 
pp. 780-810. The unfinished Life of Alexander Hamilton, by his 
Son, J. C. Hamilton, going only to 1787 (New York, 2 vols., 1834- 
1840), was superseded by the same author's valuable, but partisan 
and uncritical History of the Republic . . . as traced in the Writings 
of Alexander Hamilton (New York, 7 vols., 1857-1864; 4th ed., 
Boston, 1879). Professor W. G. Sumner's Alexander Hamilton 
(Makers of America series, New York, 1890) is appreciative, and 
important for its criticism from the point of view of an American 
free-trader; see also, on Hamilton's finance and economic views, 
Prof. C. F. Dunbar, Quarterly Journal of Economics, iii. (1889), p. 32 ; 
E. G. Bourne in ibid. x. (1894), p. 328; E. C. Lunt in Journal of 
Political Economy, iii. (1895), p. 289. Among modern studies must 
also be mentioned J. T. Morse's able Life (1876); H. C. Lodge's 
(in the American Statesmen series, 1882); and G. Shea's two 
books, his Historical Study (1877) and Life and Epoch (1879). C. J. 
Riethmuller's Hamilton and his Contemporaries (1864), written 
during the Civil War, is sympathetic, but rather speculative. The 
most vivid account of Hamilton is in Mrs Gertrude Atherton's 
historical romance, The Conqueror (New York, 1902), for the writing 
of which the author made new investigations into the biographical 
details, and elucidated some points previously obscure; see also 
her A Few of Hamilton's Letters (1903). F. S. Oliver's brilliant 
Alexander Hamilton: An Essay on American Union (London, 1906), 
which uses its subject to illustrate the necessity of Brjtish imperial 
federation, is strongly anti-Jeffersonian, but no other work by 
a non-American author brings out so well the wider issues involved 
in Hamilton's economic policy. (F. S. P. ; H. CH.) 

HAMILTON, ANTHONY, or ANTOINE (1646-1720), French 
classical author, was born about 1646. He is especially note- 
worthy from the fact that, though by birth he was a foreigner, 
his literary characteristics are more decidedly French than those 
of many of the most indubitable Frenchmen. His father was 
George Hamilton, younger brother of James, 2nd earl of 



Abercorn, and head of the family of Hamilton in the peerage 
of Scotland, and 6th duke of Chatellerault in the peerage of 
France; and his mother was Mary Butler, sister of the ist 
duke of Ormonde. According to some authorities he was born 
at Drogheda, but according to the London edition of his works 
in 1811 his birthplace was Roscrea, Tipperary. From the age 
of four till he was fourteen the boy was brought up in France, 
whither his family had removed after the execution of Charles I. 
The fact that, like his father, he was a Roman Catholic, prevented 
his receiving the political promotion he might otherwise have 
expected on the Restoration, but he became a distinguished 
member of that brilliant band of courtiers whose chronicler 
he was to become. He took service in the French army, and 
the marriage of his sister Elizabeth, " la belle Hamilton," to 
Philibert, comte de Gramont (q.ii.) rendered his connexion with 
France more intimate, if possible, than before. On the accession 
of James II. he obtained an infantry regiment in Ireland, and 
was appointed governor of Limerick and a member of the privy 
council. But the battle of the Boyne, at which he was present, 
brought disaster on all who were attached to the cause of the 
Stuarts, and before long he was again in France an exile, but 
at home. The rest of his life was spent for the most part at the 
court of St Germain and in the chdteaux of his friends. With 
Ludovise, duchesse du Maine, he became an especial favourite, 
and it was at her seat at Sceaux that he wrote the Memoires 
that made him famous. He died at St Germain-en-Laye on the 
2ist of April 1720. 

It is mainly by the Memoires du comte de Gramont that Hamilton 
takes rank with the most classical writers of France. It was 
said to have been written at Gramont's dictation, but it is very 
evident that Hamilton's share is the most considerable. The 
work was first published anonymously in 1713 under the rubric of 
Cologne, but it was really printed in Holland, at that time the 
great patroness of all questionable authors. An English trans- 
lation by Boyer appeared in 1714. Upwards of thirty editions 
have since appeared, the best of the French being Renouard's 
(1812), forming part of a collected edition of Hamilton's works, 
and Gustave Brunei's (1859), and the best of the English, 
Edwards's (1793), with 78 engravings from portraits in the royal 
collections at Windsor and elsewhere, A. F. Bertrand de Mole- 
ville's (2 vols., 1811), with 64 portraits by E. Scriven and others, 
and Gordon Goodwin's (2 vols., 1903). The original edition 
was reprinted by Benjamin Pifteau in 1876. In imitation and 
satiric parody of the romantic tales which Antoine Galland's 
translation of The Thousand and One Nights had brought into 
favour in France, Hamilton wrote, partly for the amusement of 
Henrietta Bulkley, sister of the duchess of Berwick, to whom 
he was much attached, four ironical and extravagant conies, 
Le Belier, Fleur d'epine, Zentyde and Les Quatre Facardins. 
The saying in Le Belier' " Belier, mon ami, tu me ferais plaisir 
si tu voulais commencer par le commencement," has passed 
into a proverb. These tales were circulated privately during 
Hamilton's lifetime, and the first three appeared in Paris in 
1730, ten years after the death of the author; a collection of his 
(Euvres diver ses in 1731 contained the unfinished Zentyde. 
Hamilton was also the author of some songs as exquisite in their 
way as his prose, and interchanged amusing verses with the duke 
of Berwick. In the name of his niece, the countess of Stafford, 
Hamilton maintained a witty correspondence with Lady Mary 
Wortley Montagu. 

See notices of Hamilton in Lescure's edition (1873) of the Contes, 
Sainte-Beuve's Causeries du lundi, tome i., Sayou's Histoire de la 
litterature franfaise a Vklr anger (1853), and by L. S. Auger in the 
(Euvres completes (1804). 

HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758-1816), British author, was 
born at Belfast, of Scottish extraction, on the 2ist of July 1758. 
Her father's death in 1759 left his wife so embarrassed that 
Elizabeth was adopted in 1762 by her paternal aunt, Mrs 
Marshall, who lived in Scotland, near Stirling. In 1788 Miss 
Hamilton went to live with her brother Captain Charles Hamilton 
(1753-1792), who was engaged on his translation of theHedaya. 
Prompted by her brother's associations, she produced her 



HAMILTON, LADY HAMILTON, JAMES 



885 



Letters of a Hindoo Rajah in 1796. Soon after, with her sister 
Mrs Blake, she settled at Bath, where she published in 1800 the 
Memoirs of Modern Philosophers, a satire on the admirers of 
the French Revolution. In 1801-1802 appeared her Letters 
on Education. After travelling through Wales and Scotland for 
nearly two years, the sisters took up their abode in 1803 at 
Edinburgh. In 1804 Mrs Hamilton, as she then preferred to be 
called, published her Life of Agrippina, wife of Germanicus; 
and in the same year she received a pension from government. 
The Cottagers ofGlenburnie (1808), which is her best-known work, 
was described by Sir Walter Scott as " a picture of the rural 
habits of Scotland, of striking and impressive fidelity." She 
also published Popular Essays on the Elementary Principles 
of the Human Mind (1812), and Hints addressed to the Patrons 
and Directors of Public Schools (1815). She died at Harrogate 
on the 23rd of July 1816. 

Memoirs of Mrs Elizabeth Hamilton, by Miss Benger, were pub- 
lished in 1818. 

HAMILTON, EMMA, LADY (c. 1765-1815), wife of Sir William 
Hamilton (q.v.), the British envoy at Naples, and famous as 
the mistress of Nelson, was the daughter of Henry Lyon, a 
blacksmith of Great Neston in Cheshire. The date of her birth 
cannot be fixed with certainty, but she was baptized at Great 
Neston on the izth of May 1765, and it is not improbable that 
she was born in that year. Her baptismal name was Emily. 
As her father died soon after her birth, the mother, who was 
dependent on parish relief, had to remove to her native village, 
Hawarden in Flintshire. Emma's early life is very obscure. She 
was certainly illiterate, and it appears that she had a child in 
1780, a fact which has led some of her biographers to place her 
birth before 1765. It has been said that she was first the mistress 
of Captain Willet Payne, an officer in the navy, and that she 
was employed in some doubtful capacity by a notorious quack 
of the time, Dr Graham. In 1781 she was the mistress of a 
country gentleman, Sir Harry Featherstonhaugh, who turned 
her out in December of that year. She was then pregnant, and 
in her distress she applied to the Hon. Charles Greville, to whom 
she was already known. At this time she called herself Emily 
Hart. Greville, a gentleman of artistic tastes and well known 
in society, entertained her as his mistress, her mother, known 
as Mrs Cadogan, acting as housekeeper and partly as servant. 
Under the protection of Greville, whose means were narrowed 
by debt, she acquired some education, and was taught to sing, 
dance and act with professional skill. In 1782 he introduced 
her to his friend Romney the portrait painter, who had been 
established for several years in London, and who admired her 
beauty with enthusiasm. The numerous famous portraits of 
her from his brush may have somewhat idealised her apparently 
robust and brilliantly coloured beauty, but her vivacity and 
powers of fascination cannot be doubted. She had the tempera- 
ment of an artist, and seems to have been sincerely attached to 
Greville. In 1784 she was seen by his uncle, Sir William 
Hamilton, who admired her greatly. Two years later she was 
sent on a visit to him at Naples, as the result of an understanding 
between Hamilton and Greville the uncle paying his nephew's 
debts and the nephew ceding his mistress. Emma at first 
resented, but then submitted to the arrangement. Her beauty, 
her artistic capacity, and her high spirits soon made her a great 
favourite in the easy-going society of Naples, and. Queen Maria 
Carolina became closely attached to her. She became famous 
for her " attitudes," a series of poses plastiques in which she 
represented classical and other figures. On the 6th of September 
1791, during a visit to England, she was married to Sir W. 
Hamilton. The ceremony was required in order to justify her 
public reception at the court of Naples, where Lady Hamilton 
played an important part as the agent through whom the queen 
communicated with the British minister sometimes in opposi- 
tion to the will and the policy of the king. The revolutionary 
wars and disturbances which began after 1792 made the services 
of Lady Hamilton always useful and sometimes necessary to 
the British government. It was claimed by her, and on her 
behalf , that she secured valuable information in 1796, and was 



of essential service to the British fleet in 1798 during the Nile 
campaign, by enabling it to obtain stores and water in Sicily. 
These claims have been denied on the rather irrelevant ground 
that they are wanting in official confirmation, which was only 
to be expected since they were ex hypothesi unofficial and secret, 
but it is not improbable that they were considerably exaggerated, 
and it is certain that her stories cannot always be reconciled 
with one another or with the accepted facts. When Nelson 
returned from the Nile in September 1798 Lady Hamilton made 
him her hero, and he became entirely devoted to her. Her 
influence over him indeed became notorious, and brought him 
much official displeasure. Lady Hamilton undoubtedly used 
her influence to draw Nelson into a most unhappy participation 
in the domestic troubles of Naples, and when Sir W. Hamilton 
was recalled in 1800 she travelled with him and Nelson ostenta- 
tiously across Europe. In England Lady Hamilton insisted on 
making a parade of her hold over Nelson. Their child, Horatia 
Nelson Thompson, was born on the 3Oth of January 1801. The 
profuse habits which Emma Hamilton had contracted in Naples, 
together with a passion for gambling which grew on her, led her 
into debt, and also into extravagant ways of living, against which 
her husband feebly protested. On his death in 1803 she received 
by his will a liferent of 800, and the furniture of his house in 
Piccadilly. She then lived openly with Nelson at his house at 
Merton. Nelson tried repeatedly to secure her a pension for 
the services rendered at Naples, but did not succeed. On his 
death she received Merton, and an annuity of 500, as well as 
the control of the interest of the 4000 he left to his daughter. 
But gambling and extravagance kept her poor. In 1808 her 
friends endeavoured to arrange her affairs, but in 1813 she was 
put in prison for debt and remained there for a year. A certain 
Alderman Smith having aided her to get out, she went over to 
Calais for refuge from her creditors, and she died there in distress 
if not in want on the isth of January 1815. 

AUTHORITIES. The Memoirs of Lady Hamilton (London, 1815) 
were the work of an ill-disposed but well-informed and shrewd 
observer whose name is not given. Lady Hamilton and Lord Nelson, 
by J. C. Jefferson (London, 1888) is based on authentic papers. 
It is corrected in some particulars by the detailed recent life written 
by Walter Sichel, Emma, Lady Hamilton (London, 1905). See also 
the authorities given in the article NELSON. (D. H.) 

HAMILTON, JAMES (1760-1831), English educationist, and 
author of the Hamiltonian system of teaching languages, was 
born in 1769. The first part of his life was spent in mercantile 
pursuits. Having settled in Hamburg and become free of the 
city, he was anxious to become acquainted with German and 
accepted the tuition of a French emigr6, General d'Angelis. 
In twelve lessons he found himself able to read an easy German 
book, his master having discarded the use of a grammar and 
translated to him short stories word for word into French. As 
a citizen of Hamburg Hamilton started a business in Paris, and 
during the peace of Amiens maintained a lucrative trade with 
England; but at the rupture of the treaty he was made a prisoner 
of War, and though the protection of Hamburg was enough to get 
the words efface de la lisle des prisonniers de guerre inscribed upon 
his passport, he was detained in custody till the close of hostilities. 
His business being thus ruined, he went in 1814 to America, 
intending to become a farmer and manufacturer of potash; 
but, changing his plan before he reached his " location," he 
started as a teacher in New York. Adopting his old tutor's 
method, he attained remarkable success in New York, Baltimore, 
Washington, Boston, Montreal and Quebec. Returning to 
England in July 1823, he was equally fortunate in Manchester 
and elsewhere. The two master principles of his method were 
that the language should be presented to the scholar as a living 
organism, and that its laws should be learned from observation 
and not by rules. His system attracted general attention, and 
was vigorously attacked and defended. In 1826 Sydney Smith 
devoted an article to its elucidation in the Edinburgh Review. 
As textbooks for his pupils Hamilton printed interlinear transla- 
tions of the Gospel of John, of an Epitome historiae sacrae, of 
Aesop's Fables, Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, Phaedrus, &c., and 
many books were issued as Hamiltonian with which he 



886 



HAMILTON, IST DUKE OF 



had nothing personally to do. He died on the 3ist of October 

1831. 

See Hamilton's own account, The History, Principles, Practice 
and Results of the Hamiltonian System (Manchester, 1829; new ed., 
1831); Alberte, Vber die Hamilton sche Methode; L. K Wurm, 
Hamilton und Jacotot (1831). 

HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON, IST DUKE OF (1606-1649), 
Scottish nobleman, son of James, 2nd marquess of Hamilton, 
and of the Lady Anne Cunningham, daughter of the earl of 
Glencairn, was born on the igth of June 1606. As the descendant 
and representative of James Hamilton, ist earl of Arran, he 
was the heir to the throne of Scotland after the descendants of 
James VI. 1 He married in his fourteenth year May Feilding, 
aged seven, daughter of Lord Feilding, afterwards ist earl of 
Denbigh, and was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, where 
he matriculated on the uth of December 1621. He succeeded 
to his father's titles on the latter's death in 1625. In 1628 he 
was made master of the horse and was also appointed gentleman 
of the bedchamber and a privy councillor. In 1631 Hamilton 
took over a force of 6000 men to assist Gustavus Adolphus in 
Germany. He guarded the fortresses on the Oder while Gustavus 
fought Tilly at Breitenfeld, and afterwards occupied Magdeburg, 
but his army was destroyed by disease and starvation, and after 
the complete failure of the expedition Hamilton returned to 
England in September 1634. He now became Charles I.'s 
chief adviser in Scottish affairs. In May 1638, after the outbreak 
of the revolt against the English Prayer-Book, he was appointed 
commissioner for Scotland to appease the discontents. He 
described the Scots as being " possessed by the devil," and instead 
of doing his utmost to support the king's interests was easily 
intimidated by the covenanting leaders and persuaded of the 
impossibility of resisting their demands, finally returning to 
Charles to urge him to give way. It is said that he so far forgot 
his trust as to encourage the Scottish leaders in their resistance 
in order to gain their favour. 2 On the 2 7th of July Charles sent 
him back with new proposals for the election of an assembly 
and a parliament, episcopacy being safeguarded but bishops 
being made responsible to future assemblies. After a wrangle 
concerning the mode of election he again returned to Charles. 
Having been sent back to Edinburgh on the i7th of September, 
he brought with him a revocation of the prayer-book and canons 
and another covenant to be substituted for the national covenant. 
On the 2 ist of November Hamilton presided over the first meeting 
of the assembly in Glasgow cathedral, but dissolved it on the 
28th on its declaring the bishops responsible to its authority. 
The assembly, however, continued to sit notwithstanding, and 
Hamilton returned to England to give an account of his failure, 
leaving the enemy triumphant and in possession. War was now 
decided upon, and Hamilton was chosen to command an expedi- 
tion to the Forth to menace the rear of the Scots. On arrival 
on the ist of May 1639 he found the plan impossible, despaired of 
success, and was recalled in June. On the 8th of July, after a 
hostile reception at Edinburgh, he resigned his commissionership. 
He supported Strafford's proposal to call the Short Parliament, 
but otherwise opposed him as strongly as he could, as the chief 
adversary of the Scots; and he aided the elder Vane, it was 
James, Lord Hamilton = Princess Mary Stuart, 
(d. 1479). I daughter of James II. 

James, Lord Hamilton and 1st earl of Arran 
(d. c. 1529). 

James, duke of Chatelherault, and 2nd earl of Arran 
(d. 1575). 

James, 3rd earl of Arran 
(d. 1609). 

John, 1st marquess of Hamilton 
(d. 1604). 

James, 2nd marquess of Hamilton 
(d. 1625). 

James, 3rd marquess and ist duke of Hamilton. 
1 See S. R. Gardiner in the Diet, of Nat. Biography. 



>elieved, in accomplishing Strafford's destruction by sending 
or him to the Long Parliament. Hamilton now supported the 
>arliamentary party, desired an alliance with his nation, and 
>ersuaded Charles in February 1641 to admit some of their 
eaders into the council. On the death of Strafford Hamilton 
was confronted by a new antagonist in Montrose, who detested 
>oth his character and policy and repudiated his supremacy 
n Scotland. On the loth of August 1641 he accompanied 
!harles on his last visit to Scotland. His aim now was to effect 
an alliance between the king and Argyll, the former accepting 
Presbyterianism and receiving the help of the Scots against the 
English parliament, and when this failed he abandoned Charles 
and adhered to Argyll. In consequence he received a challenge 
rom Lord Ker, of which he gave the king information, and 
obtained from Ker an apology. Montrose wrote to Charles 
declaring he could prove Hamilton to be a traitor. The king 
limself spoke of him as being " very active in his own pre- 
servation." Shortly afterwards the plot known as the 

Incident " to seize Argyll, Hamilton and the latter's brother, 
the earl of Lanark, was discovered, and on the 1 2th of October 
they fled from Edinburgh. Hamilton returned not long after- 
wards, and notwithstanding all that had- occurred still retained 

harles's favour and confidence. He returned with him to 
London and accompanied him on the 5th of January 1642 when 
lie went to the city after the failure to secure the five members. 
In July Hamilton went to Scotland on a hopeless mission to 
prevent the intervention of the Scots in the war, and a breach 
then took place between him and Argyll. When in February 
1643 proposals of mediation between Charles and the parliament 
came from Scotland, Hamilton instigated the " cross petition " 
which demanded from Charles the surrender of the annuities 
of tithes in order to embarrass Loudoun, the chief promoter of 
the project, to whom they had already been granted. This 
failing, he promoted a scheme for overwhelming the influence 
and votes of Argyll and his party by sending to Scotland all the 
Scottish peers then with the king, thereby preventing any 
assistance to the parliament coming from that quarter, while 
Charles was to guarantee the establishment of Presbyterianism 
in Scotland only. This foolish intrigue was strongly opposed 
by Montrose, who was eager to strike a sudden blow and antici- 
pate and annihilate the plans of the Covenanters. Hamilton, 
however, gained over the queen for his project, and in September 
was made a duke, while Montrose was condemned to inaction. 
Hamilton's scheme, however, completely failed. He had no 
control over the parliament. He was unable to hinder the 
meeting of the convention of the estates which assembled without 
the king's authority, and his supporters found themselves in a 
minority. Finally, on refusing to take the Covenant, Hamilton 
and Lanark were obliged to leave Scotland. They arrived at 
Oxford on the i6th of December. Hamilton's conduct had at 
last incurred Charles's resentment and he was sent, in January 
1644, a prisoner to Pendennis Castle, in 1645 being removed to 
St Michael's Mount, where he was liberated by Fairfax's troops 
on the 23rd of April 1646. Subsequently he showed great 
activity in the futile negotiations between the Scots and Charles 
at Newcastle. In 1648, in consequence of the seizure of Charles 
by the army in 1647, Hamilton obtained a temporary influence 
and authority in the Scottish parliament over Argyll, and led 
a large force into England in support of the king on the 8th of 
July. He showed complete incapacity in military command; 
was kept in check for some time by Lambert; and though out- 
numbering the enemy by 24,000 to about 9000 men, allowed his 
troops to disperse over the country and to be defeated in detail 
by Cromwell during the three days August I7th-i9th at the 
so-called battle of Preston, being himself taken prisoner on the 

25th. He was tried on the 6th of February 1649, condemned 
to death on the 6th of March and executed on the gth. 

Hamilton, during his unfortunate career, had often been 
suspected of betraying the king's cause, and, as an heir to the 

Scottish throne, of intentionally playing into the hands of the 

Covenanters with a view of procuring the crown for himself. 
The charge was brought against him as early as 1631 when he was 



HAMILTON, JOHN HAMILTON, ROBERT 



887 



levying men in Scotland for the German expedition, but Charles 
gave no credence to it and showed his trust in Hamilton by 
causing him to share his own room. The charge, however, always 
clung to him, and his intriguing character and hopeless manage- 
ment of the king's affairs in Scotland gave colour to the accusa- 
tion. There seems, however, to be no real foundation for it. 
His career is sufficiently explained by his thoroughly weak and 
egotistical character. He took no interest whatever in the great 
questions at issue, was neither loyal nor patriotic, and only 
desired peace and compromise to avoid personal losses. " He 
was devoid of intellectual or moral strength, and was therefore 
easily brought to fancy all future tasks easy and all present 
obstacles insuperable." 1 A worse choice than Hamilton could 
not possibly have been made in such a crisis, and his want of 
principle, of firmness and resolution, brought irretrievable ruin 
upon the royal cause. 

Hamilton's three sons died young, and the dukedom passed 
by special remainder to his brother William, earl of Lanark. 
On the latter's death in 1651 the Scottish titles reverted to the 
ist duke's daughter, Anne, whose husband, William Douglas, 
was created (third) duke of Hamilton. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Article in the Diet, of Nat. Biog. by S. R. 
Gardiner; History of England and of the Civil War, by the same 
author; Memoirs of the Dukes of Hamilton, by G. Burnet; Lauder- 
dale Papers (Camden Society, 1884-1885); The Hamilton Papers, 
ed. by S. R. Gardiner (Camden Society, 1880) and addenda (Camden 
Miscellany, vol. ix., 1895); Thomason Tracts in the British Museum, 
55O (6), 1948 (30) (account of his supposed treachery), and 546 (21) 
(speech on the scaffold). (P. C. Y.) 

HAMILTON, JOHN (c. 1511-1571), Scottish prelate and 
politician, was a natural son of James Hamilton, ist earl of 
Arran. At a very early age he became a monk and abbot of 
Paisley, and after studying in Paris he returned to Scotland, 
where he soon rose to a position of power and influence under 
his half-brother, the regent Arran. He was made keeper of the 
privy seal in 1543 and bishop of Dunkeld two years later; in 
1 546 he followed David Beaton as archbishop of St Andrews, and 
about the same time he became treasurer of the kingdom. He 
made vigorous efforts to stay the growth of Protestantism, but 
with one or two exceptions " persecution was not the policy of 
Archbishop Hamilton," and in the interests of the Roman 
Catholic religion a catechism called Hamilton's Catechism 
(published with an introduction by T. G. Law in 1884) was 
drawn up and printed, possibly at his instigation. Having 
incurred the displeasure of the Protestants, now the dominant 
party in Scotland, the archbishop was imprisoned in 1563. After 
his release he was an active partisan of Mary queen of Scots; 
he baptized the infant James, afterwards King James VI., and 
pronounced the divorce of the queen from Bothwell. He was 
present at the battle of Langside, and some time later took 
refuge in Dumbarton Castle. Here he was seized, and on the 
charge of being concerned in the murders of Lord Darnley and 
the regent Murray he was tried, and hanged on the 6th of April 
1571. The archbishop had three children by his mistress, 
Grizzel Sempill. 

HAMILTON, PATRICK (1504-1528), Scottish divine, second 
son of Sir Patrick Hamilton, well known in Scottish chivalry, 
and of Catherine Stewart, daughter of Alexander, duke of Albany, 
second son of James II. of Scotland, was born in the diocese 
of Glasgow, probably at his father's estate of Stanehouse in 
Lanarkshire. He was educated probably at Linlithgo w. In 1 5 1 7 
he was appointed titular abbot of Feme, Ross-shire; and it 
was probably about the same year that he went to study at 
Paris, for his name is found in an ancient list of those who 
graduated there in 1520. It was doubtless in Paris, where 
Luther's writings were already exciting much discussion, that 
he received the germs of the doctrines he was afterwards to 
uphold. From Alexander Ales we learn that Hamilton subse- 
quently went to Louvain, attracted probably by the fame of 
Erasmus, who in 1521 had his headquarters there. Returning 
to Scotland, the young scholar naturally selected St Andrews, 
the capital of the church and of learning, as his residence. On 
1 See S. R. Gardiner in the Diet, of Nat. Biography. 



the 9th of June 1523 he became a member of the university of 
St Andrews, and on the 3rd of October 1524 he was admitted 
to its faculty of arts. There Hamilton attained such influence 
that he was permitted to conduct as precentor a musical mass 
of his own composition in the cathedral. But the reformed 
doctrines had now obtained a firm hold on the young abbot, 
and he was eager to communicate them to his fellow-country- 
men. Early in 1527 the attention of James Beaton, archbishop 
of St Andrews, was directed to the heretical preaching of the 
young priest, whereupon he ordered that Hamilton should be 
formally summoned and accused. Hamilton fled to Germany, 
first visiting Luther at Wittenberg, and afterwards enrolling 
himself as a student, under Franz Lambert of Avignon, in the 
new university of Marburg, opened on the 3Oth of May 1527 by 
Philip, landgrave of Hesse. Hermann von dem Busche, one of 
the contributors to the Epistolae obscurorum virorum, John 
Frith and Tyndale were among those whom he met there. Late 
in the autumn of 1527 Hamilton returned to Scotland, bold in 
the conviction of the truth of his principles. He went first to 
his brother's house at Kincavel, near Linlithgow, in which town 
he preached frequently, and soon afterwards he married a young 
lady of noble rank, whose name has not come down to us. 
Beaton, avoiding open violence through fear of Hamilton's high 
connexions, invited him to a conference at St Andrews. The 
reformer, predicting that he was going to confirm the pious 
in the true doctrine by his death, resolutely accepted the invita- 
tion, and for nearly a month was permitted to preach and dispute, 
perhaps in order to provide material for accusation. At length, 
however, he was summoned before a council of bishops and 
clergy presided over by the archbishop; there were thirteen 
charges, seven of which were based on the doctrines affirmed 
in the Loci communes. On examination Hamilton maintained 
that these were undoubtedly true. The council condemned 
him as a heretic on the whole thirteen charges. Hamilton was 
seized, and, it is said, Surrendered to the soldiery on an assurance 
that he would be restored to his friends without injury. The 
council convicted him, after a sham disputation with Friar 
Campbell, and handed him over to the secular power. The 
sentence was carried out on the same day (February 29, 1528) 
lest he should be rescued by his friends, and he was burned at 
the stake as a- heretic. His courageous bearing attracted more 
attention than ever to the doctrines for which he suffered, and 
greatly helped to spread the Reformation in Scotland. The 
" reek of Patrick Hamilton infected all it blew on." His 
martyrdom is singular in this respect, that he represented in 
Scotland almost alone the Lutheran stage of the Reformation. 
His only book was entitled Loci communes, known as " Patrick's 
Places." It set forth the doctrine of justification by faith and 
the contrast between the gospel and the law in a series of clear-cut 
propositions. It is to be found in Foxs's Acts and Monuments. 
HAMILTON, ROBERT (1743-1829), Scottish economist and 
mathematician, was born at Pilrig, Edinburgh, on the nth of 
June 1743. His grandfather, William Hamilton, principal of 
Edinburgh University, had been a professor of divinity. Having 
completed his education at the university of Edinburgh, where 
he was distinguished in mathematics, Robert was induced to 
enter a banking-house in order to acquire a practical knowledge 
of business, but his ambition was really academic. In 1769 he 
gave up business pursuits and accepted the rectorship of Perth 
academy. In 1779 he was presented to the chair of natural 
philosophy at Aberdeen University. For many years, however, 
by private arrangement with his colleague Professor Copland, 
Hamilton taught the class o* mathematics. In 1817 he was 
presented to the latter chair. 

T Hamilton's most important work is the Essay on the National 
Debt, which appeared in 1813 and was undoubtedly the first to 
expose the economic fallacies involved in Pitt's policy of a sinking 
fund. It is still of value. A posthumous volume published in 
1830, The Progress of Society, is also of great ability, and is a very 
effective treatment of economical principles by tracing their natural 
origin and position in the development of social life. Some minor 
works of a practical character (Introduction to Merchandise, 1777; 
Essay on War and Peace, 1790) are now forgotten. 



888 



HAMILTON T. HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM 



HAMILTON, THOMAS (1789-1842), Scottish writer, younger 
brother of the philosopher, Sir William Hamilton, Bart., was 
born in 1789. He was educated at Glasgow University, where 
he made a dose friend of Michael Scott, the author of Tom 
Cringle's Log. He entered the army in 1810, and served through- 
out the Peninsular and American campaigns, but continued to 
cultivate his literary tastes. On the conclusion of peace he 
withdrew, with the rank of captain, from active service. He 
contributed both prose and verse to Blackwood's Magazine, 
in which appeared his vigorous and popular military novel, 
Cyril Thornton (1827). His Annals of the Peninsular Campaign, 
published originally in 1829, and republished in 1849 with 
additions by Frederick Hardman, is written with great clearness 
and impartiality. His only other work, Men and Manners in 
America, published originally in 1833, is somewhat coloured by 
British prejudice, and by the author's aristocratic dislike of a 
democracy. Hamilton died at Pisa on the 7th of December 
1842. 

HAMILTON, WILLIAM (1704-1754), Scottish poet, the author 
of "The Braes of Yarrow," was born in 1 704 at Bangour in Linlith- 
gowshire, the son of James Hamilton of Bangour, a member 
of the Scottish bar. As early as 1724 we find him contributing 
to Allan Ramsay's Tea Table Miscellany. In 1745 Hamilton 
joined the cause of Prince Charles, and though it is doubtful 
whether he actually bore arms, he celebrated the battle of 
Prestonpans in verse. After the disaster of Culloden he lurked 
for several months in the Highlands and escaped to France; 
but in 1 749 the influence of his friends procured him permission 
to return to Scotland, and in the following year he obtained 
possession of the family estate of Bangour. The state of his 
health compelled him, however, to live abroad, and he died at 
Lyons on the 2Sth of March 1754. He was buried in the Abbey 
Church of Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh. He was twice married 
" into families of distinction " says the preface of the authorized 
edition of his poems. 

Hamilton left behind him a considerable number of poems, 
none of them except " The Braes of Yarrow " of striking origin- 
ality. The collection is composed of odes, epitaphs, short pieces 
of translation, songs, and occasional verses. The longest is 
"Contemplation, or the Triumph of Love" (about 500 lines). 
The first edition was published without his permission by Foulis 
(Glasgow, 1748), and introduced by a preface from the pen of 
Adam Smith. Another edition with corrections by himself was 
brought out by his friends in 1760, and to this was prefixed a 
portrait engraved by Robert Strange. 

In 1850 James Paterson edited The Poems and Songs of William 
Hamilton. This volume contains several poems till then unpublished, 
and gives a life of the author. 

HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803), British diplomatist 
and archaeologist, son of Lord Archibald Hamilton, governor 
of Greenwich hospital and of Jamaica, was born in Scotland on 
the I3th of December 1730, and served in the 3rd Regiment of 
Foot Guards from 1747 to 1758. He left the army after his 
marriage with Miss Barlow, a Welsh heiress from whom he 
inherited an estate near Swansea upon her death in 1782. Their 
only child, a daughter, died in 1775. From 1761 to 1764 he 
was member of parliament for Midhurst, but in the latter year 
he was appointed envoy to the court of Naples, a post which he 
held for thirty-six years until his recall in 1800. During the 
greater part of this time the official duties of the minister were 
of small importance. It was enough that the representative 
of the British crown should be a man of the world whose means 
enabled him to entertain on a handsome scale. Hamilton was 
admirably qualified for these duties, being an amiable and 
accomplished man, who took an intelligent interest in science 
and art. In 1766 he became a member of the Royal Society, 
and between that year and 1780 he contributed to its Philo- 
sophical Transactions a series of observations on the action of 
volcanoes, which he had made, or caused to be made, at Vesuvius 
and Etna. He employed a draftsman named Fabris to make 
studies of the eruption of 1775 and 1776, and a Dominican, 
Resina, to make observations at a later period. He published 



several treatises on earthquakes and volcanoes between 1776 
and 1783. He was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries and 
of the Dilettanti, and a notable collector. Many of his treasures 
went to enrich the British Museum. In 1772 he was made a 
knight of the Bath. The last ten years of his life presented a 
curious contrast to the elegant peace of those which had preceded 
them. In 1791 he married Emma Lyon (see the separate article 
on Lady Hamilton). The outbreak of the French Revolution 
and the rapid extension of the revolutionary movement in 
Western Europe soon overwhelmed Naples. It was a misfortune 
for Sir William that he was left to meet the very trying political 
and diplomatic conditions which arose after 1793. His health 
had begun to break down, and he suffered from bilious fevers. 
Sir William was in fact in a state approaching dotage before 
his recall, a fact which, combined with his senile devotion to 
Lady Hamilton, has to be considered in accounting for his 
extraordinary complaisance in her relations with Nelson. He 
died on the 6th of April 1803. 

See E. Edwards, Lives of the Founders of the British Museum 
(London, 1870); and the authorities given in the article on Emma, 
Lady Hamilton. 

HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM, Bart. (1788-1856), Scottish meta- 
physician, was born in Glasgow on the 8th of March 1788. His 
father, Dr William Hamilton, had in 1781, on the strong recom- 
mendation of the celebrated William Hunter, been appointed 
to succeed his father, Dr Thomas Hamilton, as professor of 
anatomy in the university of Glasgow; and when he died in 
1790, in his thirty-second year, he had already gained a great 
reputation. [William Hamilton and a younger brother (after- 
wards Captain Thomas Hamilton, q.v.) were thus brought up 
under the sole care of their mother. William received his early 
education in Scotland, except during two years which he spent 
in a private school near London, and went in 1807, as a Snell 
exhibitioner, to Balliol College, Oxford. He obtained a first- 
class in literis humanioribus and took the degree of B.A. in 1811, 
M.A. in 1814. He had been intended for the medical profession, 
but soon after leaving Oxford he gave up this idea, and in 1813 
became a member of the Scottish bar. His life, however, was 
mainly that of a student; and the following years, marked by 
little of outward incident, were filled by researches of all kinds, 
through which he daily added to his stores of learning, while 
at the same time he was gradually forming his philosophic 
system. Investigation enabled him to make good his claim to 
represent the ancient family of Hamilton of Preston, and in 1816 
he took up the baronetcy, which had been in abeyance since the 
death of Sir Robert Hamilton of Preston (1650-1701), well known 
in his day as a Covenanting leader. 

Two visits to Germany in 1817 and 1820 led to his taking up 
the study of German and later on that of contemporary German 
philosophy, which was then almost entirely neglected in the 
British universities. In 1820 he was a candidate for the chair of 
moral philosophy in the university of Edinburgh, which had 
fallen vacant on the death of Thomas Brown, colleague of 
Dugald Stewart, and the latter's consequent resignation, but 
was defeated on political grounds by John Wilson (1785-1854), 
the " Christopher North " of Blackwood's Magazine. Soon 
afterwards (1821) he was appointed professor of civil history, 
and as such delivered several courses of lectures on the history 
of modern Europe and the history of literature. The salary 
was 100 a year, derived from a local beer tax, and was dis- 
continued after a time. No pupils were compelled to attend, 
the class dwindled, and Hamilton gave it up when the salary 
ceased. In January 1827 he suffered a severe loss in the death 
of his mother, to whom he had been a devoted son. In March 
1828 he married his cousin Janet Marshall. 

In 1829 his career of authorship began with the appearance of 
the well-known essay on the " Philosophy of the Unconditioned " 
(a critique of Comte's Cours de philosophic) the first of a series 
of articles contributed by him to the Edinburgh Review. He was 
elected in 1836 to the Edinburgh chair of logic and metaphysics, 
and from this time dates the influence which, during the next 
twenty years, he exerted over the thought of the younger 



HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM 



generation in Scotland. Much about the same time he began 
the preparation of an annotated edition of Reid's works, intending 
to annex to it a number of dissertations. Before, however, this 
design had been carried out, he was struck (1844) with paralysis 
of the right side, which seriously crippled his bodily powers, 
though it left his mind wholly unimpaired. The edition of Reid 
appeared in 1846, but with only seven of the intended disserta- 
tions the last, too, unfinished. It was his distinct purpose to 
complete the work, but this purpose remained at his death 
unfulfilled, and all that could be done afterwards was to print 
such materials for the remainder, or such notes on the subjects 
to be discussed, as were found among his MSS. Considerably 
before this time he had formed his theory of logic, the leading 
principles of which were indicated in the prospectus of " an essay 
on a new analytic of logical forms " prefixed to his edition of 
Reid. But the elaboration of the scheme in its details and 
applications continued during the next few years to occupy 
much of his leisure. Out of this arose a sharp controversy with 
Augustus de Morgan. The essay did not appear, but the results 
of the labour gone through are contained in the appendices to 
his Lectures on Logic. Another occupation of these years was 
the preparation of extensive materials for a publication which he 
designed on the personal history, influence and opinions of 
Luther. Here he advanced so far as to have planned and partly 
carried out the arrangement of the work; but it did not go 
further, and still remains in MS. In 1852-1853 appeared the 
first and second editions of his Discussions in Philosophy, 
Literature and Education, a reprint, with large additions, of his 
contributions to the Edinburgh Review. Soon after, his general 
health began to fail. Still, however, aided now as ever by his 
devoted wife, he persevered in literary labour; and during 1854- 
1855 he brought out nine volumes of a new edition of Stewart's 
works. The only remaining volume was to have contained a 
memoir of Stewart, but this he did not live to write. He taught 
his class for the last time in the winter of 1855-1856. Shortly 
after the close of the session he was taken ill, and on the 6th of 
May 1856 he died in Edinburgh. 

Hamilton's positive contribution to the progress of thought is 
comparatively slight, and his writings, even where reinforced by the 
copious lecture notes taken by his pupils, cannot be said to present 
a comprehensive philosophic system. None the less he did consider- 
able service by stimulating a spirit of criticism in his pupils, by insist- 
ing on the great importance of psychology as opposed to the older 
metaphysical method, and not least by his recognition of the import- 
ance of German philosophy, especially that of Kant. By far his most 
important work was his "Philosophy of the Unconditioned," the 
development of the principle that for the human finite mind there 
can be no knowledge of the Infinite. The basis of his whole argu- 
ment is the thesis, " To think is to condition." Deeply impressed 
with Kant's antithesis between subject and object, the knowing and 
the known, Hamilton laid down the principle that every object is 
known only in virtue of its relations to other objects (see RELATIVITY 
OF KNOWLEDGE). From this it follows limitless time, space, power 
and so forth are humanly speaking inconceivable. The fact, how- 
ever, that all thought seems to demand the idea of the infinite or 
absolute provides a sphere for faith, which is thus the specific faculty 
of theology. It is a weakness characteristic of the human mind that 
it cannot conceive any phenomenon without a beginning: hence 
the conception of the causal relation, according to which every 
phenomenon has its cause in preceding phenomena, and its effect in 
subsequent phenomena. The causal concept is, therefore, only one 
of the ordinary necessary forms of the cognitive consciousness 
limited, as we have seen, by being confined to that which is relative 
or conditioned. As regards the problem of the nature of objectivity, 
Hamilton simply accepts the evidence of consciousness as to the 
separate existence of the object: " the root of our nature cannot 
be a lie." In virtue of this assumption Hamilton's philosophy 
becomes a " natural realism." In fact his whole position is a strange 
compound of Kant and Reid. Its chief practical corollary is the 
denial of philosophy as a method of attaining absolute knowledge 
and its relegation to the academic sphere of mental training. The 
transition from philosophy to theology, i.e. to the sphere of faith, 
is presented by Hamilton under the analogous relation between the 
mind and the body. As the mind is to the body, so is the uncon- 
ditioned Absolute or God to the world of the conditioned. Conscious- 
ness, itself a conditioned phenomenon, must derive from or depend 
on some different thing prior to or behind material phenomena. 
Curiously enough, however, Hamilton does not explain how it comes 
about that God, who in the terms of the analogy bears to the con- 
ditioned mind the relation which the conditioned mind bears to its 



objects, can Himself be unconditioned. He can be regarded only 
as related to consciousness, and in so far is, therefore, not absolute 
or unconditioned. Thus the very principles of Hamilton's philo- 
sophy are apparently violated in his theological argument. 

Hamilton regarded logic as a purely formal science; it seemed 
to him an unscientific mixing together of heterogeneous elements 
to treat as parts of the same science the formal and the material 
conditions of knowledge. He was quite ready to allow that on this 
view logic cannot be used as a means of discovering or guaranteeing 
facts, even the most general, and expressly asserted that it has to do, 
not with the objective validity, but only with the mutual relations, 
of judgments. He further held that induction and deduction are 
correlative processes of formal logic, each resting on the necessities 
of thought and deriving thence its several laws. The only logical 
laws which he recognized were the three axioms of identity, non- 
contradiction, and excluded middle, which he regarded as severally 
phases of one general condition of the possibility of existence and, 
therefore, of thought. The law of reason and consequent he con- 
sidered not as different, but merely as expressing metaphysically 
what these express logically. He added as a postulate which in 
his theory was of importance; " that logic be allowed to state 
explicitly what is thought implicitly." 

In logic, Hamilton is known chiefly as the inventor of the doctrine 
of the " quantification of the predicate," i.e. that the judgment 
" All A is B " should really mean " All A is all B," whereas the 
ordinary universal proposition should be stated " All A is some B." 
This view, which was supported by Stanley Jevons, is fundamentally 
at fault since it implies that the predicate is thought of in its ex- 
tension; in point of fact when a judgment is made, e.g. about men, 
that they are mortal (" All men are mortal "), the intention is to 
attribute a quality (i.e. the predicate is used in connotation). In other 
words, we are not considering the question " what kind are men 
among the various things which must die?" (as is implied in the 
form " all men are some mortals ") but " what is the fact about 
men?" We are not stating a mere identity (see further, e.g., 
H. W. B. Joseph, Introduction to Logic, 1906, pp. 198 foil.). 

The philosopher to whom above all others Hamilton professed 
allegiance was Aristotle. His works were the object of his profound 
and constant study, and supplied in fact the mould in which his 
whole philosophy was cast. With the commentators on the Aris- 
totelian writings, [ancient, medieval and modern, he was also 
familiar; and the scholastic philosophy he studied with care and 
appreciation at a time when it had hardly yet begun to attract 
attention in his country. His wide reading enabled him to trace 
many a doctrine to the writings of forgotten thinkers; and nothing 
gave him greater pleasure than to draw forth such from their ob- 
scurity, and to give due acknowledgment, even if it chanced to be 
of the prior possession of a view or argument that he had thought 
put for himself. Of modern German philosophy he was a diligent, 
if not always a sympathetic, student. How profoundly his thinking 
was modified by that of Kant is evident from the tenor of his specu- 
lations; nor was this less the case because, on fundamental points, 
he came to widely different conclusions. 

Any account of Hamilton would be incomplete which regarded 
him only as a philosopher, for his knowledge and his interests em- 
braced all subjects related to that of the human mind. Physical 
and mathematical science had, indeed, jio attraction for him; but 
his study of anatomy and physiology was minute and experimental. 
In literature alike ancient and modern he was widely and deeply 
read; and, from his unusual powers of memory, the stores which he 
had acquired were always at command. If there was one period 
with the literature of which he was more particularly familiar, it 
was the l6th and i?th centuries. Here in every department he was 
at home. He had gathered a vast amount of its theological lore, had 
a critical knowledge especially of its Latin poetry, and was minutely 
acquainted with the history of the actors in its varied scenes, not 
only as narrated in professed records, but as revealed in the letters, 
table-talk, and casual effusions of themselves or their contemporaries 
(cf. his article on the Epistolae obscurorum virorum, and his pam- 
phlet on the Disruption of the Church of Scotland in 1843). Among 
his literary projects were editions of the works of George Buchanan 
and Julius Caesar Scaliger. His general scholarship found expression 
in his library, which, though mainly, was far from being exclusively, 
a philosophical collection. It now forms a distinct portion of the 
library of the university of Glasgow. 

His chief practical interest was in education an interest which he 
manifested alike as a teacher and as a writer, and which had led him 
long before he was either to a study of the subject both theoretical 
and historical. He thence adopted views as to the ends and methods 
of education that, when afterwards carried out or advocated by him, 
met with general recognition; but he also expressed in one of his 
articles an unfavourable view of the study of mathematics as a 
mental gymnastic, which excited much opposition, but which he 
never saw reason to alter. As a teacher, he was zealous and 
successful, and his writings on university organization and reform 
had, at the time of their appearance, a decisive practical effect, and 
contain much that is of permanent value. 

His posthumous works are his Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic, 4 
vols., edited by H. L. Mansel, Oxford, and John Veitch (Metaphysics, 



8 9 o HAMILTON, W. G. HAMILTON, SIR W. ROWAN 



1858; Logic, 1860); and Additional Notes to Reid's Works, from Sir 
W. Hamilton's MSS., under the editorship of H. L. Mansel, D.D. 
(1862). A Memoir of Sir W. Hamilton, oy Veitch, appeared in 
1869. 

HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD (1729-1796), English 
statesman, popularly known as " Single Speech Hamilton," was 
born in London on the 28th of January 1729, the son of a Scottish 
bencher of Lincoln's Inn. He was educated at Winchester and 
at Oriel College, Oxford. Inheriting his father's fortune he 
entered political life and became M.P. for Petersfield, Hampshire. 
His maiden speech, delivered on the I3th of November 1755, 
during the debate on the address, which excited Walpole's 
admiration, is generally supposed to have been his only effort 
in the House of Commons. But the nickname " Single Speech " 
is undoubtedly misleading, and Hamilton is known to have 
spoken with success on other occasions, both in the House of 
Commons and in the Irish parliament. In 1 7 56 he was appointed 
one of the commissioners for trade and plantations, and in 1761 
he became chief secretary to Lord Halifax, the lord-lieutenant 
of Ireland, as well as Irish M. P. for Killebegs and English M. P. 
for Pontefract. He was chancellor of the exchequer in Ireland 
in 1763, and subsequently filled various other administrative 
offices. Hamilton was thought very highly of by Dr Johnson, 
and it is certain that he was strongly opposed to the British 
taxation of America. He died in London on the i6th of July 
1796, and was buried in the chancel vault of St Martin's-in-the- 
fields. 

Two of his speeches in the Irish House of Commons, and some other 
miscellaneous works, were published after his death under the title 
Parliamentary Logick. 

HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN (1805-1865), Scottish 
mathematician, was born in Dublin on the 4th of August 1805. 
His father, Archibald Hamilton, who was a solicitor, and his 
uncle, James ^Hamilton (curate of Trim), migrated from Scotland 
in youth. A branch of the Scottish family to which they belonged 
had settled in the north of Ireland in the time of James I., and 
this fact seems to have given rise to the common impression that 
Hamilton was an Irishman. 

I His genius first displayed itself in the form of a wonderful 
power of acquiring languages. At the age of seven he had 
already made very considerable progress in Hebrew, and before 
he was thirteen he had acquired, under the care of his uncle, 
who was an extraordinary linguist, almost as many languages 
as he had years of age. Among these, besides the classical and 
the modern European languages, were included Persian, Arabic, 
Hindustani, Sanskrit and even Malay. But though to the very 
end of his life he retained much of the singular learning of his 
childhood and youth, often reading Persian and Arabic in the 
intervals of sterner pursuits, he had long abandoned them as a 
study, and employed them merely as a relaxation. 

His mathematical studies seem to have been undertaken and 
carried to their full development without any assistance what- 
ever, and the result is that his writings belong to no particular 
" school," unless indeed we consider them to form ? as they are 
well entitled to do, a school by themselves. As an arithmetical 
calculator he was not only wonderfully expert, but he seems to 
have occasionally found a positive delight in working out to an 
enormous number of places of decimals the result of some irksome 
calculation. At the age of twelve he engaged Zerah Colburn, 
the American " calculating boy," who was then being exhibited 
as a curiosity in Dublin, and he had not always the worst of the 
encounter. But, two years before, he had accidentally fallen 
in with a Latin copy of Euclid, which he eagerly devoured; 
and at twelve he attacked Newton's Arithmetica universalis. 
This was his introduction to modern analysis. He soon com- 
menced to read the Principia, and at sixteen he had mastered 
a great part of that work, besides some more modern works on 
analytical geometry and the differential calculus. 

About this period he was also engaged in preparation for 
entrance at Trinity College, Dublin, and had therefore to devote 
a portion of his time to classics. In the summer of 1822, in his 
seventeenth year, he began a systematic study of Laplace's 



Mecanique Celeste. Nothing could be better fitted to call forth 
such mathematical powers as those of Hamilton; for Laplace's 
great work, rich to profusion in analytical processes alike novel 
and powerful, demands from the most gifted student careful 
and often laborious study. It was in the successful effort to 
open this treasure-house that Hamilton's mind received its 
final temper, " Des-lors il commenca a marcher seul," to use 
the words of the biographer of another great mathematician. 
From that time he appears to have devoted himself almost 
wholly to original investigation (so far at least as regards mathe- 
matics), though he ever kept himself well acquainted with the 
progress of science both in Britain and abroad. 

Having detected an important defect in one of Laplace's 
demonstrations, he was induced by a friend to write out his 
remarks, that they might be shown to Dr John Brinkley (1763- 
1835), afterwards bishop of Cloyne, but who was then the first 
royal astronomer for Ireland, and an accomplished mathe- 
matician. Brinkley seems at once to have perceived the vast 
talents of young Hamilton, and to have encouraged him in the 
kindest manner. He is said to have remarked in 1823 of this lad 
of eighteen: " This young man, I do not say will be, but is, the 
first mathematician of his age." 

Hamilton's career at College was perhaps unexampled. 
Amongst a number of competitors of more than ordinary merit, 
he was first in every subject and at every examination. He 
achieved the rare distinction of obtaining an optime for both 
Greek and for physics. How many more such honours he might 
have attained it is impossible to say; but he was expected to 
win both the gold medals at the degree examination, had his 
career as a student not been cut short by an unprecedented 
event. This was his appointment to the Andrews professorship 
of astronomy in the university of Dublin, vacated by Dr Brinkley 
in 1827. The chair was not exactly offered to him, as has been 
sometimes asserted, but the electors, having met and talked over 
the subject, authorized one of their number, who was Hamilton's 
personal friend, to urge him to become a candidate, a step which 
his modesty had prevented him from taking. Thus, when barely 
twenty-two, he was established at the Observatory, Dunsink, 
near Dublin. He was not specially fitted for the post, for 
although he had a profound acquaintance with theoretical 
astronomy, he had paid but little attention to the regular work 
of the practical astronomer. And it must be said that his time 
was better employed in original investigations than it would 
have been had he spent it in observations made even with the 
best of instruments, infinitely better than if he had spent it on 
those of the observatory, which, however good originally, were 
then totally unfit for the delicate requirements of modern 
astronomy. Indeed there can be little doubt that Hamilton 
was intended by the university authorities who elected 
him to the professorship of astronomy to spend his time 
as he best could for the advancement of science, without being 
tied down to any particular branch. Had he devoted himself 
to practical astronomy they would assuredly have furnished him 
with modern instruments and an adequate staff of assistants. 

In 1835 , being secretary to the meeting of the British Associa- 
tion which was held that year in Dublin, he was knighted by the 
lord-lieutenant. But far higher honours rapidly succeeded, 
among which we may merely mention his election in 1837 to 
the president's chair in the Royal Irish Academy, and the rare 
distinction of being made corresponding member of the academy 
of St Petersburg. These are the few salient points (other, of 
course, than the epochs of his more important discoveries and 
inventions presently to be considered) in the uneventful life of 
this great man. He retained his wonderful faculties unimpaired 
to the very last, and steadily continued till within a day or two of 
his death, which occurred on the 2nd of September 1865, the 
task (his Elements of Quaternions) which had occupied the last 
six years of his life. 

The germ of his first great discovery was contained in one of those 
early papers which in 1823 he communicated to Dr Brinkley, by 
whom, under the title of " Caustics," it was presented in 1824 to the 
Royal Irish Academy. It was referred as usual to a committee. 
Their report, while acknowledging the novelty and value of its 



HAMILTON 



891 



contents, and the great mathematical skill of its author, recommended 
that, before being published, it should be still further developed and 
simplified. During the next three years the paper grew to an 
immense bulk, principally by the additional details which had been 
inserted at the desire of the committee. But it also assumed a much 
more intelligible form, and the grand features of the new method 
were now easily to be seen. Hamilton himself seems not till this 
period to have fully understood either the nature or the importance 
of his discovery, for it is only now that we find him announcing his 
intention of applying his method to dynamics. The paper was 
finally entitled Theory of Systems of Rays," and the first part was 
printed in 1828 in the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy. 
It is understood that the more important contents of the second 
and third parts appeared in the three voluminous supplements (to 
the first part) which were published in the same Transactions, and in 
the two papers " On a General Method in Dynamics," which ap- 
peared in the Philosophical Transactions in 1 834-1 835. The principle 
of " Varying Action " is the great feature of these papers; and it is 
strange, indeed, that the one particular result of this theory which, 
perhaps more than anything else that Hamilton has done, has 
rendered his name known beyond the little world of true philosophers, 
should have been easily within the reach of Augustin Fresnel and 
others for many years before, and in no way required Hamilton's 
new conceptions or methods, although it was by them that he was 
led to its discovery. This singular result is still known by the name 
" conical refraction," which he proposed for it when he first pre- 
.dicted its existence in the third supplement to his " Systems of 
Rays," read in 1832. 

The step from optics to dynamics in the application of the method 
of " Varying Action " was made in 1827, and communicated to 
the Royal Society, in whose Philosophical Transactions for 1834 
and 1835 there are two papers on the subject. These display, like 
the " Systems of Rays," a mastery over symbols and a flow of mathe- 
matical language almost unequalled. But they contain what is far 
more valuable still, the greatest addition which dynamical science 
had received since the grand strides made by Sir Isaac Newton and 
Joseph Louis Lagrange. C. G. J. Jacobi and other mathematicians 
have developed to a great extent, and as a question of pure mathe- 
matics only, Hamilton's processes, and have thus made extensive 
additions to our knowledge of differential equations. But there can 
be little doubt that we have as yet obtained only a mere glimpse 
of the vast physical results of which they contain the germ. And 
though this is of course by far the more valuable aspect in which 
any such contribution to science can be looked at, the other must 
not be despised. It is characteristic of most of Hamilton's, as of 
nearly all great discoveries, that even their indirect consequences are 
of high value. 

The other great contribution made by Hamilton to mathematical 
science, the invention of Quaternions, is treated under that heading. 
The following characteristic extract from a letter shows Hamilton s 
own opinion of his mathematical work, and also gives a hint of the 
devices which he employed to render written language as expressive 
as actual speech. His first great work, Lectures on Quaternions 
(Dublin, 1852), is almost painful to read in consequence of the 
frequent use of italics and capitals. 

" I hope that it may not be considered as unpardonable vanity 
or presumption on my part, if, as my own taste has always led me 
to feel a greater interest in methods than in results, so it is by 
METHODS, rather than by any THEOREMS, which can be separately 
quoted, that I desire and hope to be remembered. Nevertheless it 
is only human nature, to derive some pleasure from being cited, now 
and then, even about a ' Theorem ; especially where . . . the 
quoter can enrich the subject, by combining it with researches of 
his own." 

The discoveries, papers and treatises we have mentioned might 
well have formed the whole work of a long and laborious life. But 
not to speak of his enormous collection of MS. books, full to over- 
flowing with new and original matter, which have been handed over 
to Trinity College, Dublin, the works we have already called atten- 
tion to barely form the greater portion of what he has published. 
His extraordinary investigations connected with the solution of 
algebraic equations of the fifth degree, and his examination of the 
results arrived at by N. H. Abel, G. B. Jerrard, and others in their 
researches on this subject, form another grand contribution to 
science. There is next his great paper on Fluctuating Functions, 
a subject which, since the time of J. Fourier, has been of immense 
and ever increasing value in physical applications of mathematics. 
There is also the extremely ingenious invention of the hodograph. 
Of his extensive investigations into the solution (especially by 
numerical approximation) of certain classes of differential equations 
which constantly occur in the treatment of physical questions, only 
a few items have been published, at intervals, in the Philosophical 
Magazine. Besides all this, Hamilton was a voluminous corre- 
spondent. Often a single letter of his occupied from fifty to a 
hundred or more closely written pages, all devoted to the minute 
consideration of every feature of some particular problem; for it 
was one of the peculiar characteristics of his mind never to be 
satisfied with a general understanding of a question; he pursued it 
until he knew it in all its details. He was ever courteous and kind 
in answering applications for assistance in the study of his works, 



even when his compliance must have cost him much time. He 
was excessively precise and hard to please with reference to the 
final polish of his own works for publication; and it was probably 
for this reason that he published so little compared with the extent 
of his investigations. 

_ Like most men of great originality, Hamilton generally matured 
his ideas before putting pen to paper. " He used to carry on," says 
his elder son, William Edwin Hamilton, " long trains of algebraical 
and arithmetical calculations in his mind, during which he was 
unconscious of the earthly necessity of eating; we used to bring in a 
' snack ' and leave it in his study, but a brief nod of recognition of 
the intrusion of the chop or cutlet was often the only result, and 
his thoughts went on soaring upwards." 

_For further details about Hamilton (his poetry and his association 
with poets, for instance) the reader is referred to the Dublin Univer- 
sity Magazine (Jan. 1842), the Gentleman's Magazine (Jan. 1866), 
and the Monthly Notices of the Royal A stronomical Society (Feb. 1 866) ; 
and also to an article by the present writer in the North British 
Review (Sept. 1866), from which much of the above sketch has been 
taken. His works have been collected and published by R. P. 
Graves, Life of Sir W. R. Hamilton (3 vols.,.i882, 1885, 1889). 

(P. G. T.) 

HAMILTON, a town of Dundas and Normanby counties, 
Victoria, Australia, on the Grange Burne Creek, 1975 m. by 
rail W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 4026. Hamilton has a 
number of educational institutions, chief among which are the 
Hamilton and Western District College, one of the finest buildings 
of its kind in Victoria, the Hamilton Academy, and the Alexandra 
ladies' college, a state school, and a Catholic college. It has 
a fine racecourse, and pastoral and agricultural exhibitions are 
held annually, as the surrounding district is mainly devoted to 
sheep-farming. Mutton is frozen and exported. Hamilton 
became a borough in 1859. 

HAMILTON (GRAND or ASHUANIPI), the chief river of 
Labrador, Canada. It rises in the Labrador highlands at an 
elevation of 1700 ft., its chief sources being Lakes Attikonak and 
Ashuanipi, between 65 and 66 W. and 52 and 53 N. After 
a precipitous course of 600 m. it empties into Melville Lake 
(90 m. long and 18 wide), an extension of Hamilton inlet, on the 
Atlantic. About 220 m. from its mouth occur the Grand Falls 
of Labrador. Here in a distance of 1 2 m. the river drops 760 ft., 
culminating in a final vertical fall of 316 ft. Below the falls are 
violent rapids, and the river sweeps through a deep and narrow 
canyon. The country through which it passes is for the most 
part a wilderness of barren rock, full of lakes and lacustrine 
rivers, many of which are its tributaries. In certain portions of 
the valley spruce and poplars grow to a moderate size. From 
the head of Lake Attikonak a steep and rocky portage of less 
than a mile leads to Burnt Lake, which is drained into the 
St Lawrence by the Romaine river. 

HAMILTON, one of the chief cities of Canada, capital of 
Wentworth county, Ontario. It occupies a highly picturesque 
situation upon the shore of a spacious land-locked bay at the 
western end of Lake Ontario. It covers the plain stretching 
between the water-front and the escarpment (called " The 
Mountain "), this latter being a continuation of that over which 
the Falls of Niagara plunge 40 m. to the west. Founded about 
1778 by one Robert Land, the growth of Hamilton has been 
steady and substantial, and, owing to its remarkable industrial 
development, it has come to be called " the Birmingham of 
Canada." This development is largely due to the use of electrical 
energy generated by water-power, in regard to which Hamilton 
stands first among Canadian cities. The electricity has not, 
however, been obtained from Niagara Falls, but from De Cew 
Falls, 35 m. S.E. of the city. The entire electrical railway system, 
the lighting of the city, and the majority of the factories are 
operated by power obtained from this source. The manufactur- 
ing interests of Hamilton are varied, and some of the establish- 
ments are of vast size, employing many thousands of hands each, 
such as the International Harvester Co. and the Canadian 
Westinghouse Co. In addition Hamilton is the centre of one of 
the finest fruit-growing districts on the continent, and its open- 
air market is a remarkable sight. The municipal matters are 
managed by a mayor and board of aldermen. Six steam rail- 
roads and three electric radial roads afford Hamilton ample facili- 
ties for transport by land, while during the season of navigation 



8 9 2 



HAMILTON HAMIRPUR 



a number of steamboat lines supply daily services to Toronto 
and other lake ports. Entrance into the broad bay is obtained 
through a short canal intersecting Burlington Beach, which is 
crossed by two swing bridges, whereof one that of the Grand 
Trunk railway is among the largest of its kind in the world. 
Burlington Beach is lined with cottages occupied by the city 
residents during the hot summer months. Hamilton is rich in 
public institutions. The educational equipment comprises a 
normal college, collegiate institute, model school and more than 
a score of public schools, for the most part housed in handsome 
stone and brick buildings. There are four hospitals, and the 
asylum for the insane is the largest in Canada. There is an 
excellent public library, and in the same building with it a good 
art school. Hamilton boasts of a number of parks, Dundurn 
Castle Park, containing several interesting relics of the war of 
1812, being the finest, and, as it is practically within the city 
limits, it is a great boon to the people. Gore Park, in the centre 
of the city, is used for concerts, given by various bands, one of 
which has gained an international reputation. Since its incor- 
poration in 1833 the history of Hamilton has shown continuous 
growth. In 1836 the population was 2846; in 1851, 10,248; 
in 1861, 19,096; in 1871, 26,880; in 1881, 36,661; in 1891, 
48,959; and in 1901, 52,634. The Anglican bishop of Niagara 
has his seat here, and also a Roman Catholic bishop. Hamilton 
returns two members to the Provincial parliament and two to 
the Dominion. 

HAMILTON, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, 
Scotland. Pop. (1891), 24,859; (1901), 32,775. It is situated 
about i m. from the junction of the Avon with the Clyde, zoj m. 
S.E. of Glasgow by road, and has stations on the Caledonian and 
North British railways. The town hall in the Scottish Baronial 
style has a clock-tower 130 ft. high, and the county buildings 
are in the Grecian style. Among the subjects of antiquarian 
interest are Queenzie Neuk, the spot where Queen Mary rested 
on her journey to Langside, the old steeple and pillory built 
in the reign of Charles I., the Mote Hill, the old Runic cross, 
and the carved gateway in the palace park. In the churchyard 
there is a monument to four covenanters who suffered at Edin- 
burgh, on the 7th of December 1600, whose heads were buried 
here. Among the industries are manufactures of cotton, lace 
and embroidered muslins, and carriage-building, and there are 
also large market gardens, the district being famed especially 
for its apples, and some dairy-farming; but the prosperity of 
the town depends chiefly upon the coal and ironstone of the 
surrounding country, which is the richest mineral field in Scot- 
land. Hamilton originated in the isth century under the 
protecting influence of the lords of Hamilton, and became a 
burgh of barony in 1456 and a royal burgh in 1548. The latter 
rights were afterwards surrendered and it was made the chief 
burgh of the regality and dukedom of Hamilton in 1668, the third 
marquess having been created duke in 1643. It unites with 
Airdrie, Falkirk, Lanark and Linlithgow to form the Falkirk 
district of burghs, which returns one member to parliament. 

Immediately east of the town is Hamilton palace, the seat of the 
duke of Hamilton and Brandon, premier peer of Scotland. It 
occupies most of the site of the original burgh of Netherton. The 
first mansion was erected at the end of the i6th century and rebuilt 
about 1710, to be succeeded in 1822-1829 by the present palace, 
a magnificent building in the classical style. Its front is a specimen 
of the enriched Corinthian architecture, with a projecting pillared 
portico after the style of the temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome, 
264 ft. in length and 60 ft. in height. Each of the twelve pillars of 
the portico is a single block of stone, quarried at Dalserf, midway 
between Hamilton and Lanark, and required thirty horses to draw 
it to its site. The interior is richly decorated and once contained 
the finest collection of paintings in Scotland, but most of them, 
together with the Hamilton and Beckford libraries, were sold in 
1882. Within the grounds, which comprise nearly 1500 acres, is the 
mausoleum erected by the loth duke, a structure resembling in 
general design that of the emperor Hadrian at Rome, being a circular 
building springing from a square basement, and enclosing a decorated 
octagonal chapel, the door of which is a copy in bronze of Ghiberti's 
gates at Florence. At Barncluith, I m. S.E. of the town, may be 
seen the Dutch gardens which were laid down in terraces on the 
steep banks of the Avon. Their quaint shrubbery and old-fashioned 
setting render them attractive. They were planned in 1583 by 



John Hamilton, an ancestor of Lord Belhaven, and now belong to 
Lord Ruthven. About 2 m. S.E. of Hamilton, within the western 
High Park, on the summit of a precipitous rock 200 ft. in height, 
the foot of which is washed by the Avon, stand the ruins of Cadzow 
Castle, the subject of a spirited ballad by Sir Walter Scott. The 
castle had been a royal residence for at least two centuries before 
Bannockburn (1314), but immediately after the battle Robert Bruce 
granted it to Sir Walter FitzGilbert Hamilton, the son of the founder 
of the family, in return for the fealty. Near it is the noble chase 
with its ancient oaks, the remains of the Caledonian Forest, where 
are still preserved some of the aboriginal breed of wild cattle. 
Opposite Cadzow Castle, in the eastern High Park, on the right bank 
of the Avon, is Chatelherault, consisting of stables and offices, and 
imitating in outline the palace of that name in France. 

HAMILTON, a village of Madison county, New York, U.S.A., 
about 29 m. S.W. of Utica. Pop. (1890), 1744; (1900), 1627; 
(1905)1522; (1910) 1689. It is served by the New York, Ontario 
& Western railway. Hamilton is situated in a productive 
agricultural region, and has a large trade in hops; among its 
manufactures are canned vegetables, lumber and knit goods, 
There are several valuable stone quarries in the vicinity. The 
village owns and operates its water-supply and electric-lighting 
system. Hamilton is the seat of Colgate University, which was 
founded in 1819, under the name of the Hamilton Literary and 
Theological Institution, as a training school for the Baptist 
ministry, was chartered as Madison University in 1846, and 
was renamed in 1890 in honour of the Colgate family, several 
of whom, especially William (1783-1857), the soap manu- 
facturer, and his sons, James Boorman (1818-1904), and Samuel 
(1822-1897), were its liberal benefactors. In 1908-1909 it had 
a university faculty of 33 members, 307 students in the college, 
60 in the theological department, and 134 in the preparatory 
department, and a library of 54,000 volumes, including the 
Baptist Historical collection (about 5000 vols.) given by Samuel 
Colgate. The township in which the village is situated and 
which bears the same name (pop. in 1910, 3825) was settled 
about 1790 and was separated from the township of Paris in 
1795. The village was incorporated in 1812. 

HAMILTON, a city and the county-seat of Butler county, 
Ohio, U.S.A., on both sides of the Great Miami river, 25 m. N. 
of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890), 17,565; (1900), 23,914, of whom 
2949 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 35,279. It is served 
by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and the Pittsburg, 
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and by interurban 
electric lines connecting with Cincinnati, Dayton and Toledo. 
The valley in which Hamilton is situated is noted for its fertility. 
The city has a fine public square and the Lane free library (1866) ; 
the court house is its most prominent public building. A 
hydraulic canal provides the city with good water power, and 
in 1905, in the value of its factory products ($13,992,574, 
being 31-3% more than in 1900), Hamilton ranked tenth among 
the cities of the state. Its most distinctive manufactures are 
paper and wood pulp; more valuable are foundry and machine 
shop products; other manufactures are safes, malt liquors, 
flour, woollens, Corliss engines, carriages and wagons and 
agricultural implements. The municipality owns and operates 
the water-works, electric-lighting plant and gas plant. A 
stockade fort was built here in 1791 by General Arthur Saint 
Clair, but it was abandoned in 1796, two years after the place 
had been laid out as a town and named Fairfield. The town 
was renamed, in honour of Alexander Hamilton, about 1796. 
In 1803 Hamilton was made the county-seat; in 1810 it was 
incorporated as a village; in 1854 it annexed the town of 
Rossville on the opposite side of the river; and in 1857 it was 
made a city. In 1908, by the annexation of suburbs, the area 
and the population of Hamilton were considerably increased. 
Hamilton was the early home of William Dean Howells, whose 
recollections of it are to be found in his A Boy's Town; his 
father's anti-slavery sentiments made it necessary for him to 
sell his printing office, where the son had learned to set type in 
his teens, and to remove to Dayton. 

HAMIRPUR, a town and district of British India, in the 
Allahabad division of the United Provinces. The town stands 
on a tongue of land near the confluence of the Betwa and Jumna, 



HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES 



893 



no m. N.W. of Allahabad. Pop. (1901), 6721. It was founded, 
according to tradition, in the nth century by Hamir Deo, a 
Karchuli Rajput expelled from Alwar by the Mahommedans. 

The district has an area of 2289 sq. m., and encloses the native 
states of Sarila, Jigni and Bihat, besides portions of Charkhari 
and Garrauli. Hamirpur forms part of the great plain of Bun- 
delkhand, which stretches from the banks of the Jumna to the 
central Vindhyan plateau. The district is in shape an irregular 
parallelogram, with a general slope northward from the low hills 
on the southern boundary. The scenery is rendered picturesque 
by the artificial lakes of Mahoba. These magnificent reservoirs 
were constructed by the Chandel rajas before the Mahommedan 
conquest, for purposes of irrigation and as sheets of ornamental 
water. Many of them enclose craggy islets or peninsulas, 
crowned by the ruins of granite temples, exquisitely carved and 
decorated. From the base of this hill and lake country the 
general plain of the district spreads northward in an arid and 
treeless level towards the broken banks of the rivers. Of these 
the principal are the Betwa and its tributary the Dhasan, both 
of which are unnavigable. There is little waste land, except 
in the ravines by the river sides. The deep black soil of Bundel- 
khand, known as mar, retains the moisture under a dried and 
rifted surface, and renders the district fertile. The staple pro- 
duce is grain of various sorts, the most important being gram. 
Cotton is also a valuable crop. Agriculture suffers much from 
the spread of the kdns grass, a noxious weed which overruns 
the fields and is found to be almost ineradicable wherever it 
has once obtained a footing. Droughts and famine are unhappily 
common. The climate is dry and hot, owing to the absence of 
shade and the bareness of soil, except in the neighbourhood 
of the Mahoba lakes, which cool and moisten the atmosphere. 
In 1901 the pop. was 458,542, showing a decrease of n% in 
the decade, due to the famine of 1895-1897. Export trade is 
chiefly in agricultural produce and cotton cloth. Rath is the 
principal commercial centre. The Midland branch of the Great 
Indian Peninsula railway passes through the south of the district. 
From the gth to the I2th century this district was the centre 
of the Chandel kingdom, with its capital at Mahoba. The rajas 
adorned the town with many splendid edifices, remains of which 
still exist, besides constructing the noble artificial lakes already 
described. At the end of the izth century Mahoba fell into the 
hands of the Mussulmans. In 1680 the district was conquered 
by Chhatar Sal, the hero of the Bundelas, who assigned at his 
death one-third of his dominions to his ally the peshwa of 
the Mahrattas. Until Bundelkhand became British territory in 
1803 there was constant warfare between the Bundela princes 
and the Mahratta chieftains. On the outbreak of the Mutiny 
in 1857, Hamirpur was the scene of a fierce rebellion, and all the 
principal towns were plundered by the surrounding chiefs. 
After a short period of desultory guerrilla warfare the rebels 
were effectually quelled and the work of reorganization began. 
The district has since been subject to cycles of varying agri- 
cultural prosperity. 

HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES. The questions in- 
volved in a consideration of Hamitic races and Hamitic languages 
are independent of one another and call for separate treatment. 

I. Hamitic Races. The term Hamific as applied to race is 
not only extremely vague but has been much abused by anthro- 
pological writers. Of the few who have attempted a precise 
definition the most prominent is Sergi, 1 and his classification 
may be taken as representing one point of view with regard to 
this difficult question. 

Sergi considers the Hamites, using the term in the racial sense, as 
a branch of his "Mediterranean Race"; and divides them as 
follows : 

I. Eastern Branch 

(a) Ancjent and Modern Egyptian (excluding the Arabs). 
(6) Nubians, Beja. 

(c) Abyssinians. 

(d) Galla, Danakil, Somali. 

1 G. Sergi, The Mediterranean Race. A Study of the Origin of 
European Peoples (London, 1901); idem, Africa, Antropologia 
delta stirpe camitica (Turin, 1897). 



(e) Masai. 

(/) Wahuma or Watusi. 
2. Northern Branch 

(a) Berbers of the Mediterranean, Atlantic and Sahara. 

(b) Tibbu. 

(c) Fula. 

(d) Guanches (extinct). 

With regard to this classification the following conclusions may 
be regarded as comparatively certain : that the members of groups 
d, e and / of the first branch appear to be closely inter-connected 
by ties of blood, and also the members of the second branch. The 
Abyssinians in the south have absorbed a certain amount of Galla 
blood, but the majority are Semitic or Semito-Negroid. The 
question of the racial affinities of the Ancient Egyptians and the 
Beja are still a matter of doubt, and the relation of the two groups 
to each other is still controversial. Sergi, it is true, arguing from 
physical data believes that a close connexion exists; but the data 
are so extremely scanty that the finality of his conclusion may well 
be doubted. His " Northern Branch corresponds with the more 
satisfactory term " Libyan Race," represented in fair purity by the 
Berbers, and, mixed with Negro elements, by the Fula and Tibbu. 
This Libyan race is distinctively a white race, with dark curly hair; 
the Eastern Hamites are equally distinctively a brown people with 
frizzy hair. If, as Sergi believes, these brown people are themselves 
a race, and not a cross between white and black in varying propor- 
tions, they are found in their greatest purity among the Somali and 
Galla, and mixed with Bantu blood among the Ba-Hima (Wahuma) 
and Watussi. The Masai seem to be as much Nilotic Negro as 
Hamite. This Galla type does not seem to appear farther north 
than the southern portion of Abyssinia, and it is not unlikely that 
the Beja are very early Semitic immigrants with an aboriginal 
Negroid admixture. It is also possible that they and the Ancient 
Egyptians may contain a common element. The Nubians appear 
akin to the Egyptians but with a strong Negroid element. 

To return to Sergi's two branches, besides the differences in skin 
colour and hair-texture there is also a cultural difference of great 
importance. The Eastern Hamites are essentially a pastoral people 
and therefore nomadic or semi-nomadic ; the Berbers, who, as said 
above, are the purest representatives of the Libyans, are agri- 
culturists. The pastoral habits of the Eastern Hamites are of 
importance, since they show the utmost reluctance to abandon 
them. Even the Ba-Hima and Watussi, for long settled and partly 
intermixed with the agricultural Bantu, regard any pursuit but that 
of cattle-tending as absolutely beneath their dignity. 

It would seem therefore that, while sufficient data have not been 
collected to decide whether, on the evidence of exact anthropological 
measurements, the Libyans are connected racially with the Eastern 
Hamites, the testimony derived from broad " descriptive character- 
istics " and general culture is against such a connexion. To regard 
the Libyans as Hamites solely on the ground that the languages 
spoken by the two groups show affinities would be as rash and might 
be as false as to aver that the present-day Hungarians are Mon- 
golians because Magyar is an Asiatic tongue. Regarding the present 
state of knowledge it would be safer therefore to restrict the term 
' Karaites " to Sergi's first group; and call the second by the name 
" Libyans." The difficult question of the origin of the ancient 
Egyptians is discussed elsewhere. 

As to the question whether the Hamites in this restricted sense 
are a definite race or a blend, no discussion can, in view of the paucity 
of evidence, as yet lead to a satisfactory conclusion, but it might 
be suggested very tentatively that further researches may possibly 
connect them with the Dravidian peoples of India. It is sufficient 
for present purposes that the term Hamite, using it as coextensive 
with Sergi's Eastern Hamite, has a definite connotation. By the 
term is meant a brown people with frizzy hair, of lean and sinewy 
physique, with slender but muscular arms and legs, a thin straight 
or even aquiline nose with delicate nostrils, thin lips and no trace 
of prognathism. (T. A. J.) 

II. Hamitic Languages. The whole north of Africa was once 
inhabited by tribes of the Caucasian race, speaking languages 
which are now generally called, after Genesis x., Hamitic, a 
term introduced principally by Friedrich Muller. The linguistic 
coherence of that race has been broken up especially by the 
intrusion of Arabs, whose language has exercised a powerful 
influence on all those nations. This splitting up, and the immense 
distances over which those tribes were spread, have made those 
languages diverge more widely than do the various tongues of 
the Indo-European stock, but still their affinity can easily be 
traced by the linguist, and is, perhaps, greater than the corre- 
sponding anthropologic similarity between the white Libyan, 
red Galla and swarthy Somali. The relationship of these 
languages to Semitic has long been noticed, but was at first 
taken for descent from Semitic (cf. the name " Syro-Arabian " 
proposed by Prichard). Now linguists are agreed that the 



HAMLET 



Proto-Semites and Proto-Hamites once formed a unity, probably 
in Arabia. That original unity has been demonstrated especially 
by Friedrich Muller (Reise der osterreichischen Fregatte Novara, 
p. 51, more fully, Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, vol. iii. 
fasc. 2, p. 226); cf. also A. H. Sayce, Science of Language, ii. 
178; R. N. Cust, The Modern Languages of Africa, i. 94, &c. 
The comparative grammars of Semitic (W. Wright, 1890, and 
especially H. Zimmern, 1898) demonstrate this now to everybody 
by comparative tables of the grammatical elements. 

The classification of Hamitic languages is as follows: * 

1. The Libyan Dialects (mostly misnamed " Berber languages," 
after an unfortunate, vague Arabic designation, barabra, " people 
of foreign language "). The representatives of this large group 
extend from the Senegal river (where they are called Zenaga; im- 
perfect Grammaire by L. Faidherbe, 1877) and from Timbuktu 
(dialect of the Auelimmiden, sketched by Heinrich Barth, Travels, 
vol. v., 1857) to the oases of Aujila (Bengazi) and of Siwa on the 
western border of Egypt. Consequently, these " dialects " differ 
more strongly from each other than, e.g. the Semitic languages do 
between themselves. The purest representative seems to be the 
language of the Algerian mountaineers (Kabyles), especially that of 
the Zuawa (Zouaves) tribe, described by A. Hanoteau, Essai de 
grammaire kabyle (1858); Ben Sedira, Cours de langue kab. (1887); 
Dictionnaire by Olivier (1878). The learned little Manuel de langue 
kabyle, by R. Basset (1887) is an introduction to the study of the 
many dialects with full bibliography, cf. also Basset's Notes de 
lexicographic berVkre (1883 foil.). (The dictionaries by Brosselard and 
Venture de Paradis are imperfect.) The best now described is 
Shilh(a), a Moroccan dialect (H. Stumme,HandhuchdesSchilhischen, 
1899), but it is an inferior dialect. That of Ghat in Tripoli under- 
lies the Grammar of F. W. Newman (1845) and the Grammaire 
Tamashek of Hanoteau (1860); cf. also the Dictionnaire of Cid 
Kaoui (1900). Neither medieval reports on the language spoken 
by the Guanches of the Canary Islands (fullest in A. Berthelot, 
Antiquites canariennes, 1879,; akin to Shilha; by no means primitive 
Libyan untouched by Arabic), nor the modern dialect of Siwa (still 
little known; tentative grammar by Basset, 1890), have justified 
hopes of finding a pure Libyan dialect. Of a few literary attempts 
in Arabic letters the religious Pokme de Cabi (ed. Basset, Journ. 
asiatique, vii. 476) is the most remarkable. The imperfect native 
writing (named tifinaghen), a derivation from the Sabaean alphabet 
(not, as Hale'vy claimed, from the Punic), still in use among the 
Sahara tribes, can be traced to the 2nd century B.C. (bilingual in- 
scription of Tucca, &c.; cf. J. Hale'vy, Essai d'epigraphie libyque, 
1875), but hardly ever served for literary uses. 

2. The Cushitic or Ethiopian Family. The nearest relative of 
Libyan is not Ancient Egyptian but the language of the nomadic 
Bisharin or Beja of the Nubian Desert (cf. H. Almkvist, Die Bischari 
Sprache, 1881 [the northern dialect], and L. Reinisch, Die Bedauye 
Sprache, 1893, Worterbuch, 1895). The speech of the peoples occupy- 
ing the lowland east of Abyssinia, the Saho (Reinisch, grammar in 
Zeitschrift d. deutschen morgenland. Gesellschaft, 32, 1878; Texte, 
1889; Worterbuch, 1890; cf. also Reinisch, Die Sprache der Irob 
Saho, 1878), and the Afar or Danakil (Reinisch, Die Afar Sprache, 
1887 ; G. Colizza, Lingua Afar, 1887), merely dialectsof one language, 
form the connecting link with the southern Hamitic group, i.e. 
Somali (Reinisch, Somali Sprache, 1900-1903, 3 vols. ; Larajasse 
und de Sampont, Practical Grammar of the Somali Language, 1897; 
imperfect sketches by Hunter, 1880, and Schleicher, 1890), and Galla 
(L. Tutscheck, Grammar, 1845, Lexicon, 1844; Massaja, Lectiones, 
1877; G. F. F. Praetorius, Zur Grammatik der Gallasprache, 1893, 
&c.). All these Cushitic languages, extending from Egypt to the 
equator, are separated by Reinisch as Lower Cushitic from the High 
Cushitic group, i.e. the many dialects spoken by tribes dwelling 
in the Abyssinian highlands or south of Abyssinia. Of the original 
inhabitants of Abyssinia, called collectively AgSu (or Agau) by the 
Abyssinians, or Falashas (this name principally for Jewish tribes), 
Reinisch considers the Bilin or Bogos tribe as preserving the most 
archaic dialect (Die Bilin Sprache, Texts, 1883; Grammatik, 1882; 
Worterbuch, 1887); the same scholar gave sketches of the Khamir 
(1884) and Quara (1885) dialects. On other dialects, struggling 
against the spreading Semitic tongues (Tigr6, Amharic, &c.), see 
Conti Rossini, " Appunti sulla lingua Khamta," in Giorn. soc. orient. 
0905); Waldmeyer, Wortersammlung (1868); J. HaleVy, "Essai 
sur la langue Agaou " (Actes soc. philologique, 1873), &c. Similar 
dialects are those of the Sid(d)ama tribes, south of Abyssinia, of 
which only Kaf(f)a (Reinisch, Die Kafa Sprache, 1888) is known at 
all fully. Of the various other dialects (Kullo, Tambaro, &c.), 
vocabularies only are known; cf. Borelli, Ethiopie meridionale 
(1890). (On 1 la lisa see below.) 

There is no question that the northernmost Hamitic languages 
have preserved best the original wealth of inflections which reminds 
us so strongly of the formal riches of southern Semitic. Libyan 



1 Only works of higher linguistic standing are quoted here ; 
many vocabularies and imperfect attempts of travellers cannot be 
enumerated. 



and Beja are the best-preserved types, and the latter especially 
may be called the Sanskrit of Hamitic. The other Cushitic tongues 
exhibit increasing agglutinative tendencies the farther we go south, 
although single archaisms are found even in Somali. The early 
isolated High Cushitic tongues (originally branched off from a stock 
common with Galla and Somali) diverge most strongly from the 
original type. Already the Agau dialects are full of very peculiar 
developments; the Hamitic character of the Sid(d)ama languages 
can be traced only by lengthy comparisons. 

The simple and pretty (Haus(s)a language, the commercial lan- 
guage of the whole Niger region and beyond (Schoen, Grammar, 1862, 
Dictionary, 1876; Charles H. Robinson, 1897, in Robinson and 
Brookes's Dictionary) has fairly well preserved its Hamitic grammar, 
though its vocabulary was much influenced by the surrounding Negro 
languages. It is no relative of Libyan (though it has experienced 
some Libyan influences), but comes from the (High ?) Cushitic 
family; its exact place in this family remains to be determined. 
Various languages of the Niger region were once Hamitic like 
Haus(s)a, or at least under some Hamitic influence, but have now 
lost that character too far to be classified as Hamitic, e.g. the Muzuk 
or Musgu language (F. Muller, 1886). The often-raised question 
of some (very remote) relationship between Hamitic and the great 
Bantu family is still undecided ; more doubtful is that with the inter- 
esting Ful (a) language in the western Sudan, but a relationship with 
the Nilotic branch of negro languages is impossible (though a few 
of these, e.g. Nuba, have borrowed some words from neighbouring 
Hamitic peoples). The development of a grammatical gender, this 
principal characteristic of Semito-Hamitic, in Bari and Masai, may 
be rather accidental than borrowed; certainly, the same pheno- 
menon in Hottentot does not justify the attempt often made to 
classify this with Hamitic. 

3. Ancient Egyptian, as we have seen, does not form the connect- 
ing link between Libyan and Cushitic which its geographical posi- 
tion would lead us to expect. It represents a third independent 
branch, or rather a second one, Libyan and Cushitic forming one 
division of Hamitic. A few resemblances with Libyan (M. de 
Rochemonteix in Memoires du congres internal, des orientalistes, 
Paris, 1873; elementary) are less due to original relationship than 
to the general better preservation of the northern idioms (see above). 
Frequent attempts to detach Egyptian from Hamitic and to attri- 
bute it to a Semitic immigration later than that of the other Hamites 
cannot be proved. Egyptian is, in many respects, more remote 
from Semitic than the Libyan-Cushitic division, being more agglu- 
tinative than the better types of its sister branch, having lost the 
most characteristic verbal flection (the Hamito-Semitic imperfect), 
forming the nominal plural in its own peculiar fashion, &c. The 
advantage of Egyptian, that it is represented in texts of 3000 B.C., 
while the sister tongues exist only in forms 5000 years later, allows 
us, e.g. to trace the Semitic principle of triliteral roots more clearly 
in Egyptian; but still the latter tongue is hardly more character- 
istically archaic or nearer Semitic than Beja or Kabylic. 

All this is said principally of the grammar. Of the vocabulary 
it must not be forgotten that none of the Hamitic tongues remained 
untouched by Semitic influences after the separation of the Hamites 
and Semites, say 4000 or 6000 B.C. Repeated Semitic immigrations 
and influences have brought so many layers of loan-words that it is 
questionable if any modern Hamitic language has now more than 
10% of original Hamitic words. Which Semitic resemblances are 
due to original affinity, which come from pre-Christian immigrations, 
which from later influences, are difficult questions not yet faced by 
science; e.g. the half- Arabic numerals of Libyan have often been 
quoted as a proof of primitive Hamito-Semitic kinship, but they 
are probably only a gift of some Arab invasion, prehistoric for us. 
Arab tribes seem to have repeatedly swept over the whole area of 
the Hamites, long before the time of Mahomet, and to have left deep 
impressions on races and languages, but none of these migrations 
stands in the full light of history (not even that of the Geez tribes of 
Abyssinia). Egyptian exhibits constant influences from its Canaan- 
itish neighbours; it is crammed with such loan-words already in 
3000 B.C. ; new affluxes can be traced, especially c. 1600. (The Punic 
influences on Libyan are, However, very slight, inferior to the Latin.) 
Hence the relations of Semitic and Hamitic still require many investi- 
gations in detail, for which the works of Reinisch and Basset have 
merely built up a basis. (W. M. M.) 

HAMLET, the hero of Shakespeare's tragedy, a striking figure 
in Scandinavian romance. 

The chief authority for the legend of Hamlet is Saxo Gram- 
maticus, who devotes to it parts of the third and fourth books of 
his Historia Danica, written at the beginning of the I3th century. 
It is supposed that the story of Hamlet, Amleth- or AmloSi, 2 
was contained in the lost Skjb'ldunga saga, but we have no means 
of determining whether Saxo derived his information in this 
case from oral or written sources. The close parallels between the 

2 The word is used in modern Icelandic metaphorically of an 
imbecile or weak-minded person (see Cleasby and Vigf usson, Icelandic- 
English Dictionary, 1869). 



HAMLET 



895 



tale of Hamlet and the English romances of Havelok, Horn and 
Bevis of Hampton make it not unlikely that Hamlet is of British 
rather than of Scandinavian origin. His name does in fact occur 
in the Irish Annals of the Four Masters (ed. O'Donovan, 1851) 
in a stanza attributed to the Irish Queen Gormflaith, who laments 
the death of her husband, Niall Glundubh, at the hands of 
Amhlaufe in 919 at the battle of Ath-Cliath. The slayer of Niall 
Glundubh is by other authorities stated to have been Sihtric. 
Now Sihtric was the father of that Olaf or Anlaf Cuaran who was 
the prototype of the English Havelok, but nowhere else does he 
receive the nickname of Amhlaicfe. If Amhlai(/e may really be 
identified with Sihtric, who first went to Dublin in 888, the 
relations between the tales of Havelok and Hamlet are readily 
explicable, since nothing was more likely than that the exploits 
of father and son should be confounded (see HAVELOK). But, 
whoever the historic Hamlet may have been, it is quite certain 
that much was added that was extraneous to Scandinavian 
tradition. Later in the loth century there is evidence of the 
existence of an Icelandic saga of AmloSi or Amleth in a passage 
from the poet Snaebjorn in the second part of the prose Edda. 1 
According to Saxo, 2 Hamlet's history is briefly as follows. In 
the days of Rorik, king of Denmark, Gervendill was governor 
of Jutland, and was succeeded by his sons Horvendill and Feng. 
Horvendill, on his return from a Viking expedition in which 
he had slain Koll, king of Norway, married Gerutha, Rorik's 
daughter, who bore him a son Amleth. But Feng, out of jealousy, 
murdered Horvendill, and persuaded Gerutha to become his 
wife, on the plea that he had committed the crime for no other 
reason than to avenge her of a husband by whom she had been 
hated. Amleth, afraid of sharing his father's fate, pretended to 
be imbecile, but the suspicion of Feng put him to various tests 
which are related in detail. Among other things they sought 
to entangle him with a young girl, his foster-sister, but his 
cunning saved him. When, however, Amleth slew the eaves- 
dropper hidden, like Polonius, in his mother's room, and destroyed 
all trace of the deed, Feng was assured that the young man's 
madness was feigned. Accordingly he despatched him to England 
in company with two attendants, who bore a letter enjoining 
the king of the country to put him to death. Amleth surmised 
the purport of their instructions, and secretly altered the message 
on their wooden tablets to the effect that the king should put 
the attendants to death and give Amleth his daughter in marriage. 
After marrying the princess Amleth returned at the end of a year 
to Denmark. Of the wealth he had accumulated he took with 
him only certain hollow sticks filled with gold. He arrived in 
time for a funeral feast, held to celebrate his supposed death. 
During the feast he plied the courtiers with wine, and executed 
his vengeance during their drunken sleep by fastening down over 
them the woollen hangings of the hall with pegs he had sharpened 
during his feigned madness, and then setting fire to the palace. 
Feng he slew with his own sword. After a long harangue to the 
people he was proclaimed king. Returning to England for his 
wife he found that his father-in-law and Feng had been pledged 
each to avenge the other's death. The English king, unwilling 
personally to carry out his pledge, sent Amleth as proxy wooer 
for the hand of a terrible Scottish queen Hermuthruda, who had 
put all former wooers to death, but fell in love with Amleth. 
On his return to England his first wife, whose love proved stronger 
than her resentment, told him of her father's intended revenge. 
In the battle which followed Amleth won the day by setting up 

1 " Tis said that far out, off yonder ness, the Nine Maids of the 
Island Mill stir amain the host cruel skerry-quern they who in 
ages past ground Hamlet's meal. The good Chieftain furrows the 
hull's lair with his ship's beaked prow." This passage may be com- 
pared with some examples of Hamlet's cryptic sayings quoted by 
Saxo: "Again, as he passed along the beach, his companions 
found the rudder of a ship which had been wrecked, and said 
they had discovered a huge knife. 'This,' said he, 'was the 
right thing to carve such a huge ham . . . . ' Also, as they passed 
the sand-hills, and bade him look at the meal, meaning the sand, 
he replied that it had been ground small by the hoary tempests of 
the ocean." 

2 Books iii. and iv., chaps. 86-106, Eng. trans, by O. Elton (London, 
1894)- 



the dead men of the day before with stakes, and thus terrifying 
the enemy. He then returned with his two wives to Jutland, 
where he had to encounter the enmity of Wiglek, Rorik's suc- 
cessor. He was slain in a battle against Wiglek, and Hermuth- 
ruda, although she had engaged to die with him, married the 
victor. 

The other Scandinavian versions of the tale are: the Hrolfssaga 
Kraka? where the brothers Helgi and Hroar take the place of the 
hero; the tale of Harald and Halfdan, as related in the yth book 
of Saxo Grammaticus; the modern Icelandic Ambales Saga* 
a romantic tale the earliest MS. of which dates from the i7th 
century; and the folk-tale of Brjam 6 which was put in writing 
in 1 707. Helgi and Hroar, like Harald and Halfdan, avenge their 
father's death on their uncle by burning him in his palace. 
Harald and Halfdan escape after their father's death by being 
brought up, with dogs' names, in a hollow oak, and subsequently 
by feigned madness; and in the case of the other brothers there 
are traces of a similar motive, since the boys are called by dogs' 
names. The methods of Hamlet's madness, as related by Saxo, 
seem to point to cynanthropy. In the Ambales Saga, which 
perhaps is collateral to, rather than derived from, Saxo's version, 
there are, besides romantic additions, some traits which point 
to an earlier version of the tale. 

Saxo Grammaticus was certainly familiar with the Latin 
historians, and it is most probable that, recognizing the similarity 
between the northern Hamlet legend and the classical tale of 
Lucius Junius Brutus as told by Livy, by Valerius Maximus, 
and by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (with which he was probably 
acquainted through a Latin epitome), he deliberately added 
circumstances from the classical story. The incident of the gold- 
filled sticks could hardly appear fortuitously in both, and a 
comparison of the harangues of Amleth (Saxo, Book iv.) and of 
Brutus (Dionysius iv. 77) shows marked similarities. In both 
tales the usurping uncle is ultimately succeeded by the nephew 
who has escaped notice during his youth by a feigned madness. 
But the parts played by the personages who in Shakespeare 
became Ophelia and Polonius, the method of revenge, and the 
whole narrative of Amleth's adventure in England, have no 
parallels in the Latin story. 

Dr. O. L. Jiriczek 6 first pointed out the striking similarities 
existing between the story of Amleth in Saxo and the other 
northern versions, and that of Kei Chosro in the Shahnameh 
(Book of the King) of the Persian poet Firdausi. The comparison 
was carried farther by R. Zenker (Boeve Amlelhus, pp. 207-268, 
Berlin and Leipzig, 1904), who even concluded that the northern 
saga rested on an earlier version of Firdausi's story, in which 
indeed nearly all the individual elements of the various northern 
versions are to be found. Further resemblances exist in the 
Ambales Saga with the tales of Bellerophon, of Heracles, and of 
Servius Tullius. That Oriental tales through Byzantine and 
Arabian channels did find their way to the west is well known, 
and there is nothing very surprising in their being attached to a 
local hero. 

The tale of Hamlet's adventures in Britain forms an episode 
so distinct that it was at one time referred to a separate hero. 
The traitorous letter, the purport of which is changed by Her- 
muthruda, occurs in the popular Dit de I'empereur Constant, 7 
and in Arabian and Indian tales. Hermuthruda's cruelty to her 
wooers is common in northern and German mythology, and close 

* Printed in Fornaldar Sogur NorCtrlanda (vol. i. Copenhagen, 
1829), analysed by F. Detter in Zeitschr. fur deutsches Altertutn 
(vol. 36, Berlin, 1892). 

4 Printed with English translation and with other texts germane 
to the subject by I. Gollancz (Hamlet in Iceland, London, 1898). 

6 Professor I. Gollancz points out (p. Ixix.) that Brjam is a varia- 
tion of the Irish Brian, that the relations between Ireland and the 
Norsemen were very close, and that, curiously enough, Brian 
Boroimhe was the hero of that very battle of Clontarf (1014) where 
the device (which occurs in Havelok and Hamlet) of bluffing the 
enemy by tying the wounded to stakes to represent active soldiers 
was used. 

' " Hamlet in Iran," in Zeitschrift des Vereins fur Volkskunde, x. 
(Berlin, 1900). 

7 See A. B. Gough, The Constance Saga (Berlin, 1902). 



HAMLEY HAMMAD AR-RAWIYA 



parallels are afforded by Thrytho, the terrible bride of Offa I., 
who figures in Beowulf, and by Brunhilda in the Nibelungen- 
lied. 

The story of Hamlet was known to the Elizabethans in 
Francois de Belleforest's Histoires tragiques (1559), and found 
its supreme expression in Shakespeare's tragedy. That as early 
as 1587 or 1589 Hamlet had appeared on the English stage is 
shown by Nash's preface to Greene's Menaphon: " He will 
afford you whole Hamlets, I should say, handfulls of tragical 
speeches." The Shakespearian Hamlet owes, however, little 
but the outline of his story to Saxo. In character he is dia- 
metrically opposed to his prototype. Amleth's madness was 
certainly altogether feigned; he prepared his vengeance a year 
beforehand, and carried it out deliberately and ruthlessly at 
every point. His riddling speech has little more than an outward 
similarity to the words of Hamlet, who resembles him, however, 
in his disconcerting penetration into his enemies' plans. For 
a discussion of Shakespeare's play and its immediate sources 
see SHAKESPEARE. 

See an appendix to Elton's trans, of Saxo Grammaticus; I. 
Gollancz, Hamlet in Iceland (London, 1898) ; H. L. Ward, Catalogue 
of Romances, under " Havelok," vol. i. pp. 423 seq.; English His- 
torical Review, x. (1895); F. Detter, " Die Hamletsage," Zeitschr. 
f. deut. Alter, vol. 36 (Berlin, 1892); O. L. Jiriczek, " Die Amleth- 
sage auf Island," in Germanistische Abhandlungen, vol. xii. (Breslau), 
and " Hamlet in Iran," in Zeitschr. des Vereins fur Volkskunde, x. 
(Berlin, 1900) ; A. Olrik, Kilderne til Sakses Oldhistorie (Copenhagen, 
2 vols., 1892-1894). 

HAMLEY, SIR EDWARD BRUCE (1824-1893), British 
general and military writer, youngest son of Vice- Admiral William 
Hamley, was born on the 27th of April 1824 at Bodmin, Cornwall, 
and entered the Royal Artillery in 1843. He was promoted 
captain in 1850, and in 1851 went to Gibraltar, where he com- 
menced his literary career by contributing articles to magazines. 
He served throughout the Crimean campaign as aide-de-camp 
to Sir Richard Dacres, commanding the artillery, taking part 
in all the operations with distinction, and becoming successively 
major and lieutenant-colonel by brevet. He also received the 
C.B. and French and Turkish orders. During the war he con- 
tributed to Blackwood's Magazine an admirable account of the 
progress of the campaign, which was afterwards republished. 
The combination in Hamley of literary and military ability 
secured for him in 1859 the professorship of military history at 
the new Staff College at Sandhurst, from which in 1866 he went 
to the council of military education, returning in 1870 to the 
Staff College as commandant. From 1879 to 1881 he was British 
commissioner successively for the delimitation of the frontiers 
of Turkey and Bulgaria, Turkey in Asia and Russia, and Turkey 
and Greece, and was rewarded with the K.C.M.G. Promoted 
colonel in 1863, he became a lieutenant-general in 1882, when he 
commanded the 2nd division of the expedition to Egypt under 
Lord Wolseley, and led his troops in the battle of Tell-el-Kebir, 
for which he received the K.C.B., the thanks of parliament, and 
2nd class of Osmanieh. Hamley considered that his services 
in Egypt had been insufficiently recognized in Lord Wolseley's 
despatches, and expressed his indignation freely, but he had no 
sufficient ground for supposing that there was any intention to 
belittle his services. From 1885 until his death on the I2th of 
August 1893 he represented Birkenhead in parliament in the 
Conservative interest. 

Hamley was a clever and versatile writer. His principal work, 
The Operations of War, published in 1867, became a text-book of 
military instruction. He published some pamphlets on national 
defence, was a frequent contributor to magazines, and the author of 
several novels, of which perhaps the best known is Lady Lee's 
Widowhood. 

HAMLIN, HANNIBAL (1800-1891), vice-president of the 
United States (1861-1865), was born at Paris, Maine, on the 
27th of August 1809. After studying in Hebron Academy, he 
conducted his father's farm for a time, became schoolmaster, 
and later managed a weekly newspaper at Paris. He then 
studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1833, and rapidly acquired 
a reputation as an able lawyer and a good public speaker. 
Entering politics as an anti-slavery Democrat, he was a member 



of the state House of Representatives in 1836-1840, serving as 
its presiding officer during the last four years. He was a 
representative in Congress from 1843 to 1847, and was a member 
of the United States Senate from 1848 to 1856. From the very 
beginning of his service in Congress he was prominent as an 
opponent of the extension of slavery; he was a conspicuous 
supporter of the Wilmot Proviso, spoke against the Compromise 
Measures of 1850, and in 1856, chiefly because of the passage 
in 1854 of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which repealed the Missouri 
Compromise, and his party's endorsement of that repeal at the 
Cincinnati Convention two years later, he withdrew from the 
Democrats and joined the newly organized Republican party. 
The Republicans of Maine nominated him for governor in the 
same year, and having carried the election by a large majority 
he was inaugurated in this office on the 8th of January 1857. 
In the latter part of February, however, he resigned the governor- 
ship, and was again a member of the Senate from 1857 to January 
1861. From 1861 to 1865, during the Civil War, he was Vice- 
President of the United States. While in this office he was one 
of the chief advisers of President Lincoln, and urged both the 
Emancipation Proclamation and the arming of the negroes. 
After the war he again served in the Senate (1860-1881), was 
minister to Spain (1881-1883), and then retired from public life. 
He died at Bangor, Maine, on the 4th of July 1891. 

See Life and Times of Hannibal Hamlin (Cambridge, Mass., 1899), 
by C. E. Hamlin, his grandson. 

HAMM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Westphalia, on the Lippe, 19 m. by rail N.E. from Dortmund 
on the main line Cologne-Hanover. Pop. (1905) 38,430. It 
is surrounded by pleasant promenades occupying the site of the 
former engirdling fortifications. The principal buildings are 
four Roman Catholic and three Evangelical churches, several 
schools and an infirmary. The town is flourishing and rapidly 
increasing, and possesses very extensive wire factories (in 
connexion with which there are puddling and rolling works) , 
machine works, and manufactories of gloves, baskets, leather, 
starch, chemicals, varnish, oil and beer. Near the town are 
some thermal baths. 

Hamm, which became a town about the end of the izth 
century, was originally the capital of the countship of Mark, and 
was fortified in 1226. It became a member of the Hanseatic 
League. In 1614 it was besieged by the Dutch, and it was 
several times taken and retaken during the Thirty Years' War. 
In 1666 it came into the possession of Brandenburg. In 1761 
and 1762 it was bombarded by the French, and in 1763 its 
fortifications were dismantled. 

HAMMAD AR-RAWIYA [Abu-1-Qasim Hammad ibn Abl 
Laila Sapur (or ibn Maisara)] (8th century A.P.), Arabic scholar, 
was of Dailamite descent, but was born in Kufa. The date of 
his birth is given by some as 694, by others as 714. He was 
reputed to be the most learned man of his time in regard to the 
" days of the Arabs " (i.e. their chief battles), their stories, 
poems, genealogies and dialects. He is said to have boasted 
that he could recite a hundred long qasidas for each letter of 
the alphabet (i.e. rhyming in each letter) and these all from 
pre-Islamic times, apart from shorter pieces and later verses. 
Hence his name Hammad ar-Rauriya, " the reciter of verses from 
memory." The Omayyad caliph Walld is said to have tested 
him, the result being that he recited 2900 qasidas of pre- 
Islamic date and Walid gave him 100,000 dirhems. He was 
favoured by Yazld II. and his successor Hisham, who brought 
him up from Irak to Damascus. Arabian critics, however, say 
that in spite of his learning he lacked a true insight into the 
genius of the Arabic language, and that he made more than 
thirty some say three hundred mistakes of pronunciation in 
reciting the Koran. To him is ascribed the collecting of the 
Mo'allakat (q.v.). No diwan of his is extant, though he composed 
verse of his own and probably a good deal of what he ascribed 
to earlier poets. 

Biography in McG. de Slane's trans, of Ibn Khallikan, vol. i. 
pp. 470-474, and many stories are told of him in the Kitab ul-Aghani, 
vol. v. pp. 164-175. (G. W. T.) 



HAMMER HAMMERFEST 



897 



HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862), German poet, 
was born on the 7th of June 1810 at Dresden. In 1831 he went 
to Leipzig to study law, but devoted himself mainly to philosophy 
and belles lettres. Returning to Dresden in 1 834 a small comedy, 
Das seltsame Fruhstiick, introduced him to the literary society 
of the capital, notably to Ludwig Tieck, and from this time he 
devoted himself entirely to writing. In 1837 he returned to 
Leipzig, and, coming again to Dresden, from 1851 to 1859 edited 
the feuilleton of Siichsische konstitulionelle Zeitung, and took 
the lead in the foundation in 1855 of the Schiller Institute in 
Dresden. His marriage in 1851 had made him independent, and 
he bought a small property at Pillnitz, on which, soon after his 
return from a residence of several years at Nuremberg, he died, 
on the 23rd of August 1862. 

Hammer wrote, besides several comedies, a drama Die Bruder 
(1856), a number of unimportant romances, and the novel 
Einkehr und Umkehr (Leipzig, 1856); but his reputation rests 
upon his epigrammatic and didactic poems. His Schau' urn 
dick, und schau' in dich (1851), which made his name, has passed 
through more than thirty editions. It was followed by Zu alien 
guten Stunden (1854), Fester Grund (1857), Auf slillen Wegen 
(1859), and Lerne, Hebe, lebe (1862). Besides these he wrote a 
book of Turkish songs, Unler dem Halbmond (Leipzig, 1860), 
and rhymed versions of the psalms (1861), and compiled the 
popular religious anthology Leben und Heimat in Gott, of which a 
I4th edition was published in 1900. 

See C. G. E. Am Ende, Julius Hammer (Nuremberg, 1872). 

HAMMER, an implement consisting of a shaft or handle with 
head fixed transversely to it. The head, usually of metal, has 
one flat face, the other may be shaped to serve various purposes, 
e.g. with a claw, a pick, &c. The implement is used for breaking, 
beating, driving nails, rivets, &c., and the word is applied to 
heavy masses of metal moved by machinery, and used for similar 
purposes. (See TOOL.) " Hammer " is a word common to 
Teutonic languages. It appears in the same form in German 
and Danish, and in Dutch as hamer, in Swedish as hammare. 
The ultimate origin is unknown. It has been connected with 
the root seen in the Greek Kaijarreiv, to bend; the word would 
mean, therefore, something crooked or bent. A more illuminating 
suggestion connects the word with the Slavonic kamy, a stone, 
cf. Russian kamen, and ultimately with Sanskrit acman, a 
pointed stone, a thunderbolt. The legend of Thor's hammer, 
the thunderbolt, and the probability of the primitive hammer 
being a stone, adds plausibility to this derivation. The word 
is applied to many objects resembling a hammer in shape or 
function. Thus the " striker " in a dock, or in a bell, when it 
is sounded by an independent lever and not by the swinging of 
the " tongue," is called a " hammer "; similarly, in the " action " 
of a pianoforte the word is used of a wooden shank with felt- 
covered head attached to a key, the striking of which throws 
the "hammer" against the strings. In the mechanism of a 
fire-arm, the " hammer " is that part which by its impact on 
the cap or primer explodes the charge. (See GUN.) The hammer, 
more usually known by its French name of martel de fer, was a 
medieval hand-weapon. With a long shaft it was used by 
infantry, especially when acting against mounted troops. With 
a short handle and usually made altogether of metal, it was 
also used by horse-soldiers. The martel had one part of the head 
with a blunted face, the other pointed, but occasionally both 
sides were pointed. There are i6th century examples in which 
a hand-gun forms the handle. The name of " hammer," in 
Latin malleus, has been frequently applied to men, and also to 
books, with reference to destructive power. Thus on the tomb 
of Edward I. in Westminster Abbey is inscribed his name of 
Scotorum Malleus, the " Hammer of the Scots." The title of 
" Hammer of Heretics," Malleus Haereticorum, has been given 
to St Augustine and to Johann Faber, whose tract against 
Luther is also known by the name. Thomas Cromwell was styled 
Malleus Monachorum. The famous text-book of procedure in 
cases of witchcraft, published by Sprenger and Kramer in 1489, 
was called Hexenhammer or Malleus Maleficarum (see WITCH- 
CRAFT). 

xii. 29 



The origin of the word "hammer-cloth," an ornamental cloth 
covering the box-seat on a state-coach, has been often explained 
from the hammer and other tools carried in the box-seat by the 
coachman for repairs, &c. The New English Dictionary points 
out that while the word occurs as early as 1465, the use of a box- 
seat is not known before the i7th century. Other suggestions 
are that it is a corruption of " hamper-cloth," or of " hammock- 
cloth," which is used in this sense, probably owing to a mistake. 
Neither of these supposed corruptions helps very much. Skeat 
connects the word with a Dutch word kernel, meaning a canopy. 
In the name of the bird, the yellow-hammer, the latter part 
should be " ammer." This appears in the German name, 
Emmerling, and the word probably means the " chirper," cf. 
the Ger. jammern, to wail, lament. 

HAMMERBEAM ROOF, in architecture, the name given to a 
Gothic open timber roof, of which the finest example is that over 
Westminster Hall (1395-^99). In order to give greater height 
in the centre, the ordinary tie beam is cut through, and the 
portions remaining, known as hammerbeams, are supported by 
curved braces from the wall; in Westminster Hall, in order to 
give greater strength to the framing, a large arched piece of 
timber is carried across the hall, rising from the bottom of the 
wall piece to the centre of the collar beam, the latter being also 
supported by curved braces rising from the end of the hammer- 
beam. The span of Westminster Hall is 68 ft. 4 in., and the 
opening between the ends of the hammerbeams 25 ft. 6 in. The 
height from the paving of the hall to the hammerbeam is 40 ft., 
and to the underside of the collar beam 63 ft. 6 in., so that an 
additional height in the centre of 23 ft. 6 in. has been gained. 
Other important examples of hammerbeam roofs exist over the 
halls of Hampton Court and Eltham palaces, and there are 
numerous examples of smaller dimensions in churches throughout 
England and particularly in the eastern counties. The ends 
of the hammerbeams are usually decorated with winged angels 
holding shields; the curved braces and beams are richly moulded, 
and the spandrils in the larger examples filled in with tracery, 
as in Westminster Hall. Sometimes, but rarely, the collar 
beam is similarly treated, or cut through and supported by 
additional curved braces, as in the hall of the Middle Temple, 
London. 

HAMMERFEST, the most northern town in Europe. Pop. 
(1900) 2300. It is situated on an island (Kvalo) off the N.W. 
coast of Norway, in Finmarken ami (county), in 70 40' n* N., 
the latitude being that of the extreme north of Alaska. Its 
position affords the best illustration of the warm climatic 
influence of the north-eastward Atlantic drift, the mean annual 
temperature being 36 F. (January 31, July 57). Hammerfest 
is 674 m. by sea N.E. of Trondhjem, and 78 S.W. from the North 
Cape. The character of this coast differs from the southern, 
the islands being fewer and larger, and of table shape. The 
narrow strait Strommen separates Kvalo.from the larger Seiland, 
whose snow-covered hills with several glaciers rise above 3500 ft., 
while an insular rampart of mountains, Soro, protects the strait 
and harbour from the open sea. The town is timber-built and 
modern; and the Protestant church, town-hall, and schools 
were all rebuilt after fire in 1 890. There is also a Roman Catholic 
church. The sun does not set at Hammerfest from the I3th of 
May to the 29th of July. This is the busy season of the towns- 
folk. Vessels set out to the fisheries, as far as Spitsbergen and 
the Kara Sea; and trade is brisk, not only Norwegian and 
Danish but British, German and particularly Russian vessels 
engaging in it. Cod-liver oil and salted fish are exported with 
some reindeer-skins, fox-skins and eiderdown; and coal and salt 
for curing are imported. In the spring the great herds of tame 
reindeer are driven out to swim Strommen and graze in the 
summer pastures of Seiland; towards winter they are called 
home again. From the i8th of November to the 23rd of January 
the sun is not seen, and the enforced quiet of winter prevails. 
Electric light was introduced in the town in 1891. On the 
Fuglenaes or Birds' Cape, which protects the harbour on the 
north, there stands a column with an inscription in Norse and 
Latin, stating that Hammerfest was one of the stations of the 



HAMMER-KOP HAMMERSMITH 



expedition for the measurement of the arc of the meridian in 
1816-1852. Nor is this its only association with science; for 
it was one of the spots chosen by Sir Edward Sabine for his 
series of pendulum experiments in 1823. The ascent of the 
Sadlen or the Tyven in the neighbourhood is usually undertaken 
by travellers for the view of the barren, snow-clad Arctic land- 
scape, the bluff indented coast, and the vast expanse of the 
Arctic Ocean. 

HAMMER-KOP, or HAMMERHEAD, an African bird, which has 
been regarded as a stork and as a heron, the Scopus umbrella of 
ornithologists, called the " Umbre " by T. Pennant, now placed 
in a separate family Scopidae between the herons and storks. 
It was discovered by M. Adanson, the French traveller, in Senegal 
about the middle of the ipth century, and was described by 
M. J. Brisson in 1760. It has since been found to inhabit nearly 
the whole of Africa and Madagascar, and is the " hammerkop " 
(hammerhead) of the Cape colonists. Though not larger than 
a raven, it builds an enormous nest, some six feet in diameter, 
with a flat-topped roof and a small hole for entrance and exit, 
and placed either on a tree or a rocky ledge. The bird, of an 
almost uniform brown colour, slightly glossed with purple and its 
tail barred with black, has a long occipital crest, generally borne 
horizontally, so as to give rise to its common name. It is some- 
what sluggish by day, but displays much activity at dusk, when 
it will go through a series of strange performances. (A. N.) 

HAMMER-PURGSTALL, JOSEPH, FREIHERR VON (1774- 
1856), Austrian orientalist, was born at Graz on the pth of June 
1774, the son of Joseph Johann von Hammer, and received his 
early education mainly in Vienna. Entering the diplomatic 
service in 1796, he was appointed in 1799 to a position in the 
Austrian embassy in Constantinople, and in this capacity he 
took part in the expedition under Admiral Sir William Sidney 
Smith and General Sir John Hely Hutchinson against the 
French. In 1807 he returned home from the East, after which 
he was made a privy councillor, and, on inheriting in 1835 the 
estates of the countess Purgstall in Styria, was given the title 
of " freiherr." In 1847 he was elected president of the newly- 
founded academy, and he died at Vienna on the 23rd of November 
1856. 

For fifty years Hammer-Purgstall wrote incessantly on the 
most diverse subjects and published numerous texts and transla- 
tions of Arabic, Persian and Turkish authors. It was natural 
that a scholar who traversed so large a field should lay himself 
open to the criticism of specialists, and he was severely handled 
by Friedrich Christian Diez (1794-1876), who, in his Unfug 
und Betrug (1815), devoted to him nearly 600 pages of abuse. 
Von Hammer-Purgstall did for Germany the same work that 
Sir William Jones (q.v.) did for England and Silvestre de Sacy 
for France. He was, like his younger but greater English con- 
temporary, Edward William Lane, with whom he came into 
friendly conflict on the subject of the origin of The Thousand 
and One Nights, an assiduous worker, and in spite of many faults 
did more for oriental studies than most of his critics put together. 

Von Hammer's principal work is his Geschichte des osmanischen 
Reiches (10 vols., Pesth, 1827-1835). Another edition of this was 
published at Pesth in 1834-1835, and it has been translated into 
French by J. J. Hellert (1835-1843). Among his other works are 
Constantinopolis und, der Bosporos (1822); Sur les origines russes 
(St Petersburg, 1825) ; Geschichte der osmanischen Dichtkunst 
(1836); Geschichte der Goldenen Horde in Kiptschak (1840); Ge- 
schichte der Chane der Krim (1856); and an unfinished Litteratur- 
geschichte der Araber (1850-1856). His Geschichte der Assassinen 
(1818) has been translated into English by O. C. Wood (1835). 
Texts and translations Eth-Thaalabi, Arab, and Ger. (1829); 
Ibn Wahshiyah, History of the Mongols, Arab, and Eng. (1806); 
El-Wassaf, Pers. and Ger. (1856); Esch - Schebistani' s Rosenflor 
des Geheimnisses, Pers. and Ger. (1838); Ez - Zamakhsheri, Goldene 
Halsbdnder, Arab, and Germ. (1835); El-Ghazza.lt, Huj jet-el- 1 slam, 
Arab, and Ger. ( 1 838) ; El-Hamawi, Das arab. Hone Lied der Liebe, 
Arab, and Ger. (1854). Translations of El- Mutanebbi' s Poems; 
Er-Resmi's Account of his Embassy (1809); Contes inedits des 1001 
nuits (1828). Besides these and smaller works, von Hammer 
contributed numerous essays and criticisms to the Fundgruben des 
Orients, which he edited; to the Journal asiatique; and to many 
other learned journals; above all to the Transactions of the " Aka- 
demie der Wissenschaften " of Vienna, of which he was mainly the 



founder; and he translated Evliya Effendi's Travels in Europe, for 
the English Oriental Translation Fund. Fora fuller list of his works, 
which amount in all to nearly 100 volumes, see Comptes rendus of 
the Acad. des Inscr. et des Belles- Lettres (1857). See also Schlottman, 
Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall (Zurich, 1857). 

HAMMERSMITH, a western metropolitan borough of London, 
England, bounded E. by Kensington and S. by Fulham and the 
river Thames, and extending N. and W. to the boundary of 
the county of London. Pop. (1901) 112,239. The name appears 
in the early forms of Hermodewode and Hamer smith; the deriva- 
tion is probably from the Anglo-Saxon, signifying the place 
with a haven (hythe). Hammersmith is mentioned with Fulham 
as a winter camp of Danish invaders in 879, when they occupied 
the island of Hame, which may be identified with Chiswick 
Eyot. Hammersmith consists of residential streets of various 
classes. There are many good houses in the districts of Brook 
Green in the south-east, and Ravenscourt Park and Starch Green 
in the west. Shepherd's Bush in the east is a populous and poorer 
quarter. Boat-building yards, lead-mills, oil mills, distilleries, 
coach factories, motor works, and other industrial establish- 
ments are found along the river and elsewhere in the borough. 
The main thoroughfares are Uxbridge Road and Goldhawk 
Road, from Acton on the west, converging at Shepherd's Bush 
and continuing towards Netting Hill; King Street from Chiswick 
on the south-west, continued as Hammersmith Broadway and 
Road to Kensington Road; Bridge Road from Hammersmith 
Bridge over the Thames, and Fulham Palace Road from Fulham, 
converging at the Broadway. Old Hammersmith Bridge, 
designed by Tierney Clark (1824), was the earliest suspension 
bridge erected near London. This bridge was found insecure 
and replaced in 1884-1887. Until 1834 Hammersmith formed 
part of Fulham parish. Its church of St Paul was built as a 
chapel of ease to Fulham, and consecrated by Laud in 1631. 
The existing building dates from 1890. Among the old monu- 
ments preserved is that of Sir Nicholas Crispe (d. 1665), a 
prominent royalist during the civil wars and a benefactor of the 
parish. Schools and religious houses are numerous. St Paul's 
school is one of the principal public schools in England. It 
was founded in or about 1509 by John Colet, dean of St Paul's, 
under the shadow of the cathedral church. But it appears that 
Colet actually refounded and reorganized a school which had 
been attached to the cathedral of St Paul from very early times; 
the first mention of such a school dates from the early part of 
the 1 2th century (see an article in The Times, London, July 7, 
1909, on the occasion of the celebration of the quatercentenary 
of Colet 's foundation). The school was moved to its present site 
in Hammersmith Road in 1883. The number of foundation 
scholars, that is, the number for which Colet's endowment 
provided, is 153, according to the number of fishes taken in 
the miraculous draught. The total number of pupils is about 
600. The school governors are appointed by the Mercers' 
Company (by which body the new site was acquired), and the 
universities of Oxford, Cambridge and London. Close to the 
school is St Paul's preparatory school, and at Brook Green is a 
girls' school in connexion with the main school. There are, 
besides, the Edward Latymer foundation school for boys (1624), 
part of the income of which is devoted to general charitable 
purposes; the Godolphin school, founded in the i6th century 
and remodelled as a grammar school in 1861; Nazareth House 
of Little Sisters of the Poor, the Convent of the Sacred Heart, 
and other convents. The town hall, the West London hospital 
with its post-graduate college, and Wormwood Scrubbs prison 
are noteworthy buildings. Other institutions are the Hammer- 
smith school of art and a Roman Catholic training college. 
Besides the picturesque Ravenscourt Park (31 acres) there are 
extensive recreation grounds in the north of the borough at 
Wormwood Scrubbs (193 acres), and others of lesser extent. 
An important place of entertainment is Olympia, near Hammer- 
smith Road and the Addison Road station on the West London 
railway, which includes a vast arena under a glass roof; while 
at Shepherd's Bush are the extensive grounds and buildings 
first occupied by the Franco-British Exhibition of 1908, including 



HAMMER-THROWINGHAMMOND 



899 



a huge stadium for athletic displays. In the extreme north of 
the borough is the Kensal Green Roman Catholic cemetery, 
in which Cardinal Manning and many other prominent members 
of this faith are buried. In the neighbourhood of the Mall, 
bordering the river, are the house where Thomson wrote his 
poem "The Seasons," and Kelmscott House, the residence of 
William Morris. The parliamentary borough of Hammersmith 
returns one member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 
5 aldermen, and 30 councillors. Area, 2286-3 acres. 

HAMMER-THROWING, a branch of field athletics which 
consists of hurling to the greatest possible distance an instrument 
with a heavy head and slender handle called the hammer. 
Throwing the hammer is in all probability of Keltic origin, as 
it has been popular in Ireland and Scotland for many centuries. 
The missile was, however, not a hammer, but the wheel of a 
chariot attached to a fixed axle, by which it was whirled round 
the head and cast for distance. Such a sport was undoubtedly 
cultivated in the old Irish games, a large stone being substituted 
for the wheel at the beginning of the Christian era. In the 
Scottish highlands the missile took the form of a smith's sledge- 
hammer, and in this form the sport became popular in England 
in early days. Edward II. is said to have fostered it, and Henry 
VIII. is known to have been proficient. At the beginning of 
the 1 9th century two standard hammers were generally recognized 
in Scotland, the heavy hammer, weighing about 21 Ib, and the 
light hammer, weighing about 16 Ib. These were in general 
use until about 1885, although the light hammer gradually 
attained popularity at the expense of the heavy. Although 
originally an ordinary blacksmith's sledge with a handle about 
3 ft. long, the form of the head was gradually modified until it 
acquired its present spherical shape, and the stiff wooden handle 
gave place to one of flexible whalebone about f in. in diameter. 
The Scottish style of throwing, which also obtained in America, 
was to stand on a mark, swing the hammer round the head 
several times and hurl it backwards over the shoulder, the 
length being measured from the mark made by the falling hammer 
to the nearest foot of the thrower, no run or follow being allowed. 
Such men as Donald Dinnie, G. Davidson and Kenneth McRae 
threw the light hammer over no ft., and Dinnie's record was 
132 ft. 8 in., made, however, from a raised mount. Meanwhile 
the English Amateur Athletic Association had early fixed the 
weight of the hammer at 16 Ib, but the length of the handle 
and the run varied widely, the restrictions being few. Under 
these conditions S. S. Brown, of Oxford, made in 1873 a throw 
of 120 ft., which was considered extraordinary at the time. 
In 1875 the throw was made from a 7-ft. circle without run, head 
and handle of the missile weighing together exactly 16 ft. In 
1887 the circle was enlarged to 9 ft., and in 1896 a handle of 
flexible metal was legalized. The throw was made after a few 
rapid revolutions of the body, which added an impetus that 
greatly added to the distance attained. It thus happened that 
the Scottish competitors at the English games, who clung to 
their standing style of throwing, were, although athletes of 
the very first class, repeatedly beaten; the result being that 
the Scottish association was forced to introduce the English 
rules. This was also the case in America, where the throw 
from the 7-ft. circle, any motions being allowed within it, was 
adopted in 1888, and still obtains. The Americans still further 
modified the handle, which now consists of steel wire with two 
skeleton loops for the hands, the wire being joined to the head by 
means of a ball-bearing swivel. Thus the greatest mechanical 
advantage, that of having the entire weight of the missile at the 
end, as well as the least friction, is obtained. In England the 
Amateur Athletic Association in 1908 enacted that " the head 
and handle may be of any size, shape and material, provided 
that the complete implement shall not be more than 4 ft. and its 
weight not less than 16 Ib. The competitor may assume any 
position he chooses, and use either one or both hands. All 
throws shall be made from a circle 7 ft. in diameter." The 
modern hammer-thrower, if right-handed, begins by placing 
the head on the ground at his right side. He then lifts and 
swings it round his head with increasing rapidity, his whole 



body finally revolving with outstretched arms twice, in some 
cases three times, as rapidly as possible, the hammer being 
released in the desired direction. During the " spinning," or 
revolving of the body, the athlete must be constantly, " ahead of 
the hammer," i.e. he must be drawing it after him with continu- 
ally increased pressure up to the very moment of delivery. The 
muscles chiefly called into play are those of the shoulders, back 
and loins. The adoption of the hand-loops has given the thrower 
greater control over the hammer and has thus rendered the 
sport much less dangerous than it once was. 

With a wooden handle the longest throw made in Great Britain 
from a 9-ft. circle was that of W. J. M. Barry in 1892, who won the 
championship in that year with 133 ft. 3 in. With the flexible 
handle, " unlimited run and follow " being permitted, the record 
was held in 1909 by M. J. McGrath with 175 ft. 8 in., made in 1907; 
a Scottish amateur, T. R. Nicholson, held the British record of 169 ft. 
8 in. The world's record for throw from a 7-ft. circle was 172 ft. n in. 
by J. Flanagan in 1904 in America ; the British record from g-ft. circle 
being also held by Flanagan with a throw of 163 ft. I in. made in 1900. 
Flanagan's Olympic record (London, 1908) was 170 ft. 4} in. 

See Athletics in the Badminton library; Athletes' Guide in Spald- 
ing's Athletic library; " Hammer-Throwing " in vol. xx. of Outing. 

HAMMER-TOE, a painful condition in which a toe is rigidly 
bent and ths salient angle on its upper aspect is constantly 
irritated by the boot. It is treated surgically, not as formerly 
by amputation of the toe, but the toe is made permanently to 
lie flat by the simple excision of the small digital joint. Even 
in extremely bad cases of hammer-toe the operation of resection 
of the head of the metatarsal phalanx is to be recommended 
rather than amputation. 

HAMMOCK, a bed or couch slung from each end. The word 
is said to have been derived from the hamack tree, the bark of 
which was used by the aboriginal natives of Brazil to form the 
nets, suspended from trees, in which they slept. The hammock 
may be of matting, skin or textiles, lined with cushions or filled 
with bedding. It is much used in hot climates. 

HAMMOND, HENRY (1605-1660), English divine, was born at 
Chertsey in Surrey on the i8th of August 1605. He was edu- 
cated at Eton and at Magdalen College, Oxford, becoming demy 
or scholar in 1619, and fellow in 1625. He took orders in 1629, 
and in 1633 in preaching before the court so won the approval 
of the earl of Leicester that he presented him to the living of 
Penshurst in Kent. In 1643 he was made archdeacon of Chi- 
chester. He was a member of the convocation of 1640, and 
was nominated one of the Westminster Assembly of divines. 
Instead of sitting at Westminster he took part in the unsuccessful 
rising at Tunbridge in favour of King Charles I., and was obliged 
to flee in disguise to Oxford, then the royal headquarters. 
There he spent much of his time in writing, though he accom- 
panied the king's commissioners to London, and afterwards 
to the ineffectual convention at Uxbridge in 1645, where he 
disputed with Richard Vines, one of the parliamentary envoys. 
In his absence he was appointed canon of Christ Church and 
public orator of the university. These dignities he relinquished 
for a time in order to attend the king as chaplain during his 
captivity in the hands of the parliament. When Charles was 
deprived of all his loyal attendants at Christmas 1647, Hammond 
returned to Oxford and was made subdean of Christ Church, 
only, however, to be removed from all his offices by the parlia- 
mentary visitors, who imprisoned him for ten weeks. After- 
wards he was permitted, though still under quasi-confinement, 
to retire to the house of Philip Warwick at Clapham in Bedford- 
shire. In 1650, having regained his full liberty, Hammond 
betook himself to the friendly mansion of Sir John Pakington, 
at Westwood, in Worcestershire, where he died on the 2Sth of 
April 1660, just on the eve of his preferment to the see of 
Worcester. Hammond was held in high esteem even by his 
opponents. He was handsome in person and benevolent in 
disposition. He was an excellent preacher; Charles I. pro- 
nounced him the most natural orator he had ever heard. His 
range of reading was extensive, and he was a most diligent 
scholar and writer. 

His writings, published in 4 vols. fol. (1674-1684), consist for the 
most part of controversial sermons and tracts. The Anglo- Catholic 



HAMMOND HAMPDEN, JOHN 



900 

Library contains four volumes of his Miscellaneous Theological 
Works f (1847-1850). The best of them are his Practical Catechism, 
first published m 1644; his Paraphrase and Annotations on the 
New Testament; and an incomplete work of a similar nature on the 
Old Testament. His Life, a delightful piece of biography, written 
by Bishop Fell, and prefixed to the collected Works, has been re- 
printed in vol. iv. of Wordsworth's Ecclesiastical Biography. See 
also Life of Henry Hammond, by G. G. Perry. 

HAMMOND, a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., about 
18 m. S.E. of the business centre of Chicago, on the Grand 
Calumet river. Pop. (1890), 5428; (1900) 12,376, of whom 3156 
were foreign-born; (1910, census) 20,925. It is served by no 
fewer than eight railways approaching Chicago from the east, 
and by several belt lines. As far as its industries are concerned, 
it is a part of Chicago, to which fact it owes its rapid growth 
and its extensive manufacturing establishments, which include 
slaughtering and packing houses, iron and steel works, chemical 
works, piano, wagon and carriage factories, printing establish- 
ments, flour and starch mills, glue works, breweries and dis- 
tilleries. In 1900 Hammond was the principal slaughtering and 
meat-packing centre of the state, but subsequently a large 
establishment removed from the city, and Hammond's total 
factory product (all industries) decreased from $25,070,551 in 
1900 to $7,671,203 in 1905; after 1905 there was renewed 
growth in the city's manufacturing interests. It has a good 
water-supply system which is owned by the city. Hammond 
was first settled about 1868, was named in honour of Abram 
A. Hammond (acting governor of the state in 1860-1861) and 
was chartered as a city in 1883. 

HAMON, JEAN LOUIS (1821-1874), French painter, was 
born at Plouha on the sth of May 1821. At an early age he was 
intended for the priesthood, and placed under the care of the 
brothers Lamennais, but his strong desire to become a painter 
finally triumphed over family opposition, and in 1840 he courage- 
ously left Plouha for Paris his sole resources being a pension 
of five hundred francs, granted him for one year only by the 
municipality of his native town. At Paris Hamon received valu- 
able counsels and encouragement from Delaroche and Gleyre, 
and in 1848 he made his appearance at the Salon with " Le 
Tombeau du Christ " (Musee de Marseille) , and a decorative work, 
" Dessus de Porte." The works which he exhibited in 1849 
" Une Affiche romaine," " L'Egalite au serail," and " Perroquet 
jasant avec deux jeunes filles " obtained no marked success. 
Hamon was therefore content to accept a place in the manu- 
factory of Sevres, but an enamelled casket by his hand having 
attracted notice at the London International Exhibition of 1851, 
he received a medal, and, reinspired by success, left his post to 
try his chances again at the Salon of 1852. " La Comedie 
humaine," which he then exhibited, turned the tide of his 
fortune, and " Ma soeur n'y est pas " (purchased by the emperor) 
obtained for its author a third-class medal in 1853. At the Paris 
International Exhibition of 1855, when Hamon re-exhibited 
the casket of 1851, together with several vases and pictures of 
which " L' Amour et son troupeau," " Ce n'est pas moi," and 
"Une Gardeuse d'enfants" were the chief, he received a medal 
of the second class, and the ribbon of the legion of honour. In 
the following year he was absent in the East, but in 1857 he 
reappeared with " Boutique a quatre sous," " Papillon en- 
chaine," " Cantharide esclave," " Devideuses," &c., in all ten 
pictures; " L' Amour en visile " was contributed to the Salon 
of 1859, and " Vierge de Lesbos," " Tutelle," " La Voliere," 
" L'Escamoteur " and "La Soeur ainee" were all seen in 1861. 
Hamon now spent some time in Italy, chiefly at Capri, whence 
in 1864 he sent to Paris " L' Aurore " and " Un Jour de fiancailles." 
The influence of Italy was also evident in " Les Muses a Pompei," 
his sole contribution to the Salon of 1866, a work which enjoyed 
great popularity and was re-exhibited at the Internationa! 
Exhibition of 1867, together with " La Promenade " and six 
other pictures of previous years. His last work, " Le Triste 
Rivage," appeared at the Salon of 1873. It was painted at 
St Raphael, where Hamon had finally settled in a little house 
on the shores of the Mediterranean, close by Alphonse Karr's 
famous garden. In this house he died on the 29th of May 1874 



HAMPDEN, HENRY BOUVERIE WILLIAM BRAND, IST 

VISCOUNT' (1812-1892), speaker of the House of Commons, 
was the second son of the 2ist Baron Dacre, and descended from 
ohn Hampden, the patriot, in the female line; the barony 
of Dacre devolved on him in 1890, after he had been created 
Viscount Hampden in 1 884. He entered parliament as a Liberal 
n 1852, and for some time was chief whip of his party. In 1872 
le was elected speaker, and retained this post till February 
1884. It fell to him to deal with the systematic obstruction of 
:he Irish Nationalist party, and his speakership is memorable 
Jor his action on the 2nd of February 1881 in refusing further 
debate on W. E. Forster's Coercion Bill a step which led to the 
'ormal introduction of the closure into parliamentary procedure. 
He died on the I4th of March 1892, being succeeded as 2nd 
viscount by his son (b. 1841), who was governor of New South 
Wales, 1895-1899. 

HAMPDEN, JOHN (c. 1595-1643), English statesman, the 
eldest son of William Hampden, of Great Hampden in Bucking- 
lamshire, a descendant of a very ancient family of that place, 
said to have been established there before the Conquest, and of 
Elizabeth, second daughter of Sir Henry Cromwell, and aunt 
of Oliver, the future protector, was born about the year 1595. 
By his father's death, when he was but a child, he became the 
Owner of a good estate and a ward of the crown. He was 
educated at the grammar school at Thame, and on the 3Oth of 
March 1610 became a commoner of Magdalen College at Oxford, 
[n 1 6 1 3 he was admitted a student of the Inner Temple. He first 
sat in parliament for the borough of Grampound in 1621, repre- 
senting later Wendover in the first three parliaments of Charles I., 
Buckinghamshire in the Short Parliament of 1640, and Wendover 
again in the Long Parliament. In the early days of his parlia- 
mentary career he was content to be overshadowed by Eliot, 
as in its later days he was content to be overshadowed by Pym 
and to be commanded by Essex. Yet it is Hampden, and not 
Eliot or Pym, who lives in the popular imagination as the central 
figure of the English revolution in its earlier stages. It is 
Hampden whose statue rather than that of Eliot or Pym has 
been selected to take its place in St Stephen's Hall as the noblest 
type of the parliamentary opposition, as Falkland's has been 
selected as the noblest type of parliamentary royalism. 

Something of Hampden's fame no doubt is owing to the 
position which he took up as the opponent of ship-money. But 
it is hardly possible that even resistance to ship-money would 
have so distinguished him but for the mingled massiveness and 
modesty of his character, his dislike of all pretences in himself 
or others, his brave contempt of danger, and his charitable 
readiness to shield others as far as possible from the evil 
consequences of their actions. Nor was he wanting in that skill 
which enabled him to influence men towards the ends at which 
he aimed, and which was spoken of as subtlety by those who 
disliked his ends. 

During these first parliaments Hampden did not, so far as 
we know, open his lips in public debate, but he was increasingly 
employed in committee work, for which he seems to have had 
a special aptitude. In 16 26 he took an active part in the prepara- 
tion of the charges against Buckingham. In January 1627 he was 
bound over to answer at the council board for his refusal to pay 
the forced loan. Later in the year he was committed to the gate- 
house, and then sent into confinement in Hampshire, from which 
he was liberated just before the meeting of the third parliament 
of the reign, in which he once more rendered useful but un- 
obtrusive assistance to his leaders. 

When the breach came in 1629 Hampden is found in epis- 
tolary correspondence with the imprisoned Eliot, discussing with 
him the prospects of the Massachusetts colony, 2 or rendering 

1 An earlier viscountcy was bestowed in 1776 on Robert Hampden- 
Trevor, 4th Baron Trevor (1706-1783), a great-grandson of the 
daughter of John Hampden, the patriot; it became extinct m 1824 
by the death of the 3rd viscount. 

2 Hampden was one of the persons to whom the earl of Warwick 
granted land in Connecticut, but for the anecdote which relates his 
attempted emigration with Cromwell there is no foundation (v. under 
JOHN PYM). 



HAMPDEN, JOHN 



hospitality and giving counsel to the patriot's sons now that they 
were deprived of a father's personal care. It was not till 1637, 
however, that his resistance to the payment of ship-money 
gained for his name the lustre which it has never since lost. 
(See SHIP-MONEY.) Seven out of the twelve judges sided against 
him, but the connexion between the rights of property and the 
parliamentary system was firmly established in the popular 
mind. The tax had been justified, says Clarendon, who expresses 
his admiration at Hampden's " rare temper and modesty " 
at this crisis, " upon such grounds and reasons as every stander- 
by was able to swear was not law " (Hist. i. 150, vii. 82). 

In the Short Parliament of 1640 Hampden stood forth amongst 
the leaders. He guided the House in the debate on the 4th of 
May in its opposition to the grant of twelve subsidies in return 
for the surrender of ship-money. Parliament was dissolved the 
next day, and on the 6th an unsuccessful search was made among 
the papers of Hampden and of other chiefs of the party to 
discover incriminating correspondence with the Scots. During 
the eventful months which followed, when Strafford was striv- 
ing in vain to force England, in spite of its visible reluctance, 
to support the king in his Scottish war, rumour has much to tell 
of Hampden's activity in rousing opposition. It is likely enough 
that the rumour is in the main true, but we are not possessed 
of any satisfactory evidence on the subject. 

In the Long Parliament, though Hampden was by no means 
a frequent speaker, it is possible to trace his course with sufficient 
distinctness. His power consisted in his personal influence, 
and as a debater rather than as an orator. " He was not a man 
of many words," says Clarendon, " and rarely began the discourse 
or made the first entrance upon any business that was assumed, 
but a very weighty speaker, and after he had heard a full debate 
and observed how the House was likely to be inclined, took up 
the argument and shortly and clearly and craftily so stated it 
that he commonly conducted it to the conclusion he desired; 
and if he found he could not do that, he never was without the 
dexterity to divert the debate to another time, and to prevent the 
determining anything in the negative which might prove incon- 
venient in the future " (Hist. iii. 31). Unwearied in attendance 
upon committees, he was in all things ready to second Pym, 
whom he plainly regarded as his leader. Hampden was one of 
the eight managers of Strafford's prosecution. Like Pym, he 
was in favour of the more legal and regular procedure by im- 
peachment rather than by attainder, which at the later stage 
was supported by the majority of the Commons; and through 
his influence a compromise was effected by which, while an 
attainder was subsequently adopted, Strafford's counsel were 
heard as in the case of an impeachment, and thus a serious breach 
between the two Houses, which threatened to cause the break- 
down of the whole proceedings, was averted. 

There was another point on which there was no agreement. 
A large minority wished to retain Episcopacy, and to keep the 
common Prayer Book unaltered, whilst the majority were at 
least willing to consider the question of abolishing the one and 
modifying the other. On this subject the parties which ulti- 
mately divided the House and the country itself were fully 
formed as early as the 8th of February 1641. It is enough to 
say that (v. under PYM) Hampden fully shared in the counsels of 
the opponents of Episcopacy. It is not that he was a theoretical 
Presbyterian, but the bishops had been in his days so fully 
engaged in the imposition of obnoxious ceremonies that it was 
difficult, if not impossible, to dissociate them from the cause in 
which they were embarked. Closely connected with Hampden's 
distrust of the bishops was his distrust of monarchy as it then 
existed. The dispute about the church therefore soon attained 
the form of an attack upon monarchy, and, when the majority 
of the House of Lords arrayed itself on the side of Episcopacy 
and the Prayer Book, of an attack upon the House of Lords as 
well. 

No serious importance therefore can be attached to the offers 
of advancement made from time to time to Hampden and his 
friends. Charles would gladly have given them office if they had 
been ready to desert their principles. Every day Hampden's 



901 

conviction grew stronger that Charles would never abandon the 
position which he had taken up. In August 1640 Hampden 
was one of the four commissioners who attended Charles in 
Scotland, and the king's conduct there, connected with such 
events as the " Incident," must have proved to a man far less 
sagacious than Hampden that the time for compromise had gone 
by. He was therefore a warm supporter of the Grand Remon- 
strance, and was marked out as one of the five impeached 
members whose attempted arrest brought at last the opposing 
parties into open collision (see also PYM, STRODE, HOLLES and 
LENTHALL). In the angry scene which arose on the proposal 
to print the Grand Remonstrance, it was Hampden's personal 
intervention which prevented an actual conflict, and it was after 
the impeachment had been attempted that Hampden laid down 
the two conditions under which resistance to the king became 
the duty of a good subject. Those conditions were an attack 
upon religion and an attack upon the fundamental laws. There 
can be no doubt that Hampden fully believed that both those 
conditions were fulfilled at the opening of 1642. 

When the Civil War began, Hampden was appointed a member 
of the committee for safety, levied a regiment of Buckingham- 
shire men for the parliamentary cause, and in his capacity of 
deputy-lieutenant carried out the parliamentary militia ordinance 
in the county. In the earlier operations of the war he bore him- 
self gallantly and well. He took no actual part in the battle of 
Edgehill. His troops in the rear, however, arrested Rupert's 
charge at Kineton, and he urged Essex to renew the attack here, 
and also after the disaster at Brentford. In 1643 he was present 
at the siege and capture of Reading. But it is not on his skill 
as a regimental officer that Hampden's fame rests. In war as 
in peace his distinction lay in his power of disentangling the 
essential part from the non-essential. In the previous con- 
stitutional struggle he had seen that the one thing necessary was 
to establish the supremacy of the House of Commons. In the 
military struggle which followed he saw, as Cromwell saw 
afterwards, that the one thing necessary was to beat the enemy. 
He protested at once against Essex's hesitations and com- 
promises. In the formation of the confederacy of the six 
associated counties, which was to supply a basis for Cromwell's 
operations, he took an active part. His influence was felt alike 
in parliament and in the field. But he was not in supreme 
command, and he had none of that impatience which often 
leads able men to fail in the execution of orders of whirh they 
disapprove. His precious life was a sacrifice to his unselfish 
devotion to the call of discipline and duty. On the i8th of June 
1643, when he was holding out on Chalgrove Field against the 
superior numbers of Rupert till reinforcements arrived, he 
received two carbine balls in the shoulder. Leaving the field 
he reached Thame, survived six days, and died on the 24th. 

Hampden married (i) in 1619 Elizabeth, daughter of Edmund 
Symeon of Pyrton, Oxfordshire, and (2) Letitia, daughter of 
Sir Francis Knollys and widow of Sir Thomas Vachell. By his 
first wifehe had nine children, one of whom, Richard (1631-1695) 
was chancellor of the exchequer in William III.'s reign; from 
two of his daughters are descended the families of Trevor- 
Hampden and Hobart-Hampden, the descent in the male line 
becoming apparently extinct in 1754 in the person of John 
Hampden. 

JOHN HAMPDEN the younger (c. 1656-1696), the second son 
of Richard Hampden, returned to England after residing for 
about two years in France, and joined himself to Lord William 
Russell and Algernon Sidney and the party opposed to the 
arbitrary government of Charles II. With Russell and Sidney 
he was arrested in 1683 for alleged complicity in the Rye House 
Plot, but more fortunate than his colleagues his life was spared, 
although as he was unable to pay the fine of 40,000 which was 
imposed upon him he remained in prison. Then in 1685, after 
the failure of Monmouth's rising, Hampden was again brought 
to trial, and on a charge of high treason was condemned to death. 
But the sentence was not carried out, and having paid 6000 
he was set at liberty. In the Convention parliament of 1689 he 
represented Wendover, but in the subsequent parliaments he 



HAMPDEN, R. D. HAMPSHIRE 



failed to secure a seat. He died by his own hand on the I2th 
of December 1696. Hampden wrote numerous pamphlets, and 
Bishop Burnet described him as " one of the learnedest gentlemen 
I ever knew." 

See S. R. Gardiner's Hist, of England and of the Great Civil War ; 
the article on Hampden in the Diet, of Nat. Biography, by C. H. 
Firth, with authorities there collected ; Clarendon's Hist, of the 
Rebellion; Sir Philip Warwick's Mems. p. 239; Wood's Alh. 
Oxon. iii. 59; Lord Nugent's Memorials of John Hampden (1831); 
Macaulay's Essay on Hampden (1831). The printed pamphlet 
announcing his capture of Reading in December 1642 is shown by 
Mr Firth to be spurious, and the account in Mercurius Aulicus, 
January 27 and 29, 1643, of Hampden commanding an attack at 
Brill, to be also false, while the published speech supposed to be 
spoken by Hampden on the 4th of January 1642, and reproduced 
by Forster in the Arrest of the Five Members (1660), has been proved 
by Gardiner to be a forgery (Hist, of England, x. 135). Mr Firth 
has also shown in The Academy for 1889, November 2 and 9, that 
" the belief that we possess the words of Hampden's last prayer 
must be abandoned." 

HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON (1793-1868), English divine, 
was born in Barbados, where his father was colonel of militia, 
in 1793, and was educated at Oriel College, Oxford. Having 
taken his B.A. degree with first-class honours in both classics 
and mathematics in 1813, he next year obtained the chancellor's 
prize for a Latin essay, and shortly afterwards was elected to 
a fellowship in his college, Keble, Newman and Arnold being 
among his contemporaries. Having left the university in 1816 
he held successively a number of curacies, and in 1827 he pub- 
lished Essays on the Philosophical Evidence of Christianity, 
followed by a volume of Parochial Sermons illustrative of Ike 
Importance of the Revelation of God in Jesus Christ (1828). In 
1829 he returned to Oxford and was Bampton lecturer in 1832. 
Notwithstanding a charge of Arianismnow brought against him 
by the Tractarian party, he in 1833 passed from a tutorship 
at Oriel to the principalship of St Mary's Hall. In 1834 he was 
appointed professor of moral philosophy, and despite much 
university opposition, Regius professor of divinity in 1836. 
There resulted a widespread and violent though ephemeral 
controversy, after the subsidence of which he published a Lecture 
on Tradition, which passed through several editions, and a volume 
on The Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England. His 
nomination by Lord John Russell to the vacant see of Hereford 
in December 1847 was again the signal for a violent and organized 
opposition; and his consecration in March 1848 took place in 
spite of a remonstrance by many of the bishops and the resistance 
of Dr John Merewether, the dean of Hereford, who went so far 
as to vote against the election when the conge d'elire reached 
the chapter. As bishop of Hereford Dr Hampden made no 
change in his long-formed habits of studious seclusion, and 
though he showed no special ecclesiastical activity or zeal, the 
diocese certainly prospered in his charge. Among the more 
important of his later writings were the articles on Aristotle, 
Plato and Socrates, contributed to the eighth edition of the 
Encyclopaedia Britannica, and afterwards reprinted with 
additions under the title of The Fathers of Greek Philosophy 
(Edinburgh, 1862). In 1866 he had a paralytic seizure, and 
died in London on the 23rd of April 1868. 

His daughter, Henrietta Hampden, published Some Memorials of 
R. D. Hampden in 1871. 

HAMPDEN-SIDNEY, a village of Prince Edward county, 
Virginia, U.S.A., about 70 m. S.W. of Richmond. Pop. about 
350. Daily stages connect the village with Farmville (pop. in 
1910, 2971), the county-seat, 6 m. N.E., which is served by the 
Norfolk & Western and the Tidewater & Western railways. 
Hampden-Sidney is the seat of Hampden-Sidney College, 
founded by the presbytery of Hanover county as Hampden- 
Sidney Academy in 1 7 76, and named in honour of John Hampden 
and Algernon Sidney. It was incorporated as Hampden-Sidney 
College in 1783. The incorporators included James Madison, 
Patrick Henry (who is believed to have drafted the college 
charter), Paul Carrington, William Cabell, Sen., and Nathaniel 
Venable. The Union Theological School was established in 
connexion with the college in 1812, but in 1898 was removed 
to Richmond, Virginia. In 1907-1908 the college had 8 in- 



structors, 125 students, and a library of 11,000 volumes. The 
college has maintained a high standard of instruction, and many 
of its former students have been prominent as public men, 
educationalists and preachers. Among them were President 
William Henry Harrison, William H. Cabell (1772-1853), 
president of the Virginia Court of Appeals; George M. Bibb 
(1772-1859), secretary of the treasury (1844-1845) in President 
Tyler's cabinet; William B. Preston (1805-1862), secretary of 
the navy in 1849-1850; William Cabell Rives and General 
Sterling Price (1809-1867). 

HAMPSHIRE (or COUNTY OF SOUTHAMPTON, abbreviated 
HANTS) , a southern county of England, bounded N. by Berkshire, 
E. by Surrey and Sussex, S. by the English Channel, and W. 
by Dorsetshire and Wiltshire. The area is 1623-5 sq. m. From 
the coast of the mainland, which is for the most part low and 
irregular, a strait, known in its western part as the Solent, and 
in its eastern as Spithead, separates the Isle of Wight. This 
island is included in the county. The inlet of Southampton 
Water opens from this strait, penetrating inland in a north- 
westerly direction for 1 2 m. The easterly part of the coast forms 
a large shallow bay containing Hayling and Portsea Islands, 
which divide it into Chichester Harbour, Langston Harbour 
and Portsmouth Harbour. The westerly part forms the more 
regular indentations of Christchurch Bay and part of Poole Bay. 
In its general aspect Hampshire presents a beautiful variety of 
gently rising hills and fruitful valleys, adorned with numerous 
mansions and pleasant villages, and interspersed with extensive 
tracts of woodland. Low ranges of hills, included in the system 
to which the general name of the Western Downs is given, reach 
their greatest elevation in the northern and eastern parts of the 
county, where there are many pkturesque eminences, of which 
Beacon, Sidown and Pilot hills near Highclere in the north-west, 
each exceeding 850 ft. , are the highest. The portion of the county 
west of Southampton Water is almost wholly included in the 
New Forest, a sequestered district, one of the few remaining 
examples of an ancient afforested tract. The river Avon in the 
south-west rises in Wiltshire, and passing Fordingbridge and 
Ringwood falls into Christchurch Bay below Christchurch, 
being joined close to its mouth by the Stour. The Lymington 
or Boldre river rises in the New Forest, and after collecting the 
waters of several brooks falls into the Solent through Lymington 
Creek. The Beaulieu in the eastern part of the forest also enters 
the Solent by way of a long and picturesque estuary. The 
Test rises near Overton in the north, and after its junction with 
the Anton at Fullerton passes Stockbridge and Romsey, and 
enters the head of Southampton Water. The Itchen rises near 
Alresford, and flowing by Winchester and Eastleigh falls into 
Southampton Water east of Southampton. The Hamble rises 
near Bishops Waltham, and soon forms a narrow estuary opening 
into Southampton Water. The Wey, the Loddon and the Black- 
water, rising in the north-eastern part of the county, bring that 
part into the basin of the Thames. The streams from the chalk 
hills run clear and swift, and the trout-fishing in the county is 
famous. Salmon are taken in the Avon. 

Geology. Somewhat to the north of the centre of the county is 
a broad expanse of hilly chalk country about 21 m. wide; the whole 
of it has been bent up into a great fold so that the strata on the north 
dip northward steeply in places, while those on the south dip in the 
opposite direction more gently. In the north the chalk disappears 
beneath Tertiary strata of the " London Basin," and some little 
distance south of Winchester it runs in a similar manner beneath 
the Tertiaries of the " Hampshire Basin." Scattered here and there 
over the chalk are small outlying remnants which remain to show 
that the two Tertiary areas were once continuous, before the agencies 
of denudation had removed them from the chalk. These same 
agencies have exposed the strata beneath the chalk over a small 
area on the eastern border. 

The oldest formation in Hampshire is the Lower Greensand in the 
neighbourhood of Woolmer Forest and Petersfield ; it is represented 
by the Hythe beds, sandstones and limestones which form the 
high ridge which runs on towards Hind Head, then by the sands 
and clays of the Sandgate beds which lie in the low ground west 
of the ridge, and finally by the Folkestone beds; all these dip 
westward beneath the Gault. The last-named formation, a clay, 
worked here and there for bricks, crops out as a narrow band from 
Fareham through Worldham and Stroud common to Petersfield. 



HAMPSHIRE 



903 



Between the Gault and the chalk is the Upper Greensand with a 
hard bed of calcareous sandstone, the Malm rock, which stands 
up in places as a prominent escarpment. The Upper Greensand is 
also exposed at Burghclere as an inlier; the rocks are bent into 
a sharp anticline and the chalk, having been denuded from its crest, 
the older sandy strata are brought to light. A much more gentle 
anticline brings up the chalk through the Tertiary rocks in the neigh- 
bourhood of Fareham. Besides occupying the central region already 
mentioned, which includes Basingstoke, Whitchurch, Andover, 
Alresford and Winchester, the chalk appears also in a small patch 
round Rockbourne. The Tertiary rocks of the north (London basin) 
about Farnborough, Aldershot and Kingsclere, comprise the Reading 
beds, London clay and the more sandy Bagshot beds which cover 
the latter in many places, giving rise to heathy commons. The 
southern Tertiary rocks of the Hampshire basin include the Lower 
Eocene Reading beds used for brick-making and the London 
clay which extend from the boundary of the chalk by Romsey, 
Bishop's Waltham, to Havant. These are succeeded towards the 
south by the Upper Eocene beds, the Bracklesham beds and the 
Barton clay. The Barton clays are noted for their abundant 
fossils and the Bagshot beds at Bournemouth contain numerous 
remains of subtropical plants. A series of clays and sands of 
Oligocene age (unknown in the London basin) are found in the 
vicinity of Lymington, Brockenhurst and Beaulieu; they include 
the Headon beds, with a fluvio-marine fauna, well exposed at Hord- 
well cliffs, and the marine beds of Brockenhurst. Numerous small 
outliers of Tertiary rocks are scattered over the chalk area, and 
many of the chalk and Tertiary areas are obscured by patches of 
Pleistocene deposits of brick earth and gravel. 

Agriculture and Industries.- Nearly seven-tenths of the total area 
is undercultivation (an amount below the average of English counties) 
andof thisareaabouttwo-fifthsisinpermanent pasture. The acreage 
under oats is roughly equal to that under wheat and barley. Small 
quantities of rye and hops are cultivated. Barley is usually sown 
after turnips, and is more grown in the uplands than in the lower 
levels. Beans, pease and potatoes are only grown to a small extent. 
On account of the number of sheep pastured on the uplands a large 
acreage of turnips is grown. Rotation grasses are grown chiefly 
in the uplands, and their acreage is greater than in any other of 
the southern counties of England. Sanfoin is the grass most largely 
grown, as it is best adapted to land with a calcareous subsoil. In 
the lower levels no sanfoin and scarcely any clover is grown, the hay 
being supplied from the rich water meadows, which are managed 
with great skill and attention, and give the best money return of any 
lands in the county. Where a rapid stream of water can be passed 
over them during the winter it seldom becomes frozen, and the grasses 
grow during the cold weather so as to be fit for pasture before any 
traces of vegetation appear in the surrounding fields. Hops are 
grown in the eastern part of the county bordering on Surrey. Farm- 
ing is generally conducted on the best modern principles, but owing 
to the varieties of soil there is perhaps no county in England in which 
the rotation observed is more diversified, or the processes and 
methods more varied. Most of the farms are large, and there are a 
number of model farms. The waste land has been mostly brought 
under tillage, but a very large acreage of the ancient forests is still 
occupied by wood. In addition to the New Forest there are in the 
east Woolmer Forest and Alice Holt, in the south-east the Forest of 
Bere and Waltham Chase, and in the Isle of Wight Parkhurst Forest. 
The honey of the county is especially celebrated. Much attention 
is paid to the rearing of sheep and cattle. The original breed of 
sheep was white-faced with horns, but most of the flocks are now of 
a Southdown variety which have acquired certain distinct peculiari- 
ties, and are known as " short wools " or " Hampshire downs." 
Cattle are of no distinctive breed, and are kept largely for dairy 
purposes, especially for the supply of milk. The breeding and rear- 
ing of horses is widely practised, and the fattening of pigs has long 
been an important industry. The original breed of pigs is crossed 
with Berkshire, Essex and Chinese pigs. In the vicinity of the forest 
the pigs are fed on acorns and beechmast, and the flesh of those so 
reared is considered the best, though the reputation of Hampshire 
bacon depends chiefly on the skilful manner in which it is cured. 

The manufactures are unimportant, except those carried on at 
Portsmouth and Gosport in connexion with the royal navy. South- 
ampton is one of the principal ports in the kingdom. In many of the 
towns there are breweries and tanneries, and paper is manufactured 
at several places. Fancy pottery and terra-cotta are made at 
Fareham and Bishop's Waltham; and Ringwood is celebrated for its 
knitted gloves. At most of the coast towns fishing is carried on, 
and there are oyster beds at Hayling Island. Cowes in the Isle of 
Wight is the station of the Royal Yacht Squadron, and has building 
yards for yachts and large vessels. The principal seaside resorts 
besides those in the Isle of Wight are Bournemouth, Milford, Lee-on- 
the-Solent, Southsea and South Hayling. Aldershot is the principal 
military training centre in the British Isles. 

Communications. Communications are provided mainly by the 
lines of the London & South-Western railway company, which also 
owns the docks at Southampton. The main line serves Farnborough, 
Basingstoke, Whitchurch and Andover, and a branch diverges 
southward from Basingstoke for Winchester, Southampton and the 
New Forest and Bournemouth. An alternative line from eastward 



to Winchester serves Aldershot, Alton and Alresford. The main 
Portsmouth line skirts the south-eastern border by Petersfield to 
Havant, where it joins the Portsmouth line of the London, Brighton 
& South Coast railway. The South-Western system also connects 
Portsmouth and Gosport with Southampton, has numerous branches 
in the Southampton and south-western districts, and large work 
shops at Eastleigh near Southampton. The Great Western company 
serves Basingstoke from Reading and Whitchurch, Winchester and 
Southampton from Didcot (working the Didcot, Newbury & South- 
ampton line); the Midland & South-Western Junction line connects 
Andover with Cheltenham; and the Somerset & Dorset (also a 
Midland & South-Western joint line) connects Bournemouth with 
Bath all these affording through communications between South- 
ampton, Bournemouth, and the midlands and north of England. 
None of the rivers, except in the estuarine parts, is navigable. 

Population and Administration. The area of the ancient county 
is 1,039,031 acres, including the Isle of Wight. The population 
was 690,097 in 1891 and 797,634 in 1901. The area of the adminis- 
trative county of Southampton is 958,742 acres, and that of the ad- 
ministrative county of the Isle of Wight 94,068 acres. The county 
is divided for parliamentary purposes into the following divisions: 
Northern or Basingstoke, Western or Andover, Eastern or Petersfield, 
Southern or Fareham, New Forest, and Isle of Wight, each return- 
ing one member. It also includes the parliamentary boroughs of 
Portsmouth and Southampton, each returning two members, and 
of Christchurch and Winchester, each returning one. There are 1 1 
municipal boroughs: Andover (pop. 6509), Basingstoke (9793), 
Bournemouth (59,762), Christchurch (4204), Lymington (4165), 
Portsmouth (188,133), Romsey (4365), Southampton (104,824), 
Winchester (20,929), and in the Isle of Wight, Newport (10,911) 
and Ryde (11,043). Bournemouth, Portsmouth and Southampton 
are county boroughs. The following are urban districts: Aldershot 
(30,974). Alton (5479), Eastleigh and Bishopstoke (9317), Fareham 
(8246), Farnborough (11,500), Gosport and Alverstoke (28,884), 
Havant (3837), Itchen (13,097), Petersfield (3265), Warblington 
(3639); and in the Isle of Wight, Cowes (8652), East Cowes 
(3196), St Helen's (4652), Sandown (5006), Shanklin (4533), Ventnor 
(5866). The county is in the western circuit, and assizes are held 
at Winchester. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided 
into 14 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Andover, Basing- 
stoke, Bournemouth, Lymington, Newport, Portsmouth, Romsey, 
Ryde, Southampton (a county in itself) and Winchester have 
separate commissions of the peace, and the boroughs of Andover, 
Bournemouth, Portsmouth, Southampton and Winchester have 
in addition separate courts of quarter sessions. There are 394 civil 
parishes. Hampshire is in the diocese of Winchester, excepting 
small parts in those of Oxford and Salisbury, and contains 411 
ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in parit. 

History. The earliest English settlers in the district which 
is now Hampshire were a Jutish tribe who occupied the northern 
parts of the Isle of Wight and the valleys of the Meon and the 
Hamble. Their settlements were, however, unimportant, and 
soon became absorbed in the territory of the West Saxons who 
in 495 landed at the mouth of the Itchen under the leadership 
of Cerdic and Cynric, and in 508 slew 5000 Britons and their 
king. But it was not until after another decisive victory at 
Charford in 519 that the district was definitely organized as 
West Saxon territory under the rule of Cerdic and Cynric, thus 
becoming the nucleus of the vast later kingdom of Wessex. The 
Isle of Wight was subjugated in 530 and bestowed on Stuf and 
Wihtgar, the nephews of Cerdic. The Northmen made their first 
attack on the Hampshire coast in 835, and for the two centuries 
following the district was the scene of perpetual devastations 
by the Danish pirates, who made their headquarters in the Isle 
of Wight, from which they plundered the opposite coast. Hamp- 
shire suffered less from the Conquest than almost any English 
county, and was a favourite resort of the Norman kings. The 
alleged destruction of property for the formation of the New 
Forest is refuted by the Domesday record, which shows that 
this district had never been under cultivation. 

In the civil war of Stephen's reign Baldwin de Redvers, lord 
of the Isle of Wight, supported the empress Matilda, and Win- 
chester Castle was secured in her behalf by Robert of Gloucester, 
while the neighbouring fortress of Wolvesey was held for Stephen 
by Bishop Henry de Blois. In 1216 Louis of France, having 
arrived in the county by invitation of the barons, occupied 
Winchester Castle, and only met with resistance at Odiham 
Castle, which made a brave stand against him for fifteen days. 
During the Wars of the Roses Anthony Woodville, and earl 
Rivers, defeated the duke of Clarence at Southampton, and in 
1471, after the battle of Barnet, the countess of Warwick took 



94 



HAMPSHIRE 



sanctuary at Beaulieu Abbey. The chief events connected 
with Hampshire in the Civil War of the ryth century were the 
gallant resistance of the cavalier garrisons at Winchester and 
Basing House; a skirmish near Cheriton in 1644 notable as the 
last battle fought on Hampshire soil; and the concealment of 
Charles at Titchfield in 1647 before his removal to Carisbrooke. 
The duke of Monmouth, whose rebellion met with considerable 
support in Hampshire, was captured in 1685 near Ringwood. 

Hampshire was among the earliest shires to be created, and 
must have received its name before the revival of Winchester 
in the latter half of the 7th century. It is first mentioned in the 
Saxon chronicle in 755, at which date the boundaries were 
practically those of the present day. The Domesday Survey 
mentions 44 hundreds in Hampshire, but by the I4th century 
the number had been reduced to 37. The hundreds of East 
Medina and West Medina in the Isle of Wight are mentioned in 
1316. Constables of the hundreds were first appointed by the 
Statute of Winchester in 1285, and the hundred court continued 
to elect a high constable for Fordingbridge until 1878. The 
chief court of the Isle of Wight was the Knighten court held at 
Newport every three weeks. The sheriff's court and the assizes 
and quarter sessions for the county were formerly held at 
Winchester, but in 1831 the county was divided into 14 petty 
sessional divisions; the quarter sessions for the county were 
held at Andover; and Portsmouth, Southampton and Win- 
chester had separate jurisdiction. Southampton was made a 
county by itself with a separate sheriff in 1447. 

In the middle of the 7th century Hampshire formed part of 
the West Saxon bishopric of Dorchester-on-Thames. On the 
transference of the episcopal seat to Winchester in 676 it was 
included in that diocese in which it has remained ever since. 
In 1291 the archdeaconry of Winchester was coextensive with 
the county and comprised the ten rural deaneries of Alresford, 
Alton, Andover, Basingstoke, Drokinsford, Fordingbridge, Isle 
of Wight, Sombourne, Southampton and Winchester. In 1850 
the Isle of Wight was subdivided into the deaneries of East 
Medina and West Medina. In 1856 the deaneries were increased 
to 24. In 1871 the archdeaconry of the Isle of Wight was 
constituted, and about the same time the deaneries were reduced 
to 21. In 1892 the deaneries were reconstituted and made 18 in 
number, and the archdeaconry of the Isle of Wight was divided 
into the deaneries of East Wight and West Wight. 

After the Conquest the most powerful Hampshire baron was 
William Fitz-Osbern, who in addition to the lordship of the 
Isle of Wight held considerable estates on the mainland. At the 
time of the Domesday Survey the chief landholders were Hugh 
de Port, ancestor of the Fitz-Johns; Ralf de Mortimer; Wilh'am 
Mauduit whose name is preserved in Hartley Mauditt; and 
Waleran, called the Huntsman, ancestor of the Waleraund 
family. Hursley near Winchester was the seat of Richard 
Cromwell; and Gilbert White, the naturalist, was curate of 
Farringdon near Selborne. 

Apart from the valuable foreign and shipbuilding trade which 
grew up with the development of its ports, Hampshire has 
always been mainly an agricultural county, the only important 
manufacture being that of wool and cloth, which prospered at 
Winchester in the 1 2th century and survived till within recent 
years. Salt-making and the manufacture of iron from native 
ironstone also flourished in Hampshire from pre-Norman times 
until within the igth century. In the I4th century Southampton 
had a valuable trade with Venice, and from the i5th to the i8th 
century many famous warships were constructed in its docks. 
Silk-weaving was formerly carried on at Winchester, Andover, 
Odiham, Alton, Whitchurch and Overton, the first mills being 
set up in 1684 at Southampton by French refugees. The paper 
manufacture at Laverstoke was started by the Portals, a family 
of Huguenot refugees, in 1685, and a few years later Henri de 
Portal obtained the privilege of supplying the bank-note paper 
to the Bank of England. 

Hampshire returned four members to parliament in 1295, when 
the boroughs of New Alresford, Alton, Andover, Basingstoke, 
Overton, Portsmouth, Southampton, Winchester, Yarmouth 



and Newport were also represented. After this date the 
county was represented by two members, but most of the 
boroughs ceased to make returns. Odiham and the Isle of 
Wight were represented in 1300, Fareham in 1306, and Peters- 
field in 1307. From 1311 to 1547 Southampton, Portsmouth, 
and Winchester were the only boroughs represented. By the 
end of the i6th century Petersfield, Newport, Yarmouth, 
and Andover had regained representation, and Stockbridge, 
Christchurch, Lymington, Newtown and Whitchurch returned 
two members each, giving the county with its boroughs a total 
representation of 26 members. Under the Reform Act of 1832 
the county returned four members in four divisions; Christchurch 
and Petersfield lost one member each; and Newtown, Yarmouth, 
Stockbridge and Whitchurch were disfranchised. By the act 
of 1868 Andover, Lymington and Newport were deprived of 
one member each. 

Antiquities. Hampshire is rich in monastic remains. Those 
considered under separate headings include the monastery of 
Hyde near Winchester, the magnificent churches at Christchurch 
and Romsey, the ruins of Netley Abbey, and of Beaulieu Abbey 
in the New Forest, the fragments of the priory of St Denys, 
Southampton, the church at Porchester and the slight ruins at 
Titchfield, near Fareham, and Quarr Abbey in the Isle of Wight. 
Other foundations, of which the remains are slight, were the 
Augustinian priory of Southwick near Fareham, founded by 
William of Wykeham; that of Breamore, founded by Baldwin 
de Redvers, and that of Mottisfont near Romsey, endowed soon 
after the Conquest. There are many churches of interest, apart 
from the cathedral church of Winchester and those in some 
of the towns in the Isle of Wight, or already mentioned in con- 
nexion with monastic foundations. Pre-Conquest work is well 
shown in the churches of Corhampton and Breamore, and very 
early masonry is also found in Headbourne Worthy church, 
where is also a brass of the 1 5th century to a scholar of Winchester 
College in collegiate dress. The most noteworthy Norman 
churches are at Chilcombe and Kingsclere and (with Early 
English additions) at Brockenhurst, Upper Clatford, which has 
the unusual arrangement of a double chancel arch, Hambledon, 
Milford and East Meon. Principally Early English are the 
churches of Cheriton, Grately, which retains some excellent 
contemporary stained glass from Salisbury cathedral; Sopley, 
which is partly Perpendicular; and Thruxton, which contains a 
brass to Sir John Lisle (d. 1407), affording a very early example 
of complete plate armour. Specimens of the later styles are 
generally less remarkable. The frescoes in Bramley church, 
ranging in date from the i3th to the isth century, include a 
representation of the murder of Thomas a Beckett. A fine 
series of Norman fonts in black marble should be mentioned; 
they occur in Winchester cathedral and the churches of St 
Michael, Southampton, East Meon and St Mary Bourne. 

The most notable old castles are Carisbrooke in the Isle of 
Wight; Porchester, a fine Norman stronghold embodying 
Roman remains, on Portsmouth Harbour; and Hurst, guarding 
the mouth of the Solent, where for a short time Charles I. was 
imprisoned. Henry VIII. built several forts to guard the Solent, 
Spithead and Southampton Water; Hurst Castle was one, 
and others remaining, but adapted to various purposes, are at 
Cowes, Calshot and Netley. Fine mansions are unusually 
numerous. That of Stratfieldsaye or Strathfieldsaye, which 
belonged to the Pitt family, was purchased by parliament for 
presentation to the duke of 'Wellington in 1817, his descendants 
holding the estate from the Crown in consideration of the annual 
tribute of a flag to the guard-room at Windsor. A statue of the 
duke stands in the grounds, and his war-horse " Copenhagen " 
is buried here. The name of Tichborne Park, near Alresford, 
is well known in connexion with the famous claimant of the 
estates whose case was heard in 1871. Among ancient mansions 
the Jacobean Bramshill is conspicuous, lying near Stratfieldsaye 
in the north of the county. It is built of stone and is highly 
decorated, and though the complete original design was not 
carried out the house is among the finest of its type in England. 
At Bishops Waltham, a small town 10 m. S.S.E. of Winchester, 



HAMPSTEAD HAMPTON 



905 



Henry de Blois, bishop of Winchester, erected a palace, which 
received additions from William of Wykeham, who died here 
in 1404, and from other bishops. The ruins are picturesque 
but not extensive. 

See Victoria County History, " Hampshire," R. Warner, Collections 
for the History of Hampshire; &c. (London, 1789); H. Moody, 
Hampshire in 1086 (1862), and the same author's Antiquarian and 
Topographical Sketches (1846), and Notes and Essays relating to the 
Counties of Hants and Wilts (1851); R. Mudie, Hampshire, &c. 
(3 vols., Winchester, 1838) ; B. B. Woodward, T. C. Wilks and C. 
Lockhart, General History of Hampshire (1861-1869) G. N. Godwin, 
The Civil War in Hampshire, 1642-1645 (London, 1882); H. M. 
Gilbert and G. N. Godwin, Bibliotheca Hantoniensis (Southampton, 
1891). See also various papers in Hampshire Notes and Queries 
(Winchester, 1883 et seq.). 

HAMPSTEAD, a north-western metropolitan borough of 
London, England, bounded E. by St Pancras and S. by St 
Marylebone, and extending N. and W. to the boundary of the 
county of London. Pop. (1901), 81,942. The name, Hamstede, 
is synonymous with " homestead," and the manor is first named 
in a charter of Edgar (957-975), and was granted to the abbey 
of Westminster by Ethelred in 986. It reverted to the Crown in 
1550, and had various owners until the close of the i8th century, 
when it came to Sir Thomas Spencer Wilson, whose descendants 
retain it. The borough includes the sub-manor of Belsize and 
part of the hamlet of Kilburn. 

The surface of the ground is sharply undulating, an elevated 
spur extending south-west from the neighbourhood of Highgate, 
and turning south through Hampstead. It reaches a height 
of 443 ft. above the level of the Thames. The Edgware Road 
bounds Hampstead on the west; and the borough is intersected, 
parallel to this thoroughfare, by Finchley Road, and by Haver- 
stock Hill, which, continued under the names of Rosslyn Hill, 
High Street, Heath Street, and North End, crosses the Heath 
for which Hampstead is chiefly celebrated. This is a fine open 
space of about 240 acres, including in its bounds the summit of 
Hampstead Hill. It is a sandy tract, in parts well wooded, 
diversified with several small sheets of water, and to a great 
extent preserves its natural characteristics unaltered. Beautiful 
views, both near and distant, are commanded from many points. 
Of all the public grounds within London this is the most valuable 
to the populace at large; the number of visitors on a Bank 
holiday in August is generally, under favourable conditions, 
about 100,000; and strenuous efforts are always forthcoming 
from either public or private bodies when the integrity of the 
Heath is in any way menaced. As early as 1829 attempts to 
save it from the builder are recorded. In 1871 its preservation 
as an open space was insured after several years' dispute, when 
the lord of the manor gave up his rights. An act of parliament 
transferred the ownership to the Metropolitan Board of Works, 
to which body the London County Council succeeded. The 
Heath is continued eastward in Parliament Hill (borough of 
St Pancras), acquired for the public in 1890; and westward 
outside the county boundary in Golders Hill, owned by Sir 
Spenser Wells, Bart., until 1898. A Protection Society guards 
the preservation of the natural beauty and interests of the Heath. 
It is not the interests of visitors alone that must be consulted, 
for Hampstead, adding to its other attractions a singularly 
healthy climate, has long been a favourite residential quarter, 
especially for lawyers, artists and men of letters. Among 
famous residents are found the first earl of Chatham, John 
Constable, George Romney, George du Maurier, Joseph Butler, 
author of the Analogy, Sir Richard Steele, John Keats, the sisters 
Joanna and Agnes Baillie, Leigh Hunt and many others. The 
parish church of St John (1747) has several monuments of 
eminent persons. Chatham's residence was at North End, a 
picturesque quarter yet preserving characteristics of a rural 
village; here also Wilkie Collins was born. Three old-estab- 
lished inns, the Bull and Bush, the Spaniards, and Jack Straw's 
Castle (the name of which has no historical significance), claim 
many great names among former visitors; while the Upper 
Flask Inn, now a private house, was the meeting-place of the 
Kit-Cat Club. Chalybeate springs were discovered at Hampstead 
in the I7th century, and early in the i8th rivalled those of 



Tunbridge Wells and Epsom. The name of Well Walk recalls 
them, but their fame is lost. There are others at Kilburn. 

In the south-east Hampstead includes the greater part of 
Primrose Hill, a public ground adjacent to the north side of 
Regent's Park. The borough has in all about 350 acres of open 
spaces. The name of the sub-manor of Belsize is preserved in 
several streets in the central part. Kilburn, which as a district 
extends outside the borough, takes name from a stream which, 
as the Westbourne, entered the Thames at Chelsea. Fleet Road 
similarly recalls the more famous stream which washed the walls 
of the City of London on the west. Hampstead has numerous 
charitable institutions, amongst which are the North London 
consumptive hospital, the Orphan Working School, Haverstock 
Hill (1758), the general hospital and the north-western fever 
hospital. In Finchley Road are the New and Hackney Colleges, 
both Congregational. The parliamentary borough of Hampstead 
returns one member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 
7 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 2265 acres. 

HAMPTON, WADE (1818-1902), American cavalry leader 
was born on the 28th of March 1818 at Columbia, South Carolina, 
the son of Wade Hampton (1791-1858), one of the wealthiest 
planters in the South, and the grandson of Wade Hampton 
(1754-1835), a captain in the War of Independence and a 
brigadier-general in the War of 1812. He graduated (1836) at 
South Carolina College, and was trained for the law. He devoted 
himself, however, to the management of his great plantations in 
South Carolina and in Mississippi, and took part in state politics 
and legislation. Though his own views were opposed to the 
prevailing state-rights tone of South Carolinian opinion, he threw 
himself heartily into the Southern cause in 1861, raising a mixed 
command known as " Hampton's Legion," which he led at the 
first battle of Bull Run. During the Civil War he served in the 
main with the Army of Northern Virginia in Stuart's cavalry 
corps. After Stuart's death Hampton distinguished himself 
greatly in opposing Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, and was 
made lieutenant-general to command Lee's whole force of 
cavalry. In 1865 he assisted Joseph Johnston in the attempt 
to prevent Sherman's advance through the Carolinas. After the 
war his attitude was conciliatory and he recommended a frank 
acceptance by the South of the war's political consequences. 
He was governor of his state in 1876-1879, being installed after 
a memorable contest; he served in the United States Senate 
in 1879-1891, and was United States commissioner of Pacific 
railways in 1893-1897. He died on the nth of April 1902. 

See E. L. Wells, Hampton and Reconstruction (Columbia, S. C., 
1907). 

HAMPTON, an urban district in the Uxbridge parliamentary 
division of Middlesex, England, 15 m. S.W. of St Paul's cathedral, 
London, on the river Thames, served by the London & South 
Western railway. Pop. (1901), 6813. Close to the river, a mile 
below the town, stands Hampton Court Palace, one of the finest 
extant specimens of Tudor architecture, and formerly a royal 
residence. It was erected by Cardinal Wolsey, who in 1515 
received a lease of the old mansion and grounds for 99 years. 
As the splendour of the building seemed to awaken the cupidity 
of Henry VIII., Wolsey in 1526 thought it prudent to make him 
a present of it. It became Henry's favourite residence, and 
he made several additions to the building, including the great 
hall and chapel in the Gothic style. Of the original five quad- 
rangles only two now remain, but a third was erected by Sir 
Christopher Wren for William III. In 1649 a great sale of 
the effects of the palace took place by order of parliament, and 
later the manor itself was sold to a private owner but immedi- 
ately after came into the hands of Cromwell; and Hampton 
Court continued to be one of the principal residences of the 
English sovereigns until the time of George II. It was the 
birthplace of Edward VI., and the meeting-place (1604) of the 
conference held in the reign of James I. to settle the dispute 
between the Presbyterians and the state clergy. William III., 
riding in the grounds, met with the accident which resulted in 
his death. It is' now partly occupied by persons of rank in 
reduced circumstances; but the state apartments and picture 



HAMPTON HAMPTON ROADS 



galleries are open to the public, as is the home park. The 
gardens, with their ornamental waters, are beautifully laid out 
in the Dutch style favoured by William III., and contain a 
magnificent vine planted in 1768. In the enclosure north of the 
palace, called the Wilderness, is the Maze, a favourite resort. 
North again lies Bushey Park, a royal demesne exceeding 1000 
acres in extent. It is much frequented, especially in early 
summer, when its triple avenue of horse-chestnut trees is in 
blossom. 

Among several residences in the vicinity of Hampton is 
Garrick Villa, once, under the name of Hampton House, the 
residence of David Garrick the actor. Sir Christopher Wren 
and Sir Richard Steele are among famous former residents. 
HAMPTON WICK, on the river E. of Bushey Park, is an urban 
district with a population (1901) of 2606. 

See E. Law, History of Hampton Court Palace (London, 1890). 

HAMPTON, a city and the county-seat of Elizabeth City 
county, Virginia, U.S.A., at the mouth of the James river, on 
Hampton Roads, about 15 m. N.W. of Norfolk. Pop. (1890), 
2513; (1900) 2764, including 1249 negroes; (1910) 5505. It is 
served by the Chesapeake & Ohio railway, and by trolley lines 
to Old Point Comfort and Newport News. Hampton is an 
agricultural shipping point, ships fish, oysters and canned crabs, 
and manufactures fish oil and brick. In the city are St John's 
church, built in 1727; a national cemetery, a national soldiers' 
home (between Phoebus and Hampton), which in 1907-1908 
cared for 4093 veterans and had an average attendance of 2261; 
and the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute (co- 
educational), which was opened by the American Missionary 
Association in 1868 for the education of negroes. This last was 
chartered and became independent of any denominational 
control in 1870, and was superintended by Samuel Chapman 
Armstrong (q.v.) from 1868 to 1893. The school was opened 
in 1878 to Indians, whose presence has been of distinct advantage 
to the negro, showing him, says Booker T. Washington, the most 
famous graduate of the school, that the negro race is not alone 
in its struggle for improvement. The National government 
pays $167 a year for the support of each of the Indian students. 
The underlying idea of the Institute is such industrial training 
as will make the pupil a willing and a good workman, able to 
teach his trade to others; and the school's graduates include the 
heads of other successful negro industrial schools, the organizers 
of agricultural and industrial departments in Southern public 
schools and teachers in graded negro schools. The mechanism 
of the school includes three schemes: that of "work students," 
who work during the day throughout the year and attend night 
school for eight months; that of day school students, who attend 
school for four or five days and do manual work for one or two 
days each week; and that of trade students, who receive trade 
instruction in their daily eight-hours' work and study in night 
school as well. Agriculture in one or more of its branches is 
taught to all, including the four or five hundred children of the 
Whittier school, a practice school with kindergarten and primary 
classes. Graduate courses are given in agriculture, business, 
domestic art and science, library methods, " matrons' " training, 
and public school teaching. The girl students are trained in 
every branch of housekeeping, cooking, dairying and gardening. 
The institute publishes The Southern Workman, a monthly 
magazine devoted to the interests of the Negro and the Indian 
and other backward races. In 1908 the Institute had more 
than. 100 buildings and 188 acres of land S.W. of the national 
cemetery and on Hampton river and Jones Creek, and 600 acres 
at Shellbanks, a stock farm 6 m. away; the enrolment was 
21 in graduate classes, 372 in day school, 489 in night school 
and 524 in the Whittier school. Of the total, 88 were Indians. 

Hampton was settled in 1610 on the site of an Indian village, 
Kecoughtan, a name it long retained, and was represented at 
the first meeting (1619) of the Virginia House of Burgesses. 
It was fired by the British during the War of 1812 and by the 
Confederates under General J. B. Magruder in August 1861. 
During the Civil War there was a large Union hospital here, 
the building of the Chesapeake Female College, erected in 1857, 



being used for this purpose. Hampton was incorporated as 
a_town in 1887, and in 1908 became a city of the second class. 

HAMPTON ROADS, a channel through which the waters of 
the James, Nansemond and Elizabeth rivers of Virginia, U.S.A., 
pass (between Old Point Comfort to the N. and Sewell's Point 
to the S.) into Chesapeake Bay. It is an important highway of 
commerce, especially for the cities of Norfolk, Portsmouth and 
Newport News, and is the chief rendezvous of the United 
States navy. For a width of 500 ft. the Federal government 
during 1902-1905 increased its minimum depth at low water 
from 255 ft. to 30 ft. The entrance from Chesapeake Bay is 
defended by Fortress Monroe on Old Point Comfort and by 
Fort Wood on a small island called the Rip Raps near the middle 
of the channel; and at Portsmouth, a few miles up the Elizabeth 
river, is an important United States navy-yard. 

Hampton Roads is famous in history as the scene of the first 
engagement between iron-clad vessels. In the spring of 1861 
the Federals set fire to several war vessels in the Gosport navy 
yard on the Elizabeth river and abandoned the place. In 
June the Confederates set to work to raise one of these abandoned 
vessels, the frigate " Merrimac " of 3500 tons and 40 guns, and 
to rebuild it as an iron-clad. The vessel (renamed the " Virginia" 
though it is generally known in history by its original name) 
was first cut down to the water-line and upon her hull was built 
a rectangular casemate, constructed of heavy timber (24 in. in 
thickness) , covered with bar-iron 4 in. thick, and rising from the 
water on each side at an angle of about 35. The iron plating 
extended 2 ft. below the water line; and beyond the casemate, 
toward the bow, was a cast-iron pilot house, extending 3 ft. 
above the deck. The reconstruction of the vessel was completed 
on the sth of March 1862. The vessel drew 22 ft. of water, was 
equipped with poor engines, so that it could not make more 
than 5 knots, and was so unwieldy that it could not be turned 
in less than 30 minutes. It was armed with 10 guns 2 (rifled) 
7 in., 2 (rifled) 6 in., and 6 (smooth bore Dahlgren) 9 in. Her 
most powerful equipment, however, was her 18 in. cast-iron ram. 
In October 1861 Captain John Ericsson, an engineer, and a Troy 
(N.Y.) firm, as builders, began the construction of the iron-clad 
" Monitor " for the Federals, at Greenpoint, Long Island. With 
a view to enable this vessel to carry at good speed the thickest 
possible armour compatible with buoyancy, Ericsson reduced 
the exposed surface to the least possible area. Accordingly, 
the vessel was built so low in the water that the waves glided 
easily over its deck except at the middle, where was constructed 
a revolving turret 1 for the guns, and though the vessel's iron 
armour had a thickness of i in. on the deck, 5 in. on the side, 
and 8 in. on the turret, its draft was only 10 ft. 6 in., or less 
than one-half that of the " Merrimac." Its turret, 9 ft. high 
and 20 ft. in inside diameter, seemed small for its length of 
172 ft. and its breadth of 41 ft. 6 in., and this, with the lowness of 
its freeboard, caused the vessel to be called the " Yankee cheese- 
box on a raft." Forward of the turret was the iron pilot house, 
square in shape, and rising about 4 ft. above the deck. The 
" Monitor's " displacement was about 1 200 tons and her armament 
was two ii in. Dahlgren guns; her crew numbered 58, while 
that of the " Merrimac " numbered about 300. She was seaworthy 
in the shallow waters off the southern coasts and steered fairly 
well. The " Monitor " was launched at Greenpoint, Long Island, 
on the 3oth of January, and was turned over to the government 
on the i gth of the following month. The building of the two 
vessels was practically a race between the two combatants. 

On the Sth of March about i p.m., the " Merrimac," com- 
manded by Commodore Franklin Buchanan (1795-1871), 
steamed down the Elizabeth accompanied by two one-gun 
gun-boats, to engage the wooden fleet of the Federals, consisting 
of the frigate " Congress," 50 guns, and the sloop " Cumberland," 
30 guns, both sailing vessels, anchored off Newport News, and 
1 For the idea of the low free-board and the revolving turret 
Ericsson was indebted to Theodore R. Timby (1819-1909), who in 
1843 had filed a caveat for revolving towers for offensive or 
defensive warfare whether placed on land or water, and to whom 
the company building the " Monitor " paid $5000 royalty for each 
turret. 



HAMSTER HANAPER 



907 



the steam frigates " Minnesota," and " Roanoke," the sailing 
frigate " St Lawrence," and several gun-boats, anchored off 
Fortress Monroe. Actual firing began about 2 o'clock, when the 
" Merrimac " was nearly a mile from the " Congress " and the 
" Cumberland." Passing the first of these vessels with terrific 
broadsides, the " Merrimac " rammed the " Cumberland " 
and then turned her fire again on the " Congress," which in an 
attempt to escape ran aground and was there under fire from 
three other Confederate gun-boats which had meanwhile joined 
the " Merrimac." About 3.30 p.m. the " Cumberland," which, 
while it steadily careened, had been keeping up a heavy fire at 
the Confederate vessels, sank, with " her pennant still flying 
from the topmast above the waves." Between 4 and 4.30 the 
" Congress," having been raked fore and aft for nearly an hour 
by the " Merrimac," was forced to surrender. While directing 
a fire of hot shot to burn the " Congress," Commodore Buchanan 
of the " Merrimac " was severely wounded and was succeeded 
in the command by Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones. The 
Federal steam frigates, " Roanoke," " St Lawrence " and 
" Minnesota " had all gone aground in their trip from Old Point 
Comfort toward the scene of battle, and only the " Minnesota " 
was near enough (about i m.) to take any part in the fight. 
She was in such shallow water that the Confederate iron-clad 
ram could not get near her at ebb tide, and about 5 o'clock the 
Confederates postponed her capture until the next day and 
anchored off Sewell's Point. 

The " Monitor," under Lieut. John Lorimer Worden (1818- 
1897), had left New York on the morning of the 6th of March; 
after a dangerous passage in which she twice narrowly escaped 
sinking, she arrived at Hampton Roads during the night of the 
8th, and early in the morning of the gth anchored near the 
" Minnesota." When thfe " Merrimac " advanced to attack the 
" Minnesota," the " Monitor " went out to meet her, and the 
battle between the iron-clads began about 9 a.m. on the 9th. 
Neither vessel was able seriously to injure the other, and not 
a single shot penetrated the armour of either. The " Monitor" 
had the advantage of being able to out-manceuvre her heavier 
and more unwieldy adversary; but the revolving turret made 
firing difficult and communications were none too good with the 
pilot house, the position of which on the forward deck lessened 
the range of the two turret-guns. The machinery worked so 
badly that the revolution of the turret was stopped. After two 
hours' fighting, the " Monitor " was drawn off, so that more 
ammunition could be placed in her turret. When the battle 
was renewed (about 11.30) the "Merrimac" began firing at 
the " Monitor's " pilot house; and a little after noon a shot 
struck the sight-hole of the pilot house and blinded Lieut. 
Worden. The " Monitor " withdrew in the confusion consequent 
upon the wounding of her commanding officer; and the 
" Merrimac " after a short wait for her adversary steamed back 
to Norfolk. There were virtually no casualties on either side. 
After the evacuation of Norfolk by the Confederates on the 
gth of May Commodore Josiah Tattnall, then in command of 
the " Merrimac," being unable to take her up the James, sank 
her. The " Monitor " was lost in a gale off Cape Hatteras on 
the 3ist of December 1862. 

Though the battle between the two vessels was indecisive, 
its effect was to " neutralize " the " Merrimac," which had 
caused great alarm in Washington, and to prevent the breaking 
of the Federal blockade at Hampton Roads; in the history of 
naval warfare it may be regarded as marking the opening of a 
new era the era of the armoured warship. On the 3rd of 
February 1865 near Fortress Monroe on board a steamer occurred 
the meeting of President Lincoln and Secretary Seward with 
Confederate commissioners which is known as the Hampton 
Roads Conference (see LINCOLN, ABRAHAM). At Sewell's Point, 
on Hampton Roads, in 1907 was held the Jamestown Ter- 
centennial Exposition. 

See James R. Soley, The Blockade and the Cruisers (New York, 
1883); Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, vol. i. (New York, 
1887); chap. ii. of Frank M. Bennett's The Monitor and the Navy 
under Steam (Boston, 1900); and William Swinton, Twelve Decisive 
Battles of the War (New York, 1867). 



HAMSTER, a European mammal of the order Rodentia, 
scientifically known as Cricetus frumentarius (or C. cricelus), 
and belonging to the mouse tribe, Muridae, in which it typifies 
the sub-family Cricetinae. The essential characteristic of the 
Cricetines is to be found in the upper cheek-teeth, which (as 
shown in the figure of those of Cricetus in the article RODENTIA) 
have their cusps arranged in two longitudinal rows separated 
by a groove. The hamsters, of which there are several kinds, 
are short-tailed rodents, with large cheek-pouches, of which 
the largest is the common C. frumentarius. Their geographical 
distribution comprises a large portion of Europe and Asia north 
of the Himalaya. All the European hamsters show more or less 
black on the under-parts, but the small species from Central 
Asia, which constitute distinct subgenera, are uniformly grey. 
The common species is specially interesting on account of its 
habits. It constructs elaborate burrows containing several 
chambers, one of which is employed as a granary, and filled with 
corn, frequently of several kinds, for winter use. As a rule, the 
males, females, and young of the first year occupy separate 
burrows. During the winter these animals retire to their burrows, 
sleeping the greater part of the time, but awakening about 
February or March, when they feed on the garnered grain. They 
are very prolific, the female producing several litters in the year, 
each consisting of over a dozen blind young; and these, when 
not more than three weeks old, are turned out of the parental 
burrow to form underground homes for themselves. The burrow 
of the young hamster is only about a foot in depth, while that 
of the adult descends 4 or 5 ft. beneath the surface. On retiring 
for the winter the hamster closes the various entrances to its 
burrow, and becomes torpid during the coldest period. Although 
feeding chiefly on roots, fruits and grain, it is also to some extent 
carnivorous, attacking and eating small quadrupeds, lizards and 
birds. It is exceedingly fierce and pugnacious, the males especi- 
ally fighting with each other for possession of the females. 
The numbers of these destructive rodents are kept in check by 
foxes, dogs, cats and pole-cats, which feed upon them. The 
skin of the hamster is of some value, and its flesh is used as food. 
Its burrows are sought after in the countries where it abounds, 
both for capturing the animal and for rifling its store. America, 
especially North America, is the home of by far the great majority 
of Cricetinae, several of which are called white-footed or deer- 
mice. They are divided into numerous genera and the number 
of species is very large indeed. Both in size and form consider- 
able variability is displayed, the species of Holochilus being some 
of the largest, while the common white-footed mouse (Eligmodon 
leucopus) of North America is one of the smaller forms. Some 
kinds, such as Oryzomys and Peromyscus have long, rat-like 
tails, while others, like Acodon, are short-tailed and more vole- 
like in appearance. In habits some are partially arboreal, others 
wholly terrestrial, and a few more or less aquatic. Among the 
latter, the most remarkable are the fish-eating rats (Ichthyomys) 
of North-western South America, which frequent streams and 
feed on small fish. The Florida rice-rat (Sigmodon hispidus) 
is another well-known representative of the group. In the Old 
World the group is represented by the Persian Calomyscus, a 
near relative of Peromyscus. (R. L.*) 

HANAPER, properly a case or basket to contain a " hanap " 
(O. Eng. hncep: cf. Dutch nap), a drinking vessel, a goblet with 
a foot or stem; the term which is still used by antiquaries 
for medieval stemmed cups. The famous Royal Gold Cup in 
the British Museum is called a " hanap " in the inventory of 
Charles VI. of France. The word " hanaper " (Med. Lat. 
hanaperium) was used particularly in the English chancery of a 
wicker basket in which were kept writs and other documents, 
and hence it became the name of a department of the chancery, 
now abolished, under an officer known as the clerk or warden of 
the hanaper, into which were paid fees and other moneys for 
the sealing of charters, patents, writs, &c., and from which issued 
certain writs under the great seal (S. R. Scargill-Bird, Guide 
to the Public Records (1908). In Ireland it still survives in the 
office of the clerk of the crown and hanaper, from which are 
issued writs for the return of members of parliament for Ireland. 



908 



HANAU HANCOCK, JOHN 



From " hanaper " is derived the modern " hamper," a wicker 
or rush basket used for the carriage of game, fish, wine, &c. The 
verb " to hamper," to entangle, obstruct, hinder, especially 
used of disturbing the mechanism of a lock or other fastening 
so as to prevent its proper working, is of doubtful origin. It is 
probably connected with a root seen in the Icel. hemja, to 
restrain, and Ger. hemmen, to clog. 

HANAU, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Main, 14 m. by rail E. 
from Frankfort and at the junction of lines to Friedberg, Bebra 
and Aschaffenburg. Pop. (1905) 31,637. It consists of an old 
and a new town. The streets of the former are narrow and 
irregular, but the latter, founded at the end of the i6th century 
by fugitive Walloons and Netherlanders, is built in the form of a 
pentagon with broad streets crossing at right angles, and possesses 
several fine squares, among which may be mentioned the market- 
place, adorned with handsome fountains at the four corners. 
Among the principal buildings are the ancient castle, formerly 
the residence of the counts of Hanau; the church of St John, 
dating from the iyth century, with a handsome tower; the old 
church of St Mary, containing the burial vault of the counts of 
Hanau; the church in the new town, built by the Walloons in 
the beginning of the xyth century in the form of two intersecting 
circles; the Roman Catholic church, the synagogue, the theatre, 
the barracks, the arsenal and the hospital. Its educational 
establishments include a classical school, and a school of industrial 
art. There is a society of natural history and an historical 
society, both of which possess considerable libraries and collec- 
tions. Hanau is the birthplace of the brothers Grimm, to whom 
a monument was erected here in 1896. In the neighbourhood 
of the town are the palace of Philippsruhe, with an extensive 
park and large orangeries, and the spa of Wilhelmsbad. 

Hanau is the principal commercial and manufacturing town 
in the province, and stands next to Cassel in point of population. 
It manufactures ornaments of various kinds, cigars, leather, 
paper, playing cards, silver and platina wares, chocolate, soap, 
woollen cloth, hats, silk, gloves, stockings, ropes and matches. 
Diamond cutting is carried on and the town has also foundries, 
breweries, and in the neighborhood extensive powder-mills. 
It carries on a large trade in wood, wine and corn, in addition to 
its articles of manufacture. 

From the number of urns, coins and other antiquities found 
near Hanau it would appear that it owes its origin to a Roman 
settlement. It received municipal rights in 1393, and in 1528 
it was fortified by Count Philip III. who rebuilt the castle. At 
the end of the i6th century its prosperity received considerable 
impulse from the accession of the Walloons and Netherlanders. 
During the Thirty Years' War it was in 1631 taken by the 
Swedes, and in 1636 it was besieged by the imperial troops, 
but was relieved on the I3th of June by Landgrave William V. 
of Hesse-Cassel, on account of which the day is still commemor- 
ated by the inhabitants. Napoleon on his retreat from Leipzig 
defeated the Germans under Marshal Wrede at Hanau, on the 
3oth of October 1813; and on the following day the allies 
vacated the town, when it was entered by the French. Early 
in the isth century Hanau became the capital of a principality 
of the Empire, which on the death of Count Reinhard in 1451 
was partitioned between the Hanau-Munzenberg and Hanau- 
Lichtenberg lines, but was reunited in 1642 when the elder line 
became extinct. The younger line received princely rank in 
1696, but as it became extinct in 1736 Hanau-MUnzenberg was 
joined to Hesse-Cassel and Hanau-Lichtenberg to Hesse-Darm- 
stadt. In 1785 the whole province was united to Hesse-Cassel, 
and in 1803 it became an independent principality. In 1815 
it again came into the possession of Hesse-Cassel, and in 1866 
it was joined to Prussia. 

See R. Wille, Hanau im dreissigjahrigen Krieg (Hanau, 1886); 
and Junghaus, Geschichte der Stadt und des Kreises Hanau (1887). 

HANBURY WILLIAMS, SIR CHARLES (1708-1759), English 
diplomatist and author, was a son of Major John Hanbury 
(1664-1734), of Pontypool, Monmouthshire, and a scion of an 
ancient Worcestershire family. His great-great-great-grand- 



father, Capel Hanbury, bought property at Pontypool and began 
the family iron- works therein 1565. His father John Hanbury 
was a wealthy iron-master and member of parliament, who 
inherited another fortune from his friend Charles Williams of 
Caerleon, his son's godfather, with which he bought the Cold- 
brook estate, Monmouthshire. Charles accordingly took the 
name of Williams in 1729. He went to Eton, and there made 
friends with Henry Fielding, the novelist, and, after marrying 
in 1732 the heiress of Earl Coningsby, was elected M.P. for 
Monmouthshire (1734-1747) and subsequently for Leominster 
(1754-1759). He became known as one of the prominent 
gallants and wits about town, and following Pope he wrote a 
great deal of satirical light verse, including Isabella, or the 
Morning (1740), satires on Ruth Darlington and Pulleney 
(1741-1742), The Country Girl (1742), Lessons for the Day (1742), 
Letter to Mr Dodsley (1743), &c. A collection of his poems was 
published in 1763 and of his Works in 1822. In 1746 he was 
sent on a diplomatic mission to Dresden, which led to further 
employment in this capacity; and through Henry Fox's influence 
he was sent as envoy to Berlin (1750), Dresden (1751), Vienna 
(1753), Dresden (1754) and St Petersburg (i755-i?57); in the 
latter case he was the instrument for a plan for the alliance 
between England, Russia and Austria, which finally broke down, 
to his embarrassment. He returned to England, and committed 
suicide on the 2nd of November 1759, being buried in West- 
minster Abbey. He had two daughters, the elder of whom 
married William Capel, 4th earl of Essex, and was the mother of 
the sth earl. The Coldbrook estates went to Charles's brother, 
George Hanbury- Williams, to whose heirs it descended. 

See William Coxe's Historical Tour in Monmouthshire (1801), and 
T. Seccombe's article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. with bibliography. 

HANCOCK, JOHN (1737-1793), American Revolutionary 
statesman, was born in that part of Braintree, Massachusetts, 
now known as Quincy, on the 23rd of January 1737. After 
graduating from Harvard in 1754, he entered the mercantile 
house of his uncle, Thomas Hancock of Boston, who had adopted 
him, and on whose death, in 1764, he fell heir to a large fortune 
and a prosperous business. In 1765 he became a selectman of 
Boston, and from 1766 to 1772 was a member of the Massa- 
chusetts general court. An event which is thought to have 
greatly influenced Hancock's subsequent career was the seizure 
of the sloop " Liberty " in 1768 by the customs officers for dis- 
charging, without paying the duties, a cargo of Madeira wine 
consigned to Hancock. Many suits were thereupon entered 
against Hancock, which, if successful, would have caused the 
confiscation of his estate, but which undoubtedly enhanced his 
popularity with the Whig element and increased his resentment 
against the British government. He was a member of the 
committee appointed in a Boston town meeting immediately 
after the "Boston Massacre" in 1770 to demand the removal 
of British troops from the town. In 1774 and 1775 he was 
president of the first and second Provincial Congresses respect- 
ively, and he shared with Samuel Adams the leadership of the 
Massachusetts Whigs in all the irregular measures preceding 
the War of American Independence. The famous expedition 
sent by General Thomas Gage of Massachusetts to Lexington 
and Concord on the iSth-igth of April 1775 had for its object, 
besides the destruction of materials of war at Concord, the 
capture of Hancock and Adams, who were temporarily staying 
at Lexington, and these two leaders were expressly excepted 
in the proclamation of pardon issued on the I2th of June by 
Gage, their offences, it was said, being " of too flagitious a nature 
to admit of any other consideration than that of condign punish- 
ment." Hancock was a member of the Continental Congress 
from 1775 to 1780, was president of it from May 1775 to October 
1777, being the first to sign the Declaration of Independence, 
and was a member of the Confederation Congress in 1785-1786. 
In 1778 he commanded, as major-general of militia, the Massa- 
chusetts troops who participated in the Rhode Island expedition. 
He was a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention 
of 1779-1780, became the first governor of the state, and served 
from 1780 to 1785 and again from 1787 until his death. Although 



HANCOCK, W. S. HAND, F. G. 



909 



at first unfriendly to the Federal Constitution as drafted by the 
convention at Philadelphia, he was finally won over to its support, 
and in 1788 he presided over the Massachusetts convention which 
ratified the instrument. Hancock was not by nature a leader, 
but he wielded great influence on account of his wealth and 
social position, and was liberal, public-spirited, and, as his 
repeated election the elections were annual to the governor- 
ship attests, exceedingly popular. He died at Quincy, Mass., 
on the 8th of October 1793. 

See Abram E. Brown, John Hancock, His Book (Boston, 1898), a 
work consisting largely of extracts from Hancock's letters. 

HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT (1824-1886), American general, 
was born on the I4th of February 1824, in Montgomery county, 
Pa. He graduated in 1844 at the United States Military 
Academy, where his career was creditable but not distinguished. 
On the ist of July 1844 he was breveted, and on the i8th of 
June 1846 commissioned second lieutenant. He took part 
in the later movements under Winfield Scott against the city 
of Mexico, and was breveted first . lieutenant for " gallant 
and meritorious conduct." After the Mexican war he served 
in the West, in Florida and elsewhere; was married in 1850 
to Miss Almira Russell of St Louis; became first lieutenant 
in 1853, and assistant-quartermaster with the rank of captain 
in 1855. The outbreak of the Civil War found him in California. 
At his own request he was ordered east, and on the 23rd of 
September 1861 was made brigadier-general of volunteers and 
assigned to command a brigade in the Army of the Potomac. 
He took part in the Peninsula campaign, and the handling of 
his troops in the engagement at Williamsburg on the sth of 
May 1862, was so brilliant that McClellan reported " Hancock 
was superb," an epithet always afterwards applied to him. At 
the battle of Antietam he was placed in command of the first 
division of the II. corps, and in November he was made major- 
general of volunteers, and about the same time was promoted 
major in the regular army. Ip the disastrous battle of Fredericks- 
burg (g.v.), Hancock's division was on the right among the troops 
that were ordered to storm Marye's Heights. Out of the 5006 
men in his division 2013 fell. At Chancellorsville his division 
received both on the 2nd and the 3rd of May the brunt of the 
attack of Lee's main army. Soon after the battle he was 
appointed commander of the II. corps. 

The battle of Gettysburg (q.v.) began on the ist of July with 
the defeat of the left wing of the Army of the Potomac and the 
deafh of General Reynolds. About the middle of the afternoon 
Hancock arrived on the field with orders from Meade to assume 
command and to decide whether to continue the fight there or 
to fall back. He decided to stay, rallied the retreating troops, 
and held Cemetery Hill and. Ridge until the arrival of the main 
body of the Federal army. During the second day's battle he 
commanded the left centre of the Union army, and after General 
Sickles had been wounded, the whole of the left wing. In the 
third day's battle he commanded the left centre, upon which 
fell the full brunt of Pickett's charge, one of the most famous 
incidents of the war. Hancock's superb presence and power 
over men never shone more clearly than when, as the 150 guns 
of the Confederate army opened the attack he calmly rode along 
the front of his line to show his soldiers that he shared the 
dangers of the cannonade with them. His corps lost in the 
battle 4350 out of less than 10,000 fighting men. But it had 
captured twenty-seven Confederate battle flags and as many 
prisoners as it had men when the fighting ceased, f Just as the 
Confederate troops reached the Union line Hancock was struck/ 
in the groin by a bullet^but continued in command until the 
repulse of the attack, and as he was at last borne off the field 
earnestly recommended Meade to make a general attack on the 
beaten Confederates. The wound proved a severe one, so that 
some six months passed before he resumed command. 

In the battles of the year 1864 Hancock's part was as important 
and striking as in those of 1863. At the Wilderness he com- 
manded, during the second day's fighting, half of the Union 
army; at Spottsylvania he had charge of the fierce and successful 
attack on the " salient "; at Cold Harbor his corps formed the 



left wing in the unsuccessful assault on the Confederate lines. 
In August he was promoted to brigadier-general in the regular 
army. In November, his old wound troubling him, he obtained 
a short leave of absence, expecting to return to his corps in the 
near future. He was, however, detailed to raise a new corps, 
and later was placed in charge of the " Middle Division." It was 
expected that he would move towards Lynchburg, as part of a 
combined movement against Lee's communications. But before 
he could take the field Richmond had fallen and Lee had sur- 
rendered. It thus happened that Hancock, who for three years 
had been one of the most conspicuous figures in the Army of the 
Potomac did not take part in its final triumph. 

After the assassination of Lincoln, Hancock was placed in 
charge of Washington, and it was under his command that 
Booth's accomplices were tried and executed. In July 1866 
he was appointed major-general in the regular army. A little 
later he was placed in command of the department of the 
Missouri, and the year following assumed command of the fifth 
military division, comprising Louisiana and Texas. His policy, 
however, of discountenancing military trials and conciliating 
the conquered did not meet with approval at Washington, and 
he was at his own request transferred. Hancock had all his life 
been a Democrat. His splendid war record and his personal 
popularity caused his name to be considered as a candidate for 
the Presidency as early as 1868, and in 1880 Ke was nominated 
for that office by the Democrats; but he was defeated by 
his Republican opponent, General Garfield, though by the 
small popular plurality of seven thousand votes. He died 
at Governor's Island, near New York, on the 9th of February 
1886. Hancock was in many respects the ideal soldier of the 
Northern armies. He was quick, energetic and resourceful, 
reckless of his own safety, a strict disciplinarian, a painstaking 
and hard-working officer. It was on the field of battle, and 
when the fighting was fiercest, that his best qualities came to 
the front. He was a born commander of men, and it is doubtful 
if any other officer in the Northern army could get more fighting 
and more marching out of his men. Grant said of him, " Han- 
cock stands the most conspicuous figure of all the general officers 
who did not . exercise a separate command. He commanded 
a corps longer than any other, and his name was never mentioned 
as having committed in battle a blunder for which he was 
responsible." 

A biography of him has been written by General Francis A. 
Walker (New York, 1894). See also History of the Second Corps, by 
the same author (1886). (F. H. H.) 

HANCOCK, a city of Houghton county, Michigan, U.S.A., 
on Portage Lake, opposite Houghton. Pop. (1890) 1772; (1900) 
4050, of whom 1409 were foreign-born; (1004) 6037; (1910) 
8981. Hancock is served by the Mineral Range, the Copper 
Range, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Duluth, 
South Shore & Atlantic railways (the last two send their trains 
in over the Mineral Range tracks), and by steamboats through 
the Portage Lake Canal which connects with Lake Superior. 
Hancock is connected by a bridge and an electric line 
with the village of Houghton (pop. in 1910, 5113), the 
county-seat of Houghton county and the seat of the Michigan 
College of Mines (opened in 1886). Hancock has three 
parks, and a marine and general hospital. The city is the 
seat of a Finnish Lutheran Seminary there are many Finns in 
and near Hancock, and a Finnish newspaper is published here. 
Hancock is in the Michigan copper region the Quincy, Franklin 
and Hancock mines are in or near the city and the mining, 
working and shipping of copper are the leading industries; 
among the city's manufactures are mining machinery, lumber, 
bricks and beer. The municipality owns and operates the water- 
works. The electric-lighting plant, the gas plant and the street 
railway are owned by private corporations. Hancock was 
settled in 1859, was incorporated as a village in 1875, and was 
chartered as a city in 1903. 

HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-1851), German 
classical scholar, was born at Plauen in Saxony on the i sth of 
February 1786. He studied at Leipzig, in 1810 became professor 



HAND HANDEL 



at the Weimar gymnasium, and in 1817 professor of philosophy 
and Greek literature in the university of Jena, where he remained 
till his death on the i4th of March 1851. The work by which 
Hand is chiefly known is his (unfinished) edition of the treatise 
of Horatius Tursellinus (Orazio Torsellino, 1545-! 599) on the 
Latin particles (Tursellinus, seu de particulis Latinis com- 
mentarii, 1820-1845). Like his treatise on Latin style (Lehrbuch 
des lateinischen Slils, 3rd ed. by H. L. Schmitt, 1880), it is too 
abstruse and philosophical for the use of the ordinary student. 
Hand was also an enthusiastic musician, and in his Asthetik der 
Tonkunst (1837-1841) he was the first to introduce the subject 
of musical aesthetics. 

The first part of the last-named work has been translated into 
English by W. E. Lawson (Aesthetics of Musical Art, or The Beautiful 
in Music, 1880), and B. Sears's Classical Studies (1849) contains a 
" History of the Origin and Progress of the Latin Language," 
abridged from Hand's work on the subject. There is a memoir of 
his life and work by G. Queck (Jena, 1852). 

HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. 
Hand, Goth, handus), the terminal part of the human arm from 
below the wrist, and consisting of the fingers and the palm. The 
word is also used of the prehensile termination of the limbs in 
certain other animals (see ANATOMY: Superficial and artistic; 
SKELETON: Appendicular, and such articles as MUSCULAR 
SYSTEM and NERVOUS SYSTEM). There are many transferred 
applications of "hand," both as a substantive and in various 
adverbial phrases. The following may be mentioned: charge 
or authority, agency, source, chiefly in such expressions as " in 
the hands of," "by hand," "at first hand." From the position 
of the hands at the side of the body, the word means " direction," 
e.g., on the right, left hand, cf. " at hand." The hand as given 
in betrothal or marriage has been from early times the symbol 
of marriage as it also is of oaths. Other applications are to 
labourers engaged in manual occupations, the members of the 
crew of a ship, to a person who has some special skill, as in the 
phrase, " old parliamentary hand," and to the pointers of a clock 
or watch and to the number of cards dealt to each player in a 
card game. As a measure of length the term " hand " is now 
only used in the measurement of horses, it is equal to 4 in. 
The name " hand of glory," is given to a hand cut from the 
corpse of a hanged criminal, dried in smoke, and used as a 
charm or talisman, for the finding of treasures, &c. The expres- 
sion is the translation of the Fr. main de gloire, a corruption of 
the O. Fr. mandegloire, mandegoire, i.e. mandragore, mandragora, 
the mandrake, to the root of which many magical properties are 
attributed. 

HANDEL, GEORGE FREDERICK (1685-1759), English 
musical composer, German by origin, was born at Halle in Lower 
t Saxony, on the 23rd of February 1685. His name 

was Handel, but, like most 18th-century musicians 
who travelled, he compromised with its pronunciation by 
foreigners, and when in Italy spelt it Hendel, and in England 
(where he became naturalized) accepted the version Handel, 
which is therefore correct for English writers, while Handel 
remains the correct version in Germany. His father was a 
barber-surgeon, who disapproved of music, and wished George 
Frederick to become a lawyer. A friend smuggled a clavichord 
into the attic, and on this instrument, which is inaudible behind 
a closed door, the little boy practised secretly. Before he was 
eight his father went to visit a son by a former marriage who 
was a valet-de-chambre to the duke of Saxe-Weissenfels. The 
little boy begged in vain to go also, and at last ran after the 
carriage on foot so far that he had to be taken. He made 
acquaintance with the court musicians and contrived to practise 
on the organ when he could be overheard by the duke, who, 
immediately recognizing his talent, spoke seriously to the father, 
who had to yield to his arguments. On returning to Halle 
Handel became a pupil of Zachau, the cathedral organist, who 
gave him a thorough training as a composer and as a performer 
on keyed instruments, the oboe and the violin. Six very good 
trios for two oboes and bass, which Handel wrote at the age ol 
ten, are extant; and when he himself was shown them by an 
English admirer who had discovered them, he was much amused 



and remarked, " I wrote like the devil in those days, and chiefly 
[or the oboe, which was my favourite instrument." His master 
also of course made him write an enormous amount of vocal 
music, and he had to produce a motet every week. By the time 
le was twelve Zachau thought he could teach him no more, and 
accordingly the boy was sent to Berlin, where he made a great 
mpression at the court. 

His father, however, thought fit to decline the proposal of 
the elector of Brandenburg, afterwards King Frederick I. of 
Prussia, to send the boy to Italy in order afterwards to attach 
aim to the court at Berlin. German court musicians, as late as 
the time of Mozart, had hardly enough freedom to satisfy a 
man of independent character, and the elder Handel had not 
yet given up hope of his son's becoming a lawyer. Young 
Handel, therefore, returned to Halle and resumed his work with 
Zachau. In 1697 his father died, but the bqy showed great 
filial piety in finishing the ordinary course of his education, both 
general and musical, and even entering the university of Halle 
in 1702 as a law student. But in that year he succeeded to the 
post of organist at the cathedral, and after his "probation " 
year in that capacity he departed to Hamburg, where the only 
German opera worthy of the name was flourishing under the 
direction of its founder, Reinhold Keiser. Here he became 
friends with Matheson, a prolific composer and writer on music 1 . 
On one occasion they set out together to go to Lubeck, where a 
successor was to be appointed to the post left vacant by the 
great organist Buxtehude, who was retiring on account of his 
extreme age. Handel and Matheson made much music on this 
occasion, but did not compete, because they found that the 
successful candidate was required to accept the hand of the 
elderly daughter of the retiring organist. 

Another adventure might have had still more serious con- 
sequences. At a performance of Matheson's opera Cleopatra 
at Hamburg, Handel refused to give up the conductor's seat 
to the composer when the latter returned to his usual post at 
the harpsichord after singing the part of Antony on the stage. 
The dispute led to a duel outside the theatre, and, but for a 
large button on Handel's coat which intercepted Matheson's 
sword, there would have been no Messiah or Israel in Egypt. 
But the young men remained friends, and Matheson's writings 
are full of the most valuable, facts for Handel's biography. He 
relates in his Ehrenpforte that his friend at that time used to 
compose " interminable cantatas " of no great merit; but of 
these no traces now remain, unless we assume that a Passion 
according to St John, the manuscript of which is in the royal 
library at Berlin, is among the works alluded to. But its authen- 
ticity, while strongly upheld by Chrysander, has recently been 
as strongly assailed on internal evidence. 

On the 8th of January 1705, Handel's first opera, Almira, 
was performed at Hamburg with great success, and was followed 
a few weeks later by another work, entitled Nero. Nero is lost, 
but Almira, with its mixture of Italian and German language 
and form, remains as a valuable example of the tendencies of 
the time and of Handel's eclectic methods. It contains many 
themes used by Handel in well-known later works; but the 
current statement that the famous aria in Rinaldo, " Lascia 
ch'io pianga," comes from a saraband in Almira, is based upon 
nothing more definite than the inevitable resemblance between 
the simplest possible forms of saraband-rhythm. 

In 1706 Handel left Hamburg for Italy, where he remained 
for three years, rapidly acquiring the smooth Italian vocal 
style which hereafter always characterized his work. He 
had before this refused offers from noble patrons to send him 
there, but had now saved enough money, not only to support his 
mother at home, but to travel as his own master. He divided 
his time in Italy between Florence, Rome, Naples and Venice; 
and many anecdotes are preserved. of Bis meetings with Corelli, 
Lotti, Alessandro Scarlatti and Domenico Scarlatti, whose 
wonderful harpsichord technique still has a direct bearing on 
some of the most modern features of pianoforte style. Handel 
soon became famous as // Sassone (" the Saxon "), and it is 
said that Domenico on first hearing him play incognito exclaimed, 



HANDEL 



911 



" It is either the devil or the Saxon ! " Then there is a story 
of Corelli's coming to grief over a passage in Handel's overture 
to II Trionfo del tempo, in which the violins went up to A in 
altissimo. Handel impatiently snatched the violin to show 
Corelli how the passage ought to be played, and Corelli, who 
had never written or played beyond the third position in his 
life (this passage being in the seventh), said gently, " My dear 
Saxon, this music is in the French style, which I do not under- 
stand." In Italy Handel produced two operas, Rodrigo and 
Agrippina, the latter a very important work, of which the 
splendid overture was remodelled forty-four years afterwards 
as that of his last original oratorio, Jephtha. He also produced 
two oratorios, La Resurrezione, and // Trionfo del tempo. This, 
forty-six years afterwards, formed the basis of his last work. 
The Triumph of Time and Truth, which contains no original 
matter. All Handel's early works contain material that he 
used often with very little alteration later on, and, though the 
famous " Lascia ch'io pianga " does not occur in Almira, it 
occurs note for note in Agrippina and the two Italian oratorios. 
On the other hand the cantata Aci, Galaltea e Polifemo has 
nothing in common with Ads and Galatea. Besides these larger 
works there are several choral and solo cantatas of which the 
earliest, such as the great Dixit Dominus, show in their extra- 
vagant vocal difficulty how radical was the change which Handel's 
Italian experience so rapidly effected in his methods. 

Handel's success in Italy established his fame and led to his 
receiving at Venice in 1709 the offer of the post of Kapellmeister 
to the elector of Hanover, transmitted to him by Baron Kiel- 
mansegge, his patron and staunch friend of later years. Handel 
at the time contemplated a visit to England, and he accepted 
this offer on condition of leave of absence being granted to him 
for that purpose. To England accordingly Handel journeyed 
after a short stay at Hanover, arriving in London towards the 
close of 1710. He came as a composer of Italian opera, and 
earned his first success at the Haymarket with Rinaldo, com- 
posed, to the consternation of the hurried librettist, in a fortnight, 
and first performed on the 24th of February 1711. In this opera 
the aria " Lascia ch'io pianga" found its final home. The work 
was produced with the utmost magnificence, and Addison's 
delightful reviews of it in the Spectator poked fun at it from an 
unmusical point of view in a way that sometimes curiously 
foreshadows the criticisms that Gluck might have made on such 
things at a later period. The success was so great, especially 
for Walsh the publisher, that Handel proposed that Walsh should 
compose the next opera, and that he should publish it. He 
returned to Hanover at the close of the opera season, and com- 
posed a good deal of vocal chamber music for the princess 
Caroline, the step-daughter of the elector, besides the instru- 
mental works known to us as the oboe concertos. In 1712 
Handel returned to London and spent a year with Andrews, 
a rich musical amateur, in Barn Elms, Surrey. Three more 
years were spent in Burlington, in the neighbourhood of London. 
He evidently was but little inclined to return to Hanover, in 
spite of his duties to the court there. Two Italian operas and 
the Utrecht Te Deum written by the command of Queen Anne 
are the principal works of this period. It was somewhat awkward 
for the composer when his deserted master came to London 
in 1714 as George I. of England. For some time Handel did not 
venture to appear at court, and it was only at the intercession 
of Baron Kielmansegge that his pardon was obtained. By his 
advice Handel wrote the Water Music which was performed at a 
royal water party on the Thames, and it so pleased the king 
that he at once received the composer into his good graces and 
granted him a salary of 400 a year. Later Handel became 
music master to the little princesses and was given an additional 
200 by the princess Caroline. In 1716 he followed the king 
to Germany, where he wrote a second German Passion to the 
popular poem of Brockes, a text which, divested of its worst 
features, forms the basis of several of the arias in Bach's Passion 
according to St John. This was Handel's last work to a German 
text. 
On his return to England he entered the service of the duke 



of Chandos as conductor of his concerts, receiving a thousand 
pounds for his first oratorio Esther. The music which Handel 
wrote for performance at " Cannons," the duke of Chandos's 
residence at Edgware, is comprised in the first version of Esther, 
Acis and Galatea, and the twelve Chandos Anthems, which are 
compositions approximately in the same form as Bach's church 
cantatas but without any systematic use of chorale tunes. The 
fashionable Londoner would travel 9 miles in those days to 
the little chapel of Whitchurch to hear Handel's music, and all 
that now remains of the magnificent scene of these visits is the 
church, which is the parish church of Edgware. In 1720 Handel 
appeared again in a public capacity as impresario of the Italian 
opera at the Haymarket theatre, which he managed for the 
institution called the Royal Academy of Music. Senesino, a 
famous singer, to engage whom H'andel especially journeyed to 
Dresden, was the mainstay of the enterprise, which opened with 
a highly successful performance of Handel's opera Radamisto. 
To this time belongs the famous rivalry between Handel and 
Buononcini, a melodious Italian composer whom many thought 
to be the greater of the two. The controversy has been per- 
petuated in John Byrom's lines: 

" Some say, compared to Buononcini 
That Mynheer Handel's but a ninny; 
Others aver that he to Handel 
Is scarcely fit to hold a candle. 
Strange all this difference should be 
Twixt tweedle-dum and tweedle-dee." 

It must be remembered that at this time Handel had not yet 
asserted his greatness as a choral writer; the fashionable ideas 
of music and musicianship were based entirely upon success in 
Italian opera, and the contest between the rival composers was 
waged on the basis of works which have fallen into almost as 
complete an oblivion in Handel's case as in Buononcini's. None 
of Handel's forty-odd Italian operas can be said to survive, 
except in some two or three detached arias out of each opera; 
arias which reveal their essential qualities far better in isolation 
than when performed in groups of between twenty and thirty 
on the stage, as interruptions to the action of a classical drama 
to which nobody paid the slightest attention. But even within 
these limits Handel's artistic resources were too great to leave 
the issue in doubt; and when Handel wrote the third act of 
an opera Muzio Scevola, of which Buononcini and Ariosti 1 
wrote the other two, his triumph was decisive, especially as 
Buononcini soon got into discredit by failing to defend himself 
against the charge of producing as a prize-madrigal of his own 
a composition which proved to be by Lotti. At all events 
Buononcini left London, and Handel for the next ten years was 
without a rival in his ventures as an operatic composer. He 
was not, however, without a rival as an impresario; and the 
hostile competition of a rival company which obtained the 
services of the great Farinelli and also induced Senesino to 
desert him, led to his bankruptcy in 1737, and to an attack of 
paralysis caused by anxiety and overwork. The rival company 
also had to be dissolved from want of support, so that Handel's 
misfortunes must not be attributed to any failure to maintain 
his position in the musical world. Handel's artistic conscience 
was that of the most easy-going opportunist, or he would never 
have continued till 1741 to work in a field that gave so little 
scope for his genius. But the public seemed to want operas, 
and, if opera had no scope for his genius, at all events he could 
supply better operas with greater rapidity and ease than any 
three other living composers working together. And this he 
naturally continued to do so long as it seemed to be the best 
way to keep up his reputation. But with all this artistic 
opportunism he was not a man of tact, and there are 
numerous stories of the type of his holding the great prima 
donna Cuzzoni at arm's-length out of a window and threatening 
to drop her unkss she consented to sing a song which she had 
declared unsuitable to her style. 

Already before his last opera, Deidamia, produced in 1741, 
Handel had been making a gro wing impression with tis oratorios. 
1 Chrysander says Mattel instead of Ariosti. 



912 



HANDEL 



In these, freed from the restrictions of the stage, he was able 
to give scope to his genius for choral writing, and so to develop, 
or rather revive, that art of chorus singing which is the normal 
outlet for English musical talent. In 1726 Handel had become 
a naturalized Englishman, and in 1733 he began his public 
career as a composer of English texts by producing the second 
and larger version of Esther at the King's theatre. This was 
followed early in the same year by Deborah, in which the share 
of the chorus is much greater. In July he produced Athalia 
at Oxford, the first work in which his characteristic double 
choruses appear. The share of the chorus increases in Saul 
(1738); and Israel in Egypt (also 1738) is practically entirely 
a choral work, the solo movements, in spite of their fame, being 
as perfunctory in character as they are few in number. It was 
not unnatural that the public, who still considered Italian opera 
the highest, because the most modern form of musical art, 
obliged Handel at subsequent performances of this gigantic 
work to insert more solos. 

The Messiah was produced at Dublin on the I3th of April 
1742. Samson (which Handel preferred to the Messiah) appeared 
at Covent Garden on the 2nd of March 1744; Belshazzar at 
the King's theatre, 27th of March 1745; the Occasional Oratorio 
(chiefly a compilation of the earlier oratorios, but with a few 
important new numbers), on the i4th of February 1746 at 
Covent Garden, where all his later oratorios were produced; 
Judas Maccabaeus on the ist of April 1747; Joshua on the gth 
of March 1748; Alexander Bolus on the 23rd of March 1748; 
Solomon on the I7th of March 1749; Susanna, spring of 1749; 
Theodora, a great favourite of Handel's, who was much dis- 
appointed by its cold reception, on the i6th of March 1750; 
Jephtha (strictly speaking, his last work) on the 26th of February 
1752, and The Triumph of Time and Truth (transcribed from 
II Trionfo del tempo with the addition of many later favourite 
numbers), 1757. Other important works, indistinguishable in 
artistic form from oratorios, but on secular subjects, are Alex- 
ander's Feast, 1736; Ode for St Cecilia's Day (words by Dryden) ; 
L' Allegro, il pensieroso ed il moderate (the words of the third part 
by Jennens), 1740; Semele, 1744; Hercules, 1745; and The 
Choice of Hercules, 1751- 

By degrees the enmity against Handel died away, though he 
had many troubles. In 1745 he had again become bankrupt; 
for, although he had no rival as a composer of choral music it 
was possible for his enemies to give balls and banquets on the 
nights of his oratorio performances. As with his first bank- 
ruptcy, so in his later years, he showed scrupulous sense of honour 
in discharging his debts, and he continued to work hard to the 
end of his life. He- had not only completely recovered his 
financial position by the year 1750, but he must have made a 
good deal of money, for he then presented an organ to the 
Foundling Hospital, and opened it with a performance of the 
Messiah on the isth of May. In 1751 his sight began to trouble 
him; and the autograph of Jephtha, published in facsimile 
by the Hdndelgesellschaft, shows pathetic traces of this in his 
handwriting, 1 and so affords a most valuable evidence of his 
methods of composition, all the accompaniments, recitatives, 
and less essential portions of the work being evidently filled 
in long after the rest. He underwent unsuccessful operations, 
one of them by the same surgeon who had operated on Bach's 
eyes. There is evidence that he was able to see at intervals 
during his last years, but his sight practically never returned 
after May 1752. He continued superintending performances 
of his works and writing new arias for them, or inserting revised 
old ones, and he attended a performance of the Messiah a week 
before his death, which took place, according to the Public 
Advertiser of the i6th of April, not on Good Friday, the I3th 
of April, according to his own pious wish and according to 
common report, but on the I4th of April 1759. He was buried 
in Westminster Abbey; and his monument is by L. F. Roubilliac, 

1 By a dramatic coincidence Handel's blindness interrupted him 
during the writing of the chorus, " How dark, oh Lord, are Thy 
decrees, ... all our joys to sorrow turning ... as the night succeeds 
the day." 



the same sculptor who modelled the marble statue erected in 
1739 in Vauxhall Gardens, where his works had been frequently 
performed. 

Handel was a man of high character and intelligence, and his 
interest was not confined to his own art exclusively. He liked the 
society of politicians and literary men, and he was also a collector 
of pictures and articles of vertu. His power of work was enormous, 
and the Handelgesellschaft's edition of his complete works fills one 
hundred volumes, forming a total bulk almost equal to the works of 
Bach and Beethoven together. (F. H.; D. F. T.) 

No one has more successfully popularized the greatest artistic 
ideals than Handel; no artist is more disconcerting to critics 
who imagine that a great man's mental development 
is easy to follow. Not even Wagner effected a greater 
transformation in the possibilities of dramatic music 
than Handel effected in oratorio, yet we have seen that Handel 
was the very opposite of a reformer. He was not even conser- 
vative, and he hardly took the pains to ascertain what an art- 
form was, so long as something externally like it would convey 
his idea. But he never failed to convey his idea, and, if the 
hybrid forms in which he conveyed it had no historic influence 
and no typical character, they were none the less accurate in 
each individual case. The same aptness and the same absence 
of method are conspicuous in his style. The popular idea that 
Handel's style is easily recognizable comes from the fact that 
he overshadows all his predecessors and contemporaries, except 
Bach, and so makes us regard typical 18th-century Italian and 
English style as Handelian, instead of regarding Handel's style 
as typical Italian 18th-century. Nothing in music requires 
more minute expert knowledge than the sifting of the real 
peculiarities of Handel's style from the mass of contemporary 
formulae which in his inspired pages he absorbed, and which in 
his uninspired pages absorbed him. 

His easy mastery was acquired, like Mozart's, in childhood. 
The later sonatas for two oboes and bass which he wrote in his 
eleventh year are, except in their diffuseness and an occasional 
slip in grammar, indistinguishable from his later works, and 
they show a boyish inventiveness worthy of Mozart's work at 
the same age. Such early choral works, as the Dixit Dominus 
(1707), show the ill-regulated power of his choral writing 
before he assimilated Italian influences. Its practical diffi- 
culties are at least as extravagant as Bach's, while they are not 
accounted for by any corresponding originality and necessity 
of idea; but the grandeur of the scheme and nobility of thought 
is already that for which Handel so often in later years found 
the simplest and easiest adequate means of expression that 
music has ever attained. His eminently practical genius soon 
formed his vocal style, and long before the period of his great 
oratorios, such works as The Birthday Ode for Queen Anne (1713) 
and the Utrecht Te Deum show not a trace of German extra- 
vagance. The only drawback to his practical genius was that 
it led him to bury perhaps half of his finest melodies, and nearly 
all the secular features of interest in his treatment of instruments 
and of the aria forms, in that deplorable limbo of vanity, the 
18th-century Italian opera. It is not true, as has been alleged 
against him, that his operas are in no way superior to those of 
his contemporaries; but neither is it true that he stirred a finger 
to improve the condition of dramatic musical art. He was no 
slave to singers, as is amply testified by many anecdotes. Nor 
was he bound by the operatic conventions of the time. In Teseo 
he not only wrote an opera in five acts when custom prescribed 
three, but also broke a much more plausible rule in arranging 
that each character should have two arias in succession. He 
also showed a feeling for expression and style which led him to 
write arias of types which singers might not expect. But he 
never made any innovation which had the slightest bearing upon 
the stage-craft of opera, for he never concerned himself with any 
artistic question beyond the matter in hand; and the matter 
in hand was not to make dramatic music, or to make the story 
interesting or intelligible, but simply to provide a concert of 
between some twenty and thirty Italian arias and duets, wherein 
singers could display their abilities and spectators find distraction 
from the monotony of so large a dose of the aria form (which 



HANDEL 



was then the only possibility for solo vocal music) in the gorgeous- 
ness of the dresses and scenery. 

When the question arose how a musical entertainment of 
this kind could be managed in Lent without protests from the 
bishop of London, Handelian oratorio came into being as a 
matter of course. But though Handel was an opportunist 
he was not shallow. His artistic sense seized upon the natural 
possibilities which arose as soon as the music was transferred 
from the stage to the concert platform; and his first English 
oratorio, Esther (1720), beautifully shows the transition. The 
subject is as nearly secular as any that can be extracted from 
the Bible, and the treatment was based on Racine's Esther, 
which was much discussed at the time. Handel's oratorio 
was reproduced in an enlarged version in 1732 at the King's 
theatre: the princess royal wished for scenery and action, but 
the bishop of London protested. And the choruses, of which 
in the first version there are already no less than ten, are on the 
one hand operatic and unecclesiastical in expression, until the 
last, where polyphonic work on a large scale first appears; but 
on the other hand they are all much too long to be sung by heart, 
as is necessary in operas. In fact, the turning-point in Handel's 
development is the emancipation of the chorus from theatrical 
limitations. This had as great effect upon his few but important 
secular English works as upon his other oratorios. Ads and 
Galatea, Semele and Hercules, are in fact secular oratorios; 
the choral music in them is not ecclesiastical, but it is large, 
independent and polyphonic. 

We must remember, then, that Handel's scheme of oratorio 
is operatic in its origin and has no historic connexion with 
such principles as might have been generalized from the practice 
of the German Passion music of the time; and it is sufficiently 
astonishing that the chorus should have so readily assumed its 
proper place in a scheme which the public certainly regarded 
as a sort of Lenten biblical opera. And, although the chorus 
owes its freedom of development' to the disappearance of 
theatrical necessities,' it becomes no less powerful as a means of 
dramatic expression (as opposed to dramatic action) than as a 
purely musical resource. Already in Athalia the " Hallelujah " 
chorus at the end of the first act is a marvel of dramatic truth. 
It is sung by Israelites almost in despair beneath usurping 
tyranny; and accordingly it is a severe double fugue in a minor 
key, expressive of devout courage at a moment of depression. 
On purely musical grounds it is no less powerful in throwing 
into the highest possible relief the ecstatic solemnity of the psalm 
with which the second act opens. Now this sombre " Hallelujah " 
chorus is a very convenient illustration of Handel's originality, 
and the point in which his creative power really lies. It was not 
originally written for its situation in Athalia, but it was chosen 
for it. It was originally the last chorus of the second version 
of the anthem, As pants the Hart, from the autograph of which 
it is missing because Handel cut out the last pages in order to 
insert them into the manuscript of Athalia. The inspiration 
in Athalia thus lies not in the creation of the chorus itself, but 
in the choice of it. 

In choral music Handel made no more innovation than he 
made in arias. His sense of fitness in expression was of little 
use to him in opera, because opera could not become dramatic 
until musical form became capable of developing and blending 
emotions in all degrees of climax in a way that may be described 
as pictorial and not merely decorative (see Music; SONATA- 
FORMS; and INSTRUMENTATION). But in oratorio there was 
not the least necessity for reforming any art-forms. The ordinary 
choral resources of the time had perfect expressive possibilities 
where there were no actors to keep waiting, and where no dresses 
and scenery need distract the attention of the listener. When 
lastly, ordinary decorum dictated an attitude of reverent 
attention towards the subject of the oratorio, then the man of 
genius could find such a scope for his real sense of dramatic 
fitness as would make his work immortal. 

In estimating Handel's greatness we must think away all 
orthodox musical and progressive prejudices, and learn to apply 
the lessons critics of architecture and some critics of literature 



seem to know by nature. Originality, in music as in other arts, 
lies in the whole, and in a sense of the true meaning of every 
part. When Handel wrote a normal double fugue in a minor 
key on the word " Hallelujah " he showed that he at all events 
knew what a vigorous and dignified thing an 18th-century double 
fugue could be. In putting it at the end of a melancholy psalm 
he showed his sense of the value of the minor mode. When he 
put it in its situation in Athalia he showed as perfect a sense of 
dramatic and musical fitness as could well be found in art. Now 
it is obvious that in works like oratorios (which are dramatic 
schemes vigorously but loosely organized by the putting together 
of some twenty or thirty complete pieces of music) the proper 
conception of originality will be very different from that which 
animates the composer of modern lyric, operatic or symphonic 
music. When we add to this the characteristics of a method 
like Handel's, in which musical technique has become a masterly 
automatism, it becomes evident that our conception of originality 
must be at least as broad as that which we would apply in the 
criticism of architecture. The disadvantages of the want of 
such a conception have been aggravated by the dearth of general 
knowledge of the structure of musical art; a knowledge which 
shows that the parallel we have suggested between music and 
architecture, as regards the nature of originality, is no mere 
figure of speech. 

In every art there is an antithesis between form and matter, 
which becomes reconciled only when the work of art is perfect 
in its execution. And, whatever this perfection, the antithesis 
must always remain in the mind of the artist and critic to this 
extent, that some part of the material seems to be the special 
subject of technical rule rather than another. In the plastic and 
literary arts one type of this antithesis is more or less permanently 
maintained in the relation between subject and treatment. The 
mere fact that these arts express themselves by representing 
things that have some previous independent existence, helps 
us to look for originality rather in the things that make for 
perfection of treatment than in novelty of subject. But in music 
we have no permanent means of deciding which of many aspects 
we shall call the subject and which the treatment. In the i6th 
century the a priori form existed mainly in the practice of basing 
almost every melodic detail of the work on phrases of Gregorian 
chant or popular song, treated for the most part in terms of 
very definitely regulated polyphonic design, and on harmonic 
principles regulated in almost every detail by the relation between 
the melodic aspects of the church modes and the necessity for 
occasional alterations of the strict mode to secure finality at 
the close. In modern music such a relation between form and 
matter, prescribing as it does for every aspect at every moment 
both of the shape and the texture of the music, would exclude 
the element of invention altogether. In 16th-century music it 
by no means had that effect. An inventive 16th-century com- 
poser is as clearly distinguishable from a dull one as a good 
architect from a bad. The originality of the composer resides, 
in 16th-century music as in all art, in his whole work; but 
naturally his conception of property and ideas will not extend 
to themes or isolated passages. That man is entitled to an idea 
who can show what it means, or who can make it mean what 
he likes. Let him wear the giant's robe if it fits him. And it 
is merely a local difference in point of view which makes us think 
that there is property in themes and no property in forms. 
Nowadays we happen to regard the shape of a whole composition 
as its form, and its theme as its matter. And, as artistic 
organization becomes more complex and heterogeneous, the 
need of the broadest and most forcible possible outline of design 
is more pressingly felt; so that in what we choose to call form 
we are willing to sacrifice all conception of originality for the 
sake of general intelligibility, while we insist upon complete 
originality in those thematic details which we are pleased to 
call matter. But, if this explains, it does not excuse our setting 
up a criterion for musical originality which can be accepted by 
no intelligent critics of other arts, and which is completely upset 
by the study of any music earlier than the beginning of the 
century. 



914 



HANDEL 



The difficulty many writers have found in explaining the 
subject of Handel's " plagiarisms " is not entirely accounted 
for by mere lack of these considerations; but the grossest con- 
fusion of ideas as to the difference between cases in point prevails 
to this day, and many discussions which have been raised in 
regard to the ethical aspect of the question are frankly absurd. 1 
It has been argued, for instance, that great injustice was done 
to Buononcini over his unfortunate affair with the prize madrigal, 
while his great rival was allowed the credit of Israel in Egypt, 
which contains a considerable number of entire choruses (besides 
hosts of themes) by earlier Italian and German writers. But 
the very idea of Handelian oratorio is that of some three hours 
of music, religious or secular, arranged, like opera, in the form of 
a colossal entertainment, and with high dramatic and emotional 
interest imparted to it, if not by the telling of a story, at all 
events by the nature and development of the subject. It seems, 
moreover, to be entirely overlooked that the age was an age of 
pasticcios. Nothing was more common than the organization 
of some such solemn entertainment by the skilful grouping of 
favourite pieces. Handel himself never revived one of his 
oratorios without inserting in it favourite pieces from his other 
works as well as several new numbers; and the story is well 
known that the turning point in Gluck's career was his perception 
of the true possibilities of dramatic music from the failure of a 
pasticcio in which he had reset some rather definitely expressive 
music to situations for which it was not originally designed. 
The success of an oratorio was due to the appropriateness of its 
contrasts, together of course with the mastery of its detail, 
whether that detail were new or old; and there are many 
gradations between a rechauffe of an early work like The Triumph 
of Time and Truth, or a pasticcio with a few original numbers 
like the Occasional Oratorio, and such works as Samson, which 
was entirely new except that the " Dead March " first written 
for it was immediately replaced by the more famous one imported 
from Saul. That the idea of the pasticcio was extremely familiar 
to the age is shown by the practice of announcing an oratorio 
as " new and original," a term which would obviously be mean- 
ingless if it were as much a matter of course as it is at the present 
day, and which, if used at all, must obviously so apply to the 
whole work without forbidding the composer from gratifying 
the public with the reproduction of one or two favourite arias. 
But of course the question of originality becomes more serious 
when the imported numbers are not the composer's own. And 
here it is very noticeable that Handel derived no credit, either 
with his own public or with us, from whole movements that are 
not of his own designing. In Israel in Egypt, the choruses 
" Egypt was glad when they departed," " And I will exalt Him," 
" Thou sentest forth Thy Wrath " and " The Earth swallowed 
them," are without exception the most colourless and 
unattractive pieces of severe counterpoint to be found among 
Handel's works; and it is very difficult to fathom his motive in 
copying them from obscure pieces by Erba and Kaspar Kerl, 
unless it be that he wished to train his audiences to a better 
understanding of a polyphonic style. He certainly felt that 
the greatest possibilities of music lay in the higher choral poly- 
phony, and so in Israel in Egypt he designed a work consisting 
almost entirely of choruses, and may have wished in these 
instances for severe contrapuntal movements which he had not 
time to write, though he could have done them far better himself. 
Be this as it may, these choruses have certainly added nothing 

'The "moral 1 question has been raised afresh in reviews of 
Mr Sedley Taylor's admirable volume of analysed illustrations (The 
Indebtedness of Handel to works of other Composers, Cambridge, 1906). 
The latest argument is that Handel shows moral obliquity in borrow- 
ing " regrettably " from sources no one could know at the time. 
This reasoning makes it mysterious that a man of such moral 
obliquity should ever have written a note of his own music in 
England when he could have stolen the complete choral works of 
Bach and most of the hundred operas of Alessandro Scarlatti with 
the certainty that the sources would not be printed for a century 
after his death, even if his own name did not then check curiosity 
among antiquarians. Of course Handel's plagiarisms would have 
damaged his reputation if contemporaries had known of them. His 
polyphonic scholarship was more antiquated " in the i8th century 
than it is in the 2Oth. 



to the popularity of a work of which the public from the outset 
complained that there was not enough solo music; and what 
effect they have is merely to throw Handel's own style into 
relief. To draw any parallel between the theft of such unat- 
tractive details in the grand and intensely Handelian scheme 
of Israel in Egypt and Buononcini's alleged theft of a prize 
madrigal is merely ridiculous. Handel himself, if he had any 
suspicion that contemporaries did not take a sane architect's 
view of the originality of large musical schemes, 2 probably gave 
himself no more trouble about their scruples on this matter than 
about other forms of musical banality. 

The History of Music by Burney, the cleverest and most 
refined musical critic of the age, shows in the very freshness of 
its musical scholarship how completely unscholarly were the 
musical ideas of the time. Burney was incapable of regarding 
choral music as other than a highly improving academic exercise 
in which he himself was proficient; and for him Handel is the 
great opera-writer whose choral music will reward the study 
of the curious. If Handel had attempted to explain his 
methods to the musicians of his age, he would probably have 
found himself alone in his opinions as to the property of 
musical ideas. He did not trouble to explain, but he made no 
concealment of his sources. He left his whole musical library 
to his copyist^ and it was from this that the sources of 
his work were discovered. And when the whole series of 
plagiarisms is studied, the fact forces itself upon us that nothing 
except themes and forms which are common property in all 
18th-century music, has yet been discovered as the source of any 
work of Handel's which is not felt as part of a larger design. 
Operatic arias were never felt as parts of a whole. The opera 
was a concert on the stage, and it stood or fell, not by a dramatic 
propriety which it notoriously neglected to consider at all, 
but by the popularity of its arias. There is no aria in Handel's 
operas which is traceable to another composer. Even in the 
oratorios there is no solo number in which more than the themes 
are pilfered, for in oratorios the solo work still appealed to 
the popular criterion of novelty and individual attractiveness. 
And when we leave the question of copying of whole movements 
and come to that of the adaptation of passages, and still more 
of themes, Handel shows himself to be simply on a, line with 
Mozart. Jahn compares the opening of Mozart's Requiem with 
that of the first chorus in Handel's Funeral Anthem. Mozart 
recreates at least as much from Handel's already perfect frame- 
work as Handel ever idealized from the inorganic fragments 
of earlier writers. The double counterpoint of the Kyrie in 
Mozart's Requiem is still more indisputably identical with that 
of the last chorus of Handel's Joseph, and if the themes are 
common property their combination certainly is not. But the 
true plagiarist is the man who does not know the meaning of 
the ideas he copies, and the true creator is he in whose hands they 
remain or become true ideas. The theme " He led them forth 
like sheep " in the chorus " But as for his people " is one of the 
most beautiful in Handel's works, and the bare statement that it 
comes from a serenata by Stradella seems at first rather shocking. 
But, to any one who knew Stradella's treatment of it first, 
Handel's would come as a revelation actually greater than if he 
had never heard the theme before. Stradella makes nothing 
more of it, and therefore presumably sees nothing more in it 
.than an agreeable and essentially frivolous little tune which 
lends itself to comic dramatic purpose by a wearisome repetition 
throughout eight pages of patchy aria and instrumental ritornello 
at an ever-increasing pace. What Handel sees in it is what he 
makes of it, one of the most solemn and poetic things in music. 
Again, it may be very shocking to discover that the famous 
opening of the " Hailstone chorus " comes from the patchy and 
facetious overture to this same serenata, with which it is identical 
for ten bars all in the tonic chord (representing, according 
to Stradella, someone knocking at a door). And it is no doubt 
yet more shocking that the chorus " He spake the word, and 

2 Much light would be thrown on the subject if some one sufficiently 
ignorant of architecture were to make researches into Sir Christopher 
Wren's indebtedness to Italian architects ! 



HANDFASTING HANDICAP 



there came all manner of flies " contains no idea of Handel's 
own except the realistic swarming violin-passages, the general 
structure, and the vocal colouring; whereas the rhythmic and 
melodic figures of the voice parts come from an equally patchy 
sinfonia concerlata in Stradella's work. The real interest of 
these things ought not to be denied either by the misstatement 
that the materials adapted are mere common property, nor by 
the calumny that Handel was uninventive. 

The effects of Handel's original inspiration upon foreign 
material are really the best indication of the range of his style. 
The comic meaning of the broken rhythm of Stradella's overture 
becomes indeed Handel's inspiration in the light of the gigantic 
tone-picture of the " Hailstone chorus." In the theme of " He 
led them forth like sheep " we have already cited a particular 
case where Handel perceived great solemnity in a theme 
originally -intended to be frivolous. The converse process is 
equally instructive. In the short Carillon choruses in Saul 
where the Israelitish women welcome David after his victory 
over Goliath, Handel uses a delightful instrumental tune which 
stands at the beginning of a Te Deum by Urio, from which he 
borrowed an enormous amount of material in Saul, L' Allegro, 
the Dettingen Te Deum and other works. Urio's idea is first to 
make a jubilant and melodious noise from the lower register of 
the strings, and then to bring out a flourish of high trumpets as 
a contrast. He has no other use for his beautiful tune, which 
indeed would not bear more elaborate treatment than he gives it. 
The ritornello falls into statement and counterstatement, and 
the counterstatement secures one repetition of the tune, after 
which no more is heard of it. It has none of the solemnity of 
church music, and its value as a contrast to the flourish of 
trumpets depends, not upon itself, but upon its position in the 
orchestra. Handel did not see in it a fine opening for a great 
ecclesiastical work, but he saw in it an admirable expression of 
popular jubilation, and he understood how to bring out its 
character with the liveliest sense of climax and dramatic interest 
by taking it at its own value as a popular tune. So he uses it as 
an instrumental interlude accompanied with a jingle of carillons, 
while the daughters of Israel sing to a square-cut tune those 
praises of David which aroused the jealousy of Saul. But now 
turn to the opening of the Dettingen Te Deum and see what 
splendid use is made of the other side of Urio's idea, the contrast 
between a jubilant noise in the lowest part of the scale and the 
blaze of trumpets at an extreme height. In the fourth bar of 
the Dettingen Te Deum we find the same florid trumpet figures 
as we find in the fifth bar of Urio's, but at the first moment they 
are on oboes. The first four bars beat a tattoo on the tonic 
and dominant, with the whole orchestra, including trumpets 
and drums, in the lowest possible position and in a stirring 
rhythm with a boldness and simplicity characteristic only of 
a stroke of genius. Then the oboes appear with Urio's trumpet 
flourishes; the momentary contrast is at least as brilliant 
as Urio's; and as the oboes are immediately followed by the 
same figures on the trumpets themselves the contrast gains 
incalculably in subtlety and climax. Moreover, these flourishes 
are more melodious than the broad and massive opening, instead 
of being, as in Urio's scheme, incomparably less so. Lastly, 
Handel's primitive opening rhythmic figures inevitably underlie 
every subsequent inner part and bass that occurs at every 
half close and full close throughout the movement, especially 
where the trumpets are used. And thus every detail of his 
scheme is rendered alive with a rhythmic significance which 
the elementary nature of the theme prevents from ever becoming 
obtrusive. 

No other great composer has ever so overcrowded his life 
with occasional and mechanical work as Handel, and in no other 
artist are the qualities that make the difference between inspired 
and uninspired pages more difficult to analyse. The libretti 
of his oratorios are full of absurdities, except when they are 
derived in every detail from Scripture, as in the Messiah and 
Israel in Egypt, or from the classics of English literature, as in 
Samson and L' Allegro. These absurdities, and the obvious fact 
that in every oratorio Handel writes many more numbers than 



are desirable for one performance, and that he was continually 
in later performances adding, transferring and cutting out 
solo numbers and often choruses as well all this may seem at 
first sight to militate seriously against the view that Handel's 
originality and greatness consists in his grasp of the works as 
wholes, but in reality it strengthens that view. These things 
militate against the perfection of the whole, but they would 
have been absolutely fatal to a work of which the whole is not 
(as in all true art) greater than the sum of its parts. That they 
are felt as absurdities and defects already shows that Handel 
created in English oratorio a true art-form on the largest possible 
scale. 

There never has been a time when Handel has been overrated, 
except in so far as other composers have been neglected. But 
no composer has suffered so much from pious misinterpretation 
and the popular admiration of misleading externals. It is not the 
place here to dilate upon the burial of Handel's art beneath the 
" mammoth " performances of the Handel Festivals at the 
Crystal Palace; nor can we give more than a passing reference 
to the effects of " additional accompaniments " in the style of an 
altogether later age, started most unfortunately by Mozart 
(whose share in the work has been very much misinterpreted 
and corrupted) and continued in the middle of the iQth century 
by musicians of every degree of intelligence and refinement, until 
all sense of unity of style has been lost and does not seem likely 
to be recovered as a general element in the popular appreciation 
of Handel for some time to come. But in spite of this, Handel 
will never cease to be revered and loved as one of the greatest 
of composers, if we value the criteria of architectonic power, 
a perfect sense of style, and the power to rise to the most sublime 
height of musical climax by the simplest means. 

Handel's important works have all been mentioned above with 
their dates, and a separate detailed list does not seem necessary. 
He was an extremely rapid worker, and his later works are dated 
almost day by day as they proceed. From this we learn that the 
Messiah was sketched and scored within twenty-one days, and that 
even Jephlha, with an interruption of nearly four months besides 
several other delays caused by Handel's failing sight, was begun and 
finished within seven months, representing hardly five weeks' actual 
writing. Handel's extant works may be roughly summarized from 
the edition of the Handelgesellschaft as 41 Italian operas, 2 Italian 
oratorios, 2 German Passions, 18 English oratorios, 4 English secular 
oratorios, 4 English secular cantatas, and a few other small works, 
English and Italian, of the type of oratorio or incidental dramatic 
music; 3 Latin settings of the Te Deum; the (English) Dettingen 
Te Deum and Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate; 4 coronation anthems; 
3 volumes of English anthems (Chandos Anthems) ; I volume of 
Latin church music; 3 volumes of Italian vocal chamber-music; 
I volume of clavier works; 37 instrumental duets and trios (sonatas), 
and 4 volumes of orchestral music and organ concertos (about 40 
works). Precise figures are impossible as there is no means of draw- 
ing the line between pasticcios and original works. The instrumental 
pieces especially are used again and again as overtures to operas and 
oratorios and anthems. 

The complete edition of the German Handelgesellschaft suffers 
from being the work of one man who would not recognize that his 
task was beyond any single man's power. The best arrangements 
of the vocal scores are undoubtedly those published by Novello 
that are not based on " additional accompaniments." None is 
absolutely trustworthy, and those of the editor of the German 
Handelgesellschaft are sad proofs of the uselessness of expert library- 
scholarship without a sound musical training. Yet Chrysander's 
services in the restoration of Handel are beyond praise. We need 
only mention his discovery of authentic trombone parts in Israel 
in Egypt as one among many of his priceless contributions to musical 
history and aesthetics. (D. F. T.) 

HANDFASTING (A.S. handfceslnung, pledging one's hand), 
primarily the O. Eng. synonym for betrothal (<?..), and later a 
peculiar form of temporary marriage at one time common in 
Scotland, the only necessary ceremony being the verbal pledge 
of the couple while holding hands. The pair thus handfasted 
were, in accordance with Scotch law, entitled to live together 
for a year and a day. If then they so wished, the temporary 
marriage could be made permanent; if not, they could go their 
several ways without reproach, the child, if any, being supported 
by the party who objected to further cohabitation. 

HANDICAP (from the expression hand in cap, referring to 
drawing lots), a disadvantageous condition imposed upon the 



010 



HANDSEL HANDWRITING 



superior competitor in sports and games, or an advantage 
allowed the inferior, in order to equalize the chances of both. 
The character of the handicap depends upon the nature of the 
sport. Thus in horse-racing the better horse must cany the 
heavier weight. In foot races the inferior runners are allowed 
to start at certain distances in advance of the best (or " scratch ") 
man, according to their previous records. In distance competi- 
tions (weights, fly-casting, jumping, &c.) the inferior contestants 
add certain drst*""** to their scores. In time contests (yachting, 
canoe-racing, &c.) the weaker or smaller competitors subtract 
certain periods of time from that actually made, reckoned by 
the mile. In stroke contests (e.g. golf) a certain number of 
strokes are subtracted from or added to the scores, according 
to the strength of the players. In chess and draughts the 
stronger competitor may play without one or more pieces. In 
court games (tennis, lawn-tennis, racquets, &c.) and in billiards 
certain points, or percentage of points, are accorded the weaker 
players. 

Handicapping was applied to horse-racing as early as 1680, 
though the word was not used in this connexion much before the 
middle of the i8th century. A " Post and Handy-Cap Match " 
is described in Pond's Racing Calendar for 1754. A reference 
to something similar in Germany and Scandinavia, called 
Freimutrkl. may be found in Grrmania, vol. six. 

Competitions in which handicaps are given are called handicap- 
events or handicaps. There are many systems which depend 
upon the whim of the individual competitors. Thus a tennis 
player may offer to play against his inferior with a selzer-bottle 
instead of a racquet; or a golfer to play with only one 
club; or a chess-player to make his moves without seeing the 
board. 

The name " handicap " was taken from an ancient F.ngKsh 
game, to which Pepys. in his Diary under the date of the iSth 
of September 1660, thus refers: " Here some of us fell to handi- 
cap, a sport that I never knew before, which was very good." 
This game, which became obsolete in the igth century, was 
described as early as the i4th in Piers the Plowman under the 
name of " New Faire." It was originally played by three 
persons, one of whom proposed to " challenge," or exchange, 
some piece of property belonging to another for something of 
his own. The challenge being accepted an umpire was chosen, 
and all three put up a sum of money as a forfeit. The two 
players then placed their right hands in a cap, or in their pockets, 
in which there was loose money, while the umpire proceeded to 
describe the two objects of exchange, and to declare what sum 
of money the owner of the inferior article should pay as a bonus 
to the other. This declaration was made as rapidly as possible 
and ended with the invitation, " Draw, gentlemen! " Each 
player then withdrew and held out his hand, which he opened. 
If both hands contained money the exchange was effected 
according to the conditions laid down by the umpire, who then 
took the forfeit money for himsHf, If neither hand contained 
money the exchange was declined and the umpire took the 
forfeit money. If only one player agnHiH his acceptance of 
the exchange by holding money in his hand, he was entitled to 
the forfeit-money, though the exchange was not made. 

Handicap was also the name of an old game at cards, now 
obsolete. It resembled the game of Loo, and probably derived 
its name from the ancient sport described above. 

HANDSEL, the O. Eng. term for earnest money; especially 
in Scotland the first money taken at a market or fair. The 
termination set is the modern " sdL" " Hand " indicates, not 
a bargain by shaking hands, but the actual putting of the money 
into the hand. Handsets were also presents or earnests of good- 
will in the North; thus Handsel Monday, the first Monday in 
the year, an occasion for universal tipping, is the equivalent of 
the English Boxing day. 

HAMDSWORTH. (i) An urban district in the Handsworth 
parliamentary division of Staffordshire, England, suburban 
to Birmingham on the north-west. Pop. (1891), 32,736; (1001) 
51,911. (See BIRMINGHAM.) (a) An urban district in the 
parliamentary division of Yorkshire, 4 m. 



of Sheffield. Pop. (1901), 13,404. In this neighbourhood are 
extensive collieries and quarries. 

HANDWRITING. Under PALAEOGRAPHY and WMTIXG, the 
history of handwriting is dealt with. Questions of handwriting 
come before legal tribunals mainly in connexion with the law 
of evidence. In Roman law, the authenticity of documents 
was proved first by the attesting witnesses; in the second place, 
if they were dead, by comparison of handwritings. It was 
necessary, however, that the document to be used for purposes 
of comparison either should have been executed with the for- 
malities of a public document, or should have its genuineness 
proved by three attesting witnesses. The determination was 
apparently, in the latter case, left to experts, who were sworn 
to give an impartial opinion (Code 4, 21. 20). Proof by com- 
parison of handwritings, with a reference if necessary to three 
experts as to the handwriting which is to be used for the purposes 
of comparison, is provided for in the French Code of Civil 
Procedure (arts. 193 et seq.); and in Quebec (Code Proc. Civ. 
arts. 392 et seq.) andSt Lucia (Code Civ. Proc. arts. 286 et seq.), 
the French system has been adopted with modifications. Com- 
parison by witnesses of disputed writings with any writing 
proved to the satisfaction of the judge to be genuine is accepted 
in England and Ireland in all legal proceedings whether criminal 
or civil, including proceedings before arbitrators (Denman 
Act, 28 & 29 Met. c. 18, 55. i, 8); and such writings and the 
evidence of witnesses respecting the same may be submitted 
to the court and jury as evidence of the genuineness or otherwise 
of the writing in dispute. It is admitted in Scotland (where the 
term comparatio Kteramm is in use) and" in most of the American 
states, subject to the same conditions. In England, prior to 
the Common Law Procedure Act of 1854 (now superseded by 
the act of 1866), documents irrelevant to the matter in issue 
were not admissible for the sole purpose of comparison, and this 
role has been adopted, and is still adhered to, in some of the 
states in America. In England, as in the United States, and in 
most legal systems, the primary and best evidence of hand- 
writing is that of the writer himself. Witnesses who saw him 
write the writing in question, or who are familiar with his 
handwriting either from having seen him write or from having 
corresponded with him, or otherwise, may be called. In cases 
of disputed handwriting the court will accept the evidence of 
experts in handwriting, Le. persons who have an adequate 
knowledge of handwriting, whether acquired in the way of their 
business or not, such as solicitors or bank cashiers (R. v. 
Siherlock, 1894, 2 QJB. 766). In such cases the witness is 
required to compare the admitted handwriting of the person 
whose writing is in question with the disputed document, and 
to state in detail the similarities or differences as to the formation 
of words and fetters, on which he bases his opinion as to the 
genuineness or otherwise of the disputed document. By the use 
of the magnifying glass, or, as in the Parnell case, by enlarged 
photographs of the fetters alleged to have been written by Mr 
Parnell, the court and jury are much assisted to appreciate the 
grounds on which the conclusions of the expert are founded. 
Evidence of this kind, being based on opinion and theory, 
needs to be very carefully weighed, and the dangers of implicit 
reliance on it have been illustrated in many cases (e.g. the 
Beck case in 1904; and see Seaman v. Netnerclift, 1876, i 
C.P.D. 540). Evidence by comparison of handwriting comes 
hi principally either in default, or in corroboration, of the other 
modes of proof. 

Where attestation is necessary to the validity of a document, 
e.g. wills and bills of safe, the execution must be proved by one 
or more of the attesting witnesses, unless they are dead or 
cannot be produced, when it is sufficient to prove the signature 
of one of them to the attesting clause (28 & 29 Met. c. 18, s. 7). 
Signatures to certain public and ^flfirial documents need not in 
general be proved (see e.g. Evidence Act, 1845, ss. i, 2). 

See Taylor, Late of Entente (loth ed., London, 1006); Erskue. 
Principles /** ScaOami (2Oth ed., ~ 
Bouvier, Lam Dicty. (Boston and London. 
faction (Albany. 1892); Hagan, Disputed Hi 
1894) ; also the article IDENTIFICATION. 



d., Edinburgh, 1903): 

1807); Hams. Idemtir- 

,m7n,iHm L (New York. 



(A. W. R.) 



HANG-CHOW-FU HANGING 



917 



HANG-CHOW-FU, a city of China, in the province of Cheh- 
Kiang, 2 m. N.W. of the Tsien-tang-Kiang, at the southern 
terminus of the Grand canal, by which it communicates with 
Peking. It lies about 100 m. S.W. of Shanghai, in 30 20' 
20" N., 120 7' 27" E. Towards the west is the Si-hu or Western 
Lake, a beautiful sheet of water, with its banks and islands 
studded with villas, monuments and gardens, and its surface 
traversed by gaily-painted pleasure boats. Exclusive of exten- 
sive and flourishing suburbs, the city has a circuit of 12 m.; 
its streets are well paved and clean; and it possesses a large 
number of arches, public monuments, temples, hospitals and 
colleges. It has long ranked as one of the great centres of 
Chinese commerce and Chinese learning. In 1869 the silk 
manufactures alone were said to give employment to 60,000 
persons within its walls, and it has an extensive production of 
gold and silver work and tinsel paper. On one of the islands 
in the lake is the great Wen-lan-ko or pavilion of literary 
assemblies, and it is said that at the examinations for the second 
degree, twice every three years, from 10,000 to 15,000 candidates 
come together. In the north-east corner of the city is the 
Nestorian church which was noted by Marco Polo, the facade 
being " elaborately carved and the gates covered with elegantly 
wrought iron." There is a Roman Catholic mission in Hang- 
chow, and the Church Missionary Society, the American Presby- 
terians, and the Baptists have stations. The local dialect differs 
from the Mandarin mainly in pronunciation. The population, 
which is remarkable for gaiety of clothing, was formerly reckoned 
at 2,000,000, but is now variously estimated at 300,000, 400,000 
or 800,000. Hang-chow-fu was declared open to foreign trade 
in 1896, in pursuance of the Japanese treaty of Shimonoseki. 
It is connected with Shanghai by inland canal, which is navigable 
for boats drawing up to 4 ft. of water, and which might be 
greatly improved by dredging. The cities of Shanghai, Hang- 
chow and Suchow form the three points of a triangle, each being 
connected with the other by canal, and trade is now open by 
steam between all three under the inland navigation rules. 
These canals pass through the richest and most populous districts 
of China, and in particular lead into the great silk-producing 
districts. They have for many centuries been the highway 
of commerce, and afford a cheap and economical means of 
transport. Hangchow lies at the head of the large estuary 
of that name, which is, however, too shallow for navigation by 
steamers. The estuary or bay is funnel-shaped, and its con- 
figuration produces at spring tides a " bore " or tidal wave, 
which at its maximum reaches a height of 15 to 20 ft. The 
value of trade passing through the customs in 1899 was 
1,729,000; in 1904 these figures had risen to 2,543,831. 

Hang-chow-fu is the Kinsai of Marco Polo, who describes it 
as the finest and noblest city in the world, and speaks enthusi- 
astically of the number and splendour of its mansions and the 
wealth and luxuriance of its inhabitants. According to this 
authority it had a circuit of 100 m., and no fewer than 12,000 
bridges and 3000 baths. The name Kinsai, which appears in 
Wassaf as Khanzai, in Ibn Batuta as Khansa, in Odoric of 
Pordenone as Camsay, and elsewhere as Campsay and Cassay, 
is really a corruption of the Chinese King-sze, capital, the same 
word which is still applied to Peking. From the loth to the 
i3th century (960-1272) the city, whose real name was then 
Ling-nan, was the capital of southern China and the seat of the 
Sung dynasty, which was dethroned by the Mongolians shortly 
before Marco Polo's visit. Up to 1861, when it was laid in ruins 
by the T'aip'ings, Hangchow continued to maintain its position 
as one of the most flourishing cities in the empire. 

HANGING, one of the modes of execution under Roman law 
(ad furcatn domnatio), and in England and some other countries 
the usual form of capital punishment. It was derived by the 
Anglo-Saxons from their German ancestors (Tacitus, Germ. 
12). Under William the Conqueror this mode of punishment is 
said to have been disused in favour of mutilation: but Henry I. 
decreed that all thieves taken should be hanged (i.e. summarily 
without trial), and by the time of Henry II. hanging was fully 
established as a punishment for homicide; the " right of pit 



and gallows " was ordinarily included in the royal grants of 
jurisdiction to lords of manors and to 'ecclesiastical 1 and 
municipal corporations. In the middle ages every town, abbey, 
and nearly all the more important manorial lords had the right 
of hanging. The clergy had rights, too, in respect to the gallows. 
Thus William the Conqueror invested the abbot of Battle Abbey 
with authority to save the life of any criminal. From the end 
of the 1 2th century the jurisdiction of the royal courts gradually 
became 'exclusive; as early as 1212 the king's justices sentenced 
offenders to be hanged (Seld. Soc. Publ. vol. i. ; Select Pleas 
of the Crown, p. 1 1 1), and in the Gloucester eyre of 1 22 1 instances 
of this sentence are numerous (Maitland, pi. 72, 101, 228). In 
1241 a nobleman's son, William Marise, was hanged for piracy. 
In the reign of Edward I. the abbot of Peterborough set up a 
gallows at Collingham, Notts, and hanged a thief. In 1279 
two hundred and eighty Jews were hanged for clipping coin. 
The mayor and the porter of the South Gate of Exeter were 
hanged for their neglect in leaving the city gate open at night, 
thereby aiding the escape of a murderer. Hanging in time 
superseded all other forms of capital punishment for felony. 
It was substituted in 1790 for burning as a punishment of female 
traitors and in 1814 for beheading as a punishment for male 
traitors. The older and more primitive modes of carrying out 
the sentence were by hanging from the bough of a tree ("the 
father to the bough, the son to the plough ") or from a gallows. 
Formerly in the worst cases of murder it was customary after 
execution to hang the criminal's body in chains near the scene 
of his crime. This was known as " gibbeting," and, though by 
no means rare in the earliest times, was, according to Blackstone, 
no part of the legal sentence. Holinshed is the authority for 
the statement that sometimes culprits were gibbeted alive, 
but this is doubtful. It was not until 1752 that gibbeting was 
recognized by statute. The act (25 Geo. II. c. 37) empowered 
the judges to direct that the dead body of a murderer should be 
hung in chains, in the manner practised for the most atrocious 
offences, or given over to surgeons to be dissected and anatomized, 
and forbade burial except after dissection (see Foster, Crown 
Law, 107, Earl Ferrers' case, 1760). The hanging in chains 
was usually on the spot where the murder took place. Pirates 
were gibbeted on the sea shore or river bank. The act of 1752 
was repealed in 1828, but the alternatives of dissection or hanging 
in chains were re-enacted and continued in use until abolished 
as to dissection by the Anatomy Act in 1832, and as to hanging 
in chains in 1834. The last murderer hung in chains seems to 
have been James Cook, executed at Leicester on the loth of 
August 1832. The irons used on that occasion are preserved in 
Leicester prison. Instead of chains, gibbet irons, a framework 
to hold the limbs together, were sometimes used. At the town 
hall, Rye, Sussex, are preserved the irons used in 1742 for one 
John Breeds who murdered the mayor. 

The earlier modes of hanging were gradually disused, and 
the present system of hanging by use of the drop is said to have 
been inaugurated at the execution of the fourth Earl Ferrers 
in 1760. The form of scaffold now in use 2 has under the gallows 
a drop constructed on the principle of the trap-doors on a 
theatrical stage, upon which the convict is placed under the 
gallows, a white cap is placed over his head, and when the halter 
has been properly adjusted the drop is withdrawn by a mechanical 
contrivance worked by a lever, much like those in use on railways 
for moving points and signals. The convict falls into a pit, 

1 See Pollock and Maitland vol. i. 563. The sole survival of these 
grants is the jurisdiction of the justices of the Soke of Peterborough 
to try for capital offences at their quarter sessions. 

* In most counties in Ireland the scaffold used (in 1852) to consist 
in an iron balcony permanently fixed outside the gaol wall. There 
was a small door in the wall commanding the balcony and opening 
out upon it. The bottom of the iron balcony or cage was so con- 
structed that on the withdrawal of a pin or bolt which could be 
managed from within the gaol, the trap-door upon which the culprit 
stood dropped from under his feet. The upper end of the rope was 
fastened to a strong iron bar, which projected over the trap-door. 
There were usually two or three trap-doors on the same balcony, 
so that, if required, two or more men could be hanged simultaneously. 
(Trench, Realities of Irish Life (1869), 280.) 



918 



HANGO HANKA 



the length of the fall being regulated by his height and weight. 
Death results not from real hanging and strangulation, but from 
a fracture of the cervical vertebrae. Compression of the windpipe 
by the rope and the obstruction of the circulation aid in the 
fatal result. Recently the noose has had imbedded in its fibre 
a metal eyelet which is adjusted tightly beneath the ear and 
considerably expedites death. The convict is left hanging 
until life is extinct. 

It was long considered essential that executions, like trials, 
should be public, and be carried out in a manner calculated to 
impress evil-doers. Partly to this idea, partly to notions of 
revenge and temporal punishment of sin, is probably due the 
rigour of the administration of the English law. But the methods 
of execution were unseemly, as delineated in Hogarth's print 
of the execution of the idle apprentice, and were ineffectual in 
reducing the bulk of crime, which was augmented by the in- 
efficiency of the police and the uncertainty and severity of the 
law, which rendered persons tempted to commit crime either 
reckless or confident of escape. The scandals attending public 
executions led to an attempt to alter the law in 1841, although 
many protests had been made long before, among them those of 
the novelist Fielding. But perhaps the most forcible and 
effectual was that of Charles Dickens in his letters to The Times 
written after mixing in the crowd gathered to witness the execu- 
tion of the Mannings at Horsemonger Lane gaol in 1849. After 
his experiences he came to the conclusion that public executions 
attracted the depraved and those affected by morbid curiosity; 
and that the spectacle had neither the solemnity nor the salutary 
effect which should attend the execution of public justice. His 
views were strongly resisted in some quarters; and it was not 
until 1868 (31 & 32 Viet. c. 24) that they were accepted. The 
last public hanging in England was that of Michael Barrett for 
murder by causing an explosion at Clerkenwell prison with the 
object of releasing persons confined there for treason and felony 
(Ann. Reg., 1868, p. 63). Under the act of 1868 (31 & 32 Viet. 
c. 24), which was adapted from similar legislation already in 
force in the Australian colonies convicted murderers are hanged 
within the walls of a prison. The sentence of the court is that 
the convict " be hanged by the neck until he is dead." The 
execution of the sentence devolves on the sheriff of the county 
(Sheriffs Act 1887, s. 13). As a general rule the sentence is 
carried out in England and Ireland at 8 A.M. on a week-day 
(not being Monday), in the week following the third Sunday after 
sentence was passed. In old times prisoners were often hanged 
on the day after sentence was passed; and under the act of 
1752 this was made the rule in cases of murder. A public notice 
of the date and hour of execution must be posted on the prison 
walls not less than twelve hours before the execution and must 
remain until the inquest is over. The persons required to be 
present are the sheriff, the gaoler, chaplain and surgeon of the 
prison, and such other officers of the prison as the sheriff requires; 
justices of the peace for the jurisdiction to which the prison 
belongs, and such of the relatives, or such other persons as the 
sheriff or visiting justices allow, may also attend. It is usual 
to allow the attendance of some representatives of the press. 
The death of the prisoner is certified by the prison surgeon, and 
a declaration that judgment of death has been executed is signed 
by the sheriff. An inquest is then held on the body by the 
coroner for the jurisdiction and a jury from which prison officers 
are excluded. The certificate and declaration, and a duplicate 
of the coroner's inquiry also, are sent to the home office, or in 
Ireland to the lord-lieutenant, and the body of the prisoner is 
interred in quicklime within the prison walls if space is available. 
It is also the practice to toll the bell of the parish or other neigh- 
bouring church, for fifteen minutes before and fifteen minutes 
after the execution. The hoisting of the black flag at the moment 
of execution was abolished in 1902. The regulations as to 
execution are printed in the Statutory Rules and Orders, Revised 
ed. 1904, vol. x. (tits. Prison E. and Prison I). The act of 1868 
applies only to executions for murder; but since the passing of 
the act there have been no executions for any other crime 
within the United Kingdom. (See further CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.) 



In Scotland execution by hanging is carried out in the same 
manner as in England and Ireland, but under the supervision 
of the magistrates of the burgh in which it is decreed to take 
place, and in lieu of the inquest required in England and Ireland 
an inquiry is held at the instance of the procurator-fiscal before 
a sheriff or sheriff substitute (act of 1868, s. 13). The procedure 
at the execution is governed by the act of 1868 and the Scottish 
Prison Rules, rr. 465-469 (Stat. Rules and Orders, Revised ed. 
1904, tit. Prison S). 

British Dominions beyond the Seas. Throughout the King's 
dominions hanging is the regular method of executing sentence 
of death. In India the Penal Code superseded the modes of 
punishment under Mahommedan law, and s. 368 of the Criminal 
Procedure Code of 1898 provides that sentence of death is to be 
executed by hanging by the neck. 

In Canada the sentence is executed within a prison under 
conditions very similar to those in England (Criminal Code, 1892; 
ss. 936-945). In Australia the execution takes place within the 
prison walls, at a time and place appointed by the governor of 
the state. See Queensland Code, 1899, s. 664; Western Australia 
Code, 1 901 , s. 663 ; in these states no inquest is held. In Western 
Australia the governor may cause an aboriginal native to be 
executed outside a prison. In New Zealand the only mode of 
execution is by hanging within a prison (Act of 1883). 

United States. In all the states except New York, Massa- 
chusetts, New Jersey, North Carolina, Mississippi, Virginia, and 
Ohio (see ELECTROCUTION) persons sentenced to death are 
hanged. In Utah the criminal may elect to be shot instead. 

The only countries, whose law is not of direct English origin, 
which inflict capital punishment by hanging are Japan, Austria, 
Hungary and Russia. (W. F. C.) 

HANGO, a port and sea-bathing resort situated on the pro- 
montory of Hangoudd, to the extreme south-west of Finland. 
Hango owes its commercial importance to the fact that it is 
practically the only winter ice-free port in Finland, and is thus 
of value both to the Finnish and the Russian sea-borne trade. 
When incorporated in 1874 it had only a few hundred inhabitants; 
in 1900 it had 2501 and it has now over six thousand (5986 in 
1904). It is connected by railway with Helsingfors and Tam- 
merfors, and is the centre of the Finnish butter export, which 
now amounts to over i ,000,000 yearly. There is a considerable 
import of coal, cotton, iron and breadstuffs, the chief exports 
being butter, fish, timber and wood pulp. During the period 
of emigration, owing to political troubles with Russia, over 
12,000 Finns sailed from Hango in a single year (1901), mostly 
for the United States and Canada. Hango now takes front rank 
as a fashionable watering-place, especially for wealthy Russians, 
having a dry climate and a fine strand. 

HANKA, WENCESLAUS (1791-1861), Bohemian philologist, 
was born at Horeniowes, a hamlet of eastern Bohemia, on the 
loth of June 1791. He was sent in 1807 to school at Koniggratz, 
to escape the conscription, then to the university of Prague, 
where he founded a society for the cultivation of the Czech 
language. At Vienna, where he afterwards studied law, he 
established a Czech periodical; and in 1813 he made the 
acquaintance of Josept Dobrowsky, the eminent philologist. 
On the i6th of Septembei 1817 Hanka alleged that he had 
discovered some ancient Bohemian manuscript poems (the 
Koniginhof . MS.) of the I3th and I4th century in the church 
tower of the village of Kralodwor, or Koniginhof. These were 
published in 1818, under the title Kralodivorsky Rukopis, with 
a German translation by Swoboda. Great doubt, however, was 
felt as to their genuineness, and Dobrowsky, by pronounc- 
ing The Judgment of Libussa, another manuscript found by 
Hanka, an "obvious fraud," confirmed the suspicion. Some 
years afterwards Dobrowsky saw fit to modify his decision, 
but by modern Czech scholars the MS. is regarded as a forgery. 
A translation into English, The Manuscript of the Queen's Court, 
was made by Wratislaw in 1852. The originals were presented 
by the discoverer to the Bohemian museum at Prague, of which 
he was appointed librarian in 1818. In 1848 Hanka, who was 
an ardent Panslavist, took part in the Slavonic congress and 



HANKOW HANNA 



919 



other peaceful national demonstrations, being the founder of 
the political society Slovanska Lipa. He was elected to the 
imperial diet at Vienna, but declined to take his seat. In the 
winter of 1848 he became lecturer and in 1849 professor of 
Slavonic languages in the university of Prague, where he died 
on the i2th of January 1861. 

His chief works and editions are the following : Hankowy Pjsne 
(Prague, 1815), a volume of poems; Starobyla Skladani (1817-1826), 
in 5 vols. a collection of old Bohemian poems, chiefly from un- 
published manuscripts; A Short History of the Slavonic Peoples 
(1818); A Bohemian Grammar (1822) and A Polish Grammar (1839) 
these grammars were composed on a plan suggested by Dobrowsky ; 
Igor (1821), an ancient Russian epic, with a translation into 
Bohemian; a part of the Gospels from the Reims manuscript in 
the Glagolitic character (1846); the old Bohemian Chronicles of 
Dalimil (1848) and the History of Charles IV., by Procop Lupac 
(1848); Evangelium Ostromis (1853). 

HANKOW (" Mouth of the Han "), the great commercial 
centre of the middle portion of the Chinese empire, and since 
1858 one of the principal places opened to foreign trade. It is 
situated on the northern side of the Yangtsze-kiang at its 
junction with the Han river, about 600 m. W. of Shanghai in 
30 32' 51" N., 114 19' 55" E., at a height of 150 ft. By the 
Chinese it is not considered a separate city, but as a suburb 
of the now decadent city of Hanyang; and it may almost be 
said to stand in a similar relation to Wu-chang the capital of 
the province of Hupeh, which lies immediately opposite on the 
southern bank of the Yangtsze-kiang. Hankow extends for about 
a mile along the main river and about two and a half along the 
Han. It is protected by a wall 18 ft. high, which was erected 
in 1863 and has a circuit of about 4 m. Within recent years 
the port has made rapid advance in wealth and importance. 
The opening up of the upper waters of the Yangtsze to steam 
navigation has made it a commercial entrepot second only to 
Shanghai. It is the terminus of a railway between Peking 
and the Yangtsze, the northern half of the trunk line from 
Peking to Canton. There is daily communication by regular 
lines of steamers with Shanghai, and smaller steamers ply on the 
upper section of the river between Hankow and Ich'ang. The 
principal article of export continues to be black tea, of which 
staple Hankow has always been the central market. The bulk 
of the leaf tea, however, now goes to Russia by direct steamers 
to Odessa instead of to London as formerly, and a large quantity 
goes overland via Tientsin and Siberia in the form of brick tea. 
The quantity of brick tea thus exported in 1904 was upwards 
of 10 million ft. The exports which come next in value are 
opium, wood-oil, hides, beans, cotton yarn and raw silk. The 
population of Hankow, together with the city of Wuchang on 
the opposite bank, is estimated at 800,000, and the number of 
foreign residents is about 500. Large iron-works have been 
erected by the Chinese authorities at Hanyang, a couple of miles 
higher up the river, and at Wuchang there are two official cotton 
mills. The British concession, on which the business part of 
the foreign settlement is built, was obtained in 1861 by a lease 
in perpetuity from the Chinese authorities in favour of the crown. 
By 1863 a great embankment and a roadway were completed 
along the river, which may rise as much as 50 ft. or more above 
its ordinary levels, and not infrequently, as in 1849 and 1866, 
lays a large part of the town under water. On the former occasion 
little was left uncovered but the roofs of the houses. In 1864 
a public assay office was established. Sub-leases for a term of 
years are granted by the crown to private individuals; local 
control, including the policing of the settlement, is managed by 
a municipal council elected under regulations promulgated by 
the British minister in China, acting by authority of the 
sovereign's orders in council. Foreigners, i.e. non-British, are 
admitted to become lease-holders on their submitting to be 
bound by the municipal regulations. The concession, however, 
gives no territorial jurisdiction. All foreigners, of whatever 
nationality, are justiciable only before their own consular 
authorities by virtue of the extra-territorial clauses of their 
treaties with China. In 1895 a concession, on similar terms to 
that under which the British is held, was obtained by Germany, 
and this was followed by concessions to France and Russia. 



These three concessions all lie on the north bank of the river 
and immediately below the British. An extension of the British 
concession backwards was granted in 1898. The Roman 
Catholics, the London Missionary Society and the Wesleyans 
have all missions in the town; and there are two missionary 
hospitals. The total trade in 1904 was valued at 15,401,076 
(9,042,190 being exports and 6,358,886 imports) as compared 
with a total of 17,183,400 in 1891 and 11,628,000 in 1880. 

HANLEY, a market town and parliamentary borough of 
Staffordshire, England, in the Potteries district, 148 m. N.W. 
from London, on the North Staffordshire railway. Pop. (1891) 
54,946; (1901) 61,599. The parliamentary borough includes 
the adjoining town of Burslem. The town, which lies on high 
ground, has handsome municipal buildings, free library, technical 
and art museum, elementary, science and art schools, and a 
large park. Its manufactures include porcelain, encaustic tiles, 
and earthenware, and give employment to the greater part of 
the population, women and children being employed almost as 
largely as men. In the neighbourhood coal and iron are obtained. 
Hanley is of modern development. Its municipal constitution 
dates from 1857, the parliamentary borough from 1885, and 
the county borough from 1888. Shelton, Hope, Northwood and 
Wellington are populous ecclesiastical parishes included within 
its boundaries. That of Etruria, adjoining on the west, originated 
in the Ridge House pottery works of Josiah Wedgwood and 
Thomas Bentley, who founded them in 1769, naming them after 
the country of the Etruscans in Italy. Etruria Hall was the 
scene of Wedgwood's experiments. The parliamentary borough 
of Hanley returns one member. The town was governed by a 
mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 councillors until under the " Potteries 
federation " scheme (1908) it became part of the borough of 
Stoke-on-Trent (q.v.) in 1910. 

HANNA, MARCUS ALONZO (1837-1904), American politician, 
was born at New Lisbon (now Lisbon) Columbiana county, 
Ohio, on the 24th of September 1837. In 1852 he removed 
with his father to Cleveland, where the latter established himself 
in the wholesale grocery business, and the son received his 
education in the public schools of that city, and at the Western 
Reserve University. Leaving college before the completion of 
his course, he became associated with his father in business, 
and on his father's death (1862) became a member of the firm. 
In 1867 he entered into partnership with his father-in-law, 
Daniel P. Rhodes, in the coal and iron business. It was largely 
due to Hanna's progressive methods that the business of the 
firm, which became M. A. Hanna & Company in 1877, was 
extended to include the ownership of a fleet of lake steamships 
constructed in their own shipyards, and the control and operation 
of valuable coal and iron mines. Subsequently he became 
largely interested in street railway properties in Cleveland and 
elsewhere, and in various banking institutions. In early life he 
had little time for politics, but after 1880 he became prominent 
in the affairs of the Republican party in Cleveland, and in 1884 
and 1888 was a delegate to the Republican National Convention, 
in the latter year being associated with William McKinley in 
the management of the John Sherman canvass. It was not, 
however, until 1896, when he personally managed the canvass 
that resulted in securing the Republican presidential nomination 
for William McKinley at the St Louis Convention (at which he 
was a delegate), that he became known throughout the United 
States as a political manager of great adroitness, tact and 
resourcefulness. Subsequently he became chairman of the 
Republican National Committee, and managed with consummate 
skill the campaign of 1896 against William Jennings Bryan and 
" free-silver." In March 1897 he was appointed, by Governor 
Asa S. Bushnell (1834-1904) United States senator from Ohio, 
to succeed John Sherman. In the senate, to which in January 
1898 he was elected for the short term ending on the 3rd of 
March 1899 and for the succeeding full term, he took little part 
in the debates, but was recognized as one of the principal advisers 
of the McKinley administration, and his influence was large 
in consequence. Apart from politics he took a deep and active 
interest in the problems of capital and labour, was one of the 



920 



HANNAY HANNIBAL 



organizers (1901) and the first president of the National Civic 
Federation, whose purpose was to solve social and industrial 
problems, and in December 1901 became chairman of a per- 
manent board of conciliation and arbitration established by 
the Federation. After President Roosevelt's policies became 
denned, Senator Hanna came to be regarded as the leader of 
the conservative branch of the Republican party and a possible 
presidential candidate in 1904. He died at Washington on the 
15th of February 1904. 

HANNAY, JAMES (1827-1873), Scottish critic, novelist and 
publicist, was born at Dumfries on the I7th of February 1827. 
He came of the Hannays of Sorbie, an ancient Galloway family. 
He entered the navy in 1840 and served till 1845, when he 
adopted literature as his profession. He acted as reporter on 
the Morning Chronicle and gradually obtained a connexion, 
writing for the quarterly and monthly journals. In 1857 Hannay 
contested the Dumfries burghs in the Conservative interest, 
but without success. He edited the Edinburgh Courant from 
1860 till 1864, when he removed to London. From 1868 till his 
death on the 8th of January 1873 ne was British consul at 
Barcelona. His letters to the Pall Mall Gazette " From an 
Englishman in Spain " were highly appreciated. Hannay's 
best books are his two naval novels, Singleton Fontenoy (1850) 
and Eustace Conyers (1855); Satire and Satirists (1854); and 
Essays from the Quarterly Review (1861). Satire not only shows 
loving appreciation of the great satirists of the past, but is 
itself instinct with wit and fine satiric power. The book sparkles 
with epigrams and apposite classical allusions, and contains 
admirable critical estimates of Horace (Hannay's favourite 
author) , Juvenal, Erasmus, Sir David Lindsay, George Buchanan, 
Boileau, Butler, Dryden, Swift, Pope, Churchill, Burns, Byron 
and Moore. 

Among his other works are Biscuits and Grog, Claret Cup, and 
Hearts are Trumps (1848); King Dobbs (1849); Sketches in Ultra- 
marine (1853) ; an edition of the Poems of Edgar Allan Poe, to which 
he prefixed an essay on the poet's life and genius (1852) ; Characters 
and Criticisms, consisting mainly of his contributions to the Edin- 
burgh Courant (1865); A Course of English Literature (1866); 
Studies on Thackeray (1869); and a family history entitled Three 
Hundred Years of a Norman House (the Gurneys) (1867). 

HANNEN, JAMES HANNEN, BARON (1821-1894), English 
judge, son of a London merchant, was born at Peckham in 1821. 
He was educated at St Paul's school and at Heidelberg Univer- 
sity, which was famous as a school of law. Called to the bar 
at the Middle Temple in 1848, he joined the home circuit. At 
this time he also wrote for the press, and supplied special reports 
for the Morning Chronicle. Though not eloquent in speech, he 
was clear, accurate and painstaking, and soon advanced in his 
profession, passing many more brilliant competitors. He 
appeared for the claimant in the Shrewsbury peerage case in 1858, 
when the 3rd Earl Talbot was declared to be entitled to the 
earldom of Shrewsbury as the descendant of the 2nd earl; 
was principal agent for Great Britain on the mixed British and 
American commission for the settlement of outstanding claims, 
1853-1855; and assisted in the prosecution of the Fenian 
prisoners at Manchester. In 1868 Hannen was appointed a 
judge of the Court of Queen's Bench. In many cases he took a 
strong position of his own, notably in that of Farrar v. Close 
(1869), which materially affected the legal status of trade unions 
and was regarded by unionists as a severe blow to their interests. 
Hannen became judge of the Probate and Divorce Court in 1872, 
and in 1875 he was appointed president of the probate and 
admiralty division of the High Court of Justice. Here he 
showed himself a worthy successor to Cresswell and Penzance. 
Many important causes came before him, but he will chiefly 
be remembered for the manner in which he presided over the 
Parnell special commission. His influence pervaded the whole 
proceedings, and it is understood that he personally penned a 
large part of the voluminous report. Hannen's last public 
service was in connexion with the Bering Sea inquiry at Paris, 
when he acted as one of the British arbitrators. In January 
1891 he was appointed a lord of appeal in ordinary (with the 
dignity of a life peerage), but in that capacity he had few oppor- 



tunities for displaying his powers, and he retired at the close 
of the session of 1893. He died in London, after a prolonged 
illness, on the 29th of March 1894. 

HANNIBAL (" mercy " or " favour of Baal "), Carthaginian 
general and statesman, son of Hamilcar Barca (q.v.), was born 
in 249 or 247 B.C. Destined by his father to succeed him in 
the work of vengeance against Rome, he was taken to Spain, 
and while yet a boy gave ample evidence of his military aptitude. 
Upon the death of his brother-in-law Hasdrubal (221) he was 
acclaimed commander-in-chief by the soldiers and confirmed 
in his appointment by the Carthaginian government. After 
two years spent in completing the conquest of Spain south of 
the Ebro, he set himself to begin what he felt to be his life's task, 
the conquest and humiliation of Rome. Accordingly in 219 
he seized some pretext for attacking the town of Saguntum 
(mod. Murviedro), which stood under the special protection of 
Rome, and disregarding the protests of Roman envoys, stormed 
it after an eight months' siege. As the home government, in 
view of Hannibal's great popularity, did not venture to repudiate 
this action, the declaration of war which he desired took place at 
the end of the year. 

Of the large army of Libyan and Spanish mercenaries which 
he had at his disposal Hannibal selected the most trustworthy 
and devoted contingents, and with these determined to execute 
the daring plan of carrying the war into the heart of Italy by 
a rapid march through Spain and Gaul. Starting in the spring 
of 218 he easily fought his way through the northern tribes to 
the Pyrenees, and by conciliating the Gaulish chiefs on his 
passage contrived to reach the Rhone before the Romans could 
take any- measures to bar his advance. After outmanoeuvring 
the natives, who endeavoured to prevent his crossing, Hannibal 
evaded a Roman force sent to operate against him in Gaul; he 
proceeded up the valley of one of the tributaries of the Rhone 
(Isere or, more probably, Durance), and by autumn arrived at 
the foot of the Alps. His passage over the mountain-chain, at 
a point which cannot be determined with certainty, though the 
balance of the available evidence inclines to the Mt Genevre 
pass, and fair cases can be made out for the Col d'Argentiere 
and for Mt Cenis, was one of the most memorable achievements 
of any military force of ancient times. Though the opposition 
of the natives and the difficulties of ground and climate cost 
Hannibal half his army, his perilous march brought him directly 
into Roman territory and entirely frustrated the attempts of the 
enemy to fight out the main issue on foreign ground. His 
sudden appearance among the Gauls, moreover, enabled him 
to detach most of the tribes from their new allegiance to the 
Romans before the latter could take steps to check rebellion. 
After allowing his soldiers a brief rest to recover from their 
exertions Hannibal first secured his rear by subduing the hostile 
tribe of the Taurini (mod. Turin), and moving down the Po 
valley forced the Romans by virtue of his superior cavalry to 
evacuate the plain of Lombardy. In December of the same year 
he had an opportunity of showing his superior military skill 
when the Roman commander attacked him on the river Trebia 
(near Placentia); after wearing down the excellent Roman 
infantry he cut it to pieces by a surprise attack from an ambush 
in the flank. Having secured his position in north Italy by this 
victory, he quartered his troops for the winter on the Gauls, 
whose zeal in his cause thereupon began to abate. Accordingly 
in spring 217 Hannibal decided to find a more trustworthy base 
of operations farther south; he crossed the Apennines without 
opposition, but in the marshy, lowlands of the Arno he lost a 
large part of his force through disease and himself became blind 
in one eye. Advancing through the uplands of Etruria he pro- 
voked the main Roman army to a hasty pursuit, and catching 
it in a defile on the shore of Lake Trasimenus destroyed it in 
the waters or on the adjoining slopes (see TRASIMENE). He had 
now disposed of the only field force which could check his advance 
upon Rome, but realizing that without siege engines he could 
not hope to take the capital, he preferred to utilize his victory 
by passing into central and southern Italy and exciting a general 
revolt against the sovereign power. Though closely watched 



HANNIBAL 



921 



by a force under Fabius Maximus Cunctator, he was able to 
carry his ravages far and wide through Italy: on one occasion 
he was entrapped in the lowlands of Campania, but set himself 
free by a stratagem which completely deluded his opponent. 
For the winter he found comfortable quarters in the Apulian 
plain, into which the enemy dared not descend. In the campaign 
of 217 Hannibal had failed to obtain a following among the 
Italians; in the following year he had an opportunity of turning 
the tide in his favour. A large Roman army advanced into 
Apulia in order to crush him, and accepted battle on the site 
of Cannae. Thanks mainly to brilliant cavalry tactics, Hannibal, 
with much inferior numbers, managed to surround and cut to 
pieces the whole of this force; moreover, the moral effect of 
this victory was such that all the south of Italy joined his cause. 
Had Hannibal now received proper material reinforcements 
from his countrymen at Carthage he might have made a direct 
attack upon Rome; for the present he had to content himself 
with subduing the fortresses which still held out against him, 
and the only other notable event of 216 was the defection of 
Capua, the second largest city of Italy, which Hannibal made 
his new base. 

In the next few years Hannibal was reduced to minor opera- 
tions which centred mainly round the cities of Campania. He 
failed to draw his opponents into a pitched battle, and in some 
slighter engagements suffered reverses. As the forces detached 
under his lieutenants were generally unable to hold their own, 
and neither his home government nor his new ally Philip V. 
of Macedon helped to make good his losses, his position in south 
Italy became increasingly difficult and his chance of ultimately 
conquering Rome grew ever more remote. In 212 he gained an 
important success by capturing Tarentum, but in the same year 
he lost his hold upon Campania, where he failed to prevent the 
concentration of three Roman armies round Capua. Hannibal 
attacked the besieging armies with his full force in 211, and 
attempted to entice them away by a sudden march through 
Samnium which brought him within 3 m. of Rome, but caused 
more alarm than real danger to the city. But the siege continued, 
and the town fell in the same year. In 210 Hannibal again 
proved his superiority in tactics by a severe defeat inflicted at 
Herdoniae (mod. Ordona) in Apulia upon a proconsular army, 
and in 208 destroyed a Roman force engaged in the siege of 
Locri Epizephyrii. But with the loss of Tarentum in 209 and 
the gradual reconquest by the Romans of Samnium and Lucania 
his hold on south Italy was almost lost. In 207 he succeeded 
in making his way again into Apulia, where he waited to concert 
measures for a combined march upon Rome with his brother 
Hasdrubal (q.v.). On hearing, however, of his brother's defeat 
and death at the Metaurus he retired into the mountain fastnesses 
of Bruttium, where he maintained himself for the ensuing 
years. With the failure of his brother Mago (q.v.) in Liguria 
(205-203) and of his own negotiations with Philip of Macedon, 
the last hope of recovering his ascendancy in Italy was lost. 
In 203, when Scipio was carrying all before him in Africa and the 
Carthaginian peace-party were arranging an armistice, Hannibal 
was recalled from Italy by the " patriot " party at Carthage. 
After leaving a record of his expedition, engraved in Punic and 
Greek upon brazen tablets, in the temple of Juno at Crotona, 
he sailed back to Africa. His arrival immediately restored the 
predominance of the war-party, who placed him in command of 
a combined force of African levies and of his mercenaries from 
Italy. In 2Cj2 Hannibal, after meeting Scipio in a fruitless peace 
conference, engaged him in a decisive battle at Zama. Unable 
to cope with his indifferent troops against the well-trained and 
Confident Roman soldiers, he experienced a crushing defeat 
which put an end to all resistance on the part of Carthage. 

Hannibal was still only in his forty-sixth year. He soon showed 
that he could be a statesman as well as a soldier. Peace having 
been concluded, he was appointed chief magistrate (suffetes, 
sofet). The office had become rather insignificant, but Hannibal 
restored its power and authority. The oligarchy, always jealous 
of him, had even charged him with having betrayed the interests 
of his country while in Italy, and neglected to take Rome when 



he might have done so. The dishonesty and incompetence of 
these men had brought the finances of Carthage into grievous 
disorder. So effectively did Hannibal reform abuses that the 
heavy tribute imposed by Rome could be paid by instalments 
without additional and extraordinary taxation. 

Seven years after the victory of Zama, the Romans, alarmed at 
this new prosperity, demanded Hannibal's surrender. Hannibal 
thereupon went into voluntary exile. First he journeyed to 
Tyre, the mother-city of Carthage, and thence to Ephesus, where 
he was honourably received by Antiochus III. of Syria, who was 
then preparing for war with Rome. Hannibal soon saw that the 
king's army was no match for the Romans. He advised him 
to equip a fleet and throw a body of troops on the south of 
Italy, adding that he would himself take the command. But 
he could not make much impression on Antiochus, who listened 
more willingly to courtiers and flatterers, and would not 
entrust Hannibal with any important charge. In 190 he was 
placed in command of a Phoenician fleet, but was defeated in a 
battle off the river Eurymedon. 

From the court of Antiochus, who seemed prepared to surrender 
him to the Romans, Hannibal fled to Crete, but he soon went 
back to Asia, and sought refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia. 
Once more the Romans were determined to hunt him out, and 
they sent Flaminius to insist on his surrender. Prusias agreed to 
give him up, but Hannibal did not choose to fall into his enemies' 
hands. At Libyssa, on the eastern shore of the Sea of Marmora, 
he took poison, which, it was said, he had long carried about 
with him in a ring. The precise year of his death was a matter 
of controversy. If, as Livy seems to imply, it was 183, he died 
in the same year as Scipio Africanus. 

As to the transcendent military genius of Hannibal there 
cannot be two opinions. The man who for fifteen years could 
hold his ground in a hostile country against several powerful 
armies and a succession of able generals must have been a 
commander and a tactician of supreme capacity. In the use of 
stratagems and ambuscades he certainly surpassed all other 
generals of antiquity. Wonderful as his achievements were, we 
must marvel the more when we take into account the grudging 
support he received from Carthage. As his veterans melted 
away, he had to organize fresh levies on the spot. We never 
hear of a mutiny in his army, composed though it was of Africans, 
Spaniards and Gauls. Again, all we know of him comes for the 
most part from hostile sources. The Romans feared and hated 
him so much that they could not do him justice. Livy speaks 
of his great qualities, but he adds that his vices were equally 
great, among which he singles out his " more than Punic perfidy " 
and " an inhuman cruelty." For the first there would seem to 
be no further justification than that he was consummately 
skilful in the use of ambuscades. For the latter there is, we 
believe, no more ground than that at certain crises he acted in 
the general spirit of ancient warfare. Sometimes he contrasts 
most favourably with his enemy. No such brutality stains his 
name as that perpetrated by Claudius Nero on the vanquished 
Hasdrubal. Polybius merely says that he was accused of cruelty 
by the Romans and of avarice by the Carthaginians. He had 
indeed bitter enemies, and his' life was one continuous struggle 
against destiny. For steadfastness of purpose, for organizing 
capacity and a mastery of military science he has perhaps never 
had an equal. 

AUTHORITIES. Polybius iii.-xy., xxi.-ii., xxiv. ; Livy xxi.-xxx. ; 
Cornelius Nepos, Vita Hannibalis; Appian, Bellum Hannibalicum; 
E. Hennebert, Histoire d'Annibal (Paris, 1870-1891, 3 vols.) ; F. A. 
Dodge, Great Captains, Hannibal (Boston and New York, 1891); 
D. Grassi, Annibale giudicato da Polibio e Tito Livio (Vicenza, 1896) ; 
W. How, Hannibal and the Great War between Rome and Carthage 
(London, 1899) ; T. Montanari, Annibale, down to 217 B.C. (Rovigo, 
1901); K. Lehmann, Die Angriffe der drei Barkiden auf Italien 
(Leipzig, 1905), with bibliography. See also PUNIC WARS and 
articles on the chief battle sites. On Hannibal's passage through 
Gaul and the Alps see T. Arnold, The Second Punic War (ed. W. T. 
Arnold, London, 1886), Appendix B, pp. 362-373, with bibliography; 
D. Freshfield in Alpine Journal (1883), pp. 267-300; L. Montlahuc, 
Le Vrai Chemin d'Annibal a trailers les Alpes (Paris, 1896) ; J. Fuchs, 
Hannibals Alpeniibergang (Vienna, 1897) ; G. E. Marindin in Classical 
Review (1899), pp. 238-249; W. Osiander, Der Hannibaliaeg neu, 



922 



HANNIBAL HANOI 



untersucht (Berlin, 1900); P. Azan, Annibal dans les Alpes (Paris, 
1902); J. L. Colin, Annibal en Gaule (Paris, 1904); E. Hesselmeyer, 
Hannibals Alpeniibergang im Lichte der neueren Kriegsgeschichte, 
(1906); Kromyer, in N. Jahrb. f. kl. Alt. (1907). (M. O. B. C.) 

HANNIBAL, a city of Marion county, Missouri, U.S.A., on 
the Mississippi river, about 120 m. N.W. of Saint Louis. Pop. 
(1890), 12,857; ( I 90) 12,780, including 920 foreign-born and 1836 
negroes; (1910) 18,341. It is served by the Wabash, the Missouri, 
Kansas & Texas, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the 
St Louis & Hannibal railways, and by boat lines to Saint Louis, 
Saint Paul and intermediate points. The business section is 
in the level bottom-lands of the river, while the residential 
portion spreads up the banks, which afford fine building sites 
with beautiful views. Mark Twain's boyhood was spent at 
Hannibal, which is the setting of Life on the Mississippi, Huckle- 
berry Finn and Tom Sawyer; Hannibal Cave, described in 
Tom Sawyer, extends for miles beneath the river and its bluffs. 
Hannibal has a good public library (1889; the first in Missouri) ; 
other prominent buildings are the Federal building, the court 
house, a city hospital and the high school. The river is here 
spanned by a long iron and steel bridge connecting with East 
Hannibal, 111. Hannibal is the trade centre of a rich agricultural 
region, and has an important lumber trade, railway shops, and 
manufactories of lumber, shoes, stoves, flour, cigars, lime, 
Portland cement and pearl buttons (made from mussel shells) ; 
the value of the city's factory products increased from $2,698,720 
in 1900 to $4,442,099 in 1905, or 64-6%. In the vicinity are 
valuable deposits of crinoid limestone, a coarse white building 
stone which takes a good polish. The electric-lighting plant is 
owned and operated by the municipality. Hannibal was laid out 
as a town in 1819 (its origin going back to Spanish land grants, 
which gave rise to much litigation) and was first chartered as a city 
in 1839. The town of South Hannibal was annexed to it in 1843. 
HANNINGTON, JAMES (1847-1885), English missionary, was 
born at Hurstpierpoint, in Sussex, on the 3rd of September 
1847. From earliest childhood he displayed a love of adventure 
and natural history. At school he made little progress, and left 
at the age of fifteen for his father's counting-house at Brighton. 
He had no taste for office work, and much of his time was 
occupied in commanding a battery of volunteers and in charge 
of a steam launch. At twenty-one he decided on a clerical 
career and entered St Mary's Hall, Oxford, where he exercised 
a remarkable influence over his fellow-undergraduates. He 
was, however, a desultory student, and in 1870 was advised to 
go to the little village of Martinhoe, in Devon, for quiet reading, 
but distinguished himself more by his daring climbs after sea- 
gulls' eggs and his engineering skill in cutting a pathway along 
precipitous cliffs to some caves. In 1872 the death of his mother 
made a deep impression upon him. He began to read hard, 
took his B.A. degree, and in 1873 was ordained deacon and 
placed in charge of the small country parish of Trentishoe in 
Devon. Whilst curate in charge at Hurstpierpoint, his thoughts 
were turned by the murder of two missionaries on the shores 
of Victoria Nyanza to mission work. He 6ffered himself to 
the Church Missionary Society and sailed on the i7th of May 
1882, at the head of a party of six, for Zanzibar, and thence set 
out for Uganda; but, prostrated by fever and dysentery, he 
was obliged to return to England in 1883. On his recovery he 
was consecrated bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa (June 
1884), and in January 1885 started again for the scene of his 
mission, and visited Palestine on the way. On his arrival at 
Freretown, near Mombasa, he visited many stations in the 
neighbourhood. Then, filled with the idea of opening a new 
route to Uganda, he set out and reached a spot near Victoria 
Nyanza in safety. His arrival, however, roused the suspicion 
of the natives, and under King Mwanga's orders he was lodged 
in a filthy hut swarming with rats and vermin. After eight 
days his men were murdered, and on the agth of October 1885 
he himself was speared in both sides, his last words to the 
soldiers appointed to kill him being, " Go, tell Mwanga I have 
purchased the road to Uganda with my blood." 

His Last Journals were edited in 1888. See also Life by E. C. 
Dawson (1887) ; and W. G. Berry, Bishop Hannington (1908). 



HANNINGTON, a lake of British East Africa in the eastern 
rift-valley just south of the equator and in the shadow of the 
Laikipia escarpment. It is 7 m. long by 2 m. broad. The 
water is shallow and brackish. Standing in the lake and along 
its shores are numbers of dead trees, the remains of an ancient 
forest, which serve as eyries for storks, herons and eagles. The 
banks and flats at the north end of the lake are the resort of 
hundreds of thousands of flamingoes. The places where they 
cluster are dazzling white with guano deposits. The lake is 
named after Bishop James Hannington. 

HANNO, the name of a large number of Carthaginian soldiers 
and statesmen. Of the majority little is known; the most 
important are the following 1 : 

1. HANNO, Carthaginian navigator, who probably flourished 
about 500 B.C. It has been conjectured that he was the son of 
the Hamilcar who was killed at Himera (480), but there is nothing 
to prove this. He was the author of an account of a coasting 
voyage on the west coast of Africa, undertaken for the purpose 
of exploration and colonization. The original, inscribed on a 
tablet in the Phoenician language, was hung up in the temple 
of Melkarth on his return to Carthage. What is generally sup- 
posed to be a Greek translation of this is still extant, under the 
title of Periplus, although its authenticity has been questioned. 
Hanno appears to have advanced beyond Sierra Leone as far 
as Cape Palmas. On the island which formed the terminus of 
his voyage the explorer found a number of hairy women, 
whom the interpreters called Gorillas (ropiXXas). 

Valuable editions by T. Falconer (1797, with translation and 
defence of its authenticity) and C. W. Miiller in Geographici Graeci 
minores, i. ; see also E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, i., 
and treatise by C. T. Fischer (1893), with bibliography. 

2. HANNO (3rd century B.C.), called " the Great," Carthaginian 
statesman and general, leader of the aristocratic party and the 
chief opponent of Hamilcar and Hannibal. He appears to have 
gained his title from military successes in Africa, but of these 
nothing is known. In 240 B.C. he drove Hamilcar's veteran 
mercenaries to rebellion by withholding their pay, and when 
invested with the command against them was so unsuccessful 
that Carthage might have been lost but for the exertions of his 
enemy Hamilcar (q.v.). Hanno subsequently remained at 
Carthage, exerting all his influence against the democratic 
party, which, however, had now definitely won the upper hand. 
During the Second Punic War he advocated peace with Rome, 
and according to Livy even advised that Hannibal should be 
given up to the Romans. After the battle of Zama (202) he 
was one of the ambassadors sent to Scipio to sue for peace. 
Remarkably little is known of him, considering the great influence 
he undoubtedly exercised amongst his countrymen. 

Livy xxi. 3 ff., xxiii. 12; Polybius i. 67 ff. ; Appian, Res His- 
panicae, 4, 5, Res Punicae, 34, 49, 68. 

HANOI, capital of Tongking and of French Indo-China, on 
the right bank of the Song-koi or Red river, about 80 m. from 
its mouth in the Gulf of Tongking. Taking in the suburban 
population the inhabitants numbered in 1905 about 110,000, 
including 103,000 Annamese, 2289 Chinese and 2665 French, 
exclusive of troops. Hanoi resembles a European city in the 
possession of wide well-paved streets and promenades, systems of 
electric light and drainage and a good water-supply. A crowded 
native quarter built round a picturesque lake lies close to the 
river with the European quarter to the south of it. The public 
buildings include the palace of the governor-general, situated 
in a spacious botanical and zoological garden, the large military 
hospital, the cathedral of St Joseph, the Paul Bert college, and 
the theatre. The barracks and other military buildings occupy 
the site of the old citadel, an area of over 300 acres, to the west 
of the native town. The so-called pagoda of the Great Buddha 
is the chief native building. The river is embanked and is 
crossed by the Pont Doumer, a fine railway bridge over i m. 
long. Vessels drawing 8 or 9 ft. can reach the town. Hanoi is 

1 For others of the name see CARTHAGE; HANNIBAL; PUNIC 
WARS. Smith's Classical Dictionary has notices of some thirty of the 



HANOTAUX HANOVER 



923 



the seat of the general government of Indo-China, of the resident- 
superior of Tongking, and of a bishop, who is vicar-apostolic of 
central Tongking. It is administered by an elective municipal 
council with a civil service administrator as mayor. It has a 
chamber of commerce, the president of which has a seat on the 
superior council of Indo-China; a chamber of the court of 
appeal of Indo-China, a civil tribunal of the first order, and is 
the seat of the chamber of agriculture of Tongking. Its industries 
include cotton-spinning, brewing, distilling, and the manufacture 
of tobacco, earthenware and matches: native industry pro- 
duces carved and inlaid furniture, bronzes and artistic metal- 
work, silk embroidery, &c. Hanoi is the junction of railways to 
Hai-Phong, its seaport, Lao-Kay, Vinh, and the Chinese frontier 
via Lang-Son. It is in frequent communication with Hai-Phong 
by steamboat. 

See C. Madrolle, Tonkin du sud: Hanoi (Paris, 1907). 

HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTS GABRIEL (1853- ), 
French statesman and historian, was born at Beaurevoir in the 
department of Aisne. He received his historical training in the 
Ecole des Chartes, and became maitre de conferences in the 
Ecole des Hautes Etudes. His political career was rather that 
of a civil servant than of a party politician. In 1879 he entered 
the ministry of foreign affairs as a secretary, and rose step by 
step through the diplomatic service. In 1886 he was elected 
deputy for Aisne, but, defeated in 1889, he returned to his diplo- 
matic career, and on the 3ist of May 1894 was chosen by Charles 
Dupuy to be minister of foreign affairs. With one interruption 
(during the Ribot ministry, from the 26th of January to the 
2nd of November 1895) he held this portfolio until the i4th of 
June 1898. During his ministry he developed the rapproche- 
ment of France with Russia visiting St Petersburg with the 
president, Felix Faure and sent expeditions to delimit the 
French colonies in Africa. The Fashoda incident of July 1898 
was a result of this policy, and Hanotaux's distrust of England 
is frankly stated in his literary works. As an historian he pub- 
lished Origines de ('institution des intendants de provinces (1884), 
which is the authoritative study on the intendants; ttides his- 
toriques sur les XVI' el XVII' siecles en France (1886) ; Histoire 
de Richelieu (2 vols., 1888); and Histoire de la Troisieme Repub- 
lique (1904, &c.), the standard history of contemporary France. 
He also edited the Instructions des ambassadeurs de France d 
Rome, depuis les traites de Westphalie (1888). He was elected a 
member of the French Academy on the ist of April 1897. 

HANOVER (Ger. Hannover), formerly an independent kingdom 
of Germany, but since 1866 a province of Prussia. It is bounded 
on the N. by the North Sea, Holstein, Hamburg and Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin, E. and S.E. by Prussian Saxony and the duchy 
of Brunswick, S.W. by the Prussian provinces of Hesse-Nassau 
and Westphalia, and W. by Holland. These boundaries include 
the grand-duchy of Oldenburg and the free state of Bremen, the 
former stretching southward from the North Sea nearly to the 
southern boundary of Hanover. A small portion of the province 
in the south is separated from Hanover proper by the inter- 
position of part of Brunswick. On the 23rd of March 1873 
the province was increased by the addition of the Jade territory 
(purchased by Prussia from Oldenburg), lying south-west of 
the Elbe and containing the great naval station and arsenal of 
Wilhelmshaven. The area of the province is 14,870 sq. m. 

Physical Features. The greater part of Hanover is a plain with 
sandhills, heath and moor. The most fertile districts lie on the 
banks of the Elbe and near the North Sea, where, as in Holland, rich 
meadows are preserved from encroachment of the sea by broad 
dikes and deep ditches, kept in repair at great expense. The main 
feature of the northern plain is the so-called Luneburger Heide, a 
vast expanse of moor and fen, mainly covered with low brushwood 
(though here and there are oases of fine beech and oak woods) 
and intersected by shallow valleys, and extending almost due north 
from the city of Hanover to the southern arm of the Elbe at Harburg. 
The southern portion of the province is hilly, and in the district 
of Klausenburg, containing the Harz, mountainous. The higher 
elevations are covered by dense forests of fir and larch, and the 
lower slopes with deciduous trees. The eastern portion of the 
northern plain is covered with forests of fir. The whole of Hanover 
dips from the Harz Mountains to the north, and the rivers conse- 
quently flow in that direction. The three chief rivers of the province 



are the Elbe in the north-east, where it mainly forms the boundary 
and receives, the navigable tributaries Jeetze, Ilmenau, Seve, Este, 
Ltihe, Schwinge and Medem; the Weser in the centre, with its 
important tributary the Aller (navigable from Celle downwards); 
and in the west the Ems, with its tributaries the Aa and the Lcda. 
Still farther west is the Vecht, which, rising in Westphalia, flows 
to the Zuider Zee. Canals are numerous and connect the various 
river systems. 

The principal lakes are the Steinhuder Meer, about 4 m. long and 
2 _m. broad, and 20 fathoms deep, on the borders of Schaumburg- 
Lippe; the Dummersee, on the borders of Oldenburg, about 12 m. 
in circuit ; the lakes of Bederkesa and some others in the moorlands 
of the north; the Seeburger See, near Duderstadt; and the Oder- 
teich, in the Harz, 2100 ft. above the level of the sea. 

Climate. The climate in the low-lying districts near the coast is 
moist and foggy, in the plains mild, on the Harz mountains severe 
and variable. In spring the prevailing winds blow from the N.E. 
and E., in summer from the S.W. The mean annual temperature is 
about 46 Fahr. ; in the town of Hanover it is higher. The average 
annual rainfall is about 23-5 in.; but this varies greatly in different 
districts. In the west the Herauch, a thick fog arising from the 
burning of the moors, is a plague of frequent occurrence. 

Population; Divisions. The province contains an area of 14,869 
sq. m., and the total population, according to the census of 1905, was 
2 .759.699 (1,384,161 males and 1,375,538 females). In this con- 
nexion it is noticeable that in Hanover, almost alone among German 
states and provinces, there is a considerable proportion of male 
births over female. The density of the population is 175 to the 
sq. m. (English), and the proportion of urban to rural population, 
roughly, as i to 3 of the inhabitants. The province is divided into 
the six Regierungsbezirke (or departments) of Hanover, Hildesheim, 
Luneburg, Stade, Osnabrtick and Aurich, and these again into 
Kreise (circles, or local government districts) 76 in all. The chief 
towns containing more than 10,000 inhabitants are Hanover, 
Linden, Osnabrtick, Hildesheim, Geestemunde, Wilhelmshaven, 
Harburg, Luneburg, Celle, Gottingen and Emden. Religious statis- 
tics show that 84% of the inhabitants belong to the Evangelical- 
Lutheran Church, 17 to the Roman Catholic and less than I % to 
the Jewish communities. The Roman Catholics are mostly gathered 
around the episcopal sees of Hildesheim and Osnabrtick and close 
to Miinster (in Westphalia) on the western border, and the Jews in 
the towns. A court of appeal for the whole province sits at Celle, 
and there are eight superior courts. Hanover returns 19 members 
to the Reichstag (imperial diet) and 36 to the Abgeordnetenhaus 
(lower house) of the Prussian parliament (Landtag). 

Education. Among the educational institutions of the province 
the university of Gottingen stands first, with an average yearly 
attendance of 1500 students. There are, besides, a technical college 
in Hanover, an academy of forestry in Miinden, a mining college in 
Clausthal, a military school and a veterinary college (both in 
Hanover), 26 gymnasia (classical schools), 18 semi-classical, and 14 
commercial schools. There are also two naval academies, asylums 
for the deaf and dumb, and numerous charitable institutions. 

Agriculture. Though agriculture constitutes the most important 
branch of industry in the province, it is still in a very backward 
state. The greater part of the soil is of inferior quality, and much 
that is susceptible of cultivation is still lying waste. Of the entire 
area of the country 28-6 % is arable, 16-2 in meadow or pasture land, 
14 % in forests, 37-2 % in uncultivated moors, heaths, &c. ; from 
17 to 18% is in possession of the state. The best agriculture is to 
be found in the districts of Hildesheim, Calenberg, Gottingen and 
Grubenhagen, on the banks of the Weser and Elbe, and in East 
Friesland. Rye is generally grown for bread. Flax, for which 
much of the soil is admirably adapted, is extensively cultivated, and 
forms an important article of export, chiefly, however, in the form 
of yarn. Potatoes, hemp, turnips, hops, tobacco and beet are also 
extensively grown, the latter, in connexion with the sugar industry, 
showing each year a larger return. Apples, pears, plums and 
cherries are the principal kinds of fruit cultivated, while the wild 
red cranberries from the Harz and the black bilberries from the 
Luneburger Heide form an important article of export. 

Live Stock. Hanover is renowned for its cattle and live stock 
generally. Of these there were counted in 1900 1,115,022 head of 
horned cattle, 824,000 sheep, 1,556,000 pigs, and 230,000 goats. The 
Luneburger Heide yields an excellent breed of sheep, the Heid- 
schnucken, which equal the Southdowns of England in delicacy of 
flavour. Horses famous for their size and quality are reared in the 
marshes of Aurich and Stade, in Hildesheim and Hanover; and, for 
breeding purposes, in the stud farm of Celle. Bees are principally 
kept on the Luneburger Heide, and the annual yield of honey is very 
considerable. Large flocks of geese are kept in the moist lowlands; 
their flesh is salted for domestic consumption during the winter, and 
their feathers are prepared for sale. The rivers yield trout, salmon 
(in the Weser) and crayfish. The sea fisheries are important and have 
their chief centre at Geestemunde. 

Mining. Minerals occur in great variety and abundance. The 
Harz Mountains are rich in silver, lead, iron and copper; coal is 
found around Osnabrtick, on the Deister, at Osterwald, &c., lignite in 
various places; salt-springs of great richness exist at Egestorf shall 



924 



HANOVER 



and Neuhall near Hanover, and at Luneburg; and petroleum may 
be obtained south of Celle. In the cold regions of the northern low- 
lands peat occurs in beds of immense thickness. 

Manufactures. Works for the manufacture of iron, copper, silver, 
'lead, vitriol andsulphur are carried on to a large extent. The iron 
works are very nhportant : smelftng is carried on in the Harz and 
near Osnabriick ; there are extensive foundries and machine factories 
at Hanover, Linden, Osnabruck, Hameln, Geestemunde, Harburg, 
Osterode, &c., and manufactories of arms at Herzberg, and of 
cutlery in the towns of the Harztand in the Sollinger Forest. The 
textile industries are prosecuted chiefly in the towns. Linen yarn 
and cloth are largely manufactured, especially in the south about 
Osnabruck and Hildesheim, and Reaching is engaged in extensively ; 
woollen cloths are made to a considerable extent in the south about 
Einbeck, Gottingen and Hameln; cotton-spinning and weaving 
have their principal seats at Hanover and Linden. Glass houses, 
paper-mills, potteries, tile works and tobacco-pipe works are numer- 
ous. Wax is bleached to a considerable extent, and there are 
numerous tobacco factories, tanneries, breweries, vinegar works 
and brandy distilleries. Shipbuilding is an important industry, 
especially at Wilhelmshaven, Papenburg, Leer, Stade and Harburg ; 
and at Miinden river-barges are built. 

Commerce. Although the carrying trade of Hanover is to a great 
extent absorbed by Hamburg and Bremen, the shipping of the 
province counted, in 1903, 750 sailing vessels and 86 steamers of, 
together, 55,498 registered tons. The natural port is Bremen- 
Geestemiinde and to it is directed the river traffic down the Weser, 
which practically forms the chief commercial artery of the province. 

Communications. The roads throughout are, on the whole, well 
laid, and those connecting the principal towns macadamized. 
Hanover is intersected by important trunk lines of railway; notably 
the lines from Berlin to Cologne, from Hamburg to Frankfort-on- 
Main, from Hamburg to Bremen and Cologne, and from Berlin to 
Amsterdam. 

History. The name Hanover (Hohenufer = high bank), 
originally confined to the town which became the capital of 
the duchy of Liineburg-Calenberg, came gradually into use to 
designate, first, the duchy itself, and secondly, the electorate 
of Brunswick-Liineburg; and it was officially recognized as 
the name of the state when hi 1814 the electorate was raised 
to the rank of a kingdom. 

The early history of Hanover is merged in that of the duchy 
of Brunswick (q.v.), from which the duchy of Brunswick-Liine- 
burg and its offshoots, the duchies of Liineburg-Celle and 
Liineburg-Calenberg have sprung. Ernest I. (1497-1546), duke 
of Brunswick-Liineburg, who introduced the reformed doctrines 
into Luneburg, obtained the whole of this duchy in 1539; and 
in 1569 his two surviving sons made an arrangement which 
was afterwards responsible for the birth of the kingdom of 
Hanover. By this agreement the greater part of the duchy, 
with its capital at Celle, came to William (1535-1592), the 
younger of the brothers, who gave laws to his land and added 
to its area; and this duchy of Liineburg-Celle was subsequently 
ruled in turn by four of his sons: Ernest II. (1564-1611), 
Christian (1566-1633), Augustus (d. 1636) and Frederick 
(d. 1648). In addition to these four princes Duke William left 
three other sons, and in 1610 the seven brothers entered into a 
compact that the duchy should not be divided, and that only 
one of them should marry and continue the family. Casting 
lots to determine this question, the lot fell upon the sixth brother, 
George (1582-1641), who was a prominent soldier during the 
period of the Thirty Years' War and saw service in almost all 
parts of Europe, fighting successively for Christian IV. of Den- 
mark, the emperor Ferdinand II., and for the Swedes both 
before and after the death of Gustavus Adolphus. In 1617 
he aided his brother, Duke Christian, to add Grubenhagen to 
Luneburg, and after the extinction of the family of Brunswick- 
Wolfenbiittel in 1634, he obtained Calenberg for himself, making 
Hanover the capital of his small dukedom. In 1648, on Duke 
Frederick's death, George's eldest son, Christian Louis (d. 1665), 
became duke of Liineburg-Celle; and at this time he handed 
over Calenberg, which he had ruled since his father's death, 
to his second brother, George William (d. 1 705) . When Christian 
Louis died George William succeeded him in Liineburg-Celle; 
but the duchy was also claimed by a younger brother, John 
Frederick, a cultured and enlightened prince who had forsaken 
the Lutheran faith of his family and had become a Roman 
Catholic. Soon, however, by an arrangement John Frederick 



received Calenberg and Grubenhagen, which he ruled in absolute 
fashion, creating a standing army and modelling his court 
after that of Louis XIV., and which came on his death in 1679 
to his youngest brother, Ernest Augustus (1630-1698), the 
Protestant bishop of Osnabruck. During the French wars of 
aggression the Luneburg princes were eagerly courted by Louis 
XIV. and by his opponents; and after some hesitation George 
William, influenced by Ernest Augustus, fought among the 
Imperialists, while John Frederick was ranged on the side of 
France. In 1689 George William was one of the claimants for 
the duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg, which was left without a ruler 
in that year; and after a struggle with John George III., elector 
of Saxony, and other rivals, he was invested with the duchy 
by the emperor Leopold I. It was, however, his more ambitious 
brother, Ernest Augustus, who did most for the prestige and 
advancement of the house. Having introduced the principle 
of primogeniture into Calenberg in 1682, Ernest determined 
to secure for himself the position of an elector, and the condition 
of Europe and the exigencies of the emperor favoured his pre- 
tensions. He made skilful use of Leopold's difficulties; and in 
1692, in return for lavish promises of assistance to the Empire 
and the Habsburgs, the emperor granted him the rank and title 
of elector of Brunswick-Liineburg with the office of standard- 
bearer in the Holy Roman Empire. Indignant protests followed 
this proceeding. A league was formed to prevent any addition 
to the electoral college; France and Sweden were called upon 
for assistance; and the constitution of the Empire was reduced 
to a state of chaos. This agitation, however, soon died away; 
and in 1708 George Louis, the son and successor of Ernest 
Augustus, was recognized as an elector by the imperial diet. 
George Louis married his cousin Sophia Dorothea, the only child 
of George William of Liineburg-Celle; and on his uncle's death 
in 1705 he united this duchy, together with Saxe-Lauenburg, 
with his paternal inheritance of Calenberg or Hanover. His 
father, Ernest Augustus, had taken a step of great importance 
in the history of Hanover when he married Sophia, daughter 
of the elector palatine, Frederick V., and grand-daughter of 
James I. of England, for, through his mother, the elector George 
Louis became, by the terms of the Act of Settlement of 1701, 
king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1714. 

From this time until the death of William IV. in 1837, Lune- 
burg or Hanover, was ruled by the same sovereign as Great 
Britain, and this personal union was not without important 
results for both countries. Under George I. Hanover joined 
the alliance against Charles XII. of Sweden in 1715; and by 
the peace of Stockholm in November 1719 the elector received 
the duchies of Bremen and Verden, which formed an important 
addition to the electorate. His son and successor, George II., 
who founded the university of Gottingen in 1737, was on bad 
terms with his brother-in-law Frederick William I. of Prussia, 
and his nephew Frederick the Great; and in 1729 war between 
Prussia and Hanover was only just avoided. In 1743 George 
took up arms on behalf of the empress Maria Theresa; but in 
August 1745 the danger in England from the Jacobites led him 
to sign the convention of Hanover with Frederick the Great, 
although the struggle with France raged around his electorate 
until the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. Induced by political 
exigencies George allied himself with Frederick the Great when 
the Seven Years' War broke out in 1756; but in September 1757 
his son William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, was compelled 
after his defeat at Hastenbeck to sign the convention of Kloster- 
zeven and to abandon Hanover to the French. English money, 
however, came to the rescue; in 1758 Ferdinand, duke of 
Brunswick, cleared the electorate of the invader; and Hanover 
suffered no loss of territory at the peace of 1763. Both George I. 
and George II. preferred Hanover to England as a place of 
residence, and it was a frequent and perhaps justifiable cause of 
complaint that the interests of Great Britain were sacrificed 
to those of the smaller country. But George III. was more 
British than either his grandfather or his great-grandfather, 
and owing to a variety of causes the foreign policies of the two 
countries began to diverge in the later years of his reign. Two 



HANOVER 



925 



main considerations dominated the fortunes of Hanover during 
the period of the Napoleonic wars, the jealousy felt by Prussia 
at the increasing strength and prestige of the electorate, and its 
position as a vulnerable outpost of Great Britain. From 1 793 the 
Hanoverian troops fought for the Allies against France, until 
the treaty of Basel between France and Prussia in 1795 imposed 
a forced neutrality upon Hanover. At the instigation of Bona- 
parte Hanover was occupied by the Prussians for a few months 
in 1801, but at the settlement which followed the peace of 
LuneVille the secularized bishopric of Osnabriick was added to 
the electorate. Again tempting the fortune of war after the 
rupture of the peace of Amiens, the Hanoverians found that 
the odds against them were too great; and in June 1803 by 
the convention of Sulingen their territory was occupied by the 
French. The formation of the third coalition against France 
in 1805 ihduced Napoleon to purchase the support of Prussia 
by allowing her troops to seize Hanover; but in 1807, after 
the defeat of Prussia at Jena, he incorporated the southern 
part of the electorate in the kingdom of Westphalia, adding the 
northern portion to France in 1810. The French occupation 
was costly and aggressive; and the Hanoverians, many of whom 
were found in the allied armies, welcomed the fall of Napoleon 
and the return of the old order. Represented at the congress of 
Vienna by Ernest, Count Munster, the elector was granted the 
title of king; but the British ministers wished to keep the 
interests of Great Britain distinct from those of Hanover. The 
result of the congress, however, was not unfavourable to the new 
kingdom, which received East Friesland, the secularized bishopric 
of Hildesheim, the city of Goslar, and some smaller additions of 
territory, in return for the surrender of the greater part of the 
duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg to Prussia. 

Like those of the other districts of Germany, the estates of 
the different provinces which formed the kingdom of Hanover 
had met for many years in an irregular fashion to exercise their 
varying and ill-defined authority; and, although the elector 
Ernest Augustus introduced a system of administrative councils 
into Celle, these estates, consisting of the three orders of prelates, 
nobles and towns, together with a body somewhat resembling 
the English privy council, were the only constitution which the 
country possessed, and the only check upon the power of its 
ruler. When the elector George Louis became king of Great 
Britain in 1714 he appointed a representative, or statthalter, 
to govern the electorate, and thus the union of the two countries 
was attended with constitutional changes in Hanover as well 
as in Great Britain. Responsible of course to the elector, the 
Statthalter, aided by the privy council, conducted the internal 
affairs of the electorate, generally in a peaceful and satisfactory 
fashion, until the welter of the Napoleonic wars. On the con- 
clusion of peace in 1814 the estates of the several provinces of 
the kingdom were fused into one body, consisting of eighty-five 
members, but the chief power was exercised as before by the 
members of a few noble families. In 1819, however, this feudal 
relic was supplanted by a new constitution. Two chambers 
were established, the one formed of nobles and the other of elected 
representatives; but although they were authorized to control 
the finances, their power with regard to legislation was very 
circumscribed. This constitution was sanctioned by the prince 
regent, afterwards King George IV.; but it was out of harmony 
with the new and liberal ideas which prevailed in Europe, and 
it hardly survived George's decease in 1830. The revolution 
of that year compelled George's brother and successor, William, 
to dismiss Count Munster, who had been the actual ruler of the 
country, and to name his own brother, Adolphus Frederick, 
duke of Cambridge, a viceroy of Hanover; one of the viceroy's 
earliest duties being to appoint a commission to draw up a new 
constitution. This was done, and after William had insisted upon 
certain alterations, it was accepted and promulgated in 1833. 
Representation was granted to the peasants; the two chambers 
were empowered to initiate legislation; ministers were made 
responsible for all acts of government; a civil list was given to 
the king in return for the surrender of the crown lands; and, 
in short, the new constitution was similar to that of Great 



Britain. These liberal arrangements, however, did not entirely 
allay the discontent. A strong and energetic party endeavoured " 
to thwart the working of the new order, and matters came to a 
climax on the death of William IV. in 1837. r 

By the law of Hanover a woman could not ascend the throne, 
and accordingly Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, the fifth 
son of George III., and not Victoria, succeeded William as 
sovereign in 1837, thus separating the crowns of Great Britain 
and Hanover after a union of 1 23 years. Ernest, a prince with 
very autocratic ideas, had disapproved of the constitution of 
1833, and his first important act as king was to declare it invalid. 
He appears to have been especially chagrined because the crown 
lands were not his personal property, but the whole of the new 
arrangements were repugnant to him. Seven Gottingen pro- 
fessors who protested against this proceeding were deprived of 
their chairs; and some of them, including F. C. Dahlmann and 
Jakob Grimm, were banished from the country for publishing 
their protest. To save the constitution an appeal was made to 
the German Confederation, which Hanover had joined in 1815; 
but the federal diet declined to interfere, and in 1840 Ernest 
altered the constitution to suit his own illiberal views. Recover- 
ing the crown lands, he abolished the principle of ministerial 
responsibility, the legislative power of the two chambers, and 
other reforms, virtually restoring affairs to their condition before 
1833. The inevitable crisis was delayed until the stormy year 
1848, when the king probably saved his crown by hastily giving 
back the constitution of 1833. Order, however, having been 
restored, in 1850 he dismissed the Liberal ministry and attempted 
to evade his concessions; a bitter struggle had just broken out 
when Ernest Augustus died in November 1851. During this 
reign the foreign policy of Hanover both within and without 
Germany had been coloured by jealousy of Prussia and by the 
king's autocratic ideas. Refusing to join the Prussian Zollverein, 
Hanover had become a member of the rival commercial union, 
the Steuerverein, three years before Ernest's accession; but as 
this union was not a great success the Zollverein was joined in 
1851. In 1849, after the failure of the German parliament at 
Frankfort, the king had joined with the sovereigns of Prussia 
and Saxony to form the " three kings' alliance "; but this 
union with Prussia was unreal, and with the king of Saxony he 
soon transferred his support to Austria and became a member 
of the " four kings' alliance." 

George V., the new king of Hanover, who was unfortunately 
blind, sharing his father's political ideas, at once appointed 
a ministry whose aim was to sweep away the constitution of 
1848. This project, however, was resisted by the second 
chamber of the Landtag, or parliament; and after several 
changes of government a new ministry advised the king in 1855 
to appeal to the diet of the German Confederation. This was 
done, and the diet declared the constitution of 1848 to be invalid. 
Acting on this verdict, not only was a ministry formed tc restore 
the constitution of 1840, but after some trouble a body of 
members fully in sympathy with this object was returned to 
parliament in 1857. But these members were so far from repre- 
senting the opinions of the people that popular resentment 
compelled George to dismiss his advisers in 1862. But the more \ 
liberal government which succeeded did not enjoy his complete 
confidence, and in 1865 a ministry was once more formed which 
was more in accord with his own ideas. This contest soon lost 
both interest and importance owing to the condition of affairs 
in Germany. Bismarck, the director of the policy of Prussia, 
was devising methods for the realization of his schemes, and it 
became clear after the war over the duchies of Schleswig and 
Holstein that the smaller German states would soon be obliged 
to decide definitely between Austria and Prussia. After a period 
of vacillation Hanover threw in her lot with Austria, the decisive 
step being taken when the question of the mobilization of the 
federal army was voted upon in the diet on the i4th of June 
1866. At once Prussia requested Hanover to remain unarmed 
and neutral during the war, and with equal promptness King 
George refused to assent to these demands. Prussian troops 
then crossed his frontier and took possession of his capital. 



926 



HANOVER 



The Hanoverians, however, were victorious at the battle of 
Langensalza on the 27th of June 1866, but the advance of fresh 
bodies of the enemy compelled them to capitulate two days 
later. By the terms of this surrender the king was not to reside 
in Hanover, his officers were to take no further part in the war, 
and his ammunition and stores became the property of Prussia. 
The decree of the 2oth of September 1866 formally annexed 
Hanover to Prussia, when it became a province of that kingdom, 
while King George from his retreat at Hietzing appealed in vain 
to the powers of Europe. Many of the Hanoverians remained 
loyal to their sovereign; some of them serving in the Guelph 
Legion, which was maintained largely at his expense in France, 
where a paper, La Situation, was founded by Oskar Meding 
(1820-1903) and conducted in his interests. These and other 
elaborate efforts, however, failed to bring about the return of the 
king to Hanover, though the Guelph party continued to agitate 
and to hope even after the Franco-German War had immensely 
increased the power and the prestige of Prussia. George died 
in June 1878. His son, Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, 
continued to maintain his claim to the crown of Hanover, and 
refused to be reconciled with Prussia. Owing to this attitude 
the German imperial government refused to allow him to take 
possession of the duchy of Brunswick, which he inherited on 
the extinction of the elder branch of his family in 1884, and again 
in 1906 when the same subject came up for settlement on the 
death of the regent, Prince Albert of Prussia. 

In 1867 King George had agreed to accept Prussian bonds to 
the value of about i ,600,000 as compensation for the confiscation 
of his estates in Hanover. In 1868, however, on account of his 
continued hostility to Prussia, the Prussian government 
sequestrated this property; and, known as the Welfenfonds, 
or ReptUienfonds, it was employed as a secret service fund to 
combat the intrigues of the Guelphs in various parts of Europe ; 
until in 1892 it was arranged that the interest should be paid 
to the duke of Cumberland. In 1885 measures were taken to 
incorporate the province of Hanover more thoroughly in the 
kingdom of Prussia, and there is little doubt but that the great 
majority of the Hanoverians have submitted to the inevitable, 
and are loyal subjects of the king of Prussia. 

AUTHORITIES. A. Hiine, Geschichte des Konigreichs Hannover und 
des Herzogtums Braunschweig (Hanover, 1824-1830); A. F. H. 
Schaumann, Handbuch der Geschichte der Lande Hannover und 
Braunschweig (Hanover, 1864) ; G. A. Grotefend, Geschichte der 
dlgemeinen landstdndischen Verfassung des Konigreichs Hannover, 
1814-1848 (Hanover, 1857); H. A. Oppermann, Zur Geschichte des 
Konigreichs Hannover, 1832-1860 (Berlin, 1868); E. von Meier, 
Hannoversche Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsgeschichte (Leipzig, 
1898-1899); W. yon Hassell, Das Kurfurstentum Hannover vom 
Baseler Frieden bis zur preussischen Okkupation (Hanover, 1894) ; 
and Geschichte des Konigreichs Hannover (Leipzig, 1898-1901); H. 
von Treitschke, Der Herzog von Cumberland und das hannoversche 
Stoats grundgesetz von 1833 (Leipzig, 1888) ; M. Bar, Ubersicht iiber 
die Bestande des koniglichen Staatsarchivs zu Hannover (Leipzig, 
1900); Hannoversches Portfolio (Stuttgart, 1839-1841); and the 
authorities given for the history of Brunswick. 

HANOVER, the capital of the Prussian province of the same 
name, situated in a sandy but fertile plain on the Leine, which 
here receives the Ihme, 38 m. N.W. from Brunswick, 78 S.E. 
of Bremen, and at the crossing of the main lines of railway, 
Berlin to Cologne and Hamburg to Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. 
(1885) i39,73i; (1900) 235,666; (1905) 250,032. On the north 
and east the town is half encircled by the beautiful woods and 
groves of the Eilenriede and the List which form the public 
park. The Leine flows through the city, having the old town 
on its right and the quaint Calenberger quarter between its left 
bank and the Ihme. The old town is irregularly built, with 
narrow streets and old-fashioned gabled houses. In its centre 
lies the Markt Kirche, a red-brick edifice of the I4th century, 
containing interesting monuments and some fine stained-glass 
windows, and with a steeple 310 ft. in height (the highest in 
Hanover). Its interior was restored in 1855. Close by, on the 
market square, is the red-brick medieval town-hall (Rathaus), 
with an historical wine cellar beneath. It has been superseded 
for municipal business by a new building, and now contains the 
civic archives and museum. The new town, surrounding the 



old on the north and east, and lying between it and the woods 
referred to, has wide streets, handsome buildings and beautiful 
squares. Among the last-mentioned are the square at the railway 
station the Ernst August-Platz with an equestrian statue of 
King Ernest Augustus in bronze; the triangular Theater- Platz, 
with statues of the composer Marschner and others; and the 
Georgs-Platz, with a statue of Schiller. To the south of the old 
town, on the banks of the Ihme, lies the Waterloo-Platz, with 
a column of victory, 154 ft. high, having inscribed on it the 
names of 800 Hanoverians who fell at Waterloo. In the adjacent 
gardens an open rotunda encloses a marble bust of the philosopher 
Leibnitz, and near it is a monument to General Count von Alien, 
the commander of the Hanoverian troops at Waterloo. Among 
the other churches the most noticeable are the Neustadterkirche, 
with a graceful shrine containing the tomb of Leibnitz, the 
Kreuzkirche, built about 1300, with a curious steeple, and the 
Aegidienkirche among ancient edifices, and among modern ones 
the Christuskirche, a gift of King George V., the Lukaskirche, 
the Lutherkirche, and the Roman Catholic church of St Mary, 
with a tower 300 ft. high, containing the grave of Ludwig 
Windthorst, " his little excellency," for many years leader of 
the Ultramontane (Centre) party in the imperial diet. Of 
secular buildings the most remarkable is the royal palace Schloss 
built 1636-1640, with a grand portal and handsome quadrangle. 
In its chapel are preserved the relics of saints which Henry 
the Lion brought from Palestine. The new provincial museum 
built in 1897-1902 contains the Cumberland Gallery and the 
Guelph Museum; and the Kestner Museum also contains 
interesting and valuable collections of works of art. The other 
principal public buildings are the royal archives and library, 
containing a library of 200,000 volumes and 3500 manuscripts; 
the old provincial museum, which houses a variety of collections, 
such as natural, historical and ethnographical, and a collec- 
tion of modern paintings; the theatre (built 1845-1852), one 
of the largest in Germany, the archaeological museum, the 
railway station, and, in the west, close to Herrenhausen (see 
below) , the magnificent Welf enschloss (Guelph-palace) . The last , 
begun in 1859, was almost completed in 1866, but was never 
occupied by the Hanoverian royal family. Since 1875 it has 
been occupied by the technical high school, an academy with 
university privileges. Close to it lies the famous Herrenhausen, 
the summer palace of the former kings of Hanover, with fine 
gardens, an open-air theatre, a museum and an orangery, and 
approached by a grand avenue over a mile in length. 

Hanover has a number of colleges and schools, and is the seat 
of several learned societies. It is largely frequented by foreign 
students, especially English, attracted by the educational 
facilities it offers and by the reputed purity of the German 
spoken. Hanover is the headquarters of the X. Prussian army 
corps, has a large garrison of nearly all arms and a famous military 
riding school. It occupies a leading position among the industrial 
and commercial .towns of the empire, and of recent years has 
made rapid progress in prosperity. It is connected by railway 
with Berlin, Hamburg, Bremen, Hameln, Cologne, Altenbeken 
and Cassel, and the facilities of intercourse have, under the 
fostering care of the Prussian government, enormously developed 
its trade and manufactures. Almost all industries are repre- 
sented; chief among them are machine-building, the manu- 
facture of india-rubber, linen, cloth, hardware, chemicals, 
tobacco, pianos, furniture and groceries. The commerce consists 
principally in wine, hides, horses, coal, wood and cereals. There 
are extensive printing establishments. Hanover was the first 
German town that was lighted with gas. It is the birthplace 
of Sir William Herschel, the astronomer, of the brothers Schlegel, 
of Iffland and of the historian Pertz. The philosopher Leibnitz 
died there in 1716. 

Close by, on the left bank of the Leine, lies the manufacturing 
town of Linden, which, though practically forming one town with 
Hanover, is treated under a separate heading. 

The town of Hanover is first mentioned during the i2th 
century. It belonged to the family of Welf, then to the bishops 
of Hildesheim, and then, in 1369, it came again into the possession 



HANOVER HANSARD 



927 



of the Welfs, now dukes of Brunswick. It joined the Kanseatic 
League, and was later the residence of the branch of the ducal 
house, which received the title of elector of Hanover and 
ascended the British throne in the person of George I. One or 
two important treaties were signed in Hanover, which from 1810 
to 1813 was part of the kingdom of Westphalia, and in 1866 was 
annexed by Prussia, after having been the capital of the kingdom 
of Hanover since its foundation in 1815. 

See O. Ulrich, Bilder aus Hannovers Vergangenheit (1891) ; Hoppe, 
Geschichte der Stadt Hannover (1845); Hirschfeld, Hannovers Gross- 
industrie und Grosshandel (Leipzig, 1891); Frensdorff, Die Stadt- 
verfassung Hannovers in alter und neuer Zeit (Leipzig, 1883); W. 
Bahrdt, Geschichte der Reformation der Stadt Hannover (1891) ; Hart- 
mann, Geschichte von Hannover mil besonderer Riicksichtnahme auf die 
Entwickelung der Residenzstadt Hannover (1886); Hannover und 
Umgegend, Entwickelung und Zustande seiner Industrie und 
Gewerbe (1874); and the Urkundenbuch der Stadt Hannover (1860, 
fol.). 

HANOVER, a town of Jefferson county, Indiana, U.S.A., 
on the Ohio river, about 5 m. below Madison. Pop. (1900) 
377; (1910) 356. It is served by boats on the Ohio river and 
by stages to Madison, the nearest railway station. Along the 
border of the town and on a bluff rising about 500 ft. above the 
river is Hanover College, an institution under Presbyterian 
control, embracing a college and a preparatory department, and 
offering classical and scientific courses and instruction in music; 
there is no charge for tuition. In 1908-1909 there were 211 
students, 75 being in the Academy. The institution was opened 
in a log cabin in 1827, was incorporated as Hanover Academy in 
1828, was adopted as a synodical school by the Presbyterian 
Synod of Indiana in 1829 on condition that a Theological depart- 
ment be added., and in 1833 was incorporated under its present 
name. In 1840, however, the theological department became a 
separate institution and was removed to New Albany, whence 
in 1859 it was removed to Chicago, where it was named, first, 
the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of the North-west, and, 
in 1886, the McCormick Theological Seminary. In the years 
immediately after its incorporation in 1833 Hanover College 
introduced the " manual labor system " and was for a time 
very prosperous, but the system was not a success, the college 
ran into debt, and in 1843 the trustees attempted to surrender 
the charter and to acquire the charter of a university at Madison. 
This effort was opposed by a strong party, which secured a 
more liberal charter for the college. In 1880 the college became 
coeducational. 

HANOVER, a township of Grafton county, New Hampshire, 
U.S.A., on the Connecticut river, 75 m. by rail N.W. of Concord. 
Pop. (1900) 1884; (1910) 2075. No railway enters this town- 
ship; the Ledyard Free Bridge (the first free bridge across the 
Connecticut) connects it with Norwich, Vt., which is served by 
the Boston & Maine railway. Ranges of rugged hills, broken 
by deep narrow gorges and by the wider valley of Mink Brook, 
rise near the river and culminate in the E. section in Moose 
Mountain, 2326 ft. above the sea. Near the foot of Moose 
Mountain is the birthplace of Laura D. Bridgman. Agriculture, 
dairying and lumbering are the chief pursuits of the inhabitants. 
The village of Hanover, the principal settlement of the township, 
occupies Hanover Plain in the S.W. corner, and is the seat of 
Dartmouth College (q.v.) , which has a strikingly beautiful campus, 
and among its buildings several excellent examples of the 
colonial style, notably Dartmouth Hall. The Mary Hitchcock 
memorial hospital, a cottage hospital of 36 beds, was erected 
in 1890-1893 by Hiram Hitchcock in memory of his wife. The 
charter of the township was granted by Gov. Benning Went- 
worth on the 4th of July 1761, and the first settlement was made 
in May 1765. The records of the town meetings and selectmen, 
1761-1818, have been published by E. P. Storrs (Hanover, 1905). 

See Frederick Chase, A History of Dartmouth College and the Town 
of Hanover (Cambridge, 1891). 

HANOVER, a borough of York county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 
36 m. S. by W. of Harrisburg, and 6 m. from the S. border of 
the state. Pop. (1890) 3746; (1900) 5302, (133 foreign-born); 
(1910) 7057. It is served by the Northern Central and the 
Western Maryland railways. The boiough is built on nearly 



level ground in the fertile valley of the Conewago, at the point 
of intersection of the turnpike roads leading to Baltimore, Carlisle, 
York and Frederick, from which places the principal streets 
sections of these roads are named. Among its manufactures 
are foundry and machine-shop products, flour, silk, waggons, 
shoes, gloves, furniture, wire cloth and cigars. The settlement 
of the place was begun mostly by Germans during the middle 
of the i8th century. Hanover was laid out in 1763 or 1764 by 
Col. Richard MacAllister; and in 1815 it was incorporated. 
On the 3oth of June 1863 there was a cavalry engagement in 
and near Hanover between the forces of Generals H. J. Kilpatrick 
(Union) and J. E. B. Stuart (Confederate) preliminary to the 
battle of Gettysburg. This engagement is commemorated by 
an equestrian statue erected in Hanover by the state. 

HANRIOT, FRANCOIS (1761-1794), French revolutionist, 
was born at Nanterre (Seine) of poor parentage. Having lost his 
first employment with a procureur through dishonesty, 
he obtained a clerkship in the Paris octroi in 1789, but was 
dismissed for abandoning his post when the Parisians burned 
the octroi barriers on the night of the I2th-i3th of July 1789. 
After leading a hand-to-mouth existence for some time, he became 
one of the orators of the section of the sans-culottes, and com- 
manded the armed force of that section during the insurrection 
on the loth of August 1792 and the massacres of September. But 
he did not come into prominence until the night of the 3oth~3ist 
of May 1793, when he was provisionally appointed commandant- 
general of the armed forces of Paris by the council general of 
the Commune. On the 3151 of May he was one of the delegates 
from the Commune to the Convention demanding the dissolution 
of the Commission of Twelve and the proscription of the 
Girondists (q.v.), and he was in command of the insurrectionary 
forces of the Commune during the emeute of the 2nd of June 
(see FRENCH REVOLUTION). On the nth of June he resigned 
his command, declaring that order had been restored. On the 
1 3th he was impeached in the Convention; but the motion was 
not carried, and on the ist of July he was elected by the Commune 
permanent commander of the armed forces of Paris. This 
position, which gave him enormous power, he retained until 
the revolution of the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794). His 
arrest was decreed; but he had the generale sounded and the 
tocsin rung, and tried to rescue Robespierre, who was under 
arrest in the hall of the Comile de Surete Generale. Hanriot was 
himself arrested, but was rescued by his adherents, and hastened 
to the Hotel de Ville. After a vain attempt to organize resistance 
he fled and hid in a secluded yard, where he was discovered the 
next day. He was arrested, sentenced to death, and guillotined 
with Robespierre and his friends on the loth Thermidor of the 
year II. (the 28th of July 1794). 

HANSARD, LUKE (1752-1828), English printer, was born on 
the 5th of July 1752 in St Mary's parish, Norwich. He was 
educated at Boston grammar school, and was apprenticed to 
Stephen White, a Norwich printer. As soon as his apprenticeship 
had expired Hansard started for London with only a guinea in 
his pocket, and became a compositor in the office of Joh'n Hughs 
(1703-1771), printer to the House of Commons. In 1774 he was 
made a partner, and undertook almost the entire conduct of the 
business, which in 1800 came completely into his hands. On the 
admission of his sons the firm became Luke Hansard & Sons. 
Among those whose friendship Hansard won in the exercise 
of his profession were Robert Orme, Burke and Dr Johnson; 
while Person praised him as the most accurate printer of Greek. 
He printed the Journals of the House of Commons from 1774 till 
his death. The promptitude and accuracy with which Hansard 
printed parliamentary papers were often of the greatest service 
to government notably on one occasion when the proof-sheets 
of the report of the Secret Committee on the French Revolution 
were submitted to Pitt twenty-four hours after the draft had 
left his hands. On the union with Ireland in 1801, the increase 
of parliamentary printing compelled Hansard to give up all 
private printing except when parliament was not sitting. He 
devised numerous expedients for reducing the expense of publish- 
ing the reports; and in 1805, when his workmen struck at a time 



928 



HANSEATIC LEAGUE 



of great pressure, he and his sons themselves set to work as 
compositors. Luke Hansard died on the 2pth of October 1828. 

His son, THOMAS CURSON HANSARD (1776-1833), established 
a press of his own in Paternoster Row, and began in 1803 to 
print the Parliamentary Debates, which were not at first inde- 
pendent reports, but were taken from the newspapers. After 
1889 the debates were published by the Hansard Publishing 
Union Limited. T. C. Hansard was the author of Typographic,, 
an Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Art of 
Printing (1825). The original business remained in the hands 
of his younger brothers, James and Luke Graves Hansard 
(1777-1851). The firm was prosecuted in 1837 by John Joseph 
Stockwell for printing by order of the House of Commons, in an 
official report of the inspector of prisons, statements regarded by 
the plaintiff as libellous. Hansard sheltered himself on the 
ground of privilege, but it was not until after much litigation 
that the security of the printers of government reports was 
guaranteed by statute in 1840. 

HANSEATIC LEAGUE. It is impossible to assign any 
precise date for the beginning of the Hanseatic League or 
to name any single factor which explains the origin of that 
loose but effective federation of North German towns. Associ- 
ated action and partial union among these towns can be 
traced back to the I3th century. In 1241 we find Liibeck and 
Hamburg agreeing to safeguard the important road connect- 
ing the Baltic and the North Sea. The first known meeting of 
the " maritime towns," later known as the Wendish group and 
including Liibeck, Hamburg, Luneburg, Wismar, Rostock and 
Stralsund, took place in 1256. The Saxon towns, during the 
following century, were joining to protect their common interests, 
and indeed at this period town confederacies in Germany, both 
North and South, were so considerable as to call for the declara- 
tion against them in the Golden Bull of 1356. The decline of 
the imperial power and the growing opposition between the 
towns and the territorial princes justified these defensive town 
alliances, which in South Germany took on a peculiarly political 
character. The relative weakness of territorial power in the 
North, after the fall of Henry the Lion of Saxony, diminished 
without however removing this motive for union, but the 
comparative immunity from princely aggression on land left 
the towns freer to combine in a stronger and more permanent 
union for the defence of their commerce by sea and for the 
control of the Baltic. 

While the political element in the development of the Hanseatic 
League must not be underestimated, it was not so formative 
as the economic. The foundation was laid for the growth of 
German towns along the southern shore of the Baltic by the great 
movement of German colonization of Slavic territory east of the 
Elbe. This movement, extending in time from about the middle 
of the nth to the middle of the i3th century and carrying a 
stream of settlers and traders from the Northwest, resulted not 
only in the Germanization of a wide territory but in the extension 
of German influence along the sea-coast far to the east of actual 
territorial settlement. The German trading towns, at the mouths 
of the numerous streams which drain the North European plain, 
were stimulated or created by the unifying impulse of a common 
and long-continued advance of conquest and colonization. 

The impetus of this remarkable movement of expansion not 
only carried German trade to the East and North within the 
Baltic basin, but reanimated the older trade from the lower Rhine 
region to Flanders and England in the West. Cologne and the 
Westphalian towns, the most important of which were Dortmund, 
Soest and Miinster, had long controlled this commerce but now 
began to feel the competition of the active traders of the Baltic, 
opening up that direct communication by sea from the Baltic 
to western Europe which became the essential feature in the 
history of the League. The necessity of seeking protection from 
the sea-rovers and pirates who infested these waters during 
the whole period of Hanseatic supremacy, the legal customs, 
substantially alike in the towns of North Germany, which 
governed the groups of traders in the outlying trading posts, 
the establishment of common factories, or " counters "(Komtors) 



at these points, with aldermen to administer justice and to 
secure trading privileges for the community of German merchants 
such were some of the unifying influences which preceded the 
gradual formation of the League. In the century of energetic 
commercial development before 1350 the German merchants 
abroad led the way. 

Germans were early pushing as permanent settlers into the 
Scandinavian towns, and in Wisby, on the island of Gothland, 
the Scandinavian centre of Baltic trade, equal rights as citizens 
in the town government were possessed by the German settlers 
as early as the beginning of the I3th century. There also came 
into existence at Wisby the first association of German traders 
abroad, which united the merchants of over thirty towns, 
from Cologne and Utrecht in the West to Reval in the East. 
We find the Gothland association making in 1229 a treaty with 
a Russian prince and securing privileges for their branch trading 
station at Novgorod. According to the " Skra," the by-laws 
of the Novgorod branch, the four aldermen of the community 
of Germans, who among other duties held the keys of the common 
chest, deposited in Wisby, were to be chosen from the merchants 
of the Gothland association and of the towns of Liibeck, Soest 
and Dortmund. The Gothland association received in 1237 
trading rights in England, and shortly after the middle of the 
century it also secured privileges in Flanders. It legislated on 
matters relating to common trade interests, and, in the case of 
the regulation of 1287 concerning shipwrecked goods, we find 
it imposing this legislation on the towns under the penalty of 
exclusion from the association. But with the extension of the 
East and West trade beyond the confines of the Baltic, this 
association by the end of the century was losing its position of 
leadership. Its inheritance passed to the gradually forming 
union of towns, chiefly those known as Wendish, which looked to 
Liibeck as their head. In 1293 the Saxon and Wendish merchants 
at Rostock decided that all appeals from Novgorod be taken to 
Liibeck instead of to Wisby, and six years later the Wendish 
and Westphalian towns, meeting at Liibeck, ordered that the 
Gothland association should no longer use a common seal. 
Though Liibeck's right as court of appeal from the Hanseatic 
counter at Novgorod was not recognized by the general assembly 
of the League until 1373, the long-existing practice had simply 
accorded with the actual shifting of commercial power. The 
union of merchants abroad was beginning to come under the 
control of the partial union of towns at home. 

A similar and contemporary extension of the influence of the 
Baltic traders under Liibeck's leadership may be witnessed in 
the West. As a consequence of the close commercial relations 
early existing between England and the Rhenish-Westphalian 
towns, the merchants of Cologne were the first to possess a gild- 
hall in London and to form a " hansa " with the right of admitting 
other German merchants on payment of a fee. The charter of 
1226, however, by which Emperor Frederick II. created Liibeck 
a free imperial city, expressly declared that Liibeck citizens 
trading in England should be free from the dues imposed by 
the merchants of Cologne and should enjoy equal rights and 
privileges. In 1266 and 1267 the merchants of Hamburg and 
Liibeck received from Henry III. the right to establish their 
own hansas in London, like that of Cologne. The situation thus 
created led by 1282 to the coalescence of the rival associations 
in the " Gild-hall of the Germans," but though the Baltic traders 
had secured a recognized foothold in the enlarged and unified 
organization, Cologne retained the controlling interest in the 
London settlement until 1476. Liibeck and Hamburg, however, 
dominated the German trade in the ports of the east coast, 
notably in Lynn and Boston, while they were strong in the 
organized trading settlements at York, Hull, Ipswich, Norwich, 
Yarmouth and Bristol. The counter at London, first called the 
Steelyard in a parliamentary petition of 1422, claimed jurisdiction 
over the other factories in England. 

In Flanders, also, the German merchants from the West had 
long been trading, but here had later to endure not only the 
rivalry but the pre-eminence of those from the East. In 1252 
the first treaty privileges for German trade in Flanders show 



HANSEATIC LEAGUE 



929 



two men of Liibeck and Hamburg heading the " Merchants of 
the Roman Empire," and in the later organization of the counter 
at Bruges four or five of the six aldermen were chosen from 
towns east of the Elbe, with Liibeck steadily predominant. The 
Germans recognized the staple rights of Bruges for a number of 
commodities, such as wool, wax, furs, copper and grain, and in 
return for this material contribution to the growing commercial 
importance of the town, they received in 1309 freedom from the 
compulsory brokerage which Bruges imposed on foreign mer- 
chants. The importance and independence of the German 
trading settlements abroad was exemplified in the statutes of 
the " Company of German merchants at Bruges," drawn up 
in 1347, where for the first time appears the grouping of towns 
in three sections (the " Drittel "), the Wendish-Saxon, the 
Prussian-Westphalian, and those of Gothland and Livland. 
Even more important than the assistance which the concentra- 
tion of the German trade at Bruges gave to that leading mart of 
European commerce was the service rendered by the German 
counter of Bruges to the cause of Hanseatic unity. Not merely 
because of its central commercial position, but because of its 
width of view, its political insight, and its constant insistence on 
the necessity of union, this counter played a leading part in 
Hanseatic policy. It was more Hanse than the Hanse towns. 

The last of the chief trading settlements, both in importance 
and in date of organization, was that at Bergen in Norway, 
where in 1343 the Hanseatics obtained special trade privileges. 
Scandinavia had early been sought for its copper and iron, its 
forest products and its valuable fisheries, especially of herring 
at Schonen, but it was backward in its industrial development 
and its own commerce had seriously declined in the i4th century. 
It had come to depend largely upon the Germans for the import- 
ation of all its luxuries and of many of its necessities, as well as 
for the exportation of its products, but regular trade with the 
three kingdoms was confined for the most part to the Wendish 
towns, with Liibeck steadily asserting an exclusive ascendancy. 
The fishing centre at Schonen was important as a market, though, 
like Novgorod, its trade was seasonal, but it did not acquire the 
position of a regularly organized counter, reserved alone, in the 
North, for Bergen. The commercial relations with the North 
cannot be regarded as an important element in the union of the 
Hanse towns, but the geographical position of the Scandinavian 
countries, especially that of Denmark, commanding the Sound 
which gives access to the Baltic, compelled a close attention to 
Scandinavian politics on the part of Liibeck and the League and 
thus by necessitating combined political action in defence of 
Hanseatic sea-power exercised a unifying influence. 

Energetic and successful though the scattered trading settle- 
ments had been in establishing German trade connexions and 
in securing valuable trade privileges, the middle of the I4th 
century found them powerless to meet difficulties arising from 
internal dissension and still more from the political rivalries 
and trade jealousies of nascent nationalities. Flanders became 
a battle-field in the great struggle between France and England, 
and the war of trade prohibitions led to infractions of the German 
privileges in Bruges. An embargo on trade with Flanders, voted 
in 1358 by a general assembly, resulted by 1360 in the full 
restoration of German privileges in Flanders, but reduced the 
counter at Bruges to an executive organ of a united town policy. 
It is worth noting that in a document connected with this action 
the union of towns, borrowing the term from English usage, was 
first called the " German Hansa." In 1361 representatives from 
Lubeck and Wisby visited Novgorod to recodify the by-laws 
of the counter and to admonish it that new statutes required 
the consent of Lubeck, Wisby, Riga, Dorpat and Reval. This 
action was confirmed in 1366 by an assembly of the Hansa which 
at the same time, on the occasion of a regulation made by the 
Bruges counter and of statutes drawn up by the young Bergen 
counter, ordered that in future the approval of the towns must 
be obtained for all new regulations. 

The counter at London was soon forced to follow the example 
of the other counters at Bruges, Novgorod and Bergen. After 
the failure of the Italians, the Hanseatics remained the strongest 
XII. 30 



group of alien merchants in England, and, as such, claimed the 
exclusive enjoyment of the privileges granted by the Carla 
Mercatoria of 1303. Their highly favoured position in England, 
contrasting markedly with their refusal of trade facilities to the 
English in some of the Baltic towns and their evident policy of 
monopoly in the Baltic trade, incensed the English mercantile 
classes, and doubtless influenced the increases in customs-duties 
which were regarded by the Germans as contrary to their treaty 
rights. Unsuccessful in obtaining redress from the English 
government, the German merchants finally, in 1374, appealed 
for aid to the home towns, especially to Lubeck. The result 
of Hanseatic representations was the confirmation by Richard II. 
in 1377 of all their privileges, which accorded them the pre- 
ferential treatment they had claimed and became the foundation 
of the Hanseatic position in England. 

In the meanwhile, the conquest of Wisby by Waldemar IV. 
of Denmark in 1361 had disclosed his ambition for the political 
control of the Baltic. He was promptly opposed by an alliance 
of Hanse towns, led by Lubeck. The defeat of the Germans 
at Helsingborg only called into being the stronger town and 
territorial alliance of 1367, known as the Cologne Confederation, 
and its final victory, with the peace of Stralsund in 1370, which 
gave for a limited period the four chief castles on the Sound into 
the hands of the Hanseatic towns, greatly enhanced the prestige 
of the League. 

The assertion of Hanseatic influence in the two decades, 1 3^6 to 
1377, marks the zenith of the League's power and the completion 
of the long process of unification. Under the pressure of com- 
mercial and political necessity, authority was definitely trans- 
ferred from the Kansas of merchants abroad to the Hansa of 
towns at home, and the sense of unity had become such that in 
1380 a Lubeck official could declare that " whatever touches 
one town touches all." But even at the time when union was 
most important, this statement went further than the facts 
would warrant, and in the course of the following century it 
became less and less true. Dortmund held aloof from the 
Cologne Confederation on the ground that it had no concern in 
Scandinavian politics. It became, indeed, increasingly difficult 
to obtain the support of the inland 'towns for a policy of sea- 
power in the Baltic. Cologne sent no representatives to the 
regular Hanseatic assemblies until 1383, and during the isth 
century its independence was frequently manifested. It rebelled 
at the authority of the counter at Bruges, and at the time of 
the war with England (1469-1474) openly defied the League. 
In the East, the German Order, while enjoying Hanseatic 
privileges, frequently opposed the policy of the League abroad, 
and was only prevented by domestic troubles and its Hinterland 
enemies from playing its own hand in the Baltic. After the fall 
of the order in 1467, the towns of Prussia and Livland, especially 
Dantzig and Riga, pursued an exclusive trade policy even against 
their Hanseatic confederates. Lubeck, however, supported by 
the Bruges counter, despite the disaffection and jealousy on all 
sides hampering and sometimes thwarting its efforts, stood 
steadfastly for union and the necessity of obedience to the decrees 
of the assemblies. Its headship of the League, hitherto tacitly 
accepted, was definitely recognized in 1418. 

The governing body of the Hansa was the assembly of town 
representatives, the "Hansetage," held irregularly as occasion 
required at the summons of Lubeck, and, with few exceptions, 
attended but scantily. The delegates were bound by instruc- 
tions from their towns and had to report home the decisions of 
the assembly for acceptance or rejection. In 1469 the League 
declared that the English use of the terms " societas," " col- 
legium " and " universitas " was inappropriate to so loose an 
organization. It preferred to call itself a "firma confederatio " 
for trade purposes only. It had no common seal, though that 
of Lubeck was accepted, particularly by foreigners, in behalf 
of the League. Disputes between the confederate towns were 
brought for adjudication before the general assembly, but the 
League had no recognized federal judiciary. Lubeck, with the 
counters abroad, watched over the execution of the measures 
voted by the assembly, but there was no regular administrative 



930 



HANSEATIC LEAGUE 



organization. Money for common purposes was raised from 
time to time, as necessity demanded, by the imposition on Hanse 
merchandise of poundage dues, introduced in 1361, while the 
counters relied upon a small levy of like nature and upon fines 
to meet current needs. Even this slender financial provision 
met with opposition. The German Order in 1398 converted 
the Hanseatic poundage to a territorial tax for its own purposes, 
and one of the chief causes for Cologne's disaffection a half- 
century later was the extension from Flanders to other parts of 
the Netherlands of the levy made by the counter at Bruges. Since 
the authority of the League rested primarily on the moral support 
of its members, allied in common trade interests and acquiescing 
in the able leadership of Liibeck, its only means of compulsion 
was the " Verhansung," or exclusion of a recalcitrant town from 
the benefits of the trade privileges of the League. A conspicuous 
instance was the exclusion of Cologne from 1471 until its 
obedience in 1476, but the penalty had been earlier imposed, 
as in the case of Brunswick, on towns which overthrew their 
patrician governments. It was obviously, however, a measure 
to be used only in the last resort and with extreme reluctance. 

The decisive factor in determining membership in the League 
was the historical right of the citizens of a town to participate 
in Hanseatic privileges abroad. At first the merchant Kansas 
had shared these privileges with almost any German merchant, 
and thus many little villages, notably those in Westphalia, 
ultimately claimed membership. Later, under the Hansa of the 
towns, the struggle for the maintenance of a coveted position 
abroad led to a more exclusive policy. A few new members were 
admitted, mainly from the westernmost sphere of Hanseatic 
influence, but membership was refused to some important 
applicants. In 1447 it was voted that admission be granted 
only by unanimous consent. No complete list of members was 
ever drawn up, despite frequent requests from foreign powers. 
Contemporaries usually spoke of 70, 72, 73 or 77 members, and 
perhaps the list is complete with Daenell's recent count of 72, 
but the obscurity on so vital a point is significant of the 
amorphous character of the organization. 

The towns of the League, stretching from Thorn and Krakow 
on the East to the towns of the Zuider Zee on the West, and from 
Wisby and Reval in the North to Gottingen in the South, were 
arranged in groups, following in the main the territorial divisions. 
Separate assemblies were held in the groups for the discussion 
both of local and Hanseatic affairs, and gradually, but not fully 
until the i6th century, the groups became recognized as thelowest 
stage of Hanse organization. The further grouping into 
" Thirds," later "Quarters," under head-towns, was also more 
emphasized in that century. 

In the isth century the League, with increasing difficulty, 
held a defensive position against the competition of strong rivals 
and new trade-routes. In England the inevitable conflict of 
interests between the new mercantile power, growing conscious 
of its national strength, and the old, standing insistant on the 
letter of its privileges, was postponed by the factional discord 
out of which the Hansa in 1474 dexterously snatched a renewal 
of its rights. Under Elizabeth, however, the English Merchant 
Adventurers could finally rejoice at the withdrawal of privileges 
from the Hanseatics and their concession to England, in return 
for the retention of the Steelyard, of a factory in Hamburg. In 
the Netherlands the Hanseatics clung to their position in Bruges 
until 1540, while trade was migrating to the ports of Antwerp 
and Amsterdam. By the peace of Copenhagen in 1441 , after the 
unsuccessful war of the League with Holland, the attempted 
monopoly of the Baltic was broken, and, though the Hanseatic 
trade regulations were maintained on paper, the Dutch with 
their larger ships increased their hold on the herring fisheries, 
the French salt trade, and the Baltic grain trade. For the 
Russian trade new competitors were emerging in southern 
Germany. The Hanseatic embargo against Bruges from 1451 
to 1457, its later war and embargo against England, the Turkish 
advance closing the Italian Black Sea trade with southern Russia, 
all were utilized by Nuremberg and its fellows to secure a land- 
trade outside the sphere of Hanseatic influence. The fairs of 



Leipzig and Frankfort-on-Main rose in importance as Novgorod, 
the stronghold of Hanse trade in the East, was weakened by 
the attacks of Ivan III. The closing of the Novgorod counter 
in 1494 was due not only to the development of the Russian state 
but to the exclusive Hanseatic policy which had stimulated the 
opeping of competing trade routes. 

Within the League itself increasing restiveness was shown 
under the restrictions of its trade policy. At the Hanseatic 
assembly of 1469, Dantzig, Hamburg and Breslau opposed the 
maintenance of a compulsory staple at Bruges in the face of 
the new conditions produced by a widening commerce and more 
advantageous markets. Complaint was made of South German 
competition in the Netherlands. " Those in the Hansa," pro- 
tested Breslau, " are fettered and must decline and those outside 
the Hansa are free and prosper." By 1477 even Liibeck had 
become convinced that a continuance of the effort to maintain 
the compulsory staple against Holland was futile and should be 
abandoned. But while it was found impossible to enforce the 
staple or to close the Sound against the Dutch, other features 
of the monopolistic system of trade regulations were still upheld. 
It was forbidden to admit an outsider to partnership or to 
co-ownership of ships, to trade in non-Hanseatic goods, to buy 
or sell on credit in a foreign mart or to enter into contracts for 
future delivery. The trade of foreigners outside the gates of 
Hanse towns or with others than Hanseatics was forbidden 
in 1417, and in the Eastern towns the retail trade of strangers 
was strictly limited. The whole system was designed to suppress 
the competition of outsiders, but the divergent interests of 
individuals and towns, the pressure of competition and changing 
commercial conditions, in part the reactionary character of 
the legislation, made enforcement difficult. The measures were 
those of the late-medieval town economy applied to the wide 
region of the German Baltic trade, but not supported, as was 
the analogous mercantilist system, by a strong central govern- 
ment. 

Among the factors, economic, geographic, political and social, 
which combined to bring about the decline of the Hanseatic 
League, none was probably more influential than the absence 
of a German political power comparable in unity and energy with 
those of France and England, which could quell particularism 
at home, and abroad maintain in its vigour the trade which these 
towns had developed and defended with their imperfect union. 
Nothing was to be expected from the declining Empire. Still 
less was any co-operation possible between the towns and the 
territorial princes. The fatal result of conflict between town 
autonomy and territorial power had been taught in Flanders. 
The Hanseatics regarded the princes with a growing and ex- 
aggerated fear and found some relief in the formation in 1418 
of a thrice-renewed alliance, known as the " Tohopesate," 
against princely aggression. But no territorial power had as yet 
arisen in North Germany capable of subjugating and utilizing 
the towns, though it could detach the inland towns from the 
League. The last wars of the League with the Scandinavian 
powers in the i6th century, which left it shorn of many of its 
privileges and of any pretension to control of the Baltic basin 
eliminated it as a factor in the later struggle of the Thirty Years' 
War for that control. At an assembly of 1629, Liibeck, Bremen 
and Hamburg were entrusted with the task of safeguarding the 
general welfare, and after an effort to revive the League in the 
last general assembly of 1669, these three towns were left alone 
to preserve the name and small inheritance of the Hansa which 
in Germany's disunion had upheld the honour of her commerce. 
Under their protection, the three remaining counters lingered on 
until their buildings were sold at Bergen in 1775, at London in 
1852 and at Antwerp in 1863. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Hansisches Urkundenbuch, bearbeitet von K. 
Hohlbaum, K. Kunze und W. Stein (10 vols., Halle und Leipzig, 
1876-1907); Hanserecesse, erste Abtheilung, 1256-1430 (8 vols., 
Leipzig, 1870-1897), zweite Abtheilung, 1431-1476 (7 vols., 1876- 
1892); dritte Abtheilung, 1477-1530 (7 vols., 1881-1905); Hansische 
Geschichtsquetten (7 vols., 1875-1894; 3 vols., 1897-1906); In 
ventare hansischer Archive des sechzehnten Jahrhunderts (vols. I and 2, 
1896-1903); Hansische GesMchtsbldtter (14 vols., 1871-1908). All 



HANSEN HANSTEEN 



93 1 



the above-mentioned chief sources have been issued by the Verein 
fur hansische Geschichte. Of the secondary literature, the following 
histories and monographs should be named. _ G. F. Sartorius, 
Geschichte des hanseatischen Bundes (3 vols., Gottingen, 1802-1808), 
Urkundliche Geschichte des Ursprunges der deutschen Hanse, herausge- 
geben von J. M. Lappenberg (2 vols., Hamburg, 1830); F. W. 
Barthold, Geschichte der deutschen Hansa (3 vols., 2nd ed., Leipzig, 
1862); D. Schafer, Die Hansestadte und Konig Waldemar von 
Ddnemark (Jena, 1879); W. Stein, Beitrage zur Geschichte der 
deutschen Hanse bis um die Mitte des fiinfzehnten Jahrhunderts (Giessen, 
iqoo); E. Daenell, Die Blutezeit der deutschen Hanse. Hansische 
Geschichte von der zweiten Hdlfte des XIV. bis zum letzten Vierlel des 
XV. Jahrhunderts (2 vols., Berlin, 1905-1906); J. M. Lappenberg, 
Urkundliche Geschichte des hansischen Stahlhofes zu London (Hamburg, 
1851) ; F. Keutgen, Die Beziehungen der Hanse zu England im letzten 
Drittel des vierzehnten Jahrhunderts (Giessen, 1890) ; R. Ehrenberg, 
Hamburg und England im Zeitalter der Konigin Elisabeth (Jena, 
1896); W. Stein, Die Genossenschaft der deutschen Kaufleute zu 
Brugge in Flandern (Berlin, 1890); H. Rogge, Der Stapelzwang des 
hansischen Kontors zu Brugge im funfzehnten Jahrhundert (Kiel, 
1903) ; A. Winckler, Die deutsche Hansa in Russland (Berlin, 1886). 

(E. F. G.) 

HANSEN, PETER ANDREAS (1795-1874), Danish astronomer, 
was born on the 8th of December 1795, at Tondern, in the duchy 
of Schleswig. The son of a goldsmith, he learned the trade of a 
watchmaker at Flensburg, and exercised it at Berlin and Tondern, 
1818-1820. He had, however, long been a student of science; 
and Dr Dircks, a physician practising at Tondern, prevailed 
with his father to send him in 1820 to Copenhagen, where he 
won the patronage of H. C. Schumacher, and attracted the 
personal notice of King Frederick VI. The Danish survey was 
then in progress, and he acted as Schumacher's assistant in work 
connected with it, chiefly at the new observatory of Altona, 
1821-1825. Thence he passed on to Gotha as director of the 
Seeberg observatory; nor could he be tempted to relinquish 
the post by successive invitations to replace F. G. W. Struve at 
Dorpat in 1829, and F. W. Bessel at Konigsberg in 1847. The 
problems of gravitational astronomy engaged the chief part of 
Hansen's attention. A research into the mutual perturbations of 
Jupiter and Saturn secured for him the prize of the Berlin 
Academy in 1830, and a memoir on cometary disturbances was 
crowned by the Paris Academy in 1850. In 1838 he published 
a revision of the lunar theory, entitled Fundamenta nova investi- 
galionis, &c., and the improved Tables of the Moon based upon 
it were printed in 1857, at the expense of the British government, 
their merit being further recognized by a grant of 1000, and by 
their immediate adoption in the Nautical Almanac, and other 
Ephemerides. A theoretical discussion of the disturbances 
embodied in them (still familiarly known to lunar experts as 
the Darlegung) appeared in the Abhandlungen of the Saxon 
Academy of Sciencesin 1862-1864. Hansen twice visited England 
and was twice (in 1842 and 1860) the recipient of the Royal 
Astronomical Society's gold medal. He communicated to that 
society in 1847 an able paper on a long-period lunar inequality 
(Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society, xvi. 465), and in 1854 one on the 
moon's figure, advocating the mistaken hypothesis of its deforma- 
tion by a huge elevation directed towards the earth (Ib. xxiv. 
29). He was awarded the Copley medal by the Royal Society 
in 1850, and his Solar Tables, compiled with the assistance of 
Christian Olufsen, appeared in 1854. Hansen gave in 1854 the 
first intimation that the accepted distance of the sun was too 
great by some millions of miles (Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Soc. 
xv. 9), the error of J. F. Encke's result having been rendered 
evident through his investigation of a lunar inequality. He died 
on the 28th of March 1874, at the new observatory in the town 
of Gotha, erected under his care in 1857. 

See Vierteljahrsschrift astr. Gesellschaft, x. 133; Month. Notices 
Roy. Astr. Society, xxxv. 1 68; Proc. Roy. Society, xxv. p. v. ; R. 
Wolf, Geschichtt der Astronomie, p. 526; Wochenschrift fiir Astro- 
nomic, xvii. 207 (account of early years by E. Heis) ; Allgemeine 
deulsche Biographic (C. Bruhns). (A. M. C.) 

HANSI, a town of British India, in the Hissar district of the 
Punjab, on a branch of the Western Jumna canal, with a station 
on the Rewari-Ferozepore railway, 16 m. E. of Hissar. Pop. 
(1901) 16,523. Hansi is one of the most ancient towns in 
northern India, the former capital of the tract called Hariana. 



At the end of the i8th century it was the headquarters of the 
famous Irish adventurer George Thomas; from 1803 to 1857 
it was a British cantonment, and it became the scene of a 
murderous outbreak during the Mutiny. A ruined fort overlooks 
the town, which is still surrounded by a high brick wall, with 
bastions and loop holes. It is a centre of local trade, with 
factories for ginning and pressing cotton. 

HANSOM, JOSEPH ALOYSIUS (1803-1882), English architect 
and inventor, was born in York on the 26th of October 1803. 
Showing an aptitude for designing and construction, he was taken 
from his father's joinery shop and apprenticed to an architect 
in York, and, by 1831, his designs for the Birmingham town hall 
were accepted and followed to his financial undoing, as he had 
become bond for the builders. In 1834 he registered the design 
of a " Patent Safety Cab," and subsequently sold the patent 
to a company for 10,000, which, however, owing to the 
company's financial difficulties, was never paid. The hansom 
cab as improved by subsequent alterations, nevertheless, took 
and held the fancy of the public. There was no back seat for the 
driver in the original design, and there is little beside the sus- 
pended axle and large wheels in the modern hansom to recall 
the early ones. In 1834 Hansom founded the Builder newspaper, 
but was compelled to retire from this enterprise owing to in- 
sufficient capital. Between 1854 and 1879 he devoted himself 
to architecture, designing and erecting a great number of 
important buildings, private and public, including churches, 
schools and convents for the Roman Catholic church to which 
he belonged. Buildings from his designs are scattered all over 
the United Kingdom, and were even erected in Australia and 
South America. He died in London on the 29th of June 1882. 

HANSON, SIR RICHARD DA VIES (1805-1876), chief justice 
of South Australia, was born hi London on the 6th of December 
1805. Admitted a solicitor in 1828, he practised for some time 
in London. In 1838 he went with Lord Durham to Canada as 
assistant-commissioner of inquiry into crown lands and immi- 
gration. In 1840, on the death of Lord Durham, whose private 
secretary he had been, he settled in Wellington, New Zealand. 
He there acted as crown prosecutor, but in 1846 removed to 
South Australia. In 1851 he was appointed advocate-general 
of that colony and took an active share in the passing of many 
important measures, such as the first Education Act, the District 
Councils Act of 1852, and the Act of 1856 which granted con- 
stitutional government to the colony. In 1856 and again from 
1857 to 1860 he was attorney-general and leader of the govern- 
ment. In 1861 he was appointed chief justice of the supreme 
court of South Australia and was knighted in 1869. He died 
in Australia on the 4th of March 1876. 

HANSTEEN, CHRISTOPHER (1784-1873), Norwegian astro- 
nomer and physicist, was born at Christiania, on the 26th of 
September 1784. From the cathedral school he went to the 
university at Copenhagen, where first law and afterwards 
mathematics formed his main study. In 1806 he taught mathe- 
matics in the gymnasium of Frederiksborg, Zeeland, and in the 
following year he began the inquiries in terrestrial magnetism 
with which his name is especially associated. He took in 1812 
the prize of the Danish Royal Academy of Sciences for his reply 
to a question on the magnetic axes. Appointed lecturer in 1814, 
he was in 1816 raised to the chair of astronomy and applied 
mathematics in the university of Christiania. In 1819 he pub- 
lished a volume of researches on terrestrial magnetism, which was 
translated into German by P. T. Hanson, under the title of 
Untersuchungen ilber den Magnelismus der Erde, with a supple- 
ment containing Beobachtungen der Abweichung und Neigung 
der Magnetnadel and an atlas. By the rules there framed for 
the observation of magnetical phenomena Hansteen hoped to 
accumulate analyses for determining the number and position 
of the magnetic poles of the earth. In prosecution of his 
researches he travelled over Finland and the greater part of his 
own country; and in 1828-1830 he undertook, in company 
with G. A. Erman.and with the co-operation of Russia, a govern- 
ment mission to Western Siberia. A narrative of the expedition 
soon appeared (Reise-Erinnervngen aus Sibirien, 1854; Scvi/emrs 



932 



HANTHAWADDY HAPARANDA 



d' un voyage en Siberie, 1857); but the chief work was not issued 
till 1863 (Resultate magnetischer Beobachtungen, &c.). Shortly 
after the return of the mission, an observatory was erected in 
the park of Christiania (1833), and Hansteen was appointed 
director. On his representation a magnetic observatory was 
added in 1839. In 1835-1838 he published text-books on 
geometry and mechanics; and in 1842 he wrote his Disquisiliones 
de mutationibus quas patitur momentum acus magneticae, &c. 
He also contributed various papers to different scientific journals, 
especially the Magazin for Natunidenskaberne, of which he 
became joint-editor in 1823. He superintended the trigono- 
metrical and topographical survey of Norway, begun in 1837. 
In 1861 he retired from active work, but still pursued his studies, 
his Observations de I'inclination magnetique and Sur les variations 
seculaires du magnetisme appearing in 1865. He died at 
Christiania on the nth of April 1873. 

HANTHAWADDY, a district in the Pegu division of Lower 
Burma, the home district of Rangoon, from which the town 
was detached to make a separate district in 1880. It has an area 
of 3023 sq. m., with a population in 1901 of 484,811, showing an 
increase of 22% in the decade. Hanthawaddy and Henzada 
are the two most densely populated districts in the province. 
It consists of a vast plain stretching up from the sea between 
the To or China Bakir mouth of the Irrawaddy and the Pegu 
Yomas. Except the tract lying between the Pegu Yomas- on 
the east and the Hlaing river, the country is intersected by 
numerous tidal creeks, many navigable by large boats and some 
by steamers. The headquarters of the district are in Rangoon, 
which is also the sub-divisional headquarters. The second 
sub-division has its headquarters at Insein, where there are 
large railway works. Cultivation is almost wholly confined to 
rice, but there are many vegetable and fruit gardens. 

HANUKKAH, a Jewish festival, the " Feast of Dedication " 
(cf. John x. 22) or the " Feast of the Maccabees," beginning 
on the 25th day of the ninth month Kislev (December), of the 
Hebrew ecclesiastical year, and lasting eight days. It was 
instituted in 165 B.C. in commemoration of, and thanksgiving 
for, the purification of the temple at Jerusalem on this day by 
Judas Maccabaeus after its pollution by Antiochus Epiphanes, 
king of Syria, who in 168 B.C. set up a pagan altar to Zeus 
Olympius. The Talmudic sources say that when the perpetual 
lamp of the temple was to be relighted only one flask of holy oil 
sufficient for the day remained, but this miraculously lasted 
for the eight days (cf. the legend in 2 Mace. i. 18). In memory 
of this the Jews burn both in synagogues and in houses on the 
first night of the festival one light, on the second two, and so on 
to the end (so the Hillelites), or vice versa eight lights on the 
first, and one less on each succeeding night (so the Shammaites). 
From the prominence of the lights the festival is also known as 
the " Festival of Lights " or " Illumination " (Talmud). It is 
said that the day chosen by Judas for the setting up of the new 
altar was the anniversary of that on which Antiochus had set 
up the pagan altar; hence it is suggested (e.g. by Wellhausen) 
that the 2$th of Kislev was an old pagan festival, perhaps the 
day of the winter solstice. 

For further details and illustrations of Hanukkah lamps see 
Jewish Encyc., s.v. 

HANUMAN, in Hindu mythology, a monkey-god, who forms a 
central figure in the Ramayana. He was the child of a nymph by 
the god of the wind. His exploits, as the ally of Rama (incarna- 
tion of Vishnu) in the latter's recovery of his wife Sita from the 
clutches of the demon Ravana, include the bridging of the 
straits between India and Ceylon with huge boulders carried 
away from the Himalayas. He is the leader of a host of monkeys 
who aid in these supernatural deeds. Temples in his honour are 
frequent throughout India. 

HANWAY, JONAS (1712-1786), English traveller and philan- 
thropist, was born at Portsmouth in 1712. While still a child, 
his father, a victualler, died, and the family moved to London. 
In 1729 Jonas was apprenticed to a merchant in Lisbon. In 
1743, after he had been some time in business for himself in 
London, he became a partner with Mr Dingley, a merchant in 



St Petersburg, and in this way was led to travel in Russia and 
Persia. Leaving St Petersburg on the loth of September 1743, 
and passing south by Moscow, Tsaritsyn and Astrakhan, he 
embarked on the Caspian on the 22nd of November, and arrived 
at Astrabad on the i8th of December. Here his goods were 
seized by Mohammed Hassan Beg, and it was only after great 
privations that he reached the camp of Nadir Shah, under whose 
protection he recovered most (85%) of his property. His 
return journey was embarrassed by sickness (at Resht), by 
attacks from pirates, and by six weeks' quarantine; and he 
only reappeared at St Petersburg on the ist of January 1745. 
He again left the Russian capital on the 9th of July 1750 and 
travelled through Germany and Holland to England (28th of 
October). The rest of his life was mostly spent in London, 
where the narrative of his travels (published in 1753) soon made 
him a man of note, and where he devoted himself to philanthropy 
and good citizenship. In 1756 he founded the Marine Society, 
to keep up the supply of British seamen; in 1758 he became a 
governor of the Foundling, and established the Magdalen, 
hospital; in 1761 he procured a better system of parochial 
birth-registration in London; and in 1762 he was appointed a 
commissioner for victualling the navy (loth of July); this office 
he held till October 1783. He died, unmarried, on the sth of 
September 1786. He was the first Londoner, it is said, to carry 
an umbrella, and he lived to triumph over all the hackney 
coachmen who tried to hoot and hustle him down. He attacked 
" vail-giving," or tipping, with some temporary success; by 
his onslaught upon tea-drinking he became involved in con- 
troversy with Johnson and Goldsmith. His last efforts were on 
behalf of little chimney-sweeps. His advocacy of solitary 
confinement for prisoners and opposition to Jewish naturaliza- 
tion were more questionable instances of his activity in social 
matters. 

Hanway left seventy-four printed works, mostly pamphlets; 
the only one of literary importance is the Historical Account of 
British Trade over the Caspian Sea, with a Journal of Travels, &c. 
(London, 1753). On his life, see also Pugh, Remarkable Occurrences 
in the Life of Jonas Hanway (London, 1787) ; Gentleman's Magazine, 
vol. xxxii. p. 342; vol. Ivi. pt. ii. pp. 812-814, 1090, 1143-1144; 
vol. Ixv. pt. ii. pp. 721-722, 834-835; Notes and Queries, 1st series, i. 
436, ii. 25; 3rd series, vii. 311; 4th series, viii. 416. 

HANWELL, an urban district in the Brentford parliamentary 
division of Middlesex, England, ioj m. W. of St Paul's cathedral, 
London, on the river Brent and the Great Western railway. Pop. 
(1891) 6139; (1901) 10,438. It ranks as an outer residential 
suburb of London. The Hanwell lunatic asylum of the county of 
London has been greatly extended since its erection 1831, and 
can accommodate over 2500 inmates. The extensive cemeteries 
of St Mary Abbots, Kensington, and St George, Hanover Square, 
London, are here. In the churchyard of St Mary's church was 
buried Jonas Hanway (d. 1786), traveller, philanthropist, and 
by repute, introducer of the umbrella into England. The 
Roman Catholic Convalescent Home for women and children 
was erected in 1865. Before the Norman period the manor of 
Hanwell belonged to Westminster Abbey. 

HAPARANDA (Finnish Haaparanta, "Aspen Shore"), a 
town of Sweden in the district (liin) of Norbotten, at the head 
of the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. (1900) 1568. It lies about 15 m. 
from the mouth of the Torne river, on the frontier with Russia 
(Finland), opposite the town of Tornea which has belonged 
to Russia since 1809. The towns are divided by a marshy 
channel, formerly the bed of the Torne, but the main stream 
is now east of the Russian town. Haparanda was founded in 
1812, and at first bore the name of Karljohannstad. It received 
its municipal constitution in 1842. Shipbuilding is prosecuted. 
Sea-going vessels load and unload at Salmio, 7 m. from 
Haparanda. Since 1859 the town has been the seat of an im- 
portant meteorological station. Annual mean temperature, 
32-4 Fahr.; February 10-5; July 58-8. Rainfall, 16-5 in. 
annually. Up the Torne valley (54 m.) is the hill Avasaxa, 
whither pilgrimages were formerly made in order to stand 
in the light of the sun at midnight on St John's day 
(June 24). 



HAPLODRILI 



933 



HAPLODRILI (so called by Lankester), often called Archian- 
nelida (Hatschek), the name provisionally given to a number of 




FIG. i. 



A, Polygordius neapolilanus, 
(From Fraipont.) 

B, Transverse section of Poly- 
gordius. (From Fraipont.) 

C, Trochophore of Polygordius. 
and D, later stage of the same, 
showing the development of the 
trunk. (From Hatschek.) 

E, Dorsal view of Dinophilus 
taeniatus. 

F, Male apparatus of the sa ue 
(From Harmer.) 

a, Anus. 

ap, Apical organ. 

c, Coelom. 

c.o, Ciliated pit. 

c.l, Cuticle. 

d.v, Dorsal vessel. 

, Eye. 

ep, Epidermis. 

g.f, Genital funnel. 



h, " Head kidney," with 
second nephridium just 
below it. 

i. Intestine. 

l.m, Longitudinal muscles. 

m, Mouth. 

m.o, Muscular pharyngeal organ. 

m.p, Male pore. 

n, Nephridium. 

o.m, Oblique muscles. 

m, Ovary. 

p, Penis. 

pr, Prototroch. 

pi, Prostomial tentacle. 

sp, Sperm-sac. 

spd, Sperm-duct. 

st, Stomach. 

t, Testes. 

tr, Trunk segment. 

, Telotroch. 

v.n, Ventral nerve cord. 

v.v, Ventral vessel. 



interesting lowly-organized marine worms, whose affinities are 
very doubtful (see CHAETOPODA). Polygordius and Protodrttus 



live in sand, but while the former moves by means of the contrac- 
tion of its body-wall muscles, Protodrilus can progress by the 
action of the bands of cilia surrounding its segments, and of the 
longitudinal ciliated ventral groove. Saccocirrus, which also 
lives in sand, and more closely resembles the Polychaeta, has 
throughout the greater length of its body on each segment a 
pair of small uniramous parapodia bearing a bunch of simple 
setae. No other member of the group is known to have any 
trace of setae or parapodia at any stage of development. 

These three genera have the following characters in common. 
The body is composed of a- large number of segments; the pro- 
stomium bears a pair of tentacles; the nervous system consists 
of a brain and longitudinal ventral nerve cords closely connected 
with the epidermis (without distinct ganglia), widely separated in 
Saccocirrus, closely approximated in Protodrilus, fused together 
in Polygordius; the coelom is well developed, the septa are'distinct, 
and the dorsal and ventral longitudinal mesenteries are complete; 
the nephridia are simple, and open into the coelom. Polygordius 
differs from Protodrilus and Saccocirrus in the absence of a distinct 
suboesophageal muscular pouch, and in the absence of a peculiar 
closed cavity in the head region, which is especially well developed 
in Saccocirrus, and probably represents the specialized coelom of 
the first segment. Moreover, in Saccocirrus the genital organs, 




FIG. 2. Diagram of a transverse section of Saccocirrus showing 
on the left side the organs in a genital segment of a male, and on 
the right side the organs in a genital segment of a female. (From 
Goodrich.) 

present in the majority of the trunk segments, have become much 
complicated (fig. 2). In the female there is in every fertile seg- 
ment a pair of spermathecae opening at the nephridiopores. In 
the male there are a right and a left protrusible penis in every 
genital segment, into which opens the nephridium and a sperm-sac. 
The wide funnels of the nephridia of this region are possibly of 
coelqmic origin. 

Dinophilus is a free-swimming form without tentacles, and with 
segmental bands of cilia (fig. i). The parasitic Hislriodritus (Histrio- 
bdella) feeds on the eggs of the lobster. It resembles Dinophilus 
in the possession of a ventral pharyngeal pouch (which bears teeth 
in Histriodrilus only), the small number of segments, and absence 
of distinct septa, the absence of a vascular system, the presence of 
distinct ganglia on the ventral nerve cords, and of small nephridia 
which do not appear to open internally. Histriodrilus resembles 
Saccocirrus in the possession of two posterior adhesive processes, 
and to some extent in the structure of the complex genital organs, 
which, however, are restricted to a single segment. In Dinophilus 
there is also only a single pair of genital ducts behind ; and in the 
male there are sperm-sacs and a median penis. In some species of 
Dinophilus there is pronounced sexual dimorphism (the male being 
small and without gut) as in the Rotifera. The resemblance of 
Dinophilus to the Rotifera is, however, quite superficial, and the 
general structure of this genus with distinct traces of segmenta- 
tion, especially in the embryo, points to its close affinity, if not to 
Polygordius in particular, at all events to the Annelida. 

That Polygordius, Protodrilus and Saccocirrus are on the whole 
primitive forms, and related to each other, there can be little 
doubt, but their place amongst the Annelida is difficult to deter- 
mine. The development of Polygordius alone is well known, having 
been studied by Hatschek, Fraipont and others. The larva (fig. i, 
C and D) is a typical but very specialized form of trochophore, 
provided with a branching nephridium bearing solenocytes. The 
trunk develops on the lower surface of the disk-like larva, which 
undergoes a more or less sudden metamorphosis into the young 
worm (fig. i). There appears to be little cither in the development 
or in the structure of the Haplodrili to warrant the view held by 
Hatschek and Fraipont that Polygordius and Protodrilus are exceed- 
ingly primitive forms, ancestral to the whole group of seta-bearing 
Annelids (Oligochaeta, Polychaeta, Hirudinea and Echiuroidea). 






934 



HAPTARA HARALD 



Whatever may be the conclusion as to the position of Dino- 
philus and Histriodrilus, it seems only reasonable to suppose that 
Polygordius and Protodrilus, so far from representing a stage in the 
phylogeny of the Annelida before setae were developed, have lost 
the setae, which are already in a reduced state in Saccocirrus. 

AUTHORITIES. Hatschek, " Studien z. Entw. der Anneliden," 
Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien, vol. i., 1878; " Protodrilus," ibid. vol. iii. 
(1881); Fraipont, " Le Genre Polygordius," Fauna u. Flora d. 
Golfes v. Neapel., xiv., 1887; Weldon, " Dinophilus gigas," Quart. 
Journ. Micr. Sci. vol. xxvii., 1886; Harmer, " Dinophilus," Journ. 
Mar. Biol. N.S. vol. i., 1889; Schimkewitsch, " Entwickl. des 
Dinophilus," Zeit. f. wiss. Zool. vol. lix., 1895; Korschelt, " Uber 
Bau u. Entw. des Dinophilus," Zeit, f. wiss. Zool. vol. xxxvii., 
1882; Foettinger, " Histriobdella," Arch. Biol. vol. v., 1884; 
Goodrich, " On Saccocirrus," Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. vol. xliv., 
1901. (E. S. G.) 

HAPTARA (lit. conclusion), the Hebrew title given to the 
prophetic lessons with which the ancient Synagogue service 
concluded. In the time of Christ these prophetic lessons were 
already in vogue, and Christ himself read the lessons and dis- 
coursed on them in the synagogues of Galilee. In the modern 
synagogue these readings from the prophets are regularly 
included in the ritual of Sabbaths, festivals and some other 
occasions. 

A list of the current lessons is given in the Jewish Encyclopedia, 
vol. vi. pp. 136-137- (I- A.) 

HAPUR, a town of British India in the Meerut district of the 
United Provinces, 18 m. S. of Meerut. Pop. (1901) 17,796. 
It is said to have been founded in the loth century, and was 
granted by Sindhia to his French general Perron at the end 
of the i8th century. Several fine groves surround the town, 
but the wall and ditch have fallen out of repair, and only 
the names of the five gates remain. Considerable trade is 
carried on in sugar, grain, cotton, timber, bamboos and brass 
utensils. 

HARA-KIRI (Japanese hara, belly, and kiri, cutting), self- 
disembowelment, primarily the method of suicide permitted 
to offenders of the noble class in feudal Japan, and later the 
national form of honourable suicide. Hara-kiri has been often 
translated as " the happy dispatch " in confusion with a native 
euphemism for the act. More usually the Japanese themselves 
speak of hara-kiri by its Chinese synonym, Seppuku. Hara-kiri 
is not an aboriginal Japanese custom. It was a growth of 
medieval militarism, the act probably at first being prompted 
by the desire of the noble to escape the humiliation of falling 
into an enemy's hands. By the end of the i4th century the 
custom had become a much valued privilege, being formally 
established as such under the Ashi-Kaga dynasty. Hara-kiri 
was of two kinds, obligatory and voluntary. The first is the 
more ancient. An official or noble, who had broken the law 
or been disloyal, received a message from the emperor, couched 
always in sympathetic and gracious tones, courteously intimating 
that he must die. The mikado usually sent a jewelled dagger 
with which the deed might be done. The suicide had so many 
days allotted to him by immemorial custom in which to make 
dignified preparations for the ceremony, which was attended by 
the utmost formality. In his own baronial hall or in a temple 
a dais 3 or 4 in. from the ground was constructed. Upon this 
was laid a rug of red felt. The suicide, clothed in his ceremonial 
dress as an hereditary noble, and accompanied by his second or 
" Kaishaku," took his place on the mat, the officials and his 
friends ranging themselves in a semicircle round the dais. After 
a minute's prayer the weapon was handed to him with many 
obeisances by the mikado's representative, and he then made a 
public confession of his fault. He then stripped to the waist. 
Every movement in the grim ceremony was governed by 
precedent, and he had to tuck his wide sleeves under his knees 
to prevent himself falling backwards, for a Japanese noble 
must die falling forward. A moment later he plunged the dagger 
into his stomach below the waist on the left side, drew it across 
to the right and, turning it, gave a slight cut upward. At the 
same moment the Kaishaku who crouched at his friend's side, 
leaping up, brought his sword down on the outstretched neck. 
At the conclusion of the ceremony the bloodstained dagger was 
taken to the mikado as a proof of the consummation of the heroic 



act. The performance of hara-kiri carried with it certain 
privileges. If it was by order of the mikado half only of a 
traitor's property was forfeited to the state. If the gnawings 
of conscience drove the disloyal noble to voluntary suicide, his 
dishonour was wiped out, and his family inherited all his 
fortune. 

Voluntary hara-kiri was the refuge of men rendered desperate 
by private misfortunes, or was committed from loyalty to a dead 
superior, or as a protest against what was deemed a false national 
policy. This voluntary suicide still survives, a characteristic 
case being that of Lieutenant Takeyoshi who in 1891 gave himself 
the " belly-cut " in front of the graves of his ancestors at Tokyo 
as a protest against what he considered the criminal lethargy 
of the government in not taking precautions against possible 
Russian encroachments to the north of Japan. In the Russo- 
Japanese War, when faced by defeat at Vladivostock, the officer 
in command of the troops on the transport " Kinshu Maru " 
committed hara-kiri. Hara-kiri has not been uncommon among 
women, but in their case the mode is by cutting the throat. 
The popularity of this self-immolation is testified to by the 
fact that for centuries no fewer than 1500 hara-kiris are said 
to have taken place annually, at least half being entirely 
voluntary. Stories of amazing heroism are told in connexion 
with the performance of the act. One noble, barely out of his 
teens, not content with giving himself the customary cuts, 
slashed himself thrice horizontally and twice vertically. Then he 
stabbed himself in the throat until the dirk protruded on the 
other side with the sharp edge to the front, and with a supreme 
effort drove the knife forward with both hands through his neck. 
Obligatory hara-kiri was obsolete in the middle of the ipth 
century, and was actually abolished in 1868. 

See A. B. Mitford, Tales of Old Japan; Basil Hall Chamberlain, 
Things Japanese (1898). 

HARALD, the name of four kings of Norway. 

HARALD I. (850-933), surnamed Haarfager (of the beautiful 
hair), first king over Norway, succeeded on the death of his 
father Halfdan the Black in A.D. 860 to the sovereignty of 
several small and somewhat scattered kingdoms, which had 
come into his father's hands through conquest and inheritance 
and lay chiefly in south-east Norway (see NORWAY). The tale 
goes that the scorn of the daughter of a neighbouring king 
induced Harald to take a vow not to cut nor comb his hair until 
he was sole king of Norway, and that ten years later he was 
justified in trimming it; whereupon he exchanged the epithet 
" Shockhead " for the one by which he is usually known. In 
866 he made the first of a series of conquests over the many 
petty kingdoms which then composed Norway; and in 872, 
after a great victory at Hafrsfjord near Stavanger, he found 
himself king over the whole country. His realm was, however, 
threatened by dangers from without, as large numbers of his 
opponents had taken refuge, not only in Iceland, then recently 
discovered, but also in the Orkneys, Shetlands, Hebrides and 
Faeroes, and in Scotland itself; and from these winter quarters 
sallied forth to harry Norway as well as the rest of northern 
Europe. Their numbers were increased by malcontents from 
Norway, who resented Harald's claim of rights of taxation over 
lands which the possessors appear to have previously held in 
absolute ownership. At last Harald was forced to make an 
expedition to the west to clear the islands and Scottish mainland 
of Vikings. Numbers of them fled to Iceland, which grew into 
an independent commonwealth, while the Scottish isles fell 
under Norwegian rule. The latter part of Harald's reign was 
disturbed by the strife of his many sons. He gave them all the 
royal title and assigned lands to them which they were to govern 
as his representatives; but this arrangement did not put an end 
to the discord, which continued into the next reign. When he 
grew old he handed over the supreme power to his favourite 
son Erik " Bloody Axe," whom he intended to be his successor. 
Harald died in 933, in his eighty-fourth year. 

HARALD II., surnamed Graafeld, a grandson of Harald I., 
became, with his brothers, ruler of the western part of Norway 
in 961; he was murdered in Denmark in 969. 



HARBIN HARBOUR 



935 



HARALD III. (1015-1066), king of Norway, surnamed Haar- 
draade, which might be translated "ruthless," was the son of King 
Sigurd and half-brother of King Olaf the Saint. At the age of 
fifteen he was obliged to flee from Norway, having taken part in 
the battle of Stiklestad (1030) , at which King Olaf met his death. 
He took refuge for a short time with Prince Yaroslav of Novgorod 
(a kingdom founded by Scandinavians), and thence went to 
Constantinople, where he took service under the empress Zoe, 
whose Varangian guard he led to frequent victory in Italy, 
Sicily and North Africa, also penetrating to Jerusalem. In the 
year 1042 he left Constantinople, the story says because he was 
refused the hand of a princess, and on his way back to his own 
country he married Ellisif or Elizabeth, daughter of Yaroslav 
of Novgorod. In Sweden he allied himself with the defeated 
Sven of Denmark against his nephew Magnus, now king of 
Norway, but soon broke faith with Sven and accepted an offer 
from Magnus of half his kingdom. In return for this gift Harald 
is said to have shared with Magnus the enormous treasure which 
he had amassed in the East. The death of Magnus in 1047 
put an end to the growing jealousies between the two kings, 
and Harald turned all his attention to the task of subjugating 
Denmark, which he ravaged year after year; but he met with 
such stubborn resistance from Sven that in 1064 he gave up the 
attempt and made peace. Two years afterwards, possibly 
instigated by the banished Earl Tostig of Northumbria, he 
attempted the conquest of England, to the sovereignty of which 
his predecessor had advanced a claim as successor of Harthacnut. 
In September 1066 he landed in Yorkshire with a large army, 
reinforced from Scotland, Ireland and the Orkneys; took 
Scarborough by casting flaming brands into the town from the 
high ground above it; defeated the Northumbrian forces at 
Fulford; and entered York on the 24th of September. But the 
following day the English Harold arrived from the south, and 
the end of the long day's fight at Stamford Bridge saw the rout 
of the Norwegian forces after the fall of their king (2 5th of 
September 1066). He was only fifty years old, but he was the 
first of the six kings who had ruled Norway since the death of 
Harald Haarfager to reach that age. As a king he was unpopular 
on account of his harshness and want of good faith, but his many 
victories in the face of great odds prove him to have been a 
remarkable general, of never-failing resourcefulness and indomit- 
able courage. t 

HARALD IV. (d. 1136), king of Norway, surnamed Gylle 
(probably from Gylle Krist, i.e. servant of Christ), was born in 
Ireland about 1103. About 1127 he went to Norway and 
declared he was a son of King Magnus III. (Barefoot), who had 
visited Ireland just before his death in 1103, and consequently 
a half-brother of the reigning king, Sigurd. He appears to have 
submitted successfully to the ordeal of fire, and the alleged 
relationship was acknowledged by Sigurd on condition that 
Harald did not claim any share in the government of the kingdom 
during his lifetime or that of his son Magnus. Living on friendly 
terms with the king, Harald kept this agreement until Sigurd's 
death in 1 130. Then war broke out between himself and Magnus, 
and after several battles the latter was captured in 1 134, his eyes 
were put out, and he was thrown into prison. Harald now ruled 
the country until 1 136, when he was murdered by Sigurd Slembi- 
Diakn, another bastard son of Magnus Barefoot. Four of 
Harald's sons, Sigurd, Ingi, Eysteinn and Magnus, were subse- 
quently kings of Norway. 

HARBIN, or KHARBIN, town of Manchuria, on the right 
bank of the river Sungari. Pop. about 20,000. Till 1896 there 
was only a small village here, but in that year the town was 
founded in connexion with surveys for the Chinese Eastern 
railway company, at a point which subsequently became the 
junction of the mam line of the Manchurian railway with the 
branch line southward to Port Arthur. Occupying such a 
position, Harbin became an important Russian military centre 
during the Russo-Japanese War. The portion of the town 
founded in 1896 is called Old Harbin, but the centre has shifted 
to New Harbin, where the chief public buildings and offices of 
the railway administration are situated. The river-port forms 



a third division of the town, industrially the most important; 
here are railway workshops, factories and mercantile establish- 
ments. Trade is chiefly in the hands of the Chinese. 

HARBINGER, originally one who provides a shelter or lodging 
for an army. The word is derived from the M.E. and O.Fr. 
herbergere, through the Late Lat. heribergator, formed from the 
O.H.Ger. heri, mod. Ger. Heer, an army, and bergen, shelter or 
defence, cf. " harbour." The meaning was soon enlarged to 
include any place where travellers could be lodged or entertained, 
and also by transference the person who provided lodgings, and 
so one who goes on before a party to secure suitable lodgings in 
advance. A herald sent forward to announce the coming of a 
king. A Knight Harbinger was an officer in the royal household 
till 1846. In these senses the word is now obsolete. It is used 
chiefly in poetry and literature for one who announces the 
immediate approach of something, a forerunner. This is illus- 
trated in the " harbinger of spring," a name given to a small 
plant belonging to the Umbelliferae, which has a tuberous root, 
and small white flowers; it is found in the central states of North 
America, and blossoms in March. 

HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer 
and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English 
were herberwe and harborow, as seen in various place names, 
such as Market Harborough. The French auberge, an inn, 
derived through heberger, is thus the same word), a place of 
refuge or shelter. It is thus used for an asylum for criminals, 
and particularly for a place of shelter for ships. 

Sheltered sites along exposed sea-coasts are essential for pur- 
poses of trade, and very valuable as refuges for vessels from 
storms. In a few places, natural shelter is found in combination 
with ample depth, as in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, New York 
Harbour (protected by Long Island), Portsmouth Harbour and 
Southampton Water (sheltered by the Isle of Wight), and the 
land-locked creeks of Milford Haven and Kiel Harbour. At 
various places there are large enclosed areas which have openings 
into the sea; but these lagoons for the most part are very shallow 
except in the main channels and at their outlets. Access to 
them is generally obstructed by a bar as at the lagoon harbour 
of Venice (fig. i), and similar harbours, like those of Poole and 
Wexford; and such harbours usually require works to prevent 
their deterioration, and to increase the depth near their outlet. 
Generally, however,harbours are formed where shelter is provided 
to a certain extent by a bay, creek or projecting headland, but 
requires to be rendered complete by one or more breakwaters 
(see BREAKWATER), or where the approach to a river, a ship- 
canal or a seaport, needs protection. A refuge harbour is 
occasionally constructed where a long length of stormy coast, 
near the ordinary track of vessels, is entirely devoid of natural 
shelter. Naval harbours are required by maritime powers as 
stations for their fleets, and dockyards for construction and 
repairs, and also in some cases as places of shelter from the night 
attacks of torpedoes. Commercial harbours have to be provided 
for the formation of ports within their shelter on important 
trade routes, or for the protection of the approaches from the 
sea of ports near the sea-coast, or maritime waterways running 
inland, in some cases at points on the coast devoid of all natural 
shelter. A greater latitude in the selection of suitable sites is, 
indeed, possible for refuge and naval harbours than for commercial 
harbours; but these three classes of harbours are very similar 
in their general outline and the works protecting them, only 
differing in size and internal arrangements according to the pur- 
pose for which they have been constructed, the chief differences 
being due to the local conditions. 

Harbours may be divided into three distinct groups, namely, 
lagoon harbours, jetty harbours and sea-coast harbours, pro- 
tected by breakwaters, including refuge, naval and commercial 
harbours. 

Lagoon Harbours. A lagoon, consisting of a sort of large shallow 
lake separated from the sea by a narrow belt of coast, formed of 
deposit from a deltaic river or of sand dunes heaped up by on-shore 
winds along a sandy shore, possesses good natural shelter; and, 
owing to the large expanse which is filled and emptied at each tide, 
even when the tidal range is quite small, together with the discharge 



936 



HARBOUR 



from any rivers flowing into the lagoon, one or more fairly deep 
outlets are maintained through the fringe of coast, which afford 
navigable access to the lagoon; whilst channels formed inside by 




SCALE 300.000. 



MlLE*5 



o 

i 



SMILES. 



FIG. i. Venetian Lagoon Harbour. 

the currents lead to ports on its banks. Lagoons, however, are liable 
to be gradually silted up, if rivers flowing into them bring down 
considerable quantities of alluvium, which is readily deposited in 
their fairly still waters; and their outlet channels are in danger of 
becoming shallower, by the sea in storms forming additional outlets 
by breaking through the narrow 
barrier separating them from the 
sea. Moreover, the approach from / 

the sea to these channels through the 
fringe of coast is generally impeded 
by a bar, owing to the scour of the 
issuing current through these outlet 
channels becoming gradually too en- 
feebled, on entering the open sea, to 
overcome the heaping-up action of 
the waves along the shore, which 
tends to form a continuous beach 
across these openings. Rivers, accord- 
ingly, whose discharge is very valu- 
able in maintaining a lagoon if their 
waters are free from sediment, must, 
if possible, be diverted from a lagoon 
if they bring down large amounts of 
silt; whilst the narrow belt of land 
in front of the lagoon must be pro- 
tected from erosion by the waves, on 
its sea face, by groynes or revetments. 
The depth over the bar in front of an outlet can be improved by 
concentrating the current through the outlet by jetties on each side, 
and prolonging the jetties, and consequently the scour, out to the 
bar so as to lower it, and by supplementing the scouring action, if 
necessary, by dredging. 



Jetty Harbours. Several small ports were formed on the sea-coast 
long ago at points where flat marshy ground lying below the level 
of high-water, and shut off from the sandy beach by dikes or sand 
dunes, was connected with the sea by a small creek or river. Such 
ports presented in their original condition a slight resemblance to 
lagoons on a very small scale. Several examples are to be found 
on the sandy shores of the English Channel and North Sea, such as 
Dieppe, Boulogne, Calais, Dunkirk, Nieuport and Ostend, where 
the influx and efflux of the water from these enclosed tide-covered 
areas, through a narrow opening, sufficed to maintain a shallow 
channel to the sea across the beach, deep enough near high-water 
for vessels of small draught. When the increase in draught necessi- 
tated the provision of an improved channel, the scour of the issuing 
current was concentrated and prolonged by erecting parallel jetties 
across the beach, raised solid to a little above low water of neap tides, 
with open timber-work above to indicate the channel and guide the 
vessels. Even this low obstruction, however, to the littoral drift 
of sand caused an advance of the low water line as the jetties were 
carried out, so that further extensions of the jetties had eventually 
to be abandoned, as occurred at Dunkirk (see DOCK). Moreover, re- 
clamation of the low-lying areas was gradually effected, thus reducing 
the tidal scour; and sluicing basins were excavated in part of the 
low ground, into which the tide flowed through the entrance channel, 
and the water being shut in at high tide by gates at the outlet of 
the basin, was released at low water, producing a rapid current 
through the channel as a compensation for the loss of the former 
natural scour. The current, however, from the sluicing basin 
gradually lost its velocity in passing down the channel, and besides, 
being most effective near the outlet of the basin, could only scour 
the channel down to a moderate depth below low water, on account 
of the increase in the volume of still water in the channel at low 
tide as its deepening progressed. Lastly, about 1880, improve- 
ments in suction dredgers (see DREDGE AND DREDGING) led to the 
adoption of sand-pump dredging in the outer part of the channel, 
and across the foreshore in front to deep water; and at Dunkirk, 
docks were formed on the site of the sluicing basin; whilst at Calais 
sluicing was abandoned in favour of dredging. Ostend is the only 
jetty habour in which a large sluicing basin has been recently con- 
structed, but it can only provide for the maintenance of deep-water 
quays in its vicinity; and dredging is relied upon to an increasing 
extent, both for the maintenance and further deepening of the outer 
portion of the approach channel, and for maintaining the direct 
channel dredged to deep water across the Stroombank extending 
in front of Ostend (fig. 2). 

Similar methods of improving the entrance channel to ports 
possessing an extensive backwater have been adopted on a large 
scale in the United States. For instance at Charleston, converging 
jetties, about 2j m. long, have been extended across the bar to con- 
centrate the scour due to a small tidal range expanding over the 
enclosed backwater, 15 sq. m. in extent, and to protect the channel 
from littoral drift; but these jetties have caused an advance of 
the foreshore, and a progression 
seawards of the bar, necessitating 
dredging beyond the ends of the 
jetties to maintain the requisite 
depth. 

Parallel jetties, moreover, across 
the beach, combined with exten- 
sive sand-pump dredging, have 
been employed with success at 
some of the ports situated at the 
outlet of rivers, enclosed bays, or 
lagoons, on the sandy shores of 




ooFI 



2. Ostend Harbour and Jetty Channel. 



south-east Africa, for improving the access to them across en- 
cumbering shoals, where the littoral drift is too great to allow of 
the projection of breakwaters from the shore to shelter an approach 
channel. 

Harbours Protected by Breakwaters. The design for a harbour on 



HARBOUR 



937 



the sea-coast must depend on the configuration of the adjacent 
coast-line, the extent and direction of the exposure, the amount of 
sheltered area required and the depth obtainable, the prospect of 
the accumulation of drift or the occurrence of scour from the pro- 
posed works, and the best position for an entrance in respect of 
shelter and depth of approach. 

Completion of Shelter of Harbours in Bays. In the case of a deep, 
fairly landlocked bay, a detached breakwater across the outlet 
completes the necessary shelter, leaving an entrance between each 
extremity and the shore, provided there is deep enough water near 
the shore, as effected at Plymouth harbour, and also across the wider 
but shallower bay forming Cherbourg harbour. A breakwater may 




SCALE 4-0,000 



FIG. 3. Genoa Harbour and Extensions. 

instead be extended across the outlet from each shore, leaving a 
single central entrance between the ends of the breakwaters; and 
if one breakwater placed somewhat farther out is made to overlap 
an inner one, a more sheltered entrance is obtained. This arrange- 
ment has been adopted at the existing Genoa harbour within the 
bay (fig. 3), and for the harbour at the mouth of the Nervion (see 
RIVER ENGINEERING). The adoption of a bay with deep water for 
a harbour does not merely reduce the shelter to be provided arti- 
ficially, but it also secures a site not exposed to silting up, and where 
the sheltering works do not interfere with any littoral drift along 
the open coast. A third method of sheltering a deep bay is that 




SCALE 30,000. 

FIG. 4. Peterhead Harbour of Refuge. 

adopted for forming a refuge harbour at Peterhead (fig. 4), where 
a single breakwater is extended put from one shore for 3250 ft. 
across the outlet of the bay, leaving a single entrance between its 
extremity and the opposite shore and enclosing an area of about 
250 acres at low tide, half of which has a depth of over 5 fathoms. 

Harbours possessing partial Natural Shelter. The most common 
form of harbour is that in which one or more breakwaters supple- 
ment a certain amount of natural shelter. Sometimes, where the 
exposure is from one direction only, approximately parallel with 
the coast-line at the site, and there is more or less shelter from a pro- 
jecting headland or a curve of the coast in the opposite direction, a 
single breakwater extending out at right angles to the shore, with 



a slight curve or bend inwards near its outer end, suffices to afford 
the necessary shelter. As examples of this form of harbour con- 
struction may be mentioned Newhaven breakwater, protecting the 
approach to the port from the west, and somewhat sheltered from 
the moderate easterly storms by Beachy Head, and Table Bay 
breakwater, which shelters the harbour from the north-east, and is 
somewhat protected on the opposite side by the wide sweep of the 
coast-line known as Table Bay. Generally, however, some partial 
embayment, or abrupt projection from the coast, is utilized as 
providing shelter from one quarter, which is completed by break- 
waters enclosing the site, of which Dover and Colombo (fig. 5) 
harbours furnish typical and somewhat similar examples. 

Harbours formed on quite Open 
Seacoasts. Occasionally harbours 
have to be constructed for some 
special purpose where no natural 
shelter exists, and where on an open, 
sandy shore considerable littoral drift 
may occur. Breakwaters, carried out 
from the shore at some distance 
apart, and converging to a central 
entrance of suitable width, provide 
the requisite shelter, as for instance 
the harbour constructed to form a 
sheltered approach to the river Wear 
and the Sunderland docks (fig. 6). 
If there is little littoral drift from 
the most exposed quarter, the amount 
of sand brought in during storms, 
which is smaller in proportion to the 
depth into which the entrance is 
carried, can be readily removed by 
dredging; whilst the scour across 
the projecting ends of the break- 
waters tends to keep the outlet free 
from deposit. Where there is littoral 
drift in both directions on an open, 
sandy coast, due to winds blowing 
alternately from opposite quarters, 

sand accumulates in the sheltered angles outside the harbour 
between each converging breakwater and the shore. This has 
happened at Ymuiden harbour at the entrance to the Amsterdam 
ship-canal on the North Sea, but there the advance of the shore 
appears to have reached its limit only a short distance out from 
the old shore-line on each side; ana the only evidence of drift 
consists in the advance seawards of the lines of soundings 
alongside, and in the considerable amount of sand which enters the 
harbour and has to be removed by dredging. The worst results 
occur where the littoral drift is almost wholly in one direction, so 
that the projection of a solid breakwater out from the shore causes 
a very large accretion on 
the side facing the ex- 
posed quarter ; whilst 
owing to the arrest of the 
travel of sand, erosion of 
the beach occurs beyond 
the second breakwater 
enclosing the harbour on 
its comparatively shel- 
tered side. These effects 
have been produced at 
Port Said harbour at the 
entrance to the Suez 
Canal from the Medi- 
terranean, formed by two 
converging breakwaters, 
where, owing to the 
prevalent north-westerly 
winds, the drift is from , 
west to east, and is aug- 
mented by the alluvium 
issuing from the Nile. 
Accordingly, the shore 
has advanced consider- 
ably against the outer 
face of the western break- 
water; and erosion of 
the beach has occurred 
at the shore end of the 
eastern breakwater, cut- FIG. 5. Colombo Harbour, 

ting it off from the land. 

The advance of the shore-line, however, has been much slower 
during recent years; and though the progress seawards of the 
lines of soundings close to and in front of the harbour continues, 
the advance is checked by the sand and silt coming from the west 
passing through some apertures purposely left in the western break- 
water, and falling into the approach channel, from which it is readily 
dredged and taken away. Madras harbour, begun in 1875, consists 
of two breakwaters, 3000 ft. apart, carried straight out to sea at 
right angles to the shore for 3000 ft., and completed by two return 




SCALE 0-0,000. 



COLOMBO.. 



938 



HARBURG HARCOURT 



,'f 



arms inclined slightly seawards, enclosing an area of 220 acres and 
leaving a central entrance, 550 ft. wide, facing the Indian Ocean in 
a depth of about 8 fathoms. The great drift, however, of sand along 
the coast from south to north soon produced an advance of the shore 
against the outside of the south breakwater, and erosion beyond 
the north breakwater; and the progression of the foreshore has 
extended so far seawards as to produce shoaling at the entrance. 
Accordingly, the closing of the entrance, and the formation of a new 
entrance through the outer part of the main north breakwater, 

facing north and sheltered 
by an arm starting from the 
angle of the northern return 
arm and running north 
parallel to the shore, round 
the end of which vessels 
would turn to enter, have 
been recommended, to pro- 
vide "a deep entrance beyond 
the influence of the ad- 
vancing foreshore. 

Proposals have been made 
from time to time to evade 
this advance of the foreshore 
against a solid obstacle, by 
extending an open viaduct 
across the zone of littoral 
drift, and forming a closed 
harbour, or a sheltering 
breakwater against which 
vessels can lie, beyond the 
influence of accretion. This 
principle was carried out on a 
large scale at the port of call and sheltering breakwater constructed 
in front of the entrance to the Bruges ship-canal, at Zeebrugge on the 
sandy North Sea coast, where a solid breakwater, provided with a 
wide quay furnished with sidings and sheds, and curving round so 
as to overlap thoroughly the entrance to the canal and shelter a 
certain water-area, is approached by an open metal viaduct extend- 
ing out 1007 ft. from low water into a depth of 20 ft. (fig. 7). It is 
hoped that by thus avoiding interference with the littoral drift close 
to the shore, coming mainly from the west, the accumulation of silt 
to the west of the harbour, and also in the harbour itself, will be 
prevented ; and though it appears probable that some accretion will 
occur within the area sheltered by the breakwater, it will to some 




SCALE 5O,OOO. 

FIG. 6. Sunderland Harbour. 




FIG. 7. Zeebrugge Harbour. 

extent be disturbed by the wash of the steamers approaching and 
leaving the quays, and can readily be removed under shelter by 
dredging. 

Entrances to Harbours. Though captains of vessels always wish 
for wide entrances to harbours as affording greater facility of safe 
access, it is important to keep the width as narrow as practicable, 
consistent with easy access, to exclude waves and swell as much 
as possible and secure tranquillity inside. At Madras, the width of 
550 ft. proved excessive for the great exposure of the entrance, and 
moderate size of the harbour, which does not allow of the adequate 
expansion of the entering swell. Where an adequately easy and safe 
approach can be secured, it is advantageous to make the entrance 



face a somewhat sheltered quarter by the overlapping of the end 
of one of the breakwaters, as accomplished at Bilbao and Genoa 
harbours (fig. 3), and at the southern entrance to Dover harbour. 
Occasionally, owing to tht comparative shelter afforded by a bend 
in the adjacent coast-line, a very wide entrance can be left between 
a breakwater and the shore; typical examples are furnished by the 
former open northern entrance to Portland harbour, now closed 
against torpedoes, and the wide entrances at Holyhead and Zee- 
brugge (fig. 7). With a large harbour and the adoption of a detached 
breakwater, it is possible to gain the advantage of two entrances 
facing different quarters, as effected at Dover and Colombo, which 
enables vessels to select their entrance according to the state of the 
wind and weather; where there is a large tidal rise they reduce the 
current through the entrances, and they may, under favourable 
conditions, create a circulation of the water in the harbour, tending 
to check the deposit of silt. (L. F. V.-H.) 

HARBURG, a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian 
province of Hanover, on the left bank of the southern arm of 
the Elbe, 6 m. by rail S. of Hamburg. Pop. (1885), 26,320; 
(1905) the area of the town having been increased since 1895 
55,676. It is pleasantly situated at the foot of a lofty range of 
hills, which here dip down to the liver, at the junction of the 
main lines of railway from Bremen and Hanover to Hamburg, 
which are carried to the latter city over two grand bridges 
crossing the southern and the northern arms of the Elbe. It 
possesses a Roman Catholic and two Protestant churches, 
a palace, which from 1524 to 1642 was the residence of the 
Harburg line of the house of Brunswick, a high-grade modern 
school, a commercial school and a theatre. The leading industries 
are the crushing of palm-kernels and linseed and the manufacture 
of india-rubber, phosphates, starch, nitrate and jute. Machines 
are manufactured here; beer is brewed, and shipbuilding is 
carried on. The port is accessible to vessels drawing 18 ft. of 
water, and, despite its proximity to Hamburg, its trade has of 
late years shown a remarkable development. It is the chief 
mart in the empire for resin and palm-oil. The Prussian govern- 
ment proposes establishing here a free port, on the lines of the 
Freihafen in Hamburg. 

Harburg belonged originally to the bishopric of Bremen, and 
received municipal rights in 1297. In 1376 it was united to 
the principality of Liineburg, along with which it fell in 1705 
to Hanover, and in 1806 to Prussia. In 1813 and 1814 it suffered 
considerably from the French, who then held Hamburg, and 
who built a bridge between the two towns, which remained 
standing till 1816. 

See Ludewig, Geschichte des Schlosses und der Stadt Harburg 
(Harburg, 1845); and Hoffmeyer, Harburg und die nachste Um- 
gegend (1885). 

HARCOURT, a village in Normandy, now a commune in the 
department of Eure, arrondissement of Bernay and canton of 
Brionne, which gives its name to a noble family distinguished 
in French history, a branch of which was early established in 
England. Of the lords of Harcourt, whose genealogy can be 
traced back to the nth century, the first to distinguish himself 
was Jean II. (d. 1302) who was marshal and admiral of France. 
Godefroi d'Harcourt, seigneur of Saint Sauveur le Vicomte, 
surnamed " Le boiteux " (the lame), was a marshal in the English 
army and was killed near Coutances in 1356. The fief of Harcourt 
was raised to the rank of a countship by Philip of Valois, in favour 
of Jean IV., who was killed at the battle of Crecy (1346). His 
son, Jean V. (d. 1355) married Blanche, heiress of Jean II., 
count of Aumale, and the countship of Harcourt passed with 
that of Aumale until, in 1424, Jean VIII., count of Aumale and 
Mortain and lieutenant-general of Normandy, was killed at the 
battle of Verneuil, and with him the elder branch became extinct 
in the male line. The heiress, Marie, by her marriage with 
Anthony of Lorraine, count of Vaudemont, brought the countship 
of Harcourt into the house of Lorraine. The title of count of 
Harcourt was borne by several princes of this house. The most 
famous instance was Henry of Lorraine, count of Harcourt, 
Brionne, and Armagnac, and nicknamed " Cadet la perle " (1601- 
1666). He distinguished himself in several campaigns against 
Spain, and later played an active part in the civil wars of the 
Fronde. He took the side of the princes, and fought against the 



HARCOURT, IST VISCOUNT- -HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM 939 



government in Alsace; but was defeated by Marshal de la 
Ferte, and made his submission in 1654. 

The most distinguished among the younger branches of the 
family are those of Montgomery and of Beuvron. To the former 
belonged Jean d'Harcourt, bishop of Amiens and Tournai, 
archbishop of Narbonne and patriarch of Antioch, who died in 
1452; and Guillaume d'Harcourt, count of Tancarville, and 
viscount of Melun, who was head of the administration of the 
woods and forests in the royal domain (souverain maitre et 
riformateur des eaux efforts de France) and died in 1487. 

From the branch of the marquises of Beuvron sprang Henri 
d'Harcourt, marshal of France, and ambassador at the Spanish 
court, who was made duke of Harcourt (1700) and, a peer of 
France (1709); also Francois Eugene Gabriel, count, and 
afterwards duke, of Harcourt, who was ambassador first in 
Spain, and later at Rome, and died in 1865. This branch of the 
family is still in existence. 

See G. A. de la Rogne, Histoire genfalogique de la maison d'Har- 
court (4 vols., Paris, 1662); P. Anselme, Histoire genealogique de la 
maison de France, \. 1 14, &c. ; and Dom le Noir, Preuves genealo- 
giques et historiques de la maison de Harcourt (Paris, 1907). 

(M. P.*) 

HARCOURT, SIMON HARCOURT, IST VISCOUNT (c. 1661- 
1727), lord chancellor of England, only son of Sir Philip Harcourt 
of Stanton Harcourt, Oxfordshire, by his first wife, Anne, 
daughter of Sir William Waller, was born about 1661 at Stanton 
Harcourt, and was educated at a school at Shilton, Oxfordshire, 
and at Pembroke College, Oxford. He was called to the bar 
in 1683, and soon afterwards was appointed recorder of Abingdon, 
which borough he represented as a Tory in parliament from 
1690 to 1705. In 1701 he was nominated by the Commons to 
conduct the impeachment of Lord Somers; and in 1702 he 
became solicitor-general and was knighted by Queen Anne. 
He was elected member for Bossiney in 1705, and as commis- 
sioner for arranging the union with Scotland was largely instru- 
mental in promoting that measure. Harcourt was appointed 
attorney-general in 1707, but resigned office in the following 
year when his friend Robert Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford, 
was dismissed. He defended Sacheverell at the bar of the House 
of Lords in 1710, being then without a seat in parliament; but 
in the same year was returned for Cardigan, and in September 
again became attorney-general. In October he was appointed 
lord keeper of the great seal, and in virtue of this office he 
presided in the House of Lords for some months without a 
peerage, until, on the 3rd of September 1711, he was created 
Baron Harcourt of Stanton Harcourt; but it was not till April 
1713 that he received the appointment of lord chancellor. In 
1710 he had purchased the Nuneham-Courtney estate in Oxford- 
shire, but his usual place of residence continued to be at Coke- 
thorpe near Stanton Harcourt, where he received a visit in state 
from Queen Anne. In the negotiations preceding the peace of 
Utrecht, Harcourt took an important part. There is no sufficient 
evidence for the allegations of the Whigs that Harcourt entered 
into treasonable relations with the Pretender. On the accession 
of George I. he was deprived of office and retired to Cokethorpe, 
where he enjoyed the society of men of letters, Swift, Pope, 
Prior and other famous writers being among his frequent guests. 
With Swift, however, he had occasional quarrels, during one of 
which the great satirist bestowed on him the sobriquet of " Trim- 
ming Harcourt." He exerted himself to defeat the impeach- 
ment of Lord Oxford in 1717, and in 1723 he was active in 
obtaining a pardon for another old political friend, Lord Boling- 
broke. In 1721 Harcourt was created a viscount and returned 
to the privy councils; and on several occasions during the king's 
absences from England he was on the council of regency. He 
died in London on the 23rd of July 1727. Harcourt was not a 
great lawyer, but he enjoyed the reputation of being a brilliant 
orator; Speaker Onslow going so far as to say that Harcourt 
" had the greatest skill and power of speech of any man I ever 
knew in a public assembly." He was a member of the famous 
Saturday Club, frequented by the chief literati and wits of the 
period, with several of whom he corresponded. Some letters to 



him from Pope are preserved in the Harcourt Papers. His 
portrait by Kneller is at Nuneham. 

Harcourt married, first, Rebecca, daughter of Thomas Clark, 
his father's chaplain, by whom he had five children; secondly, 
Elizabeth, daughter of Richard Spencer; and thirdly, Elizabeth, 
daughter of Sir Thomas Vernon. He left issue by his first wife 
only. His son, Simon (1684-1720), married Elizabeth, sister of 
Sir John Evelyn of Wotton, by whom he had one son and four 
daughters, one of whom married George Venables Vernon, 
afterwards Lord Vernon (see HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM foot- 
note). Simon Harcourt predeceased his father, the lord chan- 
cellor, in 1720, leaving a son SIMON HARCOURT (1714-1777), 
ist Earl Harcourt, who succeeded his grandfather in the title 
of viscount in 1727. He was educated at Westminster school. 
In 1745, having raised a regiment, he received a commission as a 
colonel in the army; and in 1749 he was created Earl Harcourt 
of Stanton Harcourt. He was appointed governor to the prince 
of Wales, afterwards George III., in 1751; and after the acces- 
sion of the latter to the throne he was appointed, in 1761, special 
ambassador to Mecklenburg-Strelitz to negotiate a marriage 
between King George and the princess Charlotte, whom he 
conducted to England. After holding a number of appointments 
at court and in the diplomatic service, he was promoted to the 
rank of general in 1772; and in October of the same year he 
succeeded Lord Townsend as lord lieutenant of Ireland, an office 
which he held till 1777. His proposal to impose a tax of 10% 
on the rents of absentee landlords had to be abandoned owing 
to opposition in England; but he succeeded in conciliating the 
leaders of Opposition in Ireland, and he persuaded Henry Flood 
to accept office in the government. Resigning in January 1777, 
he retired to Nuneham, where he died in the following September. 
He married, in 1735, Rebecca, daughter and heiress of Charles 
Samborne Le Bas, of Pipewell Abbey, Northamptonshire, by 
whom he had two daughters and two sons, George Simon and 
William, who succeeded him as 2nd and 3rd earl respectively. 

See Lord Campbell, Lives of the Lord Chancellors, vol. v. (London, 
1846); Edward Foss, The Judges of England, vol. viii. (London, 
1848); Gilbert Burnet, Hist, of his own Time (with notes by earls 
of Dartmouth and Hardwicke, &c., Oxford, 1833); Earl Stanhope, 
Hist, of England, comprising the reign of Queen Anne until the Peace 
of Utrecht (London, 1870). In addition to the above-mentioned 
authorities many particulars concerning the Ist Viscount Harcourt, 
and also of his grandson, the Ist earl, will be found in the Harcourt 
Papers. For the earl, see also Horace Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign 
of George II. (3 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1847), Memoirs of the Reign 
of George III. (4 vols., London, 1845, 1894); also, for his vice- 
royalty of Ireland, see Henry Grattan, Memoirs of the Life and 
Times of the Right Hon. H. Grattan (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); 
Francis Hardy, Memoirs of J. Caulfield, Earl of Charlemont (2 vols., 
London, 1812) ; and for his genealogy, see Sir John Bernard Burke, 
Genealogical History of Dormant and Extinct Peerages (London, 
1883). (R. J. M.) 

HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM GEORGE GRANVILLE 
VENABLES VERNON (1827-1904), English statesman, second 
son of the Rev. Canon William Vernon Harcourt (<?.!>.), of 
Nuneham Park, Oxford, was born on the i4th of October 1827. 
Canon Harcourt was the fourth son and eventually heir of 
Edward Harcourt (1757-1847), archbishop of York, who was 
the son of the ist Lord Vernon (d. 1780), and who took the name 
of Harcourt alone instead of Vernon on succeeding to the pro- 
perty of his cousin, the last Earl Harcourt, in 1831.' The subject 

1 William, 3rd and last Earl Harcourt (1743-1830), who suc- 
ceeded his brother in the title, was a soldier who distinguished him- 
self in the American War of Independence by capturing General 
Charles Lee, and commanded the British forces in Flanders in 1794, 
eventually becoming a field-marshal. He was a son of Simon, 1st 
earl (1714-1777), created viscount and earl in 1749, a soldier, and 
from 1772 to 1777 viceroy of Ireland, who was grandson and heir of 
Simon, Viscount Harcourt (1661-1727), lord chancellor the 
" trimming Harcourt " of Swift the purchaser of the Nuneham- 
Courtney estates in Oxfordshire, and son of Sir Philip Harcourt of 
Stanton Harcourt. The knights of Stanton Harcourt, from the 
I3th century onwards, traced their descent to the Norman de Har- 
courts, a branch of that family having come over with the Conqueror ; 
and the pedigree claims to go back to Bernard of Saxony, who in 
876 acquired the lordships of Harcourt, Castleville and Beauficel 
in Normandy. Viscount Harcourt's second son Simon, who was 
father of the 1st earl, was also father of Martha, who married George 



940 



HARCOURT, W. V. 



of this biography was therefore born a Vernon, and by his 
connexion with the old families of Vernon and Harcourt was 
related to many of the great English houses, a fact which gave 
him no little pride. Indeed, in later life his descent from the 
Plantagenets 1 was a subject of some banter on the part of his 
political opponents. He was educated at Trinity College, 
Cambridge, graduating with first-class honours in the classical 
tripos in 1851. He was called to the bar in 1854, became a 
Q.C. in 1866, and was appointed Whewell professor of inter- 
national law, Cambridge, 1869. He quickly made his mark 
in London society as a brilliant talker; he contributed largely 
to the Saturday Review, and wrote some famous letters (1862) 
to The Times over the signature of " Historicus," in opposition 
to the recognition of the Southern States as belligerents in the 
American Civil War. He entered parliament as Liberal member 
for Oxford, and sat from 1868 to 1880, when, upon seeking 
re-elect ion after acceptance of office, he was defeated by Mr Hall. 
A seat was, however, found for him at Derby, by the voluntary 
retirement of Mr Plimsoll, and he continued to represent that 
constituency until 1895, when, having been defeated at the 
general election, he found a seat in West Monmouthshire. He 
was appointed solicitor-general and knighted in 1873; and, 
although he had not shown himself a very strenuous supporter 
of Mr Gladstone during that statesman's exclusion from power, 
he became secretary of state for the home department on the 
return of the Liberals to office in 1880. His name was connected 
at that time with the passing of the Ground Game Act (1880), 
the Arms (Ireland) Act (1881), and the Explosives Act (1883). 
As home secretary at the time of the dynamite outrages he had 
to take up a firm attitude, and the Explosives Act was passed 
through all its stages in the shortest time on record. Moreover, 
as champion of law and order against the attacks of the Parnell- 
ites, his vigorous speeches brought him constantly into conflict 
with the Irish members. In 1884 he introduced an abortive 
bill for unifying the municipal administration of London. He 
was indeed at that time recognized as one of the ablest and most 
effective leaders of the Liberal party; and when, after a brief 
interval in 1885, Mr Gladstone returned to office in 1886, he was 
made chancellor of the exchequer, an office which he again filled 
from 1892 to 1895. 

Between 1880 and 1892 Sir William Harcourt acted as Mr 
Gladstone's loyal and indefatigable lieutenant in political life. 
A first-rate party fighter, his services were of inestimable value; 
but in spite of his great success as a platform speaker, he was 
generally felt to be speaking from an advocate's brief, and did 
not impress the country as possessing much depth of conviction. 
It was he who coined the phrase about " stewing in Parnellite 
juice," and, when the split came in the Liberal party on the 
Irish question, even those who gave Mr Gladstone and Mr Morley 
the credit of being convinced Home Rulers could not be per- 
suaded that Sir William had followed anything but the line of 
party expediency. In 1894 he introduced and carried a memor- 
able budget, which equalized the death duties on real and 
personal property. After Mr Gladstone's retirement in 1894 
and Lord Rosebery's selection as prime minister Sir William 
became the leader of the Liberal party in the House of Commons, 
but it was never probable that he would work comfortably in 
the new conditions. His title to be regarded as Mr Gladstone's 
successor had been too lightly ignored, and from the first it was 
evident that Lord Rosebery's ideas of Liberalism and of the 
policy of the Liberal party were not those of Sir William Harcourt. 
Their differences were patched up from time to time, but the 

Venables Vernon, of Sudbury, created 1st Baron Vernon in 1762. 
The latter was a descendant of Sir Richard Vernon (d. 1451), speaker 
of the Leicester parliament (1425) and treasurer of Calais, a member 
of a Norman family which came over with the Conqueror. 

1 The Plantagenet descent (see The Blood Royal of Britain, by the 
marquis of Ruvigny, 1903, for tables) could be traced through 
Lady Anna Leveson Gower (wife of Archbishop Harcourt) to Lady 
Frances Stanley, the wife of the 1st earl of Bridgewater (15791649), 
and so to Lady Eleanor Brandon, wife of the earl of Cumberland 
(1517-1570), and daughter of Mary Tudor (wife of Charles Brandon, 
duke of Suffolk, 1484-1545), the daughter of Henry'VII. and grand- 
daughter of Edward IV. 



combination could not last. At the general election of 1893 
it was clear that there were divisions as to what issue the Liberals 
were fighting for, and the effect of Sir William Harcourt's 
abortive Local Veto Bill on the election was seen not only in his 
defeat at Derby, which gave the signal for the Liberal rout, but 
in the set-back it gave to temperance legislation. Though 
returned for West Monmouthshire (1895, 1900), his speeches 
in debate only occasionally showed his characteristic spirit, 
and it was evident that for the hard work of Opposition he no 
longer had the same motive as of old. In December 1898 the 
crisis arrived, and with Mr John Morley he definitely retired 
from the counsels of the party and resigned his leadership of the 
Opposition, alleging as his reason, in letters exchanged between 
Mr Morley and himself, the cross-currents of opinion among his 
old supporters and former colleagues. The split excited con- 
siderable comment, and resulted in much heart-burning and a 
more or less open division between the section of the Liberal 
party following Lord Rosebery (q.v.) and those who disliked 
that statesman's Imperialistic views. 

Though now a private member, Sir William Harcourt still 
continued to vindicate his opinions in his independent position, 
and his attacks on the government were no longer restrained 
by even the semblance of deference to Liberal Imperialism. 
He actively intervened in 1899 and 1900, strongly condemning 
the government's financial policy and their attitude towards the 
Transvaal; and throughout the Boer War he lost no opportunity 
of criticizing the South African developments in a pessimistic 
vein. One of the readiest parliamentary debaters, he savoured 
his speeches with humour of that broad and familiar order which 
appeals particularly to political audiences. In 1898-1900 he was 
conspicuous, both on the platform and in letters written to The 
Times, in demanding active measures against the Ritualistic 
party in the Church of England; but his attitude on that subject 
could not be dissociated from his political advocacy of Dis- 
establishment. In March 1904, just after he had announced his 
intention not to seek election again to parliament, he succeeded, 
by the death of his nephew, to the family estates at Nuneham. 
But he died suddenly there on the ist of October in the same year. 
He married, first, in 1859, Therese (d. 1863), daughter of Mr 
T. H. Lister, by whom he had one son, Lewis Vernon Harcourt 
(b. 1863), afterwards first commissioner of works both in Sir 
Henry Campbell-Bannerman's 1905 ministry (included in the 
cabinet in 1907) and in Mr Asquith's cabinet (1908); and 
secondly, in 1876, Elizabeth, widow of Mr T. Ives and daughter 
of Mr. J. L. Motley, the historian, by whom he had another son, 
Robert (b. 1878). 

Sir William Harcourt was one of the great parliamentary 
figures of the Gladstonian Liberal period. He was essentially 
an aristocratic type of late igth century Whig, with a remarkable 
capacity for popular campaign fighting. He had been, and 
remained, a brilliant journalist in the non-professional sense. 
He was one of those who really made the Saturday Review in its 
palmy days, and in the period of his own most ebullient vigour, 
while Mr Gladstone was alive, his sense of political expediency 
and platform effectiveness in controversy was very acute. But 
though he played the game of public life with keen zest, he never 
really touched either the country or his own party with the 
faith which creates a personal following, and in later years he 
found himself somewhat isolated and disappointed, though he 
was free to express his deeper objections to the new develop- 
ments in church and state. A tall, fine man, with the grand 
manner, he was, throughout a long career, a great personality 
in the life of his time. (H. CH.) 

HARCOURT, WILLIAM VERNON (1789-1871), founder of 
the British Association, was born at Sudbury, Derbyshire, in 
1789, a younger son of Edward Vernon [Harcourt], archbishop 
of York (see above). Having served for five years in the navy 
he went up to Christ Church, Oxford, with a view to taking 
holy orders. He began his clerical duties at Bishopthorpe, 
Yorkshire, in 1811, and having developed a great interest in 
science while at the university, he took an active part in the 
foundation of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, of which he 



HARDANGER FJORD HARDENBERG 



941 



was the first president. The laws and the plan of proceedings 
for the British Association ' for the Advancement of Science 
were drawn up by him; and Harcourt was elected president in 
1839. In 1824 he became canon of York and rector of Wheldrake 
in Yorkshire, and in 1837 rector of Bolton Percy. The Yorkshire 
school for the blind and the Castle Howard reformatory both 
owe their existence to his energies. His spare time until quite 
late in life was occupied with scientific experiments. Inheriting 
the Harcourt estates in Oxfordshire from his brother in 1861, 
he removed to Nuneham, where he died in April 1871. 

HARDANGER FJORD, an inlet on the west coast of Norway; 
penetrating the mainland for 70 m. apart from the deep fringe 
of islands off its mouth, the total distance from the open sea to 
the head of the fjord being 114 m. Its extreme depth is about 
350 fathoms. The entrance at Toro is 50 m. by water south of 
Bergen, 60 N., and the general direction is N.E. from that point. 
The fjord is flanked by magnificent mountains, from which 
many waterfalls pour into it. The main fjord is divided into 
parts under different names, and there are many fine branch 
fjords. The fjord is frequented by tourists, and the principal 
stations have hotels. The outer fjord is called the Kvindherreds- 
fjord, flanked by the Melderskin (4680 ft.); then follow Silde- 
fjord and Bonde Sund, separated by Varalds island. Here 
Mauranger-fjord opens on the east; from Sundal on this inlet the 
great Folgefond snowfield may be crossed, and a fine glacier 
(Bondhusbrae) visited. Bakke and Vikingnaes are stations on 
Hisfjord, Nordheimsund and Ostenso on Ytre Samlen, which 
throws off a fine narrow branch northward, the Fiksensund. 
There follow Indre Samlen and Utnef jord, with the station of 
Utne opposite Oxen (4120 ft.), and its northward branch, 
Gravenfjord, with the beautiful station of Eide at its head, 
whence a road runs north-west to Vossevangen. From the Utne 
terminal branches of the fjord run south and east; the Sorfjord, 
steeply walled by the heights of the Folgefond, with the fre- 
quented resort of Odde at its head; and the Eidfjord, with its 
branch Osefjord, terminating beneath a tremendous rampart 
of mountains, through which the sombre Simodal penetrates, 
the river flowing from Daemmevand, a beautiful lake among 
the fields, and forming with its tributaries the fine falls of 
Skykje and Rembesdal. Vik is the principal station on Eidfjord, 
and Ulvik on a branch of the Ose, with a road to Vossevangen. 
At Vik is the mouth of the Bjoreia river, which, in forming the 
Voringfos, plunges 520 ft. into a magnificent rock-bound basin. 
A small stream entering Sorfjord forms in its upper course the 
Skjaeggedalsfos, of equal height with the Voringfos, and hardly 
less beautiful. The natives of Hardanger have an especially 
picturesque local costume. 

HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH (1815-1873), American soldier, 
was born in Savannah, Georgia, on the loth of November 1815 
and graduated from West Point in 1838. As a subaltern of 
cavalry he was employed on a special mission to Europe to 
study the cavalry methods in vogue (1839). He was promoted 
captain in 1844 and served under Generals Taylor and Scott in 
the Mexican War, winning the brevet of major for gallantry in 
action in March 1847 and subsequently that of lieut. -colonel. 
After the war he served as a substantive major under Colonel 
Sidney Johnston and Lieut.-Colonel Robert Lee in the 2nd 
U.S. cavalry, and for some time before 1856 he was engaged in 
compiling the official manual of infantry drill and tactics which, 
familiarly called " Hardee's Tactics," afterwards formed the 
text-book for the infantry arm in both the Federal and the 
Confederate armies. From 1856 to 1861 he was commandant 
of West Point, resigning his commission on the secession of his 
state in the latter year. Entering the Confederate service as 
a colonel, he was shortly promoted brigadier-general. He 
distinguished himself very greatly by his tactical leadership on 
the field of Shiloh, and was immediately promoted major-general. 
As a corps commander he fought under General Bragg at Perry- 
ville and Stone River, and for his distinguished services in these 
battles was promoted lieutenant-general. He served in the latter 
part of the campaign of 1863 under Bragg and in that of 1864 
under J. E. Johnston. When the latter officer was superseded 



by Hood, Hardee was relieved at his own request, and for the 
remainder of the war he served in the Carolinas. When the Civil 
War came to an end in 1865 he retired to his plantation near 
Selma, Alabama. He died at Wytheville, Virginia, on the 6th 
of November 1873. 

HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON, PRINCE (1750-1822), 
Prussian statesman, was born at Essenroda in Hanover on the 
3ist of May 1750. After studying at Leipzig and Gottingen 
he entered the Hanoverian civil service in 1770 as councillor 
of the board of domains (Kammerrat) ; but, finding his advance- 
ment slow, he set out on the advice of King George III. on 
a course of travels, spending some time at Wetzlar, Regensburg 
(where he studied the mechanism of the Imperial government), 
Vienna and Berlin. He also visited France, Holland and England, 
where he was kindly received by the king. On his return he 
married, by his father's desire, the countess Reventlow. In 
1778 he was raised to the rank of privy councillor and created a 
count. He now again went to England, in the hope of obtaining 
the post of Hanoverian envoy in London; but, his wife becoming 
entangled in an amour with the prince of Wales, so great a 
scandal was created that he was forced to leave the Hanoverian 
service. In 1782 he entered that of the duke of Brunswick, 
and as president of the board of domains displayed a zeal for 
reform, in the manner approved by the enlightened despots 
of the century, that rendered him very unpopular with the 
orthodox clergy and the conservative estates. In Brunswick, 
too, his position was in the end made untenable by the conduct 
of his wife, whom he now divorced; he himself, shortly after- 
wards, marrying a divorced woman. Fortunately for him, this 
coincided with the lapsing of the principalities of Ansbach and 
Bayreuth to Prussia, owing to the resignation of the last margrave, 
Charles Alexander, in 1791. Hardenberg, who happened to be 
in Berlin at the time, was on the recommendation of Herzberg 
appointed administrator of the principalities (1792). The 
position, owing to the singular overlapping of territorial claims 
in the old Empire, was one of considerable delicacy, and Harden- 
berg filled it with great skill, doing much to reform traditional 
anomalies and to develop the country, and at the same time 
labouring to expand the influence of Prussia in South Germany. 
After the outbreak of the revolutionary wars his diplomatic 
ability led to his appointment as Prussian envoy, with a roving 
commission to visit the Rhenish courts and win them over to 
Prussia's views; and ultimately, when the necessity for making 
peace with the French Republic had been recognized, he was 
appointed to succeed Count Goltz as Prussian plenipotentiary 
at Basel (February 28, 1795), where he signed the treaty of peace. 

In 1797, on the accession of King Frederick William III., 
Hardenberg was summoned to Berlin, where he received an 
important position in the cabinet and was appointed chief of 
the departments of Magdeburg and Halberstadt, for Westphalia, 
and for the principality of Neuchatel. In 1793 Hardenberg had 
struck up a friendship with Count Haugwitz, the influential 
minister for foreign affairs, and when in 1803 the latter went 
away on leave -(August-October) he appointed Hardenberg his 
locum tenens. It was a critical period. Napoleon had just 
occupied Hanover, and Haugwitz had urged upon the king the 
necessity for strong measures and the expediency of a Russian 
alliance. During his absence, however, the king's irresolution 
continued; he clung to the poh'cy of neutrality which had so 
far seemed to have served Prussia so well; and Hardenberg 
contented himself with adapting himself to the royal will. By 
the time Haugwitz returned, the unyielding attitude of Napoleon 
had caused the king to make advances to Russia; but the mutual 
declarations of the 3rd and 25th of May 1804 only pledged the 
two powers to take up arms in the event of a French attack upon 
Prussia or of further aggressions in North Germany. Finally, 
Haugwitz, unable to persuade the cabinet to a more vigorous 
policy, resigned, and on the I4th of April 1804 Hardenberg 
succeeded him as foreign minister. 

If there was to be war, Hardenberg would have preferred the 
French alliance, which was the price Napoleon demanded for the 
cession of Hanover to Prussia; for the Eastern powers would 



94-2 



HARDERWYK HARDING, C. 



scarcely have conceded, of their free will, so great an augment- 
ation of Prussian power. But he still hoped to gain the coveted 
prize by diplomacy, backed by the veiled threat of an armed 
neutrality. Then occurred Napoleon's contemptuous violation 
of Prussian territory by marching three French corps through 
Ansbach; King Frederick William's pride overcame his weakness, 
and on the 3rd of November he signed with the tsar Alexander 
the terms of an ultimatum to be laid before the French emperor. 
Haugwitz was despatched to Vienna with the document; but 
before he arrived the battle of Austerlitz had been fought, and 
the Prussian plenipotentiary had to make the best terms he could 
with the conqueror. Prussia, indeed, by the treaty signed at 
Schonbrunn on the isth of December 1805, received Hanover, 
but in return for all her territories in South Germany. One 
condition of the arrangement was the retirement of Hardenberg, 
whom Napoleon disliked. He was again foreign minister for a 
few months after the crisis of 1806 (April- July 1807); but 
Napoleon's resentment was implacable, and one of the conditions 
of the terms granted to Prussia by the treaty of Tilsit was 
Hardenberg's dismissal. 

After the enforced retirement of Stein in 1810 and the unsatis- 
factory interlude of the feeble Altenstein ministry, Hardenberg 
was again summoned to Berlin, this time as chancellor (June 6, 
1810). The campaign of Jena and its consequences had had a 
profound effect upon him; and in his mind the traditions of the 
old diplomacy had given place to the new sentiment of nationality 
characteristic of the coming age, which in him found expression 
in a passionate desire to restore the position of Prussia and 
crush her oppressors. During his retirement at Riga he had 
worked out an elaborate plan for reconstructing the monarchy 
on Liberal lines; and when he came into power, though the 
circumstances of the time did not admit of his pursuing an 
independent foreign policy, he steadily prepared for the struggle 
with France by carrying out Stein's far-reaching schemes of 
social and political reorganization. The military system was 
completely reformed, serfdom was abolished, municipal institu- 
tions were fostered, the civil service was thrown open to all 
classes, and great attention was devoted to the educational needs 
of every section of the community. 

When at last the time came to put these reforms to the test, 
after the Moscow campaign of 1812, it was Hardenberg 'who, 
supported by the influence of the noble Queen Louise, determined 
Frederick William to take advantage of General Yorck's loyal 
disloyalty and declare against France. He was rightly regarded 
by German patriots as the statesman who had done most to 
encourage the spirit of national independence; and immediately 
after he had signed the first peace of Paris he was raised to the 
rank of prince (June 3, 1814) in recognition of the part he had 
played in the War of Liberation. 

Hardenberg now had an assured position in that close 
corporation of sovereigns and statesmen by whom Europe, during 
the next few years, was to be governed. He accompanied the 
allied sovereigns to England, and at the congress of Vienna 
(1814-1815) was the chief plenipotentiary of Prussia. But from 
this time the zenith of his influence, if not of his fame, was passed. 
In diplomacy he was no match for Metternich, whose influence 
soon overshadowed his own in the councils of Europe, of Germany, 
and ultimately even of Prussia itself. At Vienna, in spite of the 
powerful backing of Alexander of Russia, he failed to secure the 
annexation of the whole of Saxony to Prussia; at Paris, after 
Waterloo, he failed to carry through his views as to the further dis- 
memberment of France; he had weakly allowed Metternich to 
forestall him in making terms with the states of the Confederation 
of the Rhine, which secured to Austria the preponderance in the 
German federal diet; on the eve of the conference of Carlsbad 
(1819) he signed a convention with Metternich, by which to 
quote the historian Treitschke " like a penitent sinner, without 
any formal quid pro quo, the monarchy of Frederick the Great 
yielded to a foreign power a voice in her internal affairs. " At the 
congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle, Troppau, Laibach and Verona 
the voice of Hardenberg was but an echo of that of Metternich. 

The cause lay partly in the difficult circumstances of the 



loosely-knit Prussian monarchy, but partly in Hardenberg's 
character, which, never well balanced, had deteriorated with 
age. He continued amiable, charming and enlightened as ever; 
but the excesses which had been pardonable in a young diplo- 
matist were a scandal in an elderly chancellor, and could not 
but weaken his influence with so pious a Landesvater as Frederick 
William III. To overcome the king's terror of Liberal experi- 
ments would have needed all the powers of an adviser at once 
wise and in character wholly trustworthy. Hardenberg was 
wise enough; he saw the necessity for constitutional reform; 
but he clung with almost senile tenacity to the sweets of office, 
and when the tide turned strongly against Liberalism he allowed 
himself to drift with it. In the privacy of royal commissions 
he continued to elaborate schemes for constitutions that never 
saw the light; but Germany, disillusioned, saw only the faithful 
henchman of Metternich, an accomplice in the policy of the 
Carlsbad Decrees and the Troppau Protocol. He died, soon 
after the closing of the congress of Verona, at Genoa, on the 
26th of November 1822. 

See L. v. Ranke, Denkwurdigkeiten des Staatskanzlers Fursten von 
Hardenberg (5 vols., Leipzig, 1877) ; J. R. Seeley, The Life and Times 
of Stein (3 vols., Cambridge, 1878) ; E. Meier, Reform der Verwal- 
tungsorganisation unter Stein und Hardenberg (ib., 1881) ; Chr. 
Meyer, Hardenberg und seine Verwaltung der Furstentumer Ansbach 
und Bayreuth (Breslau, 1892); Koser, Die Neuordnung des preus- 
sischen_ Archivwesens durch den Slaatskanzler Fursten v. Hardenberg 
(Leipzig, 1904). 

HARDERWYK, a seaport in the province of Gelderland, 
Holland, on the shores of the Zuider Zee, 17 m. by rail N.N.E. 
of Amersfoort. Pop. (1900) 7425. It is a quaint old town, 
approached by a fine avenue of trees, and standing in the midst 
of a patch of fertile ground. Harderwyk is chiefly important as 
being the depot for recruits for the Dutch colonial army. It 
contains a small fort and large barracks. The principal buildings 
are the town hall, with some ancient furniture, a large i5th 
century church with a notable square tower, a municipal orphan- 
age, and the Nassau- Veluwe gymnasium. Agriculture, fishing, 
and a few domestic industries form the only employment of the 
inhabitants. As a seaport its trade is now confined exclusively 
to the Zuider Zee. 

HARDICANUTE [more correctly HARDACNUT] (c. 1019-1042), 
son of Canute, king of England, by his wife ^Elfgifu or Emma, 
was born about 1019. In the contest for the English crown 
which followed the death of Canute in 1035 the claims of Hardi- 
canute were supported by Emma and her ally, Godwine, earl of 
the West Saxons, in opposition to those of Harold, Canute's 
illegitimate son, who was backed by the Mercian earl Leofric 
and the chief men of the north. At a meeting of the witan at 
Oxford a compromise was ultimately arranged by which Harold 
was temporarily elected regent of all England, pending the final 
settlement of the question on the return of Hardicanute from 
Denmark. The compromise was strongly opposed by Godwine 
and Emma, who for a time forcibly held Wessex in Hardicanute's 
behalf. But Harold's party rapidly increased; and early in 
1037 he was definitely elected king. Emma was driven out and 
took refuge at Bruges. In 1039 Hardicanute joined her, and 
together they concerted an attack on England. But next year 
Harold died; and Hardicanute peacefully succeeded. His short 
reign was marked by great oppression and cruelty. He caused 
the dead body of Harold to be dug up and thrown into a fen; 
he exacted so heavy a geld for the support of his foreign fleet 
that great discontent was created throughout the kingdom, and 
in Worcestershire a general uprising took place against those 
sent to collect the tax, whereupon he burned the city of 
Worcester to the ground and devastated the surrounding 
country; in 1041 he permitted Edwulf, earl of Northumbria, 
to be treacherously murdered after having granted him a safe- 
conduct. While " he stood at his drink " at the marriage feast 
of one of his flegns he was suddenly seized with a fit, from which 
he died a few days afterwards on the 8th of June 1042. 

HARDING, CHESTER (1792-1866), American portrait painter, 
was born at Conway, Massachusetts, on the ist of September 
1792. Brought up in the wilderness of New York state, Harding, 



HARDING, J. D. HARDOUIN 



943 



as a lad of splendid physique, standing over 6 ft. 3 in., marched 
as a drummer with the militia to the St Lawrence in 1813. He 
became subsequently chairmaker, peddler, inn-keeper, and 
house-painter, painting signs in Pittsburg, Pa., and eventually 
going on the road, self-taught, as an itinerant portrait painter. 
He made enough money to take him to the schools at the Phil- 
adelphia Academy of Design, and he soon became proficient 
enough to gain a competency, so that later he went to England 
and set up a studio in London. There he met with great success, 
painting royalty and the nobility, and, despite the lackings of 
an early education and social experience, he became a favourite 
in all circles. Returning to the United States, he settled in 
Boston and painted portraits of many of the prominent men 
and women of his time. He died on the ist of April 1866. 

HARDING, JAMES DUFFIELD (1798-1863), English land- 
scape painter, was the son of an artist, and took to the same 
vocation at an early age, although he had originally been destined 
for the law. He was in the main a water-colour painter and a 
lithographer, but he produced various oil-paintings both at 
the beginning and towards the end of his career. He frequently 
contributed to the exhibitions of the Water-Colour Society, of 
which he became an associate in 1821, and a full member in 1822. 
He was also very largely engaged in teaching, and published 
several books developing his views of art amongst others, 
The Tourist in Italy (1831); The Tourist in France (1834); The 
Park and the Forest (1841); The Principles and the Practice of 
Art (1845) ; Elementary Art (1846) ; Scotland Delineated in a Series 
of Views (1847); Lessons on Art (1849). He died at Barnes on 
the 4th of December 1863. Harding was noted for facility, 
sureness of hand, nicety of touch, and the various qualities 
which go to make up an elegant, highly trained, and accomplished 
sketcher from nature, and composer of picturesque landscape 
material; he was particularly skilful in the treatment of foliage. 

HARDINGE, HENRY HARDINGE, VISCOUNT (1785-1856), 
British field marshal and governor-general of India, was born 
at Wrotham in Kent on the 3oth of March 1785. After being 
at Eton, he entered the army in 1799 as an ensign in the Queen's 
Rangers, a corps then stationed in Upper Canada. His first 
active service was at the battle of Vimiera, where he was 
wounded; and at Corunna he was by the side of Sir John Moore 
when he received his death-wound. Subsequently he received 
an appointment as deputy-quartermaster-general in the Portu- 
guese army from Marshal Beresford, and was present at nearly 
all the battles of the Peninsular War, being wounded again at 
Vittoria. At Albuera he saved the day for the British by taking 
the responsibility at a critical moment of strongly urging General 
Cole's division to advance. When peace was again broken in 
1815 by Napoleon's escape from Elba, Hardinge hastened into 
active service, and was appointed to the important post of 
commissioner at the Prussian headquarters. In this capacity 
he was present at the battle of Ligny on the i6th of June 1815, 
where he lost his left hand by a shot, and thus was not present 
at Waterloo, fought two days later. For the loss of his hand he 
received a pension of 300; he had already been made a K.C.B., 
and Wellington presented him with a sword that had belonged 
to Napoleon. In 1820 and 1826 Sir Henry Hardinge was returned 
to parliament as member for Durham; and in 1828 he accepted 
the office of secretary at war in Wellington's ministry, a post 
which he also filled in Peel's cabinet in 1841-1844. In 1830 and 
1834-1835 he was chief secretary for Ireland. In 1844 he 
succeeded Lord Ellenborough as governor-general of India. 
During his term of office the first Sikh War broke out; and 
Hardinge, waiving his right to the supreme command, magnani- 
mously offered to serve as second in command under Sir Hugh 
Gough; but disagreeing with the latter's plan of campaign at 
Ferozeshah, he temporarily reasserted his authority as governor- 
general (see SIKH WARS). After the successful termination of 
the campaign at Sobraon he was created Viscount Hardinge of 
Lahore and of King's Newton in Derbyshire, with a pension of 
3000 for three lives; while the East India Company voted him 
an annuity of 5000, which he declined to accept. Hardinge's 
term of office in India was marked by many social and educational 



reforms. He returned to England in 1848, and in 1852 succeeded 
the duke of Wellington as commander-in-chief of the British 
army. While in this position he had the home management 
of the Crimean War, which he endeavoured to conduct on 
Wellington's principles a system not altogether suited to the 
changed mode of warfare. In 1855 he was promoted to the rank 
of field marshal. Viscount Hardinge resigned his office of 
commander-in-chief in July 1856, owing to failing health, and 
died on the 24th of September of the same year at South Park 
near Tunbridge Wells. His elder son, Charles Stewart (1822- 
1894), who had been his private secretary in India, was the 
and Viscount Hardinge; and the latter's eldest son succeeded 
to the title. The younger son of the 2nd Viscount, Charles 
Hardinge (b. 1858), became a prominent diplomatist (see 
EDWARD VII.), and was appointed governor-general of India 
in 1910, being created Baron Hardinge of Penshurst. 

See C. Hardinge, Viscount Hardinge (Rulers of India series, 1891) ; 
and R. S. Rait, Life and Campaigns of Viscount Cough (1903). 

HARDOI, a town and district of British India, in the Lucknow 
division of the United Provinces. The town is 63 m. N.E. of 
Lucknow by rail. Pop. (1901) 12,174. It has a wood-carving 
industry, saltpetre works, and an export trade in grain. 

The DISTRICT or HARDOI has an area of 233 1 sq. m. It is a 
level district watered by the Ganges, Ramganga, Deoha or Garra, 
Sukheta, Sai, Baita and Gumti the three rivers first named 
being navigable by country boats. Towards the Ganges the 
land is uneven, and often rises in hillocks of sand cultivated at 
the base, and their slopes covered with lofty munj grass. Several 
large jhils or swamps are scattered throughout the district, 
the largest being that of Sandi, which is 3 m. long by from i to 2 
m. broad. These jhils are largely used for irrigation. Large 
tracts of forest jungle still exist. Leopards, black buck, spotted 
deer, and nilgai are common; the mallard, teal, grey duck, 
common goose, and all kinds of waterfowl abound. In 1901 
the population of the district was 1,092,834, showing a decrease 
of nearly 2 % in the decade. The district contains a larger urban 
population than any other in Oudh, the largest town being 
Shahabad, 20,036 in 1901. It is traversed by the Oudh and 
Rohilkhand railway from Lucknow to Shahjahanpur, and its 
branches. The chief exports are grain, sugar, hides, tobacco and 
saltpetre. 

The first authentic records of Hardoi are connected with the 
Mussulman colonization. Bawan was occupied by Sayyid 
Salar Masaud in 1028, but the permanent Moslem occupation did 
not begin till 1217. Owing to the situation of the district, Hardoi 
formed the scene of many sanguinary battles between the rival 
Afghan and Mogul empires. Between Bilgram and Sandi was 
fought the great battle between Humayun and Sher Shah, in 
which the former was utterly defeated. Hardoi, along with the 
rest of Oudh, became British territory under Lord Dalhousie's 
proclamation of February 1856. 

HARDOUIN, JEAN (1646-1729), French classical scholar, 
was born at Quimper in Brittany. Having acquired a taste 
for literature in his father's book-shop, he sought and obtained 
about his sixteenth year admission into the order of the Jesuits. 
In Paris, where he went to study theology, he ultimately 
became librarian of the College Louis le Grand in 1683, and he 
died there on the 3rd of September 1729. His first published 
work was an edition of Themistius (1684), which included no 
fewer than thirteen new orations. On the advice of Jean Gamier 
(1612-1681) he undertook to edit the Natural History of Pliny 
for the Delphin series, a task which he completed in five years. 
His attention having been turned to numismatics as auxiliary to 
his great editorial labours, he published several learned works 
in that department, marred, however, as almost everything he 
did was marred, by a determination to be at all hazards different 
from other interpreters. It is sufficient to mention his Numtni 
antiqui populorum et urbium illustrati (1684), Antirrheticus de 
nummis antiquis coloniarum et municipiorum (1689), and Chrono- 
logia Veteris Testamenti ad vulgalam versionem exacta et nummis 
illuslrata (1696). By the ecclesiastical authorities Hardouin 
was appointed to supervise the Concttiorum collectio regia maxima 



944 

(1715); but he was accused of suppressing important documents 
and foisting in apocryphal matter, and by the order of the 
parlement of Paris (then at war with the Jesuits) the publication 
of the work was delayed. It is really a valuable collection, much 
cited by scholars. Hardouin declared that all the councils 
supposed to have taken place before the council of Trent were 
fictitious. It is, however, as the originator of a variety of para- 
doxical theories that Hardouin is now best remembered. The 
most remarkable, contained in his Chronologiae ex nummis 
antiquis reslitutae (1696) and Prolegomena ad censuram velerum 
scriptorum, was to the effect that, with the exception of the 
works of Homer, Herodotus and Cicero, the Natural History of 
Pliny, the Georgia of Virgil, and the Satires and Epistles of 
Horace, all the ancient classics of Greece and Rome were spurious, 
having been manufactured by monks of the i3th century, under 
the direction of a certain Severus Archontius. He denied the 
genuineness of most ancient works of art, coins and inscriptions, 
and declared that the New Testament was originally written in 
Latin. 

See A. Debacker, Bibliotheque des ecrivains de la Compagnie de 
Jesus (1853). 

HARDT, HERMANN VON DER (1660-1746), German historian 
and orientalist, was born at Melle, in Westphalia, on the isth 
of November 1660. He studied oriental languages in Jena and 
in Leipzig, and in 1690 he was called to the chair of oriental 
languages at Helmstedt. He resigned his position in 1727, but 
lived at Helmstedt until his death on the 28th of February 1 746. 
Among his numerous writings the following deserve mention: 
Autographa Lutheri aliorumque celebrium virorum, ab anno 1517 
ad annum 1546, Reformations aetatem et historiam egregie 
illustrantia (1690-1691); Magnum oecumenicum Constantiense 
concilium (1697-1700) Hebraeae linguae fundamenta (1694); 
Syriacae linguae fundamenta (1694); Elementa Chaldaica (1693); 
Historia litter aria reformations (1717); Enigmata prisci orbis 
(1723). Hardt left in manuscript a history of the Reformation 
which is preserved in the Helmstedt Juleum. 

See F. Lamey, Hermann von der Hardt in seinen Briefen (Karlsruhe, 
1891). 

HARDT, THE, a mountainous district of Germany, in the 
Bavarian palatinate, forming .the northern end of the Vosges 
range. It is, in the main, an undulating high plateau of sandstone 
formation, of a mean elevation of 1300 ft., and reaching its 
highest point in the Donnersberg (2254 ft.). The eastern slope, 
which descends gently towards the Rhine, is diversified by deep 
and well-wooded valleys, such as those of the Lauter and the 
Queich, and by conical hills surmounted by the ruins of frequent 
feudal castles and monasteries. Noticeable among these are the 
Madenburg near Eschbach, the Trifels (long the dungeon of 
Richard I. of England), and the Maxburg near Neustadt. Three- 
fifths of the whole area is occupied by forests, principally oak, 
beech and fir. The lower eastern slope is highly cultivated and 
produces excellent wine. 

HARDWAR, or HURDWAR, an ancient town of British India, 
and Hindu place of pilgrimage, in the Saharanpur district of 
the United Provinces, on the right bank of the Ganges, 17 m. 
N.E. of Rurki, with a railway station. The Ganges canal here 
takes off from the river. A branch railway to Dehra was opened 
in 1900. Pop. (1901), 25,597. The town is of great antiquity, 
and has borne many names. It was originally known as Kapila 
from the sage Kapila. Hsuan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist 
pilgrim, in the 7th century visited a city which he calls Mo-yu-lo, 
the remains of which still exist at Mayapur, a little to the south 
of the modern town. Among the ruins are a fort and three 
temples, decorated with broken stone sculptures. The great 
object of attraction at present is the Hari-ka-charan, or bathing 
ghat, with the adjoining temple of Gangadwara. The charan 
or foot-mark of Vishnu, imprinted on a stone let into the upper 
wall of the ghat, forms an object of special reverence. A great 
assemblage of people takes place annually, at the beginning 
of the Hindu solar year, when the sun enters Aries; and every 
twelfth year a feast of peculiar sanctity occurs, known as a 
Kumbh-mela. The ordinary number of pilgrims at the annual fair 



HARDT HARDWICKE, LORD 



amounts to 100,000, and at the Kumbh-mela to 300,000; in 
1903 there were 400,000 present. Since 1892 many sanitary 
improvements have been made for the benefit of the annual 
concourse of pilgrims. In early days riots and also outbreaks 
of cholera were of common occurrence. The Hardwar meeting 
also possesses mercantile importance, being one of the principal 
horse-fairs in Upper India. Commodities of all kinds, Indian 
and European, find a ready sale, and the trade in grain and 
food-stuffs forms a lucrative traffic. 

HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE, IST EARL or (1690-1764), 
English lord chancellor, son of Philip Yorke, an attorney, was 
born at Dover, on the ist of December 1690. Through his 
mother, Elizabeth, daughter and co-heiress of Richard Gibbon 
of Rolvenden, Kent, he was connected with the family of Gibbon 
the historian. At the age of fourteen, after a not very thorough 
education at a private school at Bethnal Green, where, however, 
he showed exceptional promise, he entered an attorney's 'office 
in London. Here he gave some attention to literature and the 
classics as well as to law; but in the latter he made such progress 
that his employer, Salkeld, impressed by Yorke's powers, entered 
him at the Middle Temple in November 1708; and soon after- 
wards recommended him to Lord Chief Justice Parker (after- 
wards earl of Macclesfield) as law tutor to his sons. In 1715 he 
was called to the bar, where his progress was, says Lord Campbell, 
" more rapid than that of any other debutant in the annals of 
our profession," his advancement being greatly furthered by the 
patronage of Macclesfield, who became lord chancellor in 1718, 
when Yorke transferred his practice from the king's bench to 
the court of chancery, though he continued to go on the western 
circuit. In the following year he established his reputation 
as an equity lawyer in a case in which Sir Robert Walpole's 
family was interested, by an argument displaying profound 
learning and research concerning the jurisdiction of the 
chancellor, on lines which he afterwards more fully developed 
in a celebrated letter to Lord Kames on the distinction between 
law and equity. Through Macclesfield's influence with the duke 
of Newcastle Yorke entered parliament in 1719 as member for 
Lewes, and was appointed solicitor-general, with a knighthood, 
in 1720, although he was then a barrister of only four years' 
standing. His conduct of the prosecution of Christopher Layer 
in that year for treason as a Jacobite further raised Sir Philip 
Yorke's reputation as a forensic orator; and in 1723, having 
already become attorney-general, he passed through the House 
of Commons the bill of pains and penalties against Bishop 
Atterbury. He was excused, on the ground of his personal 
friendship, from acting for the crown in the impeachment of 
Macclesfield in 1725, though he did not exert himself to save 
his patron from disgrace largely brought about by Macclesfield's 
partiality for Yorke himself. He soon found a new and still 
more influential patron in the duke of Newcastle, to whom he 
henceforth gave his political support. He rendered valuable 
service to Walpole's government by his support of the bill for 
prohibiting loans to foreign powers (1730), of the increase of 
the army (1732) and of the excise bill (1733). In 1733 Yorke 
was appointed lord chief justice of the king's bench, with the 
title of Lord Hardwicke, and was sworn of the privy council; 
and in 1737 he succeeded Talbot as lord chancellor, thus becoming 
a member of Sir Robert Walpole's cabinet. One of his first 
official acts was to deprive the poet Thomson of a small office 
conferred on him by Talbot. 

Hardwicke's political importance was greatly increased by 
his removal to the House of Lords, where the incompetency of 
Newcastle threw on the chancellor the duty of defending the 
measures of the government. He resisted Carteret's motion 
to reduce the army in 1738, and the resolutions hostile to Spain 
over the affair of Captain Jenkins's ears. But when Walpole 
bent before the storm and declared war against Spain, Hardwicke 
advocated energetic measures for its conduct; and he tried 
to keep the peace between Newcastle and Walpole. There is no 
sufficient ground for Horace Walpole's charge that the fall of 
Sir Robert was brought about by Hardwicke's treachery. No 
one was more surprised than himself when he retained the 



HARDWICKE, LORD 



945 



chancellorship in the following administration, and he resisted 
the proposal to indemnify witnesses against Walpole in one of 
his finest speeches in May 1742. He exercised a leading influence 
in the Wilmington Cabinet; and when Wilmington died in 
August 1743, it was Hardwicke who put forward Henry Pelham 
for the vacant office against the claims of Pulteney. For many 
years from this time he was the controlling power in the govern- 
ment. During the king's absences on the continent Hardwicke 
was left at the head of the council of regency; it thus fell to 
him to concert measures for dealing with the Jacobite rising 
in 1745- He took a just view of the crisis, and his policy for 
meeting it was on the whole statesmanlike. After Culloden he 
presided at the trial of the Scottish Jacobite peers, his conduct 
of which, though judicially impartial, was neither dignified 
nor generous; and he must be held partly responsible for the 
unnecessary severity meted out to the rebels, and especially 
for the cruel, though not illegal, executions on obsolete attainders 
of Charles Radcliffe and (in 1753) of Archibald Cameron. He 
carried, however, a great reform in 1746, of incalculable benefit 
to Scotland, which swept away the grave abuses of feudal power 
surviving in that country in the form of private heritable juris- 
dictions in the hands of the landed gentry. On the other hand 
his legislation in 1748 for disarming the Highlanders and pro- 
hibiting the use of the tartan in their dress was vexatious without 
being effective. Hardwicke supported Chesterfield's reform of 
the calendar in 1751; in 1753 his bill for legalizing the natural- 
ization of Jews in England had to be dropped on account of the 
popular clamour it excited; but he successfully carried a 
salutary reform of the marriage law, which became the basis of 
all subsequent legislation on the subject. 

On the death of Pelham in 1754 Hardwicke obtained for 
Newcastle the post of prime minister, and for reward was created 
earl of Hardwicke and Viscount Royston; and when in 
November 1756 the weakness of the ministry and the threatening 
aspect of foreign affairs compelled Newcastle to resign, Hard- 
wicke retired with him. He played an important and dis- 
interested part in negotiating the coalition between Newcastle 
and Pitt in 1757, when he accepted a seat in Pitt's cabinet 
without returning to the woolsack. After the accession of 
George III. Hardwicke opposed the ministry of Lord Bute on 
the peace with France in 1762, and on the cider tax in the 
following year. In the Wilkes case Hardwicke condemned 
general warrants, and also the doctrine that seditious libels 
published by members of parliament were protected by parlia- 
mentary privilege. He died in London on the 6th of March 
1764. 

Although for a lengthy period Hardwicke was an influential 
minister, he was not a statesman of the first rank. On the other 
hand he was one of the greatest judges who ever sat on the English 
bench. He did not, indeed, by his three years' tenure of the chief- 
justiceship of the king's bench leave any impress on the common 
law; but Lord Campbell pronounces him " the most consum- 
mate judge who ever sat in the court of chancery, being dis- 
tinguished not only for his rapid and satisfactory decision of 
the causes which came before him, but for the profound and 
enlightened principles which he laid down, and for perfecting 
English equity into a systematic science." He held the office 
of lord chancellor longer than any of his predecessors, with a 
single exception; and the same high authority quoted above 
asserts that as an equity judge Lord Hardwicke's fame " has 
not been exceeded by that of any man in ancient or modern times. 
His decisions have been, and ever will continue to be, appealed to 
as fixing the limits and establishing the principles of the great 
juridical system called Equity, which now not only in this 
country and in our colonies, but over the whole extent of the 
United States of America, regulates property and personal 
rights more than the ancient common law." * Hardwicke had 
prepared himself for this great and enduring service to English 
jurisprudence by study of the historical foundations of the 
chancellor's equitable jurisdiction, combined with profound 

1 Lord Campbell, Lives of the Lord Chancellors, v. 43 (London, 
1846). 



insight into legal principle, and a thorough knowledge of the 
Roman civil law, the principles of which he scientifically incor- 
porated into his administration of English equity in the absence 
of precedents bearing on the causes submitted to his judgment. 
His decisions on particular points in dispute were based on 
general principles, which were neither so wide as to prove in- 
applicable to future circumstances, nor too restricted to serve 
as the foundation for a coherent and scientific system. His 
recorded judgments which, as Lord Campbell observes, 
" certainly do come up to every idea we can form of judicial 
excellence " combine luminous method of arrangement with 
elegance and lucidity of language. 

Nor was the creation of modern English equity Lord Hard- 
wicke's only service to the administration of justice. Born 
within two years of the death of Judge Jeffreys his influence was 
powerful in obliterating the evil traditions of the judicial bench 
under the Stuart monarchy, and in establishing the modern 
conception of the duties and demeanour of English judges. 
While still at the bar Lord Chesterfield praised his conduct of 
crown prosecutions as a contrast to the former " bloodhounds of 
the crown "; and he described Sir Philip Yorke as " naturally 
humane, moderate and decent." On the bench he had complete 
control over his temper; he was always urbane and decorous 
and usually dignified. His exercise of legal patronage deserves 
unmixed praise. As a public man he was upright and, in 
comparison with most of his contemporaries, consistent. His 
domestic life was happy and virtuous. His chief fault was 
avarice, which perhaps makes it the more creditable that, 
though a colleague of Walpole, he was never suspected of corrup- 
tion. But he had a keen and steady eye to his own advantage, 
and he was said to be jealous of all who might become his rivals 
for power. His manners, too, were arrogant. Lord Waldegrave 
said of Hardwicke that " he might have been thought a great 
man had he been less avaricious, less proud, less unlike a gentle- 
man." Although in his youth he contributed to the Spectator 
over the signature " Philip Homebred," he seems early to have 
abandoned all care for literature, and he has been reproached 
by Lord Campbell and others with his neglect of art and letters. 
He married, on the i6th of May 1719, Margaret, daughter of 
Charles Cocks (by his wife Mary, sister of Lord Chancellor 
Somers), and widow of John Lygon, by whom he had five sons 
and two daughters. His eldest daughter, Elizabeth, married 
Lord Anson; and the second, Margaret, married Sir Gilbert 
"Heathcote. Three of his younger sons attained some distinction. 
Charles Yorke (?..), the second son, became like his father 
lord chancellor; the third, Joseph, was a diplomatist, and was 
created Lord Dover; while James, the fifth son, became bishop 
of Ely. 

Hardwicke was succeeded in the earldom by his eldest son, 
PHILIP YORKE (1720-1795), 2nd earl of Hardwicke, born on the 
igth of March 1720, and educated at Cambridge. In 1741 he 
became a fellow of the Royal Society. With his brother, Charles 
Yorke, he was one of the chief contributors to Athenian Letters; 
or the Epistolary Correspondence of an agent of the King of Persia 
residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian War (4 vols., London, 
1741), a work that for many years had a considerable vogue 
and went through several editions. He sat in the House of 
Commons as member for Reigate (1741-1747), and afterwards 
for Cambridgeshire; and he kept notes of the debates which 
were afterwards embodied in Cobbett's Parliamentary History. 
He was styled Viscount Royston from 1754 till 1764, when he 
succeeded to the earldom. In politics he supported the Rocking- 
ham Whigs. He held the office of teller of the exchequer, and 
was lord-lieutenant of Cambridgeshire and high steward of 
Cambridge University. He edited a quantity of miscellaneous 
state papers and correspondence, to be found in MSS. collections 
in the British Museum. He died in London, on the i6th of May 
1790. He married Jemima Campbell, only daughter of John, 
3rd earl of Breadalbane, and granddaughter and heiress of Henry 
de Grey, duke of Kent, who became in her own right marchioness 
de Grey. 

In default of sons, the title devolved on his nephew, PHILIP 



946 



HARDY, A. HARDY, THOMAS 



YORKE (1757-1834), 3rd earl of Hardwicke, eldest son of Charles 
Yorke, lord chancellor, by his first wife, Catherine Freman, who 
was born on the 3 ist of May 1 7 5 7 and was educated at Cambridge. 
He was M.P. for Cambridgeshire, following the Whig traditions 
of his family; but after his succession to the earldom in 1790 
he supported Pitt, and took office in 1801 as lord lieutenant 
of Ireland (1801-1806), where he supported Catholic emancipa- 
tion. He was created K.G. in 1803, and was a fellow of the 
Royal Society. He married Elizabeth, daughter of James 
Lindsay, 5th earl of Balcarres, in 1782, but left no son. 

He was succeeded in the peerage by his nephew, CHARLES 
PHILIP YORKE (1799-1873), 4th earl of Hardwicke, English 
admiral, eldest son of Admiral Sir Joseph Sydney Yorke (1768- 
1831), who was second son of Charles Yorke, lord chancellor, 
by his second wife, Agneta Johnson. Charles Philip was born 
at Southampton on the 2nd of April 1799 and was educated 
at Harrow. He entered the royal navy in 1815, and served on 
the North American station and in the Mediterranean, attaining 
the rank of captain in 1825. He represented Reigate (1831) 
and Cambridgeshire (1832-1834) in the House of Commons; 
and after succeeding to the earldom in 1834, was appointed a 
lord in waiting by Sir Robert Peel in 1841. In 1858 he retired 
from the active list with the rank of rear-admiral, becoming 
vice-admiral in the same year, and admiral in 1863. He was 
a member of Lord Derby's cabinet in 1852 as postmaster-general 
and lord privy seal in 1858. In 1833 he married Susan, daughter 
of the ist Lord Ravensworth, by whom he had five sons and 
three daughters. His eldest son, CHARLES PHILIP YORKE (1836- 
1 897)1 5th earl of Hardwicke, was comptroller of the household 
of Queen Victoria (1866-1868) and master of the buckhounds 
1874-1880). He married in 1863, Sophia Georgiana, daughter 
of the ist Earl Cowley. He was succeeded by his only son 
ALBERT EDWARD PHILIP HENRY YORKE (1867-1904), 6th earl 
of Hardwicke, who, after holding the posts of under-secretary 
of state for India (1900-1902) and for war (1902-1903), died 
unmarried on the 29th of November 1904; the title then went 
to his uncle, JOHN MANNERS YORKE (1840-1909), 7th earl of 
Hardwicke, second son of Charles Philip, the 4th earl, who joined 
the royal navy and served in the Baltic and in the Crimea (1854- 
1855). This earl died on the i3th of March 1909 and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Charles Alexander (b. 1869) as 8th earl. 

The contemporary authorities for the life of Lord Chancellor 
Hardwicke are voluminous, being contained in the memoirs of the 
period and in numerous collections of correspondence in the British 
M useum. See, especially, the Hardwicke Papers ; the Stowe MSS. ; 
Hist. MSS. Commission (Reports 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, ll); Horace Wai- 
pole, Letters (ed. by P. Cunningham, 9 vols., London, 1857-1859); 
Letters to Sir H. Mann (ed. by Lord Dover, 4 vols., London, 1843- 
1844), Memoirs of the Reign of George II. (ed. by Lord Holland, 
2nd ed. revised, London, 1847); Memoirs of the Reign of George III. 
(ed. by G. F. R. Barker, 4 vols., London, 1894); Catalogue of Royal 
and Noble Authors of England, Scotland and Ireland (ed. by T. Park, 
5 vols., London, 1806). Horace Walpole was violently hostile to 
Hardwicke, and his criticism, therefore, must be taken with extreme 
reserve. See also the earl Waldegrave, Memoirs 1754-1755 (London, 
1821); Lord Chesterfield, Letters (ed. by Lord Mahon, 5 vols., 
London, 1892); Richard Cpoksey, Essay on John, Lord Somers, 
and Philip, Earl of Hardwicke (Worcester, 1791); William Coxe, 
Memoirs of Sir R. Walpole (4 vols., London, 1816); Memoirs of the 
Administration of Henry Pelham (2 vols., London, 1829); Lord 
Campbell, Lives of the Lord Chancellors, vol. v. (8 vols., London, 
1845); Edward Foss, The Judges of England, vols. vii. and viii. 
(9 vols., London, 1848-1864); George Harris, Life of Lord Chan- 
cellor Hardwicke; with Selections from his Correspondence, Diaries, 
Speeches and Judgments (3 vols., London, 1847). The last-named 
work may be consulted for the lives of the 2nd and 3rd earls. For 
the 3rd earl see also the duke of Buckingham, Memoirs of the Court 
and Cabinets of George III. (4 vols., London, 1853-1855). For the 
4th earl see Charles Philip Yorke, by his daughter, Lady Biddulph of 
Ledbury (1910). (R. J. M.) 

HARDY, ALEXANDRE (is69?-i63i), French dramatist, was 
born in Paris. He was one of the most fertile of all dramatic 
authors, and himself claimed to have written some six hundred 
plays, of which, however, only thirty-four are preserved. He 
seems to have been connected all his life with a troupe of actors 
headed by a clever comedian named Valleran-Lecomte, whom 
he provided with plays. Hardy toured the provinces with this 



company, which gave some representations in Paris in 1599 
at the H&tel de Bourgogne. Valleran-Lecomte occupied the 
same theatre in 1600-1603, and again in 1607, apparently for 
some years. In consequence of disputes with the Confrerie 
de la Passion, who owned the privilege of the theatre, they played 
elsewhere in Paris and in the provinces for some years; but in 
1628, when they had long borne the title of " royal," they were 
definitely established at the Hotel de Bourgogne. Hardy's 
numerous dedications never seem to have brought him riches 
or patrons. His most powerful friend was Isaac de Laffemas 
(d. 1657), one of Richelieu's most unscrupulous agents, and he 
was on friendly terms with the poet Theophile, who addressed 
him in some verses placed at the head of his Theatre (1632), 
and Tristan PHermite had a similar admiration for him. Hardy's 
plays were written for the stage, not to be read; and it was 
in the interest of the company that they should not be printed 
and thus fall into the common stock. But in 1623 he published 
Les Chastes et loyales amours de Theagene et Cariclee, a tragi- 
comedy in eight " days " or dramatic poems; and in 1624 he 
began a collected edition of his works, Le Theatre d'Alexandre 
Hardy, parisien, of which five volumes (1624-1628) were 
published, one at Rouen and the rest in Paris. These comprise 
eleven tragedies: Didon se sacrifiant, Scedase ou I'hospitalile 
molee, Panthee, M eleagre, LaMort d'Achille, Coriolan, Marianne, 
a trilogy on the history of Alexander, Alcmeon, ou la vengeance 
feminine; five mythological pieces; thirteen tragi-comedies, 
among them Gesippe, drawn from Boccaccio; Phraarte, taken 
from Giraldi's Cent excellentes nouvelles (Paris, 1584); Cornelie, 
La Force du sang, Felism'ene, La Belle Egyptienne, taken from 
Spanish subjects; and five pastorals, of which the best is Alp/tee, 
ou la justice d'amour. Hardy's importance in the history of 
the French theatre can hardly be over-estimated. Up to the 
end of the i6th century medieval farce and spectacle kept their 
hold on the stage in Paris. The French classical tragedy of 
Etienne Jodelle and his followers had been written for the 
learned, and in 1628 when Hardy's work was nearly over and 
Rotrou was on the threshold of his career, very few literary, 
dramas by any other author are known to have been publicly 
represented. Hardy educated the popular taste, and made 
possible the dramatic activity of the I7th century. He had 
abundant practical experience of the stage, and modified tragedy 
accordingly, suppressing chorus and monologue, and providing 
the action and variety which was denied to the literary drama. 
He was the father in France of tragi-comedy, but cannot fairly 
be called a disciple of the romantic school of England and Spain. 
It is impossible to know how much later dramatists were indebted 
to him in detail, since only a fraction of his work is preserved, 
but their general obligation is amply established. He died in 
1631 or 1632. 

The sources for Hardy's biography are extremely limited. The 
account given by the brothers Parfaict in their Hist, du thMtre 
Jranfais (1745, &c., vol. iv. pp. 2-4) must be received with caution, 
and no documents are forthcoming. Many writers have identified 
him with the provincial playwright picturesquely described .in 
chap. xi. of Le Page disgracie (1643), the autobiography of Tristan 
1'Hermite, but if the portrait is drawn from life at all, it is more 
probably drawn from Theophile. See Le Theatre d'Alexandre Hardy, 
edited by E. Stengel (Marburg and Paris, 1883-1884, 5 vols.); E. 
Lombard, " Etude sur Alexandre Hardy," in Zeitschr. fur neufranz. 
Spr. u. Lit. (Oppeln and Leipzig, vols. i. and ii., 1880-1881); K. 
Nagel, A. Hardy's Einfluss auf Pierre Corneille (Marburg, 1884); 
and especially E. Rigal, Alexandre Hardy . . . (Paris, 1889) and Le 
Theatre fran$ais avantja periode classique (Paris, 1901.) 

HARDY, THOMAS (1840- ), English novelist, was born 
in Dorsetshire on the 2nd of June 1840. His family was one of 
the branches of the Dorset Hardys, formerly of influence in and 
near the valley of the Frome, claiming descent from John Le 
Hardy of Jersey (son of Clement Le Hardy, lieutenant-governor 
of that island in 1488), who settled in the west of England. His 
maternal ancestors were the Swetman, Childs or Child, and 
kindred families, who before and after 1635 were small landed 
proprietors in Melbury Osmond, Dorset, and adjoining parishes. 
He was educated at local schools, 1848-1854, and afterwards 
privately, and in 1856 was articled to Mr John Hicks, an 



HARDY, SIR T. D. HARDY, SIR T. M. 



947 



ecclesiastical architect of Dorchester. In 1859 he began writing 
verse and essays, but in 1861 was compelled to apply himself 
more strictly to architecture, sketching and measuring many old 
Dorset churches with a view to their restoration. In 1862 he 
went to London (which he had first visited at the age of nine) 
and became assistant to the late Sir Arthur Blomfield, R.A. 
In 1863 he won the medal of the Royal Institute of British 
Architects for an essay on Coloured Brick and Terra-cotta 
Architecture, and in the same year won the prize of the Archi- 
tectural Association for design. In March 1865 his first short 
story was published in Chambers's Journal, and during the next 
two or three years he wrote a good deal of verse, being somewhat 
uncertain whether to take to architecture or to literature as a 
profession. In 1867 he left London for Weymouth, and during 
that and the following year wrote a " purpose " story, which 
in 1869 was accepted by Messrs Chapman and Hall. The 
manuscript had been read by Mr George Meredith, who asked the 
writer to call on him, and advised him not to print it, but to 
try another, with more plot. The manuscript was withdrawn 
and re-written, but never published. In 1870 Mr Hardy took 
Mr Meredith's advice too literally, and constructed a novel that 
was all plot, which was published in 1871 under the title Desperate 
Remedies. In 1872 appeared Under the Greenwood Tree, a " rural 
painting of the Dutch school," in which Mr Hardy had already 
" found himself," and which he has never surpassed in happy 
and delicate perfection of art. A Pair of Blue Eyes, in which 
tragedy and irony come into his work together, was published 
in 1873. In 1874 Mr Hardy married Emma Lavinia, daughter 
of the late T. Attersoll Gifford of Plymouth. His first popular 
success was made by Far from the Madding Crowd (1874), which, 
on its appearance anonymously in the Cornhill Magazine, was 
attributed by many to George Eliot. Then came The Hand of 
Ethelberta (1876), described, not inaptly, as " a comedy in 
chapters "; The Return of the Native (1878), the most sombre 
and, in some ways, the most powerful and characteristic of 
Mr Hardy's novels; The Trumpet-Major (1880); A Laodicean 
(1881); Two on a Tower (1882), a long excursion in constructive 
irony; The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886); The Woodlanders 
(1887); Wessex Tales (1888); A Group of Noble Dames (1891); 
Tess of the D'Urbermlles (1891), Mr Hardy's most famous novel; 
Life's Little Ironies (1894); Jude the Obscure (1895), his most 
thoughtful and least popular book; The Well- Beloved, a reprint, 
with some revision, of a story originally published in the Illus- 
trated London News in 1892 (1897); Wessex Poems, written 
during the previous thirty years, with illustrations by the 
author (1898); and The Dynasts (2 parts, 1904-1906). In 1909 
appeared Time's Laughing-stocks and other Verses. In all 
his work Mr Hardy is concerned with one thing, seen under two 
aspects; not civilization, nor manners, but the principle of life 
itself, invisibly realized in humanity as sex, seen visibly in the 
world as what we call nature. He is a fatalist, perhaps rather a 
determinist, and he studies the workings of fate or law (ruling 
through inexorable moods or humours), in the chief vivifying 
and disturbing influence in life, women. His view of women is 
more French than English; it is subtle, a little cruel, not as 
tolerant as it seems, thoroughly a man's point of view, and not, 
as with Mr Meredith, man's and woman's at once. He sees 
all that is irresponsible for good and evil in a woman's character, 
all that is untrustworthy in her brain and will, all that is alluring 
in her variability. He is her apologist, but always with a reserve 
of private judgment. No one has created more attractive women 
of a certain class, women whom a man would have been more 
likely to love or to regret loving. In his earlier books he is 
somewhat careful over the reputation of his heroines; gradually 
he allows them more liberty, with a franker treatment of instinct 
and its consequences. Jude the Obscure is perhaps the most 
unbiassed consideration in English fiction of the more com- 
plicated questions of sex. There is almost no passion in his work, 
neither the author nor his characters ever seeming able to pass 
beyond the state of curiosity, the most intellectually interesting 
of limitations, under the influence of any emotion. In his feeling 
for nature, curiosity sometimes seems to broaden into a more 



intimate communion. The heath, the village with its peasants, 
the change of every hour among the fields and on the roads of 
that English countryside which he has made his own the 
Dorsetshire and Wiltshire " Wessex " mean more to him, in a 
sense, than even the spectacle of man and woman in their blind 
and painful and absorbing struggle for existence. His knowledge 
of woman confirms him in a suspension of judgment; his know- 
ledge of nature brings him nearer to the unchanging and consoling 
element in the world. All the entertainment which he gets out 
of life comes to him from his contemplation of the peasant, as 
himself a rooted part of the earth, translating the dumbness of 
the fields into humour. His peasants have been compared with 
Shakespeare's; he has the Shakespearean sense of their placid 
vegetation by the side of hurrying animal life, to which they act 
the part of chorus, with an unconscious wisdom in their close, 
narrow and undistracted view of things. The order of merit 
was conferred upon Mr Hardy in July 1910. 

See Annie Macdonell, Thomas Hardy (London, 1894) ; Lionel P. 
Johnson, The Art of Thomas Hardy (London, 1894). (A. SY.) 

HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878), English anti- 
quary, was the third son of Major Thomas Bartholomew Price 
Hardy, and belonged to a family several members of which had 
distinguished themselves in the British navy. Born at Port 
Royal in Jamaica on the 22nd of May 1804, he crossed over to 
England and in 1819 entered the Record Office in the Tower of 
London. Trained under Henry Petrie (1768-1842) he gained a 
sound knowledge of palaeography, and soon began to edit 
selections of the public records. From 1861 until his death on the 
iSth of June 1878 he was deputy-keeper of the Record Office, 
which just before his appointment had been transferred to its 
new London headquarters in Chancery Lane. Hardy, who was 
knighted in 1873, had much to do with the appointment of the 
Historical Manuscripts Commission in 1869. 

Sir T. Hardy edited the Close Rolls, Rotuli litterarum clausarum, 
1204-1227 (2 vols., 1833-1844), with an introduction entitled " A 
Description of the Close Rolls, with an Account of the early Courts of 
Law and Equity " ; and the Patent Rolls, Rotuli litterarum patentium, 
1201-1216 (1835), with introduction, " A Description of the Patent 
Rolls, to which is added an Itinerary of King John." He also edited 
the Rotuli de oblatis etfi.nibus (1835), which deal also with the time of 
King John; the Rotuli Normanniae, 1200-1205, an d 1417-1418 (1835), 
containing letters and grants of the English kings concerning the 
duchy of Normandy; the Charter Rolls, Rotuli chartarum, 1199- 
1216 (1837), giving with this work an account of the structure of 
charters; the Liberate Rolls, Rotuli de liberate ac de misis et praestitis 
regnante Johanne (1844); and the Modus tenendi parliamentum, 
with a translation (1846). He wrote A Catalogue of Lords Chan- 
cellors, Keepers of the Great Seal, Masters of the Rolls and Officers of 
the Court of Chancery (1843) ; the preface to Henry Petrie's Monu- 
menta historica Britannica (1848) ; and Descriptive Catalogue of 
Materials relating to the History of Great Britain and Ireland (3 vols., 
1862-1871). He edited William of Malmesbury's De gestis regum 
anglorum (2 vols., 1840) ; he continued and corrected John le Neve's 
Fasti ecclesiae Anglicanae (3 vols., Oxford, 1854); and with C. T. 
Martin he edited and translated L'Estorie des Engles of Geoffrey 
Gaimar (1888-1889). He wrote Syllabus in English of Documents in 
Rymer's Foedera (3 vols., 18691885), and gave an account of the 
history of the public records from 1837 to 1851 in his Memoirs of 
the Life of Henry, Lord Langdale (1852), Lord Langdale (1783-1851), 
master of the rolls from 1836 to 1851, being largely responsible 
for the erection of the new Record Office. Hardy took part in the 
controversy about the date of the Athanasian creed, writing The 
Athanasian Creed in connection with the Utrecht Psalter (1872); and 
Further Report on the Utrecht Psalter (1874). 

His younger brother, SIR WILLIAM HARDY (1807-1887), was 
also an antiquary. He entered the Record Office in 1823, 
leaving it in 1830 to become keeper of the records of the duchy 
of Lancaster. In 1868, when these records were presented by 
Queen Victoria to the nation, he returned to the Record Office 
as an assistant keeper, and in 1878 he succeeded his brother 
Sir Thomas as deputy-keeper, resigning in 1886. He died on 
the i7th of March 1887. 

Sir W. Hardy edited Jehan de Waurin's Recueil des croniques et 
anchiennes istories de la Grant Bretaigne (5 vols., 1864-1891); and he 
translated and edited the Charters of the Duchy of Lancaster (1845). 

HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN, Bart. (1769-1839), 
British vice-admiral, of the Portisham (Dorsetshire) family of 
Hardy, was born on the sth of April 1769, and in 1781 began 



94* 



HARDYNG HARE, J. C. 



his career as a sailor. He became lieutenant in 1793, and in 
1796, being then attached to the " Minerve " frigate, attracted 
the attention of Nelson by his gallant conduct. He continued 
to serve with distinction, and in 1798 was promoted to be captain 
of the " Vanguard," Nelson's flagship. In the " St George " 
he did valuable work before the battle of Copenhagen in 1801, 
and his association with Nelson was crowned by his appointment 
in 1803 to the " Victory " as flag-captain, in which capacity he 
was engaged at the battle of Trafalgar in 1805, witnessed Nelson's 
will, and was in close attendance on him at his death. Hardy 
was created a baronet in 1806. He was then employed on the 
North American station, and later (1819), was made commodore 
and commander-in-chief on the South American station, where 
his able conduct came prominently into notice. In 1825 he 
became rear-admiral, and in December 1826 escorted the 
expeditionary force to Lisbon. In 1830 he was made first sea 
lord of the admiralty, being created G.C.B. in 1831. In 1834 
he was appointed governor of Greenwich hospital, where thence- 
forward he devoted himself with conspicuous success to the 
charge of the naval pensioners; in 1837 he became vice-admiral. 
He died at Greenwich on the 2oth of September 1839. In 1807 
he had married Anne Louisa Emily, daughter of Sir George 
Cranfield Berkeley, under whom he had served on the North 
American station, and by her he had three daughters, the 
baronetcy becoming extinct. 

See Marshall, Royal Naval Biography, ii. and iii. ; Nicolas, De- 
spatches of Lord Nelson; Broadley and Bartelot, The Three Dorset 
Captains at Trafalgar (1906), and Nelson's Hardy, his Life, Letters 
and Friends (1909). 

HARDYNG or HARDING, JOHN (1378-1465), English 
chronicler, was born in the north, and as a boy entered the 
service of Sir Henry Percy (Hotspur), with whom he was present 
at the battle of Shrewsbury (1403). He then passed into the 
service of Sir Robert Umfraville, under whom he was constable 
of Warkworth Castle, and served in the campaign of Agincourt 
in 1415 and in the sea-fight before Harfleur in 1416. In 1424 
he was on a diplomatic mission at Rome, where at the instance 
of Cardinal Beaufort he consulted the chronicle of Trogus 
Pompeius. Umfraville, who died in 1436, had made Hardyng 
constable of Kyme in Lincolnshire, where he probably lived till 
his death about 1465. Hardyng was a man of antiquarian 
knowledge, and under Henry V. was employed to investigate 
the feudal relations of Scotland to the English crown. For this 
purpose he visited Scotland, at much expense and hardship. 
For his services he says that Henry V. promised him the manor 
of Geddington in Northamptonshire. Many years after, in 1439, 
he had a grant of 10 a year for similar services. In 1457 there 
is a record of the delivery of documents relating to Scotland by 
Hardyng to the earl of Shrewsbury, and his reward by a further 
pension of 20. It is clear that Hardyng was well acquainted 
with Scotland, and James I. is said to have offered him a bribe 
to surrender his papers. But the documents, which are still 
preserved in the Record Office, have been shown to be forgeries, 
and were probably manufactured by Hardyng himself. Hardyng 
spent many years on the composition of a rhyming chronicle 
of England. His services under the Percies and Umfravilles 
gave him opportunity to obtain much information of value for 
i sth century history. As literature the chronicle has no merit. 
It was written and rewritten to suit his various patrons. The 
original edition ending in 1436 had a Lancastrian bias and was 
dedicated to Henry VI. Afterwards he prepared a version for 
Richard, duke of York"(d. 1460), and the chronicle in its final 
form was presented to Edward IV. after his marriage to Elizabeth 
Woodville in 1464. 

The version of 1 436 is preserved in Lansdowne MS. 204, and the best 
of the later versions in Harley MS. 661, both in the British Museum. 
Richard Grafton printed two editions in January 1543, which differ 
much from one another and from the now extant manuscripts. 
Stow, Who was acquainted with a different version, censured Grafton on 
this point somewhat unjustly. Sir Henry Ellis published the longer 
version of Grafton with some additions from the Harley MS. in 1812. 

See Ellis' preface to Hardyng's Chronicle, and Sir F. Palgrave's 
Documents illustrating the History of Scotland (for an account of 
Hardyng's forgeries). (C. L. K.) 



HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT (1834-1903), English 
writer and traveller, was born at Rome in 1 834. He was educated 
at Harrow school and at University College, Oxford. His 
name is familiar as the author of a large number of guide-books 
to the principal countries and towns of Europe, most of which 
were written to order for John Murray. They were made up 
partly of the author's own notes of travel, partly of quotations 
from others' books taken with a frankness of appropriation that 
disarmed criticism. He also wrote Memorials of a Quiet Life 
that of his aunt by whom he had been adopted when a baby 
(1872), and a tediously long autobiography in six volumes, 
The Story of My Life. He died at St Leonards-on-Sea on the 
22nd of January 1903. 

HARE, SIR JOHN (1844- ), English actor and manager, 
was born in Yorkshire on the i6th of May 1844, and was educated 
at Giggleswick school, Yorkshire. He made his first appearance 
on the stage at Liverpool in 1864, coming to London in 1865, 
and acting for ten years with the Bancrofts. He soon made his 
mark, particularly in T. W. Robertson's comedies, and in 1875 
became manager of the Court theatre. But it was in association 
with Mr and Mrs Kendal at the St James's theatre from 1879 
to 1888 that he established his popularity in London, in important 
" character " and " men of the world " parts, the joint manage- 
ment of Hare and Kendal making this theatre one of the chief 
centres of the dramatic world for a decade. In 1889 he became 
lessee and manager of the Garrick theatre, where (though he 
was often out of the cast) he produced several important plays, 
such as Pinero's The Profligate and The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith, 
and had a remarkable personal success in the chief part in 
Sydney Grundy's A Pair of Spectacles. In 1897 he took the 
Globe theatre, where his acting in Pinero's Gay Lord Quex was 
another personal triumph. He became almost as well known in 
the United States as in England, his last tour in America being 
in 1900 and 1901. He was knighted in 1907. 

HARE, JULIUS CHARLES (1795-1855), English theological 
writer, was born at Valdagno, near Vicenza, in Italy, on the 
I3th of September 1795. He came to England with his parents 
in 1799, but in 1804-1805 spent a winter with them at Weimar, 
where he met Goethe and Schiller, and received a bias to German 
literature which influenced his style and sentiments throughout 
his whole career. On the death of his mother in 1806, Julius 
was sent home to the Charterhouse in London, where he remained 
till 1812, when he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. There 
he became fellow in 1818, and after some time spent abroad he 
began to read law in London in the following year. From 1822 
to 1832 he was assistant-tutor at Trinity College. Turning his 
attention from law to divinity, Hare took priest's orders in 1826; 
and, on the death of his uncle in 1832, he succeeded to the rich 
family living of Hurstmonceaux in Sussex, where he accumulated 
a library of some 12,000 volumes, especially rich in German 
literature. Before taking up residence in his parish he once 
more went abroad, and made in Rome the acquaintance of the 
Chevalier Bunsen, who afterwards dedicated to him part of his 
work, Hippolytus and his Age. In 1840 Hare was appointed 
archdeacon of Lewes, and in the same year preached a course of 
sermons at Cambridge (The Victory of Faith), followed in 1846 
by a second, The Mission of the Comforter. Neither series when 
published attained any great popularity. Archdeacon Hare 
married in 1844 Esther, a sister of his friend Frederick Maurice. 
In 1851 he was collated to a prebend in Chichester; and in 1853 
he became one of Queen Victoria's chaplains. He died on the 
23rd of January 1855. 

Julius Hare belonged to what has been called the " Broad Church 
party," though some of his opinions aporoach very closely to those 
of the Evangelical Arminian school, while others again seem vague 
and undecided. He was one of the first of his countrymen to 
recognize and come under the influence of German thought and 
speculation, and, amidst an exaggerated alarm of German heresy, 
did much to vindicate the authority of the sounder German critics. 
His writings, which are chiefly theological and controversial, are 
largely formed of charges to his clergy, and sermons on different 
topics; but, though valuable and full of thought, they lose some 
of their force by the cumbrous German structure of the sentences, 
and by certain orthographical peculiarities in which the author 



HARE HAREBELL 



949 



indulged. In 1827 Guesses at Truth by Two Brothers 1 appeared. 
Hare assisted Thirlwall, afterwards bishop of St David's, in the 
translation of the 1st and 2nd volumes of Niebuhr's History of Rome 
(1828 and 1832), and published a Vindication of Niebuhr s History 
in 1829. He wrote many similar works, among which is a Vindica- 
tion of Luther against his recent English Assailants (1854). In 1848 
he edited the Remains of John Sterling, who had formerly been his 
curate. Carlyle's Life of John Sterling was written through dis- 
satisfaction with the " Life " prefixed to Archdeacon Hare's book. 
Memorials of a Quiet Life, published in 1872, contain accounts ol 
the Hare family. 

HARE, the name of the well-known English rodent now 
designated Lepus europaeus (although formerly termed, incor- 
rectly, L. timidus). In a wider sense the name includes all the 
numerous allied species which do not come under the designation 
of rabbits (see RABBIT). Over the greater part of Europe, where 
the ordinary species (fig. i) does not occur, its place is taken by 
the closely allied Alpine, or mountain hare (fig. 2), the true 
L. timidus of Linnaeus, and the type of the genus Lepus and the 
family Leporidae (see RODENTIA) . The second is a smaller animal 
than the first, with a more rounded and relatively smaller head, 
and the ears, hind-legs and tail shorter. In Ireland and the 
southern districts of Sweden it is permanently of a light fulvous 
grey colour, with black tips to the ears, but in more northerly 
districts the fur except the black ear-tipschanges to white in 
winter, and still farther north the animal appears to be white at 
all seasons of the year. The range of the common or brown hare, 
inclusive of its local races, extends from England across southern 
and central Europe to the Caucasus; while that of the blue or 
mountain species, likewise inclusive of local races, reaches 
from Ireland, Scotland and Scandinavia through northern 
Europe and Asia to Japan and Kamchatka, and thence to 
Alaska. 

The brown hare is a night-feeding animal, remaining during 
the day on its " form," as the slight depression is called which 
it makes in the open field, usually among grass. This it leaves 
at nightfall to seek fields of young wheat and other cereals 
whose tender herbage forms its favourite food. It is also fond 
of gnawing the bark of young trees, and thus often does great 
damage to plantations. In the morning it returns to its form, 
where it finds protection in the close approach which the colour 
of its fur makes to that of its surroundings; should it thus fail, 
however, to elude observation it depends for safety on its extra- 




FIG. i. The Hare (Lepus europaeus). 

ordinary fleetness. On the first alarm of danger it sits erect to 
reconnoitre, when it either seeks concealment by clapping close 
to the ground, or takes to flight. In the latter case its great 
speed, and the cunning endeavours it makes to outwit its canine 
pursuers, form the chief attractions of coursing. The hare takes 
readily to the water, where it swims well; an instance having 
been recorded in which one was observed crossing an arm of 

| Julius Hare's co-worker in this book was his brother Augustus 
William Hare (1792-1834), who, after a distinguished career at 
Oxford, was appointed rector of Alton Barnes, Wiltshire. He died 
prematurely at Rome in 1834. He was the author of Sermons to a 
Country Congregation, published in 1837. 



the sea about a mile in width. Hares are remarkably prolific, 
pairing when scarcely a year old, and the female bringing forth 
several broods in the year, each consisting of from two to five 
leverets (from the Fr. lievre), as the young are called. These are 
born covered with hair and with the eyes open, and after being 
suckled for a month are able to look after themselves. In Europe 
this species has seldom bred in confinement, although an instance 
has recently been recorded. It will interbreed with the blue hare. 
Hares (and rabbits) have a cosmopolitan distribution with the 
exception of Madagascar and Australasia; and are now divided 
into numerous genera and subgenera, mentioned in the article 




FIG. 2. The Blue or Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus) in winter dress. 

RODENTIA. Reference may here be made to a few species. 
Asia is the home of numerous species, of which the common 
Indian L. ruficaudatus and the black-necked hare L. nigricollis, 
are inhabitants of the plains of India; the latter taking its name 
from a black patch on the neck. In Assam there is a small 
spiny hare (Caprolagus hispidus), with the habits of a rabbit; 
and an allied species (Nesolagus nitscheri) inhabits Sumatra, 
and a third (Pentalagus furnessi) the Liu-kiu Islands. The 
plateau of Tibet is very rich in species, among which L. hypsiUus 
is very common. 

Of African species, the Egyptian Hare (L. aegyptius) is a small 
animal, with long ears and pale fur; and in the south there are 
the Cape hare (L. capensis) , the long-eared rock-hare (L. saxatilis) 
and the diminutive Pronolagus crassicaudatus, characterized 
sy its thick red tail. 

North America is the home of numerous hares, some of which 
are locally known as " cotton-tails " and others as " jack- 
rabbits." The most northern are the Polar hare (L. arcticus), 
.he Greenland hare (L. groenlandicus) and the Alaska hare 
(L. timidus tschuktschorum) , all allied to the blue hare. Of the 
others, two, namely the large prairie-hare (L. campestris) and 
the smaller varying hare (L. [Poecilolagus] americanus), turn 
white in winter; the former having long ears and the whole tail 
white, whereas in the latter the ears are shorter and the upper 
surface of the tail is dark. Of those which do not change colour, 
the wood-hare, grey-rabbit or cotton-tail, Sylvilagus floridanus, 
s a southern form, with numerous allied kinds. Distantly allied 
to the prairie-hare or white-tailed jack-rabbit, are several forms 
distinguished by having a more or less distinct black stripe on 
he upper surface of the tail. These include a buff-bellied species 
ound in California, N. Mexico and S.W. Oregon (L. [Macroto- 
agus] calif ornicus), a large, long-legged form from S. Arizona 
and Sonora (Z. [M.] alleni), the Texan jack-rabbit (L. [M.] 
exanus) and the black-eared hare (L. [M.] melanolis) of the 
Great Plains, which differs from the third only by its shorter 
ears and richer coloration. In S. America, the small tapiti 
or Brazilian hare (Sylvilagus brasiliensis) is nearly allied to the 
wood-hare, but has a yellowish brown under surface to the tail. 

See also COURSING. (R. L.*) 

HAREBELL (sometimes wrongly written HAIRBELL), known 
also as the blue-bell of Scotland, and witches' thimbles, a 
well-known perennial wild flower, Campanula rotundifolia, a 



950 



HAREM 




Harebell (Campanula 
rotundifolia). 



member of the natural order Campanulaceae. The harebell has 
a very slender slightly creeping root-stock, and a wiry, erect 
stem. The radical leaves, that is, 
those at the base of the stem, to 
which the specific name rotundifolia 
refers, have long stalks, and are 
roundish or heart-shaped with crenate 
or serrate margin; the lower stem 
leaves are ovate or lanceolate, and 
the upper ones linear, subsessile, 
acute and entire, rarely pubescent. 
The flowers are slightly drooping, 
arranged in a panicle, or in small 
specimens single, having a smooth 
calyx, with narrow pointed erect 
segments, the corolla bell-shaped, 
with slightly recurved segments, and 
the capsule nodding, and opening by 
pores at the base. There are two 
varieties: (a) genuina, with slender 
stem leaves, and (b) montana, in which 
the lower stem-leaves are broader 
and somewhat elliptical in shape. 
The plant is found on heaths and 
pastures throughout Great Britain 
and flowers in late summer and in 
autumn; it is widely spread in the 
north temperate zone. The harebell 
has ever been a great favourite with poets, and on account of 
its delicate blue colour has been considered as an emblem of 
purity. 

HAREM, less frequently HARAM or HARIM (Arab harim 
commonly but wrongly pronounced harem "that which is 
illegal or prohibited "), the name generally applied to that part 
of a house in Oriental countries which is set apart for the women ; 
it is also used collectively for the women themselves. Strictly the 
women's quarters are the haremlik (lik, belonging to), as opposed 
to selamlik the men's quarters, from which they are in large 
houses separated by the mabein, the private apartments of the 
householder. The word harem is strictly applicable to Mahom- 
medan households only, but the system is common in greater or 
less degree to all Oriental communities, especially where polygamy 
is permitted. Other names for the women's quarters are Seraglio 
(Ital. serraglio, literally an enclosure, from Lat. sera, a bar; 
wrongly narrowed down to the sense of harem through confusion 
with Turkish serai or sarai, palace or large building, cf . caravan- 
serai}; Zenana (strictly zanana, from Persian zan, woman, 
allied with Gr. yvini), used specifically of Hindu harems; 
Andarun (or Anderoon), the Persian word for the " inner part " 
(sc. of a house). The Indian harem system is also commonly 
known as pardah or purdah, literally the name of the thick 
curtains or blinds which are used instead of doors to separate 
the women's quarters from the rest of the house. A male doctor 
attending a zenana lady would put his hand between the purdah 
to feel her pulse. 

The seclusion of women in the household is fundamental to 
the Oriental conception of the sex relation, and its origin must, 
therefore, be sought far earlier than the precepts of Islam as set 
forth in the Koran, which merely regulate a practically universal 
Eastern custom. 1 It is inferred from the remains of many ancient 
Oriental palaces (Babylonian, Persian, &c.) that kings and wealthy 
nobles devoted a special part of the palace to their womankind. 
Though in comparatively early times there were not wanting 
men who regarded polygamy as wrong (e.g. the prophets of 
Israel), nevertheless in the East generally there has never been 
any real movement against the conception of woman as a chattel 
of her male relatives. A man may have as many wives and 
concubines as he can support, but each of these women must be 

1 In Africa also, among the non-Mahommedan negroes of the west 
coast and the Bahima of the Victoria Nyanza, the seclusion of 
women of the upper classes has been practised in states (e.%. Ashanti 
and Buganda) possessing a considerable degree of civilization. 



his exclusive property. The object of this insistence upon 
female chastity is partly the maintenance of the purity of tb 
family with special reference to property, and partly to protect 
women from marauders, as was the case with) the people of India 
when the Mahommedans invaded the country and sought for 
women to fill their harems. In Mahommedan countries theoreti- 
cally a woman must veil her face to all men except her father, 
her brother and her husband; any violation of this rule is still 
regarded by strict Mahommedans as the gravest possible offence, 
though among certain Moslem communities (e.g. in parts of 
Albania) women of the poorer classes may appear in public 
unveiled. If any other man make his way into a harem he may 
lose his life; the attempted escape of a harem woman is a capital 
offence, the husband having absolute power of life and death, 
to such an extent that, especially in the less civilized parts of 
the Moslem world, no one would think of questioning a man's 
right to mutilate or kill a disobedient wife or concubine. 

Turkish Harems. A good deal of misapprehension, due to 
ignorance combined with strong prejudice against the whole 
system, exists in regard to the system in Turkey. It is often 
assumed, for example, that the sultan's seraglio is typical, 
though on a uniquely large scale, of all Turkish households, and 
as a consequence that every Turk is a polygamist. This is far 
from being the case, for though the Koran permits four wives, 
and etiquette allows the sultan seven, the man of average 
possessions is perforce content with one, and a small number of 
female servants. It is, therefore, necessary to take the imperial 
seraglio separately. 

Though the sultan's household in modern times is by no means 
as numerous as it used to be, it is said that the harem of Abdul 
Hamid contained about 1000 women, all of whom were of slave 
origin. This body of women form an elaborately organized 
community with a complete system of officers, disciplinary and 
administrative, and strict distinctions of status. The real ruler 
of this society is the sultan's mother, the Sultana Valide, who 
exercises her authority through a female superintendent, the 
Kyahya Khatun. She has also a large retinue of subordinate 
officials (Kalfas) ranging downwards from the Hasnadar ousta 
(" Lady of the Treasury ") to the " Mistress of the Sherbets " 
and the" Chief Coffee Server." Each of these officials has under 
her a number of pupil-slaves (ala iks), whom she trains to succeed 
her if need be, and from whom the service is recruited. After 
the sultana valide (who frequently enjoys considerable political 
power and is a mistress of intrigue) ranks the mother of the heir- 
apparent; she is called the Bash Kadin Effendi (" Her excellency 
the Chief Lady "), and also hasseki or kasseky, and is distin- 
guished from the other three chief wives who only bear the title 
Kadin Effendi. Next come the ladies who have borne the 
younger children of the sultan, the Hanum Effendis, and after 
them the so-called Odalisks or Odalisques (a perversion of odalik, 
from odah, chamber). These are subdivided, according to the 
degree of favour in which they stand with the sultan or padishah, 
into Ikbals (" Favourites ") and Geuzdes (literally the " Eyed " 
ones), those whom the sultan has favourably noticed in the 
course of his visits to the apartments of his wives or his mother. 
All the women are at the disposal of the sultan, though it is 
contrary to etiquette for him actually to select recruits for his 
harem. The numbers are kept up by his female relatives and 
state officials, the latter of whom present girls annually on the 
evening before the isth of Ramadan. 

Every odalisk who has been promoted to the royal couch 
receives a da'ira, consisting of an allowance of money, a suite of 
apartments, and a retinue, in proportion to her status. It should 
be noted that, since all the harem women are slaves, the sultans, 
with practically no exceptions, have never entered into legal 
marriage contracts. Any slave, in however menial a position, 
may be promoted to the position of a kadin effendi. Hence all 
the slaves who have any pretension to beauty are carefully 
trained, from the time they enter the harem, in deportment, 
dancing, music and the arts of the toilette: they are instructed 
in the Moslem religion and learn the daily prayers (namaz); 
a certain number are specially trained in reading and writing 



HAREM 



for secretarial work. Discipline is strict, and continued dis- 
obedience leads to corporal punishment by the eunuchs. All 
the women of the harem are absolutely under the control of the 
sultana valide (who alone of the harem of her dead husband is 
not sent away to an older palace when her son succeeds), and 
owe her the most profound respect, even to the point of having 
to obtain permission to leave their own apartments. Her 
financial secretary, the Haznadar Ousta, succeeds to her power 
if she dies. The sultan's fostej-mother also is a person of import- 
ance, and is known as the Taia Kadin. 

The security of the harem is in the hands of a body of eunuchs 
both black and white. The white eunuchs have charge of the 
outer gates of the seraglio, but they are not allowed to approach 
the women's apartments, and obtain no posts of distinction, 
their chief, however, the kapu aghasi (" master of the gates ") 
has part control over the ecclesiastical possessions, and even the 
vizier cannot enter the royal apartments without his permission. 
The black eunuchs have the right of entering the gardens and 
chambers of the harem. Their chief, usually called the kislar 
aghasi (" master of the maidens "), though his true title is darus 
skadet ago, (" chief of the abode of felicity "), is an official 
of high importance. His appointment is for life. If he is 
deprived of his post he receives his freedom; and if he resigns 
of his own accord he is generally sent to Egypt with a pension 
of 100 francs a day. His secretary keeps count of the revenues 
of the mosques built by the sultans. He is usually succeeded 
by the second eunuch, who bears the title of treasurer, and has 
charge of the jewels, &c., of the women. The number of eunuchs 
is always a large one. The sultana valide and the sultana 
hasseki have each fifty at their service, and others are assigned 
to the kadins and the favourite odalisks. 

The ordinary middle-class household is naturally on a very 
different scale. The selamlik is on the ground floor with a separate 
entrance, and there the master of the house receives his male 
guests; the rest of the ground floor is occupied by the kitchen 
and perhaps the stables. The haremlik is generally (in towns at 
least) on the upper floor fronting on and slightly overhanging 
the street; it has a separate entrance, courtyard and garden. 
The windows are guarded by lattices pierced with circular holes 
through which the women may watch without being seen. 
Communication with the haremlik is effected by a locked door, 
of which the Effendi keeps the key and also by a sort of revolving 
cupboard (dutap) for the conveyance of meals. The furniture, 
of the old-fashioned harems at least, is confined to divans, rugs, 
carpets and mirrors. For heating purposes the old brass tray 
of charcoal and wood ash is giving way to American stoves, and 
there is a tendency to import French furniture and decoration 
without regard to their suitability. 

The presence of a second wife is the exception, and is generally 
attributable to the absence of children by the first wife. The 
expense of marrying a free woman leads many Turks to prefer 
a slave woman who is much more likely to be an amenable 
partner. If a slave woman bears a child she is often set free 
and then the marriage ceremony is gone through. 

The harem system is, of course, wholly inconsistent with any 
high ideal of womanhood. Certain misapprehensions, however, 
should be noticed. The depravity of the system and the vapid 
idleness of harem life are much exaggerated by observers whose 
sympathies are wholly against the system. In point of fact 
much depends on the individuals. In many households there 
exists a very high degree of mutual consideration and the 
standard of conduct is by no means degraded. Though a woman 
may not be seen in the streets without the yashmak which covers 
her face except for her eyes, and does not leave her house except 
by her husband's permission, none the less in ordinary households 
the harem ladies frequently drive into the country and visit the 
shops and public baths. Their seclusion has very considerable 
compensations, and legally they stand on a far better basis in 
relation to their husbands than do the women of monogamous 
Christian communities. From the moment when a woman, 
free or slave, enters into any kind of wifely relation with a man, 
she has a legally enforceable right against him both for her own 



and for her children's maintenance. She has absolute control 
over her personal property whether in money, slaves or goods; 
and, if divorce is far easier in Islam than in Christendom, still 
the marriage settlement must be of such amount as will provide 
suitable maintenance in that event. 

On the other hand, of course, the system is open to the gravest 
abuse, and in countries like Persia, Morocco and India, the life 
of Moslem women and slaves is often far different from that of 
middle class women of European Turkey, where law is strict 
and culture advanced. The early age at which girls are secluded, 
the dulness of their surroundings, and the low moral standard 
which the system produces react unfavourably not only 
upon their moral and intellectual growth but also upon their 
capacity for motherhood and their general physique. A harem 
woman is soon passee, and the lot of a woman past her youth, 
if she is divorced or a widow, is monotonous and empty. This 
is true especially of child- widows. 

Since the middle of the 1 9th century familiarity with European 
customs and the direct influence of European administrators has 
brought about a certain change in the attitude of Orientals to 
the harem system. This movement is, however, only in its 
infancy, and the impression is still strong that the time is not 
ripe for reform. The Oriental women are in general so accus- 
tomed to their condition that few have any inclination to change 
it, while men as a rule are emphatically opposed to any alteration 
of the system. The Young Turkish party, the upper classes in 
Egypt, as also the Babists in Persia, have to some extent pro- 
gressed beyond the orthodox conception of the status of women, 
but no radical reform has been set on foot. 

In India various attempts have been made by societies, 
missionary and other, as well as by private individuals, to 
improve the lot of the zenana women. Zenana schools and 
hospitals have been founded, and a few women have been 
trained as doctors and lawyers for the special purposes of pro- 
tecting the women against their own ignorance and inertia. 
Thus in 1905 a Parsee Christian lady, Cornelia Sorabjee, was 
appointed by the Bengal government as legal adviser to the 
court of wards, so that she might give advice to the widowed 
mothers of minors within the harem walls. Similarly trained 
medical women are introduced into zenanas and harems by the 
Lady Dufferin Association for medical aid to Indian women. 
Gradually native Christian churches are making provision for 
the attendance of women at their services, though the sexes are 
rigorously kept apart. In India, as in Turkey, the introduction 
of Western dress and education has begun to create new ideas 
and ambitions, and not a few Eastern women have induced 
English women to enter the harems as companions, nurses 
and governesses. But training and environment are extremely 
powerful, and in some parts of the Mahommedan world, the 
supply of Asiatic, European and even American girls is so 
steady, that reform has touched only the fringe of the system. 

Among the principal societies which have been formed to 
better the condition of Indian and Chinese women in general 
with special reference to the zenana system are the Church of 
England Zenana Missionary Society and the Zenana Bible and 
Medical r Mission. Much information as to the medical, industrial 
and educational work done by these societies will be found in 
their annual reports and other publications. Among these are 
J. K. H. Denny's Toward the Uprising; Irene H. Barnes, 
Behind the Pardah (1897), an account of the former society's 
work; the general condition of Indian women is described in 
Mrs Marcus B. Fuller's Wrongs of Indian Womanhood (1900), 
and Maud Dover's The Englishwoman in India (1909); see 
also article MISSIONS. 

AUTHORITIES. The literature of the subject is very large, though 
a great deal of it is naturally based on insufficient evidence, and 
coloured by Western prepossessions. Among useful works are A. 
van Sommer and Zwerner, Our Moslem Sisters (1907), a collection 
of essays by authors acquainted with various parts of the Mahom- 
medan world and strongly opposed to the whole harem system; 
Mrs W. M. Ramsay, Everyday Life in Turkey (1897), cc. iv. and v., 
containing an account of a day in a harem near Afium-Kara-Hissar; 
cf. e.g. art. " Harem " in Hughes, Dictionary of Islam; Mrs S. 
Harvey's Turkish Harems and Circassian Homes (1871); for 



HARFLEUR HARINGTON, SIR J. 



952 

Mahomet's regulations, see R. Boswoith Smith's Mohammed and 
Mohammedanism (1889); for Egypt, Lane, Manners and Customs of 
the Modern Egyptians (1837) ; and E. Lott, Harem Life in Egypt and 
Constantinople (1869); for the sultan's household in the i8th cen- 
tury, Lady Wortley Montagu's Letters, with which may be compared 
S. Lane-Poole, Turkey (ed. 1909) ; G. Dorys, La Femme turyue 
(1902); especially Lucy M. J. Garnett (with J. S. Stuart-Glennie), 
The Women of Turkey (London, 1901), and The Turkish People 
(London, 1909). For the attempts which have been made to modify 
and improve the Indian zenana system, see e.g. the reports of the 
Dufferin Association and other official publications. Other infor- 
mation will be found in Hoffman's article in Ersch and Gruber's 
Encyclopadie; Flandin in Revue des deux mondes (1852) on the 
harem of the Persian prince Malik Kasim Mirza; the count de 
Beauvoir, in Voyage round the World (1870), on Javanese and Siamese 
harems; Hantzsche in Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Erdkunde (Berlin, 
1864). (J. M. M.) 

HARFLEUR, a port of France in the department of Seine- 
Inferieure, about 6 m. E. of Havre by rail. Pop. (1906) 2864. 
It lies in the fertile valley of the Lezarde, at the foot of wooded 
hills not far from the north bank of the estuary of the Seine. 
The port, which had been rendered almost inaccessible owing 
to the deposits of the Lezarde, again became available on 
the opening of the Tancarville canal (1887) connecting it 
with the port of Havre and with the Seine. Vessels drawing 
1 8 ft. can moor alongside the quays of the new port, which is on 
a branch of the canal, has some trade in coal and timber, and 
carries on fishing. The church of St Martin is the most remark- 
able building in the town, and its lofty stone steeple forms a 
landmark for the pilots of the river. It dates from the 15th 
and i6th centuries, but the great portal is the work of the i7th, 
and the whole has undergone modern restoration. Of the old 
castle there are only insignificant ruins, near which, in a fine park, 
stands the present castle, a building of the I7th century. The 
old ramparts of the town are now replaced by manufactories, 
and the fosses are transformed into vegetable gardens. There 
is a statue of Jean de Grouchy, lord of Monterollier, under whose 
leadership the English were expelled from the town in 1435. 
The industries include distilling, metal founding and the manu- 
facture of oil and grease. 

Harfleur is identified with Caracotinum, the principal port 
of the ancient Calates. In the middle ages, when its name, 
Herosfloth, Harofluet or Hareflot, was still sufficiently uncor- 
rupted to indicate its Norman derivation, it was the principal 
seaport of north-western France. In 1415 it was captured by 
Henry V. of England, but when in 1435 the people of the district 
of Caux rose against the English, 104 of the inhabitants opened 
the gates of the town to the insurgents, and thus got rid of the 
foreign yoke. The memory of the deed was long perpetuated 
by the bells of St Martin's tolling 104 strokes. Between 1445 
and 1449 the English were again in possession; but the town 
was recovered for the French by Dunois. In the i6th century 
the port began to dwindle in importance owing to the silting up 
of the Seine estuary and the rise of Havre. In 1562 the 
Huguenots put Harfleur to pillage, and its registers and charters 
perished in the confusion; but its privileges were restored by 
Charles IX. in 1568, and it was not till 1710 that it was subjected 
to the " taille." 

HARIANA, a tract of. country in the Punjab, India, once the 
seat of a flourishing Hindu civilization. It consists of a level 
upland plain, interspersed with patches of sandy soil, and largely 
overgrown with brushwood. The Western Jumna canal irrigates 
the fields of a large number of its villages. Since the i4th century 
Hissar has been the local capital. During the troubled period 
which followed on the decline of the Mogul empire, Hariana 
formed the battlefield where the Mahrattas, Bhattis and Sikhs 
met to settle their territorial quarrels. The whole country was 
devastated by the famine of 1783. In 1797-1798 Hariana was 
overrun by the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas, who 
established his capital at Hansi; in 1801 he was dispossessed 
by Sindhia's French general Perron; in 1803 Hariana passed 
under British rule. On the conquest of the Punjab Hariana was 
broken up into the districts of Hissar, Rohtak and Sirsa, 
which last has in its turn been divided between Hissar and 
Ferozepore. 



HARINGTON, SIR JOHN (1561-1612), English writer, was 
born at Kelston, near Bath, in 1561. His father, John Harington, 
acquired considerable estates by marrying Etheldreda, a natural 
daughter of Henry VIII., and after his wife's death he was 
attached to the service of the Princess Elizabeth. He married 
Isabella Markham, one of her ladies, and on Mary's accession 
he and his wife were imprisoned in the Tower with the princess. 
John, the son of the second marriage, was Elizabeth's godson. 
He studied at Eton and at Christ's^ College, Cambridge, where he 
took the degree of M.A., his tutor being John Still, afterwards 
bishop of Bath and Wells, formerly reputed to be the author 
of Gammer Gurton's Needle. He came up to London about 
1583 and was entered at Lincoln's Inn, but his talents marked 
him out for success at court rather than for a legal career. 
Tradition relates that he translated the story of Giocondo from 
Ariosto and was reproved by the queen for acquainting her 
ladies with so indiscreet a selection. He was to retire to his seat 
at Kelston until he completed the translation of the entire work. 
Orlando Furioso in English heroical verse was published in 1591 
and reprinted in 1607 and 1634. Harington was high sheriff 
of Somerset in 1592 and received Elizabeth at his house during 
her western progress of ispi- In 1596 he published in succession 
The Metamorphosis of Ajax, An Anatomie of the Metamorphosed 
Ajax, and Ulysses upon Ajax, the three forming collectively a 
very absurd and indecorous work of a Pantagruelistic kind. An 
allusion to Leicester in this book threw the writer into temporary 
disgrace, but in 1598 he received a commission to serve in Ireland 
under Essex. He was knighted on the field, to the annoyance of 
Elizabeth. Harington saved himself from being involved in 
Essex's disgrace by writing an account of the Irish campaign 
which increased Elizabeth's anger against the unfortunate earl. 
Among some papers found in the chapter library at York was a 
Tract on the Succession to the Crown (1602), written by Harington 
to secure the favour of the new king, to whom he sent the gift of 
a lantern constructed to symbolize the waning glory of the late 
queen and James's own splendour. This pamphlet, which 
contains many details of great interest about Elizabeth and gives 
an unprejudiced sketch of the religious question, was edited 
for the Roxburghe Club in 1880 by Sir Clements Markham. 
Harington's efforts to win favour at the new court were unsuccess- 
ful. In 1605 he even asked for the office of chancellor of Ireland 
and proposed himself as archbishop. The document in which 
he preferred this extraordinary request was published in 1879 
with the title of A Short View of the State of Ireland written in 
1603. Harington was before his time in advocating a policy of 
generosity and conciliation towards that country. He eventually 
succeeded in obtaining a position as one of the tutors of Prince 
Henry, for whom he annotated Francis Godwin's De- praesulibus 
Angliae. Harington's grandson, John Chetwind, found in this 
somewhat scandalous production an argument for the Presby- 
terian side, and published it in 1653, under the title of A Briefe 
View of the State of the Church, &c. 

Harington died at Kelston on the 2oth of November 1612. 
His Epigrams were printed in a collection entitled Alc.ilia in 
1613, and separately in 1615. The translation of the Orlando 
Furioso was carried out with skill and perseverance. It is not 
to be supposed that Harington failed to realize the ironic quality 
of his original, but he treated it as a serious allegory to suit the 
temper of Queen Elizabeth's court. He was neither a very exact 
scholar nor a very poetical translator, and he cannot be named 
in the same breath with Fairfax. The Orlando Furioso was 
sumptuously illustrated, and to it was prefixed an Apologie of 
Poetrie, justifying the subject matter of the poem, and, among 
other technical [matters, the author's use of disyllabic and 
trisyllabic rhymes, also a life of Ariosto compiled by Harington 
from various Italian sources. Harington's Rabelaisian pamphlets 
show that he was almost equally endowed with wit and indelicacy, 
and his epigrams are sometimes smart and always easy. His 
works include The Englishman's Doctor, Or the School of Salernc 
( 1 608) , and Nugae antiquae, miscellaneous papers collected in 1 7 79. 

A biographical account of Harington is prefixed to the Roxburghe 
Club edition of his tract on the succession mentioned above. 



HARIRI HARKNESS, R. 



953 



HARIRI [Aba Mahommed ul-Qasim ibn 'Ali ibn Mahommed 
al-Hariri, i.e. " the manufacturer or seller of silk "] (1054-1122), 
Arabian writer, was born at Basra. He owned a large estate 
with 18,000 date-palms at Mashan, a village near Bara. He 
is said to have occupied a government position, but devoted his 
life to the study of the niceties of the Arabic language. On this 
subject he wrote a grammatical poem the Mulhat ul-'Irdb 
(French trans. Les Recreations grammaticales with notes by L. 
Pinto, Paris 1885-1889; extracts in S. de Sacy's Anthologie 
arabe, pp. 145-151, Paris, 1829); a work on the faults of the 
educated called f)urrat ul-Ghawwas (ed. H. Thorbecke, Leipzig, 
1871), and some smaller treatises such as the two letters on words 
containing the letters sin and shin (ed. in Arnold's Chrestomathy, 
pp. 202-9). But his fame rests chiefly on his fifty maqamas 
(see ARABIA: Literature, section " Belles Lettres ") These 
were written in rhymed prose like those of HamadhanI, and are 
full of allusions to Arabian history, poetry and tradition, and 
discussions of difficult points of Arabic grammar and rhetoric. 

The Maqamas have been edited with Arabic commentary by 
S. de Sacy (Paris, 1822, 2nd ed. with French notes by Reinaud and 
J. Derenbourg, Paris, 1853); with English notes by F. Steingass 
(London, 1896). An English translation with notes was made by 
T. Preston (London, 1850), and another by T. Chenery and F. 
Steingass (London, 1867 and 1898). Many editions have been 
published in the East with commentaries, especially with that of 
Sharishi (d. 1222). (G. W. T.) 

HARI-RUD, a river of Afghanistan. It rises in the northern 
slopes of the Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, and finally loses 
itself in the Tejend oasis north of the Trans-Caspian railway 
and west of Merv. It runs a remarkably straight course west- 
ward through a narrow trough from Daolatyar to Obeh, amidst 
the bleak wind-swept uplands of the highest central elevations 
in Afghanistan. From Obeh to Kuhsan 50 m. west of Herat, 
it forms a valley of great fertility, densely populated and highly 
cultivated; practically all its waters being drawn off for purposes 
of irrigation. It is the contrast between the cultivated aspect 
of the valley of Herat and the surrounding desert that has given 
Herat its great reputation for fertility. Three miles to the south 
of Herat the Kandahar road crosses the river by a masonry bridge 
of 26 arches now in ruins. A few miles below Herat the river 
begins to turn north-west, and after passing through a rich country 
to Kuhsan, it turns due north and breaks through the Paro- 
pamisan hills. Below Kuhsan it receives fresh tributaries from 
the west. Between Kuhsan and Zulfikar it forms the boundary 
between Afghanistan and Persia, and from Zulfikar to Sarakhs 
between Russia and Persia. North of Sarakhs it diminishes 
rapidly in volume till it is lost in the sands of the Turkman 
desert. The Hari-Rud marks the only important break existing 
in the continuity of the great central water-parting of 
Asia. It is the ancient Arius. (T. H. H.*) 

HARISCHANDRA, in Hindu mythology, the 28th king of the 
Solar race. He was renowned for his piety and justice. He 
is the central figure of legends in the Aitareyabrahmana, Maha- 
bharata and the Markandeyapurana. In the first he is repre- 
sented as so desirous of a son that he vows to Varuna that if his 
prayer is granted the boy shall be eventually sacrificed to the 
latter. The child is born, but Harischandra, after many delays, 
arranges to purchase another's son and make a vicarious sacrifice. 
According to the Mahabharata he is at last promoted to Paradise 
as the reward for his munificent charity. 

fliRITH IBN flILLIZA UL-YASHKURl, pre-Islamic Arabian 
poet of the tribe of Bakr, famous as the author of one of the 
poems generally received among the Mo 'allakdt (q.v.). Nothing is 
known of the details of his life. 

HARIZI, JUDAH BEN SOLOMON (i 3 th cent.), called also 
AL-HARIZI, a Spanish Hebrew poet and traveller. He translated 
from the Arabic to Hebrew some of the works of Maimonides 
(q.v.) and also of the Arab poet Hariri. His own most consider- 
able work was the Tahkemoni, composed between 1218 and 1220. 
This is written in Hebrew in unmetrical rhymes, in what is 
commonly termed " rhymed prose." It is a series of humorous 
, episodes, witty verses, and quaint applications of Scriptural 
texts. The episodes are bound together by the presence of the 



I hero and of the narrator, who is also the author. Harizi not only 
brought to perfection the art of applying Hebrew to secular 
satire, but he was also a brilliant literary critic and his makame 
on the Andalusian Hebrew poets is a fruitful source of infor- 
mation. 

See, on the Tahkemoni, Kaempf, Nicht-andalusische Poesie anda- 
lusischer Dichter (Prague, 1858). In that work a considerable 
section of the Tahkemoni is translated into German. (I. A.) 

HARKNESS, ALBERT (1822-1907), American classical scholar, 
was born at Mendon, Massachusetts, on the 6th of October 1822. 
He graduated at Brown University in 1842, taught in the Pro- 
vidence high school in 1843-1853, studied in Berlin, Bonn 
(where in 1854 he was the first American to receive the degree 
of Ph.D.) and Gottingen, and was professor of Greek language 
and literature in Brown University from 1855 to 1892, when 
he became professor emeritus. He was one of the founders in 
1869 of the American Philological Association, of which he was 
president in 1875-1876, and to whose Transactions he made 
various contributions; was a member of the Archaeological 
Institute's committee on founding the American School of 
Classical Studies at Athens, and served as the second director 
of that school in 1883-1884. He studied English and German 
university methods during trips to Europe in 1870 and 1883, 
and introduced a new scholarly spirit into American teaching of 
Latin in secondary schools with a series of Latin text-books, 
which began in 1851 with a First Latin Book and continued for 
more than fifty years. His Latin Grammar (1864, 1881) and 
Complete Latin Grammar (1898) are his best-known books. He 
was a member of the board of fellows of Brown University 
from 1904 until his death, and in 1904-1905 was president of 
the Rhode Island Historical Society. He died in Providence, 
Rhode Island, on the 27th of May 1907. 

His son, ALBERT GRANGER HARKNESS (1857- )> also a 
classical scholar, was born in Providence, Rhode Island, on the 
igth of November 1857. He graduated at Brown University 
in 1879, studied in Germany in 1879-1883, and was professor 
of German and Latin at Madison (now Colgate) University 
from 1883 to 1889, and associate professor of Latin at Brown 
from 1889 to 1893, when he was appointed to the chair of Roman 
literature and history there. He was director of the American 
School of Classical Studies in Rome in 1902-1903. 

HARKNESS, ROBERT (1816-1878), English geologist, was 
born at Ormskirk, Lancashire, on the 28th of July 1816. He 
was educated at the high school, Dumfries, and afterwards 
(1833-1834) at the university of Edinburgh where he acquired 
an interest in geology from the teachings of Robert Jameson 
and J. D. Forbes. Returning to Ormskirk he worked zealously 
at the local geology, especially on the Coal-measures and New 
Red Sandstone, his first paper (read before the Manchester 
Geol. Soc. in 1843) being on The Climate of the Coal Epoch. In 
1848 his family went to reside in Dumfries and there he com- 
menced to work on the Silurian rocks of the S.W. of Scotland, 
and in 1849 he carried his investigations into Cumberland. 
In these regions during the next few years he added much to 
our knowledge of the strata and their fossils, especially grap- 
tolites, in papers read before the Geological Society of London. 
He wrote also on the New Red rocks of the north of England 
and Scotland. In 1853 he was appointed professor of geology 
in Queen's College, Cork, and in 1856 he was elected F.R.S. 
During this period he wrote some articles on the geology of parts 
of Ireland, and exercised much influence as a teacher, but he 
returned to England during his vacations and devoted himself 
assiduously to the geology of the Lake district. He was also a 
constant attendant at the meetings of the British Association. 
In 1876 the syllabus for the Queen's Colleges in Ireland was 
altered, and Professor Harkness was required to lecture not only 
on geology, palaeontology, mineralogy and physical geography, 
but also- on zoology and botany. The strain of the extra work 
proved too much, he decided to relinquish his post, and had 
retired but a short time when he died, on the 4th of October 
1878. 

" Memoir," by J. G. Goodchild, in Trans. Cumberland Assoc. No. 



954 

viii. (with portrait). In memory of Professor Harkness his sister 
established two Harkness scholarships. One scholarship (of the 
value of about 35 a year, tenable for three years) for women, 
tenable at either Girton or Newnham College, Cambridge, is awarded 
triennially to the best candidate in an examination in geology and 
palaeontology, provided that proficiency be shown; the other, 
For men, is vested in the hands of the university of Cambridge, and 
is awarded annually, any member of the university being eligible 
who has graduated as a B.A., " provided that not more than three 
years have elapsed since the igth day of December next following 
his final examination for the degree of bachelor of arts." 

HARLAN, JAMES (1820-1899), American politician, was born 
in Clark county, Illinois, on the 26th of August 1820. He 
graduated from Indiana Asbury (now De Pauw) University 
in 1845, was president (1846-1847) of the newly founded and 
short-lived Iowa City College, studied law, was first super- 
intendent of public instruction in Iowa in 1847-1848, and was 
president of Iowa Wesleyan University in 1853-1855. He took 
a prominent part in organizing the Republican party in Iowa, 
and was a member of the United States Senate from 1855 to 
1865, when he became secretary of the interior. He had been 
a delegate to the peace convention in 1861, and from 1861 to 
1865 was chairman of the Senate committee on public lands. 
He disapproved of President Johnson's conservative reconstruc- 
tion policy, retired from the cabinet in August 1866, and from 
1867 to 1873 was again a member of the United States Senate. 
In 1866 he was a delegate to the loyalists' convention at Phila- 
delphia. One of his principal speeches in the Senate was that 
which he made in March 1871 in reply to Sumner's and Schurz's 
attack on President Grant's Santo Domingan policy. He was 
presiding judge of the court of commissioners of Alabama 
claims (1882-1885). He died in Mount Pleasant, Iowa, on the 
5th of October 1899. 

HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL (1833- ), American jurist, 
was born in Boyle county, Kentucky, on the ist of June 1833. 
He graduated at Centre College, Danville, Ky., in 1850, and at 
the law department of Transylvania University, Lexington, in 
1853. He was county judge of Franklin county in 1858-1859, 
was an unsuccessful candidate for Congress on the Whig ticket 
in 1859, and was elector on the Constitutional Union ticket in 
1860. On the outbreak of the Civil War he recruited and 
organized the Tenth Kentucky United States Volunteer Infantry, 
and in 1861-1863 served as colonel. Retiring from the army 
in 1863, he was elected by the Union party attorney-general 
of the state, and was re-elected in 1865, serving from 1863 to 
1867, when he removed to Louisville to practise law. He was 
the Republican candidate for governor in 1871 and in 1875, 
and was a member of the commission which was appointed 
by President Hayes early in 1877 to accomplish the recog- 
nition of one or other of the existing state governments 
of Louisiana (q.v.); and he was a member of the Bering Sea 
tribunal which met in Paris in 1893. On the 29th of November 
1877 he became an associate justice of the United States Supreme 
Court. In this position he showed himself a liberal construc- 
tionist. In opinions on the Civil Rights cases and in the inter- 
pretation of the i3th, i4th and i5th Amendments to the 
Constitution, he dissented from the majority of the court and 
advocated increasing the power of the Federal government. 
He supported the constitutionality of the income tax clause 
in the Wilson Tariff Bill of 1894, and he drafted the decision of 
the court in the Northern Securities Company Case, which 
applied to railways the provisions of the Sherman Anti-Trust 
Law. In 1889 he became a professor in the Law School of 
the Columbian University (afterwards George Washington 
University) in Washington, D.C. 

HARLAND, HENRY (1861-1905), American novelist, was 
born in St Petersburg, Russia, in March 1861, and was educated 
in New York and at Harvard. He went to Europe as a journalist, 
and, after publishing several novels, mainly of American-Jewish 
life (under the name of Sidney Luska), first made his literary 
reputation in London as editor of the Yellow Book in 1894. 
His association with this clever publication, and his own con- 
tributions to it, brought his name into prominence, but it was 
not till he published The Cardinal's Snujj-box (1900), followed 



HARLAN, J. HARLECH 



by The Lady Paramount (1902), that his lightly humorous touch 
and picturesque style as a novelist brought him any real success. 
His health was always delicate, and he died at San Remo on 
the 2oth of December 1905. 

HARLAY DE CHAMPVALLON, FRANCOIS DE (1625-1695), 
5th archbishop of Paris, was born in that city on the i4th of 
August 1625. Nephew of Francois de Harlay, archbishop of 
Rouen, he was presented to the abbey of Jumieges immediately 
on leaving the College de Navarre, and he was only twenty-six 
when he succeeded his uncle in the archiepiscopal see. He was 
transferred to the see of Paris in 1671, he was nominated by the 
king for the cardinalate in 1690, and the domain of St Cloud was 
erected into a duchy in his favour. He was commander of the 
order of the Saint Esprit and a member of the French Academy. 
During the early part of his political career he wasa firm adherent 
of Mazarin, and is said to have helped to procure his return from 
exile. His private life gave rise to much scandal, but he had 
a great capacity for business, considerable learning, and was an 
eloquent and persuasive speaker. He definitely secured the 
favour of Louis XIV. by his support of the claims of the Gallican 
Church formulated by the declaration made by the clergy in 
assembly on the igth of March 1682, when Bossuet accused him 
of truckling to the court like a valet. One of the three witnesses 
of the king's marriage with Madame de Maintenon, he was hated 
by her for using his influence with the king to keep the matter 
secret. He had a weekly audience of Louis XIV. in company 
with Pere la Chaise on the affairs of the Church in Paris, but his 
influence gradually declined, and Saint-Simon, who bore him no 
good will for his harsh attitude to the Jansenists, says that his 
friends deserted him as the royal favour waned, until at last 
most of his time was spent at Conflans in company with the 
duchess of Lesdiguieres, who alone was faithful to him. He 
urged the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and showed great 
severity to the Huguenots at Dieppe, of which he was temporal 
and spiritual lord. He died suddenly, without having received 
the sacraments, on the 6th of August 1695. His funeral discourse 
was delivered by the Pere Gaillard, and Mme de Sevigne made 
on the occasion the severe comment that there were only two 
trifles to make this a difficult matter his life and his death. 

See Abbd Legendre, Vita Francisci de Harlay (Paris, 1720) and 
tloge de Harlay (1695); Saint-Simon, Memoires (vol. ii., ed. A. de 
Boislisle, 1879), and numerous references in the Lettres of Mme de 
Sevign6. 

HARLECH (perhaps for Hardd lech, fair slate, or Harleigh, an 
Anglicized variant), a town of Merionethshire, Wales, 38 m. 
from Aberystwyth, and 29 from Carnarvon on the Cambrian 
railway. Pop. 900. Ruins of a fortress crown the rock of 
Harlech, about half a mile from the sea. Discovery of Roman 
coins makes it probable that it was once occupied by the Romans. 
In the 3rd century Bronwen (white bosom), daughter of Bran 
Fendigaid (the blessed), is said to have stayed here, perhaps 
by force; and there was here a tower, called Twr Bronwen, 
and replaced about A.D. 550 by the building of Maelgwyn 
Gwynedd, prince of North Wales. In the eaily loth century, 
Harlech castle was, apparently, repaired by Colwyn, lord of 
Ardudwy, founder of one of the fifteen North Wales tribes, and 
thence called Caer Colwyn. The present structure dates, like 
many others in the principality, from Edward I., perhaps even 
from the plans of the architect of Carnarvon and Conway castles, 
but with the retention of old portions. It is thought to have 
been square, each side measuring some 210 ft., with towers and 
turrets. Glendower held it for four years. Here, in 1460, 
Margaret, wife of Henry VI., defeated at Northampton, took 
refuge. Dafydd ap leuan ap Einion held it for the Lancastrians, 
until famine, rather than Edward IV., made him surrender. 
From this time is said to date the air " March of the men of 
Harlech "(Rhyfelgerddgwyr Harlech). The castle was alternately 
Roundhead and Cavalier in the civil war. Edward I. made 
Harlech a free borough, and it was formerly the county town. 
It is in the parish of Llandanwg (pop. in 1901, 931). Though 
interesting from an antiquarian point of view, the district around, 
especially Dyffryn Ardudwy (the valley), is dreary and desolate, 



HARLEQUIN HARMONIC 



955 



e.g. Drws (the door of) Ardudwy, Rhinog fawr and Rhinog fach 
(cliffs) ; an exception is the verdant Cwm bychan (little combe 
or hollow). The Meini gwyr Ardudwy (stones of the men of 
Ardudwy) possibly mark the site of a fight. 

HARLEQUIN, in modern pantomime, the posturing and 
acrobatic character who gives his name to the " harlequinade," 
attired in mask and parti-coloured and spangled tights, and 
provided with a sword like a bat, by which, himself invisible, 
he works wonders. It has generally been assumed that Harlequin 
was transferred to France from the "Arlecchino" of Italian 
medieval and Renaissance popular comedy; but Dr Driesen in 
his Ut 'sprung des Harlckins (Berlin, 1904) shows that this is 
incorrect. An old French " Harlekin " (Herlekin, Hellequin 
and other variants) is found in folk-literature as early as noo; 
he had already become proverbial as a ragamuffin of a demoniacal 
appearance and character; in 1262 a number of harlekins 
appear in a play by Adam de la Halle as the intermediaries of 
King Hellekin, prince of Fairyland, in courting Morgan le Fay; 
and it was not till much later that the French Harlekin was 
transformed into the Italian Arlecchino. In his typical French 
form down to the time of Gottsched, he was a spirit of the air, 
deriving thence his invisibility and his characteristically light 
and aery whirlings. Subsequently he returned from the Italian 
to the French stage, being imported by Marivaux into light 
comedy; and his various attributes gradually became amal- 
gamated into the latter form taken in pantomime. 

HARLESS (originally HARLES), GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH 
(i 738-1815), German classical scholar and bibliographer, was born 
at Culmbach in Bavaria on the 2istof June 1738. He studied at 
Halle, Erlangen and Jena. In 1765 he was appointed professor of 
oriental languages and eloquence at the GymnasiumCasimirianum 
in Coburg, in 1 770 professor of poetry and eloquence at Erlangen, 
and in 1 776 librarian of the university. He held his professorship 
for forty-five years till his death on the 2nd of November 1815. 
Harless was an extremely prolific writer. His numerous editions 
of classical authors, deficient in originality and critical judgment, 
although valuable at the time as giving the student the results 
of the labours of earlier scholars, are now entirely superseded. 
But he will always be remembered for his meritorious work in 
connexion with the great BiUiotheca Graeca of J. A. Fabricius, 
of which he published a new and revised edition (12 vols., 1790- 
1809, not quite completed), a task for which he was peculiarly 
qualified. He also wrote much on the history and bibliography 
of Greek and Latin literature. 

His life was written by his son, Johann Christian Friedrich Harless 
(1818). 

HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLF VON (1806- 
1879), German divine, was born at Nuremberg on the 2ist of 
November 1806, and was educated at the universities of Erlangen 
and Halle. He was appointed professor of theology at Erlangen 
in 1836 and at Leipzig in 1845. He was a strong Lutheran and 
exercised a powerful influence in that direction as court preacher 
in Dresden and as president of the Protestant consistory at 
Munich. His chief works were Theologische Encyklopddie und 
Methodologie (1837) and Die christlicht Ethik (1842, Eng. trans. 
1868). He died on the 5th of September 1879, having, a few 
years earlier, written an autobiography under the title Bruch- 
stiicke aus dem Leben eines suddeutschen Theologen. 

HARLINGEN, a seaport in the province of Friesland, Holland, 
on the Zuider Zee, and the terminus of the railway and canal 
from Leeu warden (iSjm.E.). It is connected by steam tramway 
by way of Bolswaard with Sneek. FOR. (1900) 10,448. Har- 
lingen has become the most considerable seaport of Friesland 
since the construction of the large outer harbour in 1870-1877, 
and in addition to railway and steamship connexion with 
Bremen, Amsterdam, and the southern provinces there are 
regular sailings to Hull and London. Powerful sluices protect 
the inner harbour from the high tides. The only noteworthy 
buildings are the town hall (1730-1733), the West church, which 
consists of a part of the former castle of Harlingen, the Roman 
Catholic church, the Jewish synagogue and the schools of 
navigation and of design. The chief trade of Harlingen is the 



exportation of Frisian produce, namely, butter and cheese, 
cattle, sheep, fish, potatoes, flax, &c. There is also a considerable 
import trade in timber, coal, raw cotton, hemp and jute for the 
Twente factories. The local industries are unimportant, con- 
'sisting of saw-mills, rope-yards, salt refineries, and sail-cloth and 
margarine factories. 

HARMATTAN, the name of a hot dry parching wind that blows 
during December, January and February on. the coast of Upper 
Guinea, bringing a high dense haze of red dust which darkens 
the air. The natives smear their bodies with oil or fat while this 
parching wind is blowing. 

HARMODIUS, a handsome Athenian youth, and the intimate 
friend of Aristogeiton. Hipparchus, the younger brother of 
the tyrant Hippias, endeavoured to supplant Aristogeiton in the 
good graces of Harmodius, but, failing in the attempt, revenged 
himself by putting a public affront on Harmodius's sister at a 
solemn festival. Thereupon the two friends conspired with a few 
others to murder both the tyrants during the armed procession 
at the Panathenaic festival (514 B.C.), when the people were 
allowed to carry arms (this licence is denied by Aristotle in 
Ath. Pol.). Seeing one of their accomplices speaking to Hippias, 
and imagining that they were being betrayed, they prematurely 
attacked and slew Hipparchus alone. Harmodius was cut down 
on the spot by the guards, and Aristogeiton was soon captured 
and tortured to death. When Hippias was expelled (510), 
Harmodius and Aristogeiton became the most popular of 
Athenian heroes; their descendants were exempted from public 
burdens, and had the right of public entertainment in the 
Prytaneum, and their names were celebrated in popular songs and 
scolia (after-dinner songs) as the deliverers of Athens. One of 
these songs, attributed to a certain Callistratus, is preserved 
in Athenaeus (p. 695). Their statues by Antenor in the agora 
were carried off by Xerxes and replaced by new ones by Critius 
and Nesiotes. Alexander the Great afterwards sent back the 
originals to Athens. It is not agreed which of these was the 
original of the marble tyrannicide group in the museum at 
Naples, for which see article GREEK ART, PI. I. fig. 50. 

See Kopp in Neue Jahrb. f. klass. Altert. (1902), p. 609. 

HARMONIA, in Greek mythology, according to one account 
the daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, and wife of Cadmus. When 
the government of Thebes was bestowed upon Cadmus by Athena, 
Zeus gave him Harmonia to wife. All the gods honoured the 
wedding with their presence. Cadmus (or one of the gods) 
presented the bride with a robe and necklace, the work of 
Hephaestus. This necklace brought misfortune to all who 
possessed it. With it Polyneices bribed Eriphyle to persuade 
her husband Amphiaraus to undertake the expedition against 
Thebes. It led to the death of Eriphyle, of Alcmaeon, of Phegeus 
and his sons. Even after it had been deposited in the temple 
of Athena Pronoia at Delphi, its baleful influence continued. 
Phayllus, one of the Phocian leaders in the Sacred War (352 B.C.) 
carried it off and gave it to his mistress. After she had worn it 
for a time, her son was seized with madness and set fire to the 
house, and she perished in the flames. According to another 
account, Harmonia belonged to Samothrace and was the daughter 
of Zeus and Electra, her brother lasion being the founder of 
the mystic rites celebrated on the island (Diod. Sic. v. 48). 
Finally, Harmonia is rationalized as closely allied to Aphrodite 
Pandemos, the love that unites all people, the personification of 
order and civic unity, corresponding to the Roman Concordia. 

Apollodorus iii. 4-7; Diod. Sic. iy. 65, 66; Parthenius, Erotica, 
25 ; L. Preller, Criech. Mythol. ; Crusius in Roscher's Lexikon. 

HARMONIC. In acoustics, a harmonic is a secondary tone 
which accompanies the fundamental or primary tone of a vibrat- 
ing string, reed, &c.; the more important are the 3rd, 5th, 7th, 
and octave (see SOUND; HARMONY). A harmonic proportion 
in arithmetic and algebra is such that the reciprocals of the 
proportionals are in arithmetical proportion; thus, if a, b, c 
be in harmonic proportion then i/a, i/b, i/c are in arithmetical 
proportion; this leads to the relation 2/b = ac/(a+c). A har- 
monic progression or series consists of terms whose reciprocals 
form an arithmetical progression; the simplest example is: 



956 



HARMONICA HARMONIC ANALYSIS 



j + j-j-j + j-f-... (see ALGEBRA and ARITHMETIC). The occur- 
rence of a similar proportion between segments of lines is the 
foundation of such phrases as harmonic section, harmonic ratio, 
harmonic conjugates, &c. (see GEOMETRY: II. Projective). The 
connexion between acoustical and mathematical harmonicals 
is most probably to be found in the Pythagorean discovery that 
a vibrating string when stopped at and f of its length yielded 
the octave and 5th of the original tone, the numbers, i f , 3 
being said to be, probably first by Archytas, in harmonic pro- 
portion. The mathematical investigation of the form of a 
vibrating string led to such phrases as harmonic curve, har- 
monic motion, harmonic function, harmonic analysis, &c. (see 
MECHANICS and SPHERICAL HARMONICS). 

HARMONICA, a generic term applied to musical instruments 
in which sound is- produced by friction upon glass bells. The 
word is also used to designate instruments of percussion of the 
Glockenspiel type, made of steel and struck by hammers (Ger. 
Stahlharmonika). 

The origin of the glass-harmonica tribe is to be found in the 
fashionable i8th century instrument known as musical glasses 
(Fr. verrillon), the principle of which was known already in the 
1 7th century. 1 The invention of musical glasses is generally 
ascribed to an Irishman, Richard Pockrich, who first played the 
instrument in public in Dublin in 1743 and the next year in 
England, but Eisel 2 described the verrillon and gave an illustra- 
tion of it in 1738. The verrillon or Glassspiel consisted of 18 
beer glasses arranged on a board covered with cloth, water 
being poured in when necessary to alter the pitch. The glasses 
were struck on both sides gently with two long wooden sticks 
in the shape of a spoon, the bowl being covered with silk or cloth. 
Eisel. states that the instrument was used for church and other 
solemn music. Gluck gave a concert at the " little theatre in 
the Haymarket " (London) in April 1746, at which he performed 
on musical glasses a concerto of his composition with full 
orchestral accompaniment. E. H. Delaval is also credited with 
the invention. When Benjamin Franklin visited London in 
1757, he was so much struck by the beauty of tone elicited by 
Delaval and Pockrich, and with the possibilities of the glasses 
as musical instruments, that he set to work on a mechanical 
application of the principle involved, the eminently successful 
result being the glass harmonica finished in 1762. In this the 
glass bowls were mounted on a rotating spindle, the largest to 
the left, and their under-edges passed during each revolution 
through a water-trough. By applying the fingers to the moistened 
edges, sound was produced varying in intensity with the pressure, 
so that a certain amount of expression was at the command of 
a good player. It is said that the timbre was extremely enervat- 
ing, and, together with the vibration caused by the friction on 
the finger-tips, exercised a highly deleterious effect on the nervous 
system. The instrument was for many years in great vogue, 
not only in England but on the Continent of Europe, and more 
especially in Saxony, where it was accorded a place in the court 
orchestra. Mozart, Beethoven, Naumann and Hasse composed 
music for it. Marianne Davies and Marianna Kirchgessner 
were celebrated virtuosi on it. The curious vogue of the instru- 
ment, as sudden as it was ephemeral, produced emulation in a 
generation unsurpassed for zeal in the invention of musical 
instruments. The most notable of its offspring were Carl 
Leopold Rollig's improved harmonica with a keyboard in 1786, 
Chladni's euphon in 1791 and clavicylinder in 1799, Ruffelsen's 
melodiconin 1800 and 1803, Franz Leppich's panmelodicon 1810, 
Buschmann's uranion in the same year, &c. Of most of these 
nothing now remains but the name and a description in the 
Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, but there are numerous 
specimens of the Franklin type in the museums for musical 
instruments of Europe. One specimen by Emanuel Pohl, a 
Bohemian maker, is preserved in the Victoria and Albert 
Museum, London. 

For the steel harmonica see GLOCKENSPIEL. (K. S.) 

1 See G. P. Harsdorfer, Math, und philos. Erquickstunden (Nurem- 
berg, 1677), ii. 147. 

2 Musicus ofrroSiSoxTos (Erfurt, 1738), p. 70. 



HARMONIC ANALYSIS, in mathematics, the name given by 
Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and P. G. Tail in their 
treatise on Natural Philosophy to a general method of investigat- 
ing physical questions, the earliest applications of which seem 
to have been suggested by the study of the vibrations of strings 
and the analysis of these vibrations into their fundamental tone 
and its harmonics or overtones. 

The motion of a uniform stretched string fixed at both ends 
is a periodic motion; that is to say, after a certain interval of 
time, called the fundamental period of the motion, the form of the 
string and the velocity of every part of it are the same as before, 
provided that the energy of the motion has not been sensibly 
dissipated during the period. 

There are two distinct methods of investigating the motion of a 
uniform stretched string. One of these may be called the wave 
method, and the other the harmonic method. The wave method 
is founded on the theorem that in a stretched string of infinite 
length a wave of any form may be propagated in either direction 
with a certain velocity, V, which we may define as the " velocity of 
propagation." If a wave of any form travelling in the positive 
direction meets another travelling in the opposite direction, the 
form of which is such that the lines joining corresponding points 
of the two waves are all bisected in a fixed point in the line of the 
string, then the point of the string corresponding to this point will 
remain fixed, while the two waves pass it in opposite directions. If 
we now suppose that the form of the waves travelling in the positive 
direction is periodic, that is to say, that after the wave has travelled 
forward a distance /, the position of every particle of the string is 
the same as it was at first, then / is called the wave-length, and the 
time of travelling a wave-length is called the periodic time, which 
we shall denote by T, so that / = VT. 

If we now suppose a set of waves similar to these, but reversed 
in position, to be travelling in the opposite direction, there will be 
a series of points, distant j/ from each other, at which there will be 
no motion of the string; it will therefore make no difference to the 
motion of the string if we suppose the string fastened to fixed 
supports at any twd of these points, and we may then suppose 
the parts of the string beyond these points to be removed, as it 
cannot affect the motion of the part which is between them. We 
have thus arrived at the case of a uniform string stretched between 
two fixed supports, and we conclude that the motion of the string 
may be completely represented as the resultant of two sets of periodic 
waves travelling in opposite directions, their wave-lengths being 
either twice the distance between the fixed points or a submultiple 
of this wave-length, and the form of these waves, subject to this 
condition, being perfectly arbitrary. 

To make the problem a definite one, we may suppose the initial 
displacement and velocity of every particle of the string given in 
terms of its distance from one end of the string, and from these data 
it is easy to calculate the form which is common to all the travelling 
waves. The form of the string at any subsequent time may then 
be deduced by calculating the positions of the two sets of waves at 
that time, and compounding their displacements. 

Thus in the wave method the actual motion of the string is con- 
sidered as the resultant of two wave motions, neither of which is of 
itself, and without the other, consistent with the condition that the 
ends of the string are fixed. Each of the wave motions is periodic 
with a wave-length equal to twice the distance between the fixed 
points, and the one set of waves is the reverse of the other in respect 
of displacement and velocity and direction of propagation; but, 
subject to these conditions, the form of the wave is perfectly arbitrary. 
The motion of a particle of the string, being determined by the two 
waves which pass over it in opposite directions, is of an equally 
arbitrary type. 

In the harmonic method, on the other hand, the motion of the 
string is regarded as compounded of a series of vibratory motions 
(normal modes of vibration), which may be infinite in number, but 
each of which is perfectly definite in type, and is in fact a particular 
solution of the problem of the motion of a string with its ends fixed. 

A simple harmonic motion is thus defined by Thomson and Tait 
( 53) : When a point Q moves uniformly in a circle, the perpen- 
dicular QP, drawn from its position at any instant to a fixed diameter 
AA' of the circle, intersects the diameter in a point P whose position 
changes by a simple harmonic motion. 

The amplitude of a simple harmonic motion is the range on one 
side or the other of the middle point of the course. 

The period of a simple harmonic motion is the time which elapses 
from any instant until the moving-point again moves in the same 
direction through the same position. 

The phase of a simple harmonic motion at any instant is the 
fraction of the whole period which has elapsed since the moving- 
point last passed through its middle position in the positive direction. 

In the case of the stretched string, it is only in certain particular 
cases that the motion of a particle of the string is a simple harmonic 
motion. In these particular cases the form of the string at any 
instant is that of a curve of sines having the line joining the fixed 



HARMONIC ANALYSIS 



957 



points for its axis, and passing through these two points, and there- 
fore having for its wave-length either twice the length of the string 
or some submultiple of this wave-length. The amplitude of the 
curve of sines is a simple harmonic function of the time, the period 
being either the fundamental period or some submultiple of the 
fundamental period. Every one of these modes of vibration is 
dynamically possible by itself, and any number of them may coexist 
independently of each other. 

By a proper adjustment of the initial amplitude and phase of 
each of these modes of vibration, so that their resultant shall repre- 
sent the initial state of the string, we obtain a new representation 
of the whole motion of the string, in which it is seen to be the resultant 
of a series of simple harmonic vibrations whose periods are the 
fundamental period and its submultiples. The determination of 
the amplitudes and phases of the several simple harmonic vibrations 
so as to satisfy the initial conditions is an example of harmonic 
analysis. 

We have thus two methods of solving the partial differential 
equation of the motion of a string. The first, which we have called 
the wave method, exhibits the solution in the form containing an 
arbitrary function, the nature of which must be determined from 
the initial conditions. The second, or harmonic method, leads to a 
series of terms involving sines and cosines, the coefficients of which 
have to be determined. The harmonic method may be defined in a 
more general manner as a method by which the solution of any 
actual problem may be obtained as the sum or resultant of a number 
of terms, each of which is a solution of a particular case of the problem. 
The nature of these particular cases is defined by the condition that 
any one of them must be conjugate to any other. 

The mathematical test of conjugacy is that the energy of the 
system arising from two of the harmonics existing together is equal 
to the sum of the energy arising from the two harmonics taken 
separately. In other words, no part of the energy depends on the 
product of the amplitudes of two different harmonics. When two 
modes of motion of the same system are conjugate to each other, 
the existence of one of them does not affect the other. 

The simplest case of harmonic analysis, that of which the treat- 
ment of the vibrating string is an example, is completely investigated 
in what is known as Fourier's theorem. 

Fourier's theorem asserts that any periodic function of a single 
variable period *, which does not become infinite at any phase, 
can be expanded in the form of a series consisting of a constant 
term, together with a double series of terms, one set involving 
cosines and the other sines of multiples of the phase. 

Thus if <t>() is a periodic function of the variable having a 
period p, then it may be expanded as follows: 

The part of the theorem which is most- frequently required, and 
which also is the easiest to investigate, is the determination of the 
values of the coefficients Ao, Aj, Bj. These are 



This part of the theorem may be verified at once by multiplying 
both sides of (l) by d|, by cos (2iV{/)/</| or by sin (2iir^lp))jd^, and 
in each case integrating from o to p. 

The series is evidently single-valued for any given value of . 
It cannot therefore represent a function of { which has more than 
one value, or which becomes imaginary for any value of . It is 
convergent, approaching to the true value of <() for all values 
of such that if { varies infinitesimally the function also varies 
infinitesimally. 

Lord Kelvin, availing himself of the disk, globe and cylinder 
integrating machine invented by his brother, Professor James 
Thomson, constructed a machine by which eight of the integrals 
required for the expression of Fourier's series can be obtained simul- 
taneously from the recorded trace of any periodically variable 
quantity, such as the height of the tide, the temperature or pressure 
of the atmosphere, or the intensity of the different components of 
terrestrial magnetism. If it were not on account of the waste of 
time, instead of having a curve drawn by the action of the tide, 
and the curve afterwards acted on by the machine, the time axis 
of the machine itself might be driven by a clock, and the tide itself 
might work the second variable of the machine, but this would in- 
volve the constant presence of an expensive machine at every tidal 
station. (J. C. M.) 

For a discussion of the restrictions under which the expansion 
of a periodic function of in the form (i) is valid, see FOURIER'S 
SERIES. An account of the contrivances for mechanical calcula- 
tion of the coefficients Aj, Hi ... is given under CALCULATING 
MACHINES. 

A more general form of the problem of harmonic analysis presents 
itself in astronomy, in the theory of the tides, and in various magnetic 
and meteorological investigations. It may happen, for instance, 
that a variable quantity f(t) is known theoretically to be of the form 

... (2) 



where the periods 2ir/ni, 2ir/th, ... of the yarious simple-harmonic 
constituents are alieady known with sufficient accuracy, although 
they may have no very simple relations to one another. The 
problem of determining the most probable values of the constants 
Ao, Ai, Bj, Aj, 62, ... by means of a series of recorded values of 
the function f(t) is then in principle a fairly simple one, although 
the actual numerical work may be laborious (see TIDE). A much 
more difficult and delicate question arises when, as in various 
questions of meteorology and terrestrial magnetism, the periods 
2w/n\, 2ir/j, . . . are themselves unknown to begin with, or are at 
most conjectural. Thus, it may be desired to ascertain whether 
the magnetic declination contains a periodic element synchronous 
with the sun's rotation on its axis, whether any periodicities can 
be detected in the records of the prevalence of sun-spots, and so on. 
From a strictly mathematical standpoint the problem is, indeed, 
indeterminate, for when all the symbols are at pur disposal, the 
representation of the observed values of a function, over a finite 
range of time, by means of a series of the type (2), can be effected 
in an infinite variety of ways. Plausible inferences can, however, 
be drawn, provided the proper precautions are observed. This 
question has been treated most systematically by Professor A. 
Schuster, who has devised a remarkable mathematical method, in 
which the action of a diffraction-grating in sorting out the various 
periodic constituents of a heterogeneous beam of light is closely 
imitated. He has further applied the method to the study of the 
variations of the magnetic declination, and of sun-spot records. 

The question so far chiefly considered has been that of the repre- 
sentation of an arbitrary function of the lime in terms of functions 
of a special type, viz. the circular functions cos nt, sin nt. This is 
important on dynamical grounds; but when we proceed to consider 
the problem of expressing an arbitrary function of space-co-ordinates 
in terms of functions of specified types, it appears that the preceding 
is only one out of an infinite variety of modes of representation 
which are equally entitled to consideration. Every problem of 
mathematical physics which leads to a linear differential equation 
supplies an instance. For purposes of illustration we will here 
take the simplest of all, viz. that of the transversal vibrations of a 
tense string. The equation of motion is of the form 

tyjZz, 

"dfl W WJ 

where T is the tension, and p the line-density. In a " normal mode " 
of vibration y will vary as e'"', so that 



where 



(4) 
(5) 



If p, and therefore k, is constant, the solution of (4) subject to the 
condition that y = o for * = o and x=l is 

y = Bsinkx (6) 

provided # = r, [s = i, 2, 3, . . .]. (7) 

This determines the various normal modes of free vibration, the corre- 
sponding periods (2ir/n) being given by (5) and (7). By analogy 
with the theory of the free vibrations of a system of finite freedom 
it is inferred that the most general free motions of the string can be 
obtained by superposition of the various normal modes, with suitable 
amplitudes and phases; and in particular that any arbitrary initial 
form of the string, say y=f(x), can be reproduced by a series of the 
type 

So far, this is merely a restatement, in mathematical language, 
of an argument given in the first part of this article. The series (8) 
may, moreover, be arrived at otherwise, as a particular case of 
Fourier's theorem. But if we no longer assume the density p of the 
string to be uniform, we obtain an endless variety of new expansions, 
corresponding to the various laws of density which may be pre- 
scribed. The normal modes are in any case of the type 

y = Cu(x)e<*< (9) 

where u is a solution of the equation 

2jj+ T -M = o. (10) 

The condition that u(x) is to vanish for * = o and x=l leads to a 
transcendental equation in n (corresponding to sin kl o in the 
previous case). If the forms of u(x) which correspond to the various 
roots of this be distinguished by suffixes, we infer, on physical 
grounds alone, the possibility of the expansion of an arbitrary 
initial form of the string in a series 

f(x)=CiUi(x)-\-CiUt(x)-\-CiUi(x)+ . . . (n) 

It may be shown further that if r and s are different we have the 
conjugate or orthogonal relation 



ft 



pu r (x)u.(x')dx 



HARMONICHORD HARMONIUM 



This enables us to determine the coefficients, thus 



(13) 



The extension to spaces of two or three dimensions, or to cases 
where there is more than one dependent variable, must be passed 
over. The mathematical theories of acoustics, heat-conduction, 
elasticity, induction of electric currents, and so on, furnish an in- 
definite supply of examples, and have suggested in some cases 
methods which have a very wide application. Thus the transverse 
vibrations of a circular membrane lead to the theory of Bessel's 
Functions; the oscillations of a spherical sheet of air suggest the 
theory of expansions in spherical harmonics; and so forth. The 
physical, or intuitional, theory of such methods has naturally always 
been in advance of the mathematical. From the latter point of 
view only a few isolated questions of the kind had, until quite 
recently, been treated in a rigorous and satisfactory manner. A 
more general and comprehensive method, which seems to derive 
some of its inspiration from physical considerations, has, however, 
at length been inaugurated, and has been vigorously cultivated in 
recent years by D. Hilbert, H. Poincare, I. Fredholm, E. Picard 
and others. 

REFERENCES. Schuster's method for detecting hidden periodi- 
cities is explained in Terrestrial Magnetism (Chicago, 1898), 3, p. 13; 
Canib. Trans. (1900), 18, p. 107; Proc. Roy. Soc. (1906), 77, p. 136. 
The general question of expanding an arbitrary function in a series 
of functions of special types is treated most fully from the physical 
point of view in Lord Rayleigh's Theory of Sound (2nd ed., London, 
1894-1896). An excellent detailed historical account of the matter 
from the mathematical side is given by H. Burkhardt, Entwicklungen 
nach oscillierenden Funktionen (Leipzig, 1901). A sketch of the 
more recent mathematical developments is given by H. Bateman, 
Proc. Land. Math. Soc. (2), 4, p. 90, with copious references. 

(H. LB.) 

HARMONICHORD, an ingenious kind of upright piano, in 
which the strings were set in vibration not by the blow of the 
hammer but by indirectly transmitted friction. The harmoni- 
chord, one of the many attempts to fuse piano and violin, was 
invented by Johann Gottfried and Johann Friedrich Kaufmann 
(father and son) in Saxony at the beginning of the igth century, 
when the craze for new and ingenious musical instruments was 
at its height. The case was of the variety known as giraffe. 
The space under the keyboard was enclosed, a knee-hold being 
left in which were two pedals used to set in rotation a large 
wooden cylinder fixed just behind the keyboard over the levers, 
and covered with a roll-top similar to those of modern office 
desks. The cylinder (in some specimens covered with chamois 
leather) tapered towards the treble-end. When a key was 
depressed, a little tongue of wood, one end of which stopped the 
string, was pressed against the revolving cylinder, and the 
vibrations produced by friction were transmitted to the string 
and reinforced as in piano and violin by the soundboard. The 
adjustment of the parts and the velocity of the cylinder required 
delicacy and great nicety, for if the little wooden tongues rested 
too lightly upon the cylinder or the strings, harmonics were 
produced, and the note jumped to the octave or twelfth. Some- 
times when chords were played the touch became so heavy that 
two performers were required, as in the early medieval organ- 
istrum, the prototype of the harmonichord. Carl Maria von 
Weber must have had some opinion of the possibilities of the 
harmonichord, which in tone resembled the glass harmonica, 
since he composed for it a concerto with orchestral accom- 
paniment. (K. S.) 

HARMONIUM (Fr. harmonium, orgue expressif; Ger. Phys- 
harmonika, Harmonium), a wind keyboard instrument, a small 
organ without pipes, furnished with free reeds. Both the 
harmonium and its later development, the American organ, are 
known as free-reed instruments, the musical tones being produced 
by tongues of brass, technically termed " vibrators " (Fr. 
anclie libre; Ger. durchschlagende Zunge; Ital. ancia or lingua 
libera). The vibrator is fixed over an oblong, rectangular frame, 
through which it swings freely backwards and forwards like a 
pendulum while vibrating, whereas the beating reeds (similar to 
those of the clarinet family), used in church organs, cover the 
entire orifice, beating against the sides at each vibration. A 
reed or vibrator, set in periodic motion by impact of a current 
of air, produces a corresponding succession of air puffs, the 




rapidity of which determines the pitch of the musical note. 
There is an essential difference between the harmonium and the 
American organ in the direction of this current; in the former 
the wind apparatus forces the current upwards, and in the latter 
sucks it downwards, whence it becomes desirable to separate in 
description these varieties of free-reed instruments. 

The harmonium has a keyboard of five octaves compass when 
: 8va. 

~, and a simple action controlling the 



complete, 



valves, &c. The necessary pressure of wind is generated by bellows 
worked by the feet of the performer upon foot-boards or treadles. 
The air is thus forced up the wind-trunks into an air-chamber 
called the wind-chest, the pressure of it being equalized by a 
reservoir, which receives the excess of wind through an aperture, 
and permits escape, when above a certain pressure, by a discharge 
valve or pallet. The aperture admitting air to the reservoir may 
be closed by a drawstop named " expression." The air being thus 
cut off, the performer depends for his supply entirely upon the 
management of the bellows worked by the treadles, whereby he 
regulates the compression of the wind. The character of the in- 
strument is then entirely changed from a mechanical response to 
the player's touch to an expressive one, rendering what emotion 
may be communicated from the player by increase or diminution of 
sound through the greater or less pressure of wind to which the 
reeds may be submitted. The drawstops bearing the names of the 
different registers in imitation of the organ, admit, when drawn, the 
wind from the wind-chest to the corresponding reed compartments, 
shutting them off when closed. These com- 
partments are of about two octaves and a half 
each, there being a division in the middle of 
the keyboard scale dividing the stops into 
bass and treble. A stop being drawn and a 
key pressed down, wind is admitted by a 
corresponding valve to a reed or vibrator 
(fig. i). Above each reed in the so-called 
sound-board or pan is a channel, a small air- 
chamber or cavity, the shape and capacity of 
which have greatly to do with the colour of 
tone of the note it reinforces. The air in this 
resonator is highly compressed at an even or 
a varying pressure as the expression-stop may 
not be or may be drawn. The wind finally 
escapes by a small pallet-hole opened by 
pressing down the corresponding key. In 
Mustel and other good harmoniums, the reed 
compartments that form the scheme of the 
instrument are eight in number, four bass 
and four treble, of three different pitches of 
octave and double octave distance. The front 
bass and treble rows are the "diapason" of 
the pitch known as 8 ft., and the bourdon 
(double diapason), 1 6 ft. These 



By courtesy of Metzlei 
may be & Co- 
regarded as the foundation stops, and are FIG.I. Free Reed 
technically the front organ. The back organ has Vibrator, Alexandre 
solo and combination stops, the principal of 4 Harmonium, 
ft. (octave higher than diapason), and bassoon 
(bass) and oboe (treble), 8 ft. These may be mechanically combined 
by a stop called full organ. The French maker, Mustel, added other 
registers for much-admired effects of tone, viz. " harpe eolienne," 
two bass rows of 2 ft. pitch, the one tuned a beat too sharp, the 
other a beat too flat, to produce a waving tremulous tone that has 
a certain charm; "musette" and " voix celeste," 16 ft.; and 
" baryton," a treble stop 32 ft., or two octaves lower than the 
normal note of the key. The " back organ" is usually covered by 
a swell box, containing louvres or shutters similar to a Venetian 
blind, and divided into fortes corresponding with the bass and 
treble division of the registers. The fortes are governed by knee 
pedals which act by pneumatic pressure. Tuning the reeds is 
effected by scraping them at the point to sharpen them, or near the 
shoulder or heel to flatten them in pitch. Air pressure affects the 
pitch but slightly, being noticeable only in the larger reeds, and 
harmoniums long retain their tuning, a decided advantage over the 
organ and the pianoforte. Mechanical contrivances in the har- 
monium, of frequent or occasional employment, besides those 
already referred to, are the " percussion," a small pianoforte action 
of hammer and escapement which, acting upon the reeds of the 
diapason rows at the moment air is admitted to them, gives prompter 
response to the depression of the key, or quicker speech; the 
" double expression," a pneumatic balance of great delicacy in the 
wind reservoir, exactly maintaining by gradation equal pressure of 
the wind; and the "double touch," by which the back organ 
registers speak sooner than those of the front that are called upon 
by deeper pressure of the key, thus allowing prominence or accentua- 
tion of certain parts by an expert performer. " Prolongement " 
permits selected notes to be sustained after the fingers have quitted 



HARMONIUM 



959 



their keys. Dawes's " melody attachment " is to give prominence i 
to an air or treble part by shutting off in certain registers all notes | 
below it. This notion has been adapted by inversion to a " pedal | 
substitute " to strengthen the lowest bass notes. The " tremolo " ' 
affects the wind in the vicinity of the reeds by means of small bellows 
which increase the velocity of the pulsation according to pressure; 
and the " sourdine " diminishes the supply of wind by controlling 
its admission to the reeds. 

The American Organ acts by wind exhaustion. A vacuum is 
practically created in the air-chamber by the exhausting power of 
the footboards, and a current of air thus drawn downwards passes 
through any reeds that are left open, setting them in vibration. 
This instrument has therefore exhaust instead of force bellows. 
Valves in the board above the air-chamber give communication to 
reeds (fig. 2) made more slender than those of the harmonium and 
more or less bent, while the frames in which 
they are fixed are also differently shaped, 
being hollowed rather in spoon fashion. The 
channels, the resonators above the reeds, are 
not varied in size or shape as in the har- 
monium; they exactly correspond with the 
reeds, and are collectively known as the " tube- 
board." The swell " fortes " are in front of 
the openings of these tubes, rails that open 
or close by the action of the knees upon what 
may be called knee pedals. The American 
organ has a softer tone than the harmonium; 
this is sometimes aided by the use of extra 
resonators, termed pipes or qualifying tubes, 
as, for instance, in Clough & Warren's (of 
Detroit, Michigan, U.S.). The blowing being 
also easier, ladies find it much less fatiguing. 
The expression stop can have little power in 
the American organ, and is generally absent; 
the " automatic swell " in the instruments 
of Mason & Hamlin (of Boston, U.S.) is a 
contrivance that comes the nearest to it, 
By courtesy of Mctzler though far inferior. By it a swell shutter or 
gj c . rail is kept in constant movement, proportioned 

p IG 2 Free Reed to tne f rce f 'he air-current. Another very 

Vibrator, Mason & c l ever improvement introduced by these 
Hamlin ' American makers, who were the originators of the instru- 
Organ. ment itself, is the " vox humana," a smaller 

rail or fan, made to revolve rapidly by 
wind pressure; its rotation, disturbing the 
air near the reeds, causes interferences of vibration that produce 
a tremulous effect, not unlike the beatings heard from combined 
voices, whence the name. The arrangement of reed compartments 
in American organs does not essentially differ from that of har- 
moniums; but there are often two keyboards, and then the solo 
and combination stops are found on the upper manual. The 
diapason treble register is known as " melodia "; different makers 
occasionally vary the use of fancy names for other stops. The 
" sub-bass," however, an octave of 16 ft. pitch and always apart 
from the other reeds, is used with great advantage for pedal effects 
on the manual, the compass of American organs being usually down 
to F (FF, 5 octaves). In large instruments there are sometimes foot 
pedals as in an organ, with their own reed boxes of 8 and 16 ft., 
the lowest note being then CC. Blowing for pedal instruments 
has to be done by hand, a lever being attached for that purpose. 
The " celeste " stop is managed as in the harmonium, by rows of 
reeds tuned not quite in unison, or by a shade valve that alters the 
air-current and flattens one row of reeds thereby. 

Harmoniums and American organs are the result of many experi- 
ments in the application of free reeds to keyboard instruments. The 
principle of the free reed became widely known in Europe through 
the introduction of the Chinese cheng l during the second half of 
the 1 8th century, and culminated in the invention of the harmonium 
and kindred instruments. The first step in the invention of the 
harmonium is due to Professor Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein of 
Copenhagen, who had had the opportunity of examining a cheng 
sent to his native city and of testing its merits. 2 In 1779 the 
Academy of Science of St Petersburg had offered a prize for an 
essay on the formation of the vowel sounds on an instrument similar 
to the " vox humana " in the organ, which should be capable of 
reproducing these sounds faithfully. Kratzenstein made as a 
demonstration of his invention a small pneumatic organ fitted with 
free reeds, and presented it to the Academy of St Petersburg. 3 His 
essay was crowned and was republishcd with diagrams in Paris * in 



'See Allg. musik. Ztg. (Leipzig, 1821), Bd. xxiii. pp. 369-374. 
The cheng was made known in France by Pere Amiot, who published 
a careful description of the instrument in Memoire sur la musique 
des Chinois, p. 80 seq., with excellent diagrams. 

2 Ib., Bd. xxv. p. 152. 

3 The essay was published in Ada Acad. Pelrop. (1780). 

4 " Essai sur la naissance et sur la formation des voyelles " in 
Rozier's Observations sur la physique (Paris, 1782), Supplement, 
xxi. 358 seq., with two plates. The description of the instrument 
begins on p. 374, xxii. 



1782. Meanwhile, in 1780, a countryman of Kratzenstein's, an 
organ-builder named Kirsnick, established in St Petersburg, adapted 
these reed pipes to some of his organs and to an instrument of his 
invention called organochordium, an organ combined with piano. 
When Abt Vogler visited St Petersburg in 1788, he was so delighted 
with these reeds that in 1790 he induced Rackwitz, an assistant 
of Kirsnick's, to come to him and adapt some to an organ he 
was haying built in Rotterdam. Three years later Abt Vogler's 
orchestrion, a chamber organ containing some 900 pipes, was com- 
pleted, and, according to Rackwitz, 6 was fitted with free-reed pipes. 
Vogler himself, however, does not mention the free reed when 
describing this wonderful instrument and his system of " simplifi- 
cation " for church organs.* To Abt Vogler, who travelled all over 
Germany, Scandinavia and the Netherlands, exhibiting his skill 
on his orchestrion and reconstructing many organs, is due the credit 
of making Kratzenstein's invention known and inducing the musical 
world to appreciate the capabilities of the free reed. The intro- 
duction of free-reed stops into the organ, however, took a secondary 
place in his scheme for reform. 7 Friedrich Kaufmann 8 of Dresden 
states that Vogler told him he had imparted to J. N. Malzel of Vienna 
particulars as to the construction of free-reed pipes, and that the 
latter used them in his panharmonicon, 9 which he exhibited during 
his stay in Paris from 1805 to 1807. Kaufmann suggests that it was 
through him that G. J. Greni6 obtained the knowledge which led 
to his experiments with free reeds in organs. It is more likely that 
Greni6 had read Kratzenstein's essay and had experimented in- 
dependently with free reeds. In 1812 his first orgue expressif was 
finished. It was a small organ with one register of free reeds the 
expression stop, in fact, added to the pipe organ and having a 
separate wind-chest and bellows. It would seem from his description 
of the orchestrion in Data zur Akustik that Vogler knew of no such 
device. He used the swell shutter borrowed from England and a 
threefold screen of canvas covered with a blanket arranged outside 
the instrument, neither of which is capable of increasing the volume 
of sound from the organ, or at least only after having first damped 
the sound to a pianissimo. Vogler explains minutely the apparatus 
used to conceal the working of the screen from the eyes of the 
public. 10 The credit of discovering in the free reed the capability 
of dynamic expression was undoubtedly due to Greni6, although Abt 
Vogler claims to have used compression in 1796," and Kaufmann in 
his choraulodion in 1816. A larger orgue expressif was begun by 
Greni6 for the Conservatoire of Paris in 1812, the construction of 
which was interrupted and then continued in 1816. Descriptions 
of Grenie's instrument have been published in French and German. 12 
The organ of the Conservatoire had a pedal free-reed stop of 16 ft., 
with vibrators 0-240 m. long, 0-035 m - wide, and 0-003 m - thick. 1 ' 
Two compressors, one for the treble and the other for the bass, 
worked by treadles, enabled the performer to regulate the pressure 
of wind on the reeds and therefore to obtain the gradations of forte 
and piano which gained tor his instrument the name of orgue ex- 
pressif. Grenie's instrument was a pipe organ, the pipes terminating 
in a cone with a hemispherical cap in the top of which was a small 
hole. There were eight registers including the pedal, and the 
positive on the first keyboard had reed stops furnished with 



6 See " Uber die Erfindung der Rohrwerke mit durchschlagenden 
Zungen," by Wilke, in Allg. musik. Ztg. (Leipzig, 1823), Bd. xxv. 
pp. 152-153 and Bd. xxvii. p. 263; also Thos. Ant. Kunz, "Or- 
chestrion," id., Bd. i. p. 88 and Bd. ii. pp. 514, 542; and Dr 
Karl Emil von Schafhautl, Abt Georg Joseph Vogler (Augsburg, 
1888), p. 37. 

* Data zur Akustik, eine Abhandlung vorgelesen bey der Sitzung der 
naturforschenden Freunde in Berlin, den ijlen Dezember 1800 
(Offenbach, 1801); also published in Allg. musik. Ztg. (1801), 
Bd. iii. pp. 517, 533, 565. See also an excellent article by the 
Rev. ]. H. Mee on Vogler in Grove's Dictionary of Music and 
Musicians. 

'See Data zur Akustik, and a pamphlet by Vogler, " Uber die 
Umschaffung der St Marien Orgel in Berlin nach dem Voglerschen 
Simplinkations-System, eine Nachahmung des Orchestrion " 
(Berlin) ; also " Kurze Beschreibung der in der Stadtpfarrkirche zu 
St Peter zu Munchen nach dem Voglerschen Simplifikations-System 
neuerbauten Orgel " (Munich, 1809). 

8 See Allg. musik. Ztg. (1823), Bd. xxv. pp. 153 and 154 note, 
and 117-118 note. 

9 A description of Malzel's panharmonicon before the addition of 
the clarinet and oboe stops with free reeds is to be found in the 
Allg. musik. Ztg. (1800), Bd. ii. pp. 414-415. 

10 In the article in Grove's Dictionary the screen is said to have 
been in the wind-trunk. 

11 See Allg. musik. Ztg. Bd. iii. p. 523. 

12 See J. B. Biot, Precis tttmentaire de physique expirimenlale 
(Paris, 1817), tome i. p. 386, and his Trails de physique (Paris, 1816), 
tome ii. p. 172 et seq., pi. ii. ; " Uber die Crescendo und Diminuendo 
Ziige an Orgeln," by Wilke and Kaufmann, Allg. musik. Ztg. (1823), 
Bd. xxv. pp. 113-122; and Allg. musik. Ztg. Bd. xxiii. pp. 133- 
139 and 149-154, with diagrams on p. 167 which are not absolutely 
correct in small details. 

11 J. B. Biot, Traiti, tome ii. p. 174. 



960 



HARMONIUM 



beating reeds. Biot insists on the importance of the regulating 
wires (Fr. rasettes ; Ger. Kriicken) for determining the vibrating 
length of the reed tongue and maintaining it invariable. These 
are clearly shown in his diagram (see article FREE REED VIBRATOR, 
fig. l); they do not essentially differ from those used with the 
beating-reed stops in his organ (fig. 76, pi. II.), or indeed from those 
figured by Praetorius. 

Isolated specimens of the cheng must have found their way to 
Europe during the I5th and i6th centuries, for Mersenne 1 depicts 
part of one showing the free reed. It would seem that still earlier 
in the 1 7th century there was an organ in a monastery in Hesse 
with free reeds for the Posaune stop, for Praetorius gives a description 
of the " extraordinary " reed (p. 169) ; there is no record of the 
inventor in this case. 

During the first half of the igth century various tentative efforts 
in France and Germany, and subsequently in England, were made 
to produce new keyboard instruments with free reeds, the most 
notable of these being the physharmonica 2 of Anton Hackel, 
invented in Vienna in 1818, which, improved and enlarged, has 
retained its hold on the German people. The modern physharmonica 
is a harmonium without stops or percussion action; it does not 
therefore speak readily or clearly. It has a range of five to six 
octaves. Other instruments of similar type are the French melo- 
phone and the English seraphine, a keyboard harmonica with 
bellows but no channels for the tongues, for which a patent was 
granted to Myers and Storer in 1839; the aeoline or aelodicon 3 of 
Eschenbach; the melodicon 4 of Dietz; the melodica 6 of Rieffelson; 

1 Harmonic -universelle (Paris, 1636), livre v., prop. xxxv. 

1 Wien. musik. Ztg. Bd. v. Nos. 30 and 87. 

' Allg. musik. Ztg. Bd. xxii. p. 505, and Bd. xxxv. p. 354. 

4 Id. Bd. viii. pp. 526 and 715. 

Id. Bd. xi. p. 625. 



the apollonicon ; * the new cheng' of Reichstein; the terpodion * 
of Buschmann, &c. None of these has survived to the present day. 

The inventor of the harmonium was indubitably Alexandra 
Debain, who took put a patent for it in Paris in 1840. He produced 
varied timbre registers by modifying reed channels, and brought 
these registers on to one keyboard. Unfortunately he patented 
too much, for he secured even the name harmonium, obliging con- 
temporary and future experimenters to shelter their improvements 
under other names, and the venerable name of organ becoming 
impressed into connexion with an inferior instrument, we have now 
to distinguish between reed and pipe organs. The compromise of 
reed organ for the harmonium class of instruments must therefore 
be accepted. Debain's harmonium was at first quite mechanical; 
it gained expression by the expression-stop already described. The 
Alexandres, well-known French makers, by the ingenuity of one of 
their workmen, P. A. Martin, added the percussion and the pro- 
longement. The melody attachment was the invention of an 
English engineer; the introduction of the double touch, now used 
in the harmoniums of Mustel, Bauer and others also in American 
organs was due to Tamplin, an English professor. 

The principle of the American organ originated with the Alex- 
andres, whose earliest experiments are said to have been made with 
the view of constructing an instrument to exhaust air. The reali- 
zation of the idea proving to be more in consonance with the genius 
of the American people, to whom what we may call the devotional 
tone of the instrument appealed, the introduction of it by Messrs 
Mason and Hamlin in 1861 was followed by remarkable success. 
They made it generally known in Europe by exhibiting it at Paris 
in 1867, and from that time instruments have been exported in large 
numbers by different makers. (A. J. H.; K. S.) 

Allg. musik. Ztg. Bd. ii. p. 767, and Wien. musik. Ztg. Bd. i. No. 501. 

7 Id. Bd. xxxi. p. 489. 

8 Id. Bd. xxxiv. pp. 856 and 858 ; and Cdcilia, Bd. xiv. p. 259. 



END OF TWELFTH VOLUME 



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